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**Chapter 1 QURAN** **Preservation of Quran** The preservation of Quran has been done in the four phases 1. Preservation of the Quran during the time of the prophet (saw) 2. Preservation of the Quran during the time of Abu-Bakr (RA) 3. Preservation of the Quran during the time of Uthman (RA) 4. Preservation of the Quran today **a. Preservation of the Quran during the time of the prophet (saw)** - The Quran was revealed to the prophet thought 23 years of prophet hood - Whenever problem arose or whenever Allah wanted to give the prophet and his followers special advise, He <br><br>would send angle Gibreel with apart of the Quran, which he would recite to the prophet <br><br>- The Quran was not revealed all at once in it complete form, like the earlier books of revelation, but in portion. - The prophet (saw) passed on the Quran to his companions before he died. - The verses of Quran were preserved in the heart of the Muslims as well as written down. - Since people entered Islam at different points, only few of them heard the all of the Quran directly from the <br><br>prophet <br><br>- Some companions were able to memorize it better than others. - When the prophet died the whole Quran was not written in one complete book - Quran was recorded on various pieces of writing materials and kept in the possession of different followers of the prophet (saw). Each had a portion but none of them had all. <br><br>**Ways used by the prophet (saw) to make sure that Quran is memorized and recorded** 1. The prophet used to recite loud the various parts of the Quran in prayers. In that way, his followers used to <br><br>hear parts of the Quran daily. <br><br>2. Everyone who entered Islam would be taught parts of the Quran, which he would have to use in the daily <br><br>prayers. <br><br>3. Those who had memorized the Quran would teacher the others. 4. The prophet informed his followers that the best of them were those who learned and taught the Quran. This <br><br>encouraged them to make even greater efforts to memorize the Quran and teach it to others. <br><br>5. Those who were able to read and write the Quran were told by the prophet to write down various sections of <br><br>the Quran as they revealed <br><br>6. The prophet would tell his scribes the order of the Quran in which they should record the verses. **Factors which facilitated the memorization of Quran** 1. The companions had a strong memory and sharp minds 2. Being illiterate, they were forced to depend so much on committing things to memory. 3. Their love for the prophet made them also to love the book of Allah. Hence committing it to memory. 4. The eloquence of the Quran and their admiration for such language played a big role in making them commit the Quran to memory. <br><br>5. The various sayings of the prophet encouraging memorization of Quran and warning those who forget it. 6. The command on recitation of the Quran in prayers and spending the night doing so also played a big role. **Scribes of the prophet (the writer of revelation)** 1. The four guided caliphs 2. Zeid bin Thabit 3. Ubayy bin Kaab 4. Muawiyyah bin Abi-Sufyan 5. Zubeir bin Awaam 6. Amri bin Aas 7. Mughira bin Shubah 8. Khalid bin Walid 9. Abdallah bin Rawah 10. Thabit bin Qays <br><br>1 **b. Preservation of the Quran during the time of Abu-Bakr (RA)** - During the battle of Yammama (11A.H/633A.D) many of the companions who were good recites and <br><br>memorizers of the Quran were killed <br><br>- Umar (RA) took note of the this situation and therefore suggested to Abu-Bakr (RA) that precaution should <br><br>be taken to preserve the Quran in writing before the Huffaz (memorizers) die out. <br><br>- Abu-Bakr entrusted Zeid ibn Thabit ((RA) with the task of coordinate the efforts of preservation of the <br><br>Quran. <br><br>- Zeid started locating Quran materials and collecting it from parchments, scapula, leaves of dates and palm <br><br>and from memorizers. <br><br>- The committee after speculation and confirmation they produce the final copy of the Quran. **Quranic materials were easily put into book form due to the following reasons** 1. All the chapters of Quran were already in written form, though not compiled in one book. 2. A large number of the companions knew the order of the Quran and its arrangement 3. The order of the verses within each chapter had already been fixed by the prophet as guided by angel Jibreel 4. Large number of Muslims had memorized the Quran in the order taught by the prophet himself. 5. Large portion of the Quran were also available with the companions on loose materials. **The task of preservation and compilation was accomplished due to the following reasons** 1. The Quran was continuously recited 2. The whole text of the Quran used to be recited from beginning to end of Ramadan. 3. The written bits of the Quran were available 4. Reliable companions who know the Quran thoroughly by heart were able to contribute, check and verify the compiled text <br><br>**Why was Zeid chosen to compile the Quran?** 1. He was of the best among the memorizers of the Quran 2. He was one of the best recites of the Quran 3. He was one of scribes of the prophet 4. He was present during the last revelation 5. He had qualities such as honest, piety, firm religious inclinations and strong and sharp memory **Zeid`s system in compiling the Quran** 1. He accepted what has been recorded in front of the prophet. 2. He accepted what was committed in memory 3. He accepted what was committed in memory on condition that the companion heard it directly from the <br><br>prophet <br><br>4. He only accepted written records where two witnesses availed themselves **c. Preservation (standardization) of the Quran during the time of Uthman (RA)** **Circumstances that has led to standardization of the Quran** 1. The expansion of the Muslim state beyond the borders of the Arabian Peninsula during the time of Umar 2. Many non-Arabs who spoke other languages accepted Islam and learned the recitation of the Quran from <br><br>early Muslims <br><br>3. The Quran was revealed to the prophet in seven different Arabic dialects and early Muslims taught the Quran and recited the Quran in its readings. <br><br>4. In the Muslim Provinces, some Arabs began to boast that their dialects were superior to that of others. 5. When new Muslims made mistakes in their recitation of the Quran, it was sometimes difficult to tell whether <br><br>it was really an error or whether it was one of the seven readings, which were taught by the prophet. <br><br>6. These problems eventually became a source of confusion in Muslim provinces outside Arabia. 7. One of the companions of the prophet by the name Hudhyfah bin Yaman noticed the confusion while he was <br><br>in Iraq and feared that it may lead to break up of the Muslim nation and the changing of the Quran. He informed caliph Uthman (RA) <br><br>8. Uthman (RA) realized the seriousness of the situation and called the major companions together in order to <br><br>find solution to the problem. <br><br>2 9. They decided to make official copies of the Quran from the one which was kept in the house of Hafswa bint <br><br>Omar <br><br>10. Uthman ordered Zaid bin Thabit, Abdillah bin Zubeir and Saad bin Al-Waqas to reproduce the manuscript <br><br>(mashaf) from standard copy <br><br>11. They made many copy, Uthman returned the original manuscript to Hafswa (RAA) 12. Uthman sent a copy to every Muslim province and ordered that all other Quranic materials be burnt. 13. Each city had instruction to produce adequate copies for the use of its people **Reasons for standardization of Quran** 1. People were reading Quran in their own ways 2. Expansion of the Islamic state 3. Conversion of non-Arabs to Islam 4. To bring uniformity in recitation 5. To protect the Quran from interpolation 6. For easier understanding and reading of the Quran 7. To make available for future use 8. To unite the Muslims 9. People were reading Quran in their own ways 10. Expansion of the Islamic state 11. Conversion of non-Arabs to Islam 12. For easier understanding and reading of the Quran 13. To make available for future use 14. There was need to have a universal copy for all Muslims so that they are unified. **Role Uthaman played in the standardization of the Quran** 1. He introduced the official standard of the Quran 2. He wrote Quran in Arabic Quraysh dialects 3. He burnt all the other written Quranic materials 4. He prevented disputes between Arabs and non-Arabs 5. He sent a copy to every Muslim province and ordered that each city had to produce adequate copies for the <br><br>- use of its people <br><br>**Diacriticalization of the Quran** - Diacriticalization means putting signs to differentiate the pronunciation of words. It is putting of kasra, fatha, <br><br>dhuma and sukun <br><br>- During the time of the prophet the scribes used to write the Quran without vocalization and even without <br><br>dots which differentiated the various Arabic letters <br><br>- The expansion of Islamic state brought in many non-Arabs. Hence recitation of the Quran was very difficult <br><br>for them without dots and vocalization In order to facilitate the reading of the Quran for those who didn`t know Arabic arose, it was decided during fifth Umayyad dynasty caliph Abdul Malik bin Marwan that the vowel like of kasra, fatha, shadah, dhumma and sukun be put on the consonants. Al- Hajaj ibn Yusuf did this work. <br><br>**d. Preservation of the Quran today**<br><br>1. Many Muslims have memorized the Quran. There are many Tahfidh centers in every locality where <br><br>Muslims live <br><br>2. Distribution of printed copies of the Quran 3. Quran reading competitions are held in many areas in Kenya today, this play major role in encouraging <br><br>memorization of the Quran 4. Quran has been translated into many languages 5. Quran has also been recorded in Audio and Video materials which can be played back. 6. Radio broadcasting today also plays an important role in preserving and relaying the Quran to many <br><br>Muslims. 7. Quran memorizers are highly respected by the society. These memorizers are highly in demanding <br><br>during Taraweh Prayers in Ramadan <br><br>8. The availability of copies of the Quran at the Muslim`s homes as well as in the mosque where they can <br><br>always be get access to it <br><br>9. Muslims recite the Quran in prayers 10. In some Muslims countries like Libya, those who memorize the Quran are automatically considered the <br><br>same as University graduates and are paid equivalent salary once they are approved <br><br>**Surah An- Nur** **Introduction** - The surah was revealed in Medina - - An-Nur (the light takes its name from verse 35) - **Historical background** - After the victory of Badr, Islamic movement gained strength day by day; so much that by the time of the <br><br> It contains 64 verses <br><br>It contains important injunctions on personal and social matters, with special emphasis on family life <br><br>battle of trench it had become so strong that the united force of enemy failed to crash it. <br><br>- The enemies having failed to defeat Islam in the battlefield, they chose the moral front to carry the conflict - These enemies realized that the purer and noble character of the prophet and his followers were capturing <br><br>the hearts of the people. <br><br>- A vicious case of slander was made on the honour of Hadrat Aisha, the wife of the prophet, in connection to the incident, which occurred while she was returning from the campaigns against Banil-Mustaliq <br><br>- This attack was severe and the main background of this surah. **Themes of suratul-Nur** 1. The power of Allah 2. Marriage security 3. Qualities of believer 4. Islamic manner on visitation 5. Islamic manner of walking 6. Rules of hijab/code of a dress for Muslim women 7. Etiquette of the mosques **Teachings of the Surah An- Nur** 1. The chapter laid down prescribed punishment for Zina (illicit sex), 100 lashes for the adulterer and <br><br>adulteress to be administered in public <br><br>2. The chapter also laid down prescribed punishment for slandering chaste person i.e. making false accusation <br><br>against chaste person <br><br>3. The details for Lian are also being prescribed in this chapter. This is a state where a husband accused his <br><br>wife of committing fornication but cannot come up with proof (4witnesses) he can swear Lian (the oath of condemnation) as Allah commanded. This means that he brings her before the Imam and states what he accusing her of. The ruler than asks him to swear four times and fifth one he is supposed to invoke a curse in himself if he lies. 4. The surah also referred to the incident concerning Aisha, when the people of slander and falsehood among the hypocrites made their accusation against her and spread lies about her. Allah proved her innocent to perfect the honor of His messenger (saw). <br><br>5. Allah also discipline the believers who spread the evil talk and slander against Aisha 6. There is a further command to think well of people I.e. if something unbefitting mentioned about good <br><br>people. <br><br>7. Allah warned those who hear evil talk, believe it to same extent and start to spread it, that they will face <br><br>severe punishment. <br><br>8. The surah argues people to uphold the ties of kinship with relatives who are needy or who migrate for the <br><br>sake of Allah <br><br>4 9. The surah further discusses the etiquette of seeking permission of entering houses. The believers have been commanded not to enter houses other than their own until they had asked permission three times and to give greetings of salaam. <br><br>10. The surah also commands the believers to lower their gaze from forbidden things i.e. not looking at the <br><br>opposite sex and to protect their private parts against illegal sex. <br><br>11. The surah deals with rules of Hijjab. This is command to believing women, to distinguish them from the <br><br>women of Jahilliyyah and deeds of pagan <br><br>12. The surah also mentions category of people whom a woman is permitted to show them her adornments. <br><br>These are: husband, father, husband`s father, sons, husband`s sons, brother, brother`s sons, Muslim women, slaves, men who are free from sexual desires and infant or small children before they get sense of sex. 13. The surah also mentions the etiquette of women walking in the street. They are to avoid walking in such <br><br>manner as to attract the attention of opposite sex by stamp their feet so that men could hear their anklets ringing. <br><br>14. The surah commands us to marry. However, for those who do not find the means they are advised to keep themselves chaste until Allah give them means out of His grace. <br><br>15. The surah also commands masters to grant their slaves a contract of emancipation as longer as it is for their good. Slave women should not be forced into prostitution. Rather than the master is advised to help with money out of his own resources in order to enable the slave to earns his or her liberty. <br><br>16. The surah mentions virtues and etiquette of the mosques. The mosques are the house of Allah where He is <br><br>alone is worshipped. <br><br>17. The surah also mentions the attitude of believers they offer prayers, give Zakat and obey the messenger <br><br>(saw) and the treachery of the Hypocrites and non-believers was also dealt with in the surah. <br><br>**Teachings of Quran on visiting one another** 1. Muslims should ask for permission before entering houses 2. On prohibition times no visitation should be conducted i.e. before Fajr at noon and after Isha 3. The asking for permission is done thrice 4. One should not stand right at the door but just aside 5. If no one answers the knock they should leave without any murmuring 6. If one is welcomed he should greet the members of the house 7. One should confine the secret of the house to the public 8. On visiting should be for the mission called not eye marking every item and step in the house **Teachings of Quran on the power of Allah** 1. Allah is the one who revealed Holy Quran to mankind and specified boundaries of Islamic religion as a proof for His existence <br><br>2. Allah is the most merciful to His servants as if not for His mercies, mankind will be in a great torment. 3. Allah is all knowing, all wise as He hears good and bad 4. Allah is often forgiving as any servant repents, He is ready to accept 5. Allah is just as He pays accordingly, in fact relevant to the deeds 6. Allah is light of the heavens and hearth and so He guides to His light one He wishes 7. Allah is the provider as He provides without measure to whom He wills 8. To Allah belongs the sovereignty of the Heavens and Earth as what is engulfed in between the two, glorify <br><br>Him and He is aware <br><br>9. Allah causes day and night to succeeded each other 10. For those who disobey Allah, He has a painful torment for them **Teachings of Quran on Marriage security** 1. Sexual purity is very essential in Islam as adulterer and adulteress proves established, must be flogged 100 <br><br>lashes without any mercy unto them <br><br>2. Adulterer marries adulteress and not any other, as thy rhyme 3. Those who practice slander must be given 80 lashes and their testimonials are entirely rejected until they <br><br>4. If the husband accuses his wife for zinaa and he has no 4 eyed witnesses, then he will take 4 oaths and the 5th <br><br>will be, if he is wrong and she is right let the curse of Allah be upon him. <br><br>5. The same to the but the 5th oath will be if she is wrong and her husband is right, let the wrath of Allah be on <br><br>her <br><br>6. Those who practice adultery will have a painful torment before Allah if not repent 7. Issue of poverty as valid ground for marriage cancellation should arise as Allah will enrich them with His <br><br>bounty <br><br>8. Those who find no means to finances for marriage are advised to keep themselves chaste until Allah open <br><br>doors for them. 9. The forcing for slave girls to prostitution is forbidden in Islam and punishable before Allah 10. Allah will forgive those chaste slaves for they have been forced to prostitution **Teachings of Quran on Qualities of believer** 1. Believers fear Allah and the Day of Judgment 2. They have no mercy when awarding Hadd punishment 3. They will not marry adulteress or be married by adulterer 4. They repent to Allah every time and do not repeat the mistakes 5. They take into consideration the wanders of Allah 6. They do not believe the devil neither do they follow him 7. They pardon, forgive and love Allah most 8. They lower their gaze and protect their private parts 9. They confirm the hearsay before taking any action 10. They glorify Allah in the mosques at every time 11. Trade and worldly leisure do not divert them from Allah 12. They obey and accept the prophets call and judgment 13. They visit one another and exchange good hopes **Assignments** 1. Discuss the circumstances that led to the standardization of the Quran 2. Explain the ways in which the Quran has been preserved 3. List down and explain teachings of Surah An-Nur 4. Outline the themes of suratul-Nur 5. What does diacriticalization of the Quran means? 6. Explain why it was necessary to preserve the Quran 7. Explain the preservation of the Quran : a) during the time of the prophet (saw) b) during the time of Abu-Bakr (RA) c) during the time of Uthman (RA) d) today <br><br>8. discuss Islamic teachings on participation and watching of the following: <br><br>a) beauty competition b) swimming and athletic competition c) dancing taarab and other music <br><br>9. list down the advantages of diacriticalization of the Quran 10. what role did Zaid bin Thabit play in revelation of the Quran 11. what role did Uthman play in standardization of the Quran 12. give 5 reasons as to why there was a need to have a standard version of the Holly Quran 13. what are the teachings of Quran on visiting one another 14. discuss the following themes of suratul-Nur <br><br>a. The power of Allah b. Marriage security c. Qualities of believer <br><br>6 **Chapter 2HADITH**<br><br>**Types of hadith** They are two types of Hadith **1. Hadith Nabawi** - This is a Hadith whose wording and meaning are from the prophet. - <br><br>It has the following characteristics Umar said that the prophet (saw) said the reward of deeds depends upon the intentions and every person will get the reward according to what he has intended. So whoever emigrated for worldly benefits or for a woman to marry, his emigration was for what he emigrated for <br><br>2.**Hadith Qudsi** - This is Hadith whose wording is from the prophet but the meaning is directly from God. It has the following characteristics. Abuhurah reported that the prophet said Allah said I am the one who is not in need of any partner. If anyone carries out an action in which he associate with Me someone else, I will leave him with what he has associated with Me <br><br>**Differences between Hadith Nabawi and Hadith Qudsi** **Hadith Nabawi** 1 The meaning and wording is from the prophet <br><br>**Hadith Qudsi** The meaning is from Allah but the wording is from the prophet Before the matn (actual wording) there is the phrase The prophet said and Allah said They are less in number Deals with certain major issues i.e. faith and moral or etiquettes There is no weak Hadith Compiled in one book They are not classified 2 Before the matn (actual wording) there is the <br><br>phrase The prophet said **3**They are more in number **4**Deals in various matters in religion i.e. halal, <br><br>haram and shariah <br><br>**5**There are some which are weak (dhaif) **6**Has many compilation **7**They are classified into three classes i.e. <br><br>sahih,Hassan and Dhaif **Features of Hadith Qudsi** 1. They are pure or holy Hadith 2. They are the sacred sayings of Allah which are not part of the holy Quran 3. They are the report from the prophet (saw) where he relates what God said 4. In Hadith Qudsi Allah speaks in the first person through the prophet (saw) 5. They are few in number 6. They are directly attributed to Allah 7. They were inspired to the prophet through a dream **Subject matter of Hadith Qudsi**<br><br>1. Affirmation of doctrine of the unity of Allah 2. The majesty of the creator and His uniqueness 3. Proper discharge of religious observances 4. Attachment of proper standards of morality 5. Good behavior towards other people 6. Self-dedication to the cause of Allah 7. Preparation for the Day of judgement **Differences between the Quran and Hadith Qudsi** **Quran** 1 **Hadith Qudsi** It was inspired to the prophet inform of dream <br><br>It was inspired to the prophet through angel Jibreel It is recited in prayers <br><br>2 **3**By reciting the Quran one is rewarded **4**<br><br>It is not recited in prayers By reciting Hadith Qudsi one is not rewarded This is not the case with Hadith Qudsi 7 <br><br>It is a living miracle that is not challenged or changed up to the present <br><br>**5**Collection and preservation of the Quran was It was done much later <br><br>done earlier <br><br>**6**Many companions (Swahaba) have memorized the Only few Swahaba have memorized Hadith Qudsi <br><br>Quran <br><br>**7**The Quran contains code of conduct for a Muslim **Test to determine the authenticity of Hadith** 1. The Hadith must quote what was said or done by the prophet 2. The narrator must have been present when the reporting, action or saying took place or have heard from <br><br>Hadith Qudsi talks on a certain major issues in Islam someone who was present. 3. The text must be in Arabic 4. The chain of narrators must be complete and traced to the prophet (saw) 5. It must be proved that the narrators in the chain must have met each other and lived in the same period 6. The narrators must have been well known for their honesty competence and knowledge 7. The Hadith must conform to the teachings of the Quran and should not contradict it in any way 8. The Hadith should not contradict the accepted and well known teachings of the prophet 9. It should not promise large rewards for very minor acts 10. It must not show disrespect to the house of the prophet or the companions 11. It must to a large extent be acceptable to the mind and principles of life and not contrary to reason 12. It must be in agreement with other Hadiths on the same subject 13. It must not promote an individual or a group for personal interests or ambitions 14. The Hadith should not contain the date, minute and details of the future events 15. The narrator must not held any unique religious view of his own **Test to determine the authenticity of the sanad(chain of narrators) of Hadith** 1. The chain of narrators must be complete and traced to the prophet (saw) 2. The narrators must have been well known for their honesty competence and knowledge 3. It must be proved that the narrators in the chain must have met each other and lived in the same period 4. The narrator must have been present when the reporting, action or saying took place or have heard from 5. The narrator should not be accused of any crime 6. The narrator must have not spoken from his imagination 7. The narrator must not held any unique religious view of his own 8. The narrator must have been a person who rarely commits mistakes 9. The narrator must be pious Muslim 10. The first reporter must have been a Swahaba (companion of the prophet) **Test to determine the authenticity of the matn (text) of Hadith** 1. The Hadith must quote what was said or done by the prophet 2. The text must be in Arabic 3. The Hadith should not contradict the accepted and well known teachings of the prophet 4. The Hadith must conform to the teachings of the Quran and should not contradict it in any way 5. The Hadith should not promise large rewards for very minor acts 6. The Hadith must not show disrespect to the house of the prophet or the companions 7. The Hadith must to a large extent be acceptable to the mind and principles of life and not contrary to reason 8. The Hadith must be in agreement with other Hadiths on the same subject 9. The Hadith must not promote an individual or a group for personal interests or ambitions 10. The Hadith should not contain the date, minute and details of the future events **Classification of Hadith** Hadith can be classified into four: Sahih, Hassan, Dhaif and Maudhu **1. Hadith Sahih (sound)** - This is Hadith whose source is known and whose men are well known for their reliability and accuracy. <br><br>- - Can be used in legal and religious matters **Conditions for Hadith Sahih** a) Continuity of Isnad (chain of narrators) to the prophet (saw) b) All the reporters must be trustworthy c) All the narrators must have a strong memory d) The reporter should not be irregular in his reporting of the Hadith i.e. his Hadith should not differs from <br><br>It has continuous Isnad (chain of narrators). <br><br>others who are accepted to be more reliable than him <br><br>e) The reporter should be free from unbearable defects especially in the science of Hadith i.e. making a Hadith which is Mursal (the link between the chain of narrators and the prophet is missing) to be Mausool(the link between the chain of narrators and the prophet is complete) <br><br>**2. Hadith Hassan (approved)** - This is Hadith which has the qualification of Hadith Sahih, except that one of its narrators might have had a <br><br>slight weakness i.e. a fault in memory. - Can be used in legal and religious matters **Conditions for Hadith Hassan** a) Continuity of Isnad (chain of narrators) to the prophet (saw) b) One of its narrators might have had a slight weakness i.e. a fault in memory c) The biography of one of narrators is not known by the Muhadith d) The Hadith doesn`t contradict the fundamental teachings of Islam e) A group of weak Hadith can make Hassan **3. Hadith Dhaif** - This is Hadith which lacks the conditions found in Hadith Sahih and Hassan - It is Hadith narrated by persons whose character is not well known or having a disparaged character i.e. telling lies <br><br>**Conditions for Hadith Dhaif** a) The hadith lacks the continuity in the chain of narrators b) if narrators lack integrity in his narration c) One of the narrators known to be a liar d) The chain of narrators cannot be traced to the prophet (saw) e) It contradicts the fundamental teachings of Islam **NB:**These Hadith should only be used in enhancing virtues and preaching on condition that: <br><br>a) The weakness should not be very strong and lies should not be party of Hadith b) It should be known and believed that it is only use as a precaution and not a confirmed matter c) It should be made clear to the reader or listener that this Hadith in use is Dhaif <br><br>**4. Hadith maudhu (forged/ false hadith)** - These are false or invented hadiths **Reasons for fabrication (invention) of Hadith** 1. Political reasons i.e. to praise their leaders or regime 2. Ignorance of religious and the love to encourage good deeds 3. Deliberately/intentionally to distort the truth 4. For pride to be seen as knowledgeable in the science of Hadith 5. Defending and supporting their sectarians views (Madhab) 6. As a way of seeking favours from a king/ruler/caliph 7. To create confusion among the Muslims 8. Tribalism and racism 9. Stories for preachers 10. Loyalty to a certain teacher **Importance of classification of Hadith** a) To establish the authenticity of Hadith b) Guide the Muslims on matters of shariah c) To establish the degree of acceptability of Hadith d) To encourage the Muslims to adopt the Sahih Hadith e) To guide against infiltration of forged and false Hadith f) To help the Muslims in knowing type of Hadith to accept or reject **Ilmul- Hadith and Ilmul-Rijal** **1. Ilmul- Hadith** It is the science of Hadith which deals with collection and the study of text of Hadith **2. Ilmul-Rijal** It is the science of men, which deals with the biography of transmitters of Hadith **The role of.Ilmul-Rijal in the development of Hadith** a) It exposed the weakness of the inventors of false Hadith b) It leads to the emerging of many branches of knowledge such as History and Biology c) It led to the rise of six scholars of Hadith (sihahih sita) d) It determine the authenticity of Hadith e) It prevents the compilers from attributing falsehood to the prophet (saw) f) It determines whether Hadith should be classified as Sahih, Hassan or Dhaif **Sunni and Shia collection of Hadith** **A. Sihahul sittah (the six genuine collections of Hadith)** Sunni Muslims have six collections of Hadith which are graded as the most authentic ones the six genuine collections( sihahul sittah). These are: 1. Sahihul Bukhari 2. Sahihul Muslim 3. Sunnan Attirmidhi 4. Sunan Abu daud 5. Sunan An Nasaai 6. Susan Ibn Majah **NB** 1. The collection took the names of their compilers 2. Sahihi Bukhari is considered as the most outstanding among all books of Hadith; followed by Sahih Muslim 3. The two Imams (compilers Bukhari and Muslim) sometimes are referred to as Ashykhani (the two eminent scholars) <br><br>4. Al-Muwatta of Imam Malik is highly placed by some scholars being next to Sahihul-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim 5. Musnad Imam Ahmed is also highly placed, although this two are not included in the six genuine collections. **1. Imam Bukhari** **Birth** - His full name is Abu Abdallah Muhammad bin Ismail bin Ibrahim Ibnul Mughirah bin Bardezbah (Persian <br><br>name means a garden) <br><br>- He was born on Friday after the prayers on 13th Shawal 194 A.H (810 CE). His birth place at Bukhara (from <br><br>which is name of Bukhari is derived) in the territory of Khurasan (now Uzbekistan) <br><br>**Upbringing** - His grandparents were Persian origin who worshipped fire. - The first to embrace Islam among them was Mughirah - His father died when Bukhari was very young. His pious religious mother took care of him - He lost his sight when he was very young. His mother prayed hard for him, Allah answered her prayers and <br><br>Bukhari was able to see again. <br><br>**Search of knowledge** - Bukhari was very much interested in Hadith - His mother was sent him to study Islamic education and she made sure that he received the best. - On his part, he proved himself to be outstanding and have a strong retentive memory - He did not record the Hadith taught in the school the way his colleagues did, but he memorized them, yet his classmate used to correct their Manuscripts from his recitation by heart. This was the case when he was 10 years old. <br><br>- At eleven, he was able to correct the recitation of a well-known traditionalist in a big congregation of <br><br>theologians <br><br>- He became master of Hadith at sixteen - When he was eighteen, he compiled a book relating the judgment of the prophet`s companions. **The dream** - One of his teachers (Ishaq), requested Bukhari to compile Hadiths, and Bukhari loved the Idea. - One night when he was a sleep, he saw in his dream the Holly prophet. His dream was interpreted as an <br><br>Indication that he should undertake the work of selecting the true Hadith from false ones. <br><br>- Al-Bukhari from that time devoted himself to the compilation of Hadith. He traveled throughout the Muslim <br><br>world for about 40 years looking for this knowledge. <br><br>**Travels** - Bukhari made the following travels for attending lectures and collecting Hadith. He travelled to: <br><br>a) Baghdad b) Syria c) Egypt d) Saudia e) Basrah f) Kufah g) Khurasan **His teachers**<br><br>a) Ali bin Abdillah Al-Hafidh b) Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal c) Imam Abu Yaaqub Ishaq bin Yaaqub Annaisapuri <br><br>**His book (Sahih Bukhari)** - He collected 300,000 Hadiths (some put it at 600,000) and of which he knew by heart 220,000 out of this he choose 7275 Hadiths (as the most authentic) in his book. This does not mean the rest ware fabrications, but many were repetitions with different chains of narrators <br><br>- Sahih Bukhari consists of 9 volumes and it is divided into 97 chapters. - - Three factors that prompted Bukhari into compiling Hadiths are : <br><br> He wrote over 20 other books <br><br>1. He was not satisfied with the books of Hadith which existed, because they included unreliable Hadiths 2. It was the wish of his teacher Ishaq bin Ibrahim, who advised his student (Bukhari) to compile authentic <br><br>Hadiths. <br><br>3. He had a dream of the prophet (saw) where he saw himself standing next to the prophet, whom he was <br><br>fanning. - I t took him 16 years to complete his collection of Hadith into his book **Methods used by Imam Bukhari in collection and compilation of Hadith** 1. He travelled widely in his effort to collect from as many source as possible. 2. Among the collected Hadith used he to select sound Hadith for compilation 3. He used to listen to people when collecting Hadiths, he used to accept Hadiths from morally upright persons <br><br>who were of good memory <br><br>4. In some cases he used personal conscience or judgment to decide Hadith that should be compiled 5. He used to perform wudhu and prayed two rakats before recording Hadith 6. He divided his book into chapters and topics 7. He repeated a particular Hadith several times in his book whenever he felt that the Hadith was relevant. 8. He included in his book the prophet`s commentaries on some Quranic verses 9. He used different chains of narrators to present the same text with slight variation <br><br>11 10. He was cautious in classifying Hadith he preferred to use the phrase its Isnad is sahih 11. He would not accept Hadith unless the two narrators in the chain of narrators met and lived together in the <br><br>same period. <br><br>**Death** - <br><br>Imam Bukhari died in a village called Khartanak near Samarkand on 30th Ramadan 256 A.H (870CE) at the age of 62 <br><br>- Great scholars accepted him as an authority. That is why it is said sahihul Bukhari is most accurate book <br><br>after the book of Allah (Quran) <br><br>**2. Imam muslim** **Birth** - His full name is Abul- Hussein Muslim bunul- Hajjaj bin Muslim Al-Qushyiry Al-Nisapuri - He was an Arab but was born at Nisapuri in Persia 204 A.H (819 CE). It was in the same year that Imam <br><br>Shaffii died. <br><br>**Search of knowledge** - He excelled in various branches of Arabic literature which he studied at an early age - He started attending Hadith lecturers when he was 14 years old **Travels** - He made the following travels for attending lectures and collecting Hadith. He travelled to: a) Baghdad b) Syria c) Egypt d) Saudia e) Basrah f) Kufah g) Khurasan <br><br>**His teachers**<br><br>a) Yahya bin Yahya Al- Khurasan b) Ahmad bin Hanbal c) Ibnu Mansur d) Imam Bukhari **His book (Sahih Muslim)** - He collected 300,000 Hadiths out of this he choose 9000 Hadiths, after thorough examination he maintained only 4,000(as the most authentic) in his book. This does not mean the rest ware fabrications, but many were repetitions with different chains of narrators. <br><br>**Methods used by Imam Muslim in collection and compilation of Hadith** 1. He travelled widely in his effort to collect from as many source as possible. 2. Among the collected Hadith he used to select sound Hadith for compilation 3. He used to listen to people when collecting Hadiths, he used to accept Hadiths from morally upright persons <br><br>who were of good memory <br><br>4. In some cases he used personal conscience or judgment to decide Hadith that should be compiled 5. He divided his book into chapters and topics 6. He repeated a particular Hadith several times in his book whenever he felt that the Hadith was relevant. 7. He included in his book the prophet`s commentaries on some Quranic verses 8. He used different chains of narrators to present the same text with slight variation 9. He was cautious in classifying Hadith he preferred to use the phrase its Isnad is sahih 10. He would accept Hadith although the two narrators in the chain of narrators met and did not live together in the same period. <br><br>**Death** - He died on Sunday evening but was buried on Monday 5 days before Rajab 261 A.H (816 CE) at the age of 57. <br><br>He was buried at Nisabur. <br><br>12 **3. Imam Abu-Daud** **Birth** - His full name is Suleiman bin Ash`ath Ibn Ishaq bin Bashir Assajistany. - He was born in Sajistan in Persia in 203 A.H (816 CE) **Search of knowledge** - He travelled to many places in search of knowledge of hadith - he started attending Hadith lecturers when he was 20 years old **Travels** - He made the following travels for attending lectures and collecting Hadith. He travelled to: <br><br>a) Syria b) Egypt c) Saudia d) Basrah e) Kufah f) Khurasan <br><br>**His teachers**<br><br>a) Ibnu Abu- Shybah b) Qutybah binSaid c) Muslim bin Ibrahim **His book (sunanan Abu-Daud)** - He collected 500,000 Hadiths out of this he choose 4,800 Hadiths, (as the most authentic) in his book. - Jurist have acclaimed that this book is very authentic one next to sahih of Imam Bukhari and Mulsim - It took him 20 years to compile this work **Methods used by Imam Abu-Daud in collection and compilation of Hadith** 1. He choose Hadith then included all those Hadiths which were similar to it 2. He arranged the book according to the topics of Fiqhi and Shariah 3. He pointed out any Hadith which had a lot of doubt and the one which he said nothing on them were <br><br>sahih <br><br>4. He preferred Hadith which had weak Isnad (chain of narrators) than opinions (qiyas) of others. 5. He travelled widely in his effort to collect from as many source as possible. 6. Among the collected Hadith he used to select sound Hadith for compilation 7. He used to listen to people when collecting Hadiths, he used to accept Hadiths from morally upright <br><br>persons who were of good memory <br><br>**Death** - He died in Basrah (Iraq) in the month of Shawal 275 AD (887 CE) at the age of 72. **4. Imam Al-Tirmidhi** **Birth** - His full name is Abu Isa Muhammad bin Issa bin Thawrah bin Musa bin Dhahak Attirmidhi - He was born in 209 A.H (822 CE) in Tirmidhi (in Khurasan) **Search of knowledge** - He started attending Hadith lecturers when he was 20 years old **Travels** - He made the following travels for attending lectures and collecting Hadith. He travelled to: **His book (sunanan Al-Tirmidhi)** - His book contains 3956 Hadiths - The book also known as Al-Jamu Al-Kabir but popular known as sunan Attirmidhi **Methods used by Imam Attirmidhi in collection and compilation of Hadith** 1. He mentioned Isnad of Hadith and explained its status whether Sahih, Hassan or Dhaif 2. He mentioned as many Swahaba as possible who narrated same Hadith or similar Hadith 3. He would coat difference opinions of the jurists on Hadith and why they accept or reject 4. He would mention Hadith which contradict one another on the same Issue 5. He travelled widely in his effort to collect from as many source as possible. 6. He mentioned Hadith which translate the Quran and which also shows the status of the Quran **Death** - He died on Monday 13th Rajab 279 AH (892 CE) in Tirmidhi at the age of 70. **5. Imam An-Nassai** **Birth** - His full name is Abu Abdurahman Ahmad bin Shuaib bin Ali bin Sinan Al- Khurasany - He was born in 215 A.H (830 CE) at a place called Nasai in Khurasan (Persia) **Search of knowledge** - He travelled to many places in search of knowledge of hadith **Travels** - He made the following travels for attending lectures and collecting Hadith. He travelled to: a) Hijaz b) Iraq c) Syria d) Egypt e) Jazirah f) Khurasan <br><br>**His teachers**<br><br>a) Qutybah binSaid b) Ishaq bin Rahwiiyi **His book (sunanan An-Nassai)** - His book contains 5000 Hadiths - The book is known as as sunan An-Nasai **Methods used by Imam Attirmidhi in collection and compilation of Hadith** 1. He was more strict than any other five Imams of Hadith, in accepting hadith 2. Those whose hadith or narrators are doubtful he would rather avoid including them in his collection 3. He would do Istikharah on such Hadiths before making decisions to include or exclude them 4. He travelled widely in his effort to collect from as many source as possible. 5. After completing the compilation he presented his book to the Amir of Ramallah who in turn asked An-Nasai are all Hadiths in this book sahih ? imam replied No then the Amir said Then select the sahih only from it **Death** - He died in 303 AH (915 CE) in Ramallah at the age of 88. **6. Imam ibn- Majah** **Birth** - His full name is Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Yazid ibni Majah - He was an Arab - He was born in 209 A.H (824 CE) at a place called Qazwainy (Persia) **Search of knowledge** - He travelled to many places in search of knowledge of hadith **Travels** - He made the following travels for attending lectures and collecting Hadith. He travelled to: <br><br>a) Hijaz b) Baghdad c) Syria d) Egypt e) Basrah f) Kufah g) Mecca **His teachers**<br><br>a) From students of Malik b) Allyth bin Saad **His book (sunanan ibn- Majah)** - His book contains4341 Hadiths - The book is known as as sunan An-Nasai **Methods used by Imam ibn- Majah in collection and compilation of Hadith** 1. 3002 of hadiths in his book are found in the other five books of Hadiths 2. 1339 of hadiths in his book are not found in the other five books of Hadiths 3. 428 0f 1339 hadiths their narrators are reliable 4. 199 of 1339 hadiths their chain of narrators are Hassan 5. 613 of 1339 hadiths their chain of narrators are Dhaif (weak) 6. 99 of 1339 hadiths their chain of narrators are much weaker 7. He travelled widely in his effort to collect from as many source as possible. **Death** He died on Monday 9 days before Ramadan 273 AH (886 CE) at the age of 64 **The Shia collection of Hadith** - According to Shia`s madh-hab, the prophet (saw), his daughter Fatimah and Imams are believed to be Ma`asumin (sinless, protected from the errors) and their talk, sayings, actions or confirmation are considered as authority in religion If a followers did something in front of M aasum`s presence and the Maasum did not stop or prohibit him/her it is treated as confirmation (Taqrir) - <br><br>- According to them Hadith means: talk, action or confirmation of a Maasum **Conditions for authentic Hadith according to Shia** 1. The Hadith should not contradict the teachings of Quran 2. The Hadith should not contradict reason or well known facts 3. The narrators must be trustworthy 4. The Hadith must quote what was said or done by the Maasum 5. The text must be in Arabic **Classification of Hadith according to Shia** Shias have divided Hadith into four categories: 1. Sahih (correct) 2. Hassan (good) 3. Muwathaq (Reliable) 4. Dhaif (Weak) **B. Shias Compilation of hadith** - According to Shia compilation of hadith started from the beginning of Islam, unfortunately the early writing <br><br>were lost <br><br>15 Is the first collection of Shia, was compiled by Abu- Jafar Muhammad bin Yaaqub ibn Ishaq Al-Kulayni It containas 16099 Hadiths It took him almost 20 years to compile it. - <br><br> The sixth and the seventh Imams (Imam Muhammad al-Baqir and imam Jafaar As-Sadiq) who were able to spread their teachings far and wide <br><br>- Many disciples of these two and the succeeding Imams noted down whatever they heard from the Imams. - Such collections were called Usul (Roots/Foundations). From these Usul four books were compiled. **1. Four Shia collections of Hadith** **A. Al-Kafi fi usulu-din ( The compendium; a collection of facts)** - - - **Features of Al-Kafi fi usulu-din** a) It was compiled during lifetime of the first four Imams of Shia b) The compiler gives the whole chain of narrators except on few cases through which the tradition has passed <br><br>between him and the Imam, the real source. <br><br>c) His method of collecting and grading the traditions is according to the order of authenticity d) The compiler drops traditions which are contradictory. **B. Man la yahdhurhul faqih** - <br><br>It is the second collection compiled by Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Hassan Ibn Babwayh, popularly known as sheikh Sadiq. - The book contains 9044 traditions - The complier traveled far and wide in search of Hdiths - The book occupies a special place in Shia`s Hadith and juriprundance **C. Tahdhibul-Ahkam** - - He divided it into 393 sections and it contains 13590 Hadiths **D. Al- Istibar fil jami Baina ma Tawarada minal- Akhbar** - <br><br>It is the third collection compiled by Abu- Jafar Muhammad Ibn Al- Hassan At-tusi <br><br>It is the fourth compilation of the traditions compiled by the same author (Abu- Jafar Muhammad Ibn Al- Hassan At-tusi) It has 920 sections and contains 5511 Traditions <br><br>- **NB** a) Except the first collection (Al-kafi), all three books are confined to the Hadith concerned with fiqh <br><br>(jurisprudence) <br><br>b) The Shias unlike the Sunnis do not call any of the above books Sahih. If a hadith is found in any of them it <br><br>does not necessarily mean that it is correct. <br><br>c) Its acceptance or rejection of hadith depends on the three tests: conformity with the Quran and the known facts and reliability of its narrators <br><br>d) If a Hadith found in other books and passes the test, it will be accepted. **2. The three later books of Shia** - The following books of hadith became very popular among the Shia of Ithna-Asharia in the later periods **1. Biharul- Anwar Fi Ahadith Nabawiya wal-Aimatil Athar (ocean of light)** - **2. Al-Wafi** - **3. Wasailu-Shia** - - This book became the most popular book as a source of reference for Shia hadith **Study of some selected hadiths** **a) Talab-illm (seeking of knowledge)** The prophet (saw) said seeking of knowledge is obligatory to every Muslim male and female **Teachings** 1. Its compulsory to seek knowledge <br><br>It was compiled by sheikgh Muhammad Baqir <br><br>It was compiled by sheikh Muhammad bin Murtadhwa <br><br>It was compiled by sheikh Muhammad bin Hassan bin al-Hurr <br><br>16 2. The hadith advocate for search of knowledge 3. It put emphasis on the importance of knowledge 4. It teaches that knowledge is power 5. Knowledge makes ones` duty easier 6. It instills respect in individual 7. It enables one to know what is expected out of him by his creator 8. Knowledge removes one from darkness 9. It tells us the learned and not are not equal or the same 10. It tells us that knowledge does not come in a silver plate, its obtained through hardworking i.e. reading and <br><br>writing <br><br>**b) An-Niyyah (Intention)** The prophet said actions are but by intention and every man shall have but what which he intended. Thus he whose migration was for Allah and His messenger, his migration was for Allah and His messenger, and he whose migration was to achieve some worldly benefit or to take some woman in marriage his migration was for that which he has migrated for. **Teachings** 1. Deeds will not be accepted without intentions 2. There is no reward for any act performed by an individual without intention 3. The hadith stresses on the importance of intention in Islamic law 4. Any ibada (form of worship) done should be done according to the traditions of the prophet (saw) 5. It showed that the Hijra was a form of worship 6. Any individual who was involved in Hijra (migration) with any other intention other than the intended will not benefit from it <br><br>7. Allah is aware of whatever is in His servant`s heart 8. Intentions have been recommended so as to differentiate between normal activities and religious ones. 9. Islam takes keen interest in the intention rather than in actions itself. 10. People deceive one another by doing good actions for the sake of fame and showing off. But Allah knows the <br><br>secrets of our hearts and cannot be deceived. <br><br>**c) Tawakal (Trust in Allah)** The prophet (saw) said If you put trust in Allah in the true sense, Allah shall grant you sustenance as He provides sustenance for the birds. They leave their nests in the morning hungry and thirsty but come back in the evening to their resting place fully satisfied **Teachings** 1. When a Muslim is faced with misfortune he /she must have full trust in Allah 2. A believer should have unshakable faith in Allah 3. A Muslim should always seek assistance from Allah alone. 4. It teaches a Muslim that whatever happens to them is decreed by God 5. Our dependence is towards Allah only the creator, sustainer and the provider 6. It teaches that the power of man is limited and man should therefore struggle to his limit and leave the rest to God <br><br>7. The Hadith brings confidence in ones creator 8. It teaches one not to grieve 9. It reduces the level of one`s regrets 10. The hadith shows as that other creatures have full trust in Allah and they dont ignore their limitations i.e. <br><br>birds <br><br>**Examples of Tawakkal** 1. When the prophet was commanded to migrate to Medina , he had full trust in Allah, at the same time he <br><br>made necessary preparation 2. A Bedouin entered to the prophet`s mosque and left his camel outside the mosque without tying it. The <br><br>prophet said Tie it and then put your trust in Allah. The prophet said that to Bedouin after learning from the Bedouin that he had left the camel untied because he had put his trust in Allah. <br><br>3. A case of student who does not revise his notes and faces examination with the idea of Tawakkal (trust in <br><br>Allah) while actually he is doing Tawakal not playing his party fully. <br><br>**Assignment**<br><br>1. Give the definition of the following; <br><br>a) hadithQudsi b) Hadith Nabawi <br><br>2. Discuss the importance of Hadith to Muslims 3. briefly discuss the life of the following: <br><br>a) imam Bukhari b) Imam Muslim c) Imam Abu-Daud d) Imam Ibnu-Majah e) Imam Nasai f) Imam Tirmidhi <br><br>4. Discuss the characteristics of Sunah Abu-Daud 5. Identify the Shia collection of Hadith and their compilers 6. Explain the significance of Tawakkul in our lives 7. Briefly discuss Tawakkkul in the life of the prophet and its effect 8. Discuss the importance of intention in our lives **Chapter 3 PILLARS OF IMAN (FAITH)** **IMAMAH (SHIA BELIEF)** Shia in Arabic means: friends or followers. In general the word Shia: is used for those who are devoted to Ali bin Abi-Talib and his direct descendants. **Different interpretation of the term Imam** 1. Imam refers to Prophet Muhammad (saw), according to the prayer of prophet Ibrahim. He said to Allah and <br><br>also (Imama) from my offspring. <br><br>2. Imam means a leader. Allah said to prophet Ibrahim. I will make you (Ibrahim) an Imam to the Nation Q <br><br>2:124 <br><br>3. Imam is the caliph of the Muslim Ummah. 4. The person who leads a congregational prayer in the mosque 5. Imam refers to the founders of the four school of thought i.e. Imam Abu-Hanifah ,Malik, Shafii and Hanbali 6. The great compilers of hadith i.e. Imam Bukhari and Muslim 7. The great Muslim scholars i.e. Imam Al- Ghazal, Ibnu Sina ,etc 8. The spiritual leader of the Shia community. The Shia refers to their twelve leaders as Imams **Shia concept/doctrine of imam** - An Imam can only be appointed by Allah as a successor to the prophet (saw) . - Since prophet Muhammad (saw) was a divinely appointed the Muslim ummah have no say in matters of appointment of an Imam <br><br>- According to them, only Allah knows the Qualifications necessary for appointment of an Imam - An Imam was one of the nearest companion of the prophet (saw) - An Imam should come from the family of the prophet (saw) i.e. Ahlul-bait - An Imam cannot do wrong or tell lies - All Imams are infallible (Maasumin) - The Shia says that the prophet appointed Ali as his successor while returning from his farewell pilgrimage. - Since this historical background of the appointment of Ali, the immediate predecessor rightly appointed next <br><br>Imam who followed in the line of descendants of Ali - The doctrine of the first declaration of this appointment will continue to function as an authority for <br><br>Imamate until the last day <br><br>**Declaration of Ali bin Abi-Talib as Imam** a) Ali bin Abi-Talib (RAA) was the cousin and son-in law of the prophet (saw) b) Shias believe that Ali bin Abi-Talib is Hujatullah. Prophet appointed him his successor at a place called <br><br>Ghadrir Khum a place between Mecca and medina. <br><br>c) The Shia says that the prophet appointed Ali as his successor while returning from his farewell pilgrimage. d) Since this historical background of the appointment of Ali, the immediate predecessor rightly appointed next <br><br>Imam who followed in the line of descendants of Ali <br><br>e) In this way the doctrine of the first declaration of this appointment will continue to function as an authority <br><br>for Imamate until the last day <br><br>f) In this matter, Shia pay great respect to Ali and his offspring who are called ahlul-Bait g) Soon after the death of the prophet (saw) Sayidna Abu-Bakr (RA) became the first caliph and Ali the last of <br><br>four guided caliphs. Ali acted as counselor, advisor and consultant to the three caliphs h) However the Shia maintain that Sayidan Ali was still the right Imam and the appointment of Sayidna Abu- Bakr, Umar and Uthman did not invalidate the legitimacy of Sayidan Ali`s appointment at Ghadrir Khum i) The sunni dispute the appointment of Ali as the first caliph, basing their argument on the appointment of <br><br>Abu-Bakr by the prophet when he was sick to lead the congregational prayers when Ali and other companions were around. There are several reasons in favour of Abu-Bakr. **Shias Imams** 1. Ali bin Abitalib 2. Hassan bin Ali 3. Hussein bin Ali 4. Ali Zaynul Abideen 5. Muhammad al Baqir 6. Jaffar al Sadiq 7. Musa al Kazim 8. Ali al Ridhaa 9. Mohammad al Askari 10. Ali Bin Muhammad 11. Muhammad al Mahdi **Qualities of an Imam** 1. He should be God fearing (pious person) 2. He should be conversant with Islamic law (divine law) 3. He must be a male Muslim 4. He should be honest, trustworthy and courageous 5. He should be approachable 6. He should be just 7. He should be upright person 8. He should be a role model 9. To the Shia he should be infallible 10. To the Shia he should be a descendant of the prophet (saw) **Duties and significance of an Imam** 1. To lead and guide people in religious matters 2. To bring people together by reconciling warring parties 3. To ensure justice prevails 4. To spread the word of God 5. To defend the faith and religion 6. He solves dispute in the Islamic matters 7. To unite Muslims 8. He is a representative or successor of the prophet (saw) 9. He act as a reference in the Muslim community 10. He advises Muslims against following of Un-Islamic Ideology **Assignment** 1. List down the various interpretation of Imam 2. Explain how Ali bin Abi-Talib was appointed 3. What are the qualities of an Imam according to Shia belief 4. Discuss significance of an Imam 5. Describe the concept of immamh as a fundamental of Shia belief **Chapter 4: Devotional acts** **Meaning of the term Fiqhi and Sharia** **1. Fiqhi** - Fiqhi literally means the true understanding of what is intended. - Techinically means: the science of deducing Islamic laws from evidence found in the sources of Islamic law. **2. Sharia** - Sharia literally means: a waterhole where animals gather daily to drink, or a straight path. - Technically it means: the sum total law which were revealed to the prophet Muhammad (saw) and which are <br><br>recorded in the Quran as well as Sunnah of the prophet. <br><br>**Differences between sharia and fiqhi**<br><br>**Fiqhi** It is largely the result of human endeavor It is a narrow one and deals with legal acts **Sharia** Its laid down by Allah and His prophet It is a wider circle and embraces all human activities It is fixed and does not change <br><br>1 2 <br><br>3 <br><br>It changes according to time and circumstances Its laws are specific <br><br>4 **Sources of sharia** **Primary sources of sharia** 1. Quran 2. Sunnah **Secondary sources of sharia** 1. Ijma 2. Qiyas a.**Quran** - Quran is the holy book of Allah sent to the men through prophet Muhammad (saw) - - Quran is the code of conduct for every believer **Role of the Quran as a source of sharia** 1. It lays down laws regulating social affairs 2. It encourages good deeds and forbids bad deeds 3. It gives guidance on the mode of worship 4. It lays down laws regulating political and economic affairs 5. It gives laws on the organization of family structure. 6. It defines the two paths; that of righteous and that of evil 7. It establishes relation between the creator and the creatures 8. It establishes relation between man and his fellow man 9. It speaks to the mind as well as to the heart 10. It prescribes punishment for crimes **b. Sunnah** - Sunnah in Islam refers to the statements, actions and silent approval of the prophet Muhammad (saw) <br><br>Its laws are general <br><br>20 - The Quranic injections, from which sharia was derived were explained and translated into practice by the <br><br>Quran and Sunnah of the prophet (saw) <br><br>- The Sunnah is considered as the second source of sharia based on Allahs statement in the Quran He does <br><br>not speak his desires; verily it is inspiration which has been revealed (Q 53:54) Muslims are clearly told to accept the decisions of the prophet for they are based on God`s legislation. <br><br>- **Role of the Sunnah as a source of sharia** 1. It lays similar commands which have been prescribed in the Quran 2. It gives explanation and support of the Quran injunctions e.g. penal cord (Hudud) chopping of hand 3. It gives details of the Quran`s rules e.g. details of prayer, fasting. Zakat etc. 4. It lays down command on matters which were not in the Holy Quran e.g. prohibition of mutta marriage and <br><br>donkey meat <br><br>5. All scholars agree that the picture of sharia can only be formed if the Sunnah is taken into account 6. It explain injunctions of the Quran by actions i.e. the prophet (saw) prayed among his followers, then told <br><br>- - them pray as you have seen me pray <br><br>7. It encourages good deeds and forbids bad deeds 8. It gives laws on the organization of family structure. 9. It gives guidance on the mode of worship 10. It lays down laws regulating political and economic affairs **Secondary sources of sharia** **c. Ijma** - - <br><br>Ijma literally means: agreement of opinion by the learned jurist to a certain solution In Islam it means: unanimous consent or consensus by the learned scholars and jurists on an issue of Islamic sharia Ijma is considered as the third source of Islamic sharia after the Quran and Sunnah It is applied when certain issue have been elaborated , discussed or made clear by the first two sources of sharia <br><br>- The Quran and Sunnah have made a provision for Ijma. Allah said O you believers obey Allah and obey the messenger and those in authority among you (Q 4:59) and the prophet said My ummah will not assemble on a wrong decision <br><br>**Examples of ijma** 1. The prophet (saw) himself followed this practice in religious matters when there was no express direction in the Holy Quran i.e. when choosing the method of calling prayer (adhan) <br><br>2. During the time of four guided caliphs e.g. a. The election of Abu-Bakr since the prophet nominated no one to succeed him. The decision was reached by <br><br>the unanimous acceptance of Muslims in Saqifat Bani Saidi <br><br>b. The compilation of Quran by Abu-Bakr in one volume, since it was not done during the prophet`s time nor <br><br>did he give any directive for such thing to be done. <br><br>c. Praying Taraweh in congregation during Umar`s time, on which all the companions had Ijma d. Introduction of first Adhan on Fridays by Uthman, was agreed upon by companions and had Ijma **Conditions necessary for the use of Ijma** 1. The issue being discussed or elaborated should not be found in Quran and Sunnah 2. The issue should be discussed in the light of the Quran and Sunnah of the prophet (saw) 3. Those coming with Ijma should be learned scholars who are experts in matters of Islamic sharia 4. Muslims are supposed to adopt the resolution made in the Ijama 5. The scholars applying Ijma must be people of high integrity and honour 6. The scholars applying Ijma must be people who are conversant in the culture of the people 7. The scholars when discussing an issue should not be inclined to fevour an issue or blackmailed to reach a **d. Qiyas** - Literally means estimation or judgment by comparison with another thing - - - Qiyas is accepted as the fourth source of Isalmic law after Quran, Sunnah and Ijama - <br><br>In Isalmic terms it means: the process of reasoning by analogy It is applied through reason from the known to the unknown. <br><br>It is only acceptable when it derived from the first three sources of Islamic law by genuine Isalmic scholars with a clear analogy and explanation of cause and effect <br><br>- Example of Qiyas, Bhang has been made haram through the analogical deduction that it intoxicates like <br><br>khamr (alcohol) which the Quran forbids <br><br>- Qiyas and Ijtihad are not open for layman. It can only be exercised by a Muslim jurist and scholar **Examples of Qiyas** a. When the prophet (saw) sent Muadh bin Jabal to Yemen. Muadh used his judicial opinion where the text of <br><br>the Quran and Sunnah have not covered the issues <br><br>b. During the time of the companions of the prophet they arrived at various decisions by use of analogical <br><br>deduction. For example punishment which should be given to a drunkard **Conditions necessary for use of Qiyas** 1. Qiyas must be applied only when there is no solution to the matter in the Quran, Sunnah or Ijma 2. Qiyas must not go against the principles of Islam 3. Qiyas must not go against the contents of the Quran neither should be in conflict with traditions of the <br><br>prophet (saw) <br><br>4. It must be a strict Qiyas based on the Quran, Sunnah or Ijma 5. Qiyas must be derived by a genuine Islamic scholar with a clear analogy and explanation of cause and effect <br><br>of the problem <br><br>6. The scholars applying Qiyas must be a person of high integrity and honour 7. The scholars applying Qiyas must be a person who is conversant in the culture of the people 8. The issue at hand should not have a solution from the Quran and Sunnah directly 9. The scholar must make an effort to find a solution to the problem and if he finds the correct solution, he will <br><br>get double reward but if he finds no solution will still get reward <br><br>**Ijtihad** - - a Mujtahid: is a scholar of religion whose opinions are important in the process of Ijtihad **Qualities of a Mujtahid** 1. He must have mastered the knowledge of the Quran 2. He must have mastered the knowledge of Sunnah 3. He must have a complete knowledge of development of sharia as observed during the era of companions and <br><br>Ijtihad is a process of deducing judgment from the sources of Sharia the past Mujtahidin <br><br>4. He must have acquired the knowledge of legal reasoning in matters of Islamic law 5. He must have a sincere intention to follow sharia and the will to achieve all its objectives 6. He must have a deep understanding of the behavior, customs and traditions of the local community 7. He must be a person of high integrity and honour. **Fiqhi** **Historical development of Fiqhi (Islamic Jurisprudence)** **The first stage (The era of the prophet (saw)** - <br><br>It covers the era of the prophet (609 632) during which the once source of Islamic law was the revelation in the form of either Quran or the Sunnah. A number of Quranic verses were revealed to answer questions raised by Muslims as well as non-Muslims. Many of the verses begin with the phrase they ask you about .. <br><br>- <br><br>- A number of Quranic verses were revealed due to particular incidences which took place during the era of <br><br>the Prophet (S.A.W) - Some cases of legislation were found in the Sunnah, either as the result of listeners questions or were pronouncements made of Allah took place e.g. one of the companions asked Oh Messenger of Allah we saw the seas and if we make the wudhu (ablution) with our fresh water we will go thirsty. Can we make wudhu with seawater? He replied As water is pure and its food (sea creatures) is halal (permissible to eat) Tirmidhi and An-Nasai. This period marked the beginning of the evolution of Fiqhi. <br><br>- **Fiqhi during this period** 1. Was based on injunction coming from Allah to the prophet (saw) i.e. as Quran or sunnnah 2. The prophet (saw) explained the sharia through his exemplary behavior i.e. he said pray as you found me 3. The prophet replaced the pr-Islamic law with the new order law based on Islamic sharia **The second stage (The era of the Righteous Caliphs and the Companions)** - - The borders of Islamic state were rapidly expanded during the first twenty years. - Muslims were suddenly brought into contact with totally new systems, culture and patterns of behavior for <br><br>It extended form the Caliphate of Abubakar (632 634) to the death of the fourth Caliph Ali (661 CE) which specific provision were not found in the law of Shariah. <br><br>- To deal with the numerous new problems the righteous Caliphs relied, heavily on decisions by consensus <br><br>(Ijma) as well as Ijtihad, in which they had been trained by the Prophet (S.A.W) <br><br>**Fiqhi during this period: -** 1. The teachings of Quran and sunnah were applied to solve the problems that arose and the law was built <br><br>under the guidance of caliphs <br><br>2. The righteous Caliphs relied, heavily on decisions by consensus (Ijma) as well as Ijtihad, in which they had <br><br>been trained by the Prophet (saw) <br><br>3. Fiqhi was based on actual problems (Fiqhi Al-waqi) realistic Fiqhi rather than on hypothetical or imaginary <br><br>ones. <br><br>4. The righteous Caliphs did not prescribe set procedures to be followed throughout the Islamic nation, nor did <br><br>they make a record of the laws resulting from their rulings. <br><br>5. The Swahaba were open minded and respected freedom of opinion in such matters. 6. The majority of Sahabah preferred to stick closely to the literal meaning of text of the Quran and the Sunnah. They avoided giving personal interpretations. <br><br>7. The Madh-hab during this period was unified and directly linked to the state as in the time of the Prophet <br><br>(S.A.W) <br><br>**The 3rd stage (The rise and the fall of the Umayyad dynasty)** - The Umayyads were in power for approximately one century. - The period was marked by great social unrest, the ummah divided into various sects and factions. - The Caliphate was converted into kingship, many new practices were introduced, some which were haraam; - This period is noteworthy for the three main trends: - <br><br>1. There was no increase in the number of Ijtihads given by scholars since Ijma became difficult due to the scholars refused to sit in the audiences of the Caliphs and fled to outlying area to avoid conflict and confusion. <br><br>2. The narration of Hadith became widespread and there was increasing tendency of towards fabrications <br><br>Hadith <br><br>3. The period marked the first attempts of compilation of fiqh, which was aimed at preserving the Ijtihads of <br><br>the sahaba <br><br>**The 4th stage (The rise and the fall of the Abbasid Dynasty)** - - The Caliph actively supported Islamic scholarship - The development of Fiqh during this period relates to the evolution of the Madh-hab. - For the first time Fiqh of different Madh-hab were successfully compiled on a large and systematic scale. - Fiqhi became organized and divided into two main segments: Used (Fundamentals principles) and Furu <br><br>Its during this period that Fiqhi took shape as an independent Islamic science. - The main sources of law were clearly defined and graded. - The Sunnah of the Prophet was also collected and recorded in books of Hadith by the end of this stage. **Factors that contributed to the rise of schools of thought** 1. Different interpretation of the Quran 2. Different interpretation of Hadith 3. Choice of Muhadithin 4. Expansion of Muslim empire 5. Establishment of various centers of learning all around the Islamic empire 6. Argument regarding choice of Hadith vise Qiyas (Analogy) 7. Choice of leadership 8. The need to simplify Quran and Hadith for easy understanding 9. Differences arise from the use of Qiyas 10. Differences arise from use of Ijma A.**Imam Abu Hanifa** **Name**: - His full name is; Abu Hanifah Annuman bin Thabit Ibn Zuta **Birth**: He was born in 80 AH (699 CE) during the reign of Abdulmalik Ibn Marwan, the fifth Ummayyad Caliph. **Parents**: - His forefathers were residents of Kabul Afghanistan, His grandfather had accepted Islam and settled in Kufah, His father Thabit was a disciple of Sayyidna Ali. Abu Hanifah family had a cloth business and even himself took up the family trade. **Search for knowledge**: - - His earlier studies were in the field of philosophy and dialogue (Ilimul Kalaam). - - After mastering these fields he took great interest in Fiqhi and Hadith. He spent some of his early life under the care of Imam Jaffar Assadiq and was educated by him then he got his Fiqhi from Hamid bin Abi Suleiman for 18 years. <br><br>**His famous students**: - Over 730 students the most notable were: (1) Abu Yusuf Yaqub bin Ibrahim (Al Qadhy) (2) Muhammad bin Hassan Ashybany (3) Zafar bin Hudhyl **His Famous Books:**- (1) Al-Figh Al-Akbar (2) Al-Alim Wal Mutaalim (3) Radd ala-al-Qadariyyah (4) Musnad **His Contributions** 1. He is the founder of Islamic School of thought 2. He contributed to the development of Sunnism 3. He advocated for the use of reason in juristic matters 4. He advocated for the independence of judiciary from the government of those days. 5. He used to give lectures to students of Figh **6.**He contributed to the reformation of the judiciary by criticizing the decision of judge in the courts by sending to them private letters. <br><br>**7.**He lectured many students on Hadith and Islamic law **8.**He wrote several books in law e.g. Al-Fiqhi Al-Akbar, Al-Alim Wal-Mutaalim etc. **9.**He also contributed a supplementary source of law known as Istihsan **10.**He used to motivate his students by giving them material reward i.e. money **His Followers** They are mostly found in India, Palestine, Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, Egypt, Jordan, Russia, China (around 300 million) **Death** He died in 150 AH in prison in Baghdad <br><br>24 **Brief Survey of the life of the five Imams of Fiqhi** **A. Imam Malik bin Anas** **Name:**His full name is Maalik Ibn Anas Ibn Aamir **Birth:**He was born in 93 AH (717CE) in Madinah **Parents:**Both his parents of Arab origin. His grandfather Aamir was among leaching sahabah. **Search of Knowledge:** - He learnt from Jafar Assadiq and a number of other Scholars. - He studied Hadith and Figh from the learned Muhadithin and Faqih of his time. **His famous students** 1. Bukhari 2. Muslim 3. Abdullah Ibn Wahbin 4. Imam Shafi **His famous books** 1. Al Muwatta **His Contributions** 1. He founded Malik school of thought 2. He succeeded Abu Hanifah as a teacher of Hadith 3. He wrote the first book of Hadith Al-Muwatta 4. He was the first to formulate the principles on the tradition and customs of the people of Madina 5. He relied mainly on the Quran, the Sunnah and resorted to Qiyas whenever necessary 6. Many scholars of hadith were his students 7. He wrote very important book called Al-Muwatta which was the second best to the Quran according to the 8. He used to advice the Abbasid Caliphs to practice justice 9. He was fearless jurist who stood by his views and convictions 10. He wrote chapters on Hadith, Fiqhi, Theology and other related topics **His followers** They are mostly found in Egypt, Sudan, Tunisia, Algeria, Mali, Nigeria, Chad, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain (around 53 million) **Death** - **B. Imam Shafi** **Name:**His full name is Muhammad bin Idris bin Abbas bin Shfii bin Seif **Birth:**He was born in 150 AH (767CE) at Gaza in Palestine on the day Imam Abu-Hanifah died **Parents:**Both his parents were Arab origin. His was a Quraysh from the prophet`s lineage of Banu Hashim clan. His father died when he was young and his mother took care of him **Search of Knowledge:** - He first studied literature and poetry and became outstanding in both - He memorized the Quran when he was 9 years old - He then realized the importance of Fiqhi as compared to literature and poetry - He then went to Malik in Medina and studied under hin until when he died - He had a strong memory allowing him to repeat the whole lecture word by word having heard it only once - He learnt the book of Malik (Al-Muwatta) by heart **His famous students** 1. Abu Ya`qub Al-Buwayti 2. Abu Ibrahim Al-Muzani 3. Ahmad ibn Habal **His famous books** 1. Arrisalah (The message) <br><br> He died in 179 AH at the age of 86 in Madinah. 2. Al-Ummu (The Essence) **His Contributions** 1. He founded Shafii school of thought 2. He combined two system of Fiqhi i.e. Fiqhi of Imam Malik and Imam Abu Hanifah 3. He was pioneer of the science of Fiqhi (Usul-al-Fiqhi) 4. He taught many outstanding students 5. He scrutinized Ijma before accepting it 6. He was a successful teacher and a skilful debater 7. He wrote very many important books e.g. Arrisalah (The message), Al-Ummu (The Essence) etc. 8. He wrote principles of Arabic grammar after 20 years of research 9. He was the first to write code of regulations of law and explained how reffrence can be made currently based <br><br>on the Quran and sunnah <br><br>10. He was the first Quran commentator and wrote illmu Nasikh wal Mansukh (the science of the application of <br><br>the replaced verses) <br><br>**His followers** They are mostly found in Egypt, Yemen, Hadhramout, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Oman, Mlaysia, Phillipines, South America, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, (Around 110 million) **Death** He died in 204 AH (820 CE) in Egypt **C. Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal** **Name:**His full name is Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Hanbal bin Hilal bin Idris Ashybaany **Birth:**He was born in 164 AH (780CE) in Baghdad **Parents:**Both his parents were Arab origin. His was a Quraysh from the prophet`s lineage of Banu Hashim clan. His father worked as a commander in Abbasid army. **Search of Knowledge:** - He first studied in his native town. Later he moved to Iraq, Syria, Hijaz and Yamen to accuire knowledge of Hadith and Fiqhi He memorized the Quran and acquired the knowledge of Hadith <br><br>- - He studied Fiqhi under his great teacher Imam Shafii **His famous students** 1. Swaleh bin Ahmad bin Hanbal 2. Abdullah bin Ahmad bin Hanbal 3. Bukhari 4. Muslim the **His famous books** 1. kitabu- swalat 2. musnad Imam Ahmad 3. kitabu- Sunnah **His Contributions** 1. He founded Hanbali school of thought 2. He is the most celebrated traditionalist, jurist and theologian of Islam 3. He was accepted the use of four sources of Sharia but preferred the use of weak Hadith to the Qiyas 4. He assembled many students in the prophet Mosque in Medina 5. He led a life of poverty but never went out to seek help from others many times he sold his belongings to get <br><br>fare <br><br>6. He was a honest teacher and when people gave him gifts he refused for fear of being corrupted 7. He wrote very many important books e.g. kitabu- swalat, musnad Imam Ahmad, kitabu- Sunnah etc. 8. He was imprisoned by the Abbasid caliph (Ma`mun and Mu`tassim) for refusing to accept the belief of the <br><br>9. He never referred to a Hadith without giving the names of its narrators 10. He was persecuted for sticking firmly to the basic principles that Quran is word of God as opposed to the <br><br>mu`tazilities who believe that Quran was a created thing **His followers** They are mostly found in Saud Arabia, Syria, Palestine and several places in Asia (Around 5 million) **Death** He died in 214 AH (810 CE) in Bghdad **D. Imam Jfar Assadiq** **Name:**His full name is Jfar ibn Muhammad bin Ali al- Baqir. He is the 6th Imam of Shia **Birth:**He was born in Medina on 17th Shawal 80 AH **Parents:**Both his parents were Arab origin. His was a Quraysh from the prophet`s lineage of Banu Hashim clan. **Search of Knowledge:** - He was brought up by learned grandfather Zainul Abideen and his father - **His famous students** 1. Imam Malik 2. Imam Abu Hanifah 3. Sufyan Thaury 4. Jabir ibn Hayyan (The greatest chemical scientist) **His famous books** 4. kitabu- swalat 5. musnad Imam Ahmad 6. kitabu- Sunnah **His Contributions** 1. He poses a great knowledge on a astronomy and the other fields of science 2. He is the 6th Imam of Shia 3. He produced renowned scholars and Jurists, intellectuals and scientists 4. He assembled many students in the prophet Mosque in Medina 5. He changed the divine rights of the Shia Imamas and their qualities as regards to the knowledge of <br><br> He was well learned in all branches of knowledge i.e. religious, astronomy and other fields of science appointme <br><br>6. He wrote very many important books e.g. kitabu- swalat, musnad Imam Ahmad, kitabu- Sunnah etc. 7. Despite challenges he faced from the Abbasid caliphs and Shia community he was able to overcome due to <br><br>his knowledge and wisdom <br><br>**His followers** They are mostly found in Saud Arabia, Syria, Palestine and several places in Asia (Around 5 million) **Death** He died in 148 AH (765 CE) in Medina at the age of 65, he was poisoned by the governor of Medina by the order of Abbasid caliph Mansur, for fear of the strong love and respect the Imam enjoyed from the public **Nature and the purpose of Shariah** **Right of Allah** 1. He has the right to be thanked and be praised 2. He has the right to be Loved through following His commandments 3. He has the right to be obeyed and respected 4. He has the right not to be associated with partners 5. He has the right to give or take from His creatures 6. He has the right to bestow His bounties or to withdraw them from his creatures depending on their deeds 7. He has the right to the ownership of the universe 8. He has the right to be worshiped alone 9. He has the right to be called by His 99 beautiful names, which belong to Him alone **Right of oneself** 1. Protecting ones health and strength 2. Earning lawful wealth 3. Resisting against desires of the soul 4. Fulfilling sexual desires through marriage 5. Avoiding over working 6. Not committing suicide for whatever reasons 7. Right to use his/her property according to the Islamic shariah 8. He/she has the right to worship 9. He/she has a right to own property 10. He/she has a right of association **Right of other people** 1. Responding their greetings 2. Attending invitations 3. Blessing the sneezing 4. Visiting one another 5. Helping out of their problems 6. Covering their faults when it is beneficial 7. Loving good for others 8. Showing generous to the neighbor 9. Right to stop others from doing evil things 10. To give them advise when requested **Rights of other creatures** 1. Should not hurt them or harm them or beat them cruelly 2. Should not overwork them or overload them 3. Should not kill them merely for fun or sport 4. Should not keep them hungry 5. Should not kill except the dangerous and harmful ones 6. Should not sought them infront of others 7. Should not imprison the birds or keep them in cages 8. Should not cat trees or bushes useless. 9. Avoid extravagance in the use of natural resources e.g. gold and silver should not be used as utensils The right to safeguard them from diseases by treating them when they become sick **Assignment** 1. Explain the stages of development of shariah 2. Explain the meaning of the term fiqhi and shariah 3. State three differences between fiqhi and shariah 4. Discuss the sources of shariah 5. Give a brief biography of five Imams of fiqh 6. State the qualifications of a Mujtahid 7. Describe nature and the purpose of sharia in regard to: a. Right to Allah b. Right to one self c. Right to other people d. Right to other creatures <br><br>8. Give reasons why Quran is considered first source of sharia 9. Give reasons why Hadith considered second source of sharia 10. Trace the development of sharia from the time of the prophet up to date **Chapter: 5 Akhlaq (Moral values)** **Positive aspects of morality in Islam**<br><br>28 **a. Sadaqa of tongue** Sadaqa means charity. Most people tend to think that sadaqa composes only giving money to the poor. In Islam there are many charities which can be performed without using money. **Types of sadaqa** 1. Assisting the poor and the needy 2. Sadaqa of the tongue 3. Performance of good deeds 4. Sadaqatu-Jaariya (continuous charity) **Islamic teachings on the use of the tongue** 1. To advice people on doing good deeds and forbid evils 2. To speak the truth 3. To declare and pass fair judgment 4. To read the Quran 5. To reconcile warring parties 6. To educate others on Islamic issues 7. To bear witness and advocate for the truth 8. Used in glorifying Allah 9. Ask for forgiveness 10. Greeting one another 11. Should not be used to backbite, abuse others, to incite others to quarrel, to lie etc. **b. Appreciation and gratitude (Shukr)** Shukr means appreciation and gratitude. It means: thanking those who have rendered some kind of favour, help or assistance. **Types of shukr** 1. To appreciate Allah and His Prophet (saw) 2. To appreciate the parents 3. To appreciate everyone dose good to you **Islamic teachings on expression of gratitude** 1. It is the goal of every Muslim in his daily actions to show gratitude and appreciation to Allah 2. A Muslim must fulfills the objective for which he has been created for i.e. by worshiping Allah only and avoid shirk <br><br>3. The grateful people have the merit of obtaining Allahs favour 4. Allah has given has health and wealth, hence we should utilize them for His purpose 5. Allah likes most gratitude and hates those who are ungrateful 6. One should be grateful to his parents for the much they have done to him, by being obedient to them and <br><br>serving them well when they grow old <br><br>7. Allah has provided man with children therefore he should teach them how to worship Him, guide and <br><br>counsel them in an Islamic manner <br><br>8. Muslims should educate and give knowledge to others as a show of gratitude to Allah 9. Muslims should not misuse food and water i.e. avoid extravagance 10. Muslims should appreciate everyone who does good to him **c. Forgiveness** Forgiveness is to stop feeling angry with somebody who has done something to harm, annoy or upset you. **Islamic teachings on forgiveness of Allah** 1. Allah forgive all sins except shirk 2. Islam allows revenge but the one who forgives is rewarded 3. Allah is the most merciful and He forgives those who wronged Him 4. Allah forgives those who are sincere in their repentance 5. A person who commits a sin should ask for forgiveness immediately 6. A person who commits a sin and is asking for forgiveness should show regret and be guilty before repenting <br><br>7. A sin involves someones right can only be forgiven by Allah after repaying the right **Examples of forgiveness portrayed by the prophet (saw)** 1. During the conquest of Mecca the prophet (saw) forgave all his enemies 2. The prophet (saw) forgave Surakah Ibn Malik who traced his foot print during the Hijra (Migration) to <br><br>Medina <br><br>3. The prophet (saw) also forgave a woman who poisoned him 4. The prophet (saw) also forgave Dathur who aimed to kill him while he was resting under the shade of a tree 5. The prophet (saw) also forgave Abdullah Ibn Ubeid (the leader of hypocrites) who broke away from the <br><br>Muslim army during the battle of Uhud <br><br>**d. Justice (Adl)** Justice is the fair treatment of people. Muslim is expected to consider justice to be one of his most necessary obligations **Categories of justice** 1. Justice with Allah the Almighty. This is by worshipping Him alone without associating any with Him. 2. Justice in judgments between people. This can be achieved by giving every rightful person his due 3. Justice between wives. This is by giving them equal attention and equal shares in everything 4. Justice between children. This is by not favoring anyone of them over another or showing extra love or hatred to some. <br><br>5. Justice in speech. This is by not giving false information or cheating when giving evidence. **Islamic teachings on justice** 1. Allah commanded believers to be justice 2. According to the tradition of the prophet (saw) justice people will be given a position of honour before their <br><br>Lord on the Day of Judgment. <br><br>3. Justice ruler will be among the seven categories of people who will be shaded by Allah on the day when there <br><br>will be no shade except His <br><br>4. Justice is the one of the most necessary obligations to a Muslim 5. A Muslim is expected to be just in his speech, judgments, sayings and actions 6. Justice is the most important element of peace and stability everywhere and every time 7. One is rewarded by practicing justice **Dimensions of morality in Islam (Moral principle of a Muslim)** Dimension of Islamic morality are 2 types i. Maarufat (permissible)- These are good deeds which shows mans obedience to Allah ii. Munkarat (vices)- These are bad deeds which shows mans disobedience to Allah <br><br>**a. Spiritual observance( e.g. Swalat, Zakat, Saum, Hajj etc.) and their moral implications** 1. Swalah, it prevents an individual from all sorts of vices and brings the believer near to his Lord 2. Zakat, it makes affair contribution of wealth in a way that reduces differences between classes and groups. It stops up the channels leading to class hatred and makes it possible for the spring of brotherhood and solidarity to flow. <br><br>3. Fasting, it keeps a believer away from all sorts of evils. It also makes someone realizes the suffering of others, <br><br>who are less fortunate Muslims and thus promotes in him a sense of sympathy and kindness to them 4. Hajj, the rites of hajj bring a believer closer to Allah. It manifests unity i.e. Muslims from all corners of the <br><br>world meet and wearing the same dress <br><br>5. Optional acts of worship (Sunnah), it brings someone closer to Allah and he will have unique position among <br><br>the people <br><br>**b. Preventive and precautionary morality** **A. Prohibition of a certain food and drinks** - The Quran indicates general and specific rules regarding foods and drinks. It says They ask you (O prophet) <br><br>what is made lawful for them. Say: (All) good things are made lawful to them {Q5:4} <br><br>- From the above verse we learn that the lawful are the good things, naturally. Therefore the unlawful are bad <br><br>and harmful things <br><br>30 **Types of food and drinks that are forbidden to Muslim** 1. Meat of dead animals/birds 2. Animal gored to death 3. Animal strangled to death 4. Animal beaten to death 5. Animal that have died as a result of falling from a height 6. Animal dies by being (partially) bitten by a wild animal 7. Meat of live animals 8. Any food that is harmful 9. Flesh of swine animal 10. Animal that have been sacrificed to Idols 11. Alcohol 12. Purse 13. Urine 14. Flowing blood **The wisdom behind prohibition of certain foods and drinks** **a. Dead animals** 1. Civilized people in all the societies find it distasteful to eat dead animals and look upon this act as contrary to <br><br>human dignity <br><br>2. Eating of dead animals has also been prohibited in all the revealed scriptures 3. All creatures are interdependent in one way or another. Allah in His mercy by prohibiting the eating of the <br><br>flesh of dead animals by human beings has provided source of food to other creatures. <br><br>4. The death of these animals may have been as a result of poisoning, chronic disease etc. thus when we eat such meat we may fall victim of circumstances <br><br>5. The idea of slaughtering is to drain out the blood from the animal. The blood could be carrying some harmful <br><br>organisms. Slaughtering therefore ensures that these organisms are not eaten by human beings. 6. The prohibition of eating dead animals has encouraged the owners to work hard in currying for their <br><br>animals in an effort to prevent them from being wasted unnecessarily <br><br>**b. Blood** 1. The blood may be carrying some diseases which are harmful to mankind 2. Allah wants to show His mercy to animals from the cruelty of certain people who piece the flash of their <br><br>animals when they are thirsty and drink the flowing blood <br><br>3. This process of piecing live animals, injures and weakens an animal **c. Pork** 1. Recent scientific discoveries have shown that pork carries a deadly parasite (trichina) which is harmful to <br><br>human health <br><br>2. Pigs enjoy feed filth and hence its flesh is disgust to persons of decent taste 3. Islamic Scholars say that eating of pork decreases the human being sense of shame 4. Modern researchers have found that pork carries more fat (above 55%) compared to other types of flesh. <br><br>This is also harmful to the human body **d. Animal killed for Idols:**This refers to any animal slaughtered with invocation of a name other than that of <br><br>Allah <br><br>1. Allah is the creator of all creatures. He has given a man the permission to take the life of animals as his food <br><br>on a condition that he invokes His name while slaughtering the animal <br><br>2. In using ay name other than that of Allah while slaughtering man forfeits this permission and must be denied <br><br>the use of its flesh <br><br>3. Prohibition of eating an animal dedicated to other names, other than Allah is entirely related to faith and it <br><br>safeguards the belief in the oneness of Allah and purifies worship against shirk and polytheism <br><br>**Islamic principles on slaughtering** 1. Mention the name of Allah <br><br>31 2. The animal to be slaughtered must be faced the Qiblah 3. The slaughtering is by cutting the throat or by piecing the hollow of the throat and the windpipe, the gullet <br><br>and the two jugular veins 4. Slaughtering should be done by a male Muslim 5. The slaughtering object must be sharpened 6. The slaughtering object should not loose contact with body of the animal until fully slaughtered 7. The animal must be health 8. Do not slaughter the animal in front of the others 9. Do not sharpen the slaughtering object in front of the animal 10. The blood must be drained from the animal slaughtered **Circumstances/conditions for eating prohibited foods and drinks** 1. During war 2. During famine 3. Extreme-hunger i.e. when no other food is available 4. Under threat for ones life 5. Medical necessity **Conditions for using prohibited foods and drinks as medicine** 1. When the life of a patient is in danger if he does not take that medicine 2. When there is no alternative or substitute medicine whose source are entirely halal 3. When a Muslim or reliable physician who is God-fearing prescribed the medicine **B. Vain talk** Vain talk means useless talk. It is the type of talk which does not benefited neither the one who talks nor the listener **Effects of vain talk in the society** 1. It may lead to quarrels and misunderstanding, because the listeners may go and misreport what they have heard intentionally or unintentionally <br><br>2. Allah hates vain talk 3. It may lead to backbiting which is haram (forbidden) 4. It may lead to Ghibah Nameemah (slandering) which is haram (forbidden) 5. It may lead to disunity in the society 6. It may lead to wastage of time, hence it effects the progress of the society **Ways in which a Muslim can refrain from vain talk** 1. Muslims should remember that each one of them, has been assigned two angels to record all what he does <br><br>and talks <br><br>2. The successful Muslims (believers) they avoid such talk by occupying their free time with Ibaada or helping <br><br>the community on social matters <br><br>3. The true believer (Muslim) is a person who feels the burden of responsibility at all times; this makes him <br><br>behave seriously and responsibly in his life <br><br>4. By feeling your heart with things to focus such as remembrance of Allah and admiring His creation 5. By keep on pondering on how to put up structures which are beneficial to the community instead of <br><br>indulging in vain talk <br><br>6. By advising and warning those who are indulge in vain talk on it effects **C. Abortion** - - - Muslim jurists have defined abortion as: getting rid of the fetus before the completion of pregnancy duration. - Abortion is considered as killing a human being and is prohibited in Islam **Circumstances under which abortion can be acceptable** 1. When the pregnant woman is young and small it is feared that childbirth would cause her death 2. When is suffered from a disease of the uterus, makes it very difficult for the uterus to emerge <br><br>It is the termination of pregnancy. It means to remove the fetus from the womb 3. When the fetus dies in the womb of the mother 4. If the mothers life is in danger as a result of pregnancy and it has been proved by the reliable doctor. 5. If the pregnancy might cause a disease in the body of the mother **Effects of abortion in the society** 1. It decline the child the right to be born 2. It violates the rights of the child 3. It increases the number of unwanted pregnancies 4. It is also violence to womans pregnancy 5. It leads to irresponsible sexual behavior 6. It is an agent of the spread killer diseases like HIV/AIDS 7. It goes against the law of nature 8. It may cause decline of population 9. It is sometimes leads to death of the mother 10. It is a crime since it involves killing of human beings which is forbidden in Islam 11. It increases the rate of divorce in the society 12. It leads to moral decay in the society 13. It lowers mankind to the level of animals or worst **D. Slander** It is an act of spreading evil against chaste person by either by either intending to spoil his name or his dignity **Effects of Slander in the society** 1. It destroy the mutual trust within individuals i.e. when some people start suspecting others and backbiting them <br><br>2. Slander can leads to divisions among people hence disintegrating a society 3. It creates enmity and discord between the Muslims Ummah and leads to destruction 4. It cause hostility between people of the same household and between neighbours, friends and relatives 5. It reduces dignity of the person 6. It combines many other evils like lying, spying, backbiting etc. 7. One will get sins 8. It is against prophets teachings **The slander can be punished under the following conditions** 1. He/she should be an adult 2. He/she should be normal/sane 3. He/she should have committed slander out of his/her own will and not be forced 4. He should not be the father or grandfather of the accused **E. Israf (Extravagance)**<br><br>Israf means overspending on anything i.e. foods, clothes etc. **Ways of Israf (Extravagance)**<br><br>1. Extravagance in clothing. Some people have number of clothes in their wardrobe and they never wear them 2. Extravagance in marriage. Some marriage ceremonies are stink of extravagance 3. Extravagance in time. Some people spend a lot of time in useful things 4. Extravagance in money. Some people waste a lot of money buying forbidden things e.g. Miraa **c. Islamic manners on:** **i. Walking**<br><br>1. Do not walk arrogantly and proudly i.e. walk humbly and naturally 2. Gauze down at the evil sighted 3. Do not drag your feet 4. Never walk with one shoes only 5. Remove harmful pieces out of the way 6. Greet those you know and those you do not know <br><br>7. Help those who need your help like the blind, to cross the road or strangers (travellers) who do not know the <br><br>direction <br><br>8. Women should avoid walking in between men 9. Women should not wear something which may attract the attention of the opposite sex or applying a strong <br><br>perfume <br><br>10. Men should avoid gazing at the opposite sex and vice versa 11. Stand when sight Janaza 12. Men should walk in front of women <br><br>**ii.** **Eating**<br><br>1. Wash the hands before eating 2. Sit upright and avoid leaning while eating 3. Start with the name of Allah (Bismillah) 4. Eat what is in front of you 5. If the food is hot should be cooled down 6. Eat slowly and not hurriedly 7. Eat with right hand 8. To eat with three fingers 9. Not to find fault with the food served 10. To pick up and eat fallen morsel and not to leave the same to Satan 11. Be satisfied with the food served 12. To read the dua after eating 13. To wash the hands after eating <br><br>**iii.** **Sleeping**<br><br>1. On should go to bed earlier i.e. after Isha prayers 2. Recite some dua before sleeping 3. One should take ablution before sleeping 4. Sleep on you right side and facing Qibla 5. One should not sleep while lying on ones stomach 6. One should read prescribed surahs before sleeping 7. One should recite shahada before sleeping 8. Count yourself on the deed executed of the day 9. One should thank God for a good dream and ask Him for protection in case of a bad dream 10. It also preferable to pray two rakaas before resting to bed 11. When one get up from his bed he should recite dua **iv. Dressing**<br><br>**a. Idle dress for Muslim men** 1. He should not wear a dress made of silk at all 2. He should not wear a ring of made of gold 3. The dress should not resemble the dress of women 4. When putting on shoes one should begin with the right foot 5. The dress should be clean and free from any sort of impurity 6. The dress should not resemble the dress worn by the members of other faiths 7. The dress should cover nudity i.e. the part of his body between the navel and the knees 8. The dress should exceed the ankle **a. Idle dress for Muslim women** 1. The dress should cover the whole body except the face and the hands 2. The dress should not be tight fitting to show the figure 3. The dress should not be transparent so as to display the body 4. The dress should not resemble the dress of men 5. The dress should not be attractive so as to draw attention for men towards her <br><br>34 6. The dress should not resemble the dress worn by the members of other faiths 7. The dress should be clean and free from any sort of impurity 8. The dress should be perfumed except if worn only within the home and in the absence of ousiders **Assignment** 1. State an idle dress for a man and woman according to Islamic law 2. Highlight Islamic manner on: <br><br>a. Walking b. Eating c. Sleeping <br><br>3. Define abortion and identify situations where one is allowed to do abortion 4. List the demerits of vein talk, slander and Israf 5. Suggest ways in which tongue can be used in proper manner 6. State reasons behind prohibition of the following: <br><br>a. Flowing blood b. Dead animals c. Pork d. Animal killed for Idols <br><br>7. Name prohibited foods and drinks 8. Under what circumstances one is allowed to partake haram food 9. Highlight the advantages of practicing the following: <br><br>a. Shukr b. Justice c. Forgiveness <br><br>10. Describe the dimension of Islamic morality **Chapter: 6 Muamalat** **Mirath (Inheritance)** **Meaning of Mirath** **Literally:**Means transfer of a thing or property from one person to another. **Technically:**is defined as a science, which shows the eligible heirs as they are assigned or prescribed shares of inheritance by application of some Mathematical and Jurisprudential doctrine or principle. **Causes of Inheritance** 1. Relative: a. Roots : fathers and grandfathers b. Branches: sons and grandsons 2. Marriage: Husband and wife 3. Slavery: a master can inherit his or her free slave **Essentials of inheritance** Before any rights to Mirath are to be claimed, there are three essentials elements, which should be exist. These are 1. Deceased person 2. Survival of an heir 3. The estate **1. Death of a Deceased person** It must be proved that a person whose property is in question has died in fact or in law. In fact is when he dies a real and actual death and in law when his death is being declared by an authorized court of law. This is the case of a missing person whose where about are not known. **2. Survival of the heirs** It must be proved that legal heirs, who are claiming of any right in whatever property that the deceased person might have left, are surviving at the time of the deceased death. In case of the unborn baby, he can only inherit if: <br><br>a. The pregnancy was there at the time of the death of deceased person. <br><br>b. The baby must come out a live during delivery. <br><br>**3. The estate** This is a property, which is left when a person dies. **Reasons to disqualify a person from inheritance**<br><br>1. Homicide: if someone kills a person intentionally will not inherit his/her property 2. Difference in religion: a Muslim cannot inherit a none-Muslim or vice versa. 3. Slavery: a slave cannot inherit a free man or vice versa. 4. Adultery: an illegal child cannot inherit his father or vice versa. <br><br>**Administration of the Estate** Before the legal heirs could claim any right in whatever property left by the deceased person, there are some rights and obligations, which should be settled. This includes:- <br><br>a. Debts b. Funeral expenses c. Payment of legacies (Wasiyya) **1. Debts,**these include the following: <br><br>a. Properties, goods or money, borrowed by the deceased person prior to his death, have to be paid before <br><br>any division of inheritance. <br><br>b. It may be unsettled dowry which has not been paid by the deceased fully or has been paid partially. c. The debts of Allah, which may have remained unsaved by the deceased. This may include fidya of missed <br><br>- fasts, Zakat, Hajj or kaffarah (expiation) <br><br>NB: The debts can only be paid where there is a documentary proof or where the deceased person has confirmed them prior to his death or where there are reliable witnesses. **2. Funeral expenses** - These re expenses connected with washing, shrouding of the body of the deceased, transportation and burial <br><br>of the corpse. It is agreed upon by the scholars that these expenses are always payable from whatever property a deceased person might have left provided these expenses are within the limit of sharia approves. <br><br>**3. Payment of legacy (Wasiyyah)** **a. Meaning:**wasiyya (will) is written or oral statement made by a person while a live showing his/her wishes <br><br>in regard to distribution of a third of his/her estate <br><br>- The one who makes a will is called testator (al musi) and the one on whose behalf a will is made is called <br><br>testate (al musi-lahu) **b. Conditions of wassiyyah**<br><br>1. The will should be witnessed by either two males who are trustworthy or four females who are also <br><br>trustworthy <br><br>2. The testator must be sane and adult (someone who has reached puberty) 3. The will should not exceed a third of the estate 4. The person named in the will (taste) should not be the rightful heir 5. The testator should not be under compulsion while making the will 6. The testator must understand the nature and the effect of his/her act 7. The testator has the right to change or cancel his will during his life time. 8. The will should not be implemented until all the funeral expenses and debts are paid 9. The testator must own whatever he/she wills **c. Significance of wasiyyah**<br><br>1. The will gives the testator an opportunity to help someone .i.e. an orphan or a relative who is not entitled <br><br>to inherit him <br><br>2. It can be used for appointment of guardian for ones children. 3. It is a Sunnah act to write a will to the poor relatives and some pious people who are in need of help. 4. It can be used to clarify the nature of joint accounts i.e. a bank account in the name of more than one <br><br>person e.g. a husband and wife) <br><br>36 5. It is a reminder to the testator to strive in the cause of Allah and prepare himself for the next life. 6. To implement the sharia and obey it to the full. 7. It creates happiness in the society 8. Acts as remembrance to the deceased 9. It eliminates poverty 10. It can act as a continuous charity <br><br>**Heirs and their shares** Heirs are those people who have the right to inherit. There are three clases <br><br>1. The Quranic shareholders (Dhawi-Furudh) 2. Agnates/residuary (Al-Aswabah) : are those who take the remain of estate after all the Quranic <br><br>shareholders have taken their shares e.g. father, son, full brother, maternal brother, grandfather, brother of the father (either full or half-paternal) sons of the above mentioned. <br><br>3. Cognates: these are relatives whom they inherit in absence of the Quranic shareholders (except the <br><br>husband and wife) and residuary e.g. relatives on the maternal side. They can be male or female e.g. son of the daughter, son of the sister, uncles on the mothers side, ant etc. **1. The Quranic shareholders (Dhawi-Furudh)**<br><br>- The word Faraidh it means a share of inheritance, which the sharia assigns to each and every legal heir from <br><br>whatever property a deceased person might have left. <br><br>- These assigned shares mentioned in the Quran are six in number. They are , , , , , and . - The Quranic shareholders mentioned in the Quran are twelve in number; four are males and eight are <br><br>females. The male ones are: father, husband, paternal brother and paternal grandfather. The females are: wife, daughter, full- sister, maternal-sister, daughter of the son, mother and grandmother. <br><br>- Allah mentioned shares and the shareholders in the following verses {Q 4:11}, {Q 4:12} and {Q4: 176} **Quranic shares and the shareholders** 1. is mentioned in the Quran in three places <br><br>a. A share of one direct daughter of the deceased or daughter of his son, when there is only one daughter <br><br>and no son or grandson. <br><br>b. A share for one sister whether a full-sister or paternal sister and no brother c. A share for the husband whose wife dies childless <br><br>2. is mentioned in the Quran in two places <br><br>a. A share for the husband whose wife dies leaving behind a child (a boy) b. A share for the wife whose husband dies childless <br><br>3. is mentioned in the Quran in one place <br><br>a. A share for the wife whose husband dies leaving behind a child a (boy) <br><br>4. is mentioned in the Quran in two places <br><br>a. A share of two or more direct daughters of the deceased or daughters of his son, when there is no sons or <br><br>grandsons <br><br>b. A share for two or more sisters whether full-sisters or paternal sisters and no brothers <br><br>5. is mentioned in Quran in two places <br><br>a. A share of a mother whose son and daughter dies leaving behind neither children (sons and daughters) <br><br>nor brothers and sisters. <br><br>b. As a share of two or more maternal brothers or sisters or a combination of both <br><br>6. is mentioned in the Quran in six places <br><br>a. As a share of mother and father (parents) when the deceased leaves behind children b. As a share of a mother when she coexists with brothers and sisters. c. As a share of a single paternal brother or sister. When there is no father, grandfather, children and he/she doesnt have brothers or sisters. <br><br>d. For a single daughter of a son (granddaughter) when she coexists with a single direct daughter and she <br><br>(granddaughter) doesnt have brother. e. A grandmother when there is no father <br><br>37 f. For a single paternal sister in presence of a single full sister <br><br>**Conditions of inheritance**<br><br>1. All the heirs must get their rightful shares 2. All the funeral expenses must be paid from deceased wealth 3. All debts must be paid before the distribution of inheritance 4. The distribution of wealth must be done by learned Muslim scholars e.g. learned Kadhi <br><br>**Significance of Inheritance** 1. The law recognizes the right of women in the participation of economic development as opposed to the <br><br>Jahilia period. <br><br>2. It brings about harmony and fairness between men and women in the society 3. It is a commandment of Allah and its violation is punishment in the hereafter. 4. Its stop greedy relatives from depriving the weak heirs from getting their rightful shares. 5. It respects the right to property ownership of an individual earned through honest means 6. It makes sure that the one who causes the death of another does not inherit the deceased 7. It minimizes the misuse of wealth since the estate is satisfactory shared by the heirs 8. This law confirm the legitimacy of both children and parents 9. It proves to man that he is not the absolute owner of wealth and hence he cannot pass it to others as he <br><br>10. It cements love among the family members and brings solidarity among them 11. Islamic law of inheritance being divine law, has remained unchanged throughout centuries and decades 12. The shares are higher or lower according to the individuals responsibilities 13. It gives security to those left behind by the deceased **Wealth and property** **Islamic teachings on the acquisition of wealth** 1. All wealth belong to Allah 2. Wealth should be spent in a way that is pleasing to Allah 3. Wealth should be spent in a way that is pleasing Allah 4. Should be used to support ones immediate family members 5. Should be used to help needy and the poor 6. Should be used for the welfare of the country or community 7. Should be used for spiritual development 8. Wealth should be developed or increased 9. Wealth should be obtained through fair means 10. Allah has given man the right to exploit his wealth and dispose it in the right manner **Kinds of earning in Isalm** a. Fardh (compulsory earnings): work for maintenance of oneself and the family b. Mustahab (commendable earnings): work to help the poor or for religious cause c. Mubaha (lawful earnings): work to get more without the intention of helping others. d. Haram (unlawful earnings): indulge oneself in unlawful ways of earning **Sources of earnings** **1. Legitimate ways of earning** Islam encourages Muslims to earn wealth and prescribes way through which a man should earn. There are many sources of earning and they can all be put into the following classes: a. Trade and commerce b. Industries (working in the industries) c. Livestock and Agriculture (Farming) d. Services or employment **2. Illegitimate ways of earning** These are sources of earning which are forbidden according to Islamic shariah.. The following are illegitimate sources of earning <br><br>1. Gambling or game of chance 2. Directly or indirectly dealing with intoxicants 3. Prostitution (commercial sex) 4. Hoarding: it means hiding essential things which would later be sold at a higher price when such commodity <br><br>or article is scarce <br><br>5. Black market trade: an illegal form of trade in which foreign money or goods that are difficult to obtain, are <br><br>bought and sold <br><br>6. Smuggling: it is the crime of taking, sending or bringing goods secretly and illegally into and out of the <br><br>country 7. Lending and borrowing with interest (Riba) 8. Mulasamah: is whereby a buyer is not given an opportunity to examine the item 9. Muzabanah: is the exchange of fresh fruits for dry ones 10. Beging by those who can work. 11. Business in unlawful things e.g. flesh of swine, blood, carrion and alcohol 12. Monopoly business **Tijara (Trade and commerce)** - Trade was commanded by Allah Allah has made trade lawful (Q 2:274) - Prophet Muhammad himself and other prophets engaged in trade - **Buying and selling** - A sale is a contract between a seller and a buyer. - The seller declares the goods to be purchased and their prices. - The buyer may accept or reject in words or writing **Islamic teachings on buying and selling** 1. Goods should be freely distributed 2. No overcharging 3. A purchaser has a right of option and may reject the upon inspection and detection of defect 4. A seller should disclose defects on the article and sincerely describe the quality of the goods 5. Non should be forced to buy **Kinds of sales in Islam** a. Salami: This is buying of a farm produce before it is harvested and paying for it in advance. b. Swayrafi; This is the sale of cash for cash i.e. change of sterling pound to Kenya shillings c. Bei Mutlaq: This is a free sale of an article for cash e.g. buying a kilo of sugar in a shop. d. Muqayadha: This is a sale whereby an item is exchanged for another (barter trade) **1) Honest in trade** **Importance of honest in trade** 1. An honest trader will find more and more customer 2. An honest trader will be rewarded by Allah 3. It eliminate poverty 4. It builds the Muslim brotherhood 5. It creates happiness in the society 6. It leads to success and prosperity in business 7. It creates development of faith/trust towards each other. **2) Record keeping in trade** **Importance of Record keeping in trade** 1. It helps towards the smooth and effective operation of the business 2. It reduces disputes among Muslims 3. It gives the proper agreement between the two parties 4. It helps in keeping of proper records in any form of transaction 5. It can be used as a reference whenever a problem occurs <br><br>Islam therefore, put a lot of emphasis on trade and commerce for the legal acquisition of wealth 6. It acts a center of reference **3) Agreements and contracts** **Islamic teachings on agreements and contracts** 1. It should be consistent with the Quran and sunah 2. There should be a mutual consent of parties concerned 3. The terms must be clear to all the parties involved and according to the shariah 4. The parties involved must be Mukalaf (matured) 5. There must be reliable witnesses 6. The right to be annulled must be included in contract 7. The persons entering agreement must be sane 8. An agreement must be put in writing 9. The persons signing agreement must do it willingly **Islamic teachings on** **Lawful and unlawful acts in trade** **Lawful acts in trade honest in trade** 1. By giving correct measure 2. To give honest description of the goods asked for 3. To ask for fair price 4. To sell goods which are in proper condition and accept them back when rejected 5. Not to cheat, force or blackmail one buying goods which one does not need **Money lending** - The concept of money lending in Islam is Halal **Conditions for money lending** 1. The transaction should be recorded in writing 2. There should be two male witness or one male and two female witnesses 3. The amount borrowed should be the amount to be paid back, i.e. interest (riba) is haram **Islamic teachings on loan and debts** 1. The term must be honored 2. The agreement should be reduced to writing 3. There should be two witnesses or one male and two female witnesses 4. The term should be simple and clear 5. The persons should be Mukalaf (matured) 6. All parties involved must be in agreement 7. The lender should by no means charges interest **Unlawful acts in trade** **A. Riba (interest)** - - Allah said in the Quran Allah has permitted trade and forbidden interest (Q 2:275) **The effects of usury (interest)** 1. It leads to corruption and violation of human rights 2. It can leads borrower to commit suicide in case he fails to pay back 3. Its an easy way of getting money which leads to laziness, idleness and extravagancy 4. It is a form of economic exploitation 5. It makes the lender selfish 6. It encourages greed for wealth 7. It ruins the borrower 8. It may leads to poor relationship between the borrower and the lender 9. The children may inherit their parents debts 10. It may bring misery/hardship or poverty to the borrower and to the whole family. **B. Hoarding**<br><br>Interest: Is extra money that you pay back when you borrow money. It is the hiding of essential things which would later be sold at a higher price when such commodity or article is scarce. **The effects of Hoarding** 1. It promote dishonesty in trade 2. It creates unfair competition in trade 3. It deprive the customers of essential commodities 4. It creates artificial shortages causing difficulties to the community 5. It creates greed for wealth 6. It creates hatred in the community 7. Prices of goods go up **C. Monopoly** It means possession of sole right to supply goods to the customers. **Circumstances under which monopoly is allowed in Islam** 1. When monopoly has not been attained as a result of deceit(treachery) or unfair competition 2. When goods are distributed freely to all customers 3. When no favourism is practiced by the supply 4. When the price charged to the customers is fair and no exorbitant **Corruption** It is unlawful acquisition of wealth especially at the expense of the public. **Types of corruption** 1. Transaction corruption: This is where a shopkeeper sells goods at a higher price than the recommended 2. Extortion corruption: This is when a person blackmails another to pay protection fees for non-existing services i.e. police officer who takes bribes from vehicle which is in good condition <br><br>3. Nepotism corruption: This is when merit and objectivity are sacrificed to favour ones relatives 4. Deceptive corruption: This is when one secure a job by lying i.e. presenting a forged document for <br><br>employment <br><br>5. Supportive corruption: This is where a person with an authority uses his power to save another person who <br><br>is guilty of a crime e.g. a judge setting a guilty person free because of bribery. <br><br>**Causes of corruption** 1. Unemployment: due to lack of job and need for money one will have to do corruption to get his need 2. Effect from mass media: people does what they see on television as they take as examples and imitates 3. Reluctance to take those in authority to task over corruption 4. Poor remuneration/salary in the job market, which may results in temptation to engage in corruption <br><br>practices <br><br>5. Greed for wealth by many citizens 6. Disregard for professional in the country 7. Absence of moral standard in the country 8. Lack of efficient law towards the stoppage of corruption in the country 9. Political patronage: involves favour and normally seen in the appointment of public officers who are unsuitable for the position <br><br>**Effects of corruption in the society** 1. It removes confidence and trust in the public servants 2. It increases the rate of unemployment and poverty 3. It leads to insecurity in the society 4. It leads to inefficiency in the public and private sector 5. It distorts/changes the purchasing power and hence leads to economic uncertainty. 6. It leads to the production of substandard goods and services 7. It creates hatred among the society members 8. It leads to higher prices of goods and services which can leads to poverty and society instability 9. It breads injustice in the society by making some people to gain wealth without labour <br><br>41 10. It eradicates the sense of feeling and sympathy for individual 11. It leads to officers unfit for posts to be appointed for higher responsibilities and offices 12. It may leads to violence and war **Ways of eliminating corruption in the society** 1. To educate the people on the causes and the effects of corruption 2. Reinforcing the law and its agents 3. Not accepting giving bribes 4. Reporting those involved in corruption for prosecution 5. Selecting and appointing public servants for responsibilities on merit rather than tribalism, nepotism or <br><br>political patronage <br><br>6. Advocating for good morals and good governance in individuals and organizations in order to prevent <br><br>corruption 7. Advocating for upholding of professional standards and ethics 8. People should learn to be contented and not expect too much too soon 9. By encouraging economic empowerment e.g. increment of salaries 10. By encouraging transparency in whatever people do **Assignment** 1. Explain the meaning of the term Mirath 2. Discuss the essential of Mirath 3. State the conditions of Mirath 4. Explain the Islamic teachings on acquisition of wealth and property 5. Identify legitimate sources of earning 6. Identify the significance of upholding ethuical value in commercial enterprise 7. Discuss the component of agreemants and cntracts 8. Identify lawful and unlawful acts in trade 9. Describe the evil of corruption in the society 10. Suggest ways to curb corruption in the society 11. State the conditions for borrowing and lending money in Islam **Chapter: 7 History of Islam** **Ummayyad Dynasty/Reign/Empire/Era:** - - This Dynast lasted for one hundred and twelve years (from 40AH to 152 AH) **The rise of the Ummayyads** **Courses of the rise of Ummayyad** 1. The assassination of Caliph Uthman the third caliph of Islam. 2. The assassination of Caliph Ali the fourth caliph of Islam 3. Active support of the assassins to Ali (R.A) 4. The refusal of the companions to pledge their loyalty to the new caliph {Ali (RAA)}. 5. Cry on retribution (revenge) for the blood of Uthman(R.A) 6. The shifting of the Muslims head-quarters from Mecca and Medina to Syria and Kufah by Ali and Muawiyya. 7. The trick played by Muawiyyah in arbitrating led to domination of Ummayyad. 8. After the death if Khalifa Ali, Hassan who was his elder son ruled as a Caliph for six Months. 9. Hassan refused to wage war/fight against Muawiya and decided to step down in favour of Muawiyyah. 10. Muawiyyah had vast/huge resources and fertile province (Syria) and the support of his family and the <br><br>It derived its name from their great grandfather Ummayyad Syrians. <br><br>11. The battle of the camel and the arbitration of Ali and Muawiyyah. **Administration of the Ummayyad** 1. The basis or the government was a strong efficient army it relied on loyal and faithful Syrian arm. 2. The Muawiyyads are credited to have been the first in Islam to establish as department of registry (Diwanul <br><br>khatam) <br><br>42 3. Muawiyyah is said to be the first to introduce the postal service (Diwanul-Barid) 4. The revenue of the state was derived from the same resources as under the righteous Caliphs name (a) Land tax (Kharaj) (b) Poll tax(Jizya) (c) Poor tax (zakat) (d) Customs and tributes (e) Spoil of war (Ghanimah) 5. In the financial matters the administration was decentralized in the provinces and all local revenues were deposited in the provincial treasury and the expenses of local administration were met from the local income; the balance was deposited with state treasury at Damascus. <br><br>6. The government appointed judicial officers. They were always recruited from the Faqih clan of learned <br><br>scholars, jurists and theologians. <br><br>7. The non-muslims were given autonomy (freedom) under their own religious laws. 8. Muawiyyah at the start of his regime he established ship building factory at Akka on the Syrian Coast. **Factors which contributed to the fall (decline) of Ummayyads dynasty** 1. Vastness of the empire 2. The principle of Islam that the people must elect the head of the state ceased to be the case. Thus they lacked the support and co-operation of the people. <br><br>3. Deviation from Quran and Sunnah as most of the rulers were engaged in worldly pleasure. 4. Most of the rulers were weak and incompetent. 5. Negligence in administrative affairs and lack of interest in public works on the part of Caliphs made the <br><br>Ummayyad`s rulers very unpopular. <br><br>6. There was rampant corruption and selfishness. The Caliphs entrusted the administrative works mostly to the <br><br>selfish and corrupt officials. <br><br>7. Quarrels between the Ummayyads family making them weak and hence breaking them up to clans because <br><br>of succession disputes. <br><br>8. Harshness of the rulers to other religions and faith resulted to the growth of social unrest/disturbance in the <br><br>empire i.e. denying freedom of worship. <br><br>9. Misuse of state funds. Most of the Caliphs misappropriated state funds for their own use. This led to the <br><br>bankruptcy of the state. <br><br>10. The opposition of the Shias. They never forgot the tragedy/disaster of the Karbala and subsequent ill <br><br>treatment to the Prophets family i.e. the cursing of Caliph Ali in the Khutba. 11. Attack by the Roman and Byzantines leading to weakness and loss of some of its land. 12. The abbasid movement dealt a deathblow to the tottering/shakable empire. This movement cleverly put the <br><br>claim of the Abbasid as the descendants of the prophet. <br><br>**Achievements of Ummayyad** 1. They restored/returned order in the Muslim empire after the civil war. 2. They brought changes in the administration of the country with a strong and efficient army. 3. They made Arabic official language of the entire Islamic nation. 4. They standardized the currency used in the Islamic empire. 5. They introduced vowel and diacritical marks in the Arabic script, which made it easier for the non-Arabs to <br><br>learn it. <br><br>6. They expanded Islamic empire e.g. during the reign of Abdul-Malik. 7. They introduced population census in the Muslim empire e.g. Omar Ibn Abdul-Aziz. 8. They improved the social amenities/facilities/services of the Muslim empire e.g. hospitals roads. 9. They built canal, bridges and introduce land survey e.g. Umar Ibn Abdul-Aziz. 10. The field of poetry, music and sports developed rapidly in the empire during their reign. **Selected Ummayyad rulers** **1. Muawiya Bin Abu Sufyan** **His background** - His name is Muawiyah bin Abu Sufyan bin Harb bin Ummayyah. - His father (Abu Sufyan) was the chief of Makkah. - His mother Hindu bint Urban bin Rabiah <br><br>- <br><br> He was born in Makkah five years before the prophet hood. This makes him to be thirty five years younger than the Prophet. <br><br>- He was educated, intelligent and eloquent. - He and his family embraced Islam during the conquest of Makkah. - He was one of the writers or scribes of the Wahyi. - Muawiya first went to Sham (Syria) in the army of his brother Yazid bin Abu Sufyan who Abubakr (R.A) had <br><br>sent on an expedition. <br><br>- His brother became a governor of Sham. When he died Abubakar chose Muayiwah to succeed his brother. <br><br>When umar was Khalifa he acknowledged him. <br><br>- Uthman made him the governor of the whole of Syria. **His Caliphate** - <br><br>Immediately after the assassination of caliph Ali (R.A)Muawiyah was declared Caliph at Jerusalem in 40 AH 660 A.D. <br><br>- He shifted the Islamic capital from Kufah to Damascus. - After Caliph Ali Hassan (Alis elder son) ruled as a Caliph from Kufah for nearly six months. - Hassan disliked war and violence. He refused to wage war against Muawiyah and stepped down in favour of Muawiyah. <br><br>- Muawiyah then became the sole Caliph in 40 AH 660 CE. - He chose his governors very well i.e. capable people. - He treated his people with justice. - He ruled as a great king, attended by pomp wealth and luxury in direct contrast to the simple rule of the <br><br>earlier Caliphs. After securing the whole of the empire under his direct rule, he gave orders for it to be extended. <br><br>- **His Death** Muawiyah died in April 680 CE / 131 AH. After ruling for about 20 years, he was successful in his governance internally and externally. **His Achievement** 1. He was the first to establish postal services in Islam. 2. He expanded the Islamic empire in all direction using Army and Navy. 3. He was the first to have body guards in the history of Islam. 4. He built a beautiful gigantic palace in Damascus which he named the green palace 5. He made Arabic official language of the entire Islamic nation. 6. He restored order in the Muslim empire after the civil war. 7. He was known for good organized system of administration. 8. He was the founder of the Ummayad and name it after his great grandfather Ummayad 9. He managed to bring to justice those who were suspected to be murders of caliph Uthman arrested them and put them to death <br><br>10. He began the kingship system in politics by appointing his son Yazid to succeed him. **Political situation after the death of Muawiyyah** - There had been 20 years of total tranquility, peace and harmony in the Islamic empire, but immediately after <br><br>the death of Muawiyyah , problems surfaced. <br><br>- Muawiyah decided to appoint his son Yazid to take over the caliphate after his death. - <br><br> The people of Kufah wanted Hussein bin Ali to be their caliph. They wrote to him and asked him to go to kufah. <br><br>- The people of Mecca and Medina wanted Abdullah bin Zubeir to be their caliph **2. Yazid bin Muawiyyah** **His background** - His name was Yazid bin Muawiyyah bin Abu Sufyan - He was born on 26 A.H/649 AD <br><br>- He was the most irreligious of the Umayyads. He preferred wine, music and sport at the expense of public <br><br>affairs **His Caliphate** - He was nominated to the caliphate by his father 680 AD during his life time - He was the second Umayyad caliph from (680- 683AD) - <br><br>Immediately after his succession the opposition broke out from Khwarij, the Banu Hashim, and the Quraysh of Medina and Mecca <br><br>- Muawiyyah particularly warned Yazid against Abdallah Ibn Zubeir (RAA) and advised him to deal gently with <br><br>Hussein (RAA). <br><br>- After assuming caliphate Yazid sent orders to leading citizens in Medina calling for oath of allegiance to him - Both Hussein and Abdallah Ibn Zubeir refused to acknowledge the caliphate of Yazid - The opposition has religious grievances aimed at restoration of the true caliph accordance with the Quran <br><br>and Sunnah of the prophet (saw) and hatred for centralized government and the desire for provincial autonomy. <br><br>**The Tragedy of Karbala** - Karbala is place where Hussein was killed - The people of kufah sought Husseins help against the tyranny of Yazid - Hussein answered their call and set off to kufah with his family, relatives and supporters, they were less than 80 people. <br><br>- On the first day of Muharam Hussein pitched his camp on the plains of Karbala - Ubaidulllah bin Zaid (Governer of kufah) sent an army of 40000 men under Umar bin Saad to meet Hussein <br><br>and his supporters <br><br>- Hussein asked Umar bin Saad the commander of the army to allow him one of the three:- <br><br>1. To return to Medina 2. To be taken to Yazid bin Muawiyyah 3. To be allowed to go to the eastern boarders to take part in the Jihad <br><br>- The commander refused all and insisted on fighting. As a result, Hussein and all his people were martyred on <br><br>10th Muharram 61 AH <br><br>- Husseins head was chopped off from his body, carried, smeared with blood and placed it before Ubaidillah <br><br>bin Ziyad <br><br>**Turmoil in Medina and Mecca** - The death of Hussein in Karbala forced the people of Medina to relinquish their allegiance to Yazid bin <br><br>Muawiyyah <br><br>- They chased away his governor - Yazid sent an army to Medina and put the holy city under siege and broke the laws of the sacred land. - Then the army went to Mecca and put it under siege too and defiled the secret of the holy mosque and they rained blocks of stones on the shrine of the Kaaba. <br><br>**His Death** - Yazid died on 683 AD in Syria, after being in power for 3 years - The news of his death stopped the army from continuing the siege since it was uncertain who would succeed <br><br>him in leading the army. <br><br>- Yazid is remembered for three evils:- <br><br>1. The murder of Hussein under his leadership 2. Destruction and killing of innocent people in Medina 3. Attacking the kaaba and damaging Mecca <br><br>**His achievements** 1. He continued the policy of his father Muawiyyah 2. He strengthen the administration structure of the empire 3. He improved the military defenses in Syria by increasing the power of the navy 4. He made improvement in Agriculture and irrigational system in Damascus <br><br>45 5. He reformed financial system 6. He tighten taxation of some Christian groups **Abdul-Malik bin Marwan** **His background** - His name was Abdul-Malik bin Marwan bin Abu Al-Aas bin Ummayah bin Abdu-Shams - He was born on 26AH during the caliphate of Uthman bin Affan - He was born and educated in Medina. - His father was the secretary of Uthman bin Affan - He memorized the Quran, besides studying Jurisprudence, tafsir of the Quran, hadith, literature and poet - He remained in Medina until 683 AD when his fathers family was driven out of the city of Medina by <br><br>Medinas who revolted against the central government of Damascus <br><br>**His caliphate** - He became caliph after his father Marwan bin Hakam in 685 AD - At his time the force opposing the Banu Ummayah were still formidable i.e. :- <br><br>1. In Hejaz Abdullah bin Zubeir was endorsed as the caliph 2. The Khawarij emerged again and were causing prolems to the empire through constant opposition 3. In Iraq Musab bin Zubair was sent to be the governor by Abdullah bin Zubeir <br><br>- Abdul- Malik prepared a strong army and went to Iraq in 689 AD. He managed to defeat and kill Musab bin <br><br>Zubair and his supporters and bringing Iraq under his control <br><br>- Then he prepared a much stronger army and kept it under the command of Hajaj bin Yusuf. He besieged <br><br>Abdullah bin Zubeir in mecca and killed him in 692 AD <br><br>- Then Hajaj moved with his army to crush Khawarij in 697 AH. He defeated them - Ummayad rule was greatly strengthened by Abdul-Malik bin Marwan who enjoyed good relations with high <br><br>circles in Medina and gained considerable moral influence in the Islamic world <br><br>**His death** - Abdul-Malik died at the age of 62 years in 705 AH. After ruling for 20 years, before his death he named his <br><br>sons to succeeded him beginning with Walid, Suleiman, Yazid and Hisham <br><br>**His achievements**<br><br>1. He made Arabic official language of the Muslim empire 2. He established an official mint in Damascus and issued the first Arab coins of gold, silver and bronze. <br><br>Earlier the Arabs used Persian coins <br><br>3. He improved Arabic script by including vowels and diacritical marks 4. He improved prevailed postal services by increasing the number of postal units and making the service more efficient ad regular. <br><br>5. He built the dome of Rock at Jerusalem at the site of the prophets halt (stop) during Miraj 6. He encourage d poetry and rewarded the poets with the intention of using them to propagate his rule and <br><br>himself <br><br>7. He crashed the Byzantine 8. He also crashed the Khawarij 9. He re-innovated and developed religious places e.g. he expanded the great Mecca mosque and the <br><br>prophets mosque in medina <br><br>10. He put in place a very firm administration by replacing the in-efficient servant with others for good <br><br>relationship <br><br>**Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz** **His background** - He was the son of granddaughter of Umar bin Khatwab (RAA) (Ummu Assim bin Assaim bin Umar bin <br><br>Khatwab) <br><br>- He was born in Hilwan (village in Cairo) in 681AD - His father was a governor of Egypt <br><br>- He inherited the blood as well as the qualities and ideas of his great ancestor and namesake Umar bin <br><br>Khatwab <br><br>- He memorized Quran by heart at a tender age - His father sent him to medina to acquire more knowledge - When his father died his uncle Abdul-Malik took over his upbringing in Damascus and ultimately married <br><br>him to his daughter (Fatimah) <br><br>- Walid took over from his father Abdul-Malik when the later died - Umar was appointed the governor of medina in 705 AD and set a very good example - - He repaired the damaged part of the city caused by caliph Yazid and Abdul-Malik and enlarged the mosque of <br><br>In medina he appointed a council of ten eminent jurists to advise him <br><br>the prophet (saw) <br><br>**His caliphate** - He took over after Suleiman who proposed him for the caliphate in 717 AD. - Suleiman consulted his trusted minister Rajaa ibn Haywata as to whom should the caliphate be given - Raja firmly approved the choice of Umar - Suleiman wrote his will proposing Umar - When Suleiman died, Rajaa read the will to all. However, Umar stood on the pulpit and said O people I have appointed to this position without being consulted, without me asking for it and without being the consultation between Muslims. I am therefore giving up the position and give you the freedom of your own free choice.. <br><br>- As he stepping down from the pulpit , the people around said in unison that they wanted him to lead them - He loved simple life and showed great devotion to his caliphate - He distanced himself from the pride of the kings and aggressiveness - He established the actual life style of the guided caliphs who used to look at their people the way the father <br><br>would do it his children <br><br>- He considered the baitul-Maal as sacred trust and would not spend a single penny for his personal use - <br><br>Immediately after his succession to the caliphate he sold of his horses from the royal stable by auction and deposited the proceeds in the Baitul-maal <br><br>- He made his wife offer all her ornaments and jewels to the public treasury. The devoted lady obeyed her <br><br>husband <br><br>- He is regarded by Historians as the fifth caliph after the first four guided caliphs, because of the character <br><br>and outstanding qualities <br><br>**His death** He died at the age of 39 years in 720 AD, after ruling for three years **His achievements** 1. He introduced pensions for the non-Arab Muslims (mawali) for their military services 2. He stimulated the spread of Islam in Asia and Africa 3. He considered the state treasury (Baitul-Maal) as sacred trust and never spent a single penny for his personal use <br><br>4. He constructed mosques, schools, bridges and channels 5. He introduced census of people during his reign 6. He strictly appointed government officials based on merit and piety 7. He restored the practical equality of all Muslims by exempting the payment of kharij (poll tax) from the new <br><br>converts <br><br>8. He brought peaceful coexistence among the people of different religious e.g. he reduced taxes for the <br><br>Christians <br><br>9. He forbade the sale of land to non-Muslims to the Muslims in order to prevent fall in revenue. Since the <br><br>Muslims did not pay the poll tax. <br><br>10. He discontinued the practice of cursing Ali and his descendants in the sermons 11. He reformed jail system and ordered the governors to visit it weekly to avoid mistreatment <br><br>47 **Criticism of Umars policy** 1. His administrative policy was more suited to the propagation of Islam rather than preservation of caliphate <br><br>of Banu Umayyads family <br><br>2. His exemption of the new converts from the payment of kharij caused a great fall in state revenue 3. He also recorded practical equality to the mawali (the non-Arabs Muslims) in all affairs of state. The policy <br><br>affected aristocracy of the Arabs in general and Umayyad in particular <br><br>4. His general policy to Alis family proved detrimental/harmful to the Ummayyads family 5. He stopped all expansion campaigns of the empire <br><br>**Islam in East Africa Coast**<br><br>**Spread of Islam in Interior of Kenya** **North Eastern** - The conquest of the Eastern Horn of Africa and parts of the Eastern Africa Coast by the army of Abdul- Malik, the ruler of Syria in the 7th century played some role in the spread of Islam in North Eastern part of Kenya. <br><br>- The Somalis who were living there gradually embraced Islam - The Somalis moved North Eastern part of Kenya; they came in contact with the Gala and Boran. - The Gala who had no heavenly religion first opposed the Somalis who were teaching them Islam - The integration with the Gala and Boran gave rise to the hybrid tribes such as the Rahnwein - Their integration with Boran and Gala people meant Islamism - The nomadic life of Somalis i.e. moving from one place to another looking for pasture and water facilitated the spread of Islam in this area whenever they went, they influenced the local people to convert to Islam In the 20th century, the spread of Islam in the region became more effective due to influence of the Muslim teachers from the Coast and from Somali land <br><br>- <br><br>- The Muslim teachers put up Madrassah (Duksi- preliminary Islamic Schools) where Islamic knowledge was <br><br>taught. <br><br>- They built mosques which they used to mobilize Islam to the people in this region - British colonialist used Somalis in some areas of administrators. This is because they regarded them to be <br><br>very intelligent, and to avoid clash with them. This influential people also played part in the spread of Islam In order to check the Somali Islamic Influence on the Pokomo and the Boni people, the administrative officers created special district areas <br><br>- <br><br>- This controlled the movement of Somalis across River Tana into the District of Lamu - The Islamic influence by then had already spread across the areas covering Marsabit, Mandera, Wajir, <br><br>Garissa ant the Pokomo area up to Bura, Hola and River Tana to Garisen and kipini - Evidently in these regions still keep well developed Islamic cultures and literature **Factors influence the spread of Islam in North Eastern** 1. The arrival of Muslims teachers from Somali land and coast of Kenya to the area 2. The position of Arabia from Somali where the Muslims Arabs could easily cross the red sea and have the <br><br>contact with Somalia and North Eastern Kenya 3. The establishment of trade between Somalis and the Arabs 4. Intermarriage between the Somalis and the Arabs with the local people of North Eastern 5. The hospitality of the Somali community in welcoming the visitors and being generous to the people 6. The Somali culture which is closely related to that of Arabs helped in easily acceptance of Islam by the <br><br>Somalis <br><br>7. The establishment of Madrassas (Duksi) and mosques where Islamic knowledge was taught 8. The nature of the lifestyle of the Somali community of moving from one place to another in search of water <br><br>and pasture helped in the spread of Islam <br><br>9. Somali Muslim administrators played major party in spread of Islam in North Eastern 10. The conquest of the Eastern Horn of Africa and part of East Africa by the army of Abdul-Malik **Islam in central Kenya and Nairobi** - Muslims took long time before moving to this area - This was mainly due to the constant attack of the Portuguese on the coastal area <br><br>48 - When the Oman Arabs defeated Portuguese and managed to restore peace in the coast, then the Arabs and <br><br>Swahilis ventured into the interior to look for tradable goods In the process of trade they spread Islam In the 19th century Maalim Mtondo from Tanganyika, was a pioneer in the field of Islamic missionary work at Pumwani in Nairobi <br><br>- - <br><br>- He built a small mosque, where he preached Islam and attracted a good number of kikuyus and kambas who <br><br>later became his disciples <br><br>- The disciples of Maalim Mtondo managed to bring more people to Islam - The early Muslims established three Islamic villages in the city of Nairobi. These are:- <br><br>1. Kambi ya waswahili in pangoni and Easleigh, where there were three mosques with learning Institutions <br><br>(madrassa) <br><br>2. Mji wa Mombasa in Ngara 3. Mji wa kabete at Fort smith <br><br>- Some Sudanese Muslims also settled at kibera and preached to the local people of Nairobi Islam - During the building of the Uganda railway from Mombasa to Nairobi, a number of Asia Muslims came to <br><br>settle in Nairobi <br><br>- They built mosques and madrassa and participated in the spread of Islam. The most prominent among these was Maulana Abdulla Shah who built the Jamia mosque <br><br>- Around 1920 the colonial officers forced Muslims to evacuate most areas of Nairobi - Many Muslims shifted to Fort Hall (Muranga) and Nyeri, but those who in Pumwani were not affected - Pumwani remained the Centre of Muslims activities in Nairobi over since - Two brothers (Abeid and Mohammed Mbarak Domoni) from the coast moved to the mount Kenya area in the <br><br>late 19th century and settled at Muranga and built the mosque there in 1895 In Embu an Islamic foundation was built between 1900 and 1920 In Meru mosques and learning institutions (madrassas) were established by the two brothers <br><br>- - **Factors that influence the spread of Islam in central and Nairobi** 1. Defeat of Portuguese by Oman and restore of peace at the coast, that enable Arabs and Swahilis traders to <br><br>move to interior <br><br>2. The building of the Uganda Kenya railway from Mombasa to Nairobi, brought Asia Muslims to settle in <br><br>Nairobi <br><br>3. The establishment of three Islamic villages in Nairobi 4. The establishment of the mosques and madrassa (learning institutions) in the area 5. The arrival of preachers and sheikhs to the area 6. The intermarriage between the Arab traders and the local people ease the spread of Islam 7. The presence of Arab trading centers in the up-country 8. Some Sudanese Muslims also settled at kibera and preached to the local people of Nairobi Islam **Factors which slowed down the spread of Islam in the central part of Kenya** 1. The primary interest of Muslims who came to the area was trade while spreading of Islam was second 2. Association of Muslims with slave trade 3. The material reward offered by the non-Muslim missionaries unlike the Muslims 4. There was no commissioned Muslim missionary to spread Islam unlike Christianity 5. The land behind the coastal strip was dry, waterless and rising sharply 6. Hostility of some tribes i.e. the kikuyu, the maasai and the Nandi who did not like strangers to pass through their regions <br><br>**The spread of Islam in western Kenya** - Mumias has been Centre of Islam in western Kenya since 1870. The caravans of the Swahili traders from the <br><br>coast visited this area <br><br>- Mumias derived its name from the paramount chief of the area named Nabongo Mumia who became the <br><br>leader of his tribe (wanga) in 1883. - Nabongo Mumia was hospitable person. The waswahilis were always well received by the chief Mumia and <br><br>his cabinat. <br><br>- He gave them quarters to stay and provided them with food and other necessities - The Muslims also appreciated i.e. on the Idd day they visited him in his court to give him Idd greetings - The chief was so moved by that gesture and he decided to became a Muslim - He was named Muhammad Nabongo Mumia - Soon many members of his cabinat followed the suit and joined Islam - His three brothers Kadima, Mulama and Murungu became Muslims and adopted Muslim names - The traders and the local people were friends. They exchanged views in free discussions and assisted each <br><br>other in all aspects, which lead to conversion to Islam <br><br>- The existence of intertribal conflicts between the Maasai, the luo and Mumias chief. The Swahili on the <br><br>request by Mumias, used their guns to defeat his enemies <br><br>- This lead to the Muslims being awarded the status of brotherhood to members of the society and it enhanced <br><br>the spread of Islam Intermarriage between the local people and the waswahili, this helped in bringing more converts into the fold of Islam <br><br>- <br><br>- Building of Uganda Kenya railway played a very important role; it brought in the area many traders from the <br><br>coast who was Muslims. Besides many Asians Muslims who were employed on the construction of the railway line, they settled in many areas of western Kenya and in the process they influenced many local people into become Muslims <br><br>- When the colonialists came to Kenya, they found that many people were already Muslims, they employed <br><br>them. These Muslims used their positions to enhance the spread of Islam. <br><br>**Factors that helped in the spread of Islam in Mumias** 1. It was a Centre of trade between the Arabs, the Swahilis and the local people of wanga community 2. The conversion of the king Nabongo alongside with some members of his cabinet 3. Intermarriage between the Arabs and local people 4. Establishment of mosques and madrassas in the area 5. Islamic etiquettes brought good relationship between the Swahilis and the local people 6. Celebrating of Islamic festivals and ceremonies e.g. Iddd facilitated the spread of Islam 7. Building of Uganda Kenya railway played a very important role in the spread of Islam 8. Chief Nabingo Mumia invited many Arab traders to Mumias and eventually spread Islam 9. Chief Nabingo Mumia gave Arabs settlers lands and provided them with food and other necessities 10. He made the inhabitant to cooperate with Arabs hence ease the spread of Islam **Islam in Uganda** - - Islam was the first international religion to reach Buganda In 19th century the region (Uganda) was divided into several kingdoms of which the kingdom of Buganda was the most powerful <br><br>- The Bugandas ruler was known by the hereditary title kabaka the king - - He ruled his subject through a council of great chiefs, called the Lukiko - The Buganda believed that the kabaka possessed powers. To them he was not only the law giver, but also the <br><br> The kabaka controlled both the government and in the and in some time traditional religion of the kingdom <br><br>master of life and death **Arrival of Islam in Uganda** **The reign of kabaka Suna** - <br><br>In 1844 an Arab from Zanzibar named sheikh Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim set his foot in Uganda 9HE WAS the first Muslim to came to Uganda) <br><br>- He visited the court of kabaka Suni - After usual greetings, the sheikh sat on a stool near suna and witnessed him performing pagan rites. - He was surprised to see a number of Buganda executed as a sacrifice to the pagan god - Sheikh Ahmad stood firm on his feet, and rebuked Suna for the act. <br><br>- He told Kabaka Suna to stop killing Allahs beings. He told him Allah is the greater than everything and creator of universeand he told him that it is a great sin to destroy Allahs creation in that manner Instade of Suna punishing him, he said to him Iwant to hear more about this Allah who is greater than me <br><br>- - The sheikh responded to the king by reciting verses of the Holy Quran and explained the teachings to the <br><br>king <br><br>- The king was impressed about the teachings and started learning a few chapters from the Quran, but he did <br><br>not profess Islam and he died a traditionalist - After this encounter, Sheikh returned to the coast and later paid a few visits to Buganda. - During kabaka Sunas time many Baganda were converted to Islam - A few Baganda chiefs embraced Islam and as a result the trade between the Arabs and the Baganda increased - **Factors which helped the spread of Islam in Buganda during Kabaka Suna** 1. Kabaka Suna listened attentively to sheikh Ibrahim advices 2. Kabaka Suna did not rebake sheikh Ibrahim 3. Kabaka Suna was impressed by lecture given by sheikh Ibrahim 4. Kabaka Suna allowed Arab traders to come to Buganda 5. Kabaka Suna offered settlement to the Arab traders 6. Kabaka Suna stopped pagan rites e.g. sacrificing human-beings **a. The reign of kabaka Mutesa** - After the death of Kbaka Suna his son Kabaka Mutesa took over the throne and he was only 18 years old - During Mutesa reign many coastal Muslims came to the country to trade - The Arab traders constantly visited him and taught him Islam at his request - In 1865 AD Mutesa declared himself a Muslim **The role of Kabaka Mutesa in the spread of Islam** 1. He declared Islam the state religion of his kingdom 2. He ordered all his chiefs, courtiers and rest to embrace Islam 3. Quran teaching was practiced in his palace 4. He built a central mosque in his palace and ordered his chiefs to build the same in their provinces 5. The daily five prayers and Jumaa prayers were strictly observed 6. He banned drinking of alcohol among his subjects 7. He encouraged Muslims traders and missionaries to settle in Buganda 8. Muslims were held in high esteem in his kingdom. 9. He ordered the slaughtering of animals according to Islamic shariah 10. He rejected the use of hunting dogs 11. He gave high positions to several Buganda Muslims. 12. He ordered the approval of using Islamic calendar 13. Mutesa declared Buganda an Islamic state in 1867 AD 14. Mutesa created a special department to look after the affairs of the mosques 15. He also instructed to be greeted in Islamic version **Factors that favoured adoption of Islam during Mutesas period** 1. Mutesa wanted to gain political supremacy. He found that by associating with the Arabs he could easily get <br><br>In 1865 AD kabaka Suna died this <br><br>2. He desired to control trade especially in firearms and the freedom of raid his neighbours as he wished 3. The Arabs provided material goods superior to the local people 4. The Arabs provided better means of communication than traditional ways i.e. writing 5. The Arabs provided better heading methods compare to the traditional methods **Reasons why the reign of kabaka Mutesa is regarded as the golden period of Islam in Uganda** 1. Quran reading: - Quran reading in Buganda was serious done in 1882. In Mutesas court, Quran reading was the first item to be done. Mutesa himself read Quran through the help of a local trader known as Nakabukala and which his chiefs followed the same and spread fast to the houses <br><br>51 2. Circumcision:- Bagandas threw away their traditional and started to follow Islamic rites of male circumcision although, Kabaka himself refused to face the knife because he protected the traditional that Kabaka couldnt shed blood but his chiefs and the subjects were circumcised <br><br>3. Prayers were held with great esteem and Kabaka himself was very strict on these 4. Many of the chiefs were converted to Islam which also helped the subjects to embrace Islam 5. Mosques were built in every place and every part of the country side 6. Mutesa created a special department to look after the affairs of the mosques 7. Slaughtering of animals was done according to Islamic rules and regulations 8. Mutesa appointed a committee to supervise the acts of slaughtering in accordance with the Islamic rules 9. He also instructed to be greeted in Islamic version 10. Bagandas started to follow Islamic behavior by dressing in Islamic attire 11. Mutesa declared Buganda an Islamic state in 1867 AD 12. Mutesa made his followers to embrace Islam and follow its teachings 13. He crowned those who accepted Islam with high post in the government 14. The introduction of intermarriage between the Arabs and the local people helped in the spread of Islam during his era <br><br>15. Mutesa invited many Arab Muslims to Buganda and this facilitated the spread of Islam in Buganda 16. Mutesa provided settlement for the Arab Muslim traders 17. Islamic panel code was awarded and the traditional sacrifices were done away **Factors that led to decline of Islam in Buganda** 1. Circumcision: - The Buganda Muslims wanted Mutesa to face the knife but he refused to submit to this rite. <br><br>This refusal created rebellion in Mutesa and subsequently contributed to the down fall of Islam <br><br>2. Muslim disobedience: - In 1876 some devoted Muslims refused to eat meat slaughtered through pagan <br><br>riteand praying behind Mutesa as he was uncircumcised, this disobedience infuriated him and he ordered the killing of 70 Muslims. This killing facilitated the down fall of Islam <br><br>3. The coming of H.M Stanley in 1875 - H.M Stanley was a Christian Missionary who visited Buganda and he was received with honour and respect from Kabaka Mutesa. Kabaka did this in order to safeguard his interest from the European powers. Gradually Mutesa started to change and later he left Islam which in turn angered Muslims. <br><br>4. The Egyptian (The Khedive regime) - They claimed that parts of the kingdom (parts of Nile in Uganda) and they captured Bunyore kingdom. This event worried Mutesa and also the Arab traders feared for their market. <br><br>5. H.M Stanley being an opportunist, he threatened Mutesa that if he will remain a Muslim he will be circumsed <br><br>by force. This made Mutesa to be against Islam and Muslims <br><br>6. The Muslim Turkeys: - Muslims in Turkey made demands to Mutesa to be very particular in following Islam e.g. to follow Islamic rites in slaughtering and leading the prayers. This pressure created fear in Mutesa and hated Islam which leads to its downfall <br><br>7. The coming of the church missionary societies as well as the catholic fathers in Uganda- Due to existence of <br><br>many religious in Uganda, Mutesa decided to observe both (Christianity and Islamic). He supported Christianity due to provision of the firearms but in 1880 AD he declared himself a Muslim again but this time he allowed his subjects to choose the faith they preferred <br><br>**Arrival of Christianity in Uganda** - <br><br>In 1876:- They are two events which spearheaded Mutesa`s disenchantment with Islam and decided to join Christianity 1. Some devoted Muslims, influenced by Islamic teachings of Egyptian force, refused to eat meat slaughtered <br><br>through pagan rite <br><br>2. They refused to pray behind Mutesa as he was uncircumcised. - This disobedience infuriated him and he ordered the killing of 70 Muslims. - <br><br>It was at this time, that H.M Stanley visited Kabaka Mutesa and persuaded him to become a Christian in 1879AD <br><br>52 - <br><br>In 1880AD Mutesa declared again he is a Muslim but this time he allowed his subjects to choose the faith they preferred <br><br>**The influence of Christianity in Uganda** - The effect of coming of Christian missionaries was basically had a negative impact towards the spread of <br><br>Islam in Uganda <br><br>- Both Muslims and Christians were struggling to get new converts from the local people - The Christian missionaries had better weapons and this was a favourite of the local leadership - Christian missionaries through their provision of secular education played a great role in hindering the <br><br>progress of Islam <br><br>- The schools were centers of conversion where the intimates were only taught how to read the bible and be <br><br>good Christian. <br><br>- The missionaries were also against the founding of government schools, as they wanted to monopolize the <br><br>provision of education. <br><br>**Death** Kabaka Mutesa died in 1884 AD **Religious wars after Kabaka Mutesa** **b. The reign of kabaka Mwanga** - Before the death of Kabaka Mutesa, He forwarded prince Mwanga to the power/throne - When Kabaka Mutesa died Kabaka Mwanga succeeded him - Mwanga was a boy 18 years and when he assumed Kabakaship he appointed members from both religious but Muslims dominated the post <br><br>- Kabaka Mwanga was neither a Muslim nor a Christian - These two sects didnt appreciate how Kabaka Mwanga was running the government. And when Mwanga <br><br>discovered this, he applied wrath activities on them hence blundering the country <br><br>- The two groups joined their forces to oppose and overthrow Mwanga from the power and he fled to south of <br><br>lake Victoria In 1888 AD the tyrant Kabaka was overthrown and fled to south of Lake Victoria and lived in exile <br><br>- **c. The reign of kabaka Kiwewe** - Prince Kiwewe succeeded Kabaka Mwanga and he shared the posts between the two groups equally - <br><br>It was intended that when Kiwewe assumes the kabakaship would embrace Islam and the post of Katikiro to be for the Muslims <br><br>- Kabaka Kiwewe gave the post to the Christians - This resulted to tension between the two group eventually led to a shooting incident and the Christians <br><br>decided to evacuate from the capital <br><br>- Barely a month after his accession and a week after the withdrawal of the Christians, kabaka Kiwewe <br><br>conspired with the pagan chiefs to execute the whole Muslim leadership in which a few Muslim leaders were killed, and the commotion arose which made the Kabaka fled the capital - A force was sent to capture him. He was captured and killed - The Baganda Muslims installed prince Kalema as the new Kabaka **d. The reign of kabaka Kalema** - The first move Kalema embrace Islam - He had himself circumcised - He adopted the name Rashid Kalema - He wrote to Sayyid Barghash, the sultan of Zanzibar to the effect that he is now a Muslim - He moved his headquarters to nearby hill and called it Lungujja a Buganda word meaning Zanzibar - He wished to be known as the sultan of Buganda - All important posts in the kingdom were given to the Muslims - He made several pagan chiefs to embrace Islam **NB:**<br><br>- The exiled Christians with the helped of white missionaries who supplied them with guns and ammunition <br><br>with the help of the exiled Kabaka Mwanga and his followers. finally they were able to break the power of Muslims, captured their stronghold and set fire to the palace of Kalema after which he fled to Bunyore and he died there of small pox. <br><br>- <br><br>- Mwanga was called back and his kingdom was restored to him - As a result of Christian victory, Buganda was converted into a Christian state and all the posts were allocated <br><br>to the Christians. <br><br>**Islam in the interior of Tanzania** **a. Spread of Islam in Tabora** - Muslim traders from Zanzibar and Sultans established Inland trading posts with the goodwill of the local <br><br>chiefs. <br><br>- The most tribal chief with whom the Muslims fostered cordial relations was chief Mirambo, the ruler of <br><br>Unyamwezi <br><br>- Muslim traders built Swahili town near the Mirambos headquarters at Tabora and used the town as a trade <br><br>post <br><br>- Mirambo used the Arab traders to have his influence felt and accepted - As a result most of his tribal chiefs embraced Islam and they were taught principles of the Islamic faith as well as Swahili language <br><br>- The chiefs became instrumental in spreading of Islam to many of the interior - The Nyamwezi converts worked for the Arabs and Swahilis as porters, messengers, labourers, soldiers to <br><br>their caravans <br><br>- The converts also played a major role in the spread of Islam in their areas **Factors that influence spread of Islam in Tabora** 2. The establishment of Inland trading posts in Tabora 3. The goodwill of the local chiefs who accepted and spread Islam in their areas 4. The cordial relations between the sultans, traders and the local chiefs e.g. chief Mirambo 5. Many of the chiefs learnt Kiswahili and this further helped in the spread of Islam 6. The local community admire the culture of Muslims 7. The Nyamwezi converts played a major role in spread of Islam 8. The Sultan of Zanzibar used to give financial support for the spread of Islam 9. The building of mosques and madrassas 10. The intermarriage between the Muslim traders and the local people 11. The personal contact between the Muslims and the indigenous people **b. Islam in Ujiji** - Ujiji was a terminal port for traders to cross to Congo and beyond - - - The Muslim (Arab) traders exchanged vegetables, fruits, goats and dairy produce with the coastal goods It was a partner of Tabora both of which acted as a trading and resting Centres in the interior of Tanzania It was a market of considerable importance in the area <br><br>which they brought with them <br><br>- The famous Tippu Tip (Muhammad bin Hamad) lived at Ujiji between 1840-1887AD and conducted a <br><br>flourish trade, from Ujiji to Congo <br><br>- His good relationship with chief Mirambo helped in protecting Muslims and their Islamic interests in the <br><br>interior <br><br>- The good relationship which the Muslim traders established with the indigenous, had a strong impact in <br><br>spreading of Islam <br><br>- Muslim teachers from Ujiji helped in the spread of Islam in the interior of Tanzania and in the Congo as well. **Factors that influence spread of Islam in Ujiji** 1. It was a terminal point for traders to Congo and beyond 2. The local community were friendly 3. There were no geographical barriers such as mountains <br><br>54 4. There were plenty of fruits and cereal foods 5. The intermarriage between the Muslim traders and the local people 6. It was important market place where the Muslim (Arab) traders exchange their coastal goods with fruits, <br><br>goats, milk etc. <br><br>7. The building of mosques and madrassas 8. It was near the sea 9. The good relationship between the Muslims and the local chiefs e.g. Tipu Tip 10. The good relationship between Tipu Tip and the Nyamwezi chief, chief Mirambo who was a Muslim **Social contribution of Muslims in East Africa** 1. Muslims built their own hospitals e.g. Agha Khan, Alfarooq and Mewa 2. They are also available in local and international broadcasting station 3. Muslims are heading national football team e. g. Muahammad Twahir 4. They have being living with other members of different faiths peacefully 5. They are in NGOs to promote peace 6. Muslims they run orphanage centres 7. Muslims are engage in sensitization and rehabilitation of drug addicts 8. Muslims are participating in development of education through building of Islamic Institutions (madrassa) <br><br>and schools e.g. Sheikh Khalifa, Abu Huraira, Qubaa etc 9. Muslims are major facilitators for spreading of Swahili language which is spoken throughout East and <br><br>Central Africa <br><br>10. Muslims introduced the new manners of lifestyle and speech, dressing, eating, sleeping etc. **The role of Muslims in economy of East Africa** 1. Muslims are engaged in whole sale and retail business 2. They contribute in the transport and communication e.g. Construction of roads, shipping and airline <br><br>business. <br><br>3. They are engaged in commerce and industry either as employer or employees 4. They practice Agriculture and animal husbandry 5. They are engaged in commercial fishing as fishermen 6. Some Muslims work as brokers and commissioners 7. They work in the hotel business and in tourism industry 8. Muslims helped in promoting trade between Kenya and Arabia countries 9. They run or sponsor Institutions which offer skills for job opportunity 10. Muslims are paying taxes to the government 11. They are in banking industry **Muslims contribution to the political development of East Africa** 1. Muslims gave their ideas in the running of their government and schools 2. Muslims contribute to debates on the constitutions of their respective governments 3. Muslims have representatives in parliament in their respective states 4. Muslims are found and occupy high posts in forces in their respective governments 5. Muslims in East Africa have the right to air their problems and bring changes if need be i.e. if the government policy contradict the Islamic teachings <br><br>6. Muslims in East Africa helped in keeping peace and maintaining order i.e. elders take part in reconciliation of <br><br>warring clans <br><br>7. Muslims in East Africa have ambassadors who represent the interests of the mother countries abroad 8. Muslims have Qadhis who are appointed by the government to represent the interest of the Muslims in their <br><br>respective states <br><br>9. Muslims they participated in different political parties 10. Some Muslims were appointed as commissioners 11. They are involved in rallies and political demonstration **Factors that influence the spread of Islam in the interior of East Africa**<br><br>55 1. The contact between the Arabs, Swahilis and the African traders from interior 2. The availability of trading items which the Arabs exchanged with goods from interior such as cotton, cloth <br><br>and beads with Ivory, copper, cattle, goats etc. <br><br>3. Early settlements in the coast by a group of Muslims who ran away from their motherland and settled at <br><br>coast. <br><br>4. The simplicity of the Islamic religion attracted the Africans to embrace Islam 5. The intermarriage between the Arabs, Swahili traders and the local people, encouraged many to became <br><br>Muslims <br><br>6. The establishment of the Swahili villages in the interior also helped in the growth of Muslim settlements i.e. <br><br>in Nairobi, Mumias etc. <br><br>7. The embracing of Islam by the local African chiefs such as chief Nabongo of Mumias. 8. Some tribes like Yao, Wanga etc. cooperated and accepted Muslim traders in their land and further helped in <br><br>the spread of Islam <br><br>9. Building of Uganda Kenya railway played a very important role in the spread of Islam 10. Establishment of mosques and madrassas in the area **Factors that hindered the spread of Islam to interior of East Africa** 1) Lack of missionary work. Early Arabs did not have active missionaries, their main concern was trade. 2) Fear that Islam is too strict and harsh made the Africans not to accept Islam 3) Lack of means of transport between the coast and the interior of East Africa 4) Hostile communities such as Maasai, kikuyu and Nandi made the Muslims not to venture into the interior 5) Language barrier. The interior people and the Arabs didnt understand one another 6) There were few kingdoms in the interior which could provide protection to the Arabs 7) Competition from Christians. The Christian missionaries were very active in the interior. 8) The decline of the power of the sultan of Zanzibar in the 19th century who was instrumental in encouraging 9) False slogan of Islam i.e. association of Muslims with slave trade 10) Fear of wild animals and fierce people in the interior **Assignment** 1. List down factors that hindered the spread of Islam to interior of Kenya 2. Give factors that help the spread of Islam to the interior of Tanzania 3. Identify factors that caused the spread of Islam in Mumias 4. Identify factors that caused the spread of Islam in Ujiji 5. Identify factors that caused the spread of Islam in Tabora 6. Identify factors that helped the spread of Islam in North Eastern 7. Identify factors that helped the spread of Islam in Central Kenya 8. Identify factors that helped the spread of Islam in Western Kenya 9. Described the arrival of Islam in Uganda 10. State factors which helped the spread of Islam in Buganda during Kabaka Suna 11. What are the decline factors of Islam in Buganda 12. Explain the religious war after the death of Kabaka Mutesa 13. What role did Muslims in Kenya played in the constitution of Kenya 14. Discuss Muslims contribution in the economic growth in Kenya 15. Highlight the social contribution of Muslims in Kenya 16. Highlight challenges faced by Muslims in East Africa **Chapter: 8 Muslim scholars** **Uthman Dan Fodio** **a. His birth and early life** - Sheikh Othman Dan Fodio was born at Maratta, a town in Hausa state of Gobira on 29th Safar 1168 AH/15Th - He was brought up in a well-educated family. He learnt a lot from his father Muhammad Fodio who was well <br><br>known scholar of his time i.e. Quran and Arabic language. <br><br>- He undertook advanced studies from renowned Muslim scholars in their respective fields in Tafsir, Hadith, <br><br>Fiqh, Arabic Language, Tasawuf, Arithmetic and Astronomy. <br><br>**b. His works, education and personal life** - Before reaching the age of 20 years he wrote a book in his mother tongue an at the age of 20 years he wrote <br><br>his first work in Arabic {a poem in praise of the prophet (saw)} <br><br>- At his early stage he was disturbed by the level of Ignorance of the society, especially the women and the <br><br>spread of innovations (bid a) and wide spread of un- Islamic practices. <br><br>- He educated the public on the fundamental of religion and Sunnah of the prophet (saw). He started giving <br><br>public lectures, sermons in and around his hometown. He was joined by his brother Abdullah and much later his son Mohammad Bello In order to rectify the religious, social and political ways of his people, Sheikh Uthman came up with an idea of establishing a well-organized group (jamaah) <br><br>- <br><br>- Many delegations were sent to sheikh asking him for permission to carry out jihad. Sheikh permitted them - The whole of Hausa state and parts of Borno was turned into a battle field. The jihad went on until about <br><br>1808 AD the jamaah emerging victorious <br><br>**Establishment of caliphate in Sokoto by Sheikh Uthman** - Sheikh Uthman first started by reforming his society against un-Islamic beliefs and practices - He did a lot of missionary works which endeared well with masses - He won a lot of followers and was able to identify the corrupt religious leaders within Nigeria at that time - He fought and won the jihad with the jamaah and he found himself in command of a large territory on the <br><br>Hausa state. <br><br>- He established caliphate in Sokoto with the help of Muhammad Bello who was his personal assistant - Sheikh Uthman made Sokoto as his capital, after having brought other states of Hausa under him - The caliphate continued for almost a hundred years until the British colonialist dropped it in 1903 and made <br><br>it part and parcel of Nigeria <br><br>**Reasons for the rise of Jamaah movement under Uthman Dan Fodio** 1. The conviction of people through the teachings and exemplary life of Sheikh Uthman 2. The feeling of freedom by masses who have been enslaved by the emperors 3. Sheikh Uthman advocated for a simple life which made people follow him 4. He established a strong army which over run neighbouring states who later joined his movement 5. Sheikh involved people in discussions making and in affairs of the state 6. Hausa appreciated a new efficient system of administration that kept them in peace and stability **The administrative structure of Uthman Dan Fodio (from the top to the bottom)** i. ii. Wazir ( The prime minister) iii. iv. v. Revenue collectors {who also distributed zakat and Ghanimah (booty)} vi. vii. Officers managing different services in the empire e.g. roads, prisons, mosques etc. The caliph <br><br>Governors (who also served as advisors to the caliphs) Judges and law enforcement personal <br><br>Economic and welfare officers: they work directly under the revenue collectors <br><br>**c. His death** - <br><br> Sheikh Uthman ruled Hausa state up to 1817 AD when he died without appointing a successor but the jamaah chose his son Muhammad Bello. <br><br>**d. Contributions and achievements of Sheikh Uthman Dan Fodio** 1. He established a caliphate in Sokoto which secured for Islam firm roots and gave the whole region peace and <br><br>stability <br><br>2. He wrote several books which benefited and transformed his generation and the forthcoming 3. He spread knowledge through seminars, lectures and actual teachings <br><br>57 4. He confronted the rulers face to face and managed to change some 5. He fought for the rights of women as advocated in Islam 6. He championed for the cause of women education. Wives and daughters were an example they were learned <br><br>and left literary works behind <br><br>7. He stressed the need to respect the Madhahib of Islam as every Imam tried to make religious easier for us <br><br>and not to create enmity <br><br>8. He was a good role model for his followers not only to admire but also to follow 9. He fought the Christians missionaries who wanted to spread Christianity in West Africa 10. He established strong diplomatic ties with the Arab countries 11. He fought against female circumcision. He taught through the prophetic traditions that it was not part of <br><br>Islam. <br><br>**e. Social reforms of Sheikh Uthman Dan Fodio** 1. He was very vocal in educating women thus allowed women to be out of their houses and seek education <br><br>provided they will cover themselves properly. <br><br>2. He addressed issues of marital relationship and how to strengthen the bond between two people 3. He advocated for the stoppage of female circumcision 4. He taught people many Sunnah of the prophet (saw) e.g. building of mosques, ways of eating etc. 5. He concentrated most of his time in clearing the heart i.e. most of his text dealt mainly with ria (showing of) **Al- Ghazal** **a. His birth and early life** - His full name was Abu Hamid Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Al-Ghazal - He was born in the location of Ghazalah at Tusi in Khurasan (Iran) in 450 AH/ 1058 CE - He grew up as an orphan **b. His works, education and personal life** - He received his early education in his home village - At the age of twenty he went to join the Nizamiyah Madrasah in the city of Nisapur, which was great Centre <br><br>- <br><br>- of Islamic studies <br><br>- There he studied at the feet of Imam Al- Haramain Al-Junaidi the most famous intellectual of that time - Al-Ghazal was gifted with a retentive memory, a keen intellect and an amazing capacity of work - He became the best student of Imam Al- Haramain and he appointed him as his assistant - When his teacher(Imam Al- Haramin) passed away, Nidhamul-Mulk Attusi the prime minister of Baghdad was attracted by Al-Ghazals intellectual attainments and appointed him to run Nidhamiyyah Academy in 484 AH/1091 CE <br><br>- AL-Ghazal taught at Nidhamiyyah for four years - <br><br>In 1106 CE, Al-Ghazal experienced a sudden transformation in his ideas and finally he fled from Baghdad, he became a dervish roaming from one place to another, for ten years he lived that life In 1106 CE/499 AH he accepted the request of the sultan to go back to Nidhamiyayah college, but he did not remain there for more than a year In 1108 CE he went back to his native town (Tusi) where he established a Madrasah for his disciples. There he led a life of seclusion until death. **c. His death** He died in 1111CE at the age of 53 years. **d. Reasons for Imam Al-Ghazal to live in seclusion for ten years** 1. He was not satisfied with the worldly affairs 2. He developed serious internal conflict with himself and felt deep mental anguish (unhappiness/severe pain) 3. His attention was mainly in the hereafter and hence denounced science and philosophy which he felt were <br><br>not important in the hereafter. <br><br>4. He wanted to purify his soul and engaged in meditation 5. He wanted to study deeply religious doctrines 6. He believed that he got internal call to live alone and leave worldly life <br><br>58 7. He drew an inspiration from the life of the prophet (saw) and decided to be faithfully to Allah through <br><br>seclusion and meditation <br><br>8. He wanted to strengthen the ethic of society and root out corruptive ideas 9. He wanted to establish the best guidance for mankind **e. His contributions** 1. He awakened the spirit re-Islamization in the society by carrying out a detailed analysis of its moral and <br><br>spiritual life <br><br>2. He criticized the Ulama for wasting time in debating on insignificant issues instead of devoting their energies <br><br>to the essential duties <br><br>3. He had great desire for knowledge and discovered that the best guidance for man is to revealed knowledge. 4. He traveled to Nisapur to teach at Nidhamiyyah Academy 5. He was the first doctor of the religion of Islam to strike at the roots of the Greek philosophy 6. He wrote two books to criticize the irreligious doctrine of Greek philosophers 7. He wrote numerous books on Islam, covering different subjects e.g. Al-Munqidh, Ihya etc. 8. He is recognized as a Mujadid (reviver of Islam) in the Muslim world 9. He was a great teacher and eloquent speaker whose lectures attracted a cross-section of people which include nobles and chiefs <br><br>10. He stressed on study of tradition biography of the prophet (saw) and modeling of Muslims according to his <br><br>life <br><br>11. He is credited for lying down the foundation of the scientific scholastic system (philosophy based on <br><br>religious principles) in the Asharite school of theology <br><br>**Code of conduct formulated by Imam Al-Ghazal for a Muslim** 1. A Muslim should have good intention always in all his deeds and actions 2. A Muslim must have unity of purpose in serving Allah. He should trust Him and strive to do good 3. A Muslim should constantly conform to the truth and have the courage to fight against his own inclinations <br><br>(desires) <br><br>4. A Muslim should avoid all innovations in religious (Bida) and respect authority 5. A Muslim should avoid procrastination and show steadfast and determination in his work. 6. As human beings, Muslims should acknowledge their limitation to accomplish anything without the help of <br><br>Allah <br><br>7. On the doctrine of salvation. Al-Ghazal tells Muslims not to feel secure from Gods punishment and be <br><br>satisfied merely with their good conduct in life, but to put their hope (Rajaa) in Allah who is All-merciful 8. Muslims should lead a life of devotion and prayers 9. Muslims should observe and watch over their hearts (Muraqabah) 10. Muslims should concentrate to the knowledge of Allah to brings them closer to God **Imam Ghazal views on childrens education** 1. He held the view that knowledge exists potentially in human like the seed in the soil but by learning the <br><br>potential becomes actualized <br><br>2. He wrote that a child is a trust (placed by God) in the hands of the parents and his innocent heart as a <br><br>precious element capable of taking impressions <br><br>3. A child who is brought up in righteousness by his parents and later teachers will live happily in this world <br><br>and in the next world and God will reward them for their good deeds. If they neglected the child upbringing and education, he would lead a life of unhappiness in both worlds and they would bear the burden of the sin of negligence <br><br>4. A child should be taught the words of creed in his earliest days and should be taught the meaning gradually as he grows older. This should follow the three stages i.e. memorization, understanding and conviction (believing in something strongly) <br><br>5. He stress that children should be polite and obedient to parents, teachers and elders 6. Children should taught not to love money, for love of it is a deadly poison 7. Children must be trained on hygiene i.e. not to blow or clean the nose in public <br><br>8. As the child grows older, he must observe the Islamic rules i.e. fast a few days in Ramadhan, avoid wearing <br><br>silk, gold and silver, lying, treachery, vices and violent language. <br><br>9. Education according to Ghazal is like labour of the farmer, who uproots the weeds, trims wheat so as to grow <br><br>better and give a better yield. 10. He stated that every man needs a teacher to guide him in the right direction 11. The teacher should be tender to his pupils as they were his own children 12. Children should be taught according to the capacity and ability to absorb knowledge 13. The teacher must respect the less gifted pupil, who if left alone or criticized might suffer 14. He insisted, that pupils must be allowed to have creation. **Duties of the teacher according to Al-Ghazal** 1. He is the father for his pupils 2. He must teach for the sake of Allah 3. He should advice his students with fore-thought 4. He should fight the excessive urge of the student to learn too quickly to overtake his peers 5. He should be reprimand with moderation, in private, not in public 6. He should make sure that what he teaches, he pursues in life i.e. be an example or a role model 7. The teacher should not criticize the subject taught by another **Contributions of**Al**-Ghazal to Islamic theology** 1. He was a scholar of Fiqh, natural science, philosophy, logic and mysticism (knowledge of God) 2. He was a professor of Islamic theology in the University of Nishapur 3. He also served as president of Nidhamiyya college in Baghdad 4. People came to seek advice from him on matters concerning religion and politics 5. He was author of many books on theology, fiqh and philosophy 6. He was often engaged in arguments debates and discussion on theological matters. This won him the title of Authority in Islam (Hujjatul Islam) <br><br>7. He became a Sufi and contributed to the development of Sufism (living very simple life with meditations) 8. He lied down the foundation of the philosophy based on religious principles in the Asharite school of <br><br>theology <br><br>9. He awakened the spirit re-Islamization in the society by carrying out a detailed analysis of its moral and <br><br>spiritual life <br><br>10. He was the first doctor of the religion of Islam to strike at the roots of the Greek philosophy **Assignment** 1. Give brief account of Uthman Dan Fodio 2. Explain the social reforms of Uthman Dan Fodio 3. Explain the administrative structure of Uthman Dan Fodio 4. Give reasons for the rise of Jamaah movement under Uthman Dan Fodio 5. Discuss the achievements of Uthman Dan Fodio 6. Trace life history of Imam Al-Ghazal 7. Give reasons why Imam Al-Ghazal renounced the world and lived in seclusion for ten years 8. Give contribution made by Imam Al-Ghazal to Islamic theology 9. Identify reasons a Muslim can learn from the code of conduct by Imam Al-Ghazal 10. State the code of conduct formulated by Al-Ghazal 11. Outline the views of Imam Ghazal on childrens education |
# **Chapter 1 QURAN ** **Preservation of Quran ** The preservation of Quran has been done in the four phases 1. Preservation of the Quran during the time of the prophet (saw) 2. Preservation of the Quran during the time of Abu-Bakr (RA) 3. Preservation of the Quran during the time of Uthman (RA) 4. Preservation of the Quran today **a. Preservation of the Quran during the time of the prophet (saw) ** The Quran was revealed to the prophet thought 23 years of prophet hood Whenever problem arose or whenever Allah wanted to give the prophet and his followers special advise, He would send angle Gibreel with apart of the Quran, which he would recite to the prophet - The Quran was not revealed all at once in it complete form, like the earlier books of revelation, but in portion. - The prophet (saw) passed on the Quran to his companions before he died. - The verses of Quran were preserved in the heart of the Muslims as well as written down. - Since people entered Islam at different points, only few of them heard the all of the Quran directly from the prophet - Some companions were able to memorize it better than others. - When the prophet died the whole Quran was not written in one complete book - Quran was recorded on various pieces of writing materials and kept in the possession of different followers of the prophet (saw). Each had a portion but none of them had all. **Ways used by the prophet (saw) to make sure that Quran is memorized and recorded ** 1. The prophet used to recite loud the various parts of the Quran in prayers. In that way, his followers used to hear parts of the Quran daily. 2. Everyone who entered Islam would be taught parts of the Quran, which he would have to use in the daily prayers. 3. Those who had memorized the Quran would teacher the others. 4. The prophet informed his followers that the best of them were those who learned and taught the Quran. This encouraged them to make even greater efforts to memorize the Quran and teach it to others. 5. Those who were able to read and write the Quran were told by the prophet to write down various sections of the Quran as they revealed 6. The prophet would tell his scribes the order of the Quran in which they should record the verses. **Factors which facilitated the memorization of Quran ** 1. The companions had a strong memory and sharp minds 2. Being illiterate, they were forced to depend so much on committing things to memory. 3. Their love for the prophet made them also to love the book of Allah. Hence committing it to memory. 4. The eloquence of the Quran and their admiration for such language played a big role in making them commit the Quran to memory. 5. The various sayings of the prophet encouraging memorization of Quran and warning those who forget it. 6. The command on recitation of the Quran in prayers and spending the night doing so also played a big role. **Scribes of the prophet (the writer of revelation) ** 1. The four guided caliphs 2. Zeid bin Thabit 3. Ubayy bin Kaab 4. Muawiyyah bin Abi-Sufyan 5. Zubeir bin Awaam 6. Amri bin Aas 7. Mughira bin Shubah 8. Khalid bin Walid 9. Abdallah bin Rawah 10. Thabit bin Qays 1 ----- # **b. Preservation of the Quran during the time of Abu-Bakr (RA) ** During the battle of Yammama (11A.H/633A.D) many of the companions who were good recites and memorizers of the Quran were killed Umar (RA) took note of the this situation and therefore suggested to Abu-Bakr (RA) that precaution should be taken to preserve the Quran in writing before the Huffaz (memorizers) die out. Abu-Bakr entrusted Zeid ibn Thabit ((RA) with the task of coordinate the efforts of preservation of the Zeid started locating Quran materials and collecting it from parchments, scapula, leaves of dates and palm and from memorizers. The committee after speculation and confirmation they produce the final copy of the Quran. **Quranic materials were easily put into book form due to the following reasons ** 1. All the chapters of Quran were already in written form, though not compiled in one book. 2. A large number of the companions knew the order of the Quran and its arrangement 3. The order of the verses within each chapter had already been fixed by the prophet as guided by angel Jibreel 4. Large number of Muslims had memorized the Quran in the order taught by the prophet himself. 5. Large portion of the Quran were also available with the companions on loose materials. **The task of preservation and compilation was accomplished due to the following reasons ** 1. The Quran was continuously recited 2. The whole text of the Quran used to be recited from beginning to end of Ramadan. 3. The written bits of the Quran were available 4. Reliable companions who know the Quran thoroughly by heart were able to contribute, check and verify the compiled text **Why was Zeid chosen to compile the Quran? ** 1. He was of the best among the memorizers of the Quran 2. He was one of the best recites of the Quran 3. He was one of scribes of the prophet 4. He was present during the last revelation 5. He had qualities such as honest, piety, firm religious inclinations and strong and sharp memory **Zeid`s system in compiling the Quran ** 1. He accepted what has been recorded in front of the prophet. 2. He accepted what was committed in memory 3. He accepted what was committed in memory on condition that the companion heard it directly from the prophet 4. He only accepted written records where two witnesses availed themselves **c. Preservation (standardization) of the Quran during the time of Uthman (RA) ** **Circumstances that has led to standardization of the Quran ** 1. The expansion of the Muslim state beyond the borders of the Arabian Peninsula during the time of Umar 2. Many non-Arabs who spoke other languages accepted Islam and learned the recitation of the Quran from early Muslims 3. The Quran was revealed to the prophet in seven different Arabic dialects and early Muslims taught the Quran and recited the Quran in its readings. 4. In the Muslim Provinces, some Arabs began to boast that their dialects were superior to that of others. 5. When new Muslims made mistakes in their recitation of the Quran, it was sometimes difficult to tell whether it was really an error or whether it was one of the seven readings, which were taught by the prophet. 6. These problems eventually became a source of confusion in Muslim provinces outside Arabia. 7. One of the companions of the prophet by the name Hudhyfah bin Yaman noticed the confusion while he was in Iraq and feared that it may lead to break up of the Muslim nation and the changing of the Quran. He informed caliph Uthman (RA) 8. Uthman (RA) realized the seriousness of the situation and called the major companions together in order to find solution to the problem. 2 ----- # 9. They decided to make official copies of the Quran from the one which was kept in the house of Hafswa bint 10. Uthman ordered Zaid bin Thabit, Abdillah bin Zubeir and Saad bin Al-Waqas to reproduce the manuscript (mashaf) from standard copy 11. They made many copy, Uthman returned the original manuscript to Hafswa (RAA) 12. Uthman sent a copy to every Muslim province and ordered that all other Quranic materials be burnt. 13. Each city had instruction to produce adequate copies for the use of its people **Reasons for standardization of Quran ** 1. People were reading Quran in their own ways 2. Expansion of the Islamic state 3. Conversion of non-Arabs to Islam 4. To bring uniformity in recitation 5. To protect the Quran from interpolation 6. For easier understanding and reading of the Quran 7. To make available for future use 8. To unite the Muslims 9. People were reading Quran in their own ways 10. Expansion of the Islamic state 11. Conversion of non-Arabs to Islam 12. For easier understanding and reading of the Quran 13. To make available for future use 14. There was need to have a universal copy for all Muslims so that they are unified. **Role Uthaman played in the standardization of the Quran ** 1. He introduced the official standard of the Quran 2. He wrote Quran in Arabic Quraysh dialects 3. He burnt all the other written Quranic materials 4. He prevented disputes between Arabs and non-Arabs 5. He sent a copy to every Muslim province and ordered that each city had to produce adequate copies for the use of its people **Diacriticalization of the Quran ** - Diacriticalization means putting signs to differentiate the pronunciation of words. It is putting of kasra, fatha, dhuma and sukun - During the time of the prophet the scribes used to write the Quran without vocalization and even without dots which differentiated the various Arabic letters - The expansion of Islamic state brought in many non-Arabs. Hence recitation of the Quran was very difficult for them without dots and vocalization - In order to facilitate the reading of the Quran for those who didn`t know Arabic arose, it was decided during fifth Umayyad dynasty caliph Abdul Malik bin Marwan that the vowel like of kasra, fatha, shadah, dhumma and sukun be put on the consonants. Al- Hajaj ibn Yusuf did this work. **d. Preservation of the Quran today ** 1. Many Muslims have memorized the Quran. There are many Tahfidh centers in every locality where Muslims live 2. Distribution of printed copies of the Quran 3. Quran reading competitions are held in many areas in Kenya today, this play major role in encouraging memorization of the Quran 4. Quran has been translated into many languages 5. Quran has also been recorded in Audio and Video materials which can be played back. 6. Radio broadcasting today also plays an important role in preserving and relaying the Quran to many Muslims. 3 ----- # 7. Quran memorizers are highly respected by the society. These memorizers are highly in demanding during Taraweh Prayers in Ramadan 8. The availability of copies of the Quran at the Muslim`s homes as well as in the mosque where they can always be get access to it 9. Muslims recite the Quran in prayers 10. In some Muslims countries like Libya, those who memorize the Quran are automatically considered the same as University graduates and are paid equivalent salary once they are approved **Surah An- Nur** - The surah was revealed in Medina - It contains 64 verses - An-Nur (the light takes its name from verse 35) - It contains important injunctions on personal and social matters, with special emphasis on family life **Historical background ** - After the victory of Badr, Islamic movement gained strength day by day; so much that by the time of the battle of trench it had become so strong that the united force of enemy failed to crash it. - The enemies having failed to defeat Islam in the battlefield, they chose the moral front to carry the conflict - These enemies realized that the purer and noble character of the prophet and his followers were capturing the hearts of the people. - A vicious case of slander was made on the honour of Hadrat Aisha, the wife of the prophet, in connection to the incident, which occurred while she was returning from the campaigns against Banil-Mustaliq - This attack was severe and the main background of this surah. **Themes of suratul-Nur ** 1. The power of Allah 2. Marriage security 3. Qualities of believer 4. Islamic manner on visitation 5. Islamic manner of walking 6. Rules of hijab/code of a dress for Muslim women 7. Etiquette of the mosques **Teachings of the Surah An- Nur** 1. The chapter laid down prescribed punishment for Zina (illicit sex), 100 lashes for the adulterer and adulteress to be administered in public 2. The chapter also laid down prescribed punishment for slandering chaste person i.e. making false accusation against chaste person 3. The details for Lian are also being prescribed in this chapter. This is a state where a husband accused his wife of committing fornication but cannot come up with proof (4witnesses) he can swear Lian (the oath of condemnation) as Allah commanded. This means that he brings her before the Imam and states what he accusing her of. The ruler than asks him to swear four times and fifth one he is supposed to invoke a curse in himself if he lies. 4. The surah also referred to the incident concerning Aisha, when the people of slander and falsehood among the hypocrites made their accusation against her and spread lies about her. Allah proved her innocent to perfect the honor of His messenger (saw). 5. Allah also discipline the believers who spread the evil talk and slander against Aisha 6. There is a further command to think well of people I.e. if something unbefitting mentioned about good people. 7. Allah warned those who hear evil talk, believe it to same extent and start to spread it, that they will face severe punishment. 8. The surah argues people to uphold the ties of kinship with relatives who are needy or who migrate for the sake of Allah 4 ----- # 9. The surah further discusses the etiquette of seeking permission of entering houses. The believers have been commanded not to enter houses other than their own until they had asked permission three times and to give greetings of salaam. 10. The surah also commands the believers to lower their gaze from forbidden things i.e. not looking at the opposite sex and to protect their private parts against illegal sex. 11. The surah deals with rules of Hijjab. This is command to believing women, to distinguish them from the women of Jahilliyyah and deeds of pagan 12. The surah also mentions category of people whom a woman is permitted to show them her adornments. These are: husband, father, husband`s father, sons, husband`s sons, brother, brother`s sons, Muslim women, slaves, men who are free from sexual desires and infant or small children before they get sense of sex. 13. The surah also mentions the etiquette of women walking in the street. They are to avoid walking in such manner as to attract the attention of opposite sex by stamp their feet so that men could hear their anklets ringing. 14. The surah commands us to marry. However, for those who do not find the means they are advised to keep themselves chaste until Allah give them means out of His grace. 15. The surah also commands masters to grant their slaves a contract of emancipation as longer as it is for their # good. Slave women should not be forced into prostitution. Rather than the master is advised to help with money out of his own resources in order to enable the slave to earns his or her liberty. 16. The surah mentions virtues and etiquette of the mosques. The mosques are the house of Allah where He is alone is worshipped. 17. The surah also mentions the attitude of believers they offer prayers, give Zakat and obey the messenger (saw) and the treachery of the Hypocrites and non-believers was also dealt with in the surah. **Teachings of Quran on visiting one another ** 1. Muslims should ask for permission before entering houses 2. On prohibition times no visitation should be conducted i.e. before Fajr at noon and after Isha 3. The asking for permission is done thrice 4. One should not stand right at the door but just aside 5. If no one answers the knock they should leave without any murmuring 6. If one is welcomed he should greet the members of the house 7. One should confine the secret of the house to the public 8. On visiting should be for the mission called not eye marking every item and step in the house **Teachings of Quran on the power of Allah ** 1. Allah is the one who revealed Holy Quran to mankind and specified boundaries of Islamic religion as a proof for His existence 2. Allah is the most merciful to His servants as if not for His mercies, mankind will be in a great torment. 3. Allah is all knowing, all wise as He hears good and bad 4. Allah is often forgiving as any servant repents, He is ready to accept 5. Allah is just as He pays accordingly, in fact relevant to the deeds 6. Allah is light of the heavens and hearth and so He guides to His light one He wishes 7. Allah is the provider as He provides without measure to whom He wills 8. To Allah belongs the sovereignty of the Heavens and Earth as what is engulfed in between the two, glorify Him and He is aware 9. Allah causes day and night to succeeded each other 10. For those who disobey Allah, He has a painful torment for them **Teachings of Quran on Marriage security ** 1. Sexual purity is very essential in Islam as adulterer and adulteress proves established, must be flogged 100 lashes without any mercy unto them 2. Adulterer marries adulteress and not any other, as thy rhyme 3. Those who practice slander must be given 80 lashes and their testimonials are entirely rejected until they repent to Allah 5 ----- # 4. If the husband accuses his wife for zinaa and he has no 4 eyed witnesses, then he will take 4 oaths and the 5 [th] will be, if he is wrong and she is right let the curse of Allah be upon him. 5. The same to the but the 5 [th] oath will be if she is wrong and her husband is right, let the wrath of Allah be on # 6. Those who practice adultery will have a painful torment before Allah if not repent 7. Issue of poverty as valid ground for marriage cancellation should arise as Allah will enrich them with His 8. Those who find no means to finances for marriage are advised to keep themselves chaste until Allah open doors for them. 9. The forcing for slave girls to prostitution is forbidden in Islam and punishable before Allah 10. Allah will forgive those chaste slaves for they have been forced to prostitution **Teachings of Quran on Qualities of believer ** 1. Believers fear Allah and the Day of Judgment 2. They have no mercy when awarding Hadd punishment 3. They will not marry adulteress or be married by adulterer 4. They repent to Allah every time and do not repeat the mistakes 5. They take into consideration the wanders of Allah 6. They do not believe the devil neither do they follow him 7. They pardon, forgive and love Allah most 8. They lower their gaze and protect their private parts 9. They confirm the hearsay before taking any action 10. They glorify Allah in the mosques at every time 11. Trade and worldly leisure do not divert them from Allah 12. They obey and accept the prophets call and judgment 13. They visit one another and exchange good hopes **Assignments ** 1. Discuss the circumstances that led to the standardization of the Quran 2. Explain the ways in which the Quran has been preserved 3. List down and explain teachings of Surah An-Nur 4. Outline the themes of suratul-Nur 5. What does diacriticalization of the Quran means? 6. Explain why it was necessary to preserve the Quran 7. Explain the preservation of the Quran : a) during the time of the prophet (saw) b) during the time of Abu-Bakr (RA) c) during the time of Uthman (RA) d) today 8. discuss Islamic teachings on participation and watching of the following: a) beauty competition b) swimming and athletic competition c) dancing taarab and other music 9. list down the advantages of diacriticalization of the Quran 10. what role did Zaid bin Thabit play in revelation of the Quran 11. what role did Uthman play in standardization of the Quran 12. give 5 reasons as to why there was a need to have a standard version of the Holly Quran 13. what are the teachings of Quran on visiting one another 14. discuss the following themes of suratul-Nur a. The power of Allah b. Marriage security c. Qualities of believer 6 ----- # **Chapter 2HADITH ** **Types of hadith ** They are two types of Hadith **1. Hadith Nabawi ** This is a Hadith whose wording and meaning are from the prophet. It has the following characteristics Umar said that the prophet (saw) said the reward of deeds depends upon the intentions and every person will get the reward according to what he has intended. So whoever emigrated for worldly benefits or for a woman to marry, his emigration was for what he emigrated for 2. Hadith Qudsi - This is Hadith whose wording is from the prophet but the meaning is directly from God. It has the following characteristics. Abuhurah reported that the prophet said Allah said I am the one who is not in need of any partner. If anyone carries out an action in which he associate with Me someone else, I will leave him with what he has associated with Me **Differences between Hadith Nabawi and Hadith Qudsi** |Col1|Hadith Nabawi|Hadith Qudsi| |---|---|---| |1|The meaning and wording is from the prophet|The meaning is from Allah but the wording is from the prophet| |2|Before the matn (actual wording) there is the phrase The prophet said|Before the matn (actual wording) there is the phrase The prophet said and Allah said o.ke/| |3|They are more in number|They are less in number her.c| |4|Deals in various matters in religion i.e. halal, haram and shariah|Deals with certain major issues i.e. faith and moral or ps://Teac etiquettes| |5|There are some which are weak (dhaif)|There is no weak Hadith htt sit| |6|Has many compilation|Compiled in one book Vi rs| |7|They are classified into three classes i.e. sahih,Hassan and Dhaif|They are not classified Pape Past| # **Features of Hadith Qudsi ** 1. They are pure or holy Hadith 2. They are the sacred sayings of Allah which are not part of the holy Quran 3. They are the report from the prophet (saw) where he relates what God said 4. In Hadith Qudsi Allah speaks in the first person through the prophet (saw) 5. They are few in number 6. They are directly attributed to Allah 7. They were inspired to the prophet through a dream **Subject matter of Hadith Qudsi ** # 1. Affirmation of doctrine of the unity of Allah 2. The majesty of the creator and His uniqueness 3. Proper discharge of religious observances 4. Attachment of proper standards of morality 5. Good behavior towards other people 6. Self-dedication to the cause of Allah 7. Preparation for the Day of judgement **Differences between the Quran and Hadith Qudsi** |Col1|Quran|Hadith Qudsi| |---|---|---| |1|It was inspired to the prophet through angel Jibreel|It was inspired to the prophet inform of dream| |2|It is recited in prayers|It is not recited in prayers| |3|By reciting the Quran one is rewarded|By reciting Hadith Qudsi one is not rewarded| |4|It is a living miracle that is not challenged or|This is not the case with Hadith Qudsi| 7 ----- |Col1|changed up to the present|Col3| |---|---|---| |5|Collection and preservation of the Quran was done earlier|It was done much later| |6|Many companions (Swahaba) have memorized the Quran|Only few Swahaba have memorized Hadith Qudsi| |7|The Quran contains code of conduct for a Muslim|Hadith Qudsi talks on a certain major issues in Islam| # **Test to determine the authenticity of Hadith ** 1. The Hadith must quote what was said or done by the prophet 2. The narrator must have been present when the reporting, action or saying took place or have heard from someone who was present. 3. The text must be in Arabic 4. The chain of narrators must be complete and traced to the prophet (saw) 5. It must be proved that the narrators in the chain must have met each other and lived in the same period 6. The narrators must have been well known for their honesty competence and knowledge 7. The Hadith must conform to the teachings of the Quran and should not contradict it in any way 8. The Hadith should not contradict the accepted and well known teachings of the prophet 9. It should not promise large rewards for very minor acts 10. It must not show disrespect to the house of the prophet or the companions 11. It must to a large extent be acceptable to the mind and principles of life and not contrary to reason 12. It must be in agreement with other Hadiths on the same subject 13. It must not promote an individual or a group for personal interests or ambitions 14. The Hadith should not contain the date, minute and details of the future events 15. The narrator must not held any unique religious view of his own **Test to determine the authenticity of the sanad(chain of narrators) of Hadith** 1. The chain of narrators must be complete and traced to the prophet (saw) 2. The narrators must have been well known for their honesty competence and knowledge 3. It must be proved that the narrators in the chain must have met each other and lived in the same period 4. The narrator must have been present when the reporting, action or saying took place or have heard from someone who was present. 5. The narrator should not be accused of any crime 6. The narrator must have not spoken from his imagination 7. The narrator must not held any unique religious view of his own 8. The narrator must have been a person who rarely commits mistakes 9. The narrator must be pious Muslim 10. The first reporter must have been a Swahaba (companion of the prophet) **Test to determine the authenticity of the matn (text) of Hadith ** 1. The Hadith must quote what was said or done by the prophet 2. The text must be in Arabic 3. The Hadith should not contradict the accepted and well known teachings of the prophet 4. The Hadith must conform to the teachings of the Quran and should not contradict it in any way 5. The Hadith should not promise large rewards for very minor acts 6. The Hadith must not show disrespect to the house of the prophet or the companions 7. The Hadith must to a large extent be acceptable to the mind and principles of life and not contrary to reason 8. The Hadith must be in agreement with other Hadiths on the same subject 9. The Hadith must not promote an individual or a group for personal interests or ambitions 10. The Hadith should not contain the date, minute and details of the future events **Classification of Hadith** Hadith can be classified into four: Sahih, Hassan, Dhaif and Maudhu **1. Hadith Sahih (sound) ** - This is Hadith whose source is known and whose men are well known for their reliability and accuracy. 8 ----- # It has continuous Isnad (chain of narrators). Can be used in legal and religious matters **Conditions for Hadith Sahih ** a) Continuity of Isnad (chain of narrators) to the prophet (saw) b) All the reporters must be trustworthy c) All the narrators must have a strong memory d) The reporter should not be irregular in his reporting of the Hadith i.e. his Hadith should not differs from # others who are accepted to be more reliable than him e) The reporter should be free from unbearable defects especially in the science of Hadith i.e. making a Hadith which is Mursal (the link between the chain of narrators and the prophet is missing) to be Mausool(the link between the chain of narrators and the prophet is complete) **2. Hadith Hassan (approved) ** - This is Hadith which has the qualification of Hadith Sahih, except that one of its narrators might have had a slight weakness i.e. a fault in memory. - Can be used in legal and religious matters **Conditions for Hadith Hassan** a) Continuity of Isnad (chain of narrators) to the prophet (saw) b) One of its narrators might have had a slight weakness i.e. a fault in memory c) The biography of one of narrators is not known by the Muhadith d) The Hadith doesn`t contradict the fundamental teachings of Islam e) A group of weak Hadith can make Hassan **3. Hadith Dhaif ** - This is Hadith which lacks the conditions found in Hadith Sahih and Hassan - It is Hadith narrated by persons whose character is not well known or having a disparaged character i.e. telling lies **Conditions for Hadith Dhaif** a) The hadith lacks the continuity in the chain of narrators b) if narrators lack integrity in his narration c) One of the narrators known to be a liar d) The chain of narrators cannot be traced to the prophet (saw) e) It contradicts the fundamental teachings of Islam NB: These Hadith should only be used in enhancing virtues and preaching on condition that: a) The weakness should not be very strong and lies should not be party of Hadith b) It should be known and believed that it is only use as a precaution and not a confirmed matter c) It should be made clear to the reader or listener that this Hadith in use is Dhaif **4. Hadith maudhu (forged/ false hadith) ** - These are false or invented hadiths **Reasons for fabrication (invention) of Hadith ** 1. Political reasons i.e. to praise their leaders or regime 2. Ignorance of religious and the love to encourage good deeds 3. Deliberately/intentionally to distort the truth 4. For pride to be seen as knowledgeable in the science of Hadith 5. Defending and supporting their sectarians views (Madhab) 6. As a way of seeking favours from a king/ruler/caliph 7. To create confusion among the Muslims 8. Tribalism and racism 9. Stories for preachers 10. Loyalty to a certain teacher **Importance of classification of Hadith** a) To establish the authenticity of Hadith 9 ----- # b) Guide the Muslims on matters of shariah c) To establish the degree of acceptability of Hadith d) To encourage the Muslims to adopt the Sahih Hadith e) To guide against infiltration of forged and false Hadith f) To help the Muslims in knowing type of Hadith to accept or reject **Ilmul- Hadith and Ilmul-Rijal ** **1. Ilmul- Hadith ** It is the science of Hadith which deals with collection and the study of text of Hadith **2. Ilmul-Rijal ** It is the science of men, which deals with the biography of transmitters of Hadith **The role of.Ilmul-Rijal in the development of Hadith ** a) It exposed the weakness of the inventors of false Hadith b) It leads to the emerging of many branches of knowledge such as History and Biology c) It led to the rise of six scholars of Hadith (sihahih sita) d) It determine the authenticity of Hadith e) It prevents the compilers from attributing falsehood to the prophet (saw) f) It determines whether Hadith should be classified as Sahih, Hassan or Dhaif **Sunni and Shia collection of Hadith ** **A. Sihahul sittah (the six genuine collections of Hadith) ** Sunni Muslims have six collections of Hadith which are graded as the most authentic ones the six genuine collections( sihahul sittah). These are: 1. Sahihul Bukhari 2. Sahihul Muslim 3. Sunnan Attirmidhi 4. Sunan Abu daud 5. Sunan An Nasaai 6. Susan Ibn Majah **NB ** 1. The collection took the names of their compilers 2. Sahihi Bukhari is considered as the most outstanding among all books of Hadith; followed by Sahih Muslim 3. The two Imams (compilers Bukhari and Muslim) sometimes are referred to as Ashykhani (the two eminent scholars) 4. Al-Muwatta of Imam Malik is highly placed by some scholars being next to Sahihul-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim 5. Musnad Imam Ahmed is also highly placed, although this two are not included in the six genuine collections. **1. Imam Bukhari ** **Birth ** - His full name is Abu Abdallah Muhammad bin Ismail bin Ibrahim Ibnul Mughirah bin Bardezbah (Persian name means a garden) - He was born on Friday after the prayers on 13 [th] Shawal 194 A.H (810 CE). His birth place at Bukhara (from which is name of Bukhari is derived) in the territory of Khurasan (now Uzbekistan) **Upbringing ** - His grandparents were Persian origin who worshipped fire. - The first to embrace Islam among them was Mughirah - His father died when Bukhari was very young. His pious religious mother took care of him - He lost his sight when he was very young. His mother prayed hard for him, Allah answered her prayers and Bukhari was able to see again. **Search of knowledge** - Bukhari was very much interested in Hadith - His mother was sent him to study Islamic education and she made sure that he received the best. - On his part, he proved himself to be outstanding and have a strong retentive memory 10 ----- # He did not record the Hadith taught in the school the way his colleagues did, but he memorized them, yet his classmate used to correct their Manuscripts from his recitation by heart. This was the case when he was 10 years old. At eleven, he was able to correct the recitation of a well-known traditionalist in a big congregation of theologians - He became master of Hadith at sixteen When he was eighteen, he compiled a book relating the judgment of the prophet`s companions. One of his teachers (Ishaq), requested Bukhari to compile Hadiths, and Bukhari loved the Idea. One night when he was a sleep, he saw in his dream the Holly prophet. His dream was interpreted as an Indication that he should undertake the work of selecting the true Hadith from false ones. - Al-Bukhari from that time devoted himself to the compilation of Hadith. He traveled throughout the Muslim world for about 40 years looking for this knowledge. **Travels ** - Bukhari made the following travels for attending lectures and collecting Hadith. He travelled to: a) Baghdad b) Syria c) Egypt d) Saudia e) Basrah f) Kufah g) Khurasan **His teachers ** a) Ali bin Abdillah Al-Hafidh b) Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal c) Imam Abu Yaaqub Ishaq bin Yaaqub Annaisapuri **His book (Sahih Bukhari) ** - He collected 300,000 Hadiths (some put it at 600,000) and of which he knew by heart 220,000 out of this he choose 7275 Hadiths (as the most authentic) in his book. This does not mean the rest ware fabrications, but many were repetitions with different chains of narrators - Sahih Bukhari consists of 9 volumes and it is divided into 97 chapters. - He wrote over 20 other books - Three factors that prompted Bukhari into compiling Hadiths are : 1. He was not satisfied with the books of Hadith which existed, because they included unreliable Hadiths 2. It was the wish of his teacher Ishaq bin Ibrahim, who advised his student (Bukhari) to compile authentic Hadiths. 3. He had a dream of the prophet (saw) where he saw himself standing next to the prophet, whom he was fanning. - I t took him 16 years to complete his collection of Hadith into his book **Methods used by Imam Bukhari in collection and compilation of Hadith ** 1. He travelled widely in his effort to collect from as many source as possible. 2. Among the collected Hadith used he to select sound Hadith for compilation 3. He used to listen to people when collecting Hadiths, he used to accept Hadiths from morally upright persons who were of good memory 4. In some cases he used personal conscience or judgment to decide Hadith that should be compiled 5. He used to perform wudhu and prayed two rakats before recording Hadith 6. He divided his book into chapters and topics 7. He repeated a particular Hadith several times in his book whenever he felt that the Hadith was relevant. 8. He included in his book the prophet`s commentaries on some Quranic verses 9. He used different chains of narrators to present the same text with slight variation 11 ----- # 10. He was cautious in classifying Hadith he preferred to use the phrase its Isnad is sahih 11. He would not accept Hadith unless the two narrators in the chain of narrators met and lived together in the same period. Imam Bukhari died in a village called Khartanak near Samarkand on 30 [th] Ramadan 256 A.H (870CE) at the age of 62 Great scholars accepted him as an authority. That is why it is said sahihul Bukhari is most accurate book after the book of Allah (Quran) **2. Imam muslim ** - His full name is Abul- Hussein Muslim bunul- Hajjaj bin Muslim Al-Qushyiry Al-Nisapuri - He was an Arab but was born at Nisapuri in Persia 204 A.H (819 CE). It was in the same year that Imam Shaffii died. ** Search of knowledge** - He excelled in various branches of Arabic literature which he studied at an early age - He started attending Hadith lecturers when he was 14 years old **Travels ** - He made the following travels for attending lectures and collecting Hadith. He travelled to: a) Baghdad b) Syria c) Egypt d) Saudia e) Basrah f) Kufah g) Khurasan **His teachers ** a) Yahya bin Yahya Al- Khurasan b) Ahmad bin Hanbal c) Ibnu Mansur d) Imam Bukhari **His book (Sahih Muslim) ** - He collected 300,000 Hadiths out of this he choose 9000 Hadiths, after thorough examination he maintained only 4,000(as the most authentic) in his book. This does not mean the rest ware fabrications, but many were repetitions with different chains of narrators. **Methods used by Imam Muslim in collection and compilation of Hadith ** 1. He travelled widely in his effort to collect from as many source as possible. 2. Among the collected Hadith he used to select sound Hadith for compilation 3. He used to listen to people when collecting Hadiths, he used to accept Hadiths from morally upright persons who were of good memory 4. In some cases he used personal conscience or judgment to decide Hadith that should be compiled 5. He divided his book into chapters and topics 6. He repeated a particular Hadith several times in his book whenever he felt that the Hadith was relevant. 7. He included in his book the prophet`s commentaries on some Quranic verses 8. He used different chains of narrators to present the same text with slight variation 9. He was cautious in classifying Hadith he preferred to use the phrase its Isnad is sahih 10. He would accept Hadith although the two narrators in the chain of narrators met and did not live together in the same period. **Death ** - He died on Sunday evening but was buried on Monday 5 days before Rajab 261 A.H (816 CE) at the age of 57. He was buried at Nisabur. 12 ----- # **3. Imam Abu-Daud ** His full name is Suleiman bin Ash`ath Ibn Ishaq bin Bashir Assajistany. He was born in Sajistan in Persia in 203 A.H (816 CE) **Search of knowledge** He travelled to many places in search of knowledge of hadith he started attending Hadith lecturers when he was 20 years old He made the following travels for attending lectures and collecting Hadith. He travelled to: b) Egypt c) Saudia d) Basrah e) Kufah f) Khurasan **His teachers ** a) Ibnu Abu- Shybah b) Qutybah binSaid c) Muslim bin Ibrahim **His book (sunanan Abu-Daud) ** - He collected 500,000 Hadiths out of this he choose 4,800 Hadiths, (as the most authentic) in his book. - Jurist have acclaimed that this book is very authentic one next to sahih of Imam Bukhari and Mulsim - It took him 20 years to compile this work **Methods used by Imam Abu-Daud in collection and compilation of Hadith ** 1. He choose Hadith then included all those Hadiths which were similar to it 2. He arranged the book according to the topics of Fiqhi and Shariah 3. He pointed out any Hadith which had a lot of doubt and the one which he said nothing on them were sahih 4. He preferred Hadith which had weak Isnad (chain of narrators) than opinions (qiyas) of others. 5. He travelled widely in his effort to collect from as many source as possible. 6. Among the collected Hadith he used to select sound Hadith for compilation 7. He used to listen to people when collecting Hadiths, he used to accept Hadiths from morally upright persons who were of good memory **Death ** - He died in Basrah (Iraq) in the month of Shawal 275 AD (887 CE) at the age of 72. **4. Imam Al-Tirmidhi ** **Birth ** - His full name is Abu Isa Muhammad bin Issa bin Thawrah bin Musa bin Dhahak Attirmidhi - He was born in 209 A.H (822 CE) in Tirmidhi (in Khurasan) **Search of knowledge** - He started attending Hadith lecturers when he was 20 years old **Travels ** - He made the following travels for attending lectures and collecting Hadith. He travelled to: a) Hijaz b) Wasit c) Baghdad d) Basrah e) Kufah f) Khurasan **His teachers ** 13 ----- # a) Qutybah binSaid b) Ishaq bin Musa c) bukhari d) sufiyan bin Waqii **His book (sunanan Al-Tirmidhi) ** - His book contains 3956 Hadiths The book also known as Al-Jamu Al-Kabir but popular known as sunan Attirmidhi **Methods used by Imam Attirmidhi in collection and compilation of Hadith ** 1. He mentioned Isnad of Hadith and explained its status whether Sahih, Hassan or Dhaif 2. He mentioned as many Swahaba as possible who narrated same Hadith or similar Hadith 3. He would coat difference opinions of the jurists on Hadith and why they accept or reject 4. He would mention Hadith which contradict one another on the same Issue 5. He travelled widely in his effort to collect from as many source as possible. 6. He mentioned Hadith which translate the Quran and which also shows the status of the Quran **Death ** - He died on Monday 13 [th] Rajab 279 AH (892 CE) in Tirmidhi at the age of 70. **5. Imam An-Nassai ** **Birth ** - His full name is Abu Abdurahman Ahmad bin Shuaib bin Ali bin Sinan Al- Khurasany - He was born in 215 A.H (830 CE) at a place called Nasai in Khurasan (Persia) **Search of knowledge** - He travelled to many places in search of knowledge of hadith **Travels ** - He made the following travels for attending lectures and collecting Hadith. He travelled to: a) Hijaz b) Iraq c) Syria d) Egypt e) Jazirah f) Khurasan **His teachers ** a) Qutybah binSaid b) Ishaq bin Rahwiiyi **His book (sunanan An-Nassai) ** - His book contains 5000 Hadiths - The book is known as as sunan An-Nasai **Methods used by Imam Attirmidhi in collection and compilation of Hadith ** 1. He was more strict than any other five Imams of Hadith, in accepting hadith 2. Those whose hadith or narrators are doubtful he would rather avoid including them in his collection 3. He would do Istikharah on such Hadiths before making decisions to include or exclude them 4. He travelled widely in his effort to collect from as many source as possible. 5. After completing the compilation he presented his book to the Amir of Ramallah who in turn asked An-Nasai are all Hadiths in this book sahih ? imam replied No then the Amir said Then select the sahih only from it **Death ** - He died in 303 AH (915 CE) in Ramallah at the age of 88. **6. Imam ibn- Majah ** ** Birth ** - His full name is Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Yazid ibni Majah - He was an Arab 14 ----- # He was born in 209 A.H (824 CE) at a place called Qazwainy (Persia) **Search of knowledge** He travelled to many places in search of knowledge of hadith He made the following travels for attending lectures and collecting Hadith. He travelled to: a) Hijaz b) Baghdad c) Syria d) Egypt e) Basrah f) Kufah g) Mecca **His teachers ** a) From students of Malik b) Allyth bin Saad **His book (sunanan ibn- Majah) ** - His book contains4341 Hadiths - The book is known as as sunan An-Nasai **Methods used by Imam ibn- Majah in collection and compilation of Hadith ** 1. 3002 of hadiths in his book are found in the other five books of Hadiths 2. 1339 of hadiths in his book are not found in the other five books of Hadiths 3. 428 0f 1339 hadiths their narrators are reliable 4. 199 of 1339 hadiths their chain of narrators are Hassan 5. 613 of 1339 hadiths their chain of narrators are Dhaif (weak) 6. 99 of 1339 hadiths their chain of narrators are much weaker 7. He travelled widely in his effort to collect from as many source as possible. **Death ** He died on Monday 9 days before Ramadan 273 AH (886 CE) at the age of 64 **The Shia collection of Hadith ** - According to Shia`s madh-hab, the prophet (saw), his daughter Fatimah and Imams are believed to be Ma`asumin (sinless, protected from the errors) and their talk, sayings, actions or confirmation are considered as authority in religion - If a followers did something in front of M aasum`s presence and the Maasum did not stop or prohibit him/her it is treated as confirmation (Taqrir) - According to them Hadith means: talk, action or confirmation of a Maasum **Conditions for authentic Hadith according to Shia ** 1. The Hadith should not contradict the teachings of Quran 2. The Hadith should not contradict reason or well known facts 3. The narrators must be trustworthy 4. The Hadith must quote what was said or done by the Maasum 5. The text must be in Arabic **Classification of Hadith according to Shia ** Shias have divided Hadith into four categories: 1. Sahih (correct) 2. Hassan (good) 3. Muwathaq (Reliable) 4. Dhaif (Weak) **B. Shias Compilation of hadith ** - According to Shia compilation of hadith started from the beginning of Islam, unfortunately the early writing were lost 15 ----- # The sixth and the seventh Imams (Imam Muhammad al-Baqir and imam Jafaar As-Sadiq) who were able to spread their teachings far and wide Many disciples of these two and the succeeding Imams noted down whatever they heard from the Imams. Such collections were called Usul (Roots/Foundations). From these Usul four books were compiled. **1. Four Shia collections of Hadith ** **A. Al-Kafi fi usulu-din ( The compendium; a collection of facts) ** Is the first collection of Shia, was compiled by Abu- Jafar Muhammad bin Yaaqub ibn Ishaq Al-Kulayni - It containas 16099 Hadiths It took him almost 20 years to compile it. **Features of Al-Kafi fi usulu-din ** a) It was compiled during lifetime of the first four Imams of Shia b) The compiler gives the whole chain of narrators except on few cases through which the tradition has passed between him and the Imam, the real source. c) His method of collecting and grading the traditions is according to the order of authenticity d) The compiler drops traditions which are contradictory. **B. Man la yahdhurhul faqih ** - It is the second collection compiled by Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Hassan Ibn Babwayh, popularly known as sheikh Sadiq. - The book contains 9044 traditions - The complier traveled far and wide in search of Hdiths - The book occupies a special place in Shia`s Hadith and juriprundance **C. Tahdhibul-Ahkam ** - It is the third collection compiled by Abu- Jafar Muhammad Ibn Al- Hassan At-tusi - He divided it into 393 sections and it contains 13590 Hadiths **D. Al- Istibar fil jami Baina ma Tawarada minal- Akhbar ** - It is the fourth compilation of the traditions compiled by the same author (Abu- Jafar Muhammad Ibn Al- Hassan At-tusi) - It has 920 sections and contains 5511 Traditions **NB ** a) Except the first collection (Al-kafi), all three books are confined to the Hadith concerned with fiqh (jurisprudence) b) The Shias unlike the Sunnis do not call any of the above books Sahih. If a hadith is found in any of them it does not necessarily mean that it is correct. c) Its acceptance or rejection of hadith depends on the three tests: conformity with the Quran and the known facts and reliability of its narrators d) If a Hadith found in other books and passes the test, it will be accepted. **2. The three later books of Shia ** - The following books of hadith became very popular among the Shia of Ithna-Asharia in the later periods **1. Biharul- Anwar Fi Ahadith Nabawiya wal-Aimatil Athar (ocean of light)** - It was compiled by sheikgh Muhammad Baqir **2. Al-Wafi ** - It was compiled by sheikh Muhammad bin Murtadhwa **3. Wasailu-Shia ** - It was compiled by sheikh Muhammad bin Hassan bin al-Hurr - This book became the most popular book as a source of reference for Shia hadith **Study of some selected hadiths ** **a) Talab-illm (seeking of knowledge) ** The prophet (saw) said seeking of knowledge is obligatory to every Muslim male and female **Teachings ** 1. Its compulsory to seek knowledge 16 ----- # 2. The hadith advocate for search of knowledge 3. It put emphasis on the importance of knowledge 4. It teaches that knowledge is power 5. Knowledge makes ones` duty easier 6. It instills respect in individual 7. It enables one to know what is expected out of him by his creator 8. Knowledge removes one from darkness 9. It tells us the learned and not are not equal or the same 10. It tells us that knowledge does not come in a silver plate, its obtained through hardworking i.e. reading and writing **b) An-Niyyah (Intention) ** The prophet said actions are but by intention and every man shall have but what which he intended. Thus he whose migration was for Allah and His messenger, his migration was for Allah and His messenger, and he whose migration was to achieve some worldly benefit or to take some woman in marriage his migration was for that which he has migrated for. **Teachings ** 1. Deeds will not be accepted without intentions 2. There is no reward for any act performed by an individual without intention 3. The hadith stresses on the importance of intention in Islamic law 4. Any ibada (form of worship) done should be done according to the traditions of the prophet (saw) 5. It showed that the Hijra was a form of worship 6. Any individual who was involved in Hijra (migration) with any other intention other than the intended will not benefit from it 7. Allah is aware of whatever is in His servant`s heart 8. Intentions have been recommended so as to differentiate between normal activities and religious ones. 9. Islam takes keen interest in the intention rather than in actions itself. 10. People deceive one another by doing good actions for the sake of fame and showing off. But Allah knows the secrets of our hearts and cannot be deceived. **c) Tawakal (Trust in Allah) ** The prophet (saw) said If you put trust in Allah in the true sense, Allah shall grant you sustenance as He provides sustenance for the birds. They leave their nests in the morning hungry and thirsty but come back in the evening to their resting place fully satisfied **Teachings ** 1. When a Muslim is faced with misfortune he /she must have full trust in Allah 2. A believer should have unshakable faith in Allah 3. A Muslim should always seek assistance from Allah alone. 4. It teaches a Muslim that whatever happens to them is decreed by God 5. Our dependence is towards Allah only the creator, sustainer and the provider 6. It teaches that the power of man is limited and man should therefore struggle to his limit and leave the rest to God 7. The Hadith brings confidence in ones creator 8. It teaches one not to grieve 9. It reduces the level of one`s regrets 10. The hadith shows as that other creatures have full trust in Allah and they dont ignore their limitations i.e. birds **Examples of Tawakkal ** 1. When the prophet was commanded to migrate to Medina, he had full trust in Allah, at the same time he made necessary preparation 17 ----- # 2. A Bedouin entered to the prophet`s mosque and left his camel outside the mosque without tying it. The prophet said Tie it and then put your trust in Allah. The prophet said that to Bedouin after learning from the Bedouin that he had left the camel untied because he had put his trust in Allah. 3. A case of student who does not revise his notes and faces examination with the idea of Tawakkal (trust in Allah) while actually he is doing Tawakal not playing his party fully. 1. Give the definition of the following; # a) hadithQudsi b) Hadith Nabawi 2. Discuss the importance of Hadith to Muslims 3. briefly discuss the life of the following: a) imam Bukhari b) Imam Muslim c) Imam Abu-Daud d) Imam Ibnu-Majah e) Imam Nasai f) Imam Tirmidhi 4. Discuss the characteristics of Sunah Abu-Daud 5. Identify the Shia collection of Hadith and their compilers 6. Explain the significance of Tawakkul in our lives 7. Briefly discuss Tawakkkul in the life of the prophet and its effect 8. Discuss the importance of intention in our lives **Chapter 3 PILLARS OF IMAN (FAITH) ** **IMAMAH (SHIA BELIEF) ** Shia in Arabic means: friends or followers. In general the word Shia: is used for those who are devoted to Ali bin Abi-Talib and his direct descendants. **Different interpretation of the term Imam ** 1. Imam refers to Prophet Muhammad (saw), according to the prayer of prophet Ibrahim. He said to Allah and also (Imama) from my offspring. 2. Imam means a leader. Allah said to prophet Ibrahim. I will make you (Ibrahim) an Imam to the Nation Q 2:124 3. Imam is the caliph of the Muslim Ummah. 4. The person who leads a congregational prayer in the mosque 5. Imam refers to the founders of the four school of thought i.e. Imam Abu-Hanifah,Malik, Shafii and Hanbali 6. The great compilers of hadith i.e. Imam Bukhari and Muslim 7. The great Muslim scholars i.e. Imam Al- Ghazal, Ibnu Sina,etc 8. The spiritual leader of the Shia community. The Shia refers to their twelve leaders as Imams **Shia concept/doctrine of imam ** - An Imam can only be appointed by Allah as a successor to the prophet (saw) . - Since prophet Muhammad (saw) was a divinely appointed the Muslim ummah have no say in matters of appointment of an Imam - According to them, only Allah knows the Qualifications necessary for appointment of an Imam - An Imam was one of the nearest companion of the prophet (saw) - An Imam should come from the family of the prophet (saw) i.e. Ahlul-bait - An Imam cannot do wrong or tell lies - All Imams are infallible (Maasumin) - The Shia says that the prophet appointed Ali as his successor while returning from his farewell pilgrimage. - Since this historical background of the appointment of Ali, the immediate predecessor rightly appointed next Imam who followed in the line of descendants of Ali 18 ----- # The doctrine of the first declaration of this appointment will continue to function as an authority for Imamate until the last day **Declaration of Ali bin Abi-Talib as Imam** a) Ali bin Abi-Talib (RAA) was the cousin and son-in law of the prophet (saw) b) Shias believe that Ali bin Abi-Talib is Hujatullah. Prophet appointed him his successor at a place called Ghadrir Khum a place between Mecca and medina. c) The Shia says that the prophet appointed Ali as his successor while returning from his farewell pilgrimage. d) Since this historical background of the appointment of Ali, the immediate predecessor rightly appointed next Imam who followed in the line of descendants of Ali e) In this way the doctrine of the first declaration of this appointment will continue to function as an authority for Imamate until the last day f) In this matter, Shia pay great respect to Ali and his offspring who are called ahlul-Bait g) Soon after the death of the prophet (saw) Sayidna Abu-Bakr (RA) became the first caliph and Ali the last of # four guided caliphs. Ali acted as counselor, advisor and consultant to the three caliphs h) However the Shia maintain that Sayidan Ali was still the right Imam and the appointment of Sayidna Abu- Bakr, Umar and Uthman did not invalidate the legitimacy of Sayidan Ali`s appointment at Ghadrir Khum i) The sunni dispute the appointment of Ali as the first caliph, basing their argument on the appointment of Abu-Bakr by the prophet when he was sick to lead the congregational prayers when Ali and other companions were around. There are several reasons in favour of Abu-Bakr. **Shias Imams ** 1. Ali bin Abitalib 2. Hassan bin Ali 3. Hussein bin Ali 4. Ali Zaynul Abideen 5. Muhammad al Baqir 6. Jaffar al Sadiq 7. Musa al Kazim 8. Ali al Ridhaa 9. Mohammad al Askari 10. Ali Bin Muhammad 11. Muhammad al Mahdi **Qualities of an Imam ** 1. He should be God fearing (pious person) 2. He should be conversant with Islamic law (divine law) 3. He must be a male Muslim 4. He should be honest, trustworthy and courageous 5. He should be approachable 6. He should be just 7. He should be upright person 8. He should be a role model 9. To the Shia he should be infallible 10. To the Shia he should be a descendant of the prophet (saw) **Duties and significance of an Imam ** 1. To lead and guide people in religious matters 2. To bring people together by reconciling warring parties 3. To ensure justice prevails 4. To spread the word of God 5. To defend the faith and religion 6. He solves dispute in the Islamic matters 7. To unite Muslims 19 ----- # 8. He is a representative or successor of the prophet (saw) 9. He act as a reference in the Muslim community 10. He advises Muslims against following of Un-Islamic Ideology 1. List down the various interpretation of Imam 2. Explain how Ali bin Abi-Talib was appointed 3. What are the qualities of an Imam according to Shia belief 4. Discuss significance of an Imam 5. Describe the concept of immamh as a fundamental of Shia belief **Chapter 4: Devotional acts ** **Meaning of the term Fiqhi and Sharia ** **1. Fiqhi ** - Fiqhi literally means the true understanding of what is intended. - Techinically means: the science of deducing Islamic laws from evidence found in the sources of Islamic law. **2. Sharia ** - Sharia literally means: a waterhole where animals gather daily to drink, or a straight path. - Technically it means: the sum total law which were revealed to the prophet Muhammad (saw) and which are recorded in the Quran as well as Sunnah of the prophet. **Differences between sharia and fiqhi ** |Col1|Sharia|Fiqhi| |---|---|---| |1|Its laid down by Allah and His prophet|It is largely the result of human endeavor| |2|It is a wider circle and embraces all human activities|It is a narrow one and deals with legal acts| |3|It is fixed and does not change|It changes according to time and circumstances| |4|Its laws are general|Its laws are specific| ** Sources of sharia ** **Primary sources of sharia ** 1. Quran 2. Sunnah **Secondary sources of sharia ** 1. Ijma 2. Qiyas a. Quran - Quran is the holy book of Allah sent to the men through prophet Muhammad (saw) - It is the source of knowledge and guidance for both the Islamic religion and the Muslim`s way of life - Quran is the code of conduct for every believer **Role of the Quran as a source of sharia ** 1. It lays down laws regulating social affairs 2. It encourages good deeds and forbids bad deeds 3. It gives guidance on the mode of worship 4. It lays down laws regulating political and economic affairs 5. It gives laws on the organization of family structure. 6. It defines the two paths; that of righteous and that of evil 7. It establishes relation between the creator and the creatures 8. It establishes relation between man and his fellow man 9. It speaks to the mind as well as to the heart 10. It prescribes punishment for crimes **b. Sunnah ** - Sunnah in Islam refers to the statements, actions and silent approval of the prophet Muhammad (saw) 20 ----- # The Quranic injections, from which sharia was derived were explained and translated into practice by the Quran and Sunnah of the prophet (saw) The Sunnah is considered as the second source of sharia based on Allahs statement in the Quran He does not speak his desires; verily it is inspiration which has been revealed (Q 53:54) Muslims are clearly told to accept the decisions of the prophet for they are based on God`s legislation. **Role of the Sunnah as a source of sharia ** 1. It lays similar commands which have been prescribed in the Quran 2. It gives explanation and support of the Quran injunctions e.g. penal cord (Hudud) chopping of hand 3. It gives details of the Quran`s rules e.g. details of prayer, fasting. Zakat etc. 4. It lays down command on matters which were not in the Holy Quran e.g. prohibition of mutta marriage and # donkey meat 5. All scholars agree that the picture of sharia can only be formed if the Sunnah is taken into account 6. It explain injunctions of the Quran by actions i.e. the prophet (saw) prayed among his followers, then told them pray as you have seen me pray 7. It encourages good deeds and forbids bad deeds 8. It gives laws on the organization of family structure. 9. It gives guidance on the mode of worship 10. It lays down laws regulating political and economic affairs **Secondary sources of sharia ** **c. Ijma ** - Ijma literally means: agreement of opinion by the learned jurist to a certain solution - In Islam it means: unanimous consent or consensus by the learned scholars and jurists on an issue of Islamic sharia - Ijma is considered as the third source of Islamic sharia after the Quran and Sunnah - It is applied when certain issue have been elaborated, discussed or made clear by the first two sources of sharia - The Quran and Sunnah have made a provision for Ijma. Allah said O you believers obey Allah and obey the messenger and those in authority among you (Q 4:59) and the prophet said My ummah will not assemble on a wrong decision **Examples of ijma ** 1. The prophet (saw) himself followed this practice in religious matters when there was no express direction in the Holy Quran i.e. when choosing the method of calling prayer (adhan) 2. During the time of four guided caliphs e.g. a. The election of Abu-Bakr since the prophet nominated no one to succeed him. The decision was reached by the unanimous acceptance of Muslims in Saqifat Bani Saidi b. The compilation of Quran by Abu-Bakr in one volume, since it was not done during the prophet`s time nor did he give any directive for such thing to be done. c. Praying Taraweh in congregation during Umar`s time, on which all the companions had Ijma d. Introduction of first Adhan on Fridays by Uthman, was agreed upon by companions and had Ijma **Conditions necessary for the use of Ijma ** 1. The issue being discussed or elaborated should not be found in Quran and Sunnah 2. The issue should be discussed in the light of the Quran and Sunnah of the prophet (saw) 3. Those coming with Ijma should be learned scholars who are experts in matters of Islamic sharia 4. Muslims are supposed to adopt the resolution made in the Ijama 5. The scholars applying Ijma must be people of high integrity and honour 6. The scholars applying Ijma must be people who are conversant in the culture of the people 7. The scholars when discussing an issue should not be inclined to fevour an issue or blackmailed to reach a certain resolution 8. The issue addressed should be affecting the Islamic community 9. The issue should be deliberately exhaustively 21 ----- # Literally means estimation or judgment by comparison with another thing In Isalmic terms it means: the process of reasoning by analogy It is applied through reason from the known to the unknown. Qiyas is accepted as the fourth source of Isalmic law after Quran, Sunnah and Ijama It is only acceptable when it derived from the first three sources of Islamic law by genuine Isalmic scholars with a clear analogy and explanation of cause and effect Example of Qiyas, Bhang has been made haram through the analogical deduction that it intoxicates like khamr (alcohol) which the Quran forbids Qiyas and Ijtihad are not open for layman. It can only be exercised by a Muslim jurist and scholar **Examples of Qiyas ** a. When the prophet (saw) sent Muadh bin Jabal to Yemen. Muadh used his judicial opinion where the text of the Quran and Sunnah have not covered the issues b. During the time of the companions of the prophet they arrived at various decisions by use of analogical # deduction. For example punishment which should be given to a drunkard **Conditions necessary for use of Qiyas ** 1. Qiyas must be applied only when there is no solution to the matter in the Quran, Sunnah or Ijma 2. Qiyas must not go against the principles of Islam 3. Qiyas must not go against the contents of the Quran neither should be in conflict with traditions of the prophet (saw) 4. It must be a strict Qiyas based on the Quran, Sunnah or Ijma 5. Qiyas must be derived by a genuine Islamic scholar with a clear analogy and explanation of cause and effect of the problem 6. The scholars applying Qiyas must be a person of high integrity and honour 7. The scholars applying Qiyas must be a person who is conversant in the culture of the people 8. The issue at hand should not have a solution from the Quran and Sunnah directly 9. The scholar must make an effort to find a solution to the problem and if he finds the correct solution, he will get double reward but if he finds no solution will still get reward **Ijtihad ** - Ijtihad is a process of deducing judgment from the sources of Sharia - a Mujtahid: is a scholar of religion whose opinions are important in the process of Ijtihad **Qualities of a Mujtahid ** 1. He must have mastered the knowledge of the Quran 2. He must have mastered the knowledge of Sunnah 3. He must have a complete knowledge of development of sharia as observed during the era of companions and the past Mujtahidin 4. He must have acquired the knowledge of legal reasoning in matters of Islamic law 5. He must have a sincere intention to follow sharia and the will to achieve all its objectives 6. He must have a deep understanding of the behavior, customs and traditions of the local community 7. He must be a person of high integrity and honour. **Fiqhi ** **Historical development of Fiqhi (Islamic Jurisprudence) ** **The first stage (The era of the prophet (saw) ** - It covers the era of the prophet (609 632) during which the once source of Islamic law was the revelation in the form of either Quran or the Sunnah. - A number of Quranic verses were revealed to answer questions raised by Muslims as well as non-Muslims. Many of the verses begin with the phrase they ask you about .. - A number of Quranic verses were revealed due to particular incidences which took place during the era of the Prophet (S.A.W) 22 ----- # Some cases of legislation were found in the Sunnah, either as the result of listeners questions or were pronouncements made of Allah took place e.g. one of the companions asked Oh Messenger of Allah we saw the seas and if we make the wudhu (ablution) with our fresh water we will go thirsty. Can we make wudhu with seawater? He replied As water is pure and its food (sea creatures) is halal (permissible to eat) Tirmidhi and An-Nasai. This period marked the beginning of the evolution of Fiqhi. **Fiqhi during this period ** 1. Was based on injunction coming from Allah to the prophet (saw) i.e. as Quran or sunnnah 2. The prophet (saw) explained the sharia through his exemplary behavior i.e. he said pray as you found me 3. The prophet replaced the pr-Islamic law with the new order law based on Islamic sharia **The second stage (The era of the Righteous Caliphs and the Companions) ** - It extended form the Caliphate of Abubakar (632 634) to the death of the fourth Caliph Ali (661 CE) - The borders of Islamic state were rapidly expanded during the first twenty years. - Muslims were suddenly brought into contact with totally new systems, culture and patterns of behavior for which specific provision were not found in the law of Shariah. - To deal with the numerous new problems the righteous Caliphs relied, heavily on decisions by consensus (Ijma) as well as Ijtihad, in which they had been trained by the Prophet (S.A.W) **Fiqhi during this period: - ** 1. The teachings of Quran and sunnah were applied to solve the problems that arose and the law was built under the guidance of caliphs 2. The righteous Caliphs relied, heavily on decisions by consensus (Ijma) as well as Ijtihad, in which they had been trained by the Prophet (saw) 3. Fiqhi was based on actual problems (Fiqhi Al-waqi) realistic Fiqhi rather than on hypothetical or imaginary ones. 4. The righteous Caliphs did not prescribe set procedures to be followed throughout the Islamic nation, nor did they make a record of the laws resulting from their rulings. 5. The Swahaba were open minded and respected freedom of opinion in such matters. 6. The majority of Sahabah preferred to stick closely to the literal meaning of text of the Quran and the Sunnah. They avoided giving personal interpretations. 7. The Madh-hab during this period was unified and directly linked to the state as in the time of the Prophet (S.A.W) **The 3 [rd] stage (The rise and the fall of the Umayyad dynasty) ** - The Umayyads were in power for approximately one century. - The period was marked by great social unrest, the ummah divided into various sects and factions. - The Caliphate was converted into kingship, many new practices were introduced, some which were haraam; - This period is noteworthy for the three main trends: - 1. There was no increase in the number of Ijtihads given by scholars since Ijma became difficult due to the scholars refused to sit in the audiences of the Caliphs and fled to outlying area to avoid conflict and confusion. 2. The narration of Hadith became widespread and there was increasing tendency of towards fabrications Hadith 3. The period marked the first attempts of compilation of fiqh, which was aimed at preserving the Ijtihads of the sahaba **The 4 [th] stage (The rise and the fall of the Abbasid Dynasty) ** - Its during this period that Fiqhi took shape as an independent Islamic science. - The Caliph actively supported Islamic scholarship - The development of Fiqh during this period relates to the evolution of the Madh-hab. - For the first time Fiqh of different Madh-hab were successfully compiled on a large and systematic scale. - Fiqhi became organized and divided into two main segments: Used (Fundamentals principles) and Furu (Secondary principles). 23 ----- # The main sources of law were clearly defined and graded. The Sunnah of the Prophet was also collected and recorded in books of Hadith by the end of this stage. **Factors that contributed to the rise of schools of thought ** 1. Different interpretation of the Quran 2. Different interpretation of Hadith 3. Choice of Muhadithin 4. Expansion of Muslim empire 5. Establishment of various centers of learning all around the Islamic empire 6. Argument regarding choice of Hadith vise Qiyas (Analogy) 7. Choice of leadership 8. The need to simplify Quran and Hadith for easy understanding 9. Differences arise from the use of Qiyas 10. Differences arise from use of Ijma A. Imam Abu Hanifa Name : - His full name is; Abu Hanifah Annuman bin Thabit Ibn Zuta Birth : He was born in 80 AH (699 CE) during the reign of Abdulmalik Ibn Marwan, the fifth Ummayyad Caliph. Parents : - His forefathers were residents of Kabul Afghanistan, His grandfather had accepted Islam and settled in Kufah, His father Thabit was a disciple of Sayyidna Ali. Abu Hanifah family had a cloth business and even himself took up the family trade. Search for knowledge : - - His earlier studies were in the field of philosophy and dialogue (Ilimul Kalaam). - After mastering these fields he took great interest in Fiqhi and Hadith. - He spent some of his early life under the care of Imam Jaffar Assadiq and was educated by him then he got his Fiqhi from Hamid bin Abi Suleiman for 18 years. His famous students : - Over 730 students the most notable were: (1) Abu Yusuf Yaqub bin Ibrahim (Al Qadhy) (2) Muhammad bin Hassan Ashybany (3) Zafar bin Hudhyl His Famous Books: - (1) Al-Figh Al-Akbar (2) Al-Alim Wal Mutaalim (3) Radd ala-al-Qadariyyah (4) Musnad **His Contributions ** 1. He is the founder of Islamic School of thought 2. He contributed to the development of Sunnism 3. He advocated for the use of reason in juristic matters 4. He advocated for the independence of judiciary from the government of those days. 5. He used to give lectures to students of Figh 6. He contributed to the reformation of the judiciary by criticizing the decision of judge in the courts by sending to them private letters. 7. He lectured many students on Hadith and Islamic law 8. He wrote several books in law e.g. Al-Fiqhi Al-Akbar, Al-Alim Wal-Mutaalim etc. 9. He also contributed a supplementary source of law known as Istihsan 10. He used to motivate his students by giving them material reward i.e. money **His Followers ** They are mostly found in India, Palestine, Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, Egypt, Jordan, Russia, China (around 300 million) **Death ** He died in 150 AH in prison in Baghdad 24 ----- # **Brief Survey of the life of the five Imams of Fiqhi ** **A. Imam Malik bin Anas ** Name: His full name is Maalik Ibn Anas Ibn Aamir Birth: He was born in 93 AH (717CE) in Madinah Parents: Both his parents of Arab origin. His grandfather Aamir was among leaching sahabah. **Search of Knowledge: ** - He learnt from Jafar Assadiq and a number of other Scholars. - He studied Hadith and Figh from the learned Muhadithin and Faqih of his time. **His famous students ** 2. Muslim 3. Abdullah Ibn Wahbin 4. Imam Shafi **His famous books ** 1. Al Muwatta **His Contributions ** 1. He founded Malik school of thought 2. He succeeded Abu Hanifah as a teacher of Hadith 3. He wrote the first book of Hadith Al-Muwatta 4. He was the first to formulate the principles on the tradition and customs of the people of Madina 5. He relied mainly on the Quran, the Sunnah and resorted to Qiyas whenever necessary 6. Many scholars of hadith were his students 7. He wrote very important book called Al-Muwatta which was the second best to the Quran according to the Muslim Scholars 8. He used to advice the Abbasid Caliphs to practice justice 9. He was fearless jurist who stood by his views and convictions 10. He wrote chapters on Hadith, Fiqhi, Theology and other related topics **His followers ** They are mostly found in Egypt, Sudan, Tunisia, Algeria, Mali, Nigeria, Chad, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain (around 53 million) **Death ** - He died in 179 AH at the age of 86 in Madinah. **B. Imam Shafi ** Name: His full name is Muhammad bin Idris bin Abbas bin Shfii bin Seif Birth: He was born in 150 AH (767CE) at Gaza in Palestine on the day Imam Abu-Hanifah died Parents: Both his parents were Arab origin. His was a Quraysh from the prophet`s lineage of Banu Hashim clan. His father died when he was young and his mother took care of him **Search of Knowledge: ** - He first studied literature and poetry and became outstanding in both - He memorized the Quran when he was 9 years old - He then realized the importance of Fiqhi as compared to literature and poetry - He then went to Malik in Medina and studied under hin until when he died - He had a strong memory allowing him to repeat the whole lecture word by word having heard it only once - He learnt the book of Malik (Al-Muwatta) by heart **His famous students ** 1. Abu Ya`qub Al-Buwayti 2. Abu Ibrahim Al-Muzani 3. Ahmad ibn Habal **His famous books ** 1. Arrisalah (The message) 25 ----- # 2. Al-Ummu (The Essence) **His Contributions ** 1. He founded Shafii school of thought 2. He combined two system of Fiqhi i.e. Fiqhi of Imam Malik and Imam Abu Hanifah 3. He was pioneer of the science of Fiqhi (Usul-al-Fiqhi) 4. He taught many outstanding students 5. He scrutinized Ijma before accepting it 6. He was a successful teacher and a skilful debater 7. He wrote very many important books e.g. Arrisalah (The message), Al-Ummu (The Essence) etc. 8. He wrote principles of Arabic grammar after 20 years of research 9. He was the first to write code of regulations of law and explained how reffrence can be made currently based # on the Quran and sunnah 10. He was the first Quran commentator and wrote illmu Nasikh wal Mansukh (the science of the application of the replaced verses) **His followers** They are mostly found in Egypt, Yemen, Hadhramout, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Oman, Mlaysia, Phillipines, South America, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, (Around 110 million) **Death ** He died in 204 AH (820 CE) in Egypt **C. Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal ** Name: His full name is Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Hanbal bin Hilal bin Idris Ashybaany Birth: He was born in 164 AH (780CE) in Baghdad Parents: Both his parents were Arab origin. His was a Quraysh from the prophet`s lineage of Banu Hashim clan. His father worked as a commander in Abbasid army. **Search of Knowledge: ** - He first studied in his native town. Later he moved to Iraq, Syria, Hijaz and Yamen to accuire knowledge of Hadith and Fiqhi - He memorized the Quran and acquired the knowledge of Hadith - He studied Fiqhi under his great teacher Imam Shafii **His famous students ** 1. Swaleh bin Ahmad bin Hanbal 2. Abdullah bin Ahmad bin Hanbal 3. Bukhari 4. Muslim the **His famous books ** 1. kitabu- swalat 2. musnad Imam Ahmad 3. kitabu- Sunnah **His Contributions ** 1. He founded Hanbali school of thought 2. He is the most celebrated traditionalist, jurist and theologian of Islam 3. He was accepted the use of four sources of Sharia but preferred the use of weak Hadith to the Qiyas 4. He assembled many students in the prophet Mosque in Medina 5. He led a life of poverty but never went out to seek help from others many times he sold his belongings to get fare 6. He was a honest teacher and when people gave him gifts he refused for fear of being corrupted 7. He wrote very many important books e.g. kitabu- swalat, musnad Imam Ahmad, kitabu- Sunnah etc. 8. He was imprisoned by the Abbasid caliph (Ma`mun and Mu`tassim) for refusing to accept the belief of the Mu`tazilite 26 ----- # 9. He never referred to a Hadith without giving the names of its narrators 10. He was persecuted for sticking firmly to the basic principles that Quran is word of God as opposed to the mu`tazilities who believe that Quran was a created thing They are mostly found in Saud Arabia, Syria, Palestine and several places in Asia (Around 5 million) He died in 214 AH (810 CE) in Bghdad **D. Imam Jfar Assadiq ** Name: His full name is Jfar ibn Muhammad bin Ali al- Baqir. He is the 6 [th] Imam of Shia Birth: He was born in Medina on 17 [th ] Shawal 80 AH Parents: Both his parents were Arab origin. His was a Quraysh from the prophet`s lineage of Banu Hashim clan. **Search of Knowledge: ** - He was brought up by learned grandfather Zainul Abideen and his father - He was well learned in all branches of knowledge i.e. religious, astronomy and other fields of science **His famous students ** 1. Imam Malik 2. Imam Abu Hanifah 3. Sufyan Thaury 4. Jabir ibn Hayyan (The greatest chemical scientist) **His famous books ** 4. kitabu- swalat 5. musnad Imam Ahmad 6. kitabu- Sunnah **His Contributions ** 1. He poses a great knowledge on a astronomy and the other fields of science 2. He is the 6 [th] Imam of Shia 3. He produced renowned scholars and Jurists, intellectuals and scientists 4. He assembled many students in the prophet Mosque in Medina 5. He changed the divine rights of the Shia Imamas and their qualities as regards to the knowledge of appointme 6. He wrote very many important books e.g. kitabu- swalat, musnad Imam Ahmad, kitabu- Sunnah etc. 7. Despite challenges he faced from the Abbasid caliphs and Shia community he was able to overcome due to his knowledge and wisdom **His followers** They are mostly found in Saud Arabia, Syria, Palestine and several places in Asia (Around 5 million) **Death ** He died in 148 AH (765 CE) in Medina at the age of 65, he was poisoned by the governor of Medina by the order of Abbasid caliph Mansur, for fear of the strong love and respect the Imam enjoyed from the public **Nature and the purpose of Shariah ** **Right of Allah ** 1. He has the right to be thanked and be praised 2. He has the right to be Loved through following His commandments 3. He has the right to be obeyed and respected 4. He has the right not to be associated with partners 5. He has the right to give or take from His creatures 6. He has the right to bestow His bounties or to withdraw them from his creatures depending on their deeds 7. He has the right to the ownership of the universe 8. He has the right to be worshiped alone 9. He has the right to be called by His 99 beautiful names, which belong to Him alone 27 ----- # **Right of oneself ** 1. Protecting ones health and strength 2. Earning lawful wealth 3. Resisting against desires of the soul 4. Fulfilling sexual desires through marriage 5. Avoiding over working 6. Not committing suicide for whatever reasons 7. Right to use his/her property according to the Islamic shariah 8. He/she has the right to worship 9. He/she has a right to own property 10. He/she has a right of association **Right of other people ** 1. Responding their greetings 2. Attending invitations 3. Blessing the sneezing 4. Visiting one another 5. Helping out of their problems 6. Covering their faults when it is beneficial 7. Loving good for others 8. Showing generous to the neighbor 9. Right to stop others from doing evil things 10. To give them advise when requested **Rights of other creatures ** 1. Should not hurt them or harm them or beat them cruelly 2. Should not overwork them or overload them 3. Should not kill them merely for fun or sport 4. Should not keep them hungry 5. Should not kill except the dangerous and harmful ones 6. Should not sought them infront of others 7. Should not imprison the birds or keep them in cages 8. Should not cat trees or bushes useless. 9. Avoid extravagance in the use of natural resources e.g. gold and silver should not be used as utensils The right to safeguard them from diseases by treating them when they become sick **Assignment ** 1. Explain the stages of development of shariah 2. Explain the meaning of the term fiqhi and shariah 3. State three differences between fiqhi and shariah 4. Discuss the sources of shariah 5. Give a brief biography of five Imams of fiqh 6. State the qualifications of a Mujtahid 7. Describe nature and the purpose of sharia in regard to: a. Right to Allah b. Right to one self c. Right to other people d. Right to other creatures 8. Give reasons why Quran is considered first source of sharia 9. Give reasons why Hadith considered second source of sharia 10. Trace the development of sharia from the time of the prophet up to date **Chapter: 5 Akhlaq (Moral values) ** **Positive aspects of morality in Islam ** 28 ----- # **a. Sadaqa of tongue ** Sadaqa means charity. Most people tend to think that sadaqa composes only giving money to the poor. In Islam there are many charities which can be performed without using money. **Types of sadaqa ** 1. Assisting the poor and the needy 2. Sadaqa of the tongue 3. Performance of good deeds 4. Sadaqatu-Jaariya (continuous charity) **Islamic teachings on the use of the tongue ** 1. To advice people on doing good deeds and forbid evils 2. To speak the truth 3. To declare and pass fair judgment 4. To read the Quran 5. To reconcile warring parties 6. To educate others on Islamic issues 7. To bear witness and advocate for the truth 8. Used in glorifying Allah 9. Ask for forgiveness 10. Greeting one another 11. Should not be used to backbite, abuse others, to incite others to quarrel, to lie etc. **b. Appreciation and gratitude (Shukr) ** Shukr means appreciation and gratitude. It means: thanking those who have rendered some kind of favour, help or assistance. **Types of shukr ** 1. To appreciate Allah and His Prophet (saw) 2. To appreciate the parents 3. To appreciate everyone dose good to you **Islamic teachings on expression of gratitude ** 1. It is the goal of every Muslim in his daily actions to show gratitude and appreciation to Allah 2. A Muslim must fulfills the objective for which he has been created for i.e. by worshiping Allah only and avoid shirk 3. The grateful people have the merit of obtaining Allahs favour 4. Allah has given has health and wealth, hence we should utilize them for His purpose 5. Allah likes most gratitude and hates those who are ungrateful 6. One should be grateful to his parents for the much they have done to him, by being obedient to them and serving them well when they grow old 7. Allah has provided man with children therefore he should teach them how to worship Him, guide and counsel them in an Islamic manner 8. Muslims should educate and give knowledge to others as a show of gratitude to Allah 9. Muslims should not misuse food and water i.e. avoid extravagance 10. Muslims should appreciate everyone who does good to him **c. Forgiveness ** Forgiveness is to stop feeling angry with somebody who has done something to harm, annoy or upset you. **Islamic teachings on forgiveness of Allah ** 1. Allah forgive all sins except shirk 2. Islam allows revenge but the one who forgives is rewarded 3. Allah is the most merciful and He forgives those who wronged Him 4. Allah forgives those who are sincere in their repentance 5. A person who commits a sin should ask for forgiveness immediately 6. A person who commits a sin and is asking for forgiveness should show regret and be guilty before repenting 29 ----- # 7. A sin involves someones right can only be forgiven by Allah after repaying the right **Examples of forgiveness portrayed by the prophet (saw) ** 1. During the conquest of Mecca the prophet (saw) forgave all his enemies 2. The prophet (saw) forgave Surakah Ibn Malik who traced his foot print during the Hijra (Migration) to # Medina 3. The prophet (saw) also forgave a woman who poisoned him 4. The prophet (saw) also forgave Dathur who aimed to kill him while he was resting under the shade of a tree 5. The prophet (saw) also forgave Abdullah Ibn Ubeid (the leader of hypocrites) who broke away from the Muslim army during the battle of Uhud **d. Justice (Adl) ** Justice is the fair treatment of people. Muslim is expected to consider justice to be one of his most necessary obligations **Categories of justice ** 1. Justice with Allah the Almighty. This is by worshipping Him alone without associating any with Him. 2. Justice in judgments between people. This can be achieved by giving every rightful person his due 3. Justice between wives. This is by giving them equal attention and equal shares in everything 4. Justice between children. This is by not favoring anyone of them over another or showing extra love or hatred to some. 5. Justice in speech. This is by not giving false information or cheating when giving evidence. **Islamic teachings on justice ** 1. Allah commanded believers to be justice 2. According to the tradition of the prophet (saw) justice people will be given a position of honour before their # Lord on the Day of Judgment. 3. Justice ruler will be among the seven categories of people who will be shaded by Allah on the day when there will be no shade except His 4. Justice is the one of the most necessary obligations to a Muslim 5. A Muslim is expected to be just in his speech, judgments, sayings and actions 6. Justice is the most important element of peace and stability everywhere and every time 7. One is rewarded by practicing justice **Dimensions of morality in Islam (Moral principle of a Muslim) ** Dimension of Islamic morality are 2 types i. Maarufat (permissible)- These are good deeds which shows mans obedience to Allah ii. Munkarat (vices)- These are bad deeds which shows mans disobedience to Allah **a. Spiritual observance( e.g. Swalat, Zakat, Saum, Hajj etc.) and their moral implications ** 1. Swalah, it prevents an individual from all sorts of vices and brings the believer near to his Lord 2. Zakat, it makes affair contribution of wealth in a way that reduces differences between classes and groups. It stops up the channels leading to class hatred and makes it possible for the spring of brotherhood and solidarity to flow. 3. Fasting, it keeps a believer away from all sorts of evils. It also makes someone realizes the suffering of others, who are less fortunate Muslims and thus promotes in him a sense of sympathy and kindness to them 4. Hajj, the rites of hajj bring a believer closer to Allah. It manifests unity i.e. Muslims from all corners of the world meet and wearing the same dress 5. Optional acts of worship (Sunnah), it brings someone closer to Allah and he will have unique position among the people **b. Preventive and precautionary morality ** **A. Prohibition of a certain food and drinks ** - The Quran indicates general and specific rules regarding foods and drinks. It says They ask you (O prophet) what is made lawful for them. Say: (All) good things are made lawful to them {Q5:4} - From the above verse we learn that the lawful are the good things, naturally. Therefore the unlawful are bad and harmful things 30 ----- # **Types of food and drinks that are forbidden to Muslim ** 1. Meat of dead animals/birds 2. Animal gored to death 3. Animal strangled to death 4. Animal beaten to death 5. Animal that have died as a result of falling from a height 6. Animal dies by being (partially) bitten by a wild animal 7. Meat of live animals 8. Any food that is harmful 9. Flesh of swine animal 10. Animal that have been sacrificed to Idols 11. Alcohol 12. Purse 13. Urine 14. Flowing blood **The wisdom behind prohibition of certain foods and drinks ** **a. Dead animals ** 1. Civilized people in all the societies find it distasteful to eat dead animals and look upon this act as contrary to human dignity 2. Eating of dead animals has also been prohibited in all the revealed scriptures 3. All creatures are interdependent in one way or another. Allah in His mercy by prohibiting the eating of the flesh of dead animals by human beings has provided source of food to other creatures. 4. The death of these animals may have been as a result of poisoning, chronic disease etc. thus when we eat such meat we may fall victim of circumstances 5. The idea of slaughtering is to drain out the blood from the animal. The blood could be carrying some harmful organisms. Slaughtering therefore ensures that these organisms are not eaten by human beings. 6. The prohibition of eating dead animals has encouraged the owners to work hard in currying for their animals in an effort to prevent them from being wasted unnecessarily **b. Blood** 1. The blood may be carrying some diseases which are harmful to mankind 2. Allah wants to show His mercy to animals from the cruelty of certain people who piece the flash of their animals when they are thirsty and drink the flowing blood 3. This process of piecing live animals, injures and weakens an animal **c. Pork ** 1. Recent scientific discoveries have shown that pork carries a deadly parasite (trichina) which is harmful to human health 2. Pigs enjoy feed filth and hence its flesh is disgust to persons of decent taste 3. Islamic Scholars say that eating of pork decreases the human being sense of shame 4. Modern researchers have found that pork carries more fat (above 55%) compared to other types of flesh. This is also harmful to the human body d. Animal killed for Idols: This refers to any animal slaughtered with invocation of a name other than that of Allah 1. Allah is the creator of all creatures. He has given a man the permission to take the life of animals as his food on a condition that he invokes His name while slaughtering the animal 2. In using ay name other than that of Allah while slaughtering man forfeits this permission and must be denied the use of its flesh 3. Prohibition of eating an animal dedicated to other names, other than Allah is entirely related to faith and it safeguards the belief in the oneness of Allah and purifies worship against shirk and polytheism **Islamic principles on slaughtering ** 1. Mention the name of Allah 31 ----- # 2. The animal to be slaughtered must be faced the Qiblah 3. The slaughtering is by cutting the throat or by piecing the hollow of the throat and the windpipe, the gullet and the two jugular veins 4. Slaughtering should be done by a male Muslim 5. The slaughtering object must be sharpened 6. The slaughtering object should not loose contact with body of the animal until fully slaughtered 7. The animal must be health 8. Do not slaughter the animal in front of the others 9. Do not sharpen the slaughtering object in front of the animal 10. The blood must be drained from the animal slaughtered **Circumstances/conditions for eating prohibited foods and drinks ** 1. During war 2. During famine 3. Extreme-hunger i.e. when no other food is available 4. Under threat for ones life 5. Medical necessity **Conditions for using prohibited foods and drinks as medicine ** 1. When the life of a patient is in danger if he does not take that medicine 2. When there is no alternative or substitute medicine whose source are entirely halal 3. When a Muslim or reliable physician who is God-fearing prescribed the medicine **B. Vain talk ** Vain talk means useless talk. It is the type of talk which does not benefited neither the one who talks nor the listener **Effects of vain talk in the society ** 1. It may lead to quarrels and misunderstanding, because the listeners may go and misreport what they have heard intentionally or unintentionally 2. Allah hates vain talk 3. It may lead to backbiting which is haram (forbidden) 4. It may lead to Ghibah Nameemah (slandering) which is haram (forbidden) 5. It may lead to disunity in the society 6. It may lead to wastage of time, hence it effects the progress of the society **Ways in which a Muslim can refrain from vain talk ** 1. Muslims should remember that each one of them, has been assigned two angels to record all what he does and talks 2. The successful Muslims (believers) they avoid such talk by occupying their free time with Ibaada or helping the community on social matters 3. The true believer (Muslim) is a person who feels the burden of responsibility at all times; this makes him behave seriously and responsibly in his life 4. By feeling your heart with things to focus such as remembrance of Allah and admiring His creation 5. By keep on pondering on how to put up structures which are beneficial to the community instead of indulging in vain talk 6. By advising and warning those who are indulge in vain talk on it effects **C. Abortion ** - It is the termination of pregnancy. - It means to remove the fetus from the womb - Muslim jurists have defined abortion as: getting rid of the fetus before the completion of pregnancy duration. - Abortion is considered as killing a human being and is prohibited in Islam **Circumstances under which abortion can be acceptable ** 1. When the pregnant woman is young and small it is feared that childbirth would cause her death 2. When is suffered from a disease of the uterus, makes it very difficult for the uterus to emerge 32 ----- # 3. When the fetus dies in the womb of the mother 4. If the mothers life is in danger as a result of pregnancy and it has been proved by the reliable doctor. 5. If the pregnancy might cause a disease in the body of the mother **Effects of abortion in the society ** 1. It decline the child the right to be born 2. It violates the rights of the child 3. It increases the number of unwanted pregnancies 4. It is also violence to womans pregnancy 5. It leads to irresponsible sexual behavior 6. It is an agent of the spread killer diseases like HIV/AIDS 7. It goes against the law of nature 8. It may cause decline of population 9. It is sometimes leads to death of the mother 10. It is a crime since it involves killing of human beings which is forbidden in Islam 11. It increases the rate of divorce in the society 12. It leads to moral decay in the society 13. It lowers mankind to the level of animals or worst **D. Slander ** It is an act of spreading evil against chaste person by either by either intending to spoil his name or his dignity **Effects of Slander in the society ** 1. It destroy the mutual trust within individuals i.e. when some people start suspecting others and backbiting them 2. Slander can leads to divisions among people hence disintegrating a society 3. It creates enmity and discord between the Muslims Ummah and leads to destruction 4. It cause hostility between people of the same household and between neighbours, friends and relatives 5. It reduces dignity of the person 6. It combines many other evils like lying, spying, backbiting etc. 7. One will get sins 8. It is against prophets teachings **The slander can be punished under the following conditions ** 1. He/she should be an adult 2. He/she should be normal/sane 3. He/she should have committed slander out of his/her own will and not be forced 4. He should not be the father or grandfather of the accused **E. Israf (Extravagance) ** Israf means overspending on anything i.e. foods, clothes etc. **Ways of Israf (Extravagance) ** 1. Extravagance in clothing. Some people have number of clothes in their wardrobe and they never wear them 2. Extravagance in marriage. Some marriage ceremonies are stink of extravagance 3. Extravagance in time. Some people spend a lot of time in useful things 4. Extravagance in money. Some people waste a lot of money buying forbidden things e.g. Miraa **c. Islamic manners on: ** **i. Walking ** 1. Do not walk arrogantly and proudly i.e. walk humbly and naturally 2. Gauze down at the evil sighted 3. Do not drag your feet 4. Never walk with one shoes only 5. Remove harmful pieces out of the way 6. Greet those you know and those you do not know 33 ----- # 7. Help those who need your help like the blind, to cross the road or strangers (travellers) who do not know the direction 8. Women should avoid walking in between men 9. Women should not wear something which may attract the attention of the opposite sex or applying a strong perfume 10. Men should avoid gazing at the opposite sex and vice versa 11. Stand when sight Janaza 12. Men should walk in front of women 1. Wash the hands before eating 2. Sit upright and avoid leaning while eating 3. Start with the name of Allah (Bismillah) 4. Eat what is in front of you 5. If the food is hot should be cooled down 6. Eat slowly and not hurriedly 7. Eat with right hand 8. To eat with three fingers 9. Not to find fault with the food served 10. To pick up and eat fallen morsel and not to leave the same to Satan 11. Be satisfied with the food served 12. To read the dua after eating 13. To wash the hands after eating **iii. Sleeping ** 1. On should go to bed earlier i.e. after Isha prayers 2. Recite some dua before sleeping 3. One should take ablution before sleeping 4. Sleep on you right side and facing Qibla 5. One should not sleep while lying on ones stomach 6. One should read prescribed surahs before sleeping 7. One should recite shahada before sleeping 8. Count yourself on the deed executed of the day 9. One should thank God for a good dream and ask Him for protection in case of a bad dream 10. It also preferable to pray two rakaas before resting to bed 11. When one get up from his bed he should recite dua **iv. Dressing ** **a. Idle dress for Muslim men ** 1. He should not wear a dress made of silk at all 2. He should not wear a ring of made of gold 3. The dress should not resemble the dress of women 4. When putting on shoes one should begin with the right foot 5. The dress should be clean and free from any sort of impurity 6. The dress should not resemble the dress worn by the members of other faiths 7. The dress should cover nudity i.e. the part of his body between the navel and the knees 8. The dress should exceed the ankle **a. Idle dress for Muslim women ** 1. The dress should cover the whole body except the face and the hands 2. The dress should not be tight fitting to show the figure 3. The dress should not be transparent so as to display the body 4. The dress should not resemble the dress of men 5. The dress should not be attractive so as to draw attention for men towards her 34 ----- # 6. The dress should not resemble the dress worn by the members of other faiths 7. The dress should be clean and free from any sort of impurity 8. The dress should be perfumed except if worn only within the home and in the absence of ousiders 1. State an idle dress for a man and woman according to Islamic law 2. Highlight Islamic manner on: a. Walking b. Eating c. Sleeping 3. Define abortion and identify situations where one is allowed to do abortion 4. List the demerits of vein talk, slander and Israf 5. Suggest ways in which tongue can be used in proper manner 6. State reasons behind prohibition of the following: # a. Flowing blood b. Dead animals c. Pork d. Animal killed for Idols 7. Name prohibited foods and drinks 8. Under what circumstances one is allowed to partake haram food 9. Highlight the advantages of practicing the following: a. Shukr b. Justice c. Forgiveness 10. Describe the dimension of Islamic morality **Chapter: 6 Muamalat ** **Mirath (Inheritance) ** **Meaning of Mirath ** Literally: Means transfer of a thing or property from one person to another. Technically: is defined as a science, which shows the eligible heirs as they are assigned or prescribed shares of inheritance by application of some Mathematical and Jurisprudential doctrine or principle. **Causes of Inheritance ** 1. Relative: a. Roots : fathers and grandfathers b. Branches: sons and grandsons 2. Marriage: Husband and wife 3. Slavery: a master can inherit his or her free slave **Essentials of inheritance ** Before any rights to Mirath are to be claimed, there are three essentials elements, which should be exist. These are 1. Deceased person 2. Survival of an heir 3. The estate **1. Death of a Deceased person ** It must be proved that a person whose property is in question has died in fact or in law. In fact is when he dies a real and actual death and in law when his death is being declared by an authorized court of law. This is the case of a missing person whose where about are not known. **2. Survival of the heirs ** It must be proved that legal heirs, who are claiming of any right in whatever property that the deceased person might have left, are surviving at the time of the deceased death. In case of the unborn baby, he can only inherit if: a. The pregnancy was there at the time of the death of deceased person. 35 ----- # b. The baby must come out a live during delivery. **3. The estate ** This is a property, which is left when a person dies. **Reasons to disqualify a person from inheritance** 1. Homicide: if someone kills a person intentionally will not inherit his/her property 2. Difference in religion: a Muslim cannot inherit a none-Muslim or vice versa. 3. Slavery: a slave cannot inherit a free man or vice versa. 4. Adultery: an illegal child cannot inherit his father or vice versa. ** Administration of the Estate ** Before the legal heirs could claim any right in whatever property left by the deceased person, there are some rights and obligations, which should be settled. This includes:- a. Debts b. Funeral expenses c. Payment of legacies (Wasiyya) 1. Debts, these include the following: # a. Properties, goods or money, borrowed by the deceased person prior to his death, have to be paid before any division of inheritance. b. It may be unsettled dowry which has not been paid by the deceased fully or has been paid partially. c. The debts of Allah, which may have remained unsaved by the deceased. This may include fidya of missed fasts, Zakat, Hajj or kaffarah (expiation) NB: The debts can only be paid where there is a documentary proof or where the deceased person has confirmed them prior to his death or where there are reliable witnesses. **2. Funeral expenses ** - These re expenses connected with washing, shrouding of the body of the deceased, transportation and burial of the corpse. - It is agreed upon by the scholars that these expenses are always payable from whatever property a deceased person might have left provided these expenses are within the limit of sharia approves. **3. Payment of legacy (Wasiyyah) ** a. Meaning: wasiyya (will) is written or oral statement made by a person while a live showing his/her wishes in regard to distribution of a third of his/her estate - The one who makes a will is called testator (al musi) and the one on whose behalf a will is made is called testate (al musi-lahu) **b. Conditions of wassiyyah** 1. The will should be witnessed by either two males who are trustworthy or four females who are also trustworthy 2. The testator must be sane and adult (someone who has reached puberty) 3. The will should not exceed a third of the estate 4. The person named in the will (taste) should not be the rightful heir 5. The testator should not be under compulsion while making the will 6. The testator must understand the nature and the effect of his/her act 7. The testator has the right to change or cancel his will during his life time. 8. The will should not be implemented until all the funeral expenses and debts are paid 9. The testator must own whatever he/she wills **c. Significance of wasiyyah ** 1. The will gives the testator an opportunity to help someone .i.e. an orphan or a relative who is not entitled to inherit him 2. It can be used for appointment of guardian for ones children. 3. It is a Sunnah act to write a will to the poor relatives and some pious people who are in need of help. 4. It can be used to clarify the nature of joint accounts i.e. a bank account in the name of more than one person e.g. a husband and wife) 36 ----- # 5. It is a reminder to the testator to strive in the cause of Allah and prepare himself for the next life. 6. To implement the sharia and obey it to the full. 7. It creates happiness in the society 8. Acts as remembrance to the deceased 9. It eliminates poverty 10. It can act as a continuous charity **Heirs and their shares ** Heirs are those people who have the right to inherit. There are three clases 1. The Quranic shareholders (Dhawi-Furudh) 2. Agnates/residuary (Al-Aswabah) : are those who take the remain of estate after all the Quranic # shareholders have taken their shares e.g. father, son, full brother, maternal brother, grandfather, brother of the father (either full or half-paternal) sons of the above mentioned. 3. Cognates: these are relatives whom they inherit in absence of the Quranic shareholders (except the husband and wife) and residuary e.g. relatives on the maternal side. They can be male or female e.g. son of the daughter, son of the sister, uncles on the mothers side, ant etc. **1. The Quranic shareholders (Dhawi-Furudh) ** - The word Faraidh it means a share of inheritance, which the sharia assigns to each and every legal heir from whatever property a deceased person might have left. - These assigned shares mentioned in the Quran are six in number. They are , [1] /4, [1] /8, [2] /3, [1] /3, and [1] /6 . - The Quranic shareholders mentioned in the Quran are twelve in number; four are males and eight are females. The male ones are: father, husband, paternal brother and paternal grandfather. The females are: wife, daughter, full- sister, maternal-sister, daughter of the son, mother and grandmother. - Allah mentioned shares and the shareholders in the following verses {Q 4:11}, {Q 4:12} and {Q4: 176} **Quranic shares and the shareholders ** 1. is mentioned in the Quran in three places a. A share of one direct daughter of the deceased or daughter of his son, when there is only one daughter and no son or grandson. b. A share for one sister whether a full-sister or paternal sister and no brother c. A share for the husband whose wife dies childless 2. [ ] is mentioned in the Quran in two places a. A share for the husband whose wife dies leaving behind a child (a boy) b. A share for the wife whose husband dies childless 3. [1] /8 is mentioned in the Quran in one place a. A share for the wife whose husband dies leaving behind a child a (boy) 4. [2] /3 is mentioned in the Quran in two places a. A share of two or more direct daughters of the deceased or daughters of his son, when there is no sons or grandsons b. A share for two or more sisters whether full-sisters or paternal sisters and no brothers 5. [1] /3 is mentioned in Quran in two places a. A share of a mother whose son and daughter dies leaving behind neither children (sons and daughters) nor brothers and sisters. b. As a share of two or more maternal brothers or sisters or a combination of both 6. [1] /6 is mentioned in the Quran in six places a. As a share of mother and father (parents) when the deceased leaves behind children b. As a share of a mother when she coexists with brothers and sisters. c. As a share of a single paternal brother or sister. When there is no father, grandfather, children and he/she doesnt have brothers or sisters. d. For a single daughter of a son (granddaughter) when she coexists with a single direct daughter and she (granddaughter) doesnt have brother. e. A grandmother when there is no father 37 ----- # f. For a single paternal sister in presence of a single full sister **Conditions of inheritance ** 1. All the heirs must get their rightful shares 2. All the funeral expenses must be paid from deceased wealth 3. All debts must be paid before the distribution of inheritance 4. The distribution of wealth must be done by learned Muslim scholars e.g. learned Kadhi **Significance of Inheritance ** 1. The law recognizes the right of women in the participation of economic development as opposed to the # Jahilia period. 2. It brings about harmony and fairness between men and women in the society 3. It is a commandment of Allah and its violation is punishment in the hereafter. 4. Its stop greedy relatives from depriving the weak heirs from getting their rightful shares. 5. It respects the right to property ownership of an individual earned through honest means 6. It makes sure that the one who causes the death of another does not inherit the deceased 7. It minimizes the misuse of wealth since the estate is satisfactory shared by the heirs 8. This law confirm the legitimacy of both children and parents 9. It proves to man that he is not the absolute owner of wealth and hence he cannot pass it to others as he wishes 10. It cements love among the family members and brings solidarity among them 11. Islamic law of inheritance being divine law, has remained unchanged throughout centuries and decades 12. The shares are higher or lower according to the individuals responsibilities 13. It gives security to those left behind by the deceased **Wealth and property ** **Islamic teachings on the acquisition of wealth ** 1. All wealth belong to Allah 2. Wealth should be spent in a way that is pleasing to Allah 3. Wealth should be spent in a way that is pleasing Allah 4. Should be used to support ones immediate family members 5. Should be used to help needy and the poor 6. Should be used for the welfare of the country or community 7. Should be used for spiritual development 8. Wealth should be developed or increased 9. Wealth should be obtained through fair means 10. Allah has given man the right to exploit his wealth and dispose it in the right manner **Kinds of earning in Isalm ** a. Fardh (compulsory earnings): work for maintenance of oneself and the family b. Mustahab (commendable earnings): work to help the poor or for religious cause c. Mubaha (lawful earnings): work to get more without the intention of helping others. d. Haram (unlawful earnings): indulge oneself in unlawful ways of earning **Sources of earnings ** **1. Legitimate ways of earning ** Islam encourages Muslims to earn wealth and prescribes way through which a man should earn. There are many sources of earning and they can all be put into the following classes: a. Trade and commerce b. Industries (working in the industries) c. Livestock and Agriculture (Farming) d. Services or employment **2. Illegitimate ways of earning** These are sources of earning which are forbidden according to Islamic shariah.. The following are illegitimate sources of earning 38 ----- # 1. Gambling or game of chance 2. Directly or indirectly dealing with intoxicants 3. Prostitution (commercial sex) 4. Hoarding: it means hiding essential things which would later be sold at a higher price when such commodity or article is scarce 5. Black market trade: an illegal form of trade in which foreign money or goods that are difficult to obtain, are bought and sold 6. Smuggling: it is the crime of taking, sending or bringing goods secretly and illegally into and out of the country 7. Lending and borrowing with interest (Riba) 8. Mulasamah: is whereby a buyer is not given an opportunity to examine the item 9. Muzabanah: is the exchange of fresh fruits for dry ones 10. Beging by those who can work. 11. Business in unlawful things e.g. flesh of swine, blood, carrion and alcohol 12. Monopoly business **Tijara (Trade and commerce) ** - Trade was commanded by Allah Allah has made trade lawful (Q 2:274) - Prophet Muhammad himself and other prophets engaged in trade - Islam therefore, put a lot of emphasis on trade and commerce for the legal acquisition of wealth **Buying and selling ** - A sale is a contract between a seller and a buyer. - The seller declares the goods to be purchased and their prices. - The buyer may accept or reject in words or writing **Islamic teachings on buying and selling ** 1. Goods should be freely distributed 2. No overcharging 3. A purchaser has a right of option and may reject the upon inspection and detection of defect 4. A seller should disclose defects on the article and sincerely describe the quality of the goods 5. Non should be forced to buy **Kinds of sales in Islam ** a. Salami: This is buying of a farm produce before it is harvested and paying for it in advance. b. Swayrafi; This is the sale of cash for cash i.e. change of sterling pound to Kenya shillings c. Bei Mutlaq: This is a free sale of an article for cash e.g. buying a kilo of sugar in a shop. d. Muqayadha: This is a sale whereby an item is exchanged for another (barter trade) **1) Honest in trade ** **Importance of honest in trade ** 1. An honest trader will find more and more customer 2. An honest trader will be rewarded by Allah 3. It eliminate poverty 4. It builds the Muslim brotherhood 5. It creates happiness in the society 6. It leads to success and prosperity in business 7. It creates development of faith/trust towards each other. **2) Record keeping in trade ** ** Importance of Record keeping in trade ** 1. It helps towards the smooth and effective operation of the business 2. It reduces disputes among Muslims 3. It gives the proper agreement between the two parties 4. It helps in keeping of proper records in any form of transaction 5. It can be used as a reference whenever a problem occurs 39 ----- # 6. It acts a center of reference **3) Agreements and contracts** **Islamic teachings on agreements and contracts ** 1. It should be consistent with the Quran and sunah 2. There should be a mutual consent of parties concerned 3. The terms must be clear to all the parties involved and according to the shariah 4. The parties involved must be Mukalaf (matured) 5. There must be reliable witnesses 6. The right to be annulled must be included in contract 7. The persons entering agreement must be sane 8. An agreement must be put in writing 9. The persons signing agreement must do it willingly **Islamic teachings on ** **Lawful and unlawful acts in trade ** **Lawful acts in trade honest in trade ** 1. By giving correct measure 2. To give honest description of the goods asked for 3. To ask for fair price 4. To sell goods which are in proper condition and accept them back when rejected 5. Not to cheat, force or blackmail one buying goods which one does not need **Money lending ** - The concept of money lending in Islam is Halal **Conditions for money lending ** 1. The transaction should be recorded in writing 2. There should be two male witness or one male and two female witnesses 3. The amount borrowed should be the amount to be paid back, i.e. interest (riba) is haram **Islamic teachings on loan and debts ** 1. The term must be honored 2. The agreement should be reduced to writing 3. There should be two witnesses or one male and two female witnesses 4. The term should be simple and clear 5. The persons should be Mukalaf (matured) 6. All parties involved must be in agreement 7. The lender should by no means charges interest **Unlawful acts in trade ** **A. Riba (interest) ** - Interest: Is extra money that you pay back when you borrow money. - Allah said in the Quran Allah has permitted trade and forbidden interest (Q 2:275) **The effects of usury (interest) ** 1. It leads to corruption and violation of human rights 2. It can leads borrower to commit suicide in case he fails to pay back 3. Its an easy way of getting money which leads to laziness, idleness and extravagancy 4. It is a form of economic exploitation 5. It makes the lender selfish 6. It encourages greed for wealth 7. It ruins the borrower 8. It may leads to poor relationship between the borrower and the lender 9. The children may inherit their parents debts 10. It may bring misery/hardship or poverty to the borrower and to the whole family. **B. Hoarding ** 40 ----- # It is the hiding of essential things which would later be sold at a higher price when such commodity or article is **The effects of Hoarding ** 1. It promote dishonesty in trade 2. It creates unfair competition in trade 3. It deprive the customers of essential commodities 4. It creates artificial shortages causing difficulties to the community 5. It creates greed for wealth 6. It creates hatred in the community 7. Prices of goods go up **C. Monopoly ** It means possession of sole right to supply goods to the customers. **Circumstances under which monopoly is allowed in Islam ** 1. When monopoly has not been attained as a result of deceit(treachery) or unfair competition 2. When goods are distributed freely to all customers 3. When no favourism is practiced by the supply 4. When the price charged to the customers is fair and no exorbitant **Corruption ** It is unlawful acquisition of wealth especially at the expense of the public. **Types of corruption ** 1. Transaction corruption: This is where a shopkeeper sells goods at a higher price than the recommended 2. Extortion corruption: This is when a person blackmails another to pay protection fees for non-existing services i.e. police officer who takes bribes from vehicle which is in good condition 3. Nepotism corruption: This is when merit and objectivity are sacrificed to favour ones relatives 4. Deceptive corruption: This is when one secure a job by lying i.e. presenting a forged document for employment 5. Supportive corruption: This is where a person with an authority uses his power to save another person who is guilty of a crime e.g. a judge setting a guilty person free because of bribery. **Causes of corruption ** 1. Unemployment: due to lack of job and need for money one will have to do corruption to get his need 2. Effect from mass media: people does what they see on television as they take as examples and imitates 3. Reluctance to take those in authority to task over corruption 4. Poor remuneration/salary in the job market, which may results in temptation to engage in corruption practices 5. Greed for wealth by many citizens 6. Disregard for professional in the country 7. Absence of moral standard in the country 8. Lack of efficient law towards the stoppage of corruption in the country 9. Political patronage: involves favour and normally seen in the appointment of public officers who are unsuitable for the position **Effects of corruption in the society ** 1. It removes confidence and trust in the public servants 2. It increases the rate of unemployment and poverty 3. It leads to insecurity in the society 4. It leads to inefficiency in the public and private sector 5. It distorts/changes the purchasing power and hence leads to economic uncertainty. 6. It leads to the production of substandard goods and services 7. It creates hatred among the society members 8. It leads to higher prices of goods and services which can leads to poverty and society instability 9. It breads injustice in the society by making some people to gain wealth without labour 41 ----- # 10. It eradicates the sense of feeling and sympathy for individual 11. It leads to officers unfit for posts to be appointed for higher responsibilities and offices 12. It may leads to violence and war **Ways of eliminating corruption in the society ** 1. To educate the people on the causes and the effects of corruption 2. Reinforcing the law and its agents 3. Not accepting giving bribes 4. Reporting those involved in corruption for prosecution 5. Selecting and appointing public servants for responsibilities on merit rather than tribalism, nepotism or # political patronage 6. Advocating for good morals and good governance in individuals and organizations in order to prevent corruption 7. Advocating for upholding of professional standards and ethics 8. People should learn to be contented and not expect too much too soon 9. By encouraging economic empowerment e.g. increment of salaries 10. By encouraging transparency in whatever people do **Assignment ** 1. Explain the meaning of the term Mirath 2. Discuss the essential of Mirath 3. State the conditions of Mirath 4. Explain the Islamic teachings on acquisition of wealth and property 5. Identify legitimate sources of earning 6. Identify the significance of upholding ethuical value in commercial enterprise 7. Discuss the component of agreemants and cntracts 8. Identify lawful and unlawful acts in trade 9. Describe the evil of corruption in the society 10. Suggest ways to curb corruption in the society 11. State the conditions for borrowing and lending money in Islam **Chapter: 7 History of Islam ** **Ummayyad Dynasty/Reign/Empire/Era: ** - It derived its name from their great grandfather Ummayyad - This Dynast lasted for one hundred and twelve years (from 40AH to 152 AH) **The rise of the Ummayyads ** **Courses of the rise of Ummayyad ** 1. The assassination of Caliph Uthman the third caliph of Islam. 2. The assassination of Caliph Ali the fourth caliph of Islam 3. Active support of the assassins to Ali (R.A) 4. The refusal of the companions to pledge their loyalty to the new caliph {Ali (RAA)}. 5. Cry on retribution (revenge) for the blood of Uthman(R.A) 6. The shifting of the Muslims head-quarters from Mecca and Medina to Syria and Kufah by Ali and Muawiyya. 7. The trick played by Muawiyyah in arbitrating led to domination of Ummayyad. 8. After the death if Khalifa Ali, Hassan who was his elder son ruled as a Caliph for six Months. 9. Hassan refused to wage war/fight against Muawiya and decided to step down in favour of Muawiyyah. 10. Muawiyyah had vast/huge resources and fertile province (Syria) and the support of his family and the Syrians. 11. The battle of the camel and the arbitration of Ali and Muawiyyah. **Administration of the Ummayyad ** 1. The basis or the government was a strong efficient army it relied on loyal and faithful Syrian arm. 2. The Muawiyyads are credited to have been the first in Islam to establish as department of registry (Diwanul khatam) 42 ----- # 3. Muawiyyah is said to be the first to introduce the postal service (Diwanul-Barid) 4. The revenue of the state was derived from the same resources as under the righteous Caliphs name (a) Land tax (Kharaj) (b) Poll tax(Jizya) (c) Poor tax (zakat) (d) Customs and tributes (e) Spoil of war (Ghanimah) 5. In the financial matters the administration was decentralized in the provinces and all local revenues were deposited in the provincial treasury and the expenses of local administration were met from the local income; the balance was deposited with state treasury at Damascus. 6. The government appointed judicial officers. They were always recruited from the Faqih clan of learned scholars, jurists and theologians. 7. The non-muslims were given autonomy (freedom) under their own religious laws. 8. Muawiyyah at the start of his regime he established ship building factory at Akka on the Syrian Coast. **Factors which contributed to the fall (decline) of Ummayyads dynasty ** 1. Vastness of the empire 2. The principle of Islam that the people must elect the head of the state ceased to be the case. Thus they lacked the support and co-operation of the people. 3. Deviation from Quran and Sunnah as most of the rulers were engaged in worldly pleasure. 4. Most of the rulers were weak and incompetent. 5. Negligence in administrative affairs and lack of interest in public works on the part of Caliphs made the # Ummayyad`s rulers very unpopular. 6. There was rampant corruption and selfishness. The Caliphs entrusted the administrative works mostly to the selfish and corrupt officials. 7. Quarrels between the Ummayyads family making them weak and hence breaking them up to clans because of succession disputes. 8. Harshness of the rulers to other religions and faith resulted to the growth of social unrest/disturbance in the empire i.e. denying freedom of worship. 9. Misuse of state funds. Most of the Caliphs misappropriated state funds for their own use. This led to the bankruptcy of the state. 10. The opposition of the Shias. They never forgot the tragedy/disaster of the Karbala and subsequent ill treatment to the Prophets family i.e. the cursing of Caliph Ali in the Khutba. 11. Attack by the Roman and Byzantines leading to weakness and loss of some of its land. 12. The abbasid movement dealt a deathblow to the tottering/shakable empire. This movement cleverly put the claim of the Abbasid as the descendants of the prophet. ** Achievements of Ummayyad ** 1. They restored/returned order in the Muslim empire after the civil war. 2. They brought changes in the administration of the country with a strong and efficient army. 3. They made Arabic official language of the entire Islamic nation. 4. They standardized the currency used in the Islamic empire. 5. They introduced vowel and diacritical marks in the Arabic script, which made it easier for the non-Arabs to learn it. 6. They expanded Islamic empire e.g. during the reign of Abdul-Malik. 7. They introduced population census in the Muslim empire e.g. Omar Ibn Abdul-Aziz. 8. They improved the social amenities/facilities/services of the Muslim empire e.g. hospitals roads. 9. They built canal, bridges and introduce land survey e.g. Umar Ibn Abdul-Aziz. 10. The field of poetry, music and sports developed rapidly in the empire during their reign. **Selected Ummayyad rulers ** **1. Muawiya Bin Abu Sufyan ** **His background ** - His name is Muawiyah bin Abu Sufyan bin Harb bin Ummayyah. - His father (Abu Sufyan) was the chief of Makkah. - His mother Hindu bint Urban bin Rabiah 43 ----- # He was born in Makkah five years before the prophet hood. This makes him to be thirty five years younger than the Prophet. He was educated, intelligent and eloquent. He and his family embraced Islam during the conquest of Makkah. He was one of the writers or scribes of the Wahyi. Muawiya first went to Sham (Syria) in the army of his brother Yazid bin Abu Sufyan who Abubakr (R.A) had sent on an expedition. His brother became a governor of Sham. When he died Abubakar chose Muayiwah to succeed his brother. When umar was Khalifa he acknowledged him. Uthman made him the governor of the whole of Syria. **His Caliphate ** - Immediately after the assassination of caliph Ali (R.A)Muawiyah was declared Caliph at Jerusalem in 40 AH 660 A.D. - He shifted the Islamic capital from Kufah to Damascus. - After Caliph Ali Hassan (Alis elder son) ruled as a Caliph from Kufah for nearly six months. - Hassan disliked war and violence. He refused to wage war against Muawiyah and stepped down in favour of Muawiyah. - Muawiyah then became the sole Caliph in 40 AH 660 CE. - He chose his governors very well i.e. capable people. - He treated his people with justice. - He ruled as a great king, attended by pomp wealth and luxury in direct contrast to the simple rule of the earlier Caliphs. - After securing the whole of the empire under his direct rule, he gave orders for it to be extended. **His Death ** Muawiyah died in April 680 CE / 131 AH. After ruling for about 20 years, he was successful in his governance internally and externally. **His Achievement ** 1. He was the first to establish postal services in Islam. 2. He expanded the Islamic empire in all direction using Army and Navy. 3. He was the first to have body guards in the history of Islam. 4. He built a beautiful gigantic palace in Damascus which he named the green palace 5. He made Arabic official language of the entire Islamic nation. 6. He restored order in the Muslim empire after the civil war. 7. He was known for good organized system of administration. 8. He was the founder of the Ummayad and name it after his great grandfather Ummayad 9. He managed to bring to justice those who were suspected to be murders of caliph Uthman arrested them and put them to death 10. He began the kingship system in politics by appointing his son Yazid to succeed him. **Political situation after the death of Muawiyyah ** - There had been 20 years of total tranquility, peace and harmony in the Islamic empire, but immediately after the death of Muawiyyah, problems surfaced. - Muawiyah decided to appoint his son Yazid to take over the caliphate after his death. - The people of Kufah wanted Hussein bin Ali to be their caliph. They wrote to him and asked him to go to kufah. - The people of Mecca and Medina wanted Abdullah bin Zubeir to be their caliph **2. Yazid bin Muawiyyah ** **His background ** - His name was Yazid bin Muawiyyah bin Abu Sufyan - He was born on 26 A.H/649 AD 44 ----- # He was the most irreligious of the Umayyads. He preferred wine, music and sport at the expense of public **His Caliphate ** He was nominated to the caliphate by his father 680 AD during his life time He was the second Umayyad caliph from (680- 683AD) Immediately after his succession the opposition broke out from Khwarij, the Banu Hashim, and the Quraysh of Medina and Mecca Muawiyyah particularly warned Yazid against Abdallah Ibn Zubeir (RAA) and advised him to deal gently with Hussein (RAA). After assuming caliphate Yazid sent orders to leading citizens in Medina calling for oath of allegiance to him - Both Hussein and Abdallah Ibn Zubeir refused to acknowledge the caliphate of Yazid - The opposition has religious grievances aimed at restoration of the true caliph accordance with the Quran and Sunnah of the prophet (saw) and hatred for centralized government and the desire for provincial autonomy. **The Tragedy of Karbala ** - Karbala is place where Hussein was killed - The people of kufah sought Husseins help against the tyranny of Yazid - Hussein answered their call and set off to kufah with his family, relatives and supporters, they were less than 80 people. - On the first day of Muharam Hussein pitched his camp on the plains of Karbala - Ubaidulllah bin Zaid (Governer of kufah) sent an army of 40000 men under Umar bin Saad to meet Hussein and his supporters - Hussein asked Umar bin Saad the commander of the army to allow him one of the three:- 1. To return to Medina 2. To be taken to Yazid bin Muawiyyah 3. To be allowed to go to the eastern boarders to take part in the Jihad - The commander refused all and insisted on fighting. As a result, Hussein and all his people were martyred on 10 [th] Muharram 61 AH - Husseins head was chopped off from his body, carried, smeared with blood and placed it before Ubaidillah bin Ziyad **Turmoil in Medina and Mecca ** - The death of Hussein in Karbala forced the people of Medina to relinquish their allegiance to Yazid bin Muawiyyah - They chased away his governor - Yazid sent an army to Medina and put the holy city under siege and broke the laws of the sacred land. - Then the army went to Mecca and put it under siege too and defiled the secret of the holy mosque and they rained blocks of stones on the shrine of the Kaaba. **His Death ** - Yazid died on 683 AD in Syria, after being in power for 3 years - The news of his death stopped the army from continuing the siege since it was uncertain who would succeed him in leading the army. - Yazid is remembered for three evils:- 1. The murder of Hussein under his leadership 2. Destruction and killing of innocent people in Medina 3. Attacking the kaaba and damaging Mecca **His achievements ** 1. He continued the policy of his father Muawiyyah 2. He strengthen the administration structure of the empire 3. He improved the military defenses in Syria by increasing the power of the navy 4. He made improvement in Agriculture and irrigational system in Damascus 45 ----- # 5. He reformed financial system 6. He tighten taxation of some Christian groups **Abdul-Malik bin Marwan ** **His background ** His name was Abdul-Malik bin Marwan bin Abu Al-Aas bin Ummayah bin Abdu-Shams He was born on 26AH during the caliphate of Uthman bin Affan - He was born and educated in Medina. His father was the secretary of Uthman bin Affan He memorized the Quran, besides studying Jurisprudence, tafsir of the Quran, hadith, literature and poet He remained in Medina until 683 AD when his fathers family was driven out of the city of Medina by Medinas who revolted against the central government of Damascus **His caliphate ** - He became caliph after his father Marwan bin Hakam in 685 AD - At his time the force opposing the Banu Ummayah were still formidable i.e. :- 1. In Hejaz Abdullah bin Zubeir was endorsed as the caliph 2. The Khawarij emerged again and were causing prolems to the empire through constant opposition 3. In Iraq Musab bin Zubair was sent to be the governor by Abdullah bin Zubeir - Abdul- Malik prepared a strong army and went to Iraq in 689 AD. He managed to defeat and kill Musab bin Zubair and his supporters and bringing Iraq under his control - Then he prepared a much stronger army and kept it under the command of Hajaj bin Yusuf. He besieged Abdullah bin Zubeir in mecca and killed him in 692 AD - Then Hajaj moved with his army to crush Khawarij in 697 AH. He defeated them - Ummayad rule was greatly strengthened by Abdul-Malik bin Marwan who enjoyed good relations with high circles in Medina and gained considerable moral influence in the Islamic world **His death ** - Abdul-Malik died at the age of 62 years in 705 AH. After ruling for 20 years, before his death he named his sons to succeeded him beginning with Walid, Suleiman, Yazid and Hisham **His achievements ** 1. He made Arabic official language of the Muslim empire 2. He established an official mint in Damascus and issued the first Arab coins of gold, silver and bronze. Earlier the Arabs used Persian coins 3. He improved Arabic script by including vowels and diacritical marks 4. He improved prevailed postal services by increasing the number of postal units and making the service more efficient ad regular. 5. He built the dome of Rock at Jerusalem at the site of the prophets halt (stop) during Miraj 6. He encourage d poetry and rewarded the poets with the intention of using them to propagate his rule and himself 7. He crashed the Byzantine 8. He also crashed the Khawarij 9. He re-innovated and developed religious places e.g. he expanded the great Mecca mosque and the prophets mosque in medina 10. He put in place a very firm administration by replacing the in-efficient servant with others for good relationship **Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz ** **His background ** - He was the son of granddaughter of Umar bin Khatwab (RAA) (Ummu Assim bin Assaim bin Umar bin Khatwab) - He was born in Hilwan (village in Cairo) in 681AD - His father was a governor of Egypt 46 ----- # He inherited the blood as well as the qualities and ideas of his great ancestor and namesake Umar bin Khatwab He memorized Quran by heart at a tender age His father sent him to medina to acquire more knowledge When his father died his uncle Abdul-Malik took over his upbringing in Damascus and ultimately married him to his daughter (Fatimah) - Walid took over from his father Abdul-Malik when the later died Umar was appointed the governor of medina in 705 AD and set a very good example In medina he appointed a council of ten eminent jurists to advise him He repaired the damaged part of the city caused by caliph Yazid and Abdul-Malik and enlarged the mosque of the prophet (saw) **His caliphate ** - He took over after Suleiman who proposed him for the caliphate in 717 AD. - Suleiman consulted his trusted minister Rajaa ibn Haywata as to whom should the caliphate be given - Raja firmly approved the choice of Umar - Suleiman wrote his will proposing Umar - When Suleiman died, Rajaa read the will to all. However, Umar stood on the pulpit and said O people I have appointed to this position without being consulted, without me asking for it and without being the consultation between Muslims. I am therefore giving up the position and give you the freedom of your own free choice.. - As he stepping down from the pulpit, the people around said in unison that they wanted him to lead them - He loved simple life and showed great devotion to his caliphate - He distanced himself from the pride of the kings and aggressiveness - He established the actual life style of the guided caliphs who used to look at their people the way the father would do it his children - He considered the baitul-Maal as sacred trust and would not spend a single penny for his personal use - Immediately after his succession to the caliphate he sold of his horses from the royal stable by auction and deposited the proceeds in the Baitul-maal - He made his wife offer all her ornaments and jewels to the public treasury. The devoted lady obeyed her husband - He is regarded by Historians as the fifth caliph after the first four guided caliphs, because of the character and outstanding qualities **His death ** He died at the age of 39 years in 720 AD, after ruling for three years **His achievements ** 1. He introduced pensions for the non-Arab Muslims (mawali) for their military services 2. He stimulated the spread of Islam in Asia and Africa 3. He considered the state treasury (Baitul-Maal) as sacred trust and never spent a single penny for his personal use 4. He constructed mosques, schools, bridges and channels 5. He introduced census of people during his reign 6. He strictly appointed government officials based on merit and piety 7. He restored the practical equality of all Muslims by exempting the payment of kharij (poll tax) from the new converts 8. He brought peaceful coexistence among the people of different religious e.g. he reduced taxes for the Christians 9. He forbade the sale of land to non-Muslims to the Muslims in order to prevent fall in revenue. Since the Muslims did not pay the poll tax. 10. He discontinued the practice of cursing Ali and his descendants in the sermons 11. He reformed jail system and ordered the governors to visit it weekly to avoid mistreatment 47 ----- # **Criticism of Umars policy ** 1. His administrative policy was more suited to the propagation of Islam rather than preservation of caliphate of Banu Umayyads family 2. His exemption of the new converts from the payment of kharij caused a great fall in state revenue 3. He also recorded practical equality to the mawali (the non-Arabs Muslims) in all affairs of state. The policy # affected aristocracy of the Arabs in general and Umayyad in particular 4. His general policy to Alis family proved detrimental/harmful to the Ummayyads family 5. He stopped all expansion campaigns of the empire **Islam in East Africa Coast ** **Spread of Islam in Interior of Kenya ** **North Eastern ** - The conquest of the Eastern Horn of Africa and parts of the Eastern Africa Coast by the army of Abdul- Malik, the ruler of Syria in the 7 [th] century played some role in the spread of Islam in North Eastern part of Kenya. - The Somalis who were living there gradually embraced Islam - The Somalis moved North Eastern part of Kenya; they came in contact with the Gala and Boran. - The Gala who had no heavenly religion first opposed the Somalis who were teaching them Islam - The integration with the Gala and Boran gave rise to the hybrid tribes such as the Rahnwein - Their integration with Boran and Gala people meant Islamism - The nomadic life of Somalis i.e. moving from one place to another looking for pasture and water facilitated the spread of Islam in this area whenever they went, they influenced the local people to convert to Islam - In the 20 [th] century, the spread of Islam in the region became more effective due to influence of the Muslim teachers from the Coast and from Somali land - The Muslim teachers put up Madrassah (Duksi- preliminary Islamic Schools) where Islamic knowledge was taught. - They built mosques which they used to mobilize Islam to the people in this region - British colonialist used Somalis in some areas of administrators. This is because they regarded them to be very intelligent, and to avoid clash with them. This influential people also played part in the spread of Islam - In order to check the Somali Islamic Influence on the Pokomo and the Boni people, the administrative officers created special district areas - This controlled the movement of Somalis across River Tana into the District of Lamu - The Islamic influence by then had already spread across the areas covering Marsabit, Mandera, Wajir, Garissa ant the Pokomo area up to Bura, Hola and River Tana to Garisen and kipini - Evidently in these regions still keep well developed Islamic cultures and literature **Factors influence the spread of Islam in North Eastern ** 1. The arrival of Muslims teachers from Somali land and coast of Kenya to the area 2. The position of Arabia from Somali where the Muslims Arabs could easily cross the red sea and have the contact with Somalia and North Eastern Kenya 3. The establishment of trade between Somalis and the Arabs 4. Intermarriage between the Somalis and the Arabs with the local people of North Eastern 5. The hospitality of the Somali community in welcoming the visitors and being generous to the people 6. The Somali culture which is closely related to that of Arabs helped in easily acceptance of Islam by the Somalis 7. The establishment of Madrassas (Duksi) and mosques where Islamic knowledge was taught 8. The nature of the lifestyle of the Somali community of moving from one place to another in search of water and pasture helped in the spread of Islam 9. Somali Muslim administrators played major party in spread of Islam in North Eastern 10. The conquest of the Eastern Horn of Africa and part of East Africa by the army of Abdul-Malik **Islam in central Kenya and Nairobi ** - Muslims took long time before moving to this area - This was mainly due to the constant attack of the Portuguese on the coastal area 48 ----- # When the Oman Arabs defeated Portuguese and managed to restore peace in the coast, then the Arabs and Swahilis ventured into the interior to look for tradable goods In the process of trade they spread Islam - In the 19 [th] century Maalim Mtondo from Tanganyika, was a pioneer in the field of Islamic missionary work at Pumwani in Nairobi He built a small mosque, where he preached Islam and attracted a good number of kikuyus and kambas who later became his disciples The disciples of Maalim Mtondo managed to bring more people to Islam The early Muslims established three Islamic villages in the city of Nairobi. These are:- 1. Kambi ya waswahili in pangoni and Easleigh, where there were three mosques with learning Institutions (madrassa) 2. Mji wa Mombasa in Ngara 3. Mji wa kabete at Fort smith - Some Sudanese Muslims also settled at kibera and preached to the local people of Nairobi Islam - During the building of the Uganda railway from Mombasa to Nairobi, a number of Asia Muslims came to settle in Nairobi - They built mosques and madrassa and participated in the spread of Islam. The most prominent among these was Maulana Abdulla Shah who built the Jamia mosque - Around 1920 the colonial officers forced Muslims to evacuate most areas of Nairobi - Many Muslims shifted to Fort Hall (Muranga) and Nyeri, but those who in Pumwani were not affected - Pumwani remained the Centre of Muslims activities in Nairobi over since - Two brothers (Abeid and Mohammed Mbarak Domoni) from the coast moved to the mount Kenya area in the late 19 [th] century and settled at Muranga and built the mosque there in 1895 - In Embu an Islamic foundation was built between 1900 and 1920 - In Meru mosques and learning institutions (madrassas) were established by the two brothers **Factors that influence the spread of Islam in central and Nairobi ** 1. Defeat of Portuguese by Oman and restore of peace at the coast, that enable Arabs and Swahilis traders to # move to interior 2. The building of the Uganda Kenya railway from Mombasa to Nairobi, brought Asia Muslims to settle in Nairobi 3. The establishment of three Islamic villages in Nairobi 4. The establishment of the mosques and madrassa (learning institutions) in the area 5. The arrival of preachers and sheikhs to the area 6. The intermarriage between the Arab traders and the local people ease the spread of Islam 7. The presence of Arab trading centers in the up-country 8. Some Sudanese Muslims also settled at kibera and preached to the local people of Nairobi Islam **Factors which slowed down the spread of Islam in the central part of Kenya ** 1. The primary interest of Muslims who came to the area was trade while spreading of Islam was second 2. Association of Muslims with slave trade 3. The material reward offered by the non-Muslim missionaries unlike the Muslims 4. There was no commissioned Muslim missionary to spread Islam unlike Christianity 5. The land behind the coastal strip was dry, waterless and rising sharply 6. Hostility of some tribes i.e. the kikuyu, the maasai and the Nandi who did not like strangers to pass through their regions **The spread of Islam in western Kenya ** - Mumias has been Centre of Islam in western Kenya since 1870. The caravans of the Swahili traders from the coast visited this area - Mumias derived its name from the paramount chief of the area named Nabongo Mumia who became the leader of his tribe (wanga) in 1883. 49 ----- # Nabongo Mumia was hospitable person. The waswahilis were always well received by the chief Mumia and his cabinat. He gave them quarters to stay and provided them with food and other necessities The Muslims also appreciated i.e. on the Idd day they visited him in his court to give him Idd greetings The chief was so moved by that gesture and he decided to became a Muslim He was named Muhammad Nabongo Mumia Soon many members of his cabinat followed the suit and joined Islam His three brothers Kadima, Mulama and Murungu became Muslims and adopted Muslim names The traders and the local people were friends. They exchanged views in free discussions and assisted each other in all aspects, which lead to conversion to Islam - The existence of intertribal conflicts between the Maasai, the luo and Mumias chief. The Swahili on the request by Mumias, used their guns to defeat his enemies - This lead to the Muslims being awarded the status of brotherhood to members of the society and it enhanced the spread of Islam - Intermarriage between the local people and the waswahili, this helped in bringing more converts into the fold of Islam - Building of Uganda Kenya railway played a very important role; it brought in the area many traders from the coast who was Muslims. Besides many Asians Muslims who were employed on the construction of the railway line, they settled in many areas of western Kenya and in the process they influenced many local people into become Muslims - When the colonialists came to Kenya, they found that many people were already Muslims, they employed them. These Muslims used their positions to enhance the spread of Islam. **Factors that helped in the spread of Islam in Mumias ** 1. It was a Centre of trade between the Arabs, the Swahilis and the local people of wanga community 2. The conversion of the king Nabongo alongside with some members of his cabinet 3. Intermarriage between the Arabs and local people 4. Establishment of mosques and madrassas in the area 5. Islamic etiquettes brought good relationship between the Swahilis and the local people 6. Celebrating of Islamic festivals and ceremonies e.g. Iddd facilitated the spread of Islam 7. Building of Uganda Kenya railway played a very important role in the spread of Islam 8. Chief Nabingo Mumia invited many Arab traders to Mumias and eventually spread Islam 9. Chief Nabingo Mumia gave Arabs settlers lands and provided them with food and other necessities 10. He made the inhabitant to cooperate with Arabs hence ease the spread of Islam **Islam in Uganda ** - Islam was the first international religion to reach Buganda - In 19 [th] century the region (Uganda) was divided into several kingdoms of which the kingdom of Buganda was the most powerful - The Bugandas ruler was known by the hereditary title kabaka the king - The kabaka controlled both the government and in the and in some time traditional religion of the kingdom - He ruled his subject through a council of great chiefs, called the Lukiko - The Buganda believed that the kabaka possessed powers. To them he was not only the law giver, but also the master of life and death **Arrival of Islam in Uganda ** **The reign of kabaka Suna ** - In 1844 an Arab from Zanzibar named sheikh Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim set his foot in Uganda 9HE WAS the first Muslim to came to Uganda) - He visited the court of kabaka Suni - After usual greetings, the sheikh sat on a stool near suna and witnessed him performing pagan rites. - He was surprised to see a number of Buganda executed as a sacrifice to the pagan god - Sheikh Ahmad stood firm on his feet, and rebuked Suna for the act. 50 ----- # He told Kabaka Suna to stop killing Allahs beings. He told him Allah is the greater than everything and creator of universeand he told him that it is a great sin to destroy Allahs creation in that manner Instade of Suna punishing him, he said to him Iwant to hear more about this Allah who is greater than me The sheikh responded to the king by reciting verses of the Holy Quran and explained the teachings to the The king was impressed about the teachings and started learning a few chapters from the Quran, but he did not profess Islam and he died a traditionalist After this encounter, Sheikh returned to the coast and later paid a few visits to Buganda. During kabaka Sunas time many Baganda were converted to Islam A few Baganda chiefs embraced Islam and as a result the trade between the Arabs and the Baganda increased - In 1865 AD kabaka Suna died **Factors which helped the spread of Islam in Buganda during Kabaka Suna ** 1. Kabaka Suna listened attentively to sheikh Ibrahim advices 2. Kabaka Suna did not rebake sheikh Ibrahim 3. Kabaka Suna was impressed by lecture given by sheikh Ibrahim 4. Kabaka Suna allowed Arab traders to come to Buganda 5. Kabaka Suna offered settlement to the Arab traders 6. Kabaka Suna stopped pagan rites e.g. sacrificing human-beings **a. The reign of kabaka Mutesa ** - After the death of Kbaka Suna his son Kabaka Mutesa took over the throne and he was only 18 years old - During Mutesa reign many coastal Muslims came to the country to trade - The Arab traders constantly visited him and taught him Islam at his request - In 1865 AD Mutesa declared himself a Muslim **The role of Kabaka Mutesa in the spread of Islam ** 1. He declared Islam the state religion of his kingdom 2. He ordered all his chiefs, courtiers and rest to embrace Islam 3. Quran teaching was practiced in his palace 4. He built a central mosque in his palace and ordered his chiefs to build the same in their provinces 5. The daily five prayers and Jumaa prayers were strictly observed 6. He banned drinking of alcohol among his subjects 7. He encouraged Muslims traders and missionaries to settle in Buganda 8. Muslims were held in high esteem in his kingdom. 9. He ordered the slaughtering of animals according to Islamic shariah 10. He rejected the use of hunting dogs 11. He gave high positions to several Buganda Muslims. 12. He ordered the approval of using Islamic calendar 13. Mutesa declared Buganda an Islamic state in 1867 AD 14. Mutesa created a special department to look after the affairs of the mosques 15. He also instructed to be greeted in Islamic version **Factors that favoured adoption of Islam during Mutesas period ** 1. Mutesa wanted to gain political supremacy. He found that by associating with the Arabs he could easily get this 2. He desired to control trade especially in firearms and the freedom of raid his neighbours as he wished 3. The Arabs provided material goods superior to the local people 4. The Arabs provided better means of communication than traditional ways i.e. writing 5. The Arabs provided better heading methods compare to the traditional methods **Reasons why the reign of kabaka Mutesa is regarded as the golden period of Islam in Uganda ** 1. Quran reading: - Quran reading in Buganda was serious done in 1882. In Mutesas court, Quran reading was the first item to be done. Mutesa himself read Quran through the help of a local trader known as Nakabukala and which his chiefs followed the same and spread fast to the houses 51 ----- # 2. Circumcision:- Bagandas threw away their traditional and started to follow Islamic rites of male circumcision # although, Kabaka himself refused to face the knife because he protected the traditional that Kabaka couldnt shed blood but his chiefs and the subjects were circumcised 3. Prayers were held with great esteem and Kabaka himself was very strict on these 4. Many of the chiefs were converted to Islam which also helped the subjects to embrace Islam 5. Mosques were built in every place and every part of the country side 6. Mutesa created a special department to look after the affairs of the mosques 7. Slaughtering of animals was done according to Islamic rules and regulations 8. Mutesa appointed a committee to supervise the acts of slaughtering in accordance with the Islamic rules 9. He also instructed to be greeted in Islamic version 10. Bagandas started to follow Islamic behavior by dressing in Islamic attire 11. Mutesa declared Buganda an Islamic state in 1867 AD 12. Mutesa made his followers to embrace Islam and follow its teachings 13. He crowned those who accepted Islam with high post in the government 14. The introduction of intermarriage between the Arabs and the local people helped in the spread of Islam during his era 15. Mutesa invited many Arab Muslims to Buganda and this facilitated the spread of Islam in Buganda 16. Mutesa provided settlement for the Arab Muslim traders 17. Islamic panel code was awarded and the traditional sacrifices were done away **Factors that led to decline of Islam in Buganda ** 1. Circumcision: - The Buganda Muslims wanted Mutesa to face the knife but he refused to submit to this rite. # This refusal created rebellion in Mutesa and subsequently contributed to the down fall of Islam 2. Muslim disobedience: - In 1876 some devoted Muslims refused to eat meat slaughtered through pagan riteand praying behind Mutesa as he was uncircumcised, this disobedience infuriated him and he ordered the killing of 70 Muslims. This killing facilitated the down fall of Islam 3. The coming of H.M Stanley in 1875 - H.M Stanley was a Christian Missionary who visited Buganda and he was received with honour and respect from Kabaka Mutesa. Kabaka did this in order to safeguard his interest from the European powers. Gradually Mutesa started to change and later he left Islam which in turn angered Muslims. 4. The Egyptian (The Khedive regime) - They claimed that parts of the kingdom (parts of Nile in Uganda) and they captured Bunyore kingdom. This event worried Mutesa and also the Arab traders feared for their market. 5. H.M Stanley being an opportunist, he threatened Mutesa that if he will remain a Muslim he will be circumsed by force. This made Mutesa to be against Islam and Muslims 6. The Muslim Turkeys: - Muslims in Turkey made demands to Mutesa to be very particular in following Islam e.g. to follow Islamic rites in slaughtering and leading the prayers. This pressure created fear in Mutesa and hated Islam which leads to its downfall 7. The coming of the church missionary societies as well as the catholic fathers in Uganda- Due to existence of many religious in Uganda, Mutesa decided to observe both (Christianity and Islamic). He supported Christianity due to provision of the firearms but in 1880 AD he declared himself a Muslim again but this time he allowed his subjects to choose the faith they preferred **Arrival of Christianity in Uganda ** - In 1876:- They are two events which spearheaded Mutesa`s disenchantment with Islam and decided to join Christianity 1. Some devoted Muslims, influenced by Islamic teachings of Egyptian force, refused to eat meat slaughtered through pagan rite 2. They refused to pray behind Mutesa as he was uncircumcised. - This disobedience infuriated him and he ordered the killing of 70 Muslims. - It was at this time, that H.M Stanley visited Kabaka Mutesa and persuaded him to become a Christian in 1879AD 52 ----- # In 1880AD Mutesa declared again he is a Muslim but this time he allowed his subjects to choose the faith they preferred **The influence of Christianity in Uganda ** The effect of coming of Christian missionaries was basically had a negative impact towards the spread of Islam in Uganda Both Muslims and Christians were struggling to get new converts from the local people The Christian missionaries had better weapons and this was a favourite of the local leadership Christian missionaries through their provision of secular education played a great role in hindering the progress of Islam The schools were centers of conversion where the intimates were only taught how to read the bible and be good Christian. - The missionaries were also against the founding of government schools, as they wanted to monopolize the provision of education. **Death ** Kabaka Mutesa died in 1884 AD **Religious wars after Kabaka Mutesa ** **b. The reign of kabaka Mwanga ** - Before the death of Kabaka Mutesa, He forwarded prince Mwanga to the power/throne - When Kabaka Mutesa died Kabaka Mwanga succeeded him - Mwanga was a boy 18 years and when he assumed Kabakaship he appointed members from both religious but Muslims dominated the post - Kabaka Mwanga was neither a Muslim nor a Christian - These two sects didnt appreciate how Kabaka Mwanga was running the government. And when Mwanga discovered this, he applied wrath activities on them hence blundering the country - The two groups joined their forces to oppose and overthrow Mwanga from the power and he fled to south of lake Victoria - In 1888 AD the tyrant Kabaka was overthrown and fled to south of Lake Victoria and lived in exile **c. The reign of kabaka Kiwewe ** - Prince Kiwewe succeeded Kabaka Mwanga and he shared the posts between the two groups equally - It was intended that when Kiwewe assumes the kabakaship would embrace Islam and the post of Katikiro to be for the Muslims - Kabaka Kiwewe gave the post to the Christians - This resulted to tension between the two group eventually led to a shooting incident and the Christians decided to evacuate from the capital - Barely a month after his accession and a week after the withdrawal of the Christians, kabaka Kiwewe conspired with the pagan chiefs to execute the whole Muslim leadership in which a few Muslim leaders were killed, and the commotion arose which made the Kabaka fled the capital - A force was sent to capture him. He was captured and killed - The Baganda Muslims installed prince Kalema as the new Kabaka **d. The reign of kabaka Kalema** - The first move Kalema embrace Islam - He had himself circumcised - He adopted the name Rashid Kalema - He wrote to Sayyid Barghash, the sultan of Zanzibar to the effect that he is now a Muslim - He moved his headquarters to nearby hill and called it Lungujja a Buganda word meaning Zanzibar - He wished to be known as the sultan of Buganda - All important posts in the kingdom were given to the Muslims - He made several pagan chiefs to embrace Islam **NB: ** 53 ----- # The exiled Christians with the helped of white missionaries who supplied them with guns and ammunition with the help of the exiled Kabaka Mwanga and his followers. finally they were able to break the power of Muslims, captured their stronghold and set fire to the palace of Kalema after which he fled to Bunyore and he died there of small pox. Mwanga was called back and his kingdom was restored to him As a result of Christian victory, Buganda was converted into a Christian state and all the posts were allocated to the Christians. **Islam in the interior of Tanzania ** **a. Spread of Islam in Tabora ** Muslim traders from Zanzibar and Sultans established Inland trading posts with the goodwill of the local chiefs. - The most tribal chief with whom the Muslims fostered cordial relations was chief Mirambo, the ruler of Unyamwezi - Muslim traders built Swahili town near the Mirambos headquarters at Tabora and used the town as a trade post - Mirambo used the Arab traders to have his influence felt and accepted - As a result most of his tribal chiefs embraced Islam and they were taught principles of the Islamic faith as well as Swahili language - The chiefs became instrumental in spreading of Islam to many of the interior - The Nyamwezi converts worked for the Arabs and Swahilis as porters, messengers, labourers, soldiers to their caravans - The converts also played a major role in the spread of Islam in their areas **Factors that influence spread of Islam in Tabora ** 2. The establishment of Inland trading posts in Tabora 3. The goodwill of the local chiefs who accepted and spread Islam in their areas 4. The cordial relations between the sultans, traders and the local chiefs e.g. chief Mirambo 5. Many of the chiefs learnt Kiswahili and this further helped in the spread of Islam 6. The local community admire the culture of Muslims 7. The Nyamwezi converts played a major role in spread of Islam 8. The Sultan of Zanzibar used to give financial support for the spread of Islam 9. The building of mosques and madrassas 10. The intermarriage between the Muslim traders and the local people 11. The personal contact between the Muslims and the indigenous people **b. Islam in Ujiji** - Ujiji was a terminal port for traders to cross to Congo and beyond - It was a partner of Tabora both of which acted as a trading and resting Centres in the interior of Tanzania - It was a market of considerable importance in the area - The Muslim (Arab) traders exchanged vegetables, fruits, goats and dairy produce with the coastal goods which they brought with them - The famous Tippu Tip (Muhammad bin Hamad) lived at Ujiji between 1840-1887AD and conducted a flourish trade, from Ujiji to Congo - His good relationship with chief Mirambo helped in protecting Muslims and their Islamic interests in the interior - The good relationship which the Muslim traders established with the indigenous, had a strong impact in spreading of Islam - Muslim teachers from Ujiji helped in the spread of Islam in the interior of Tanzania and in the Congo as well. **Factors that influence spread of Islam in Ujiji** 1. It was a terminal point for traders to Congo and beyond 2. The local community were friendly 3. There were no geographical barriers such as mountains 54 ----- # 4. There were plenty of fruits and cereal foods 5. The intermarriage between the Muslim traders and the local people 6. It was important market place where the Muslim (Arab) traders exchange their coastal goods with fruits, goats, milk etc. 7. The building of mosques and madrassas 8. It was near the sea 9. The good relationship between the Muslims and the local chiefs e.g. Tipu Tip 10. The good relationship between Tipu Tip and the Nyamwezi chief, chief Mirambo who was a Muslim **Social contribution of Muslims in East Africa** 1. Muslims built their own hospitals e.g. Agha Khan, Alfarooq and Mewa 2. They are also available in local and international broadcasting station 3. Muslims are heading national football team e. g. Muahammad Twahir 4. They have being living with other members of different faiths peacefully 5. They are in NGOs to promote peace 6. Muslims they run orphanage centres 7. Muslims are engage in sensitization and rehabilitation of drug addicts 8. Muslims are participating in development of education through building of Islamic Institutions (madrassa) and schools e.g. Sheikh Khalifa, Abu Huraira, Qubaa etc 9. Muslims are major facilitators for spreading of Swahili language which is spoken throughout East and # Central Africa 10. Muslims introduced the new manners of lifestyle and speech, dressing, eating, sleeping etc. **The role of Muslims in economy of East Africa** 1. Muslims are engaged in whole sale and retail business 2. They contribute in the transport and communication e.g. Construction of roads, shipping and airline business. 3. They are engaged in commerce and industry either as employer or employees 4. They practice Agriculture and animal husbandry 5. They are engaged in commercial fishing as fishermen 6. Some Muslims work as brokers and commissioners 7. They work in the hotel business and in tourism industry 8. Muslims helped in promoting trade between Kenya and Arabia countries 9. They run or sponsor Institutions which offer skills for job opportunity 10. Muslims are paying taxes to the government 11. They are in banking industry **Muslims contribution to the political development of East Africa ** 1. Muslims gave their ideas in the running of their government and schools 2. Muslims contribute to debates on the constitutions of their respective governments 3. Muslims have representatives in parliament in their respective states 4. Muslims are found and occupy high posts in forces in their respective governments 5. Muslims in East Africa have the right to air their problems and bring changes if need be i.e. if the government policy contradict the Islamic teachings 6. Muslims in East Africa helped in keeping peace and maintaining order i.e. elders take part in reconciliation of warring clans 7. Muslims in East Africa have ambassadors who represent the interests of the mother countries abroad 8. Muslims have Qadhis who are appointed by the government to represent the interest of the Muslims in their respective states 9. Muslims they participated in different political parties 10. Some Muslims were appointed as commissioners 11. They are involved in rallies and political demonstration **Factors that influence the spread of Islam in the interior of East Africa ** 55 ----- # 1. The contact between the Arabs, Swahilis and the African traders from interior 2. The availability of trading items which the Arabs exchanged with goods from interior such as cotton, cloth and beads with Ivory, copper, cattle, goats etc. 3. Early settlements in the coast by a group of Muslims who ran away from their motherland and settled at 4. The simplicity of the Islamic religion attracted the Africans to embrace Islam 5. The intermarriage between the Arabs, Swahili traders and the local people, encouraged many to became Muslims 6. The establishment of the Swahili villages in the interior also helped in the growth of Muslim settlements i.e. # in Nairobi, Mumias etc. 7. The embracing of Islam by the local African chiefs such as chief Nabongo of Mumias. 8. Some tribes like Yao, Wanga etc. cooperated and accepted Muslim traders in their land and further helped in the spread of Islam 9. Building of Uganda Kenya railway played a very important role in the spread of Islam 10. Establishment of mosques and madrassas in the area **Factors that hindered the spread of Islam to interior of East Africa** 1) Lack of missionary work. Early Arabs did not have active missionaries, their main concern was trade. 2) Fear that Islam is too strict and harsh made the Africans not to accept Islam 3) Lack of means of transport between the coast and the interior of East Africa 4) Hostile communities such as Maasai, kikuyu and Nandi made the Muslims not to venture into the interior 5) Language barrier. The interior people and the Arabs didnt understand one another 6) There were few kingdoms in the interior which could provide protection to the Arabs 7) Competition from Christians. The Christian missionaries were very active in the interior. 8) The decline of the power of the sultan of Zanzibar in the 19 [th] century who was instrumental in encouraging Arabs traders to penetrate to the interior 9) False slogan of Islam i.e. association of Muslims with slave trade 10)Fear of wild animals and fierce people in the interior **Assignment ** 1. List down factors that hindered the spread of Islam to interior of Kenya 2. Give factors that help the spread of Islam to the interior of Tanzania 3. Identify factors that caused the spread of Islam in Mumias 4. Identify factors that caused the spread of Islam in Ujiji 5. Identify factors that caused the spread of Islam in Tabora 6. Identify factors that helped the spread of Islam in North Eastern 7. Identify factors that helped the spread of Islam in Central Kenya 8. Identify factors that helped the spread of Islam in Western Kenya 9. Described the arrival of Islam in Uganda 10. State factors which helped the spread of Islam in Buganda during Kabaka Suna 11. What are the decline factors of Islam in Buganda 12. Explain the religious war after the death of Kabaka Mutesa 13. What role did Muslims in Kenya played in the constitution of Kenya 14. Discuss Muslims contribution in the economic growth in Kenya 15. Highlight the social contribution of Muslims in Kenya 16. Highlight challenges faced by Muslims in East Africa **Chapter: 8 Muslim scholars ** **Uthman Dan Fodio ** **a. His birth and early life ** - Sheikh Othman Dan Fodio was born at Maratta, a town in Hausa state of Gobira on 29 [th] Safar 1168 AH/15 [Th] December 1754 AD 56 ----- # He was brought up in a well-educated family. He learnt a lot from his father Muhammad Fodio who was well known scholar of his time i.e. Quran and Arabic language. He undertook advanced studies from renowned Muslim scholars in their respective fields in Tafsir, Hadith, Fiqh, Arabic Language, Tasawuf, Arithmetic and Astronomy. **b. His works, education and personal life ** Before reaching the age of 20 years he wrote a book in his mother tongue an at the age of 20 years he wrote his first work in Arabic {a poem in praise of the prophet (saw)} At his early stage he was disturbed by the level of Ignorance of the society, especially the women and the spread of innovations (bid a) and wide spread of un- Islamic practices. He educated the public on the fundamental of religion and Sunnah of the prophet (saw). He started giving public lectures, sermons in and around his hometown. He was joined by his brother Abdullah and much later his son Mohammad Bello - In order to rectify the religious, social and political ways of his people, Sheikh Uthman came up with an idea of establishing a well-organized group (jamaah) - Many delegations were sent to sheikh asking him for permission to carry out jihad. Sheikh permitted them - The whole of Hausa state and parts of Borno was turned into a battle field. The jihad went on until about 1808 AD the jamaah emerging victorious **Establishment of caliphate in Sokoto by Sheikh Uthman ** - Sheikh Uthman first started by reforming his society against un-Islamic beliefs and practices - He did a lot of missionary works which endeared well with masses - He won a lot of followers and was able to identify the corrupt religious leaders within Nigeria at that time - He fought and won the jihad with the jamaah and he found himself in command of a large territory on the Hausa state. - He established caliphate in Sokoto with the help of Muhammad Bello who was his personal assistant - Sheikh Uthman made Sokoto as his capital, after having brought other states of Hausa under him - The caliphate continued for almost a hundred years until the British colonialist dropped it in 1903 and made it part and parcel of Nigeria **Reasons for the rise of Jamaah movement under Uthman Dan Fodio ** 1. The conviction of people through the teachings and exemplary life of Sheikh Uthman 2. The feeling of freedom by masses who have been enslaved by the emperors 3. Sheikh Uthman advocated for a simple life which made people follow him 4. He established a strong army which over run neighbouring states who later joined his movement 5. Sheikh involved people in discussions making and in affairs of the state 6. Hausa appreciated a new efficient system of administration that kept them in peace and stability **The administrative structure of Uthman Dan Fodio (from the top to the bottom) ** i. The caliph ii. Wazir ( The prime minister) iii. Governors (who also served as advisors to the caliphs) iv. Judges and law enforcement personal v. Revenue collectors {who also distributed zakat and Ghanimah (booty)} vi. Economic and welfare officers: they work directly under the revenue collectors vii. Officers managing different services in the empire e.g. roads, prisons, mosques etc. **c. His death ** - Sheikh Uthman ruled Hausa state up to 1817 AD when he died without appointing a successor but the jamaah chose his son Muhammad Bello. **d. Contributions and achievements of Sheikh Uthman Dan Fodio ** 1. He established a caliphate in Sokoto which secured for Islam firm roots and gave the whole region peace and stability 2. He wrote several books which benefited and transformed his generation and the forthcoming 3. He spread knowledge through seminars, lectures and actual teachings 57 ----- # 4. He confronted the rulers face to face and managed to change some 5. He fought for the rights of women as advocated in Islam 6. He championed for the cause of women education. Wives and daughters were an example they were learned and left literary works behind 7. He stressed the need to respect the Madhahib of Islam as every Imam tried to make religious easier for us and not to create enmity 8. He was a good role model for his followers not only to admire but also to follow 9. He fought the Christians missionaries who wanted to spread Christianity in West Africa 10. He established strong diplomatic ties with the Arab countries 11. He fought against female circumcision. He taught through the prophetic traditions that it was not part of # Islam. **e. Social reforms of Sheikh Uthman Dan Fodio ** 1. He was very vocal in educating women thus allowed women to be out of their houses and seek education provided they will cover themselves properly. 2. He addressed issues of marital relationship and how to strengthen the bond between two people 3. He advocated for the stoppage of female circumcision 4. He taught people many Sunnah of the prophet (saw) e.g. building of mosques, ways of eating etc. 5. He concentrated most of his time in clearing the heart i.e. most of his text dealt mainly with ria (showing of) **Al- Ghazal ** **a. His birth and early life ** - His full name was Abu Hamid Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Al-Ghazal - He was born in the location of Ghazalah at Tusi in Khurasan (Iran) in 450 AH/ 1058 CE - He grew up as an orphan **b. His works, education and personal life ** - He received his early education in his home village - At the age of twenty he went to join the Nizamiyah Madrasah in the city of Nisapur, which was great Centre of Islamic studies - There he studied at the feet of Imam Al- Haramain Al-Junaidi the most famous intellectual of that time - Al-Ghazal was gifted with a retentive memory, a keen intellect and an amazing capacity of work - He became the best student of Imam Al- Haramain and he appointed him as his assistant - When his teacher(Imam Al- Haramin) passed away, Nidhamul-Mulk Attusi the prime minister of Baghdad was attracted by Al-Ghazals intellectual attainments and appointed him to run Nidhamiyyah Academy in 484 AH/1091 CE - AL-Ghazal taught at Nidhamiyyah for four years - In 1106 CE, Al-Ghazal experienced a sudden transformation in his ideas and finally he fled from Baghdad, he became a dervish roaming from one place to another, for ten years he lived that life - In 1106 CE/499 AH he accepted the request of the sultan to go back to Nidhamiyayah college, but he did not remain there for more than a year - In 1108 CE he went back to his native town (Tusi) where he established a Madrasah for his disciples. There he led a life of seclusion until death. **c. His death ** He died in 1111CE at the age of 53 years. **d. Reasons for Imam Al-Ghazal to live in seclusion for ten years ** 1. He was not satisfied with the worldly affairs 2. He developed serious internal conflict with himself and felt deep mental anguish (unhappiness/severe pain) 3. His attention was mainly in the hereafter and hence denounced science and philosophy which he felt were not important in the hereafter. 4. He wanted to purify his soul and engaged in meditation 5. He wanted to study deeply religious doctrines 6. He believed that he got internal call to live alone and leave worldly life 58 ----- # 7. He drew an inspiration from the life of the prophet (saw) and decided to be faithfully to Allah through seclusion and meditation 8. He wanted to strengthen the ethic of society and root out corruptive ideas 9. He wanted to establish the best guidance for mankind **e. His contributions ** 1. He awakened the spirit re-Islamization in the society by carrying out a detailed analysis of its moral and spiritual life 2. He criticized the Ulama for wasting time in debating on insignificant issues instead of devoting their energies # to the essential duties 3. He had great desire for knowledge and discovered that the best guidance for man is to revealed knowledge. 4. He traveled to Nisapur to teach at Nidhamiyyah Academy 5. He was the first doctor of the religion of Islam to strike at the roots of the Greek philosophy 6. He wrote two books to criticize the irreligious doctrine of Greek philosophers 7. He wrote numerous books on Islam, covering different subjects e.g. Al-Munqidh, Ihya etc. 8. He is recognized as a Mujadid (reviver of Islam) in the Muslim world 9. He was a great teacher and eloquent speaker whose lectures attracted a cross-section of people which include nobles and chiefs 10. He stressed on study of tradition biography of the prophet (saw) and modeling of Muslims according to his life 11. He is credited for lying down the foundation of the scientific scholastic system (philosophy based on religious principles) in the Asharite school of theology **Code of conduct formulated by Imam Al-Ghazal for a Muslim ** 1. A Muslim should have good intention always in all his deeds and actions 2. A Muslim must have unity of purpose in serving Allah. He should trust Him and strive to do good 3. A Muslim should constantly conform to the truth and have the courage to fight against his own inclinations (desires) 4. A Muslim should avoid all innovations in religious (Bida) and respect authority 5. A Muslim should avoid procrastination and show steadfast and determination in his work. 6. As human beings, Muslims should acknowledge their limitation to accomplish anything without the help of Allah 7. On the doctrine of salvation. Al-Ghazal tells Muslims not to feel secure from Gods punishment and be satisfied merely with their good conduct in life, but to put their hope (Rajaa) in Allah who is All-merciful 8. Muslims should lead a life of devotion and prayers 9. Muslims should observe and watch over their hearts (Muraqabah) 10. Muslims should concentrate to the knowledge of Allah to brings them closer to God **Imam Ghazal views on childrens education ** 1. He held the view that knowledge exists potentially in human like the seed in the soil but by learning the potential becomes actualized 2. He wrote that a child is a trust (placed by God) in the hands of the parents and his innocent heart as a precious element capable of taking impressions 3. A child who is brought up in righteousness by his parents and later teachers will live happily in this world and in the next world and God will reward them for their good deeds. If they neglected the child upbringing and education, he would lead a life of unhappiness in both worlds and they would bear the burden of the sin of negligence 4. A child should be taught the words of creed in his earliest days and should be taught the meaning gradually as he grows older. This should follow the three stages i.e. memorization, understanding and conviction (believing in something strongly) 5. He stress that children should be polite and obedient to parents, teachers and elders 6. Children should taught not to love money, for love of it is a deadly poison 7. Children must be trained on hygiene i.e. not to blow or clean the nose in public 59 ----- # 8. As the child grows older, he must observe the Islamic rules i.e. fast a few days in Ramadhan, avoid wearing # silk, gold and silver, lying, treachery, vices and violent language. 9. Education according to Ghazal is like labour of the farmer, who uproots the weeds, trims wheat so as to grow better and give a better yield. 10. He stated that every man needs a teacher to guide him in the right direction 11. The teacher should be tender to his pupils as they were his own children 12. Children should be taught according to the capacity and ability to absorb knowledge 13. The teacher must respect the less gifted pupil, who if left alone or criticized might suffer 14. He insisted, that pupils must be allowed to have creation. **Duties of the teacher according to Al-Ghazal ** 1. He is the father for his pupils 2. He must teach for the sake of Allah 3. He should advice his students with fore-thought 4. He should fight the excessive urge of the student to learn too quickly to overtake his peers 5. He should be reprimand with moderation, in private, not in public 6. He should make sure that what he teaches, he pursues in life i.e. be an example or a role model 7. The teacher should not criticize the subject taught by another Contributions of Al -Ghazal to Islamic theology 1. He was a scholar of Fiqh, natural science, philosophy, logic and mysticism (knowledge of God) 2. He was a professor of Islamic theology in the University of Nishapur 3. He also served as president of Nidhamiyya college in Baghdad 4. People came to seek advice from him on matters concerning religion and politics 5. He was author of many books on theology, fiqh and philosophy 6. He was often engaged in arguments debates and discussion on theological matters. This won him the title of Authority in Islam (Hujjatul Islam) 7. He became a Sufi and contributed to the development of Sufism (living very simple life with meditations) 8. He lied down the foundation of the philosophy based on religious principles in the Asharite school of theology 9. He awakened the spirit re-Islamization in the society by carrying out a detailed analysis of its moral and spiritual life 10. He was the first doctor of the religion of Islam to strike at the roots of the Greek philosophy **Assignment ** 1. Give brief account of Uthman Dan Fodio 2. Explain the social reforms of Uthman Dan Fodio 3. Explain the administrative structure of Uthman Dan Fodio 4. Give reasons for the rise of Jamaah movement under Uthman Dan Fodio 5. Discuss the achievements of Uthman Dan Fodio 6. Trace life history of Imam Al-Ghazal 7. Give reasons why Imam Al-Ghazal renounced the world and lived in seclusion for ten years 8. Give contribution made by Imam Al-Ghazal to Islamic theology 9. Identify reasons a Muslim can learn from the code of conduct by Imam Al-Ghazal 10. State the code of conduct formulated by Al-Ghazal 11. Outline the views of Imam Ghazal on childrens education 60 ----- 61 ----- |
**FORM ONE HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT**<br><br>**INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT** **THE MEANING OF HISTORY** History is an account of events that took place in the past. History may also be defined as a branch of knowledge which deals with past events of human beings and their response to their environment over the years.R.G Collingwood, in his book The Idea of History (OUP 1994) defined history as a science concerned with the human actions in the past, pursued by interpretation of evidence for the sake of Human self knowledge. That history is a science because it involves finding out things about the past Humankind. For example, the origin of Man, why he was a toolmaker, why he domesticated animals and plants. These are questions that provoke scientific curiosity. The three definitions of History from the above are: <br><br> History is the past of anything; of earth, man, disease or animals History is a branch of knowledge dealing with past events History is a science concerned with past Human actions <br><br>Since History at secondary level is specifically concerned with the past as it relates to humankind and his response to his environment over the years, the working definition of history is therefore; <br><br> History is the endless story of mankinds actions and events affecting him in the past. Closely related to the term history is the term**PREHISTORY**.Prehistory refers to the unrecorded history- those activities that humans engaged in before writing and drawing were invented as ways of storing information. Such information is gained from songs, myths, stories, artifacts, fossils and the language of a people. A historical event needs to have recorded evidence in order to be referred to as a historical fact **Characteristics of historical events**<br><br> They must have evidence. Historical information must be written or unwritten. Historical events only concern man. Historical events dwell mainly on the past happenings. Historical events must contain elements of truth. <br><br>The study of humankinds past can be classified systematically into three; <br><br> Social history- dealing with the traditions, values and cultural practices of a people Economic history; dealing with the means of livelihood of a people, such as hunting, <br><br>gathering, agriculture and trade. <br><br> Political history; dealing with the control system in a society, for example maintenance <br><br>of law and order, leadership and security. **THE MEANING OF GOVERNMENT** Derived from the verb govern, government means to exercise authority over. To rule or control. Or having power to direct or conduct the policies and public affairs of a country or an institution. In our study, the term government refers to a group of people within a state or a country given authority to organize, direct and control the affairs of the state or country.In Kenya, the government has three arms. **The legislature:**- Commonly referred to as parliament, this is a law making arm of government. It includes the National assembly and the president. **The executive:**- this is the arm of government which implements laws. It includes the president, the cabinet and the civil service. **The judiciary:**- this is the arm of government responsible for seeing that the laws made are constitutional, that they are followed and that those who break them are punished. It is commonly referred to as the courts.Jean Jacques Rousseau, in his book,**The Social** **Contract**, describes government as an intermediate body set up by the subjects to ensure equity (fairness) and the execution of laws while maintaining social and political liberty In this sense, government is not dictatorial since its authority is derived from the people. People must however be free to choose their leaders, even remove those in power and replace them with others, in order to ensure the existence of the principal of fairness. **FORMS OF GOVERNMENT** There are four forms of government: **Democratic government** This is a type of government in which rulers regularly seek public mandate through popular vote. Such governments are based on the principles of free and fair elections. According to Abraham Lincoln, an American statesman, they are governments of the people, for the people and by the people.In such a government, freedoms and rights are provided for in the constitution that governs the law of the nation. **Aristocratic government** **Aristos** best **Kratos**- powers An aristocracy is a form of government in which a group of people from the highest social class the royalty- in a society rule over others. Any member of the nobility can seek election or appointment to a government office while other citizens who are less privileged are there to be ruled.The King or Queen is the head of government while senior positions in the gover-nment are given to the privileged members from among the nobles. The nobles are considered superior to others human beings because of the wealthy family back-ground they are born into and their superior education. They are considered a rare breed of people. **Monarchical government** This is a form of government where democracy is practiced but aristocratical power is respected. Parliament is the supreme organ but the monarchy- the royalty that are in power be it the king or queen is retained as a tradition, and respected as head of state. Monarchical governments are classified into two;Absolute monarchy: - which refers to the unrestricted power of the Head of State. The monarchy is dictatorial. Constitutional monarchy;- The monarchical power , which is restricted is determ-ined by what is spelt out in the constitution. Such a system of government is found in Lesotho and Britain. **Dictatorial government** Dictatorship is a system of government where the ruler has total power over his subjects. Dictators are the sole authority where they rule. They make the law and execute justice and exercise their rule forcefully, suppressing their subjects at will. They curtail freedom of other subjects and impose their will over others.Examples of world dictators; Adolf Hitler of Germany who instigated the Germans into believing they were superior race and incited them against the Jews. Idi Amin of Uganda who ruled with a rod of iron NB; the most ideal form of government is where the subjects go to the ballot to elect the people to lead them. Governments play the important function of maintaining law and order. **Importance of studying history** a) History enables us to appreciate peoples evolution, origin of cultures and development and hence further good relations and remove biases and prejudices about other people. b) When we study history, we appreciate peoples contribution to national develop- pment. E.g. freedom fighters hence the importance of mutual and social responsi-bility. c) It helps us to know the origin of mankind, his development and the progress he has made to this day. d) We are able to understand our culture and appreciate the culture of other people. e) it instills a sense of patriotism and nationalism among citizens as they learn of the past political developments of their country. Its study inspires strong feelings of ones heritage and the sense of belonging to a particular country. f) It helps us understand the interdependence of mankind and hence the need for cooperation. g) It influences career choice. The study of history leads to various professions. E.g. law, diplomacy, church, politics, teaching, and administration. h) The study of history helps us comprehend the social, economic and political developments of our societies i) It gives time and space to past events. Through the study of history, we learn about the time and place where an event took place. E.g. we know when Mau Mau uprising broke out (1948) and know when Kenya gained independence. j) It helps us develop a critical mind as we try to explain historical events. Historians will ask why, when and how. k) It provides intellectual fulfillment to the learner. Through an in -depth study of history, ones mind is enriched. **Importance of studying government** a) It helps us to appreciate the importance of government. b) Helps us understand how laws are made and enforced c) Helps us understand the organs of the state and the powers vested in them d) Helps us understand how government raises and spends revenue. e) Helps us compare our government system with other systems of government in other countries. f) Understand how development policies are formulated and implemented. g) It makes us know our roles as citizens and the roles of the leaders who govern us. This makes better law-abiding citizens. h) Its study helps us understand our responsibilities as well as the limitations within which e must operate for the well-being of every member of the society. i) It helps us appreciate the constitution and the process of making and reviewing laws and statutes. j) It influences career choices. For example, those who choose to specialize in public administration will find the study of government very useful. **SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT** There three main sources of information on history and government; a) Unwritten sources. b) Written sources. c) Electronic sources **Unwritten sources** This refers to historical information which is not recorded in writing.Unwritten sources of historical information include oral traditions, linguistics (languages), Anthropology (culture) archaeology, paleontology and genetics. **Oral traditions** This refers to the practice of handing down historical information by word of mouth from one Generation to the next. This forms a very important source of historical information especially where exists a non-literate society who might not be able to read. Oral traditions include folk tales, proverbs, songs and stories. Songs, proverbs folktales and stories told to a younger generation have been very instrumental in the passing of information from one generation to the other. For example, a song about our struggle for independence in Kenya passes very important information to the younger generation, who not yet had born at that time. **Advantages of oral traditions as a source of information** a. Oral traditions hands over historical facts from one generation to another in the absence of written records. b. It is the best source of historical information since even the illiterate can learn their h history using oral traditions c. It is also a form of entertainment. For example through songs, folktales stories and proverbs, people get entertained. d. It complements other sources of information. e. The source of information is captivating especially if it is narrated by a person who participated in the event himself. For example, an Ex- World War II veteran narrating about the war. **Disadvantages of oral traditions as a source of information** a. The truth and correctness of oral traditions become unreliable especially when the narrator deliberately conceals some information or lies. People tend to conceal their failures while talking so much about their success. b. Information can b exaggerated as they are transmitted by elders to successive generations. At times it is difficult to differentiate between what is real and what is imagined. c. Some information or facts may be forgotten or omitted since oral traditions depend heavily on human memory. This makes the information passed unreliable. d. Dates of information may be lacking. The source may not give correct chronology of events because it depends on human memory. It is common that people forget important dates and information about a particular past event. e. It is an expensive method. One has to pay for the informants transportation, lunch and accommodation. A historian may also need to travel to far places to find information. f. It is time consuming. One requires a lot of time to interview one individual. Where many people are to be interviewed, it may take a long time. **Linguistics** This refers to the scientific study of languages. Historical linguistics is the study of language as it changes n the course of time. It seeks to trace the principles of language change and establish the current genealogical classification of a particular language. Such a study helps in discovering language form, content, vocabulary and historical experiences of the people who speak the language. Distribution of language and relationship between languages is important to a historian. People who speak related languages may be assumed to have a common origin, be connected, or had been in close contact at sometime in the past.Variations between languages of the same family can show how long ago the break in contact occurred. **Advantages of linguistics as a source of information** a. Through linguistics, Facts can be obtained about the movement of people and their relationship. Such information helps experts to correctly group languages according to language families. b. It helps us understand communities better as people with a common language may have common origin. It is good for establishing facts on origin, migration and settlement. c. Linguistics complements other sources of historical information. For example, language as a medium of communication helps those using oral tradition to gather information from various sources. d. Language has enabled historical linguists to discover links between different people which were previously unknown. E.g. it is now known that the Bantus had a common origin and possibly spoke one language. However due to long periods of separation between various Bantu groups, through migrations, these groups may not understand each others language today. e. Linguistics helps in the dating of migration of people. Language drawn from a parent language will change in a certain way and rate through time. When comparing parent language with derived language, it is possible to know how long the derived language has independently from the parent language. E.g. Sheng language and Kiswahili (parent language). **Limitations in the use of linguistics as a source of information** a. It is time consuming/learning a language takes a long time therefore delaying acquisition of information. b. There is a danger of omitting a word when translating a language. In the process, vital information about a peoples history may be lost. c. Inaccurate information can be passed on where wrong words are borrowed from other languages. d. Some words may just be difficult to understand. e. Some languages have become archaic and irrelevant hence difficult to translate. f. Misinterpretation of words may make them difficult to understand. g. Linguistic analysis for classification purposes may fail to take into account languages with time. h. One word may have different meanings in different languages. This can easily confuse a researcher. For example, Nyoro in Kikuyu means smooth, while the same word in Luo means yesterday. i. Lack of original speakers in the language under study limits research findings. **Anthropology** This is the study of human beings, their origin, development, customs, beliefs, and social attributes like music, dance, drama, and religious beliefs and practices. Anthropologists have to live among the people under study in order to experience their way of life in order to understand and explain structures of societies, forms of social organization, institutions, descent, marriage, forms of government, systems of inheritance, religious customs and cultural values.The anthropological description of the beliefs and customs of a people will help the historian to determine the cultural past of the people **Advantages of anthropology as a source of information** a. By living among the people, anthropologists help to discover, understand and explain structures of societies, forms of social organization, cultures, etc. b. Anthropologists assist historians to determine the cultural past of the people. c. It also gives a deeper understanding of a particular aspect of a peoples culture. Limitations in the use of anthropology as a source of information a. It is an expensive method as it involves living among the people. b. It is a time-consuming method of acquiring information. c. It is difficult for a researcher to adapt to the environment since the people they are studying may be of a totally different culture. Where they succeed in adapting, they face the risk of losing their own culture. d. People under study may try to behave differently when the researcher is around. A researcher may therefore miss important details. **Genetic studies** Genetics is the scientific study of the ways in which characteristics are passed from parents to their offspring. (The study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics.) It deals with the ay human beings adapted to the circumstances in their environment and utilized available plants and animals to meet their needs.When used in relation to pants genetic studies helps us trace the origin of various species by identifying them with the region where large numbers of them are found today. After this, interpretation of their movement is made. The appearance of new cultivated varieties can be identified with the people whose economy they form a part. Also, common genes or characteristics among a group of people may indicate some relationships. **Archaeology and paleontology** Archaeology is the study of mans past through scientific analysis of the remains of material remains of his culture, e.g. weapons, tools, houses, clothing, utensils, paintings sculpture, pottery, coins, jewellery, cutlery, beads and work o arts.The archaeologist reconstructs the activities and way of life of people who lived in prehistoric times from various evidence remains of the material culture.Other items that can be used in archaeology include remains of charcoal and carbo-nized seeds, remains of cloth or garments, remains of dwelling laces.After studying the available artifacts, the archaeologist formulates his concept of a peoples civilization at the time the artifacts were used. The existence of artifacts in an area can enable the historian to deduce the material culture of the people who lived n the past. Palaeontology is the scientific study of the evolution and structure of extinct plants and animals (fossils) through scientific examination of fossil remains.Historians and archaeologists work with natural scientists like paleontologists, geologists and ecologists and chemistry in discovering fossils, getting information about soil structure, interpreting mans relationship to his environment and dating of fossils. **Methods used by archaeologists and paleontologists in discovering a historical site.** a) By looking at areas where tectonic forces (faulting) or erosion have occurred. In such areas, surfaces which may give important clues to the point of finding fossils and artefacts are exposed. b) Use of vision. Sometimes vision may help them find on the surface a small part of an early settlement such as a few stones in a regular pattern. c) Use of historical research. A place that may be mentioned in a historical document or in an oral narrative may give a clue to the geography of the area and open up further inquiries into the past civilization of such a clue.e.g Omo River Valley, Olduvai Gorge, Ur and Babylon. d) Use of experience. An archaeologist may also use his long experience and skill to identify a potential site for archaeological excavation. e) During cultivation and building construction, farmers and builders may accidentally expose ancient objects that could arouse the curiosity of researchers. For example Nyayo ya Mungu in Tanzania was a single footprint on a rock surface that was found in 1995 and became evidence of the existence of early human beings. **Advantages of using archaeology** a) Archaeology gives us detailed information on material culture that other sources may not have. b) Archaeology gives a sense of time, as the artifacts are dated. c) It complements other sources of information and thus ensures authenticity of the information. d) It provides information of varied nature depending on the materials found on the site. For example, if tools, weapons, coins, bones, rock paintings and other items are located, at a site, a lot of information maybe deduced. **Limitations of using archaeology** a) It is an expensive source of information. This is because one has to hire labourers to excavate the site and get artefacts and take them to laboratories for analysis. b) It is a time-consuming method. The researcher needs a lot of time to prepare for an excavation and take material for analysis in laboratories. c) It is sometime difficult for archaeologists to locate an archaeological site. d) Some artefacts and fossils are fragile and can therefore break or disintegrate during excavation. This may result in distortion of the analysis of the artefacts. e) Archaeology is only limited to the study of the ancient period and therefore cannot be used to study recent history. f) Archaeological information may sometimes be inaccurate since it is often bases on inferences (conclusions) and reconstructions. g) With archaeology, it may not be easy to accurately determine the date when events took place. It is only estimated through the method of dating fossils. h) There are very few archaeological experts and facilities for interpreting archaeological evidence in Kenya. Quite often, artefacts excavated from Kenya are taken to European countries for dating and analysis. What things do archaeologists use to construct the activities of people who lived in pre- history times? a) Looking for regions of tectonism (faulting) associated with fossils and artifacts. b) They look for unique features e.g. stone patterns. c) Remains of fossils and artifacts dug out by farmers and constructors. d) They dig, excavate for artifacts and fossils. e) They study artifacts and fossils found. f) They make research in regions associated with evolution of man e.g. rift valley. g) They classify the artifacts and fossils. h) They use chemical and scientific methods to find ages of their findings e.g. carbon 14- dating method **What problems face archaeologists in their work of re writing history using** **unwritten sources?** a) The exercise is too expensive. b) It is dangerous and tedious. Animals like wild dogs can attack scientists. c) Identification of the site is not easy because some artifacts are buried. d) Some artifacts can be destroyed in the process of digging. e) Dating of fossils is difficult. f) Personnel are few hence more work. g) Poor infrastructure in rural areas where their researches are mainly based h) Archaeologists may suffer from diseases caused by changes in climate. i) Sometimes the climate of their residence differs from that of the place they are taking **METHODS OF DATING FOSSILS** There are six methods through which scientists may use to arrive at the age of fossils. **1. Geological periods** These are periods that have been given names by paleontologists and geologists for the past ages. They are characterized by the successive type of pants and animals found, and the climatic changes.The recent period is the Holocene period which began 10,000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene. **2. Chemical dating** They exist in two types: **(a) Radio- carbon dating** This method involves a measure of the rate of decay of carbon -14 in fossils and organic substances. Carbon -14 is a naturally existing radioactive element (isotope) of carbon of relative atomic mass fourteen and is found in the Carbon Dioxide which is present in the atmosphere.It is absorbed by plants and consequently by all living organisms during their lifetime. When plant or animal dies, absorption stops. Carbon -14 already absorbed begins to disintegrate at a fixed rate from the time of death. If the amount of carbon -14 still remaining in an organic sample can be measured and related to the content of the isotope in the modern plant or animal, the rate of decay will be known. The date at which the sample was buried will e known. The measurement tells us how long it is since the organism died.The unit of measuring is known as half-life- the number of years it takes for half the carbon -14 to decay.However the accuracy of radio-carbon dating is limited to up to 40,000 years ago. **(b) Potassium argon method** This is the method used to date volcanic ash. During volcanic eruptions, potassium is emitted. As soon as the potassium is deposited, the radio-active potassium-40 immediately begins to decay into the gas argon. It is assumed that the argon is retained in the mineral or rock unless there is earth movement.Given that the rate of decay of potassium is known, the amount of argon-40 compared with the amount of potassium, gives a direct measure of age.Because of the slower rate of decay of potassium than the decay of carbon-14, the potassium argon method is used for dates ranging from hundreds of millions of years to 30,000 years.Recently methods have been developed for measuring the potassium and argon simultaneously on the same sample using nuclear. **3. Stratigraphy** This is the study and interpretation of the layers of rock successively deposited at one place. It is useful in determining dates for areas affected by sedimentation. Through Stratigraphy, a geological time-chart is obtained showing which rock was formed earlier or later. **4. Fission-track dating** This is a method developed for dating Pleistocene samples. The ages of glass and other mineral objects estimated by observing the tracks made in them by the fission fragments of uranium nuclei they contain. It requires that Uranium must be present. The age obtained dates from the time the object solidified. This method has been proved reliable by being able to provide same reading from a sample of glass with a lump of pumice from Olduvai Gorge corresponding with the potassium argon dates from the same layer. **5. Lexico-statistics dating** Lexico-statistics is the statistical study of the vocabulary of languages with the intentions of determining their ages and their historical links with other languages.The study is based on the assumption that all languages have a basic vocabulary which will change slowly at a common rate for all languages at all times. The existence of reconstructed vocabulary of the parent language in derivative languages shows the **Relationship between the two** Glottochronology, a subdivision of Lexico-statistics, attempts to establish that languages are historically related .by this method, there is an effort to express rates of language development by formulae precise enough to enable dates when change occurred to be calculated **6. Statistical dating** Through a system of averaging, the length of a generation can be determined for a Particular society and dates estimated for events associated with certain generations. If the number and names of successive age-sets are remembered, the same system of averaging can be used. **Advantages of using unwritten sources of information on history and government** a) Information about peoples movement and relationship is given. b) It is very efficient where there still existed illiteracy and people could not write or read. c) It informs us of events in the absence of written materials. d) Data received is primary/ firsthand so accuracy is enhanced. e) Materials collected or excavated can be stored in museums for future reference. f) They create employment in museums where they are stored. g) Information not captured by written sources can be obtained from oral traditions. h) There is a sense of reality as it involves things that are seen and touched. i) Unwritten sources especially linguistics help in discovering the links between different people, which were previously unknown. j) Detailed information on material culture may be obtained. k) Dating of the migration of people is more accurate in unwritten sources e.g. In linguistics. **Written sources** These are sources in which letters or any other symbols have been put on the surface for the purpose of communication. They include books, archives, constitutions, journals, novels, plays, newspapers, magazines, documentaries, dairies, annual reports, periodical and paintings. **Written sources are classified into two;** **a) Archives and early manuscripts** Archives are a collection of historical documents or records, especially those carrying classified information of a government or an organization, which after a period of time are accessible to the public. They are also places where government, public and other historical records are kept.-they are resource centres for information.A manuscript is an authors handwritten or typed text that has not yet been published. Early manuscripts include stone tablets and scrolls. The bible and Quran are based on these two. **b) Printed sources** They include books, journals, novels, plays, newspapers, magazines, documentaries, dairies and annual reports. Photographs employ both electronic and printing processes but basically fall under printed sourcesWorks of fiction such as films plays and novels are important source of historical information. (Fiction is literature in form of prose, especially novels that describe imaginary events and people).Since work of fiction involves feelings and emotions, they can give more information about history. Also reading good historical novels arouses interest in history and gives the reader intellectual fulfillment. Newspapers convey new or fresh events, which with the passing of time becomes history. **Advantages of written records** a) Written records preserve history since events are recorded for future reference. They are a store of information. b) Written information can reach or be distributed to all literate people all over the world. c) Written sources are less costly compared to those of anthropology or archaeology. d) Unlike oral tradition sources which are largely dependent on human memory, written sources are more accurate as information is preserved exactly as it was recorded. e) Written records may be written or translated into different languages thus reaching different people all over the world. f) Written records are in most cases reliable as biases and prejudices coming from authors can be limited. This can be done by comparing written material with statistical data from other sources. **Limitations** a) Where an author omits essential information for one reason or another, a written source may be rendered quite unreliable. b) Written information may be misunderstood or misinterpreted by readers either with the intention of discrediting others or to suit ones needs. c) Writers at times are biased since the write from their particular point of view. For example, the writings of early explorers and missionaries. d) Written records are only limited to literate people within the society. are not useful to illiterate people in the absence of literate members of the society. e) At times, depending on the society involved, acquiring written records may be very costly. f) Reading written records is often time-consuming. **Electronic sources** These include microfilms, films, videos, radio, and television **Microfilms** These are films on which extremely small photographs (microphotography) of documents and printed matter are stored. They are tinny but when magnified can be clearly read. The importance of converting documents into microfilms is for preservation purposes and saving storage spaces. **Radio** This is an authoritative source of historical information that captures words and emotions of an event as I was. For example radio news on the presidents speeches gives listeners the actual information on national matters. However, radio lacks the vividness found in television and films. **Audio- visual sources** These include television, films and videos. Films carry indisputable historical facts as action is recorded live. They also give better understanding of some aspects of the social history of a given people with regard to their music, dress and leisure activities. Videos and films make the past come alive. However, since films are acted, they can sometimes be unrealistic as they may not present facts but an exaggerated version of an event.Television on its part gives good historical information as it depicts the situation as it was. **Databanks and databases** Databanks are large stores of organized information which can be accessed in number of ways. E.g. if it is a book, information can be accessed through an index, a table of content or by browsing.Electronic databases are stored in computer and facilitate easy and faster retrieval of information. One can search for information by use of a number of search terms.Information in a database can be printed when required but can also be accessed instantly on computer. **Limitations of using electronics as a source of information in history and** **government** a) They are Subject to bias since most audio visuals contain foreign materials carrying the bias of the producer. b) Some are limited to the literate only e.g. information in data bases and microfilms can only be accessed by literate people and even computer literate people only. c) The information may be inaccurate only giving what is appealing to the public. TV crew depict only what they want to. Censorship may leave out vital information. d) Electronic sources of information are too expensive; most people cannot afford e.g. TV, Radios. e) Some acted films are unrealistic and therefore contain exaggerated information. **EARLY MAN** In the study of early man, we will seek to answer questions that human beings have always sought to answer about how they appeared on earth, whether they were created and where the universe came from. **The origin of Human Beings** A number of theories have been put forward to explain the origin of human beings. a. The creation theory. b. The mythical/ traditional theory c. The evolution theory **The Creation theory** The Jews, Christians and Muslims recognize the creation story as narrated in the first book of bible and in Quran. That the whole universe was created by god. That God also created man, woman and all living things and all non-living creatures. Man was created in Gods own image and woman created to provide man with companionship. **The Mythical Theory** Among African communities, there are myths about their origin all of them pointing to the fact that the first man was created by God. Examples: Among the Agikuyu, their God (Ngai) created the first man, Gikuyu. He the provided him with a wife, Mumbi. He gave him land at Mugurwe wa Gathanga. One of the myths among the Nandi state that the first two people, male and female came from the knees of a giant man, when the knees began swelling and later burs for the two to come out from each of the either knees. **The Evolution Theory** Charles Darwin, an English man living between 1809 and 1882 questioned the acceptance of the creation theory. Through scientific expedition to South America and the pacific islands in 1831, he developed interest in fossils (remains of plants and animals found beneath the earths surface.) in 1859; he published his ideas in a book titled**The** **Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.**The ideas enlisted instant battles from the Christian fraternity save for one supporter, Huxley. Clearly the theory of evolution was not accepted but it helped to make people aware of the new ideas concerning the origin of man. **What is evolution?** Evolution can be defined as the process of change in living organisms over a number of years, frequently involving the beginning of new species from earlier species. According to Charles Darwin, man transformed from simple life slowly over millions of years through environmental mutation, natural selection, isolation and adaptation. Mutation was a stage of abrupt change. Natural selection is an instinct by which the stronger species out compete the weaker <br><br>for resources. <br><br> Adaptation is where the surviving species isolate themselves from others as they adapt to new environment through body changes and technological changes e.g. ability to grow crops and make shelter. Darwins theory of natural selection comprises the following points. All organisms or creatures are uniquely different and this uniqueness is based on heredity factors which an organism has from birth. Although many young organisms are produced, few manage to develop to maturity. The organisms that manage to grow to maturity and reproduce are those that are able to constantly adapt to the existing environment.In view of the limited resources, even after mutation, Darwin argued that only the fittest organisms survive as the weak species become extinct. This theory is popularly known as survival for the fittest.According to Darwin, isolation and adaptation is the final stage in the evolution process. Having survived through mutation and natural selection, the merging species increase in number. This leads to search for basic needs and in the process a species may be isolated from the rest and then finally adapt to the new environment.The theory of evolution holds that Humans belong to the animal kingdom and that man has evolved over the years. Man is a primate just as apes like gorillas, chimpanzees and monkeys. However, man belongs to the family of hominidae, while apes belong to the family of pongidae. Man according to Darwin developed over the years from his ape-like ancestors. **Evolution and adaptation of man** The earliest Mammals lived on trees for two reasons; a) There was more supply of food o trees such as insects, leaves and birds eggs b) Security. Animals were more secure from their enemies while up on trees Man evolved from this kind of animals Archaeological evidence points at East Africa as the cradle of mankind. Reasons why East Africa is regarded as the place where man first evolved a) Evidence from archaeologists show that the earliest apes first evolved around lake and rift valley areas. And if man evolved from apes, then the first man must have appeared in east Africa. b) The savanna landscapes found in east Africa favored evolution while the conditions elsewhere (forests and deserts) Were unfavourable. c) The bones and weapons and tools which archaeologists are finding are proofs to this. These findings are widespread in Olduvai Gorge, Olorgesaillie, and Ngorongoro and around lakes of east Africa. d) The discovery of remains of early hominids and their material culture which form a pattern of human evolution prove this. E.g. we can trace the evolutionary process from Dryopithecus to Ramapithecus to Australopithecus to Homo habilis to Homo erectus to Homo sapiens. **Important archaeological sites found in East Africa** In Kenya; - Rusinga Island, Fort Ternan near Kericho, Kariandusi near Elementaita, Gambles cave, Olorgesaillie, Kobi For a near Lake Turkana, Hyrax Hill and Njoro River cave. In Tanzania; - Olduvai Gorge, Eyasi Simila, Apis Rock and Garusi In Uganda; - Nsongezi, Napak, Magosi, Paraa, Ishanga, Mweya and Nyabusora In Ethiopia; - Omo River Valley and Hadar. Over a long period of time, mans ancestors lived in thick forests. Later about 15 million years ago, the forests transformed into savanna grasslands causing mans ancestors to change both physically and mentally so as to cope with the new environment. **The changes** a) The tail which no longer had any value in the savanna disappeared. b) Man became more upright as there were no more impeding vegetation as was the case of too much foliage and intertwining vegetation in the forests and also to reduce surface area onto which solar insolation had effect. These also enabled quicker movement. c) The leg and foot formation changed to enable the weight of the body to be supported and balance to be achieved while moving or at a standstill. d) Gradual use of front limbs (hands for holding objects) enabled man to make tools which made work easier. The limbs also found another role of protection from other predators. As the forests disappeared, competition for food intensified and humans had to change their earlier eating habits. Some fossil evidence clearly give distinctive evidence of the break-off point between apes and hominids (mans ancestors.)The changes which Homo sapiens underwent as a break-off from apes to modern man. a) The skull size of the early human beings became larger indicating bigger brains. For example, Australopithecus, who lived between 5 and 1 million years ago, had a brain capacity of 530cm3. Homo erectus who lived later on had an improved brain capacity of between 775 and 1225cm3. b) Their jaws and teeth became more powerful compared to earlier forms indicating their use in tearing and cutting tough fibres and even the need for defence as a weapon. The size of the jaws and teeth became smaller. c) They developed a refined speech as compared to earlier forms. d) They were taller with less hair on their body. e) The forearms and hands underwent some changes. They developed a thumb for grasping objects. Their arms and hands became shorter, more appropriate for an upright posture. f) Their leg and foot formation also changed. Their feet and toes were smaller than earlier hominids in order to support the weight of the rest of the body while motionless or mobile. The toes were no longer in need for holding onto branches. **From apes to homo sapien sapiens** Between 40 and 25 million years ago, the first apes appeared on earth. The first man (Austropithecus) appeared around 4.5 million years ago. The following are the stages through which the evolution of man passed. **1) Aegyptopithecus - An Early African Monkey** ~ Aegyptopithecus was reconstructed from a monkey like skull found at Fayum Depression in Egypt. He forms earliest evidence of probable man's ancestors. ~ Its Teeth were those of a herbivore ~ It had a Small, about 4kg and was named Egyptian ape. ~ It was highly adapted to forest life. Had stereoscopic vision. It could jump skillfully from one tree to other using hands. It Dated 33 million years **2) Dryopithecus Africanus (proconsul**) ~ Its Remains were found at Rusinga Island within Lake Victoria by Mary and Louis Leakey in 1948. Its Skull appearance was more close to modern man than to Aegyptopithecus. ~ He had a quadrupedal movement like a chimpanzee. He had a Smooth forehead. ~ He had long teeth like other animals. The shape of his teeth and jaws indicated that He ate fruits. It is his remains that strengthen the belief that east Africa was the first homeland of mankind. **3) Kenyapithecus (Ramapithecus)** ~ He is believed to have appeared between 15 and 12 million years ago ~ First remains found Fort Ternan in Kericho District, Kenya, in 1961 by Dr. Louis Leakey and Mary. Other fossils found at Samburu Hills, near Lake Baringo as well as in the Lake Turkana basin. ~ The equivalent species found in the Siwalikis Hills in northern India near New Delhi was named Ramapithecus ~ He had small canines and could occasionally walk on twos without falling. ~ The creature was small and weighed 36kg with bigger brains than earlier hominids. **4) Australopithecus (southern ape)** ~ By 4-2m years ago a series of species known as australopithecines begin to appear. Perhaps it was the earliest homid closer to modern man. ~ The pelvis and leg were similar to that of modern humans. ~ They were bipedal and this was important in defence, grasp of objects and vision of an impending danger from a distance. ~ His Brain size was smaller than that of a human but larger than gorillas. ~ He was one of the most hairy hominid that ever existed. ~ He was Short but strong with a low forehead. Had large teeth and skulls ~ His remains were first discovered at Taung in Botswana by Raymond Dart in 1924. ~ The broken up skull found in East Africa at Olduvai Gorge in 1959 by Mary Leakey, was called Zinjanthropus- Nut-Cracker man since it had big jaws that suggest it kept on chewing. ~ Other fossils found in South Africa, Omo River Valley, Laetoli in Tanzania, near lakes Turkana and Baringo in kenya and L Natron Four types of Australopithecines that have been identified a) Australopithecus Afarensis b) Australopithecus Anamensis c) Australopithecus africanus. d) Australopithecus Robustus e) Australopithecus Anamensis ~ He is aged between 4.2 and 3.9 million years ago and is believed to be one of the oldest <br><br>**a) Australopithecines** ~ Evidence of his existence is obtained from the Reconstruction of Material consisting of 9 fossils from Kanapoi in Kenya and 12 fossils from Allia Bay in Kenya found by Dr. Meave Leakey, Dr. Allan Walker and the four fossil hunters (Kamoya Kimeu, Wambua Mangao, Nzube Mutiwa and Samuel Ngui.) ~ The fossil remains (comprising a lower jaw) were named A. Anamensis in August 1995 in a leading British Scientific journal. ~ He had relatively large canines. ~ The homid was aged between 3.9 and 3.0 million years ago. Its Name is derived from Afar Depression in Ethiopia. ~ He Had Apelike face and human-like teeth. He was small in stature and Bipedal, but Walked bent over, not fully upright. ~ They had very small brains -Brain capacity from 375 to 500 cc (Its Brain was the size of an orange.) ~ They had a bony ridge over the eyes, a low forehead, a flat nose, and also they had no chin. ~ Remains found at Laetoli in Tanzania and Tugen Hills in Baringo District. **c) Australopithecus Africanus (A. Gracilis)** ~ A. africanus existed between 3 and 2.5 million years ago. A. africanus was slenderly built, or Gracile (Gracile means slender) with a height of 1.5m. ~ Was significantly more like modern humans than A. Afarensis, with a larger brain and more humanoid facial features. ~ Had large teeth, jaws and skull ~ A. africanus has been found at only four sites in southern Africa Taung (1924), Sterkfontein (1935), Makapansgat (1948) and Gladysvale (1992). d) Australopithecus Robustus ~ He Lived between 1 - 2mya in South Africa. ~ He is the biggest and most recent Australopithecine. - weight 68kg. He had more robust skull, jaws, and teeth. ~ He ate fruits, nuts and raw tubers- was apparently a vegetarian. ~ His Remains were found primarily in cave deposits at Swartkrans and Kromdraai in South Africa. ~ His Average brain size was about 530 cc ~ The East African A.Robustus was named A. Boisei 5) Homo habilis (Handy Man) - man with ability. ~ He is the earliest known species of the genus Homo; that is, the first human species. He lived 2.5 -1.5 million years ago ~ He was the First Homo specie to create and use stone tools for hunting and daily life. Homo habilis depicted the ability to make better tools than his predecessors. That is why he was referred to as man with ability. ~ His Brain size was -500 -800 cc;-the Brain shape is more humanlike. ~ He was capable of rudimentary speech. ~ He was about 127 cm (5'0") tall, and about 45 kg (100 lb) in weight, although females may have been smaller ~ His fossils were found in the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania in 1964 by Dr. J. Leakey. ~ His Remains were also found at Hadar and Omo River Valley in Ethiopia and kobi fora along L. Turkana by Benerd Ngeneo in 1972. 6) Homo erectus (Upright Man) ~ He was BIPEDAL- standing about 4-5 feet tall with a larger brain (700-1250cc). He lived between 2 million and 200,000 years ago. ~ He was clever as illustrated by his ability to make Acheulian tools such as the hand axe which was used as an axe, knife or even as a scraper. He was the First hominid to invent and use fire. ~ Their skeletons were larger and showed that they were quite heavily muscled ~ They were omnivorous like many other early hominids. ~ Only had hair on their head and back like are men that we have today ~ Remains found in Hardar, Ethiopia where the skeleton of a female Lucy were found. ~ Other fossils were found near Nariokotone River on the north western shores of LakeTurkana by Kamoya Kimeu in 1984. ~ Also at Olorgesaillie near Magadi, Isimila near Iringa in TZ and Tenerife in Algeria. ~ The most famous Homo Erectus fossil was found in a cave in Zhoukoudian, China and became known as Peking Man/Java man **7) Homo sapiens (Wise Man thinking man)** ~ Their Main difference with their hominid ancestors is their extreme intelligencethey were the smartest hominid that ever lived with a Brain capacity of 1000-1800cc ~ They lived between 200,000 and 150,000 years ago ~ They improved their way of life by making a variety of flint, bone, wood and stone tools **(Microliths)** ~ They hunted, gathered and fished. Later on, they domesticated plants and animals ~ Their Remains were found at Eliye Springs, Kanjera and Kanam in Kenya, Bodo and Omo River Valley in Ethiopia and Ngaloba in Tanzania. Three sub-species of Homo sapiens existed; **a) Rhodesian man** ~ The sub-species Was discovered in Zambia , hence the name Rhodesian man ~ He had straight legs and walked with long strides. ~ Rhodesian mans Brains and skull were very similar to those of modern man. **b) Neanderthals** ~ His Remains were found in Neander valley, Germany (1856). They Lived in caves and valleys ~ He was 5 feet and 5 inches tall-much stronger, heavily built and more aggressive too. ~ He Had very thick eyebrow ridges like the other hominids ~ He Made clothes from animal skins. They would scrape animal fat so they can use the skin as clothing. ~ They were probably the First humans to bury their dead. He was most likely the most intelligent hominid other than modern humans. ~ He was a nomad, gathering and hunting deer, wild pigs and wild sheep. Their weapons were used to impale animals; therefore, to kill them, they had to approach the animal and get very close. This was dangerous and probably caused injuries and even fatalities. ~ Communication was key in hunting because they had to work as a team. They had the ability to use complex speech; however, their sentences were probably basic. Instead of painting on cave walls they painted their faces. ~ Other remains were found in Asia in France, Belgium, Gibraltar, Italy and former Yugoslavia. ~ They became extinct about 30,000 years ago. c) Homo sapiens Cro-Magnon ~ He was almost identical to modern humans although quite muscular and taller. Had long, low skull and a wide face, a sharp, rising forehead, bushy eyebrows and prominent chins ~ They had a big brain capacity and had very complex thinking ~ He was hunter-gatherer, painter and lived in caves ~ He knew how to make clothes ~ His Fossil remains were found in Western Europe. Their skeletons still remain in France today ~ They became extinct around 10,000years ago 8) Homo sapiens sapiens ~ Homo sapiens sapiens are modern day humans. They evolved about 50,000 years ago. ~ They have big brains and a more advanced faculty for curiosity and intelligence ~ They have a large brain capacity. They do not just think, they plan ahead, make accurate forecasts, and study the star and the galaxies ~ They have made inventions that have made life more comfortable. ~ They are Around 5 feet 6 inches tall and Walk fully upright ~ They have Minimal hair on our bodies (replaced by clothing)-We have clothes that are made from brands, factories, we also sew or knit our own clothing. The growing knowledge of genetic structure and functions has enabled human beings to clone animals using genes obtained from existing animals, thereby producing offsprings that looks exactly like the original e.g. the work of Dr. Wilmut Ian at the Roslin Institute of Edinburgh, Scotland that led to the first cloned sheep named dolly. Scientists are making attempts to even clone humans.More recent discoveries of early man include the Toumai found in Chad in 2002 dating about 6 to 7 myaIn 2000, another discovery was made in Baringo, Kenya (millennium man) and is believed todate 6mya. The discovery was made by Martin Pickford and Eustace Gitonga o the National Museums of Kenya. **Appearance of races** It has been hypothesized modern humans, using superior technology and more efficient adaption, out competed other hominid species to quickly emerge as the only surviving hominid species on the planet.Though we feature much diversity in appearance, these differences are minor compared to our biological similarities/all human beings are quite closely related.Many of our physical differences (skin, color, hair color, etc.) are relatively recent adaptations to local environment conditions. Evolutionary forces such as genetic drift have also played a role in our creating such variation as well. Biologists and anthropologists classified humans into three different groups based on physical characteristics. Modern genetics has revealed that these categories make very little sense biologically since modern races are derived from a common stock and the different races are able to interbreed. There are also no differences in intelligence among all races of mankind. The term race has traditionally been used by scientists as the equivalent of the subspecies concept when classifying humans.The Cultural and economic practices of early man **What is culture?** Culture is the way of life of a people-Customs, language and social institutions The things that early humans made and used formed their material culture. Early mans culture can be understood through study of Stone Age or Paleolithic periods **What is Stone Age?** This refers to the early period of human history when mans tools and weapons were mainly made of stone and to some extend wood and bone There are three Stone Age periods 1) Old stone age- Paleolithic period- 4,500,000 to 50,000years 2) Middle stone age- Mesolithic period-50,000-15,000 years. 3) New Stone Age Neolithic period- 15,000- 1,500 years **The Paleolithic Age** Paleolithic -> Old Stone Age- 4,500,000 50,000 years ago The Paleolithic is the longest of all stone ages, covering roughly 2 million years. The hominid species who lived side by side were Australopithecus, Homo habilis and Homoerectus. **EARLY STONE AGE TOOLS** The hominids Made tools from stone The Tool Traditions was called Oldowan tools / pebble tools. The tools were named after Olduvai Gorge where they were found. They were made by Australopithecus and Homo erectus. They were also known as pebble tools because they were made of stones. Among the finds at Olduvai were the chopper, fist hatchet (core tools) and several flake tools.Such tools were also found at Kobi For a near Lake Turkana, Omo River Valley in Ethiopia, and Kafu Valley in Uganda, Shaba province in Zaire and in Algeria, Tunisia and morocco.In Kenya, the tools were found at sites in kariandusi, Olorgesaillie, Kilombe, Chesowanja, Mtongwe, Isenya and Lewa DownsAustralopithecus Southern Ape They didnt have the intelligence to make sophisticated tools, so they may have made tools out of bones that they foundAustralopithecus afarensis mostly used tools that they found or that nature had created, example was a stick, which they stuck into a termite mound, then the termites clung to it letting the ape pull out the stick covered in food. He is however also credited for making Oldowan tools. **Homo habilis and the Oldowan Tradition** They made stone tools for chopping, scraping, and cutting. Making of Choppers (lower left) involved knapping a few flakes off the core. Both cores and flakes were used. The Knapper could strike a spherical piece of stone until Flake falls off opposite side. The Tool would then be flipped over and procedure repeated. Several blows would create a cutting edgeRequirements reflect Intelligence, Planning, foreknowledge of design and Knowledge of breakage pattern of rock. There must also be Hand-eye coordination The second phase of the Old Stone Age was marked by tools called Acheulian tools, named after the site of St Acheul in France. Others found in Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. In Kenya, the tools were found at Kariandusi, Olorgesaillie, Kilombe, Chesowanja, Mtongwe, Isenya and Lewa DownsThey were made by Homoerectus. Homo erectus and the Acheulian tool technology. Signature tool: a well- designed hand axe and cleavers The Hand axe had multiple uses, from cutting, skinning, scraping animal skins, digging and sharpening bone and wood. **Characteristics of Acheulian hand axe** ~ It was Bifacial: both sides were knapped ~ Symmetrical in breadth ~ Shaped to a point on one end ~ The edge is thin and sharp ~ Broad end is curved, but edge is still sharp. **Process of Manufacturing Acheulian Hand axes** Dozens of flakes were removed from the core, from 25 to 75. Each flake blow must be precisely positioned. The Core must be turned over again and again to maintain symmetry and to keep edge straight. All the exterior rind (cortex) was removed. It was a demanding task-The hand axe was Symmetrical and finely shaped. **OLD STONE AGE-HUNTING AND GATHERING** The early Stone Age people lived in small groups and were able to hunt for food using sharpened rocks and sticks. They used simple hunting methods of chasing wild animals and throwing stones at them. They also made traps by digging large pits on the paths used by animals. They ate raw meat from small animals like lizards and rodents Women gathered edible fruits, eggs and roots- had a balanced diet. **THE OLD STONE AGE-SHELTER AND CLOTHING** Humans during this period found shelter in caves and tree-tops. Their bodies were hairy enough to keep them warm- lack of clothing was therefore bearable during this period. Moreover, the savannahs were also warm enough. They also preferred the grasslands because they provided them with the much needed water and foodThe Australopithecus had a very small brain and that limited the actions they could do. The Australopithecus were very hairy so they didnt need any clothes. Australopithecus diet was mostly made up of fruits and vegetables they found. If Australopithecus found a dead animal it would scavenge of it but the Australopithecus afarensis couldnt cook the meat and kill the germs. **Mesolithic age** Mesolithic middle Stone Age- 200,000 10,000 years ago. They period was characterized by superior brains and ability of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens. Great improvements were witnessed. **TOOLS** Signature tool; Sangoan tool made using Lavallois method The tool was named after Sango Bay site on L. Victoria-Tz **The Lavallois technology** It involved using cores of smaller stones to hit bigger ones. The tool maker would draw outline of flake on stone module and Strike out flakes and blades of desired shape. The rock would be prepared beforehand to control how rock breaks when struck. The flakes and blades were then trimmed into a variety of knives, scrapers, spear points, choppers and daggers.Also Mousterian tools (specialized stone tools and weapons) were made. Tang- the first tool with a handle was invented in this period- 40,000 years ago in northern Africa.Fire was also another important tool invented by Homo erectus and he used it as follows ~ For warmth at night, lighting, to cook roots and roast meat, for hunting (bushfires), tool-making to harden tips, means of communication, food preservation ~ It also enabled hominids to migrate out of savannah **MESOLITHIC FOOD AND CLOTHES** Homo erectus was considered the first true hunters. Because of better tools (Hand axe), fire and axes, they could hunt larger game such as deer, rhinos, pigs, elephants; buffaloes etc. and cook their food.People learnt to wear animal skins and make waist-belts and necklaces. They also painted themselves with red ochre and oil. **MESOLITHIC SHELTER.** Man used identifiable shelter. An example was found at Orangia in South Africa. Man also used rock shelter (rocks scooped out to make hollows). Later man lived in caves with entrance covered with animal skins to keep wind and rain away (e.g. Matupi Cave in Zaire and Gambles cave near Nakuru. **MESOLITHIC LANGUAGE AND ROCK ART** Families lived in small groups for security reasons. There were distinct languages to enhance communications.Rock paintings-Pictures of animals were painted on walls and rocks. Examples of Cave paintings were left behind at Kondoa and singida areas in north Tanzania and at Apollo II cave in S.A. This pictures signified mans believe in magic (arrows piercing animals he hoped to kill) **SOCIAL ORGANIZATION** There was efficient group organization as evidenced by the ability to carry out large-scale hunting. Language invention further strengthened the social bonds and cultures of early man **The Neolithic age** Neolithic This period was marked with the Emergence of Homo sapiens and homo sapien sapiens. **THE NEOLITHIC TOOLS** Man became a Very skilled toolmaker-they made tools known as microliths- (small piece of sharp stone tool). For example, a crescent or a lunate which had a straight sharp cutting edge and a curved blunted back.Their weapons include stone axes, knives, spears, harpoons, wooden bows, and sharp, stone tipped arrows, hooks, needles, and bone fish hooks.NEANDERTHALS were the first to create the pointed tip on hunting spears and harpoons **THE NEOLITHIC SHELTER** Earlier sapiens used caves as their homes instead of building one. Later, they made permanent homes that looked like tents or tepees, out of tree branches, grass, mammoth bones, and animal skins. They used or made some sort of paint to use on their cave paintings. **FOOD AND AGRICULTURE** Man domesticated plants and animals though he continued to hunt and gather. Man changed as from Nomadic lifestyle to settled stationary lifestyle; a.k.a.sedentary Population also increased due to balanced diet and adequate food <br><br> New Stone Age- 15,000 4,000 years ago **THE NEOLITHIC GOVERNMENT** Due to settled life and improved settlement, rules and laws were set up as a basis of government. Some people also specialized in leadership, religious activities as well as making of crafts. **THE NEOLITHIC RELIGION** Mans language and religious beliefs developed as a result of depending on natural forces like rain. They began to ponder over issues like life and death.Evidence is found at Hyrax Hill and Njoro river Cave where human fossil remains were found buried with items such as tools and seeds or foodThe practice of burying someone with his possessions implied a belief in life after death.Neanderthals were the first to bury their dead. They also seemed to have a conception of an afterlife as shown by the actual burial site at La Ferrassie, France, with seven tombs including a man, a woman and several childrens graves lying side by side. **THE NEOLITHIC ART AND CRAFT** Humans specialized in crafts such as basketry, pottery and later smelting Evidenced by this horse head carving to the right. **DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE** **Definition of agriculture** It is the cultivation of crops. The modern definition of agriculture includes animal husbandry, fish farming and bee-keeping. **The beginning of Agriculture** The domestication of plants and animals began over 10,000 years ago during the Neolithic period **Why man domesticated plants and animals** a. The increase of human population needed regular food supply -natural environment could no longer provide sufficient food. b. Climatic changes-increased drought, threatened plant life and animal life making natural food scarce. c. Competition for existing food in the natural resulted in inadequate wild food/over hunting of animals. d. Hunting and gathering was increasingly becoming tiresome. e. Calamities such as forest fires or floods sometimes destroyed vegetation or drove wild animals away. f. Development of settled life. Man had to stop a life of movement in search of food and water. g. Development of tools (microliths) e.g. sickles wooden plough, etc. h. Availability of varieties of indigenous crops e.g. wheat and barley. There are two theories that explain how agriculture started; 1. The Independent theory. Agriculture developed independently in different parts of the world especially along river valleys. 2. One Place Theory/Diffusion Theory-Crop growing and animal keeping developed among people of south East Asia. Then the idea spread to the rest of the world; Middle East, India, Central America, China, Southeast Asia 8,000 BC 7,000 BC 6,500 BC 6,000 BC 5,000 BC **CROP GROWING** The transformation from hunting and gathering to growing of food crops was a gradual development. The first crops were grown by man in areas where they existed naturally. Crop growing first developed in the Fertile Crescent which is in the Middle East. Neolithic women noticed new grain plants grew when they accidentally spilled grain seeds. They tried scattering seeds on purpose it worked! ~ Animals often find plants in places with water / good soil - Hunters saw pattern ~ People stayed at sites, animals became tamer ~ People started weeding / irrigating so plants would grow better ~ Started saving seeds of better plants to plant ~ One season, nomads liked a site so much they stuck around ~ Stayed so long they harvested a crop and then saw it grow to harvest stage again ~ Groups learned to grow a crop from seed to harvest and then move on ~ Since men did the hunting and females were responsible for the food gathering, women learned how to plant seeds, as well as process and prepare the food. The above facts point out that the beginning of crop farming was accidental and mainly through trial and errorEarliest crops to be domesticated were barley, wheat, sorghum, millet, rice, maize, yams, cassava, potatoes, bananas and grapes. Since they grew in different environments, there were many centres of agricultural revolution. For example; ~ Middle East. ~ Indus valley in India. ~ Nile valley ~ The yellow river valley in china ~ The Danube Valley in Europe. **WHEAT** Originally grown in south-west Asia Initial type was brittle wheat-then replaced by a non-brittle type in 7500BC called emmer Wheat then spread Mesopotamian plains by 6000 BC to Egypt by 3000BC, then to Mediterranean region, central Asia, India and southern Europe. **BARLEY** The first cereal to be domesticated.Initially grew wildly at Mureybat on the Euphrates in Syria between 7000 - 6000 BC Another evidence of growth found at Ali kosh (Iran) and Jericho (Jordan)Then spread to Egypt at Fayum in 4500 BC. Then spread to India and china by about 2000 BC. **SORGHUM AND MILLET** Originated from Africa at Hoggat in southern Algeria as early as 6000 BC Spread to West Africa to around Sudan area between Nile and Chad, by 1500 BC Finger millet originated in East Africa. Later the two spread to Asia and China. **RICE** Originated in Asia where currently is a stable food- in Thailand at about 3500 BC Then spread to India, Europe and Japan The African variety was grown along the upper Niger around 1500 BC **MAIZE** Origin- Central America at about 5000 BC at Tehuacan in Mexico. In Africa, was introduced by the Portuguese in 15thc. **YAMS** The first root and tuber crop to be domesticated- 9000 BC in south East Asia. The African variety, the white guinea yam was grown in Ivory Coast. **DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS** The Dog was the first animal to be domesticated. The next animals were the sheep, Goats, cattle and camels. Animal domestication Began through establishment of ties between man and animals during hunting or when fetching water. **Dog** Assisted humans in hunting, driving away dangerous animals and herding livestock **Goats** The Goat was first domesticated in south west Asia in5000 BC.Evidence of this is found at Tell Abu Hureyra, Tepe Ali Kosh, and Deh Luren Khuzestan in south -west Iran. Also in Iraq, upper Tigris valley, turkey and south Jordan. Goat domestication was in Egypt in 5000 BC Sheep.Sheep was domesticated after the dog. Fossil evidence of sheep keeping has been found at Zawi Chemi Shanid in Iraq and dating to about 9000 BC. Sheep were also kept in Syria, Egypt and Saharan region then to West Africa. Sheep was also kept in Indus valley and yellow river valleys. **Cattle** Cattle was first domesticated in south-west Asia as early as 5800BC in turkey and then in Iran and Iraq. It then spread to Ethiopia and North Africa from Asia. The short-horned cattle originated in Mesopotamia then spread to Africa and Europe. **Camel** Though camels are associated with North Africa today, the original home has been traced to North America from where t spread to South America and Asia. The Asian and s. American species became the ancestors of the Alpaca and Illama.Two types of camels exist today- the one-humped (found in Middle East, northern china and Africa), and the two-humped camel (found in central Asia.) Camels were domesticated about 3000 BC to 2500 BC **Importance of the domestication of animals** a) Some of them like cattle, sheep and goats provided man with regular food i.e. Milk, meat. b) Animal Hides or skin were used as clothing and beddings c) The horns were used for communication. d) Hooves and bones of animals were used as containers and as drinking vessels. e) Some of the domesticated animals like the camel, donkey and horses were used for transport. f) Domestic animals like the oxen and the donkey were used to plough land for farming. g) The dog protected man against dangerous animals. h) Some of the domesticated animals produced manure which greatly improved agricultural produce. **EARLY AGRICULTURE IN MESOPOTAMIA** Mesopotamia was the land between the two rivers Tigris and Euphrates and lay in the present day irag. It was one of the centres of early civilization as early as 3000 BC. Food production in this region began as early as 8000 BC. **Reasons why early agriculture developed in Mesopotamia** a) Availability of indigenous crops and animals in the region e.g. Wheat, barley, dates and goats, sheep and cattle. b) Existence of fertile land along river valleys of Tigris and Euphrates-consisting of deposited silt. c) Availability of water from rivers Tigris and Euphrates which was used for irrigation. Heavy rains experienced in the Zaggroes Mountains contributed to floods on the river valleys. d) Invention of farming tools e.g. Hoes, ploughs, sickles and seed drill which promoted agricultural activities. e) Existence of transport system in form of donkeys, canoes, river transport etc; which was instrumental in transportation of inputs and outputs. f) Political instability that enabled people to practice agriculture. The Sumerians are credited as the first people to use irrigation in growing crops. When the river water overflowed the banks during flooding, the Sumerians had the skill of controlling it through canals into the dry lands. (Canal or bucket irrigation). They also used farm implements to improve crop growing. For example the use of ox-drawn ploughs and seed drills pulled by oxen to replace stone hoes.Most of the people during the summer civilization earned their livelihood as farmers, craftsmen, fishermen and cattle breeders.Most of the land was in form of large estates owned by the rulers or the wealthy classes. The peasants were given small plots along with seeds, farm implements and animals in exchange for labour. The Crops grown included barley, wheat, vines, date, palms, grapes, olives, onions, figs, melons and cucumbers. Milk animals kept included goats and cow. Also ducks, pigs, geese and horses were kept. **Impact of early agriculture in Mesopotamia** a) It led to settled life as people now needed to concentrate on farming. b) Food production increased. c) There was an increase in population along the river valleys due to plenty and regular food supply. d) There was emergence of city-states and urban centres. For example Ur, Uruk, Eridu, Nippur, Kish and Babylon. e) Surplus agricultural production led to development of trade between communities. f) There was increased specialization as all could not engage in farming. Some became craftsmen. g) Agriculture influenced writing and arithmetic. Management of estates required knowledge in accounts. The form of writing that was developed was known as cuneiform involving the use of stone tablets. h) The invention of the wheel by around 3000 BC. it was used in carts to transport farm produce, for making war chariots to transport soldiers and also in pottery (the potters wheel) i) The plough was also invented. The first ox-plough consisted of simply a tree trunk with one small branch protruding upwards with the other one upwards. The invention meant that only a few people were needed to cultivate land. j) There was the development of science and mathematics with the development of the first formulas for measuring time, distance and area. There was also development in the field of Astronomy. k) Religious practices also developed with the connection of most of the gods to agriculture in one way or another. For example, Ninurta was a god of floods. l) Development of law. A code of laws was compiled as a means of minimizing conflict in society- the Hammurabis code. **EARLY AGRICULTURE IN EGYPT** As early as 7000 BC, people had already settled in the Nile valley. By around 5000 BC, the Egyptians had gradually adopted agriculture, departing from a hunter-gatherer society. **Reasons that enhanced development of early Agriculture in Egypt** a) Availability of Water for irrigation and for domestic use from river Nile. b) Existence of fertile silt deposits and mud originating from the flooding of the Nile betweenJuly and October annually, which provided fertile soil for crop farming. c) Another advantage was that Egypt had a suitable warm climate for crop growing and ripening. d) The Use of shadoof Irrigation technology ensured production of food during drought seasons e) Presence of indigenous crops and animals from which domestication was made. Wheat and barley had already become indigenous to Egypt as were animals like sheep and goats. f) Foreign influence from South West Asia where farming was first practiced. The proximity of Egypt to Mesopotamia, the first centre of agricultural development ensured that she borrowed heavily from there. g) The Natural protection of the region from foreign attacks, since the Nile valley was protected by the Libyan Desert to the West, the Nubian Desert and Nile cataracts to the South and the Nile coast delta on the North. h) Political stability. i) High population created need for more food and provided farm labour. j) Availability of slave labour made crop farming a success. k) The invention and use of implements that included wooden sticks, knives and wooden hoes enabled the farmers to increase their yields. l) The existence of writing in Egypt helped the Egyptians to keep accurate records of seasons and volume of food. **The shadoof irrigation** This was the method of irrigation used in Egypt during the drought season when the river was not flooding. A shadoof is a wooden device for lifting water from a river into the canals. It consisted of a long pole swinging up and down between two supporting wooden posts One end has a weight hanging on the pole while the other end has a skin bucket. The bucket is pulled down and dipped into the water by a person. It is caused to rise by the weight, once water has been filled. The other person empties the water into the canal to be drained into the fields.The Egyptians used farm implements like sticks, knives, axes, sickles and hoesAmong the crops planted in Egypt included wheat, barley, fruits, flax, beans, vegetables, cucumbers, onions, lentils, dates, figs and grapes. They used the broadcasting method. Shifting cultivation was also practiced before human population increased.They kept animals like sheep, goat, pigs, donkey, cattle and poultry. The state directed production. It controlled distribution of harvests as well as handicrafts. Government owned huge granaries and godowns which were used to store food. The king was regarded as the guardian who presided over food supply for all. The master of largesse was responsible for all the livestock in the country. In the year when agricultural production was poor, the head of the exchequer would take care of the distribution of seeds and livestock. **Effects of early agriculture in Egypt** a) Due to improved farming, there was increased food production thus ensuring regular food supplies. b) There was Growth in population as food supply increased and became regular. c) Agriculture led to permanent settlement of people. As a result, their living standards improved dramatically as they reaped from farming. d) Agriculture promoted trade among the Egyptians. It led to production of surplus food that in turn was used to increase trading activities. e) Agriculture Led to rise of urban centres or towns in Egypt such as Memphiss akhetan, Aswan and Thebes along the Nile valley. f) Agriculture enabled some society members to specialize in other activities since a few could now produce enough food for all. Some engaged in hand crafts, geometry etc. g) Agriculture Led to emergence of government and related governing laws. h) Like the case of Mesopotamia, it led to the discovery of arithmetic, geometry, writing and calendar. These were used by the priests to keep records and make accurate prediction of annual foods. The Egyptian calendar is believed to be the earliest calendar in the world. i) It promoted social stratification or classes in Egyptian society. **Effects of early agriculture** Summarize from the effects in Egypt and Mesopotamia. **THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN** The agrarian revolution refers to rapid changes and improvements in the field of agriculture. Between 1750 and 1850 European countries underwent changes in agriculture. The changes were marked by A new system of land ownership Use of machines and new farming methods. <br><br>The revolution took place first in Britain. **CHARACTERISTICS OF AGRICULTURE IN BRITAIN BEFORE THE** **AGRARIAN REVOLUTION** 1. Feudalism was practiced. **What is Feudalism?** Loosely organized system of government in which local lords governed their own lands but owed military service and other support to a greater lord (nobility) The feudal kings had plenty of land; but they could not control it all. So they gave land to lords (nobility) in exchange for protection, loyalty and $.Nobility then gave Part of their land to the serfs (peasants) who would work on it and give part of their crops to the local (land) lord, for letting them farm the land. 2. Farmers practiced open-field system. In this system land was divided into three portions; I. Portion one- growing corn and wheat II. Portion two- for beans, barley and oats III. Portion three- left fallow to regain fertility. Such a system did not allow effective farming since land was not fully utilized. It also discouraged livestock farming since it allowed easy spread of livestock diseases. There was uncontrolled breeding in livestock instead of selective breeding since livestock grazed together. Fallow land and existence of Cattle and footpaths that crisscrossed the farms wasted a lot of land. 3. Stripping as a method of farming was used. The existence of strips meant that Land portions were small and discouraged the use of machines. 4. Use of simple tools and implements that included sticks, hoes and later ploughs. Cultivation was therefore on small scale with crop rotation being used as a method of improving fertility. It was however not effective. 5. Use of broadcasting method. Broadcasting method of planting led to wastage of seeds as it would be eaten by birds and rodents 6. Intercropping was practiced. The growing of two or more crops on the same piece of land. 7. Mixed farming. Livestock was allowed to graze on fallow land 8. Mono-cropping-planting the same type of crop year after on the same piece of land. NB; this was an inefficient system leading to low yields **CHANGES THAT MARKED THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN** 1. Fallows were abolished and available lands used effectively. This was influenced by population that occasioned demand for more food. The farmers could no longer afford to leave land to regain fertility. 2. Application of new methods of farming. **Introduction and use of fertilizers in farms** Lord Viscount Townsend discovered that clover added nitrogen to the soil and turnips could survive in winter and be used to feed cattle. Townsend introduced a new four- course crop rotation called the Norfolk system consisting of barley, clover, turnips and wheat on same plot for a four-year period. In 1843, John Bennet Lawes discovered the use of fertilizers and opened a superphosphate factory in London. 3. Use of farm machineries like the horse drawn drilling machine invented by Jethro Tull in 1701 which replaced the broadcasting method. Iron hoes were used instead of sticks, to prepare the ground. In 1925, the wooden plough was replaced with an iron plough. Patrick Bells invention of the mechanical reaper replaced the sickle in harvesting corn. Andrew Meikles invented a mechanical thresher in 1876 which could cut and bind corn at the same time. The use of machines changed agriculture from a small scale to a large-scale business. 4. Intercropping to retain land fertility. E.g. of maize and beans. This practice enabled farmers to realize more yields. 5. Application of scientific principles to farming. For example, Selective breeding of livestock invented by Robert Bakewell (1725-1795). He was able to develop the short horn, Devon, the Hereford, Aberdeen Angus and Ayrshire. He also improved sheep breeds such as the Leicester, Shropshire, Suffolk and the oxford. Pig varieties- the Yorkshire, Berkshire and Tamworth breeds 6. Fencing of farms/land enclosure system; the introduction of land enclosures put to an end to strip farming. This was a demand of the rich landlords that land should be enclosed by fencing. The enclosure act enabled rich people to acquire more land. As a result more land was put under production and more land could be ploughed by one farmer **Positive effects of the land enclosure system introduced in Britain** a) It created large farms which allowed use of horse drill and crop -rotation. b) The farms were easily managed and Farmers could specialize in crop or animal production. c) Farmers could use their title deeds to borrow money from financial firms for the improvement of their farms. **Effects of the land enclosure movement on the peasant farmers in Britain** a. The creation of large farms led to landlessness among the peasant farmers, b. Peasant farmers sold off their land to the rich farmers because they could not afford to cultivate the land. c. The land enclosure movement led to displacement of peasant farmers from their land and hence they migrated to towns/ caused rural -urban migration. d. The rural-urban migration of peasant farmers led to overcrowding in urban centres/ congestion in urban centres. e. The land enclosure movement caused emigrations of the peasants to other countries such as USA, Canada, Australia, new Zealand and south Africa f. The poor farmers were exploited, as they had to sell their labour to farmers and to the factories / exploitation of the poor peasants labour force. 7. The royal agricultural society. It was established in 1838. Through the journals of the society, new ideas and techniques of farming were publicized all over the country. As a result, many farmers began to adopt the modern methods of farming. **CAUSES OF AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN** 1. Land consolidation; the introduction of land enclosures which put to an end to strip farming. As a result more land was under production and more land could be ploughed by one farmer. 2. Development of new methods of livestock breeding; more scientific methods of breeding livestock were developed. They involved selective breeding in which animals with suitable characteristics were maintained in the herds. 3. Development of new tools for farming which helped to increase agricultural productivity .e.g. use of seed drill, Rotterdam plough, threshing machine and tractors. 4. Development of new methods of maintaining soil fertility e.g. the new crop rotation system allowed the continued use of land without exhausting its fertility. Chemical fertilizers were also produced. 5. Development of agricultural research in universities and research institutes assisted in improvement of soils and crop yields. Newspapers and agricultural journals helped to spread the results of this research to farmers. 6. Impact of industrial revolution which provided the agricultural sector with inputs and market. 7. Population increase led to high demand for food. **EFFECTS OF THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN** 1. Food security for the population of Britain due to improved farming methods. 2. There was Growth of population in Britain due to food security lowered mortality rates and increased life expectancy. 3. There was Growth of capital/plantation farming to replace subsistence farming. Due to the enclosure act, ownership of large farms was encouraged and subsequently mechanization/plantations were set up. 4. Poor farmers who could not afford fencing lost their land. Capital farming therefore led to emergence of landless peasants as large tracts of land were consolidated in enclosures. The poor peasants were compelled to migrate to urban areas where they were subjected to poor living conditions. 5. Trade expanded locally and internationally. When farming was commercialized, Britain expanded trade thus boosting her economy. 6. Growth of a working class. The landless peasants sought wage employment on farms or in towns in the emerging new industries. Thus a class of workers began to emerge. 7. Transport systems like roads and railways improved. They were used to transport agricultural products to the market and raw materials to industries. 8. Industries benefited from agricultural raw materials/ develop ment of industries. A number of machines produced by industries were also used in agriculture to boost production. 9. Emigration of British national to other parts of the world. Some of the landless peasants migrated to USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. 10. Intensification of scientific research by the royal agricultural society to carter for the expanding agricultural sector. **THE SPREAD OF AGRARIAN REVOLUTION** From Britain the revolution spread to other parts of Europe and Americas and then the rest of the world. Ideas like crop rotation, use of machines, selective breeding of livestock and use of fertilizers spread into continental Europe from Britain. The governments encouraged agricultural science and research. The work of Louis Pasteur (1890-1960) a Frenchman discovered that disease are caused by bacteria and sterilization of food such as milk through boiling keeps it bacteria-free for long time **THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN THE USA** The Americas was the origin of many crops in the world the American Indians were subsistence farmers growing crops like yams, potatoes, maize (corn), cocoa, tomatoes, cotton, tobacco, beans and cassava.Political and religious differences in Europe in the 17th c forced many Europeans to settle in America as was also the enclosure system in Britain. Craftsmen and labouerers also moved in search of better life. The immigrant settlers came with horses, sheep, cattle, pigs, fowls, seeds and plants from Europe. Some of them participated in improving the machines that were already in use in Europe. For example: a. 1837- John Deere a young blacksmith from Illinois invented a steel plough b. 1837- Cyrus McCormick established a factory in Chicago to produce reapers c. 1837- Daniel Massey produced a similar machine in Canada. d. 1792- Elly Whitney invented the cotton gin and cotton picker American scientists also developed the refrigerator. For example, John Perkins (1766- 1849) an American inventor patented the first prototype refrigerator in England in 1834. The first American patent for a refrigerator was awarded to John Gorrie (1803-1855) in 1851.1859- Ferdinand Carre, a Frenchman invented the absorption system in a refrigerator. This was a major milestone in preservation of meat and other foods in America.Several agricultural zones emerged in America due to differences in soil fertility and climate: a. North-Eastern parts- Ranching and dairying b. The south- cotton zone. c. Central region-maize. d. North-west wheat There was large scale mechanized agriculture especially after the abolition of slave trade. Most cash crops were grown to provide raw materials to European industries. Tobacco was grown in Virginia and Maryland. Rice and indigo were grown in Georgia and South Carolina. Cattles rearing was done in Texas.Transport development also enhanced agricultural development. For example, water transport using the great lakes, railway and road transport.Alexander graham bell invented the telegraph to enhance communication. USA also invested in the field of science and research which boosted agriculture with better hybrid seeds and different strains of livestock. **FACTORS THAT FACILITATED THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICUL-TURE** **IN AMERICA BEFORE 1800** a. The enclosure system in Britain led to the Settlement of enterprising European emigrants who wished to make a living through agriculture/Determination of European immigrants to succeed as farmers as there was no other source of livelihood. European immigration into the region also led to population increase and demand for more food. The immigrants also introduced new crops and new methods of farming leading to agricultural development b. Scientific research made it possible to improve strains of crops to resist diseases, to develop superior animal breeds and to develop new food crops e.g. Soya beans into artificial meat, etc. c. Mechanization; there was extensive use of machines to improve production e.g. steel plough, use of reapers, cotton gin etc. d. The presence of cheap means of transport e.g. Erie Canal, roads, railway, etc speeded up the transportation of goods and raw materials. e. The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 led to increased cotton acreage. f. Environmental influence on the farmers through experience leading to agricultural zoning e.g. maize in the centre, wheat in the south and beef rearing in the west/Presence of suitable soils for different types of crops such as tobacco, cotton and wheat. g. Government recognition of individual land ownership (the Homestead Act 1760) encouraged settlers to farm. **EFFECTS OF THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN USA** Fuelled by peasants who emigrated after they were driven out of Europe by the land enclosure movement, USA became the worlds leading producer of agricultural products. The effects of the revolution were as follows: a) It led to diversification of agriculture through the introduction of new farm animals and crops. b) The new inventions in farm machinery enabled American farmers to bring more land under cultivation. For example the steel plough invented by John Deere and reaping machine by Cyrus McCormick. c) Food production especially of wheat and maize, increased due to the use of new farming methods like use of fertilizers and hybrid seeds. d) The agrarian revolution led to expansion of agricultural related industries. e) Mechanization of agriculture replaced slaves and other labourers at the farms. Many people went to search for employment in urban areas. f) The expansion of food production led to increase in trade between USA and Western Europe thus boosting USA economy. g) The transport system was improved to enable transportation of farm inputs to farms and agricultural produce to market. h) The revolution contributed to the enhancement of research and scientific inventions especially on the field of agriculture. **FOOD SITUATION IN AFRICA AND THE REST OF THE THIRD WORLD** Third world refers to the less developed countries in Africa, Asia and South America. Many of these third world countries have food shortages and even continue to have weak economies upto date. **Causes to food shortage in Africa** a. Rapid population growth which has put a lot of pressure on the available food resources leading to shortages b. Poor land use and agricultural practices. Many farmers still depend on traditional farming methods, for example, not applying fertilizers, pesticides or mechanization, thus producing low yields. c. Some developing countries experience adverse weather conditions such as floods and long periods of drought. Since these countries practice rain-fed agriculture, food production has been affected d. Overemphasis on cash crops at the expense of food crops has contributed to low food production. In Kenya for example, large farms concentrate on growth of flowers, tea and coffee with food crop farming being largely for subsistence. e. Rural-urban migration , especially among the young people has deprived the rural areas of the badly needed labour force for food production f. Lack of adequate capital for agricultural development. Low income/poverty. The farmers lack enough funds to purchase farm inputs. g. Political instability in some African countries undermines food production. For example in Ethiopia, Sudan, DRC, Burundi and Rwanda. This has prevented people from concentrating on food production. h. Decline in growing drought resistant crops. Crops like cassava and millet have been abandoned due to attitude thus causing artificial shortage of specific food. i. Poor and inadequate storage facilities have led to food wastage. In Kenya by 2001, the country was losing up to nine million bags of grain per year as a result of poor storage methods. j. Poor transport network leads to uneven distribution of food. It also discourages farmers from producing more. k. Over reliance on food aid and forms of aid has created a dependence attitude in many African countries. Some communities have become complacent about looking for a permanent solution to their food problems. l. Poor economic planning on the part of the government with many countries putting a lot of emphasis on other development projects at the expense of agricultural and food production. m. Poor land tenure systems resulting in low productivity. For example where a few European farmers own large tracts of land but only exploiting a small portion of the expansive farms. n. The HIV/AIDS pandemic contributed to food shortages since the scourge leads to death of many of the work force in their prime years. **Effects of food shortages** a. Loss of life. Many people have lost their lives. For example the Ethiopian famine in 1984 led to the deaths of thousands of people. b. Increased suffering among millions of people in Africa due to deficiency diseases like kwashiorkor and marasmus. c. Food shortage has created social problems in societies. For example cattle raids by the karamojong and Maasai during the periods of famine. Even other anti-social problems like stealing food in rural areas can be attributed to inadequate food supply. d. Sometimes famine and drought has forced people to flee their home countries thus causing refugee problems in the receiving countries. e. Lack of food hampers efforts towards economic development. It Affects education since famine stricken children cannot concentrate on learning. There is Use of scarce foreign exchange to import food. f. It has created dependence on food aid from rich countries. Even some of the genetically created foods are tested in third world countries. Such foods have unknown side-effects. g. It has adversely affected agricultural-based industries.e.g sugar industries.-inevitably thisleads to unemployment. h. It has led to Political instability as people lose confidence in the governments that cannot feed them. **Solutions to food shortage in Africa** a. Land reclamation thus increasing land under agriculture. This may increase food production. b. Re-formulation of agricultural policies so that there is a shift from a concentration on cash crops to paying more attention on food crops. c. Provision of extension services to farmers e.g. information on storage, preservation of farm produce and other forms of advice. d. Revision of the land tenure system- redistribution of land / land reforms as case is in china. e. Development of agro-based industries which will become market to agricultural raw materials like coffee, tea, etc. f. Creation of political stability to enable mobilization of people to self-sufficiency in food production. g. Relentless campaign against killer disease such as AIDS. h. Infrastructural development/ in transport, communication, storage and marketing. i. Environmental conservation measures which may help curb drought spread and ensure sufficient rains./ protection of catchments areas j. Family planning so that people only have children they can be able to feed, cloth and shelter. k. Demand for food to feed the growing population. **STEPS KENYA HAS TAKEN TO SOLVE FOOD SHORTAGES** a) Extensive research has been carried out in research institutions such as the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) producing hybrid maize such as Katumani that grows in drier areas. ICIPE and ILRI researches in pests and disease that affect both livestock and crops in the country. b) Introduction of genetically engineered crops and animal s into the agricultural sector. These crops, developed mainly at JKUAT and KARI are resistant to diseases and pests. c) Agricultural training institutions have been established to train experts such as agricultural officers, veterinary doctors and horticultural experts. Agriculture is also taught in schools- to equip learners with new and better techniques of farming that could boost production. d) People are being educated about the need for family planning so that families have only number of children whom they can feed and provide for. e) The government has formulated a food security policy to enhance production of food in the country. For example a minimum amount of cereals in the government silos has been set up with urgent measures to top up outlined. **THE PEOPLE OF KENYA UP TO THE 19THCENTURY** **INTRODUCTION** There is immense evidence to confirm that east Africa was the cradle of humankind. Archaeological evidence (for example, the tools found at kobi for a, Olorgesaillie, kariandusi, Mtongwe, around Lake Victoria, lukenya hills, near lake Naivasha) show that Kenya was inhabited by Stone Age people. There is also evidence of use of iron in Kenya dating back as AD270 e.g. at Urewe near Ngiya in Siaya and in Kwale. **THE KHOISAN** According to oral traditions, the earliest people to occupy Kenya were of the Khoisan stock. They had similar features like the Khoi khoi and the san of South Africa, the Sandawe and Hadza of Tanzania. They all spoke a language with a clicking sound. **Cultural aspects of the Khoisan** a) They Spoke a language with a clicking sound like the khoi-khoi of south Africa b) They were nomadic people c) They gathered the wild fruit in the wild and dug up tubers and roots for their foods d) They used stone tools in addition to bows and arrows. e) They fished in rivers and lakes using harpoons f) They made use of rock shelters and caves. g) They buried the dead. h) Made and used pottery. NB- such evidence of the culture of the Khoisan has been found in Gambles and Njoro river caves near Nakuru.These pioneering inhabitants of Kenya disappeared maybe after being subdued and overcome by the powerful incoming Bantus and nilotes.However, there exist some remnants of these hunter-gatherer communities in the western highlands of rift valley. They speak the language of the group near them like kalenjin (okiek), Maasai (Dorobo), Onguye and Okuro in western Kenya. **THE CUSHITES** They existed in two groups: a) The southern Cushites b) The eastern Cushites. **The southern Cushites** They might have entered present day Kenya through northern Kenya and seem to have originated from the Ethiopian highlands. Since they were pastoralists, they must have been looking for better pasture for their livestock.Around 2500 and 3000 years ago, they were already occupying the grasslands of the Kenya highlands cultivating food crops like sorghum , millet and rearing long horned humpless cattle. They even extended upto Tanzania. They included the Iraqi, Boni and Burungi of Tanzania, The Dahallo or Sanye of the lower Tana (the remaining southern Cushites in Kenya). Some were later absorbed by the incoming groups. **The Eastern Cushites** They include the Borana, Somali, Oromo, Gabra, Rendille and Burji. They originated either from Ethiopia or Somalia moving and settling into Kenya around 2000 and 1000 years ago due to the following reasons; a) Escaping from clan or family feuds. b) There was population pressure in their area of origin. c) They were in search of better grazing lands. d) They were fleeing the outbreak of disease that affected both people and animals. e) They were escaping famine and drought. f) They fled constant attacks from their neighbours such as the Somali. g) The migrated to satisfy their spirit of adventure. **THE OROMO** They came in the 16thcentury from Ethiopia. Initially they settled on the eastern shores of Lake Turkana. They later moved south pushing the Mijikenda and the Pokomo out of the Shungwaya to occupy Malindi and Kilifi. Today they occupy the southern part of Tana River and are neighbours to the Pokomo. **Effects of migration and settlement of the Oromo in Kenya** a) They inter-married with the people they came into contact with e.g. Somali, Pokomo and Borana. b) Their settlement in Kenya led to expansion of trade. c) Their settlement led to increased conflict between communities over resources e.g. pasture and water. d) Displacement and redistribution of people in the area where they settled e.g. the Oromo pushed the Bantu from the Shungwaya region. e) Assimilation of some communities they came into contact with e.g. the Oromo vs. Somali. f) Cultural exchange e.g. neighbouring communities adopted Islam. g) Settlement in high agricultural potential areas e.g. river valleys encouraged some of them to practice crop farming. h) Expansion of agriculture due to demand of agricultural produce. **THE BORANA** They are also Oromo speaking people whose origin is southern Ethiopia. Their migration into Kenya was due to escaping the Menelik Wars of Conquest in 1897 and who had imposed heavy taxes on them. They represent some of the most recent migrations into Kenya end as late as 1900 when more Borana groups fled into Kenya from Somali running away from the war between the Somali Nationalists and the British. Today the Borana occupy the area north of the Tana River. **THE SOMALI** They originated from Mogadishu where they were living by 10th century A.D. They begun moving southwards into Kenya around that time maybe due to the Oromo threat or they were looking for pasture for their livestock.The Somali represent the largest single group of eastern Cushites in Kenya. **Results of Cushitic migration into Kenya** a) There was massive warfare during the migrations leading to killing of many people in the process. For example, there was constant warfare between the Somali and the Oromo. i) They displaced some of the communities which they came into contact with e.g. the Oromo pushed the Mijikenda from the Shungwaya region in AD 1500 AND 1600. b) They intermarried with those people they interacted with e.g. the some of the Pokomo intermarried with the Borana. c) Their settlement led to expansion / development of trade between them and their neighbours e.g. they traded with the Samburu and the Maasai. d) There was cultural exchange between them and the Bantu and Nilotic neighbours. E.g. the Taboo against eating Fish among the Bantu, the age set system and circumcision has origin from the Cushites. e) The migrations led to population pressure in the region. f) Adoption of some agricultural practices from the Bantu. g) There was redistribution of population in Kenya. The Mijikenda for example were scattered at Shungwaya. **THE BANTU SPEAKERS** Introduction The term Bantu refers to group of people who speak the same or similar language with common word NTU which means a person. The Bantu-speaking groups include the Luhyia, Kisii, Kuria, Kikuyu, Akamba, Meru, Aembu, Taita, Agiryama, Digo in Kenya and Pokomo, as well as many other smaller groupsTheir original homeland was somewhere between eastern Nigeria and the Cameroon (Congo Basin). They then moved southwards towards present day Democratic Republic of Congo (around 500 BC the Bantu were living in the Congo forest). This became a major dispersal point from where the Bantus moved in four major waves. Of these waves, the two waves that account for settle of the Bantu in Kenya are the ones moving south- eastwards through the area west of LakeVictoria (a 2nddispersal point for Bantus). From here they dispersed in two groups; A. some group passed through present-day Uganda , some settling there (Baganda, Banyoro, Batoro), proceeding into kenya to form the western Bantu(Luhyia, Kisii, Kuria and abasuba) B. From the west Victoria dispersal point a group moved and entered east Africa at appoint south of Lake Victoria and then proceeded eastwards across northern Tanzania to a dispersal point between Taita hills and mt. Kilimanjaro. Some settled in Tanzania (Chagga, nyamwezi, sukuma, Kuria, haya, Yao, Segeju, Zaramo).the rest of the groupproceeded northwards to the coast upto Shungwaya (another dispersal point). These were the eastern Bantus. **REASONS FOR THE BANTU MIGRATION** The reasons for the migration of the Bantu are not known but they most likely included the following; a) Drought and famine: This broke out because the climate in their cradle land had become unreliable/unpredictable. b) Population increase which resulted into population pressure, e.g. they became overpopulated in their cradle land. c) The constant attacks (external pressure) from stronger tribes in West Africa and the Nile valley; also due to the migration of the Arabs, who were believed to be more hostile, into West Africa. d) Internal conflicts from the Bantu tribes: These conflicts concerned the ownership of agriculture area, the shortage of grazing lands and watering areas. e) Epidemics and diseases/natural calamities, e.g. earthquakes, over flooding of rivers like river Niger, sickness, diseases such as Nagana caused by Tsetse flies, sleeping sickness e.t.c. f) Search for fertile land: Since they were predominantly farmers, the Bantu migrated in order to find more land which could be more fertile than the cradle land, which could no longer support them. g) Love for adventure: They moved due to their desire for adventure, i.e. they wanted to find out what was happening in other areas. h) Group influence: Some moved because they had seen their relatives and friends move. i) Need for water and pasture for their animals forced them to move. j) The Bantu migrated in order to export their iron-working culture. They had discovered the knowledge of iron working and had invented iron tools. These iron tools had transformed the agricultural sector by making the clearing of land for cultivation faster and more efficient. **The western Bantu** They include Luhyia, Kisii, Kuria and abasuba and settled in western part of kenya thus their name. **Abaluhyia** ~ The Abaluhyia community is made up of eighteen sub-groups. The sub-groups which constitute the community have a common background, common customs and speak closely related dialects of the same language. ~ According to Abaluhyia tradition, communities used to hold criminal tribunals at the junctions of footpaths. The area at the junction of footpaths was known as Uluyia or a meeting point and it is claimed that the name Abaluhyia is derived from this. Another version states that in a polygamous home the courtyard outside the main fathers house is called Luhyia. All the children are referred as children of one Luhyia and hence the name Abaluhyia. ~ Most of the Luhyia sub-groups point to mt. elgon dispersal point as their origin. The settlement of the Abaluhyia into Kenya dates back to 300 AD. By 1750 AD, many groups had settled in present day Bukhayo, Marama, Tiriki, Bunyore, Wanga and Maragoli. ~ They absorbed some groups they found in the area. Also, their interaction with the Maasai led to establishment of clans like the Abashimuli among the Idakho. The Marachi, Kisa and Samia interacted with the Luo. Abagusii ~ Abagusii traditions acknowledge a close relationship with the following people: the Abakuria, Abalogoli, Ababukusu, Abasuba, Agikuyu, Ameru, Aembu, Ambeere and the Akamba. Their tradition has it that on their way from the country which they call Msiri they were accompanied by the Baganda and the Basoga besides the above groups. ~ The Abagusii and the Abalogoli migrated southwards following the River Nzoia valley and arrived near Lake Victoria between 1490 and 1520. Following an easterly course along the lake shore, they settled at the head of Goye Bay in Yimbo location of Nyanza with their homeland spreading across present day Ulowa, Sare and Unyejra at the foot of Ramogi hill. Luo migrants in 1550 AD found them settled in this general area and pushed them from alego to Kisumu where they lived upto 1600AD. ~ Their migration from Kisumu to Kano was motivated by drought in the area.. However, their eastward migration was checked by the Maasai and the Kipsigis ~ By the 18thcentury, they had settled in the Kisii highlands positively interacting with the neighboring Luo, Maasai and Kipsigis in terms of trade. Why the Abagusii remained in the Kano plains for too long before settling in the Kisii highlands. a) They were obstructed by the Kipsigis who were migrating westwards. b) The Maasai were also quite wild/hostile. c) The plains favored their activity of livestock grazing. d) Lack of a strong warrior group to fight their expansionist wars against the warring neighbors. **Abakuria** ~ The origin of the name Kuria is a thorny point in the Abakuria history. The major Abakuria sub-tribes such as Abanyabasi, Abatimbaru, Abanyamongo, Abakira, Abairegi and Abagumbe have traditions to the effect that their ancestor was Mokuria (or Mukuria) that lived in Msiri. His descendants migrated from Msiri and after many years of wandering on the other side of Lake Victoria; they eventually reached and settled in the present Bukuria By 1800AD,) in south Nyanza.) ~ According to this tradition, the Abakuria have been divided from time immemorial into two families: the Abasai of the elder wife of Mokuria and the Abachuma of the younger wife. ~ The Abakuria are related to Abalogoli of Abaluhyia and Abagusii and trace same origin at mt. elgon dispersal point. ~ The Abakuria people appear to have sprung from too many directions to have a common historical origin, although a number of clans claim to have come from Msiri. ~ Among the Abakuria today are found people who were originally from Kalenjin, Maasai, Bantu and Luo speaking communities. The Abakuria adopted the practice of age set organization and circumcision from the southern Cushites **Abasuba** ~ The name Suba means the people who are always wandering. ~ The Suba migrated into their current locations beginning in the mid-1700s. They came from the region just west of Lake Victoria and settled on the islands. ~ The Suba migrated from Uganda and settled on the two Lake Victoria islands of Rusinga and Mfangano, and are believed to be the last tribe to have settled in Kenya. Other subgroups migrated and settled on the shores of Lake Victoria in the early 18th century. ~ The Suba are descendants of one wave of the Bantu migration from Central Africa over the last 1500 to 1800 years. In the 16th century, it appears, small family groups related to the Ganda people on the western side of the lake migrated across Lake Victoria on boats to settle on Rusinga Island and other islands near what is now Kenya and Tanzania. ~ The Suba are descendants of one wave of the Bantu migration from Central Africa over the last 1500 to 1800 years. In the 16th century, it appears, small family groups related to the Ganda people on the western side of the lake migrated across Lake Victoria on boats to settle on Rusinga Island and other islands near what is now Kenya and Tanzania. ~ Linguistically, the Suba are highly influenced by the neighbouring Luo, to the point of a language shift having taken place among large portions of the mainland Suba. ~ The remaining speakers of the Suba language are mostly elderly residents on the island of Mfangano. **The eastern Bantu** They are divided into Highland or Mt. Kenya Bantu and Coastal Bantu. **Coastal Bantu** They include the Taita, Pokomo and Mijikenda.From the west Victoria dispersal point their first movement was upto Taita hills, where the Taita remained. The Mijikenda and Pokomo proceeded northwards to the coast upto Shungwaya (another dispersal point). The main reason for the Shungwaya dispersal was the Oromo attack In AD 1600. **Pokomo** They moved from Shungwaya following river Tana interacting with the Cushites like the Oromoand Somali. **Mijikenda** The name means Nine Clans comprising of the Kauma, Giriama, Duruma, Chonyi, Jibana, Kambe, Ribe, Rabai and Digo.From the Shungwaya dispersal point,(forced out by the Oromo/Somali southwards expansionist attacks), they settled in fortified villages mainly due to security concerns. Each of the nine groups settled in their own separate ridge referred to as Kaya fortified with thorny trees.By the 19th, the Mijikenda were established as middlemen during the long distance trade between the Akamba and the coastal Waswahili. **The highland Bantu** Examples of highland Bantus include Agikuyu, Ameru, Aembu, Ambeere and the **Akamba** They are also products of the Shungwaya dispersion. **Agikuyu** ~ The largest single group of the eastern group. ~ While the Kikuyu can be found throughout Kenya, the heaviest concentration being in Central Province, known as the traditional Kikuyu homeland. The Kikuyu traditionally believe that a man, Gikuyu, was the founder of the tribe. He had a wife named Mumbi, who gave birth to nine (plus one) daughters. The daughters married and had their own families, retaining a domineering role in Kikuyu society. ~ It was in Mukurwe wa Gathanga division of Nyeri district where an identifiable beginning for the modern Kikuyu people is defined. ~ Ancestors of the Kikuyu arrived in Kenya during the Bantu migrations of 1200-1600 AD. The Agikuyu seem to have moved southwest from the coast at around 1400AD also running away from hostile Oromo. They followed Tana River with some groups falling off and settling in different places. For example the Tharaka settled in the east and the Ambeere settled in the southwest. The main group proceeded upto the confluence of rivers Tana and Thika (Mukurwe wa Gathanga. They spread and settled in Kiambu and Nyandarua from Muranga. ~ The key event in their migration and settlement was military conflict with and defeat of the Gumbapeople by the Mathira and Tetu people, allied with the Athi and the Maasai in the early 1800's. ~ They displaced or absorbed the original inhabitants-the Dorobo (Athi) and Gumba who were a hunter- gatherer community. ~ Settlement of the Nyeri plains took place after the British moved the Maasai from the area. The Kikuyu were in Kabete by around 1850, Ruiru about 1900. ~ They heavily interacted with the Maasai and Cushites in the area. **Describe the relationship between Athi and the Agikuyu** a) The Athi were the original inhabitants of the land where the Agikuyu live presently. b) The Agikuyu claim they bought the land from the Athi. c) The Agikuyu also acquired some cultural practices from the Athi e.g. circumcision, clitoridectomy and age set system. d) The Athi acted as middlemen in the trade between the Agikuyu, Maasai and the coastal people. **Akamba** ~ They point to the area around mt Kilimanjaro as their original homeland. ~ From here they moved to Taita Hills before reaching Tsavo West. They followed the Banks of Athi River in the 15thcentury one group crossing Athi into Ulu. Another group moved south to the Galana River and settled in the region around chyulu hills north of mt. Kilimanjaro ~ By around mid 16thcentury a group of the Akamba had settled in the Mbooni hills near Machakos. ~ Due to environmental influence, the Akamba near Mbooni began to practice agriculture before migrating to iveti, kilungu and masaku. Those that moved to drier Chyulu hills became hunters. The Kitui group adopted pastoralism and hunting and participated in long distance trade. **The Ameru** ~ Their original homeland is claimed to Mbwa, located somewhere at the coast on manda island. The Shungwaya dispersal might have led to the pushing of the Ameru to tigania and igembe regions at around 1400AD. They crossed the Tana River with the Tharaka sections of Agikuyu and settled to the east of tana. The Chuka section settled in the west of river tana. The mwimbi, imenti, tigania and igembe also settled west of the Tana River. ~ According to tradition, the Meru and Agikuyu were initially migrating as one group and separated at around 15thc and 16thc. **Effects of the Bantu Migration** The results of the Bantu migration were both positive and negative. **Positive results** 1. Introduction of iron working the use of iron tools in the interior of East Africa where peoplewere at first using stone tools. There was an increase in food production. 2. Introduction of new crops e.g. yams, bananas: the Bantu introduced and increased the knowledge of food and extensive crop cultivation. Earlier on, the inhabitants of East Africa were food gatherers, but with iron smelting and its results, food production seriously started. 3. The absorbed other tribes e.g. the gathers: This led to widespread Bantu languages of NTUprefix in East Africa. 4. They introduced centralized administration: They introduced a centralized system of government whereby the king acted as the overall ruler, under who were the other chiefs, down to the lay person. This was done in western Kenya by the Wanga. 5. Introduced a system of building permanent homes: They opened new land to settlement in families, clans and villages. 6. The knowledge of iron smelting which the Bantu introduced led to the making of hoes and pangas for tilling and clearing land, the bows, arrows and spears for defense and protection. 7. They introduced subsistence agriculture, whereby they grew enough food for home consumption, and the rest could be kept in case of shortages, or be exchanged in barter trade. Negative effects 1. The Bantu migration led to depopulation: This was caused by the frequent attacks made on the Bantu by Somali and Oromo, or by the Bantu against the people East Africa for land, through wars. 2. There was loss of culture due to cultural absorption: This was brought about due to Bantu intermarrying with the non- Bantu peoples, whom they came across. 3. There was transformation of languages into new ones: This led to the dying down of some of the Bantu languages, while others remained. **The Nilotic speakers** Nilotes is a term originating from the word Nile. The origin of these groups is associated with the Nile River. These are the second largest group after the Bantu. They are divided into three groups; a) River-lake nilotes- the Luo. b) Plains nilotes- the Maasai, Tunkana and Samburu. c) Highlands nilotes- kalenjin groups of the Marakwet, Tugen, Nandi, Kipsigis, Elgeyo , Pokot and Sabaot **River-lake nilotes** They are sometimes referred to as the southern Luos to differentiate them from other riverlake nilotes in Uganda and Sudan like the Dinka, Shilluk, Bor , Anwak, Alur, Acholi, Jopaluo, Padhola, Nuer and Luo of Uganda. They are believed to have originated from Bahr-el-Ghazal region of southern Sudan. They then migrated to Pubungu Pakwach in Uganda where they settled by 1450 AD. They later moved into Kenya. Their arrival caused the displacement of many Bantu- speaking peoples, notably the Gusii, Kuria and Luhya, who were forced into the highlands east and north of the lake. **Why did they leave Bahr-el-Ghazal region?** a) They might have been Escaping from clan or family feuds. b) There was population pressure in their area of origin. c) They were nomadic pastoralists in search of better grazing lands and water for their livestock d) They were fleeing the outbreak of disease that affected both people and animals. e) They were escaping famine and drought. f) They fled constant attacks from their neighbours. g) They were also looking for better fishing grounds. h) The migrated to satisfy their spirit of adventure. Their migration into Kenya began in the 15thc. they moved in four distinct groups; a) Joka-jok- people of jok. Was the first group to enter into kenya from Uganda. They first settled at Ramogi hills in Kadimo Siaya district displacing the earlier Gusii settlers. Two of Joks sons fled to south Nyanza to form the Karachuonyo and Wanjare clans. Thisgroup spread to Sakwa, Alego, Asembo and other parts of Nyanza. b) Joka-Owiny. Owiny moved from Uganda to settle in Sogoma in Alego with his group in the 17thc. he was both a great fighter and leader (Ruoth). He came to be known as Owiny Sigoma and his people Joka Ruoth. This group settled in Kisumu, Nyakach and South Nyanza. c) Joka-Omolo. They came from northern Banyoro and settled temporarily in Ibanda and Bukoli before moving to Ugenya and Gem. They displaced the Abagusii and Abalogoli out of Yimbo. They spread to Alego and then across winam gulf into south nyanza. d) The abasuba. They are Bantu in origin but are associated with the Luo. They are a mixture of Bantu refugees from Uganda who intermarried with the Luo. They settled in the Lake Victoria islands of Mfangano and Rusinga and also in gwasi area. They adopted Luo culture. **Effects of Luo Migration** a) The settlement of the Luo in Kenya led to increase in population in the area. b) Their arrival intensified conflicts between them and other communities in the area over limited resources. For example they displaced the western Bantu like the Abaluhyia, **Abakuria and Abagusii** c) There were intermarriages between the Luo and the Luyia and Maasai groups in the area. d) The Luo assimilated some Luhyia communities living in the area. e) Their settlement enhanced trade with different communities; they exchanged livestock products for grains with the Luyia. f) The Luo adopted agriculture as a result of interacting with the Bantus who were farmers. **Plain Nilotes** They include the Maasai and Samburu (Maa speakers), Iteso, Turkana and Njemps. The Plain Nilotes entered Kenya at around AD 1000 from an area north of Lake Turkana. **Why they moved into Kenya:** a) Drought and famine that broke out in their cradleland. b) Population increase which resulted into population pressure in their cradle land. c) The external pressure from stronger neighbours. d) Internal conflicts from among other Nilotic groups concerning the ownership of grazing lands and watering areas. e) Epidemics and diseases like sleeping sickness affecting both humans and animals. f) They moved due to their desire for adventure, i.e. they wanted to find out what was happening in other areas. g) Need for water and pasture for their animals forced them to move. Their first point of settlement was near Mount Moroto in eastern Uganda by AD 1000. From here, several groups like the Jie, Iteso, Turkana and karamojong emerged, with the Iteso settling in Uganda in 17thc before expanding into western Kenya by 19thc. The Turkana extended northwards to their present area. **The effects of the migration and settlement of the iteso** a) The settlement of the iteso in their present region led to increase in population in the area. b) It intensified conflicts between them and other commu nities in the area over limited resources. c) There were intermarriages between the iteso and the Luyia groups in the area. d) Cultural interaction giving rise to enriched cultures. e) Some people were displaced from the area with the arrival of the iteso. E.g. the Maasai and some kalenjin communities. f) The iteso assimilated some communities living in the area. g) Their settlement enhanced trade with different communities; they exchanged livestock products for grains with the Luyia. h) The iteso adopted agriculture as a result of interacting with the Bantus who were farmers **The Maasai** ~ Their movement from north of lake Turkana is closely associated with the original Kalenjin speakers. By AD 1500, the Maasai begun to move separately southwards between Mt,. Kenya and Mt. Elgon. By 19thc , they had settled in Uasin Gishu and even spread into Tanzania along the Rift Valley. ~ As they moved, they assimilated the Sirikwa peoples. They also waged war against the neighbouring Kalenjin, Akamba and Abagusii. ~ In the 1850s the Maasai experienced many natural disasters like drought, famine and cattle diseases leading to decline of their power. They also experienced civil wars between the Kwavi (iloikop) and the Purko (Ilmaasai) sections. When Oloibon Mbatian died, his two sons Sendeyo and Lenana became involved in a protracted succession dispute. They were also weakened by wars with the Agikuyu. Their power came to an end with the coming of British rule. **Effects of the migration and settlement of the plain nilotes into Kenya** a) The migration and settlement of the Maasai in their present region led to increase in population in the area. b) As they migrated, into Kenya, the Maasai pushed and displaced the communities they came across. For example, they subdued the Nandi in the 18thc. c) The Maasai influenced the fighting tactics of other groups in Kenya. d) The Maasai absorbed the southern Cushites such as the Dorobo. e) There were intermarriages between the Maasai and the Akamba, Agikuyu and even the kalenjin groups in the area. f) There was Cultural interaction giving rise to enriched cultures. They adopted some cultural practices from the southern Cushites for example, the age-set systems circumcision and clitoridectomy. They also adopted some Kalenjin vocabulary. g) Their settlement enhanced trade with different communities; they exchanged livestock products for grains with the Luyia. h) A section of the Maasai adopted agriculture as a result of interacting with their agricultural neighbours in the Rift Valley. The Kwavi Maasai became mixed farmers. i) They influenced Communities like the Nandi who adopted the institution of Prophet or diviner from the institution of Laibon among the Maasai. **The Highland Nilotes** They comprise the kalenjin speakers namely the Tugen, Nandi, Kipsigis, Marakwet, Keiyo, Pokot and Sabaot. They are believed to be the earliest Nilotic speakers in Kenya. This evidenced from the narratives of their neighbours like the Luo. Their traditions point their original homeland to be a place to the north-western part of Kenya, between Sudan and Ethiopia. **Why they migrated:** a) They might have been Escaping from internal enemies causing clan or family feuds. b) There was population pressure in their area of origin forcing them to look for new land for settlement. c) They were fleeing the outbreak of diseases and epidemics that affected both people and animals. d) They were escaping famine and drought. e) They fled constant attacks from their neighbours. f) They were also looking for better lands for cultivation. g) The migrated to satisfy their spirit of adventure. Key notes for the teacher and students- @Helot 2012-2013 49 They began migrating from their cradleland in around 600AD. By 700AD, some kalenjin groups like the Sirikwa were already occupying the rift valley. Some were later pushed out of the Mt. elgon region by the incoming Bantu and plain nilotes. Those that remained include the Bok, Bongomek and Kony. The Terik later migrated to western Kenya and greatly borrowed from the Bantu, adopting a new name, Tiriki. **The Nandi.** They were pushed out of the Mt. Elgon region between 1700 and 1800 by the incoming **Maasai.** The decline of the Maasai in the 19thc made them rise to become a formidable group that conducted raids against their neighbours like the Abaluhyia and Luo. Their power only declined due to colonization. **The Kipsigis** They are believed to have separated together with the Nandi from other kalenjin groups at around Mt. Elgon region around AD1600. They moved south east to Teo, near Lake Baringo. Due to the Maasai attacks, they moved westwards to Tambach where they stayed for a long period. They later moved southwards to Rongai near Nakuru. They only separated from the Nandi due to drought and the Maasai Raids on the Nandi. The Kipsigis moved further south to Kericho while the Nandi moved to Aldai during the 2nd half of 18thc. The Kipsigis settled at Kipsigis Hills forming a strong community that assimilated thelegendary Sirikwa and some Maasai and Abagusii groups. They were for a long time allies of the Nandi. **What factors contributed to the Nandi and Kipsigis split during the mid 18th** **century.** a) Maasai attacks on the two communities forcing each group to find its own means of Defence. b) Drought which caused scattering in search of food and pasture. c) Constant conflicts over the limited resources in the region leading to warfare and final split. **Results of the Highland nilotes migration** a) It increased intercommunity conflicts in the region. b) Some of the Kalenjin groups assimilated Bantu cultures while their culture was also assimilated by other groups. The Terik for example borrowed many Bantu vocabularies and customs. c) They intermarried with other groups in the region, such as the Abagusii and the Luo. d) Their migration increased trading activities in the region. e) They displaced the people they came across e.g. the Abagusii and the Kwavi**Maasai** Explain the results of the interactions between the various Kenyan communities during the pre-colonial period. a) Through the inter-tribal wars, there was loss of lives and destruction of property hence economic decline. b) Many communities were displaced as new ones arrived. E.g when the Luos arrived, Abagusii and sections of the Abaluhyia were displaced. Etc. c) The constant raids as a means of interaction led to some communities seeking for refugee in secure places. E.g the Abagusii too refugee in the present Kisii highland due to the Kipsigis, Nandi and Maasai raids in 1800AD. d) A sense of unity developed among some communities e.g. among the Luo, as a means of Defence against attacks by the Maasai, Nandi and Abaluhyia. e) Tension between various communities was reduced as they interacted through intermarriages e.g. between the Agikuyu and the Maasai. f) Some new customs found their way into various communities. E.g the Bantu and the nilotes learned of circumcision and age set system from the southern Cushites. g) New technology infused into various communities. E.g. the Bantu and the nilotes learned the art of cattle milking and bleeding, irrigation and manuring from the southern Cushites. h) Specialization emerged mainly due to inter-community trade in the region. i) There was also increased wealth in some communities. For example through the trade between the Agikuyu and the Akamba, some Agikuyu gained wealth. j) New economic activities sprung up in some communities. E.g. the Maasai adopted crop cultivation from the Agikuyu. k) The Bantu language was enriched through the borrowing of some vocabulary from the southern Cushites. l) The Abakuria were able to develop into a distinct ethnic group as a result of constant raids from the Maasai and the Luo. **SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF KENYAN** **COMMUNITIES IN THE 19THCENTURY** **THE BANTU** **Social organization** ~ Almost all the Bantu communities were organized in clans made up of people with common descent. ~ All the Bantu communities practiced circumcision. In some communities like the Akamba, Abaluhyia, only boys circumcised. Among the Abagusii and Agikuyu, both boys and girls were circumcised. The initiates were taught the values and customs of their community ~ Circumcision marked an entry into an age set whose functions included defending the community from external attacks, building huts and advising junior age-sets on how to raid. ~ All the Bantu communities believed in the existence of a supernatural power that controlled their destiny. The Abaluhyia, for example called their God Were or Nyasaye, the AgikuyuNgai etc. ~ The Bantu communities had diviners and medicineman. Among the Agikuyu community, a medicine person was called mundu mugo. ~ The Bantu celebrated life both in song and dance. There were songs for initiations, childbirth, marriage, harvest and funeral. The mood and style of their song and dances varied depending on the occasion. **Political organization of the Bantu** ~ All the Bantu communities in Kenya, except the Wanga sub-group of the Luhyia, had decentralized forms of government. ~ The clan formed the basic political unit for all the Bantu communities. Each clan was made up of related families. Leadership of the clan was in the hands of a council of elders who played a pivoted role in solving disputes, decided on inter-tribal marriages, maintaining law and order and making executive decisions affecting the community like declaring war. ~ Among the Agikuyu and Ameru, the council was known as Kiama, Kambi among Mijikenda, Njama among Ataveta and Abagata ba gesaku among the Gusii. ~ The Bantu had an age-set system that had some political significance. For example among the Agikuyu, the boys joined the age-set after initiation to provide warriors who defended the community from external attacks and raid other communities for cattle. ~ Among the centralized Wanga government, the king was known as Nabongo. His office was hereditary. He was assisted by a chief minister and other officials with a council of elders. **Economic organization of the Bantu** ~ The Bantu kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats for milk, meat and skin. Dowry was paid inform of livestock. Some communities used livestock as a form of currency in barter trade. ~ They traded among themselves and also with their neighbours such as the Luo, kalenjin and Maasai. They sold grains in exchange for baskets and fish from the Luo. ~ They practiced iron-smelting, making implements such as knives, hoes arrow heads and spearheads. This sometimes also became trading items. ~ The Bantu practiced crop growing. They grew grains like millet, sorghum and cassava among other crops mainly for food while the excess were sold to neighbours. ~ They practiced craft making pots and weaving baskets. ~ For the Bantu communities who lived along rivers and Lake Victoria, e.g. the Luhyia, they practiced fishing. ~ Hunting and gathering was also done by some communities to supplement their food. E.g. the Akamba. ~ Raiding other communities for cattle. **The Agikuyu.** By 19thcentury, the Agikuyu had a complex social, economic and political organization some of which were products of their interrraction with other communities. **Social organization** ~ The family was the smallest social unit among the Agikuyu. It was headed by a father. Several families that shared a common ancestry comprised a clan. ~ The Agikuyu had rites of passage which included initiation of both boys and girls through circumcision/clitoridectomy. ~ The initiated boys joined the age-set (riikaor mariika) after being educated on the values and customs of the society. It was only after initiation that boys and girls were considered mature enough to get married. ~ The Agikuyu believed in the existence of one God who controlled their destiny. They called their God Ngai. He was all powerful and as believed to dwell o mt. kirinyaga where they claim he created them. ~ They also had diviners whose main work was to interpret Gods message to the people. ~ The Agikuyu had medicineman. A medicine person was called mundu mugo. Their main work was to cure diseases. They learned their skills through apparent-iceship. ~ The Agikuyu had designated sacred places for prayers, worship and offerings (an example was the mugumo tree for offering sacrifices). ~ Marriage was an important institution among the Agikuyu. **The political organization of the Agikuyu** ~ The Agikuyu had a decentralized system of government. The basic political system was based on the family headed by a father. ~ Several families made up a clan (Mbari). Each clan was ruled by a council of elders. (kiama). A senior elder (Muramati) coordinated the activities of the clan. ~ Several elders(aramati)formed a higher council of elders (kiama kia athamaki) ~ The functions of the higher council of elders included settling disputes, deliberating on day to day activities, administering justice and handled disputes, inheritance disputes and acted as a final court of appeal. ~ They had warriors drawn from the age-set system, who defended the community from external aggression. **Economic organization of the Agikuyu** The Agikuyu engaged in various economic activities; ~ The Agikuyu kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats for milk, meat and skin. Dowry was paid inform of livestock. ~ They traded among themselves and with their neighbours such as the Akamba and Maasai. They sold grains and iron implements in exchange for livestock products like skins and beads (Maasai) and imported goods like clothes(Akamba). ~ They practiced iron-smelting, making implements such as knives, hoes which enhanced their farming activities and trade. They borrowed this art from the Gumba. ~ They practiced crop growing. They grew grains like millet, yams, sweet potatoes, arrowroots, sorghum and cassava among other crops mainly for food while the excess were sold to neighbours. ~ They practiced craft making pots and weaving baskets. ~ Hunting and gathering was also done by Agikuyu to supplement their food. **The Ameru** The Ameru had a system of government which ensured high standards of morality and stability. This system evolved as they migrated and interacted with other communities. **Social organization of the Ameru** The Ameru was a system characterized by the existence of various councils from the council of children to the supreme council of Njuri Ncheke. This was meant to ensure the highest moral standards in the community.The Njuri Ncheke acted as parliament and had the following functions; ~ It presided over religious ceremonies. ~ It solved disputes in the community. It also mediated in disputes involving the Meru and their neighbors ~ It ensured the custody of the communitys history, traditions and values/heritage ~ It sanctioned wars ~ Acted as ritual leaders. They provided Guidance and counseling community members. ~ It set the moral code to be adhered to by all members of the community. If one went against the moral code, he/she would be punished. A member of the Njuri Ncheke who offended another was fined a bundle of miraa. A warrior who violated the code was fined a bull, an elder who violated the code was fined a bull or a goat, a woman who broke the code was fined a big pot of cowpeas.Marriage was regarded highly among the Ameru and a married woman would be assigned to an elderly woman (midwife) whom she must give gifts like millet, peas and black beans in exchange for midwifery. Any spouse who involved in adultery or any girl who was not a virgin at the time of marriage was stoned to death by a stoning council made up of male initiates. Marriage was exogamous (no one was allowed to marry from their clan)Before a male child was considered mature, he underwent several stages including circumcision. Before circumcision of both boys and girls, two ceremonies were performed after which they became full members of the community. ~ The time of making spots where the ear-hole perforation would be done. ~ The time of actual perforation of the ears. The Ameru believed in the existence of a supreme being called Baaba Weetu who was a loving father and took care of all. He was omnipresent. The Ameru also believed in the existence of spirits which either brought happiness or tears depending on how one lived on earth. They believed in life after death with good people going where rains come from when they die.Libations were offered to ancestors to quench their thirst and relieve their hunger Building houses in the Ameru community was the work of women while men defended the community. **Economic organization of the Ameru** ~ The Ameru cultivated grain crops like millet, peas, black beans, cowpeas and miraa among other crops mainly for food while the excess were sold to neighbours. ~ The Ameru kept Livestock like sheep. Goats and cattle for dowry payment and rituals and also for milk, meat and skin. ~ They traded among themselves and with their neighbours. When the coastal traders penetrated the interior, they exchanged goods with them ~ They practiced iron-smelting, making implements such as knives, spears and hoes which enhanced their farming activities and trade. ~ They practiced craft making pots and weaving baskets. ~ Hunting and gathering was also done by Ameru to supplement their food. **Political organization of the Ameru** ~ The basic political system was based on the family headed by a father. ~ The basic political unit was the clan. Several families made up a clan headed by a clan elder. ~ The Ameru had a system of councils and age groups which oversaw the administration of the community. Every Meru belonged to the relevant council. E.g. the childrens council, council of elders council of warriors. The supreme council was known as Njuri Ncheke. ~ The functions of the supreme council of elders included settling disputes, deliberating on day to day activities, administering justice and handled disputes, inheritance disputes and acted as a final court of appeal. It also officiated over religious ceremonies ~ The age set system provided the community with warriors who defended the community from external aggression. ~ Religions leaders like prophets influenced the political administration for the Ameru. ~ Their system of government alternated between two organizations namely, Kiruga and Ntiba every fourteen years and each had its own army regiment. **The Akamba** The Akamba are of the eastern Bantus who settled in Chyulu hills, Mbooni, Kitui and Machakos. **Social organization** ~ Like other Bantus, the Akamba were organized into clans whose members claimed commondescent. ~ The Akamba practiced exogamous marriages. However their tradition allowed the adoption of an outsider into a clan ~ Wrongdoers among the Akamba were banished from the community if they refused to compensate for the wrong did. ~ There existed no institutional age sets among the Akamba though boys and girls were circumcised before reaching puberty. The initiates were then taught community secrets after two years from circumcision (at 14 years) ~ At puberty, both men and women were allowed to marry and bear children with the father of a young family automatically becoming a junior elder until his children were ready to be circumcised. ~ He then moved to the next grade only after paying a bullock and several goats. ~ The top two grades formed the administrative council of the community mainly dealing with the ritual ceremonies. ~ The Akamba believed in the existence of a creator called Ngai or Mulungu whom they prayed to through ancestral spirits. ~ The Akamba had ritual experts who included medicine people that guided them in their rituals. ~ Shrines also existed where offerings and sacrifices were made by the elders called Atumia ma ithembo. (Mostly found at a place with two large fig trees.) ~ The Akamba had many social ceremonies which were accompanied with festivity dance and music. For example, during harvest, weddings, deaths and birth. **Political organization** ~ The smallest political unit among the Akamba was the homestead, (Musyi) comprising three to four generations of extended family with a stockade round the home of each married man. Outside the entrance of the homestead, there was an open space (thome), where men would sit and discuss political and other important matters. ~ Several related families formed a wider territorial grouping or clan with its own recreational ground, elders council (made of all the male elders), war leader and palace for worship ~ The clan was the main political unit for the Akamba. ~ There was also a larger territorial grouping above the clan called Kivalo that constituted a fighting unit. There was however no single central authority that united the Akamba the Kivalo was always disbanded after war. ~ Age grades and age sets were common to all in the community and acted as a unifying factor. ~ The elders in the community were ranked according to seniority. ~ Junior elders defended their community. Medium elders (Nthele) assisted in the administration of the community. The full elders (Atumia ma Kivalo) participated in delivering judgements. The senior most elders (Atumia ma Ithembo) were involved in religious activities. ~ By 19th century, due to participation and gaining from trade, a number of people had gained prestige and followers to be regarded as Akamba chiefs or leaders. For example, chief Kivoi. **Economic organization** ~ Due to variation in the environment, the Akamba participated in varied economic activities. ~ Those who lived around the fertile Mbooni, ulu and Iveti hills practiced farming. They planted sorghum, millet, yams, potatoes, sugarcane and beans. ~ Those who lived in the drier areas like Kitui practiced livestock farming and mainly transhumance during the drier period. ~ The Akamba were also hunters hunting for elephants, leopards, antelopes and Rhinos. They were gatherers who Collected fruits, roots etc. ~ They practiced trading activities e.g. they sold Ivory, feathers, shells hides, arrows, spearheads, to neighbours and the Arabs, Swahili traders. ~ The Akamba were skilled Iron workers produced spears, arrow heads, hoes, knives. ~ The Akamba Practiced woodcarving making tools and shields. ~ They engaged in pottery, making pots, mats etc. ~ They were bee-keepers for honey which they sold. ~ The Akamba acted as middlemen during the long distance trade. **The Abagusii** They originated in the Congo Forest like other Bantus and settled in the fertile highlands of Kisii, Gucha and Nyamira Districts of Nyanza Province. **Political Organization** The clan formed the basic political unit for Gusii communities. Each clan was made up of related families. Leadership of the clan was in the hands of a council of elders who played a pivoted role in solving disputes, decided on inter-tribal marriages, maintaining law and order and making executive decisions affecting the community like declaring war. The council was known Abagata ba gesaku.The Abagusii also had chiefdoms made up of several clans, which United to counter-attacks from their neighbours. Each chiefdom was headed by a chief (Omugambi), assisted by a councilof clan elders. The elders acted as middlemen through whom people could communicate their wishes and grievances to the chief. The position of the chief was hereditary.The Omogambi presided over religious ceremonies. He led clan members in communal sacrifices and social activities such as the planting and harvesting of crops. He also performed political functions.After circumcision, the boys joined the age-set which acted as a military wing responsible for the defence of the community.The Kisii still practice most of the political features discussed above. **Social organization** The Abagusii lived in family unit, headed by a family member, called the family head. Several related families formed a clan, headed by clan elders who formed a council. The role of the council of elders was to settle disputes between families.A number of clans formed sub-communities headed by clan elders. Circumcision of boys and girls formed part of the initiation rites for the Abagusii. The initiates were taught the values and customs of the society after which they were considered adults.The initiated boys were organized into age groups and age-grades. An age-grade was made up of people who were circumcised together. Members of the same age-grade treated one another as real brothers and helped each other in times of need.They believed in the existence of a supreme god, engoro who was the creator of everything. They offered sacrifices to him during special occasions like initiation ceremonies and religions festivals and when there were problems like illness and draught. They worshipped him through their ancestral spirits.Diviners and seers among the Kisii were special people and were called Omoragori. **Economic organization** ~ The Abagusii practiced crop farming. They grew many food crops including maize, sorghum, yams, peas, beans, millet, cassava, bananas and sweet potatoes. ~ They also kept livestock, cattle, goats and sheep were kept for meat and milk. They also kept poultry. ~ Trading was also a main economic activity among the Abagusii. They traded with their neighbours especially the Luo and the Abaluhyia. The Luo supplied them with livestock, cattle, salt, hides, fish, drums, and poison for arrows, spears and potatoes. In return, the Abagusii supplied the Luo with grain, hoes, axes, spears, arrowheads, razors, soapstone, soapstone dust, baboon skins, pipes, bowls and carvings of animals and birds. ~ The Abagusii were also involved in iron-working, which they kept secret to avoid competition from their neighbours. They made iron implements such as hoes, spears, axes and arrow heads. They also made ornaments. ~ They mined soapstone on the hilltops. They used is dust to decorate their faces during ceremonies. Some was sold to the Luos who used to decorate faces of their heroes. It was used for making pots, pipes, bowls and carvings. ~ They also depended on hunting and gathering to supplement the other economies. They hunted wild game for meat and skins. They also collected wild fruit roots and vegetables. ~ The Abagusii raided their neighbours for livestock. To date, they still raid the Maasai and Kipsigis for livestock. **The Mijikenda** The Mijikenda comprise of nine groups that had similar social, economic and political structures. They are believed to have arrived in their current settlement from Shungwaya. **Social organization of the Mijikenda** The Mijikenda were organized in clans comprising of related families. ~ The Mijikenda practiced circumcision. Only boys circumcised. Circumcision marked an entry into an age set whose functions included building huts and advising junior age - sets on how to raid. ~ They believed in the existence of a supernatural power that controlled their destiny. They called their God Mulungu. ~ The Mijikenda worshipped ancestral spirits. Prophets among the Mijikenda were called wafisi. ~ Marriage among the Mijikenda was exogamous (no one was allowed to marry from their clan). They practiced polygamy ~ There was division of labour among the Mijikenda. Children looked after livestock, young men built houses, cattle sheds, hunted and cleared bushes for cultivation.. ~ The Mijikenda celebrated social ceremonies in song and dance. There were songs for initiations, childbirth, marriage, harvest and funeral.. **Political organization** ~ The Mijikenda had a strong clan system. Administration was based on a strong clan system. 4-6 clans lived in a fortified village known as kaya. ~ The existence of a council of elders(Kambi) at clan level to settle disputes and the general administration of the clan ~ An age set (riika) system formed by young men after circumcision and which provided the base from which warriors were obtained. ~ Social and political unity was strengthened through intermarriage between different clans. ~ Judicial matters were handled by the elders council which was final court of appeal. ~ The council of elders declared war on warring neighbors. **Economic organization** ~ The Mijikenda kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats for milk, meat and skin. Hunting and gathering was also done to supplement their food ~ They traded in the coastal trade with the Arabs and with the Akamba from interior. ~ The Mijikenda practiced salt mining which the used as a trading item. ~ The Mijikenda engaged in fishing along the coast as well as on rivers. ~ They practiced crop growing. They grew grains like millet, yams, sweet potatoes, arrowroots, sorghum, coconut and cassava among other crops mainly for food while the excess were sold to neighbours. ~ They practiced craft making pots and weaving baskets using coconut leaves. **NILOTES** The second largest group in Kenya**.** **Social organization** ~ There were slight variations in the social organizations of the various Nilotic groups in Kenya. However they shared institutions such as the clan-based organization, belief in one God, veneration of ancestral spirits, age-set system, social ceremonies and existence of religious leaders. ~ The family was the basic social unit in many communities. Several related families grouped together to form clans among the Luo, Maasai and Nandi. ~ They believed in one supernatural being. The Maasai referred to him as Engai while the Luo called Him Nyasaye. ~ The communities believed in the existence of ancestral spirits, to whom sacrifices and libations were made to ensure they remained happy. ~ There was the existence of religious leaders whose work was to lead the communitiesduring religious functions and rituals. Some of the religious leaders had assumed political power by 19th c. For example the Orkoiyot among the Nandi and Oloibon among the Maasai. ~ The Maasai and other Nilotic groups had rain makers and diviners. ~ The age-set system was another common social institution. The age sets were formed by those who were initiated at the same time. The institution created a bond among the initiates that cut across the families and clans thus uniting the whole community. ~ There were social ceremonies that accompanied the rites of passage like circumcision, marriage and death. ~ The Luo as their form of initiation extracted six lower teeth. The other groups practiced circumcision. In all the groups, the initiates were taught the community values. **The economic organization** ~ The nilotes were nomadic pastoralists who kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats for milk, meat and blood. ~ They traded among themselves and also with their neighbours. The kalenjin traded with the Maasai and with the Luo and neighbouring Bantu communities like the Abaluhyia. They sold animal products and red ochre in exchange for grains from the Bantu. ~ They practiced iron-smelting, making implements such as arrow heads and spearheads. This skilled was borrowed from the Bantu. ~ The Maasai also practiced mining e.g. mined iron, salt and red ochre which they used for decoration and as a commodity for trade. ~ There existed variation in the economic activities within a single community like the Maasai. Some sections of the Maasai e.g. the Kwavi practiced crop growing i.e. growing grains and vegetables. The Purko were purely pastoralists ~ They practiced craft e.g. made pots, weaved baskets and leather belts. ~ Raiding other communities for cattle was also a common economic practice. ~ The Luo who lived near Lake Victoria practiced fishing. The Turkana also engaged in fishing on Lake Turkana. **Political organization** ~ The Nilotic communities had a decentralized system of administration with all the communities organized on clan basis. ~ There existed councils of elders that administered and ensured maintenance of law and order, settled disputes between clans and other communities. ~ The nilotes had a warlike tradition. Each community had Warriors who defended the community and raided other communities. The Luo reffered to the warriors as Thuondi. The Maasai called them Moran. ~ The age-set system determined political leadership since all those initiated together formed one age-set for life. ~ The institution of religion influenced most of the political affairs of the Nilotic speakers. For example, the Orkoiyot among the Nandi and the Oloibon among the Maasai were primarily religious leaders who wielded political authority in the19th century. **The Nandi** By 1900 AD, the Nandi had already established their social, economic and political institutions. **Social organization** ~ The family was the basic social unit. Several related families grouped together to form clans among Nandi. The family institution was very important in the community. It played an important role in the Kokwet (council of elders) and in the clan activities. ~ The age-set system was an important social institution among the Nandi. Nandi boys and girls were initiated at puberty through circumcision. Circumcision marked entry into adulthood. The initiates were taught the deepest community values during the period. ~ Age sets were formed by those who were initiated at the same time irrespective of the clans they belonged to. In total, there were eight age-sets among the Nandi namely Sawe, Maina, Chuma, Korongoro, Kipkoimet, Kaplelach, Kimnyinge and Nyongi. ~ The Nandi boys became junior warriors after circumcision. They only promoted to senior warriors after the Saket apeito ceremony (slaughter of bullock) that was done after every fifteen years. ~ Marriage within the same clan was prohibited among the Nandi. This was meant to create unity by encouraging intermarriages between different clans. ~ They believed in one supernatural being whom they referred to him as Asis, who was believed to be the protector of the community. ~ The Nandi believed in the existence of ancestral spirits, to whom sacrifices and libations were made to ensure they remained happy. ~ The community also had important religious leaders whose work was to lead the community during religious functions and rituals, diviners and rain makers.The institution of Orkoiyot among the Nandi was borrowed from that of Oloibon among the Maasai. **Religious functions did the Orkoiyot of the Nandi.** ~ He Mediated between God and the people/acting as a priest. ~ He presided over Offering of sacrifices to God on behalf of the people. ~ He advised and blessed the warriors before they went to war. ~ Blessing people before they undertook special activities like planting and harvesting. ~ He foretold what was going to happen in the future. e.g. success or misfortune in the community. **Economic organization** ~ The Nandi were pastoralists who kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats for milk, meat, manure and blood. Cattle were a symbol of status among the Nandi and also a form of dowry settlement. ~ The Nandi cultivated crops such as Millet and sorghum due the fertile soils and favourable climate in areas like Aldai. ~ They also practiced hunting and gathering to supplement their food production. ~ The Nandi raided other communities for cattle. They acquired large herds of cattle through raiding neighbouring communities such as the Maasai. Abaluhyia and Luo. ~ They traded among themselves and also with their neighbours. The Nandi traded with the Maasai and with the Luo and neighbouring Bantu communities like the Abaluhyia. They sold animal products and red ochre in exchange for grains from the Bantu. The Nandi however were self sufficient in food. ~ They practiced craft e.g. made pots, weaved baskets and leather belts. **Political organization** The family was the basic political unit. It was headed by a father who dealt with internal matters such as discipline, allocation of crops, land and cattle. In matters affecting the neighbourhood, he was assisted by the Kokwet (council of elders) which was made up of neighbourhood heads.Above the Kokwet was the clan organization whose council of elders tackled matters to do with grazing rights.Above the clan, there was a larger socio- political unit comprising different war groups located in the same geographical zone called a pororiet. This formed the highest political unit among the Nandi. The pororiet council of elders comprised representatives from different clansIts functions included negotiating for peace and declaring war .The Nandi boys became junior warriors after circumcision. They only promoted to senior warriors after the Saket apeito ceremony (slaughter of bullock) that was done after every fifteen years. **The Maasai** **Social organization** ~ The Maasai were divided into two groups; the pastoral Maasai(Purko) and the Agricultural Maasai(Kwavi or Iloikop). ~ The Maasai were organized on clan basis with each clan associated with a particular type of cattle. In total, the Maasai had five clans spread over large areas and not necessarily staying together. ~ Maasai boys and girls were initiated at puberty through circumcision. Circumcision marked entry into adulthood. The initiates were taught the deepest community values during the period. ~ After circumcision, the boys entered an age set to which they belonged the rest of their life. ~ The age set institution created a bond among the initiates that cut across the families and clans thus uniting the whole community. ~ All the boys initiated together also formed a warrior class called Morans and lived in special homesteads called Manyattas away from the rest of the community. For about ten years. ~ They were not allowed to take milk from their mothers house and were required to adhere to ritual and dietary restrictions. ~ They believed in one supernatural being. The Maasai referred to him as Engai. Prayers and sacrifices were offered to him at the shrines. ~ There was the existence of religious leaders whose work was to lead the communities during religious functions and rituals. They called their religious leader Oloibon. **Functions of Oloibon** ~ He presided over religious ceremonies. / He was consulted on all religious matters. ~ He blessed warriors before they went to war. ~ He advised the council of elders. ~ He foretold the future events. The Maasai and other Nilotic groups had rain makers and diviners. There were several social ceremonies that accompanied the rites of passage like circumcision, marriage and death. The Eunoto ceremony marked the graduation of the Morans into junior elders. This ceremony is still practiced upto date. **Economic organization of the Maasai** ~ The Maasai were nomadic pastoralists who kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats formilk, meat and blood.. ~ They traded among themselves and also with their neighbours such as the Agikuyu, kalenjin and Taita. They sold animal products and red ochre in exchange for grains from the Agikuyu. ~ They practiced iron-smelting, making implements such as arrow heads and spearheads.. ~ They also practiced mining e.g. mined iron, salt and red ochre which ~ They also practiced mining e.g. mined iron, salt and red ochre which they used for decoration and as a commodity for trade. ~ Some sections of the Maasai e.g. the Kwavi practiced crop growing i.e. growing grains and vegetables. ~ They practiced craft e.g. made pots, weaved baskets and leather belts. ~ Raiding other communities for cattle. **Political organization of the Maasai** The largest political unit amongst Maasai was the tribal section, which was a geographically distinct entity which operated as a nation, especially during ceremonies. Affairs involving inter-clan cooperation were dealt within ad hoc meetings comprising age set spokesmen Before a Maasai young man became an adult, he underwent the following four stages. **Boyhood (ilaiyak)** The youths at this stage looked after family and clan livestock until they reached circumcision stage at about 15 years. **Warrior hood (Ilmuran**) The stage was joined by young men circumcised together and comprised of ages between 18 and 25 years. They defended the community and conducted raids to boost the clan and tribal flocks. They had a military leader known as Olaiguani. The stayed in isolation in manyattas undergoing military training in order to graduate into senior warriors. After that they were permitted to marry. **Junior elders** This was the political authority that evaluated the day to day issues of the community. It comprised heads of households,, aim responsibility was to maintain peace and instruct warriors on how to handle issues in the community. They were permitted to own livestock. **The senior elders** They comprise the senior most age-set. Membership was determined by age and experience. The group performed religious functions and also was responsible for and dealt with difficult judicial and political decisions.The Maasai adopted the institution of Oloibon or prophet that combined socio-religious functions and later own assumed political authority. There were several social ceremonies that accompanied the rites of passage like circumcision, marriage and death. The Eunoto ceremony marked the graduation of the Morans into junior elders. This ceremony is still practiced upto date. **The Luo** **Social organization** The family was the basic social unit among the Luo. The Luo community valued large families and therefore practiced polygamy.Marriage among the Luo was exogamous (no one was allowed to marry from their clan). Several related families grouped together to form clans among the Luo. They believed in one supernatural being whom they called Nyasaye. They prayed to Nyasaye.The communities believed in the existence of ancestral spirits, to whom sacrifices and libations were made to ensure they remained happy. Sacred shrines and trees existed. He rocks, high hills and even the lake were associated with supernatural power.There was the existence of religious leaders whose work was to lead the communities during religious functions and perform rituals. These included priests, medicine people, rain makers and diviners. For one to be a medicine person, a benevolent spirit called Juogi must possess him or her.The Luo youths as their form of initiation extracted six lower teeth. After that they were allowed to marry.The Luo had several social ceremonies that accompanied the rites of passage like marriage and death. **Economic organization** ~ The Luo were originally a pastoral and fishing community. They Practiced livestock keeping for prestige and cultural purposes e.g. dowry and for meat and milk. ~ The carried out Fishing along water courses due to their proximity to the lake. Both men and women conducted fishing, which was a source of food as well as a trade commodity. ~ The Luo Traded with their neighbors. They sold pots, baskets, cattle, fish and livestock for grains, spears, arrows and canoes from the Abaluhyia, Abagusii, Kipsigis and Nandi. ~ They also Cultivated plants like millet, sorghum, etc ~ Most of them practiced hunting and gathering to get additional meat and hides and to supplement the food they produced. ~ They practiced craft. Women specialized in production of pottery products, baskets and clothes **Political organization of the Luo** The Luo were a decentralized community. The family was the basic political unit among the Luo. The head of the family was referred to as Jaduong. Several related families made up a clan headed by a council of elders called Doho whose main responsibility was to settle inter-family disputes. Below the Doho were lineage councils called Buch Dhoot that tackled domestic issues Above the Doho was a grouping of clans called Oganda headed by a council of elders reffered to as Buch piny and headed by a chief elder called Ruoth. The Buch piny comprised representatives from each clan. It was responsible for settling inter -clan conflicts, declaring war and punishing criminals such as murderers.Religious leaders among the Luo also influenced politics. E.g rainmakers and diviners.One of the members of the council of elders was given a responsibility of advising the council on military matters and was therefore a war leader (osumba Mrwayi). Under them was a special group of warriors reffered to as Thuondi (bulls). Their work was to raided neighbouring communities like the Maasai, Nandi and Abagusii and other perceived enemies. **The Cushites** These were the smallest linguistic group in Kenya inhabiting the northern part of Kenya. They are a nomadic Sam speaking group. They comprise the Borana, Gabra, Galla (Oromo), Rendille and Burji.The communities developed complex social, economic and political institutions that were interrupted by the coming of the Muslims and Europeans. **Social organization of the Cushites** The Cushites had a patrilineal society, which means they traced their origins through the fatherThe Cushites believed in a common ancestor which makes their kinship system strong.All the Cushitic communities practiced circumcision of boys and clitoridectomy for girls as a form of initiation. This was a rite of passage into adulthood.After circumcision, the initiates were taught about their adult roles and their rights as members of the community.Circumcision marked an entry into an age set whose functions included defending the community from external attacks, building huts and advising junior age- sets on how to raid.Each age set had a leader with specific duties. They believed in the existence of a supreme god, who was the creator of everything. He was given different names. The Oromo referred to him as wak(waq).They also believed in spirits which inhabited natural objects like rocks and trees. The Cushites had shrines from which they prayed to their God. Later on, through interaction with their neighbours, all the Cushites became Muslims by the 16thc.The Cushitic speakers were polygamous and their marriage was exogamous in nature.Inheritance was from father to son among the Cushites. The elder son inherited the fathers property and shared it with his younger brothers. Girls had no right to inheritance.The Cushitic life was full of ceremonies. They celebrated life both in song and dance. There were songs for initiations, childbirth, marriage, harvest and funeral. **Economic organization** They had a diversified economic system that catered for their livelihood and supported their lifestyle.They basically practiced Pastoralism/livestock keeping in their semi-arid region They kept cattle, goats, camel and donkeys. Camels and cattle provided milk and blood and were assigning of prestige. Goats and sheep provided meat. Some Cushites who lived along river valleys practiced substance agriculture where they grew grain crops, vegetables, dates, peas, pepper, tubers and bananas.They also practiced iron smelting and made iron tools e.g. swords, knives, bangles and arrow heads.They hunted wild game for food, ivory, skins (hides) for clothing, bedding and gathered fruits and roots and vegetables. They engaged in craft industry e.g. production of leather items such as handbags, belts etc.Some of them who lived near rivers and along the Indian Ocean practiced fishing.They traded with their neighbours e.g. the Pokomo and the Samburu. **Political organization of the Cushites** All the Cushitic communities like other groups in Kenya, had decentralized forms of government. The clan formed the basic political unit for all the Bantu communities. Each clan was made up of related families. The social and political system of the Cushites was interwoven that the social divisions, age set system were also important aspects of the political system.Leadership of the clan was in the hands of a council of elders who played a pivoted role in solving disputes, acting as ritual experts, presiding over religious ceremonies, maintaining law and order and making executive decisions affecting the community like declaring war.Among the Cushites a clan was independent of others except when the wider community faced a common enemy or problem.The Cushites developed an age-set system that had some political significance. After circumcision, the boys joined the age-set after initiation to provide warriors who defended the community from external attacks and raid other communities for cattle.The age set system was based on about ten groups each with its own leader. At the end of an age cycle, a ceremony was performed and the senior age sets retired from public life and settled in different territories. **The Somali** The social organization of the Somali.Like Somali were organized into clans each comprising of families whose members claimed common descent. They also had an age set system. Circumcision marked an entry into an age set whose functions included defending the community from external attacks, building huts and advising junior agesets on how to raid. Each age set had a leader with specific duties. They believed in the existence of a supreme god, whom they referred to as wak (waq). He was the creator of everything. They had religious leaders who mediated between God and the people Later on, through interaction with their neighbours, all the Somali became Muslims by the 16thc.The Somali valued marriage as an important institution. They were polygamous and their marriage was exogamous in nature. **Political organization of the Somali** The Somali had a decentralized political system of administration. The basic political unit was the clan made up of related families. The clan was headed by a council of elders in charge of day to day affairs of the clan e.g. making major decisions and settling disputes and presiding over religious ceremonies.The Somali had an age set system and all male members of the society belonged to an age set. Each age set performed specific roles/duties. From the age set system, there evolved a military organization for community defence. Initiates joined the age set system after circumcision. With the advent of Islamic religion political organization changed. They now had community leaders called sheikhs whose role was mainly advisory.The political system was now based on the Islamic sharia. **Economic organization** a) The Somali were hunters and gathers. They hunted wild game for food and gathered fruits and roots and vegetables. b) They basically practiced nomadic Pastoralism. They kept cattle, goats, camel and sheep.Their diet was mainly milk, meat and blood. c) They traded with their neighbours to get what they could not produce e.g. the Pokomo and the Mijikenda from whom they acquired grains. d) A section of the Somali practiced iron smelting and made iron tools e.g. swords, knives, bangles and arrow heads. They also engaged in craft industry e.g. production of leather items such as handbags, belts etc. e) Such craft activities were despised among the Somali and were associated with a group whom they referred to as Sab (outcasts). **The Borana** They are a branch of the Oromo or Galla people who came from Ethiopia. **Social organization** The Borana had a complex social organization.The society was divided into clans led by elders whose responsibility was to settle disputes and maintaining law and order. Each clan was made up of related families. The borana had a strong belief in the extended family.The Borana were nomadic. But they had a residential section called the camp that consisted of a few huts of related families. .In the camps, it was the most senior married and competent man who became the head of the camp (abba olla). He would have his wifes hut built on the extreme left.The Borana had a complex age-set structure called Gada. Each Gada was headed by the most powerful individual among the group members (Abba boku). His duty would be to preside over village meetings, proclaim laws and preside over religious ceremonies.The community had two kinship groups that practiced exogamous marriage.. A man from the Gona kinship would only marry from the Sabbo kinship. Polygamy was allowed.The family among the borana was headed by a man referred to as Abba warra with the wife as the female head of the household (Hatimana) There was division of labour in the society. The men defended the camps, wells, herds and shrines. They dug wells and organized raiding parties. The men also elected leaders of camps, age sets and Gada class. The women performed household duties, wove baskets for carrying children, prepared leather and built houses. Boys herded sheep, goats and cattle. Elders presided over the court cases.The borana worshipped a powerful God, the creator whom they called Wak (waq). He was worshipped through religious leaders They had a patrilineal society where inheritance was from the father to the son, and specifically the first son, angafa, who would then redistribute the inherited cattle to the younger brothers.Their culture was full of ceremonies. For example, there were ceremonies when a Gada class entered or left a Gada grade, there was war ceremony (butta) and a muda ceremony in honor of the kinship leader, kallu. **Economic organization** a) The borana were basically practiced nomadic Pastoralists who kept cattle, goats and sheep. Cattle was slaughtered as part of their religious rituals and also provided raw materials for houses and other local industries. b) They traded with their neighbours to get what they could not produce e.g. they exchanged their animals with the Mijikenda from whom they acquired grains. c) The Borana were hunters and gathers. They hunted wild game for food and gathered fruits and roots and vegetables. d) Those who settled in the fertile region along the tana valley grew crops like beans and pepper. e) The Borana women engaged in craft industry e.g. production of leather items such as handbags, belts etc. men also made wooden tools, weapons and utensils. f) The Borana also practiced fishing as they settled along river tana. **Political organization of the borana** Their political system was based on the kinship system where the society was divided into clans comprising related families. There were two moieties (kinships) that were further divided into sub-moieties. The sub-moieties were further divided into clans. Each moiety was headed by a hereditary leader known as kallu. The kallu of the Sabbo for example came from the dyallu clan of the karrayyu sub-moiety.The kallus camp was the spiritual and political centre of the group. His duties included leading in ritual ceremonies, providing judgment in major conflicts between clans.He was elected together with the council of the Gada leaders of each gad class when it prepared to enter a new grade.The kallu were not authorized to bear arms or defend themselves but were to move in company of other members of the society.The borana society was divided into clans led by a council of elders whose responsibility was tosettle disputes and maintaining law and order. Each clan was made up of related families who lived in a residential section called the camp that consisted of a few huts of related families. .Powers were distributed equally between the two moieties at all levels such as in the Gada class, age-set and camp councils as well as in tribal ceremonies.The complex age set system mainly provided a military base for the society. The age sets, Hariyya, were recruited from boys of the same age. Gada class (Luba) was recruited genealogically. There were eleven grades through which the Gada classes passed from birth to death, with each grade lasting eight years. While age set members were of the same age, Gada members were of varied ages. The age sets formed the age set council that recruited the warriors.Members of the Gada classes formed the Gada council (lallaba) which the responsibility of making decisions for their classes. They also resolved conflicts between non-relatives and mobilized economic activities such as digging wells, organizing societal rituals and ceremonies and directing relatives with their neighbours such as the Oromo and Somali.The councils contributed to the development of an effective political organization.The complexity of the borana institutions strengthened unity among them. However, the coming of the colonialists in the 20th century heavily impacted on these nomadic pastoral community. **CONTACTS BETWEEN EAST AFRICA AND THE OUTSIDE WORLD UP TO** **THE 19TH C.** The early contacts were initially at the coast but later spread inland. The early visitors included the Arabs, Greeks, Chinese, Persians, Portuguese, British, French and the Dutch. **The East African coast** The existing documentaries and archaeological evidence about the historical information on the east African coast include; ~ The Graeco- Roman Documentary which only makes indirect references to the east African coast. ~ The Swahili chronicles written by the people of the coast. E.g the Kilwa chronicle gives account of achievements of coastal rulers before the arrival of the Portuguese. ~ The writings of Pliny, a Roman Geographer who wrote about the high cost of trade with India in his book, The Natural History. ~ Periplus of the Erythrean Sea; by a Greek merchant in 1st C AD describes the people and places along the coast and the Indian Ocean Trade. (Erythrean Sea Trade). ~ Geopgraphia by Claudius Ptolemy makes reference to east African coast and the trade along Somalia and Kenyan coasts. ~ Christian Topography of Cosmos Indico of the 6TH C describes the trading activities on the coast of East Africa. ~ Renowned travelers like Al-Mosudi, Al Idrisi and Ibn Battuta wrote firsthand accounts about the places they visited and the people they met at the coast in the 10th C AD. ~ The existing archaeological evidence in east Africa include the remains of pottery , iron tools, beads and coins which prove the presence of international trade. **Early visitors to the east African coast upto 1500.** Due to the great accessibility of the east African coast, there was widespread interaction between it and the people from the outside world. This was also aided by the monsoon winds that blew vessels / ships to the coast between November and April and took them away between may and October. The earliest visitors were the Egyptians, Phoenicians and Indonesians.Others who came later on included the Greeks, Persians, Romans, Chinese, Arabs, Syrians, Indians and the Portuguese. **The Greeks** Their coming to east Africa is accounted for by the quarrels between the Seleucid rulers in Greece and the Ptolemaic Greeks in Egypt over control of the land route to the east through the Mediterranean lands.The rising demand for ivory made the ptolemies venture into the red sea and finally into the east African coast. Evidence of Greek existence on the coast is the Ptolemic Gold Coin found near Dar es Salam. **Romans** In AD 45, Hippalus, a Roman sailor using monsoon wind knowledge reached the red sea and entered the Indian Ocean. The Romans were keen on breaking the Arab monopoly over trade.Evidence of trade between the Romans and the coast is in the writing of a Roman Historian Pliny (23-79AD) who points out the high coast of trade between India, Arabia and china.The fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th c AD affected international trading network in the Roman Empire. **Persians** They were mainly immigrants from Shirazi on the eastern shore of the Persian Gulf. Their adventure into the east African coast happened during the reign of the Sassanid Dynasty(224-636AD), which was determined to rebuild the Persian Empire that had been destroyed by the Macedonian Greeks, through wealth amassed from international trade. By the 6th c, the Persians were trading in India and later china, controlling the red sea and parts of Egypt and Arabia.They got involved in the east African trade and even established ruling dynasties9 e.g. the (Shirazi Dynasty) at the coast. They intermarried with the locals and introduced Islamic religion.They were later overthrown by the Arabs. The succeeded in introducing Bowls of glass, swords, beakers and pots to the coast. **Chinese** They visited the coast in the middle ages. This is evidenced in the work of the Chinese authors during the Sung Dynasty (960- 1279 AD) and Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), who referred to the east African coast as Tseng- Pat or Pseng- Po.There has also been evidence of Chinese coins dating to 700 AD at the coast.The last Chinese fleet must have reached Mogadishu in 1430AD. The Chinese brought in Silk cloth, porcelain bowls and plates in exchange for Gold\, leopard skin, Rhino Horns and tortoise shells. Porcelain remains have been found at the coast. **Arabs** The earliest Arab settlers to arrive were the Daybui from Daybul In north western India. They arrived along the east African coast by AD 650 for trade. The earliest Arab settlement was Qanbalu (Pemba). They later settled in manda, Kilwa. Lamu and Mombasa.The Arabs reffered to the Africans as the Zenj (Blacks) **Factors that facilitated the coming of Arabs to the east African coast.** ~ The Indian ocean provided the highway through which the traders traveled ~ The traders had the skills of harnessing the monsoon winds (trade winds) they knew what times of the year to come to the coast and what times to go back. ~ The traders had marine technology e.g. they had ship-building technology and knew how to use the compass for navigation of the ocean ~ They ensured the control of the red sea was in their hands to bar the enemy from attacking them ~ The ports of southern Arabia were good calling places on their journey between the east and the west. ~ The deep harbours at the coast were ideal for their ships to anchor, refuel and get supplies. **Reasons for the coming of the Arabs** ~ They wanted to trade and control the commercial activities along the east African coast. ~ Some Arabs came as refugees, fleeing from religious and political persecutions in Arabia. ~ They came to spread their religion, Islam. ~ Some came as explorers to explore the east African coast. ~ Some came to establish settlements along the east African coast. **Trade between the East African coast and the outside world** There is sufficient evidence of the existence of regular trading contacts between east African coast and the countries in the Middle East and Far East. **Development and organization of the trade** ~ The earliest foreign traders must have been the Romans who traded with the Indians in the Far East. They made stopovers at the east African coast for ivory whose demand had grown tremendously. ~ Muslim Arabs acted as intermediaries in the Indian Ocean trade between the Indians and the Romans. They also exported frankincense and myrrh among other things. ~ Traders from Persia, Arabia and Syria brought glass beakers and bowls, swords, pots, grains, sugar, cloth and beads in exchange for palm oil, tortoise shells, ivory and slaves. ~ The Greek, roman and Chinese traders brought porcelain bowls, daggers, swords, pottery, cowrie shells, glassware, beads and silk in exchange for ivory, rhinoceros horns, bee wax, tortoise shells , coconut oil and mangrove poles. Cowrie shells were obtained from Maldives islands while spices came from Spice Island. ~ East Africa also exported leopard skins, gold, ostrich feathers, copal, copper and iron. Ivory was used in Asia to make bangles, bracelets, piano keys and for decorations ~ The traders relied on the monsoon winds to blow their ships to and from the east African coast. ~ The Indian Ocean trade was conducted through the barter system but later coins were used as a medium of exchange. During barter, the foreigners bartered their goods with gold, ivory and slaves. Seyyid said later introduced copper and silver coins. ~ The middlemen in the trade included the Arabs and Swahili who organized caravans to the interior to acquire local goods which they sold to traders at the coast. ~ As there was no common language spoken, trading was conducted silently, hence the name silent trade ~ Capital for the trade was provided by the Arabs. Later the Indian banyans started giving credit facilities to the traders which increased the volume of trade. ~ The sultan of Zanzibar provided security to the Arab traders, enabling them to penetrate the interior to acquire goods. ~ The trade stimulated development of towns along the coastline. E.g Rhapta (probably located between pangani and Dar es Salam), Essina and Sarapion were the earliest towns to grow. Lamu Malindi Mombasa, pate and Brava also developed. ~ The merchants settled at various places on the coast and on the islands and interacted with the locals leading to development of the Swahili culture. Factors which promoted the Indian Ocean trade. (a) Availability of items of trade from the east African coast and foreigner countries. For example, ivory, slaves, cotton and porcelain. (b) The high demand for trade items from the coast by consumers from the outside world was also a promoting factor. This was caused by the uneven distribution of resources. Foreign items were also on demand at the coat. (c) The existence of enterprising merchants in both the foreign lands and the east African coast led to promotion of trade links. The Akamba, Mijikenda, nyamwezi and Swahili middlemen for example played a pivoted role in the trade. (d) The existence of local trade among Africans which acted as a base upon which the Indian Ocean trade was developed. (e) The accessibility of the east African coast by sea. This enabled the foreigner traders to reach the region across the Indian Ocean. (f) The existence of the monsoon winds facilitated the movement of the vessels which made it possible for the traders to travel to and from the coasty. (g) The existence of peace and political stability at the east African coast created a conducive atmosphere for business transactions. Where there was need, the traders were given security by the sultan of Zanzibar. (h) The existence of natural harbours along the coast ensured safe docking of the trade vessels for fueling and off-loading. (i) The advancement in the ship building technology in Europe gave great advantage to the traders. This made water transport reliable and regular. (j) The existence o the Indian Banyans (money lenders) who gave credit facilities enabled many more people to join the trade. **Impacts of the trade on the peoples of east Africa** (a) The trade led to intermarriage between Muslim traders with the local Bantu communities giving rise to the Swahili people with a distinct culture. (b) There was emergence of Kiswahili as a new language of the coastal people. The language is a mixture of Bantu and Arabic languages. (c) The trade led to the spread of the Islamic culture along the coastal region. Stone buildings were constructed, new dressing styles arose (women began to wear buibui while men wore kanzus), new eating habits also evolved. (d) The Islamic law, sharia was also introduced. (e) Many Africans were converted to Islam. However the religion did not spread beyond the coastal region prior to the 19th c. (f) New crops were introduced along the coast. For example, rice, wheat, millet, cloves, vegetables and fruits such as bananas and oranges. Cloth, cowrie shells and spices were also introduced. (g) Profits derived from the trade were used to develop towns like Pemba, Mombasa, Lamu, Zanzibar and Kilwa. <br><br> (h) The trade led to the rise of a class of rich merchants exhibiting a high standard of living. African merchants who rose to prominence included chief Kivoi among the Akamba, Ngonyo of the Giriama, Mwakikonga of the Digo, Nyungu ya mawe, Mirambo and Msiri of the Nyamwezi. (i) There was decline of the local industries like weaving and iron working which were affected by the influx of foreign goods like cloth fro India and iron tools from Asia and Europe. (j) There was destruction of wildlife, especially elephant and rhinoceros due to the increased demand for ivory. (k) The increased demand for slaves promoted warfare among the communities as many people were captured during slave raids. It also created fear while others lost their life during the warfare. (l) Slave trade also disrupted African economies as able bodied men were captured leaving behind the aged, weak, and children who made little contribution. Many even died of starvation since they could not participate in food production. (m) African population in the hinterland greatly reduced as many were sold into slavery. (n) Money (currency) was introduced as a means of exchange to replace the barter system of trade. (o) East African coast was exposed to the outside world through trade. This paved way for European imperialism later on. (p) Trade routes led to the establishment of trade caravan routes which later were upgraded to by the colonialists. **The coming of the Portuguese** Since the 10th century Arabian influence along the coast had been strong. Most of the port towns along the East African coast had been built by Arab Sultans, who brought the Muslim religion to the coastal people.The Portuguese explorer and soldier, Vasco da Gama, was the first European to make contact with the people of the East African Coast. He had been paid by the King of Portugal to find a sea route to India. **The Portuguese at the East African coast 1500 1700 A.D** The Portuguese were the first Europeans to have contacts with the people of the East African Coast. They invaded the east African coast in 1498 at a time when the Ottoman Empire occupied most of the Middle East thus blocking the overland route to India from Europe.They were adventurous and in search for the sea route to India. This led them to the East African Coast where they stayed for 200 years. Reasons for the coming of the Portuguese at the East African coast a) The need to establish a commercial empire in order to get the products of East Africa e.g. ivory, gold, silks and spices that were mainly controlled by the Arabs merchants. b) They wanted to obtain control of the main trading towns, e.g. Kilwa, Mombasa etc. c) They wanted to defeat the Muslim traders and rulers who had monopolized the Indian Ocean trade. d) They wanted to prevent other European rivals from gaining access to the Indian Ocean Trade e.g. the French, Dutch, and British e) Desire to get revenue for the development of their country. f) The Portuguese wished to share in the profits of the Indian Ocean Trade by imposing taxes and forcing wealthy coastal towns to pay tribute to the king of Portugal. g) The coast had natural harbors where ships could anchor on their way to and from the East for fresh food and water. The Portuguese therefore wanted to establish a calling station for resting, refresh, treating the sick, repairing wrecked ships e.t.c h) The coast was strategically located and this made it easy to control sea pirates and other rival powers. i) They wanted to revenge on the Muslim Arabs who had conquered Portugal in 711 AD by converting them to Christianity and stop the spread of Islam i.e. the Arabs had ever run the Iberian Peninsula and forced the Christians to accept Islam. j) They hoped to get assistance of King Prester John thought to be in the interior of north east Africa. They hoped the king would help them in their crusade against the Muslims. k) They had hope of stopping Egyptians and Turks from sending military aid to their fellow Moslems on the coast. l) They were interested in exploration and adventure; this was a period of Renaissance (means to be born again/change) in Europe. Hence hoped to search for the unknown, new knowledge and sailing across un mapped seas. m) Desire to acquire revenue for the development of their country. Portuguese conquest of the coast 1500-1510 (Stages of conquest) Steps taken by the Portuguese to occupy the East African coast. ~ In 1497 King John 11 sent Padro da Covillha on a land journey to India to gather information about the Eastern trades and the sea routes. ~ In 1498 Bathromew Diaz sailed around the Cape of Good Hope, thus proving that there was a way round South Africa to the Indian Ocean. ~ Between 1497- 1499 Vasco da Gama at the command of King Emmanuel the fortunate of Portugal visited Mozambique, Mombasa and Malindi on his way to India. He arrived in Malindi in March 1498 to a warm welcome by the locals. ~ He returned to Portugal in 1499 and gave a report of the flourishing Sofala trade, the Deep Harbour in Mombasa and the existing disunity of coastal people. ~ In response to Vasco da Gamas expeditions, the king of Portugal sent fleets of ships to conquer the important trading towns of the East African coast. ~ In 1500 Pedro Alvares Cabral attempted to capture Sofala with its Gold trade but he failed. ~ In 1502 Vasco da Gama came back with 19 ships aiming at capturing Kilwa because it was the most important and prosperous. He captured the palace, imprisoned the Su ltan and only released him when he accepted to pay tribute to Portugal. ~ From Kilwa he invaded Mombasa, which tried to get assistance from Malindi but since they were great rivals Malindi refused to give assistance, this disunity made the work of conquest easy. ~ In 1503 Ruy Laurence Ravasco was sent with a number of ships and forced the islands of Mafia and Zanzibar and other towns to pay tribute to Portugal. ~ In 1504, Lopez destroyed gold trade at Kilwa. Attacks were too much on the harbour that trade came to a standstill. But again the Arabs failed to unite to fight the Portuguese. ~ In 1505 Francisco DAlmeida arrived at the coast on his way to Gao where he had been appointed the first Portuguese viceroy (governor) of the Eastern Empire. With 1500 men and 20 ships, he attacked Sofala which surrendered without struggle because she was tired of Kilwas rule and therefore preferred the Portuguese to fellow Arabs. His forces continued northwards and attacked Kilwa. The Sultan and his followers took off to the bush while the Portuguese looted and burnt down the town before he departed to India. He also conquered Mombasa. ~ In 1506 1507 Tristao Da Cunha took on the Northern towns of Socotra, Oja, Brava and Lamu. Towns that submitted without struggles were only asked to pay tribute to Portugal. Malindi was even excused from paying tribute due to her friendship with the Portuguese. ~ In 1509 Alba quiqui captured the remaining towns i.e. the work of conquest was completed with taking the islands of Pemba, Mafia, and Zanzibar. Mombasa was burnt down. ~ By 1515 the Portuguese had succeeded in conquering most of the coastal towns, bring them under Portuguese rule. However towns like Gedi, Kilifi, Pate, Manda, Mombasa and Lamu continued with resistance. Mombasa was heavily attacked in 1528. ~ In 1585, a Turkish captain, Amir Ali Bey, arrived at the coast as an envoy of the sultan of turkey to free the coastal towns from the Portuguese. Rebellion then broke out between 1585 and 1588 between Ali Bey, the Portuguese, and the people of Mombasa and Zimba warriors. The towns of pate, Siyu and Pemba were attacked and forced to pay heavy fines while manda was completely destroyed. ~ Portugal finally brought all the coastal towns under her control establishing her headquarters in Mombasa that had been subdued in 1589. in 1593, the Portuguese built fort Jesus **Why the Portuguese build Fort Jesus** a) They used it as a watch tower b) To hide against attacks by the enemies c) As military base d) To offer food security and protection. e) To act as an armament. f) To act as a prison for the captives. ~ Portuguese control of the east African coast as greatly supported by the conquest of Hormuz, which made it easier for them to control sea traffic in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Eden and Arabian Sea. **Why the Portuguese defeated the East African Coastal towns/Why the Portuguese** **were successful** a) They had superior weapons e.g. cannon guns which made terrible noise and threw people in panic as compared to the poor musket guns of the coastal Arabs. b) They had well trained soldiers with superior skills of fighting compared to the coastal people who had no permanent organized army e.g. Vasco da Gama, Francisco DAlmeida were ruthless army commanders which helped them to defeat the coastal dwellers. c) They had better and faster ships (carracks) well equipped for naval warfare. The Portuguese soldiers wore Armour on their bodies and helmets on their heads, which protected them from the weapons of the coastal people. d) The coastal towns were disunited which gave chance to the Portuguese to fight isolated enemies e.g. Malindi refused to unite with Mombasa due to local conflicts. Some cooperated with the invaders giving them food and bases e.g. Malindi and Sofala. e) Some coastal towns like Kilwa were caught unaware. The Portuguese employed cruel methods of fighting like burning down towns and surprise attacks. f) The ships acted as stages against the hostile weapons of the coastal people. g) The coast had natural harbours and was not open to attacks. h) The constant attacks on the coastal towns by the Galla, Zimba and Turkish e.t.c had weakened their defence. i) The Portuguese were financially equipped and therefore supported their soldiers because they wanted to control the East African trade. j) The coastal states had very weak economies that could not sustain prolonged fights especially against the economically strong Portuguese. **Portuguese Administration at the coast** By 1510, the conquest of the East African coast was over and administration fell into the hands of the Portuguese. For easy administration, the coast was divided into two zones; a. The area North of Cape Delgado was ruled by the Captain at Malindi. b. The area South of Cape Delgado was ruled by Captain at Mozambique. Both captains were answerable to the Portuguese viceroy at Goa on Indian coast at the General headquarters. Cape Delgado was made the midpoint of the East Africa possession. Sofala was made the regional headquarters but still under the charge of the captain who took his orders from the viceroy at Goa. Later, the Captain in the North was stationed at Mombasa after the construction of Fort Jesus in 1593 because they were rebellious. Other forts and garrisons were established at Sofala and Kilwa. The Portuguese captains were responsible for the collections of tributes from coastal rulers. They imposed the customs dues on all imports and exports. They were also responsible for the suppression of rebellions on the coast. The Portuguese had problems with administration because they could not provide enough troops to all garrisons their strongholds.The Portuguese were more interested in gold trade in Sofala. Unfortunately, they failed to develop this trade because of the following; ~ There were wars in the mining areas between the Portuguese and Coastal people. ~ As a result the Portuguese were so cruel that any sign of disobedience was punished with maximum brutality to serve as a warning to others who might choose to rebel. This partly explains the unpopularity of the Portuguese on the coast. The Portuguese also applied the policy of divide and rule by setting one town against the other. For example Malindi against Mombasa.The relationship with the subjects was not good. They lived in isolation of each other by race and religion. The Portuguese established their own settlements, built their own churches and had their own priest. This could be the reason why their religion was rejected and hatred increased.In addition, the few Portuguese officials were corrupt, plundered and ordered destruction on the coastal town. All this earned them hatred and opposition from the people and it was not a surprise that they were nicknamed "AFRITI" meaning Devil.The Portuguese did not mix freely with Africans because they considered themselves to be a special race.During the Portuguese reign, the glory of the coastal states was no more. The high standards of living the coastal people had enjoyed were no more. The trade that had made them rich was declining. Many buildings were in ruins and there was widespread poverty and misery. **Reasons that led to the decline of the Portuguese at the East African Coast** **(Problems/challenges they faced)** a) Portugal was a small country that could not provide enough administrators and officials for such a large coastline that extended from Sofala in the south to Mogadishu in the north.The territory was too big and long for effective control and administration. b) It had few soldiers and could not keep fortified garrison along the coast. c) Authority was left in hands of incompetent and corrupt officials who were after enriching themselves. d) The Africans hated the Portuguese due to differences in religion, that is to say, Muslims against Christians (Portuguese). e) The Portuguese were cruel, harsh and brutal, they always punished the coastal people whenever they attempted to rebel and made them to be hated. f) The Portuguese also used divide and rule policy for example, they allied with Malindi against Mombasa. g) There was decline of trade due high taxes on imports and other restrictions hence smuggling of goods, which affected the Portuguese economy. Due to decline in trade, the people became poor and dissatisfied and they continuously rebelled. h) The Portuguese failed to support their own allies at the coast, some even betrayed them. i) Portugal had been forced into a union with Spain between15801640 which weakened her control of the trading colonies as she was no longer interested in the overseas empire. j) Portugal was challenged by other European powers, which began competing with the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean Trade e.g. Dutch, English, French, Turks and others. k) The coastal people found useful allies against the Portuguese due to their bad rule e.g. Turks, Oman, and Arabs l) They were faced with constant rebellions along the coast. This greatly disrupted life at the coast e.g. Pate, Mombasa m) Tropical diseases which claimed their life like smallpox, malaria making it difficult for them to administer the coast effectively. n) The Portuguese were greatly weakened by a group of cannibals the Zimba, who attacked the East African coast. o) The unhealthy climate made the area unattractive for them to work for instance, some places where too humid and hot while others were too cold. p) The distance between Portugal and the East African coast was too far hence reinforcement delayed. q) There was a problem of communication barrier, the Portuguese refused to learn the African languages and these made their administration difficult. r) The income obtained from the gold trade was not enough to pay for administration i.e. soldiers and officials. s) The Capture of Fort Jesus their stronghold in 1698 by the Omani greatly contributed to their decline. **The collapse of Portuguese rule** ~ In 1585, a Turkish captain, Amir Ali Bey, arrived at the coast as an envoy of the sultan of turkey to free the coastal towns from the Portuguese. Rebellion then broke out between 1585 and 1588 between Ali Bey, the Portuguese, and the people of Mombasa and Zimba warriors. The towns of pate, Siyu and Pemba were attacked and forced to pay heavy fines while manda was completely destroyed ~ As a result of their ruthlessness, the coastal people became hostile to the Portuguese. ~ Mombasa for example resisted the humiliation they got from the Portuguese appointedsultan ~ The sultans heir Yusuf was treated as a servant who resented the people of Mombasa ~ On 15thaugust 1631, during the Christian feast of Assumption in Mombasa, Sultan Yusuf stabbed the captain with a knife, killing him instantly. This sparked off a rebellion where many Portuguese were killed. ~ Yusuf posed a threat to the Portuguese rule until his death in 1637. ~ The people of pate also revolted in 1666. However, their ruler was arrested and exiled to Goa where he was executed ~ In 1622, the Persians drove the Portuguese from Hormuz. In 1650, the Portuguese were expelled from their bases in Muscat by the Omani Arabs under sultan Saif ~ Britain, France and Holland also began to compete the Portuguese in trade. ~ The final blow to Portuguese rule was attack by the Omani Arabs and the seizure of fort Jesus. The coastal Arab towns had appealed to their brothers in Oman for assistance against the Portuguese brutality. ~ In 1652, an Oman fleet sailed to pate and Zanzib ar, overpowered and killed the Portuguese. ~ In 1696, Imam Saif Ibn Sultan of Oman sailed to Mombasa with a large fleet and army. The Portuguese took refuge in Fort Jesus as battle raged on (about 2500 Portuguese men, women and children) the Portuguese were unfortunate as they could not get supplies to sustain the war with 3000 plus Arab soldiers with full packing of the coastal people. ~ In 1697, the Omani forces got access to the Fort and found most Portuguese afflicted with disease. By December 1698, the Omanis penetrated the Fort only to find all except twelve Portuguese dead. This marked the end of Portuguese rule though they made a temporaryseizure of the fort in 1728 but were overpowered. ~ For the coastal people, it was however a mere change of guard from the Portuguese to the Arabs. **Results of Portuguese stay at the coast of East Africa** **Positive:** a) The Portuguese built Fort Jesus at the coast in Mombasa in1592/3 which became a fortress and later a tourist attraction for centuries. b) They enriched the Swahili language with an addition of 60 words e.g. emeza meaning table and pesa meaning money. c) They introduced new crops from South Africa of which many have become staple diet for many East Africans e.g. cassava, pawpaws, maize, oranges, sweet potatoes, guavas, pineapples and mangoes d) They made an improvement in ship building. During their stay on the coast, many architects came in from India and Europe. e) There was establishment of closer trading links between the coast and India. f) They introduced new farming methods for example they encouraged the use of cow dung as manure. g) They led to the coming of more European and Asian traders and craftsmen especially those who helped in the building of Fort Jesus. h) They broke the Muslim- Arab monopoly of the Indian Ocean Trade. **Negative:** a) Trade declined due to the constant wars and rebellions and heavy taxes imposed. b) There was decline of the coastal towns because many were burnt down and left in ruins for example Kilwa and Mombasa. c) There was widespread poverty and misery among the coastal people due to decline in trade. d) There was heavy loss of lives during the attacks. There was depopulation due to the many wars in the areas e) There was destruction of property like buildings and crops, which led to famine and starvation. f) The coastal people suffered oppression and brutality under harsh rule of the Portuguese. g) Their religion, Christianity, made no impact at the coast because they lived far from their subjects and stagnation of the Islamic faith because discouraged preaching. h) Smuggling developed because the Portuguese had failed to establish proper trading links with the Interior. i) Some towns were prevented from trading with their initial partners which led to their decay e.g. Gedi j) They led to the European interest at the coast hence leading to the colonization in the 19th Century. **THE ESTABLISHMENT AND IMPACT OF OMANI RULE AT THE EAST** **AFRICAN COAST** The Omani Arabs (Imams of Omani) replaced the Portuguese as the rulers of the East African coast after the capture of fort Jesus in 1698.The new rulers initially administered the region through some Arab families; ~ The Mazrui (Mazaria) family which ruled Mombasa ~ The Nabahan Family which ruled Lamu. The civil wars back home made it hard for the Omani Arabs to control the coast immediately. There were also threats of Persian invasion. Constant rebellion from coastal towns against Omani governors posed a serious challenge to Omani rule. Pate for example refused to pay tax and even murdered the imams messengers. Towns they were loyal to Oman were attacked.The Mazrui established themselves as independent rulers of Mombasa and ordered towns like pate, Pemba and Malindi to pay allegiance to them. Their greatest allies were the Mijikenda who promised them support in case of Omani attack.The struggle between the Mazrui and the Imams of Oman (1741-1840) The coastal towns led by Mombasa resisted Omans conquest due to the following reasons. a) The Omani wanted the revenue from the taxes levied on trade. b) The towns also wished to maintain their independence as they were during the Portuguese rule. c) The towns were also encouraged by the prevailing weaknesses in Oman due to civil wars and the Persian threat. d) The harsh and ruthless rule and manner in which the Oman rulers collected taxes. e) Mombasa had fought against the Portuguese and did not wish to be under control of another foreign power. **The struggle** The appointment of Mohammed Ibn Azthman al Mazrui as the new governor of Mombasa coincided with the death of the Oman Imam Saif Ibn- Sultan of the Yorubi and his replacement with Ahmed Bin Said al-Busaidi.The new Mombasa governor refused to recognize the new imam and declared the independence of Mombasa from Oman. The sultan had him murdered and fort Jesus seized. A year later, the brother of the murdered governor recaptured the town and the fort. This became the century long struggle between the al-busaidi and al-Mazrui families.Taking advantage of the problems in Oman, Mombasa expanded her power and control over the coastal towns (she took over pate in 1807 and attacked Lamu in 1810). Lamu appealed to Oman for assistance. **Seyyid Said and the struggle** Further political changes happened in Oman. Seyyid said rose to power as the imam (Seyyid) of Oman. His father, the ruler of Oman had died in a sea battle in 1804 when he was only 13 years. His cousin Badr Ibn saif took over. In 1806, Said stabbed Badr to death fearing domination. With the assistance of the British he had entrenched his position as the Seyyid of Oman at the age of 15 years. The British even promised him support in claiming the east African coast.He then sent a governor to build a fortress in Mombasa and to order all towns to recognize the power of Oman. Mombasas new governor Abdullah Ibn Ahmed defied the order and even continued to attack Brava. By 1817, Seyyid said had succeeded in freeing Pate from Mazrui rule. In 1822, with the help of Zanzibar, an Oman ally, he liberated Pemba and Brava from Mombasa. In 1823, he gained control of the Bajun Islands. He ordered that no town should trade with Mombasa.In 1824, the sultan of Mombasa offered Mombasa to become a British protectorate to protect him from the Oman rule. The new powerful position of Mombasa was however short-lived upto 1826 due to the terms of the Moresby anti-slavery treaty between Seyyid said and the British.The animosity between Mombasa and Oman continued. In 1837, there was a dispute in Mombasa over the succession to the vacant office of the Liwali. This became an opportune chance for Seyyid said to lure the members of the Mazrui family into fort Jesus where he killed them. **Seyyid Said; Sultan of Zanzibar 91840-1856)** After that Seyyid said consolidated his power and control over the coast as well as the interior of east Africa. He then transferred his capital from Muscat to Oman. The transfer of the capital to Zanzibar from Muscat was due to the following reasons: a) Seyyid said desired to effectively control the coastal towns through the centrally located Zanzibar. b) Zanzibar had a pleasant climate compared to Muscat which was hot and dry. It also had fresh water, adequate rainfall and fertile soils that favoured clove growing. c) Zanzibar was easily defensible as an island. It was easy to sea the enemy from far and launch an attack from the island. d) The good deep harbours of Zanzibar I which ships could anchor were attractive. Zanzibars central position also favoured development of long distance trade. e) The town had a long history of loyalty to Oman throughout the Mazrui- busaidi struggles. Seyyid said appointed Liwalis to rule important towns. They were give the responsibility of collecting custom dues levied at each port. The Arabs in the local towns were allowed to rule themselves. Seyyid said was keener on the commercial empire than p olitical leadership. He stated I am nothing but just a merchant. Seyyid said developed an economic programme based on agriculture and international trade. **The development of plantation Agriculture** Seyyid sad encouraged settlers from Oman and Zanzibar to take advantage of the fertile sols and good climate at the coast to settle in Mombasa. Malindi, Lamu and Pemba venture into agriculture.Plantation agriculture largely depended on slave labour.The people of Mombasa extended plantation agriculture into the mainland, acquiring land from the Mijikenda in exchange for gifts. They planted rice, maize, millet, beans, sesame and sorghum. Along the island, large plantations of coconut mango trees, cashew nuts and citrus fruits were developed. Grain plantations were developed around Malindi and Takaungu whose land was largely unoccupied and the orma were no longer a threat. By 1870, about 1400 to 1500 slaves worked on plantation farms in Malindi which had become the granary of Africa producing all kinds of grains, mangoes, coconut, mangoes and oranges.Seyyid said also established a clove plantation in Zanzibar. He also encouraged people to grow coconut trees by putting in place a policy that for eve coconut tree cut, three were to be planted. Plantation agriculture intensified slave trade. **The Slave Trade in East Africa** Slave trade: The buying and selling of human beings Slavery: The state of being enslaved: Its a system where by some people are owned by others and are forced to work for others without being paid for the work they have done. It involves capturing, transporting of human beings who become the property of the buyer. The slave trade was one of the worst crimes against humanity. The trade was started by Arabs who wanted labour for domestic use and for their plantations. However, they were later joined by Europeans.. **Reasons for the rise of slave trade** ~ During the second half of the 18th century, France opened up larger sugar plantations on the islands of Reunion, Mauritius and in the Indian Ocean. African slaves were thus recruited from East Africa to go and work in those plantations. ~ Africans were considered physically fit to work in harsh climatic conditions compared to the native red Indians and Europeans. This greatly increased the demand for the indigenous people (slaves). ~ The increased demand for sugar and cotton in Europe led to their increase in price and therefore more labour (slaves) was needed in the British colonies of West Indies and America. ~ Strong desire for European goods by African chiefs like Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe forced them to acquire slaves in exchange for manufactured goods such as brass, metal ware, cotton cloth, beads, spirits such as whisky, guns and gun powder. ~ The existence and recognition of slavery in East Africa societies. Domestic and child slavery already existed therefore Africans were willing to exchange slaves for European goods. ~ The huge profits enjoyed by middlemen like Arab Swahili traders encouraged the traders to get deeply involved in the trade. ~ The suitable winds and currents (monsoon winds) which eased transportation for slave traders greatly contributed to the rise of slave trade. ~ The Legalization of slave trade in 1802 by Napoleon 1 of France increased the demand for slaves in all French Colonies. ~ The increased number of criminals, war captives, destitute forced African chiefs to sell them off as slaves. ~ The Oman Arabs contributed to the rise in the demand for slaves. This is because they acted as middlemen between the African Swahili people, the Portuguese and French traders. They therefore worked very hard to get slaves in order to obtain revenue from them. ~ The invention of Spanish mines in West indices increased slave demands to work in the mines. ~ The exodus of slaves from East Africa to Northeast Africa, Arabia and Persia contributed to the increase in the demand for slaves. It led to an enormous number of slaves obtained from East Africa being transported to other countries. ~ The movement of Seyyid Saids capital to Zanzibar led to an increase in slave trade. This is because when Seyyid said settled in Zanzibar in 1840, he embarked on strong plans to open up slave trade routes to the interior of East Africa. This boosted slave trade, whereby the number of slaves being sold at the slave market in Zanzibar annually by that time, reached between 40000 and 45000 thousand slaves. ~ The outbreak of diseases like Nagana led to an increase in slave trade. This is because the beasts of burden (i.e. camels, donkeys, etc) could not be taken on many of the caravan routes. It therefore necessitated people themselves to be involved in the transportation of the trade goods and ivory. Such people included porters who were regarded as slaves, or free Africans who could sell their services in return for cloth and other trade goods. ~ Development of long distance trade that needed slaves to transport goods from the interior of East Africa. ~ Plantation farming increased in some areas, especially the clove plantations were slaves worked. **Organization of slave trade in E. Africa** The middlemen involved were; <br><br> Arab Swahili traders African chiefs. <br><br>**Ways of obtaining slaves**<br><br> Selling of domestic slaves in exchange for goods like beads, guns, glass etc Selling of criminals, debtors and social misfits in society by the local chiefs to the <br><br>Arab slave traders. <br><br> Prisoners of war could be sold off. Porters were sometimes kidnapped, transported and sold off to the Arab traders. Raiding villages, this would begin at night with gun shoots and people would scatter <br><br>consequently leading to their capture. <br><br> Through inter tribal wars many Africans become destitutes and these would be <br><br>captured by the slave traders. <br><br> Tax offenders were sold off by the African chiefs. They were also captured through ambushes during hunting, travelling and gardening. Slaves would be acquired from the main slave trade market in Zanzibar. Other Africans are also said to have gone voluntarily in anticipation of great wonders <br><br>and benefits from the Arab Swahili traders. Slave journey: - difficult one. They moved long distances on foot. <br><br> Slaves journey was a <br><br> Chained, whipped and sometimes killed on the way. Had little food and water and experienced extreme suffering. This is illustrated by a Quotation from Dr. David Livingstones Last Journal. London 1878:We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and dead we saw others tied up in a similar manner, and one lying in the path shot or stabbed for she was in a pool of blood. The explanation we got invariably was that the Arab who owned these victims was enraged at losing the money by the slaves becoming unable to march. ~ The main slave market where slaves were auctioned was at Zanzibar. ~ The journey across the India Ocean was horrible. ~ Crowded in ships with hardly any space to breath. Ships carried anything from 250 to 600 slaves. They were very overcrowded and packed like spoons with no room even to turn. ~ Whenever they saw anti-slave trade people, slaves would be thrown in the ocean ~ As a result many died in the process. **Effects/Impact of slave trade on people of E. Africa** **Positive effects** a) New foods were introduced through trade routes like maize, pawpaws, rice, groundnuts both at the coast and in the interior. b) Plantation farming increased in some areas, especially the clove plantations were slaves worked. c) The interior was opened to the outside world this later encouraged the coming of European missionaries. Many European Christian missionaries came to East Africa to preach against slave trade and to campaign for its abolition. d) The trade routes became permanent routes and inland roads which led to growth of communication networks. e) Swahili was introduced in land and is now being widely spoken in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and Eastern Congo. f) Islam as a religion was introduced by Arabs and it spread, especially in Yao land and in Buganda land. g) A new race called Swahili was formed through intermarriages between Arabs and some Africans. h) There was growth of Arab towns such as Tabora and Ujiji inland. i) There was emergence of dynamic leaders such as Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe in the latter half of the nineteenth century. j) Slave trade strengthened the large and powerful states, which could easily get access to guns at the expense of small ones. k) Slave trade led to a situation whereby power became centralized and no longer with the small, local authority (segimentary societies) mainly to enable African chiefs directly control slave trade. l) Slave trade encouraged large-scale trade whereby contact was established between the trade masters and indigenous/local population. m) Africans were dispersed to other parts of the world e.g Arabia, America and West Indies. In Africa, Sierra-Leone and Liberia were founded to accommodate former slaves from Europe and America. **Negative effects** a) African population was reduced; people who would have been great leaders and empire builders were killed. It is estimated that over 15 to 30 million people were sold in to slavery while other millions died in the process being transported. b) Slave trade brought misery, suffering and lowered the quality of people in East Africa this is because they were reduced to commodities which could be bought and sold on land. c) Villages and families were destroyed and broken up by slave raiders and never to be reunited this later resulted in to loss of identity. d) Diseases broke out among the overcrowded slaves for example the Spaniards introduced Syphilis and soon it spread to other traders. e) Slave trade led to displacement of people and many became homeless and destitute many and stayed in Europe with no identity. f) Economic activities such as farming were disrupted. This is because the young and able craftsmen, traders and farmers were carried off, causing economic stagnation as the economic workforce depleted. g) Progress slowed down, which resulted in famine, poverty and destitution and helplessness. h) There was a decline in production of traditional goods such as coffee, beans, bark cloth and iron which greatly hindered the cash economy. i) There was a decline in African industries which also faced a lot of competition from imported manufactured goods for example the Bark cloth and iron working industries. j) Guns were introduced into the interior which caused a lot of insecurity and increased incidences of wars for territorial expansion. k) Clans and tribal units, languages were broken and inter-tribal peace was disturbed for example Swahili language replaced the traditional languages in the interior. **Abolition of slave trade** **Reasons why it was difficult to stop slave trade** ~ Slavery existed before in Africa societies that is to say, domestic slavery and internal slave trade, which provided a favourable situation for continuation of the lucrative slave trade. ~ The Abolition movement which had begun in Britain and her overseas territory first took effect in West Africa. The decline in West African trade encouraged the expansion of trade in East Africa especially with America and West Indies. ~ Slave trade was difficult to stop because of division of African tribes against each other .This meant that African tribes would find it difficult to unite together and resist the slave traders, who raided their societies using organized bands of men. ~ Disregard of human life, many African rulers tended to put less value for the lives of their subjects whom they ruled for example quite often, a ruler of a tribe would easily order his warriors to attack the villages of his subjects and seize their property, kill some of them. ~ Active participation and willing cooperation of African chiefs and coastal traders who were making a lot of profits made the slave trade last for so long. ~ Many European countries depended on the products of slave labour in West Indies and America for example, British industries depended on raw sugar, raw cotton and unprocessed minerals from America which she was not willing to lose. ~ European slave merchants and Africans involved in the trade were blinded by the huge profits made from the trade. ~ There was smuggling of slaves outside the forbidden areas. Slave traders would pretend to sail northwards when sighted by British patrol ships but would change course after British navy ships had disappeared. ~ Other European countries refused to co-operate with Britain to end slave trade because they had not yet become industrialized, and therefore they still benefited from it for example Portugal and Spain. ~ The only economic alternative of slave trade was Agriculture which was not reliable compared to the booming slave trade. ~ The anti slavery campaign was too expensive for Britain alone to compensate slave owners. ~ Stopping slave trade in the interior was difficult because Arabs were in control of large areas. ~ The East African coastline was long which delayed the anti-slavery group penetration in the interior. ~ Due to the tropical climate, most British personnel were affected by malaria which hindered the stopping of Slave trade. ~ Seyyid Said and Barghash were always unwilling to end slave trade at once due to fear of losing revenue and risk of rebellion by Arabs who found it profitable. ~ The anti-slavery group was small compared to the East African Coast. ~ European powers continued with slave trade, they shipped the slave cargos in to ships bearing American Flags. **Factors that led to the abolition of slave trade** It was the British government that began the abolition of the slave trade during the years,1822 - 1826 . This was because of the pressure by various groups based on different factors; a) Rise of humanitarians in Europe such as Christians and scholars condemned it on moral grounds. The missionaries wanted it to be stopped because they wanted good conditions for the spread of Christianity. The formation of the humanitarian movements in England aimed at stopping all kinds of cruelty including slave trade, flogging of soldiers and child labour. b) Industrialization in Britain was one of the main forces behind the abolition .E.g. Britain industrialists urged its abolition because they wanted Afr icans to be left in Africa so that Africa can be a source of raw materials for their industries, market for European manufactured goods and a place for new investment of surplus capital. c) Formation of Anti-slavery movement and the abolitionist movement in 1787. Its chairman was Granville Sharp and others like Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce who gathered facts and stories about the brutality of slave trade and slavery to arouse public opinion in Britain. d) Religious revival in Europe, Anglicans preached and condemned slave trade as being opposed to laws of God and humanity. Catholic popes also protested against the trade and prohibited it. In 1774, many religious leaders served as examples when they liberated their slaves in England. e) The French revolution of 1789 and the American revolution of 1776 emphasized liberty, equality and fraternity (brotherhood) of all human beings. As a result, people began to question whether anyone had a right to deprive fellow man of his liberty when he had done wrong. f) The British desire to protect their national interests, British planters wanted slave trade stopped to avoid competition with other European planters .This is because other planters were producing cheaper sugar, British sugar accumulated hence the need to stop over production. g) The rise of men with new ideas e.g. Prof. Adam Smith(challenged the economic arguments which were the basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labour is cheaper and more productive than slave labour, Rou sseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all men. h) Slaves had become less profitable and yet had led to over population in Europe. i) Influential abolitionists like William Wilberforce ( a British member of parliament ) urged the British government to legislate against the slave trade in her colonies. j) The ship owners stopped transporting slaves from Africa and began transporting raw materials directly from Africa and America to Europe, which led to a decline in slave trade. **Steps in the abolition of slave trade** The movement to abolish slave trade started in Britain with the formation of Antislavery movement. The British government abolished the slave trade through anti slave laws (Legislation), treaties and use of force. The Anti slavery movement was led by Granville sharp, other members were Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce and others. ~ The first step was taken in 1772 when slavery was declared illegal and abolished in Britain. The humanitarians secured judgment against slavery from the British court. ~ In 1807, British parliament outlawed slave trade for British subjects. ~ 1817 British negotiated the reciprocal search treaties with Spain and Portugal. ~ Equipment treaties signed with Spain 1835 Portugal 1842 and America 1862. ~ In E. Africa in 1822 Moresby treaty was signed between Captain Moresby and Sultan Seyyid Said it forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultans territories. British ships were authorized to stop and search suspected Arab slave-carrying dhows. ~ In 1845, Hamerton treaty was signed between Colonel Hamerton and Sultan Seyyid Said. It forbade the shipping of slaves outside the Sultans East African possessions, i.e., beyond Brava to the north. ~ In 1871 the British set up a parliamentary commission of inquiry to investigate and report on slave trade in E. Africa. ~ In 1872 Sir Bartle Frere persuaded Sultan Barghash to stop slave trade but not much was achieved. On 5th March 1873, the Sultan passed a decree prohibiting the export of slaves from main land and closing of slave market at Zanzibar. Zanzibar slave market was to be closed within 24 hours. ~ 1876 the Sultan decreed that no slaves were to be transported overland. ~ 1897 decree left slaves to claim their freedom themselves ~ 1907, slavery was abolished entirely in Zanzibar and Pemba. ~ In 1927, slavery ended in Tanganyika when Britain took over from Germany after the 2nd world war. **Effects of abolition of slave trade** a) The suppression of slave trade led to loss of independence that is to say, it confirmed among the Arabs and Swahilis that the Sultan had lost independence over the East African coast, and that he was now a British puppet . b) The suppression of slave trade led to development and growth of legitimate trade which provided equally profitable business to both Europeans and African traders. Many ship owners diverted their ships from transporting slaves to transporting raw cotton and raw sugar from Brazil and America. c) It accelerated the coming of European missionaries to East Af rica who emphasized peace and obedience thus the later European colonization of East Africa. d) Disintegration of the sultan Empire. This is because it loosened the economic and political control which the sultan had over the East African nations .His empire in E.A. therefore began to crumble .This gave opportunity to other ambitious leaders like Tippu- Tip to create an independent state in Manyema ,where he began selling his ivory and slaves to the Belgians in Zaire. e) The abolition of slave trade was a catalyst to the partition of East Africa where by Britain took over Kenya, Zanzibar and Uganda and Germany took over Tanganyika. f) Slave trade markets were also closed for example Zanzibar in 1873 following the frre treaty signed between Sultan Barghash and Bantle Frere. g) Islam became unpopular as many converted to Christianity. h) African societies regained their respect and strength as they were no longer sold off as commodities. **Development and organization of long distance trade** Local trade refers to the exchange of goods among members of a community. Regional trade involves exchange of goods between a community and her neigbouring communities.Long distance trade was the exchange of trade goods between communities over long distance, for example between the east African interior and the east African coast. **The organization of long distance trade** ~ The communities that participated in the long distance trade were the Akamba, Swahili, Arabs, Yao, nyamwezi, Mijikenda and Baganda. ~ The trade developed because of the demand for ivory in Europe and the United States of America, slaves for plantation agriculture at the coast and in Mauritius and reunion sugar plantations ~ Ivory and slaves from the interior were exchanged for cloth. Utensils, ironware, zinc and beads at the coast.The system of trade were barter. ~ The middlemen included the Mijikenda and the Akamba who obtained slaves and ivory from the interior. The Akamba adopted the long distance trade after the outbreak of famine in 1836 and due to the central location of their country. ~ The Akamba organized caravans that left for the coast on weekly basis to sell ivory, gum copra, honey, bees wax, rhinoceros horns and skins. They had prosperous traders like chief Kivoi who is remembered for organizing the trade. ~ They set up markets and routes in the interior. ~ The source of slaves and ivory extended as far as Mt. Kenya region, Baringo and the shores of Lake Victoria. ~ The trade led to the development of Mombasa and Lamu as important market points. ~ The Waswahili and Mijikenda traders were also used in the trading caravans to the interior. ~ By 1860s, Arabs and Swahili traders started penetrating to the interior of Kenya as far as Uganda. ~ In Kenya, the main trading centres were taveta, Mbooni hills, elureko in Wanga and Miazini near Ngong and along Lake Baringo. ~ By 1870, the Akamba dominance in the trade declined as a result of competition from the Arab and Waswahili traders who began penetrating into the interior to get goods from the source. ~ Movement between the interior and the coast was carried out in caravans along well defined routes. ~ The trade routes became insecure due to the Oromo and Maasai raids. ~ The abolition of slave trade also affected the long distance trade. ~ In Tanganyika, the Yao, nyamwezi, Arabs and Waswahili were great traders. The Yaoexchanged tobacco, hoes, and animal skins at Kilwa with imported goods like cloth and beads. They were also the principal suppliers of ivory and slaves to Kilwa. The Yao were the most active long distance traders in east Africa. ~ The Arabs and Waswahili traders organized caravans into the interior and set up markets and trade routes. They were given security by Seyyid said who signed treaties with Chief Fundikira of the Nyamwezi to allow the Arab traders to pass through his territory. ~ They established interior Arab settlements at Tabora which became the centre of Arab culture. ~ The nyamwezi organized trading expeditions under their chiefs upto the coast with ivory, copper, slaves, wax hoes, salt and copra. They returned with cloths, beads and mirrors. They established trade routes such as the route from Ujiji via Tabora to Bagamoyo. They travelled to Katanga in DRC for iron, salt and copper. By 1850 nyamwezi merchants such as Msiri , and leaders like Nyungu ya Mawe and Mirambo played a key role in the trade development. ~ When the Arab and Waswahili traders arrived in Buganda, the kabaka welcomed them because he needed their goods such as beads, cloths, guns etc. He also wanted assistance in aiding his neighbours. E.g the invasion of Busoga in 1848 was assisted by the Arab traders. From the raids to Bunyoro, Toro, and ankole and Buvuma and Ukerewe islands, the Baganda acquired cattle, ivory, slaves and grains which the sold to the Arabs. ~ The Khartoumers also practiced long distance trade. They raided the northern part of Uganda for ivory and slaves. ~ Arab and Waswahili traders ventured into the Bunyoro kingdom by 1877 for ivory. ~ There were three main trade routes that linked east African coast and the interior; a) From Mombasa through the Mijikenda area onto Taita-taveta then branching into two. One leading to Kilimanjaro onto the Lake Victoria region the diversion was to evade the hostile Maasai. . The other branch proceeded northwards from taveta across Galan River into Ukambani then to mt Kenya region and further west. Taveta became an important point on these routes. b) The route from Kilwa to Yao then branching southwards to Cewa in Zimbabwe. c) From Bagamoyo to Tabora where it branched northwards to Buganda and another branch to Ujiji then to Zaire. **MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING TRADE ROUTES** **Effects of the Long distance trade on the people of East Africa** a) The trade led to Development of towns e.g. Mombasa, Lamu, Kilwa, Pemba and Zanzibar. b) It increased the volume of local and regional trade as varieties of new goods were introduced. c) There was the Emergence of a class of wealthy Africans along the coast and the interior as Arab, African and Waswahili merchants acquired a lot of wealth. E.g. Kivoi of Ukambani, Ngonyo of Mijikenda, Tippu tip, Msiri, Nyungu ya mawe of nyamwezi, Mwakikonga of the Digo etc. d) There was Introduction of foreign goods such as beads, cloth and plates to the peoples of East Africa. e) The trade led to Introduction of new crops to the coast e.g. bananas, rice sugarcane and mangoes. f) Arab and Waswahili traders introduced Islam to the East African Coast. They also introduced Islamic culture along the coast. g) Development of plantation agriculture in Malindi and Mombasa due increased slave trade. h) It led to the development of trade routes and market centres in the region. Such routes later became important highways during the colonial rule and upto today. i) Traders gave reports about the coast, its strategic and commercial stability leading to the colonization of East Africa. j) It led to the development of a money economy that replaced barter trade k) The trade facilitated the colonization of east Africa as the interior was exposed to the outside world. **Development and organization of international trade** The east African coast also participated in international trade during the 19 Th century with traders from different countries such as USA, Britain and France. **Factors that facilitated the development of international trade** a) The existing earlier trade links between east Africa and the Far East before this period. b) The existence of regional trade which became a means through which goods such as ivory were acquired from the interior to be used in the international trade. c) The role played by Seyyid said through encouraging the foreign traders to come to the coast. He even signed treaties with them. He also gave letters of introduction to the Arab caravans leading into the interior. d) The improvement of the monetary system by Seyyid said facilitated the trade. He introduced the small copper coins from India to supplement the silver currency (Maria Theresa dollars and the Spanish Crown). He also employed the services of the Indian Banyans or Baluchis (Money Lenders) who organized credit facilities for the caravans going into the interior. e) There was a high demand for goods from the coast and the international community. Trade goods on demand were also readily available. E.g Gold ivory slaves cloths, beads, and guns. f) The existence of deep natural harbours and the attractive beaches lured many foreigners to the region. g) The existence of a class of wealthy merchants facilitated the trade. h) The establishment of specific trade routes and markets such as Zanzibar, Kilwa and Mombasa facilitated the movement and exchange of goods. i) The sultans identification of Britain as the sole trading agents in the interior overcame any rivalries which could have led to competition and decline of regional trade which would have in turn affected the international trade. j) The development of a sound trading policy by Seyyid said to ensure international market for his grains, coconuts and ivory. He developed trade links with Europe and America by signing treaties with USA in 1833 that opened a consulate in Zanzibar in 1837. He signed a similar treaty with Britain in 1839 that opened a consulate in Zanzibar in 1941. With France in 1844 and Germany in 1871.The arrival of IBEACo with William McKinnon further strengthened international trade links and increased the volume trade. **Consequences of international trade** a) Through the trade, the east African coast was exposed to the outside world. b) Some of the European traders later spread their faith thus leading o the spread of Christianity in east Africa. c) The international trade fostered good relations between the east African coast and European nations and USA. d) The contacts between the coast and European powers later contributed to the colonization o east Africa by Britain and Germany. e) New trade goods and crops were introduced to the coast. f) Participants in the trade grew richer and exhibited high standards of living. g) The slave trade led to sufferings, killings and increased warfare. **CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES IN EAST AFRICA** **Introduction** Christian missions were organized efforts to spread the Christian faith for the purpose of extending religious teaching at home or abroad. Their coming of Christian missionaries to East Africa and Africa in general was based on a number of motives which were humanitarian, economic, political and social in nature. The Portuguese were the first to introduce Christianity to the east African coast in the 15th c.This attempt however had little success. By the 19th century, a number of missionary groups worked in East Africa and these included; 1. The Church Missionary Society 2. The Holy Ghost Fathers 3. The University Missionary Society to Central Africa 4. The White Fathers 5. The Methodist Fathers 6. The Mill Hill Fathers 7. The London Missionary Society Reasons for the coming of Christian missionaries in East Africa a) The missionaries had the ambition to spread Christianity to the people of East Africa. This would be through preaching and teaching the holy gospel so that many would get converted to Christianity. b) They wanted to fight against slave trade in East Africa. Earlier travelers like John Speke and James Grant, H.M. Stanley, Dr. David Livingstone and others had reported about the evils of slave trade in East Africa. c) They wanted to check on the spread of Islam in East Africa from the coast with intentions of converting many to Christianity. d) Some missionaries came because they had been invited by certain African chiefs, For example, Mutesa I of Buganda wrote a letter through H.M Stanley inviting missionaries to Buganda. e) They came to establish legitimate trade in East Africa. They, for instance wanted to trade in items like glass, cloths, etc. as Dr. Livingstone told Cambridge University students, I go back to Africa to make an open pass for commerce and Christianity.. Similarly, his speech in 1857 emphasized the unity between Christianity and Commerce. f) The missionaries also loved to adventure and explore the interior of East Africa. For example Dr. John Ludwig Kraft of CMS is said to have been the first European to see Mt. Kenya while Johann Redman was the first to see Mt. Kilimanjaro. g) They had a mission to clear the way for the colonization of East Africa. The missionaries were tasked by their home governments to preach ideas of love, respect, brotherhood, forgiveness, tolerance and non violence so that when the colonialists come, they would meet less resistance from the East Africans. h) Its also argued that missionaries wanted to civilize East Africans. They argued that they came to stop some of the barbaric acts and customs e.g. Female Genital Mutilation among the Kikuyu in Kenya, human sacrifices and the practice of killing twins. i) The information they gave about important places like the source of the Nile, fertile soils, river falls and the climate all attracted the missionaries into East Africa. Early contacts by travelers like Stanley, Speke and Grant, among others encouraged missionaries to come. j) The expulsion of some of the missionaries from other parts of Africa led them into East Africa. For example Johann Ludwig Kraft and Johann Redman are said to have been expelled from Ethiopia around 1842 before they chose to relocate to East Africa. **Missionary Activities in East Africa** The pioneer missionaries in East Africa were the Church Missionary Society led by the Germans John Krapt and Johann Rebmann who arrived in East Africa around 1844 and 1846 respectively. Krapt arrived and established a mission station at Rabai. When they realized they were not making any great impact at the coast, the two moved into the interior visiting the Akamba and Taita. The CMS set up stations in Taita and taveta.They were the first Europeans to see Mount Kilimanjaro in 1847. Krapt discovered the source of River Tana and was the first European to see Mount Kenya in 1849. In 1949, Jacob Erhardt, a Germany explorer joined them and became the first European to draw a crude map of east Africa fro then stories he heard from traders. In 1862, the united Methodist Church led by Thomas Wakefield arrived from Britain and settled at the coast. They established a station at Rabai. They also set up mission stations at Jomvu and Lamu. They were able to convert some people among the Mijikenda. In 1863, the University Mission Society to Central Africa moved to Zanzibar where a mission was started from Re-union and later to Bagamoyo. Cardinal Lavigeries formation of the White Fathers Mission in Algeria (1863) extended to other parts of Africa. In 1875, Freetown Mission a centre for freed slaves was established. By 1889, about 1400 slaves had settled in Freetown. In 1877, the Church Missionary Society mission arrived in Buganda while the white fathers arrived in 1879. In 1891, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland arrived in Kenya and began their work at Kibwezi in Machakos. In 1898, the Church of Scotland Mission arrived at Kikuyu and set up a mission station at Thogoto. Members of the African Inland Church from the United States of America established their station at Nzaui in Machakos. They then spread to Kijabe, Nandi, Kabarnet and Nyakach in Nyanza. The catholic missionary societies, like the Holy Ghost Fathers and the Consolata Fathers arrived in Zanzibar but later moved to Mombasa in 1890 . They advanced interior and founded stations among the Akamba and among the Agikuyu towards the end of the Century. The Holy Ghost fathers established a station at St Austins near Nairobi in 1899 while the Consolata fathers from Italy opened a station in Nyeri in 1907The Mill Hill Fathers reached Kenya from Uganda.In 1902, the Friends Missions arrived at Kaimosi. By 1914 there were many missionary societies working in western Kenya. For example, the Seventh Day Adventists, the Quakers (Friends Mission) and the Church of God Mission. The roles of these missionaries varied enormously depending on the colonial context and their relations with the colonial authorities. **Missionaries in Tanganyika** The missionaries here enjoyed the support of the sultan of Zanzibar, Seyyid Said. At Zanzibar, the Roman Catholic missionaries began to follow the lead of CMS in taking interest in East Africa. The CMS began a freed slave centre at Freetown in 1875 where the freed slaves were taught Christianity and formal education. The slave villages later became Christian outposts. The CMS finally reached Uganda in 1879 where they were later joined by the White Fathers from Tabora and Ujiji.In 1863, a group of missionaries from the Holy Ghost Fathers arrived from Reunion where they had been working among freed slaves and began their work in Zanzibar. They also began a freed slave settlement at Bagamoyo. By 1885, they had set up five villages that were to act as Christian outposts Missionary work in Tanganyika was motivated by the reports given by Dr, David Livingstone on the horrors of slave trade.In 1863, the University Mission Society to Central Africa under Bishop Tozer moved to Zanzibar where a mission was started from Re-union and later to Bagamoyo. Dr.Livingstone of UMCA also worked I Ujiji in 1871 where he met with Henry Morton Stanley, a journalist who had been sent to look for him. In 1875, the London Missionary Society set up a mission post around Lake Tanganyika. **Missionaries in Uganda** The pioneer missionaries were the members of the CMS based in Tabora, Tanganyika. The first protestant missionaries were sent from England in 1876 after a letter that was sent by Henry Morton Stanley confirming Kabaka Mutesa Is invitation. They came in through Tabora and Usukuma and reached Rubaga, mutesas capital in 1877 where they set up a church. In 1879, the Roman Catholic Missionaries and White Fathers followed also from Tabora and Kibanga.The Protestants and Catholics were supported by Kabaka Mwanga though he did not want them to work outside the capital and beyond the royal family. This arrangement did not favour Missionary work in Uganda.Soon there ensued rivalry between the Catholics and protestants. The kabaka had also embraced Muslims and African traditionalists to the level of generating the infamous religious and political conflicts that rocked the kingdom eventually leading to its colonization.Missionary work expanded upto lake Nyasa. For example the Scottish Mission of the Livingstone Mission and the church of Scotland Mission set upstatations around lake Nyasa in 1876. **Activities of Christian missionaries in East Africa** The following were the activities carried out by the Christian missionaries in East Africa. a) Missionaries carried out evangelization. They tried to convert and baptize many people into Christianity from their paganism and Islam. b) Christian missionaries carried out linguistic research and came up with new developments in language. Dr Kraft for example translated the Bible into Swahili and wrote a Swahili dictionary and grammar hence making it easy for people to understand the Bible more. c) The Christian missionaries built many churches in East Africa many of which are still in existence. They for example set up a church at Zanzibar, Rubaga and Rabai missionary station near Mombasa. This enhanced evangelization into the local population. d) They carried out exploration work into the discovery of various East African physical features. For example, Kraft was the first European to see Mt. Kenya in 1849 while Rebmann was the first to European see Kilimanjaro in 1848. e) Christian missionaries set up stations for free rehabilitation services for example in 1868 the Holy Ghost Fathers set up a home for the free slaves at Zanzibar. f) Christian missionaries participated in skill development in East Africa. They for example participated in modernizing Agriculture and carpentry by setting up agricultural institutionsand carpentry workshops for training. g) Christian missionaries were also influential in establishing educational institutions and training efficient class of African clergy (catechists) who were close and more understandable to the local communities. This helped and enhanced the propagation of faith. h) Christian missionaries were at times involved in political processes that were beyond spiritual jurisdiction. They for example participated in the overthrow of Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda. They also acted as front runners in the colonization process. **Reasons for the success of missionary work in East Africa** a) The missionaries faced no strong opposition from any religion. Islam was only greatly dominant at the coast. b) The evils of slave trade made East Africans welcome missionaries as liberators. Their campaign against slave trade won them much support from different tribes in East Africa. c) The support they got from some of the local chiefs and kings led to their success. For instance, the sultan of Zanzibar gave them immense support. Mutesa I of Buganda and Mirambo of Nyamwezi all gave them protection as well as rights to do their work in their territories. d) The earlier explores helped to map out potential areas of East Africa for smooth missionary work. For instance, H.M Stanley had identified Buganda as a hospitable community for the missionaries and they were later welcomed by the Kabaka of Buganda in 1877. e) The support missionaries got from their home governments led them to success. This was inform of finance and physical manpower for instance colonial governments gave protection to the missionaries whenever they were challenged by local chiefs or other threats. For instance Captain Lugard supported the Prot estants in the religious wars in Buganda. f) Some missionary groups sought for alliances with African chiefs. Such treaties of friendship made their work easy since the chiefs would call on their subjects to take on the missionary teachings. g) The missionaries efforts to translate the bible into several local languages helped them succeed for example Kraft translated the New Testament of the Bible into Swahili and wrote a Swahili dictionary and a Grammar book. h) The missionaries also received the support of African converts in spreading the Gospel. Converts could now teach in their mother tongue and therefore overcame the language barrier. i) The industrial revolution had provided such technology like the printing press which made printing of bibles and other academic work easy. j) Their efforts in life saving services like medical care (Quinine) won them great admiration among the people of East Africa that few were ready to oppose them. The discovery of quinine also facilitated their work as it cured tropical diseases. k) The missionaries practical skills enabled them to survive even when their supplies from home delayed. They for instance adopted agriculture as soon as they settled anywhere. This ensured steady supply of food. l) The building of the Kenya Uganda railway greatly encouraged missionary work in the interior. The missionaries could now travel between the coast and the interior. m) Political stability in East Africa favoured missionary work because missionaries could settle. n) The emergence of the African independent church movement boosted the spread of Christianity. African initiatives to Africanize Christianity encouraged its growth in East Africa.. o) The death of Dr. David Livingstone in 1873 and other earlier missionaries increased the determination by many groups to see missionary work succeed in Africa, and East Africa in particular. E.g. the London news paper wrote after his death, the work for Africa must hence forth begin in earnest where Livingstone left it off. p) Establishment of resettlement centers for freed slaves e.g. at Bagamoyo and Frere town near Mombasa where skills like carpentry, and agriculture were taught. Such communities thus looked at missionary work as a life- saving mission **Problems faced by missionaries in East Africa** Christian missionaries in East Africa were faced with various problems which clipped their activities at times. These include: a) They faced the problem of language barrier. This was because East Africa had a multiplicity of languages hence rendering communication between the missionaries and the local people very difficult. b) There was a problem of the influence of Islam. Arabs being the first group of people to arrive at the coast and interior had deep rooted Islam into the people thus making it difficult for the people to easily adopt Christianity. For example, by the time Sir Edward Frere arrived in East Africa (1873) Rebmann had only 6 converts. c) Existence of tropical diseases was yet another problem faced by the Christian missionaries. Tropical diseases like malaria, small pox, claimed many missionary lives thus making progress in their activities very difficult since they could be left very few in numbers. d) Another hardship was caused by geographical barriers. These included hilly areas, rivers, lakes and forests. These hindered their free movement to various places thus a threat to their activities. e) Divisions and quarrels between various missionary groups for example Catholics versus Protestants was a hindrance to their activities. This could create divisions and biases among the believers thus weakening their capacity to convert more converts. f) Poor transport was a hindrance to the missionary activities in East Africa. This was due to undeveloped roads at the time to help in the movement of missionaries from one place to another. g) Presence of hostile tribes in East Africa was also a problem that faced Christian missionaries. The Nandi and Maasai who believed that strangers were not supposed to pass via their land could attack and kill many missionaries thereby reducing their numbers compared to the increasing number of converts. h) The presence of wild animals was also a threat to the missionary activities in East Africa. Man enters in Tsavo National Park consumed and threatened many whites. This clipped their activities at times. i) The missionaries faced the problem of lack of supplies. They for example lacked enough money, accommodation and drugs. This was because they originated from very far (Europe) thus making it difficult for them to have full time and constant supplies. Such put their lives at risk and could sometimes lead to death. j) The Christian missionaries faced the problem of stiff contradiction and rivals between European missionaries and traditional Africans. Customs like polygamy, satanic worship, etc were deep rooted into African communities which proved a threat for the missionaries to successfully uproot them. k) The missionaries made their work difficult by involving in politics and judicial systems which were beyond spiritual jurisdiction. Local leaders could misinterpret them as political rivals and organize their masses for resistance against missionary activities. **Effects of missionaries in East Africa** (a) They spread Christianity and baptized many converts. Catechists were also trained who helped in the spread of Christianity for example, in Kenya by 1911 many people had been converted and many cathedrals and churches were built like the Kikuyu churches (Charismatic Arathi or spirit churches.) (b) African religious beliefs, culture and traditions were despised and demoralized for example the birth and murder of twins, human sacrifice. (c) They established hospitals and clinics which offered modern medicine plus research in tropical diseases like malaria, small pox, yellow fever and sleeping sickness which had claimed many lives. For example, the Mission Hospitals at Rabai, Thogoto, Kaimosi e.t.c. Dr Albert Cook built Mengo hospital. (d) They introduced the European system of management and styles of dress and architecture which have been adopted by many people in East Africa today. (e) They put to an end the inter-tribal or inter-village wars and established a stable and peaceful society under one faithful leader (centralization). (f) They studied African languages and translated the Bible into various languages. For example Kraft translated the New Testament of the Bible into Swahili, Bishop Edward Steere based inZanzibar learnt and studied Swahili and translated books from English to Swahili, published the New Testament and the entire Bible in 1891. (g) They established printing presses like Marianum press and published newspapers. (h) They opened up primary and secondary schools as well as training collages for teachers and trade schools for craftsmen e.g. Alliance High School, Kisubi Vocational School. In the technical schools, carpentry and brick laying skills were obtained. (i) A new class of elite emerged. Africans educated mainly in English and French emerged, these later served as doctors, lawyers, clerks, teachers, catechists, agriculturalists and priests who played a great role of spreading Christianity. For example, in 1890, Africans were ordained as priests of the University Mission to Central Africa in Tanganyika. (j) They paved way for the improvement of agriculture through establishing experimental farms and plantations where new crops, better methods of farming and equipment were introduced for example cotton was introduced by Kenneth Boroup in 1903 and Africans were taught how to use a plough and how to grow coffee. (k) Missionaries improved communication and transport which in turn led to the opening up of the hinterland of Africa. The building of strong boats and ships gave Europeans courage to travel far from home. (l) Missionaries destroyed local industries like craft industry e.g. blacksmiths, pottery work were all destroyed and replaced with European products e.g. manufactured items like cups, saucepans, etc. (m) They contributed to the rise of nationalism. This was made possible through education where the African elite emerged and started demanding for independence e.g. Tom Mboya, Obote, Nyerere, and Kenyatta. (n) They fought slave trade which was later abolished and equality and liberty for all was encouraged in East Africa. (o) Mission stations were developed in towns like Rabai missionary station near Mombasa. **Role of Christian missionaries in the colonization of East Africa** a) Missionaries signed treaties which were later used by colonialists to take over colonies e.g. Tucker, a British Missionary interpreted the 1900 Buganda Agreement to the regents of Kabaka Daudi Chwa II. This led to loss of political, economic and social powers to the British protectorate government. Sir Harry John stone who signed on behalf of the British government confessed that; b) Missionaries supplied information to the colonialists which they utilized to plan how to effectively impose their colonial rule on how to crash the African resistance. In the religious wars in Buganda, the British fought behind the Protestants. c) In fact there was a reciprocal relationship between missionaries and the colonialists that is why missionaries laid the ground work before the partitioners offered missionaries protection for the success of their evangelization mission. d) The Church missionary society managed to raise enough funds for Imperial British East African Company for its staying in Uganda for at least 2 or more years. The church missionary society and Captain Lugard viewed that the companys withdraw would live theBritish and the protestant party in a dangerous position versus Moslems. e) Missionaries enhanced the growth of tropical raw materials like coffee, cotton to satisfy the British industrialists urge but disguising everything in Christianity. Bishop K. Boroup for example introduced cotton in Uganda. f) They appealed to their home governments for protection in case of attack. It is in this light that Britain came to Uganda during the religious wars of 1884-1892 and later occupied Uganda. g) They created a collaborating class by luring it religiously and materially. This class helped colonialists to fight resistors despite the fact that they were all Africans. h) In their evangelization role, they brain washed Africans with biblical teachings as love your neighbor as you love yourself, blessed are the humble for the kingdom of God is theirs, etc. With these preachings they made potential resistance important. i) Religion was a mechanism of divide and rule. The converts and the non-converts hated each other which caused division to the advantage of the Europeans. j) Collaboration with chattered companies, European Christian missionaries and their converts worked hand in hand with the Imperial British East African Company to defeat Kabalegas resistance. k) Missionary stations served as military bases from where the European colonial forces launched attacks on the resisting Africans. African Lugard used old Kampala hill as a military base against Kabalega. l) Mission stations served as colonial government headquarters. The established mission infrastructure was used to help in the establishment and sustenance of European colonial rule. m) Colonialists lacked skilled manpower, so the missionaries by design or accident were very faithful servants of the colonial government i.e. they were Colonial government servants. n) They created a peaceful atmosphere for the germination of colonialism in areas of hostility. This is because they emphasized the centralized leadership where peace and obedience were expected. o) Missionaries also trained manpower through introduction of education which was used by colonialists. This was done through teaching those academic subjects and manual skills like use of a plough and how to grow coffee. p) They acted as interpreters e.g. Tucker in the 1900 Buganda agreement. q) Through conversion of the Buganda chiefs and pages before Buganda commoners it meant that each party i.e. the Church Missionary Society and France had gained converts. This was a political security of sympathy to the Christian missionaries as against the Kabaka in Bugandas leadership. This indirectly undermined the Kabakas authority and respect i.e. his traditional power base was being eroded. **CITIZENSHIP** **What is citizenship?** This refers to the legal right of a person to belong to a particular country. A Kenyan citizen is a person who has the legal right to belong, live and do freely all that has to do with their life in Kenya. **BECOMING A KENYAN CITIZEN** Ways in which Kenyan citizenship can be acquired. a) By birth. b) By registration. **Citizenship by birth** The following are the Ways through which citizenship by birth is acquired in Kenya. a) A person is a citizen by birth if on the day of the persons birth, whether or not the person is born in Kenya, either the mother or father of the person is a citizen. b) A child found in Kenya who is, or appears to be, less than eight years of age, and whose nationality and parents are not known, is presumed to be a citizen by birth. c) A person who is a Kenyan citizen by birth and who has ceased to be a Kenyan citizen because the person acquired citizenship of another country, is entitled on application to regain Kenyan citizenship. **Citizenship by registration** Conditions for qualification to apply for Citizenship by registration are as follows: a) If a person has been married to a Kenyan citizen for a period of at least seven years. b) If A person who has been lawfully resident in Kenya for a continuous period of at least seven years applies to be registered. c) If a child who is not a citizen, is adopted by a citizen and applies to be registered. d) Citizenship may be granted to individuals who are citizens of other countries that allow Kenyans citizenship in their countries. **Revocation of citizenship** The revocation of citizenship by registration may happen under the following circumstances. a) If a person acquired citizenship by fraud, false representation or concealment of any material fact. b) If the person has, during any war in which Kenya was engaged, unlawfully traded or communicated with an enemy or been engaged in or associated with any business that was knowingly carried on in such a manner as to assist an enemy in that war. c) If the person has, within five years after registration, been convicted of an offence and sentenced to imprisonment for a term of three years or longer. d) If a person has, at any time after registration, been convicted of treason, or of an offence for which a penalty of at least seven years imprisonment may be imposed. Citizenship by birth may be revoked under the following circumstance a) If the citizenship was acquired by fraud, false representation or concealment of any material fact by any person. b) If the nationality or parentage of the person becomes known, and reveals that the person was a citizen of another country. c) If the age of the person becomes known, and reveals that the person was older than eight years when found in Kenya.The concept of Dual citizenship. a citizen by birth does not lose citizenship by acquiring the citizenship of another <br><br>country. **Rights and responsibilities of a Kenyan citizen** **Human rights** Human rights refers to the accepted principles of fairness and justice- or the universal moral rights that belong equally to all people in their capacity as human beings. **Components of human rights** Every human right must fulfill these three fundamental conditions; a) Condition of life, which is necessary for development of human personality b) A Social character (since it presupposes existence of other members of the society) c) It must be enjoyed equally by all members of the society. The constitution of Kenya contains the rights of the individuals and special groups such as children, the youth and people with disabilities. It gives the state the responsibility of guaranteeing these rights. The rights are contained in chapter 4 of the current constitution under the bill of rights. This chapter is not merely an integral part of the constitution of Kenya; it is the fundamental basis for the establishment of the state.Human rights and fundamental freedoms are recognized and protected in the constitution because they preserve the dignity of individuals and communities, and promote social justice **The rights and freedoms protected in the Bill of Rights** **1. Right to life** Life begins at conception and no child should be deprived of life deliberately. Abortion is not therefore permitted unless occasioned by the need for emergency treatment or life of the mother is in danger. People who attempt to commit suicide are also punishable on the strength of their right **Limitations of the right to life**<br><br> A court of law can sentence one to death if found guilty of an offence punishable by <br><br>death **Instances when the right to life may be taken away:**<br><br> When one is defending ones life or country as is the case during war. When defending ones property against violent attack. When a law enforcement officers life is endangered, for example when apprehending armed criminals. **2. Equality and freedom from discrimination** Every person is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law. This means that both men and women are equal before the law. Any form of discrimination is illegal and is prohibited in the constitution. **3. Human dignity** Every persons dignity should be respected and protected. One must not ridicule or embarrass other members of society. **4. Freedom and security of a person** This right protects a person from being detained without a good reason and without trial. No person will be subjected to physical or psychological torture, corporal punishment or cruel and inhuman treatment. Each citizen must also protect the freedom and security of others. It is unlawful for one to subject his or her spouse to either psychological or physical abuse. **5. Freedom from slavery, servitude and forced labour** No one should be held in servitude or slavery or perform forced labour. Every employer should treat his or her employees with dignity and not to force them to work. **6. Right to privacy** Every person has a right NOT to have him or herself, his or her property searched, or his or her possessions seized. Not revealing a persons family or private affairs unnecessarily or private communications interfered with. **Exceptions to this right:** The law allows police officers, tax inspectors and other government agents to search private homes or business premises for purpose of health inspection, tax collection or any other officially sanctioned reason. **7. Right to assembly, demonstration, picketing and petition** Every citizen has a right to assemble and participate in peaceful demonstrations and even present petitions to public authorities **Responsibility:** Those demonstrating must not interfere with peace of others for example through harassment of motorists and property destruction. **8. Political rights** Every citizen is free to make political choices, which includes the right to form, or participate in forming, a political party and to participate in the activities of, a political party.Every citizen has the right to free, fair and regular elections based on universal suffrage and the free` expression of the will of the electors for any elective public body or office. Every adult citizen has the right, without unreasonable restrictions, to be registered as a voter; to vote by secret ballot in any election or referendum and to be a candidate for public office, or office within a political party and, if elected, to hold officer responsibility.It is illegal to prevent other people from participating in elections, buy votes etc. **9. Freedom of movement and residence** Citizens have a right to free movement and ownership of property in any part of the country. **Responsibility:** Citizens should not obstruct efforts of any citizen to move freely and reside and own property in any part of the country. **10. Economic and social rights** Every person has the right to the highest attainable standard of health, which includes the right to health care services, including reproductive health care. Every person has the right to accessible and adequate housing, and to reasonable standards of sanitation.Every person has the right to be free from hunger, and to have adequate food of acceptable quality.Every person has the right to clean and safe water in adequate quantities.Every person has the right to social securityEvery person has the right to education.A person shall not be denied emergency medical treatment.The State must provide appropriate social security to persons who are unable to support themselves and their dependants.Nb-it is on the strength of this right that the government is providing free primary education. **Responsibility** Every citizen must pay tax. **11. Consumer rights** Consumers have the right to goods and services of reasonable quality. Consumers have the right to the information necessary for them to gain full benefit from goods and services.Consumers have the right to the protection of their health, safety, and economic interests.Consumers have the right to compensation for loss or injury arising from defects in goods or services. **Responsibility** It is ones responsibility to question the quality of goods and services being offered, to enable one get value for money. The traders and other service providers have a responsibility to provide quality goods and services to fellow citizens. They should give truthful information when advertising their products. **12. Right to fair labour practices** Every worker has a right to fair labour practices like fair remuneration, reasonable working conditions, the right to join or practice in trade union activities and the right to go on strike .Every employer has a right to join an employers association and participate in its programmes and activities **Responsibility** One must respect the right to fair labour practices of ones employees. Employees on the other hand must conduct themselves responsibly, even during strikes, to avoid causing physical injury to innocent people, or destroying property. **13. Right to clean and healthy environment** Every person has the right to a clean and healthy environment. It is our duty to ensure that the environment is protected for the benefit of present and future generations. The following are the obligations set by the government in order to achieve a clean and healthy environment: a) Ensure sustainable exploitation, utilization, management and conservation of the environment b) Work to achieve and maintain a tree cover of at least ten percent of the land area of Kenya. c) Encourage public participation in management, protection and conservation of the environment. d) Establish systems of environmental impact assessment, environmental audit and monitoring of the environment. e) Eliminate processes and activities that are likely to endanger the environment. f) Utilize the environment and natural resources for the benefit of the people of Kenya. g) Protect and enhance intellectual property and indigenous knowledge of biodiversity and the genetic resources of the communities. **Responsibility** Every person has a responsibility to protect and conserve the environment and ensure ecologically sustainable development, and use of natural resources. **14. Freedom of conscience, religion, belief and opinion** Every person, whether individually or as a group, has freedom to manifest any religion or belief through worship, practice, teaching or observance, including observance of day of worship.One cannot be denied employment or educational opportunity because of belonging to a particular religion or because of ones belief or religion.A person cannot be forced to engage in any act that goes against his or her belief or religion. **Responsibility** Every citizen must be careful not to infringe upon this freedom **15. Freedom of expression** This guarantees all Kenyans the freedom to seek, receive or impart ideas or information. It also guarantees freedom of artistic creativity, academic freedom, and freedom to conduct scientific research **Responsibility** In the exercise of this freedom, everyone is called upon to respect the rights and reputation of others. He/she should not spread propaganda with the intention t provoke others to war or to violence. It is unlawful to engage in hate speech. **16. Freedom of media** The freedom and independence of the media is guaranteed. The state should not interfere with the media. **Responsibility** The media industry should report impartially and avoid inciting members of the public. The media should provide fair opportunity for the presentation of divergent views and dissenting opinions **17. Access to information** Every person has a right to access information held by the state, or by others, which may be required for the protection of any right or fundamental freedom. The state is expected to make public any important information affecting the nation.Every person has a right to the correction or deletion of untrue or misleading information that affects the person. **Responsibility** A person should not misrepresent the information accessed, or misuse it for selfish gain. It is also illegal to sell public information for monetary gain. **18. Freedom of association** Every person has the right to form, join and participate in the activities of an association of any kind, provided that the association is not engaged in illegal activities, such as stealing or killing. **19. Protection of the right to property** Every person is entitled to own property either individually or as a group, in any part of the country. However the property has to be legally acquired. This right provides all Kenyans a fair opportunity to invest in property and thus, prosper. **Responsibility** All citizens must respect this right. It is unlawful for one to deprive a person of his or her property without good reason.The state, in acquiring privately owned property must ensure adequate compensation granted promptly and in full The state has an obligation to respect the intellectual property rights of the people of Kenya. **20. Right to language and cultur** Every person has the right to use a language, and embrace the culture of the persons choice.Every person has the right to form or join cultural groups. Every person is also protected from being forced to join any such group.Each linguistic group is free to use their language, practice their culture, and form associations and other organs of the civil society.It is unacceptable to force another person to perform, observe or undergo any cultural practice or rite. **Responsibility** This right should not be used to undermine national unity. Other citizens should be allowed the freedom to enjoy diverse culture, including members of ones own family. **21. Right to family** An adult has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex, based on the free consent of the parties. Parties to such a union enjoy equal rights. Both parties have a responsibility to respect the rights of their spouses during marriage and even in the event of its dissolution.It is wrong to deny ones spouse access to marital property after separation or divorce.The constitution also recognizes marriages conducted under traditional, religious, personal or family law. Marrying of underage persons and forced marriages are outlawed in the constitution. **22. Fair administrative action** Every person should be subjected to an efficient, lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair administrative action. This promotes efficient administration in public offices **Responsibility** The officers of the state have a responsibility to accord every person fair administrative action.The right requires that a person be given written reasons for any administrative action that will adversely affect a right or freedom of the person. **23. Access to justice** Everybody should access justice and a reasonable fee will be charged to enhance this, if required. If this is not free, many people will not access justice which will continue to be a preserve of the rich people. **Responsibility** Everybody has a responsibility to facilitate fair play and access to justice for all. Any action aimed at blocking justice is unlawful and invites punishment. For example, shielding criminals or attempting to bribe law enforcement officers to prevent them from arresting a criminal. Aiding a criminal to evade arrest, concealing criminal acts; and lying to help culprits evade punishment. **24. Right of arrested persons** An arrested person has; a) The right to be informed promptly in a language that the person understands of the reason for arrest, the right to remain silent and he consequences of not remaining silent. b) The right to remain silent. The right of a person to choose to talk or to remain silent. c) The right to communicate with an advocate and other persons whose assistance is necessary (freedom of speech with all those who will assist him or her in the case.) d) The right of not being compelled to make any confession or admission that could be used in evidence against the person. e) The right t be held separately from persons serving a sentence ( should not be held in prisons alongside those already convicted) f) To be brought to court as soon as reasonably possible, as but not later than twenty four hours after being arrested. g) To be charged or be informed of the reason for the extension of detention or release, at the first court appearance. h) To be released on bond or bail, on reasonable conditions, pending a charge or trial, unless there are compelling reasons as to why one cannot be released. **25. Fair hearing** Every person has the right to have any dispute that can be resolved through a court hearing be resolved in such a manner that will accord him or her fair and public hearing. An accused person has the following rights; a) To be presumed innocent until proven otherwise. b) To be informed of the charges. c) To have adequate time and facilities to prepare a defence. d) To a public trial before a court. e) To have the trial begin and be concluded with few delays. f) To be present when being tried. g) To be represented by an advocate and be informed of this right immediately. Depending on the circumstances, the accused may be assigned an advocate by the state and at the states expense. h) To remain silent and not testify during the proceedings. i) To be informed in advance, of the evidence the prosecution intends to present, and to have reasonable access to that evidence. j) To challenge the evidence. k) To refuse to give self-incriminating evidence. l) To have the assistance of an interpreter if the accused person cannot understand the language used in the trial. m) If convicted, to appeal, or apply for review by a higher court. **Responsibility** a. The accused person has the responsibility of obeying instructions of the court. b. They must behave well in court and outside the court c. They should respect the rights of the accusers as well as their advocates. d. Accused persons should behave as the law spells out while awaiting the verdict of the court. Whatever the verdict, they should abide by the law. 26. Rights of persons detained, held in custody or imprisoned. A person, who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned under the law, retains all rights and fundamental freedoms in the bill of rights. Except those that are impractical and inapplicable under the circumstances.A person who is detained or held in custody is entitled for an order Habeas Corpus- This is a law that states that a person who has been arrested should not be kept in prison longer than a particular period of time unless a judge in a court has decided that it is right. It is the right of the person who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned to be treated in a humane manner. **Responsibility** All citizens have a responsibility to ensure that the rights of those detained, held in custody or imprisoned are respected. For example the judicial staff , prison staff and the police should respect the constitutional rights of all persons without discrimination. **Fundamental rights that might not be limited:** a. Freedom from torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. b. Freedom from slavery or servitude. c. The right to a fair trial. d. The right to an order of habeas corpus **Rights enjoyed by Children in Kenya** a) Every child has the right to a name and nationality from birth b) Every child has the right to free and compulsory basic education. c) Every child has the right to basic nutrition, shelter and health care. d) Every child has the right to be protected from abuse, neglect, harmful cultural practices, all forms of violence, inhuman treatment and punishment, and hazardous or exploitative labour. e) Every child has the right to parental care and protection, which includes equal responsibility of the mother and father to provide for the child, whether they are married to each other or not. f) Every child has the right not to be detained, except as a measure of last resort, and when detained, to be held for the shortest appropriate period of time. g) Every child has the right to separate from adults and in conditions that take account of the childs sex and age. h) Every child has the right to a childs best interests are of paramount importance in every matter concerning the child. **Rights enjoyed by Persons with disabilities in Kenya** (a) A person with any disability is entitled to be treated with dignity and respect and to be addressed and referred to in a manner that is not demeaning. A person with any disability is entitled (b) A person with any disability is entitled to access educational institutions and facilities for persons with disabilities that are integrated into society to the extent compatible with the interests of the person. (c) A person with any disability is entitled to reasonable access to all places, public transport and information. (d) A person with any disability is entitled to use Sign language, Braille or other appropriate means of communication. (e) A person with any disability is entitled to access materials and devices to overcome constraints arising from the persons disability. **Rights of the Youth in Kenya** (a) Right to access relevant education and training. (b) Right to have opportunities to associate, be represented and participate in political, social, economic and other spheres of life. (c) Right to access employment. (d) Youths are protected from harmful cultural practices and exploitation. **Rights of Minorities and marginalized groups in Kenya** a) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to participate and are represented in governance and other spheres of life. b) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to be provided special opportunities in educational and economic fields. c) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to be provided special opportunities for access to employment. d) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to develop their cultural values, languages and practices. e) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to reasonable access to water, health services and infrastructure. **Rights of older members of society in Kenya** a) Right to fully participate in the affairs of society. b) Right to pursue their personal development. c) Right to live in dignity and respect and be free from abuse. d) Right to receive reasonable care and assistance from their family and the State. Circumstances, which may force the Kenya government to limit the freedoms and rights of an individual. a) Conviction of murder by a court of law limits the right to life b) When planning for a criminal activity one loses the freedom of movement/liberty c) When government develops a place one loses the freedom to own property d) Freedom of worship is denied if one uses it to undermine the government /create disunity e) Freedom of assembly can be limited if internal security is threatened f) Personal liberty can be denied if one has an infectious disease e.g. rift valley fever **Other responsibilities of a citizen** a) Every person has a responsibility to contribute to positive development in the country by working hard and honestly, irrespective of the type of work or profession one is in. b) Every citizen is expected to participate in the democratic process. One has the moral responsibility to vote and even present him/herself to be voted for provided he/she fulfils all the requirements of the position. c) A responsible citizen should actively contribute views on matters affecting the community. This includes taking Part in national debates. d) A responsible citizen must be mindful of other peoples welfare. For example guiding visitors, assisting the disabled, the aged, children, as well as the less fortunate members of the society in ways in which they need the assistance. e) A good citizen should report law breakers, and even those suspected of having intentions to break the law to the relevant authorities. f) A responsible citizen should ensure proper utilization of public and private facilities including toilets, water points, post offices, public telephone Booths etc. g) A responsible citizen must maintain high moral and ethical standards. One must refrain from telling lies. **Values of good citizenship** **Values and principles of governance in Kenya** a) Patriotism, national unity, sharing and devolution of power, the rule of law, democracy and participation of the people. b) Human dignity, equity, social justice, inclusiveness, equality, human rights, nondiscrimination and protection of the marginalized. c) Good governance, integrity, transparency and accountability. d) Sustainable development. **Values of good citizenship** a) A good citizen has a duty to be patriotic to the country. He/she should be ready to place the interests of the country above ones own selfish interests. One sh ould volunteer for a national cause, for example engaging in freedom from hunger walk, helping victims of disasters, volunteering to help the country in times of war and using talents such a sports and music achieve personal goals and to promote the country. b) A good citizen must take part in activities that foster national unity including economic activities such as agriculture and trade which boost the economy. c) A good citizen participates in democratic process either by volunteering themselves to be elected, or by taking part in electing of leaders at national or county levels. d) A good citizen maintains and protects human dignity. He/she has an obligation to dissuade people from engaging in acts that deprive others of their human dignity such as mob justice. e) A good citizen observes equity by respecting the interests of every citizen, regardless of race, ethnicity or age) A good citizen respects social justice. A person who protests against the grabbing of public land and destruction of the environment such as Wangari Maathai demonstrates good citizenship. g) A good citizen respects inclusiveness in society. He/she does not ignore any member of society in making of decisions on matters affecting all citizens h) A good citizen respects equality of all citizens i) A good citizen respects human rights. He/she not only respects his /her right but also the rights of others in society j) A good citizen is expected to ensure that there is no discrimination against any member or section of the population to ensure the protection of the marginalized in the society. k) Good citizenship entails support for good governance. He/she has a duty to pay taxes to the government so that it can generate the revenue required to finance activities for the benefit of all. l) A good citizen has an obligation to maintain a high level of integrity in society. H/she should desist from corrupt practices and even report such acts to relevant authorities. m) A good citizen has a duty to maintain transparency and accountability. Public servants should be accountable for their actions and maintain high level of transparency. n) A good citizen supports government by taking part in projects that ensure sustainable development in the country- through participation in environment friendly projects. **Importance of being a good citizen** a) Being a good citizen promotes peace and stability hence development. b) A good citizen promotes law and order hence enjoyment of rights and freedoms. c) Good citizenship promotes cordial relationship and social peace. d) It reduces government expenditure on security organs necessary for maintaining law and order. e) It promotes the good name of a country hence encourages tourism which is important for our development. f) It curbs against social vises like corruption, nepotism or tribalism since a good citizen can not indulge in such activities. g) It promotes good relationship with neighbors. **NATIONAL INTEGRATION** **What is National Integration?** Integration means unification into a whole. - The act of combining or bring together various parts in a way that makes them one.National integration refers to the process by which various components of a nation are brought together into a whole leading to national unity. **Importance of National Integration** Why is National Integration a priority in Kenya? (a) National integration Helps in social and economic development through enhanced national unity. (b) It develops a sense of national direction, facilitating unified goals and co-operation. (c) It enhances political stability and security by eliminating suspicion. (d) Promotes peaceful c-existence of different tribes and races hence leading to peace and harmony. (e) Promotes collective responsibility due to easier, more efficient and accurate communication. (f) It enables a country to develop a sense of direction as national goals are communicated to the people in the spirit of national integration. (g) It leads to achievement of easier, more accurate communication as the nation increases efforts of national integration. **Factors that promote national unity in Kenya** a) The constitution. This is a set of rules agreed upon by a group of people who have chosen to live together. It provides for equality of all Kenyans before the law. It Guarantees equal opportunities to all Kenyans. It Provides protection to individuals against any form of discrimination/bill of rights. It provides for a unitary government b) Education. The curriculum aims at ensuring that pupils and students focus on issues that unite them. The integrated education system encourages the children to accept one another as Kenyans. Teaching of history in schools encourages unity. Religious studies taught in schools promote respect for the Supreme Being and fellow human beings. Music and drama festivals in schools promote unity among students. c) One government. Our one government, with the three arms is recognized by each Kenyans a body that runs the affairs of the nation. d) The presidency. Kenya has one president despite the diversity in parties and tribes. The presidency unites Kenyans. e) National language. The use of Kiswahili as the official language enables Kenyans to interact freely. Kiswahili became a national language in 1975. It helps overcome communication barriers and gives Kenyans a sense of belonging and identity f) Economic growth. The government attempts to provide social amenities to Kenyans without bias. It has tried to achieve equitable distribution of economic resources. Urbanization promotes socialization and co-existence among Kenyans. There also the use of a common currency giving Kenyans a sense of nationhood. The policy of offering equal employment opportunities to all Kenyans has enabled Kenyans to work in various parts of the country where they interact freely. g) National activities. National holidays remind Kenyans of their history. Agricultural shows enables different economic sectors display and advertize their goods. Games and sports promote unity as they bring together people of different communities for a common cause. h) Mass media. The mass media in Kenya is instrumental in ensuring that information is disseminated to all at the same time. It enables Kenyans from all pats to contribute to national debates. i) Symbols of National unity. National anthem promotes a sense of belonging among Kenyans and gives them an identity. Existence of the national flag symbolizes national unity. j) The government encourages social, economic interaction among Kenyans e.g. through marriages, worship etc. **Factors that undermine national unity in Kenya** a) Tribalism this is the practice of favouring people who are from ones own ethnic group in employment, admission to schools and allocation of resources. Others end up being discriminated against thus leading to hatred and enmity. b) Nepotism this is the practice of people favouring their relatives. This vice is similar to tribalism c) The unequal distribution of resources causes animosity between those who are favoured and those who are not. d) Political wrangles / Ethnic conflicts / clashes discourage co-operation among the citizens. e) Corruption asking for and offering of bribes to obtain and give services violates peoples rights to equal treatment. Corruption creates suspicion and hatred among people since those who cannot afford to bribe feel cheated and frustrated. f) Discrimination on the basis of gender denies people the right to participate equally in national development. g) Racism. This is discrimination on the basis of colour/ race. This creates hatred and suspicious among people. This was a common cause of disunity during the colonial days. h) Religious conflicts. In Kenya, conflicts between the Muslims and Catholics in 2000 led to destruction of a catholic church in Nairobi. Intolerance of other peoples religions creates disunity. i) Party membership. Multipartism in Kenya has to some extend become a cause of disunity. The country regularly becomes polarized on party lines especially when we near general elections. Sometimes members of parties such as TNA, ODM, UDF, URP etc dont see eye to eye during campaigns. There has also been discrimination on the basis of party membership. j) Poverty. When people lack basic needs such as food, education, health, shelter and clothing, anti-social behaviour arise. For example, stealing and violence. Criminal activities create fear and suspicion and therefore discourage national unity. k) Ignorance. Lack of knowledge creates intolerance of other peoples views and lack of appreciation of the development taking place around. This may create unnecessary division. Steps have been taken by the Kenyan government to promote national integration since independence. a) The government has developed national symbols like the flag, anthem, and the court of arms. These symbols have helped to identify us as one nation. b) Immediately after independence the then only major opposition party, KADU was disbanded to have a single party system. However this did not work for long as Multipartism was inevitably reintroduced. c) The government also set up a national curriculum in our educational institutions. This creates a sense of oneness despite the diversity. d) Declaring Kiswahili a national language. In 1975, Kiswahili was made a national language of communication as a step towards curbing rampant tribalism. This has greatly assisted as Kenyans of different diversity can communicate. e) Promotion and fostering Harambee spirit. This has led to Collective participation in development programmes by people from different groups which have promoted national unity. f) During the reign of president Moi the Nyayo philosophy of peace love and unity was introduced. It stressed the concept of being mindful of other peoples welfare. It is closely related to the principal of mutual social responsibility as embodied in African socialism. g) A new constitution in Kenya was promulgated in august 2010. This constitution promises a lot of hope in terms of unity as it may be an important tool of fighting all vices that have discouraged unity. It also stresses equal rights for all. h) The government has tried to bridge the gap between the rich and the poor through the creation of an equalization fund under the new constitution. Through this fund, development easily trickles down to reach the disadvantaged. i) Abolition of racial schools hence enrolling students of different backgrounds in the same schools. /Ethnic balance in public institutions. j) The teaching of history in schools has helped to create a sense of oneness as Kenyans realize that they share a common history. k) Promotion of games, sports, drama and cultural activities. National games at school and college level have been a source of interaction. This is a way of developing a common culture in the country l) The government has made use of media to propagate unity. m) Abolition of ethnic organizations and groupings. n) Promotion of national public service i.e. civil servants can serve anywhere in the country.. **Conflict resolution** Conflict refers to a situation in which people or groups are involved in serious disagreements, or disputes.Conflict resolution refers to the process of settling a dispute when it occurs **Levels of conflicts found in Kenya** a) Individual versus individual. This is where two people disagree for political, economic or social reasons. b) Group versus group. This type of conflict involves one group against another also due to political, social and economic reasons. c) Individual versus state. Such a conflict of an individual against the state may be political especially one feels his/her rights are being violated by the state. d) State versus state. This is a case where a state is in disagreement with another state maybe over boundary like was the case between Kenya and Uganda during the reign if Idi Amin dada e) Group versus state. This may be caused by for example a trade union demanding the improvement of the terms and conditions of service of its members. For example the standoff between KNUT and KUPPET on one hand and the government over harmonization of the salaries of teachers with those of civil servants in 2012 leading to a countrywide strike in September 2012. **The factors that cause conflict** (h) Difference in views arising from background beliefs, social and political standing and values. (i) Economic differences. E.g. when consumers feel exploited by businessmen, when employees feel exploited by employers. Etc. (j) Political differences based on ideological orientation i.e. capitalism versus socialism. (k) Social differences, for example tribal clashes, religious conflicts, racial discrimination, age/sex differences. (l) Limited land/economic resources-unfair distribution of land, mineral resources, water resources, etc. **Peaceful methods of conflict resolution** a) Diplomacy/negotiation. This is a dialogue between two warring parties in order to reach an agreement over a dispute. The following steps are followed in negotiation; a. Fact finding- negotiation starts with finding out all the facts about the conflict that is to be solved. At this stage, the laws or guidelines to be followed are also looked at. b. Discussion. During this stage, a friendly environment is cultivated to enable discussion of workable solutions. This is usually a give and take situation. c. Reaching an agreement. The points of agreement reached should be fair to both parties with both feeling they have benefited. Each party should be willing to comprise for negotiation to succeed. b) Arbitration this is like an informal court where a neutral person (arbitrator) is chosen to resolve the dispute by listening to both sides and help them reach an acceptable decision. **Arbitration procedure:** a. Both sides involved in conflict presents their case as they know it to the arbitrator. b. After listening to the complainants story, the arbitrator makes questions to clarify some aspects of the story. The other group may also seek clarification. c. The second group then responds to the story by the first group by a representative. The arbitrator again asks questions for clarification. d. On grounds of applicable rules, the arbitrator should consider the facts and then make a decision. c) Mediation a person who is not involved in the conflict tries to help the warring parties reach an amicable agreement. The parties involved must be willing to listen and come up with good ideas that can help them solve the disagreement. **Steps followed in mediation:** ~ Step 1. The mediator explains the rules as a means of helping the two parties reach an agreement and not imposing a decision on them. ~ Step 2. Giving the two parties involved in the conflict chance to explain in their own words what the problem is. The Complainant explains first and then the defendant. ~ Step 3. The mediator, after listening, summarizes the stories from each party and also identifies the facts. ~ Step 4. The Mediator suggests the solutions and invites the two parties to give their opinions of the solutions proposed. ~ Step 5. Depending on the two parties reaction, the solution is looked at afresh and then an acceptable solution identified. ~ Step 6. The acceptable agreement reached is then written down and each party has to be committed to it. d) Litigation. This is where one party takes the other to court and the court makes judgments that are bidding on both sides. e) Legislation where the parliament passes laws to control conflict. f) Workshops this is where conflicting parties talk in the presence of facilitators and tries to work out a resolution to the problem. g) Arms inspection the government in order to build confidence and prevent misunderstanding between warring parties carries it out. **Negative methods of conflict resolution** a. Subjugation (use of war) b. Avoiding responsibility and refusing to accept defeat <br><br>c. Appeasement/compromise. **Under what circumstances violent method may be used in resolving conflict**? a. When law and order is broken and the alternative is the use of force b. In case of serious social unrest c. Striking students or workers, street mobs and bandits **HISTORY FORM TWO NOTES**<br><br>**TRADE** **Definition of trade** Trade refers to the exchange of goods and services between people or countries. Man must have started trading soon after the evolution of the homo sapien sapiens. Trade was occasioned by the existence of varying environmental and climatic conditions. Trade arises from the basic human needs such as satisfying food requirements **Methods of trade** There are two main methods of trade; 1. Barter trade 2. Currency trade. a) Barter trade This is the exchange of gods for gods. It is one of the earliest forms of trade that was even taking place during the reign of King Solomon of the Bible.Barter trade emerged from the natural needs of the people. For example, among the Kenyan pre-colonial communities such as the Maasai who kept livestock but did not have grains which the neighbouring kikuyu possessed. Barter trade sometimes even took place within the same community where some people had some special talents that others did not possess. E.g ironsmiths.A form of barter trade known as silent trade was practiced in some areas where the two involved communities could not speak the same language. For example, it existed between Morocco and Carthage in 400 BC.Barter trade can still be witnessed in the modern society. For example, Kenya exchanges tea and coffee with petroleum, chemicals and machinery from other countries. Barter trade however has the following disadvantages; a) It may involve bulky goods in the transaction. b) There may lack double coincidence. It is difficult always to get the goods one wants. c) Lack of standards of deferred payment; if a good was borrowed, it would be difficult to decide whether the same value was returned later or not. d) Some goods cannot be sub-divided into smaller units. If one wanted cloth equal to a half a sheep, then he could not divide the sheep into two parts. e) Lack of store of value for some goods which cannot be stored for a long time since they are perishable. E.g. milk, vegetables. f) Lack of measures of value; a specific quantity of goods cannot be measured vis--vis other goods. **Advantages of barter system** a) Poor countries without adequate foreign currencies benefit from it by being able to exchange goods they have for what they do not have. b) It benefits where money is non-existent. c) It avoids wastage as demand and supply tend to equate. d) It promotes interaction hence good relationship, peace and stability especially among traditional African societies. **b) Currency trade** This is a type of trade that involves the use of money. Money is an item that is mutually recognized as a medium of exchange or a measure of value. In the pre-colonial times items like Gold dust, cloth, copper rods, and iron and cowrie shells were used as a form of currency. **Advantages of the use of money in trade** a) Money is a medium of exchange- it is needed to obtain goods or services. b) Money as a measure of value enables units of goods to be bought. A specific quantity of goods can be measured Visa- Vis other goods. c) Money is a standard of deferred (future) payments which allows borrowing and lending to take place. d) It is a store of value- one is able to defer satisfaction of a want to future times or make provision for ones want at a future date. e) It is a means through which immovable property can be transferred. For example when one sells a house in one city to go and dwell in another. f) Money as a unit of account is used as a calculating medium and assigning prices of goods and services. g) Money is easily divisible into smaller units. For example, if a product is valued at a lower price, the buyer only pays the agreed cost. h) The qualities of money and its functions overcome the difficulties of barter. Money however becomes valuable only when those using it have confidence that it will continue to retain its value during the period it is in possession.Technology today has made the use of currency easier. There is the use of Visa Card and Mobile money services like Mpesa and Airtel Money to carry out transactions.Difference between barter trade and trade in which currency is used as a medium of exchange. a) In barter trade goods are exchanged for goods/in currency trade, there is use of money as a measure of value. b) In barter trade depends on the existence of a double coincidence of needs but in currency method one meets his needs by the use of money. c) Items used for barter trade are bulky (some) and inconvenient to handle -and others perishable. Money is not bulky. **Local trade** This refers to the exchange of goods between people within the same geographical area such as a village or town. **Origin of local trade** This form of trade took place between groups of people who produced different goods mainly because of varying ecological conditions. It was motivated by the following factors; a) Existence of surplus production e.g. where some communitys harvest was excess; they could sell the excess commodity to carter for shortages elsewhere and to avoid wastage. b) Differences in climate and environmental conditions which affected the type of natural resources available in various places/ not all needs of a particular community can be satisfied by the resources available hence trade. The kikuyu of Nyeri had to go to Mathira for their foodstuff requirements during drought periods. c) Specialization and improved technology which always creates a need to exchange skills and goods with those who do not have. E.g trade between Mathira kikuyu cultivators and the Mukurwe-ini kikuyu ironmongers and weavers. Some even exchanged skills for money. d) Population increase making man to begin to supplement his needs by trading with his neighbors.Sometimes, this trade extended even beyond the local community to the neighbouring community. The Abagusii, for example, acquired hides, milk, snake poison, and pottery items from their Luo Neighbours. Some seasonal markets emerged which enabled traders to meet and exchange goods on particular days of the week. **Factors that facilitated development of local trade** a) Availability of capital for investments in trade to generate more wealth. b) Specialization and improved technology, e.g. specialization in production, in technology and in marketing. Sometimes people even exchanged their skills for money. c) Demand and supply; the growing demand for goods and services was met by increase in supply. d) Enterprise; many people began to take greater risk and invested more in trade. e) Peace and stability. This enabled people to interact more and hence the growth and expansion of trade. **Impact of local trade** a) There was development of market places which specialized in certain items like pottery, iron tools and baskets. Others specialized in livestock b) Local trade helped to strengthen bonds between people in the same locality. It even enhanced intermarriages and other social functions. c) Local trade satisfied the requirements of the communities in terms of tools, foodstuff s, medicinal herbs etc. d) Local trade enhanced acquisition of new products that a particular community did not produce. e) There was an improvement of transport routes. Some markets were strategically located along transport routes. f) In centralized governments like Buganda, Bunyoro-Kitara, Mali, Ghana and Wanga, the local markets that developed due to the trade became important sources of revenue for the kingdoms. In Bunyoro-Kitara for example, the Omukama had officers whose duty was to collect taxes from the market places. g) Many people were brought together through trade. In BunyoroKitara, communities like the Alur, Acholi, Langi, Basoga, Baganda, Kumani, Iteso and Banyankole interacted through trade. NB; the greatest danger to the local traders was that they risked being attacked by hostile communities and wild animals. **Regional trade** This refers to a type of trade between two distinct geographical regions **Characteristics of regional trade** ~ It Takes place within a bigger geographical area. ~ It Involves intermediaries or middlemen between producers and the buyers. ~ The trade often covers long distances to and from the market. ~ It involves people who specialize mainly in trade as their means of livelihood. ~ Larger Varieties of goods are involved. In regional trade there existed established markets but goods did not have to be sold on a particular market days like the case of local trade. It also involved large volumes of trade as compared to local trade **Examples of regional trade included**: a) The Trans-Saharan trade b) The long-distance trade. **The trans-Saharan trade** Trans means across. This was therefore the exchange of goods across the Sahara between the peoples of North Africa (Berbers and Tuaregs) and the people of western Sudan (the darkskinned people who occupy the region south of the Sahara) The West African kingdoms of Mali, Ghana and Songhai were involved in this trade.Development of the trans-Saharan trade. (8th-16thc AD) **Factors that led to the development of the trans-Saharan trade** a) Demand for West African good such as gold, slaves and kola nuts by the North Africans and for North African goods like horses, cotton cloth and weapons by the west Sudan people. b) Existence of rich merchants in the region, such as the Berbers and Tuaregs, who provided capital for investment in the trade/ availability of capital. c) Existence of Local trade in the western Sudan belt and among the barbers and Tuaregs provided a base for the regional trade. d) Existence of the Tuaregs, who provided security to traders, guided them through the deserts and maintained some water points like the oases where the Berber merchants watered their camels and rested before continuing with their journey to and from western Sudan. e) Availability of well established trade routes across the desert which made it easy for the traders to travel. f) Existence of Kings in western Sudan like Mansa Musa of Mali and Askia Muhamed of Songhai who provided protection to traders, ensured peace and political stability. g) Availability of pack animals like the camel and the horse which enabled easy movement through the desert. The camel could carry heavy loads and travel long distances without water. h) Existence of oases which became a source of water during the travels, for the camels and the traders. i) Invasion of North Africa by the Arabs and their eventual settlement led to increase in the volume of trade. j) There were also vast trade goods like gold, palm oil and ivory. This stimulated the development of trans-Saharan trade. **The trade goods in the trans-Saharan trade** **From western Sudan;** a) Gold- this was by far the most important commodity that originated from the wangara region, Bornu, Upper Senegal and upper Niger. b) Slaves- they were forcefully captured and later used as soldiers and labourers in the Arab world. c) Kola nuts and feathers. Monopoly of the Hausa traders from Kano region. d) Hides and skins- from Hausa land for making leather clothing and shoes. e) Ivory- originated from western belt mainly from cote divore. f) Gum- from Mauritania and Senegal g) Dyed cloth and pepper **From the north** a) Salt- from Taghaza, Taodeni, Bilma and Ghadames. b) Horses- from Tripoli were on demand among the political leaders and their soldiers. c) Glassware, beads, mirrors, perfumes, spices, dried fruits, needles, firearms, daggers and cowrie shells. **Organization of the trans-Saharan trade** Beginning of Trans-Saharan Trade was due to the fact that North Africa was rich in the salt that West Africa lacked while West Africa was rich in gold. The Trans-Saharan trade led to an exchange of salt for gold.The trade was between people of the western Sudan and Arabs from North Africa.Because of the long distance involved, the traders had to organize themselves very well. Traders travelled in large caravans of camels and traders to enhance their security.The rich traders from North Africa initiated the trade. They provided trade goods, camels and horses to middlemen who coordinated the trade. The middlemen would contact desert guides known as takshifs who also acted as desert guards.They protected the traders and guarded the oases in the Sahara .The Tuaregs also provided the traders with security and acted as interpreters.The caravans usually departed from the north after the rainy season when sandstorms would subside for smooth travel. The traders made stops at the oases to refresh themselves and let their camels drink water. They carried gifts for leaders of the communities along the route to appease them and as reciprocation for security while traveling through their kingdoms. Rulers of western Sudan offered service to the traders while they were in the territory.The trade was conducted in barter/ exchanging one good for another/ silent trade. Some of the caravan traders used agents who sold goods on their behalf in the interim period between their departure back to the north until the time they came back to western Sudan. The rulers of western Sudan controlled trade/regulated amount of gold to be sold . The traders paid taxes to the kings of western Sudan.The main items of trade were gold and salt i.e. from the west came gold, ivory, slaves, ostrich feathers, leather, kola nuts and pepper. From the north came salt, horses, weapons, iron implements, clothes, silk and beads. Arabs and Berbers financed the trade.The traders followed fairly defined route. The most important routes were as follows; a) A route Starting at Sijilmasa (an oasis) in Morocco through Taghaza (a desert town with a lot of salt) and ended at Andaghost in western Sudan. b) A route starting in Tunis and passing through Ghadames, Ghat, Agades and Gao. Then it passed through Hausaland, Gonja and eventually ended at Yorubaland in modern Nigeria. c) A route beginning at Sijilmasa and passing through Timbuktu before proceeding to Gao. d) A route beginning at Tripoli passing through Fezzan and eventually ending at Bornu in the Sudan Belt. **Challenges faced by the trans-Saharan traders** a) There was Communication barrier due to lack of a common language for transactions. This was a challenge during the pioneer years. b) Traveling long distances for many months, usually up to three months, across the desert was tedious and stressful. c) Traveling under extreme weather conditions; too hot during the day and too cold at night. d) Scarcity of water and food during the journeys. The traders suffered serious sickness due to such extreme weather variations. e) There were constant Attacks by hostile communities who sometimes robbed them of their merchandize. f) Traders were sometimes attacked by insects like scorpions and wild animals. g) The traders sometimes suffered from Loss of direction due to the vastness of the desert. h) Exposure to frequent sandstorms which killed many traders. i) Sometimes wars between kingdoms disrupted trade. **Impact of the trans-Saharan trade** **Positive impact;** a) The trade stimulated the emergence of urban centres along the trade routes. Towns like Taghaza and Timbuktu developed due to the production of trade commodities like salt and gold respectively. b) Profits from the trade stimulated the growth of strong empires as the kings levied taxes on the caravan traders. Examples of such empires include Mali, Ghana and Songhai. c) Introduction of horses in the western Sudan belt led to strengthening of the state armies as horses were used by the armies to boost security in the region. d) A class of wealthy traders emerged in western Sudan. These were mainly the local merchants who interacted with the merchants from North Africa. e) The trade stimulated the emergence and growth of smithing technology and industry. f) The trade led to the introduction of iron tools in wider areas of western Sudan. This boosted agricultural production in western Sudan and ensured food security in the area. g) There was population increase in western Sudan due to increased food production as a result of better farming tools. h) It also enhanced contacts between North Africa and the Suda n belt. This facilitated the spread of European goods and ideas between the peoples of the two regions. i) The trade facilitated the spread of Islamic religion in the Sudan belt. For example, the Hausa traders were converted to Islam. j) There was introduction of the Islamic system of education in the Sudan belt. The University of Timbuktu for example, teaching mainly Islamic syllabus, was one of the institutions that emerged as a result of the trade. k) Sharia law was introduced in the states that accepted Islam in western Sudan. l) The trade led to the introduction of the Arabic architectural designs in West Africa. m) The Islamic and Arabic culture-language, mode of dressing and eating mannerisms also spread to western Sudan. n) The mode of transport in the region was remarkably revolutionized by theintroduction of camels and horses making transport efficient. **Negative impacts:** a) The trade increased warfare in the region as communities gained access to firearms and horses. Thousands of people lost their lives. b) Many people in the western Sudan belt were captured and taken into slavery to meet the demands of the trans-Saharan traders. c) The demand for ivory also led to the destruction of wildlife in western Sudan. Decline of the trans-Saharan trade. The trade reached its climax at around AD 8th c. by 15th c, the trade had declined due to the following reasons; a) Exhaustion of the salt and gold minefields as well as other like ivory. This discouraged traders from coming to West Africa. b) Increased political instability in the region due to so many wars of conquest created insecurity to the traders. c) The desert conditions e.g. harsh weather, dangerous insects, snakes and robbers discouraged many traders from the activity. d) Invasion of the region by the almorarids and the Tuaregs increased insecurity even more along the trade routes. Hence traders discontinued their involvement. e) Moroccan invasion of western Sudan in the 16th century undermined the trade. f) The growth of the trans-Atlantic trade attracted some of the trans-Saharan traders thus reducing the volume of commodities that were sold. g) Colonization of west and North Africa by Europeans who took over the resources hence African activities were undermined. h) Invasion of North Africa by the ottoman Turks created insecurity along the caravan routes leading to decline of the trade. i) Anti-slave trade pressure from the British and eventual abolition of slave trade reduced trade profits. j) The establishment of commercial ports on the western African coast and the use of navigable rivers by the 16th century AD rendered caravan trade unpopular as it was slow, cumbersome and risky. **International trade** This is a type of trade that involves the exchange of goods between different countries in one continent or beyond the continent. **Examples of international trade include** a) The Indian Ocean trade b) The trans-Atlantic trade. **The trans-Atlantic trade** The trans-Atlantic trade involved Europe, Africa and the Americas thus earning it the name Triangular trade. It was also called the trans-Atlantic slave trade because it involved crossing the Atlantic and the main commodity was slaves.The trade was fueled by the technological innovations especially in Spain and Portugal which facilitated sea transport.The trade happened at a time when the Europeans were keen on expanding overseas (15th and 16th c AD) for the following reasons; a. They were searching for the sea route to India and Far East to get the spices and other commodities. The Turks had blocked the land route. b. The Europeans wanted to acquire gold and other precious items that believed to be in existence in Africa. c. The Europeans wanted to revenge against the Muslims who had colonized the Iberian Peninsula between 8th c and 1491 AD. d. They were motivated by the desire to spread their civilization to the backward areas of the world. e. European countries such as Portugal and Spain also wanted to increase their geographical knowledge. **Origin of the trans-Atlantic trade** The exact date when the first slave was captured and sold was 1441 AD. Young Portuguese sailor named Ahtam Goncalvez captured a man and a woman on the Western Sahara coast whom he presented to Prince Henry the Navigator, the Portuguese king, thus setting off a chain of reaction in the trade. The Portuguese built a fort on the Arguin Island on the coast of Mauritania in 1445 which was used as a base for buying slaves and Gold. The suppliers of the slaves at the fort were the Moors.The Portuguese ventured into the gold coast in search of gold in 1471. They built a fort at Elmina in 1482.The Portuguese then established trading contacts with the king of Congo who even accepted Christianity and Portuguese culture. (He baptized his son Afonso Bemba Nzinga) By 1500AD, the Portuguese established sugar plantations in the island of Sao Tome near modern Gambia. They relied on slave labour from Gambia. **Development and organization of trans-Atlantic slaves.** The demand for labor in the western hemisphere stimulated a profitable three-legged trading pattern. European manufactured goods, namely cloth and metal wares, especially firearms, went to Africa where they were exchanged for slaves. The slaves were then shipped to the Caribbean and Americas from 1532 AD, where they were sold for cash or sometimes bartered for sugar or molasses. Then the ships returned to Europe loaded with American products.European ports of Bristol, Liverpool and Glasgow in Britain, Bordeaux and Nantes in France, and Amsterdam in Holland were crucial in this trade. The forts that developed in West Africa due to this trade were Elmina, Lagos, Whydah, Accra, Badagri, Sekondi, Winneba, Goree and Dakar. In the 16th c, the Portuguese emerged as the main suppliers of slaves to Spanish colonies, having been granted special licenses, asientos, by the Spanish monarchy.African slaves were more preferred by Europeans because; a. They were available in large numbers. b. They were found to be cheaper to use than European labouerers and American Indians. c. They were thought to be immune to both European and tropical diseases. d. They appeared stronger and therefore suitable for manual labour. The Dutch were among the first European nations to compete the Portuguese in slave trade. For example in 1630, they wrestled the Elmina Fort from the Portuguese and captured Luanda in 1641. They were supplying slaves to new sugar plantations in the British Colony of Barbados and the French Caribbean colonies of Martinique of Guadalupe. The British and the French used merchant companies to conduct the slave trade having been motivated by the fortunes the Dutch were making. e.g, the Royal African Company was granted charter in 1672 and began taking colonies to the British colony in Jamaica. The original capture of slaves was almost always violent. As European demand grew, African chieftains organized raiding parties to seize individuals from neighboring societies. Others launched wars specifically for the purpose of capturing slaves **Factors that facilitated the acquisition of slaves** a. Existence of the institution of slavery in West Africa where the war captives, adulters, witches, the weak, debtors and murderers were enslaved b. Availability of firearms to precipitate warfare and capture of the conquered as slaves. c. Existence of well defined trade routes easily used by the slave merchants to access the interior slave markets. d. The great demand for slaves in the New World (Latin America) and North America. **Ways of obtaining slaves** a) Selling of domestic slaves in exchange for goods like beads, guns, glass etc b) Selling of criminals, debtors and social misfits in society by the local chiefs to the Arab slave traders. c) Prisoners of war could be sold off. d) Porters were sometimes kidnapped, transported and sold off to the Arab traders. e) Raiding villages, this would begin at night with gun shots and people would scatter consequently leading to their capture. f) Through inter tribal wars many Africans become destitutes and these would be captured by the slave traders. g) Tax offenders were sold off by the African chiefs. h) They were also captured through ambushes during hunting, travelling and gardening. i) Slaves would be acquired from the main slave trade market in Zanzibar. j) Other Africans are also said to have gone voluntarily in anticipation of great wonders and benefits from the new world.Following capture, slaves were force- marched to the coast to holding pens where they were oiled and fed ready for inspection, before being loaded on ships. Prices of slaves depended on sex, age and size.The slaves were bartered for guns, alcohol, gun-powder, cloth and different metals. **Two trading systems were used:** a) Factory system where political authorities allowed Europeans to establish permanent coastal baracoons or fortresses where slaves were kept in bulk as they awaited shipment. This method was only used by chartered companies as t was expensive. It was also only viable in Dahomey where slaves were in large numbers. b) Private trading. Sailing with vessels down the coast, and then stopping at different points to purchase slaves until there was enough cargo.The slaves were branded before loading them into the ships ready for the trans-Atlantic journey which was called the Middle Passage. The ships were filthy, hot, and crowded. By 1654, some 8,000-10,000 Africans each year were undergoing the Middle Passage. The moment of sailing is described as the most traumatic. Many Africans revolted during the middle passage in a bid to escape. For some jumping overboard was more preferable than their blood being turned into red wine, bones into gunpowder, skins, into black leather shoes and flesh -the Whitemans meat as they believed. **Factors which led to the development of the trans-Atlantic slave trade** a) Increased demand for slave labour by European countries led them to West Africa where they were available in large numbers. **Dangers of Middle Passage** Suicide Disease The mortality rate averaged between 13 and 33 percent of the slaves and the crew. If the Atlantic were to dry up it would reveal a scattered pathway of human bones marking the various routes of the Middle Passage.. b) Greater preference for African slaves by the slave traders since they were thought to be more strong and resistant to tropical disease and could cope with stress easily. c) West Africa had well defined interior routes which enabled establishment of earlier strong trade links by the Europeans. There were also vast trade goods like gold, palm oil and ivory. This stimulated the development of trans-Atlantic trade. d) African chiefs had developed a taste for European goods like cloths, firearms and glass enabling exchange for slaves, gold ivory and palm oil. There was also existence of the institution of slavery in West African communities. e) The introduction of firearms facilitated the capture of slaves and hence their increased supply. f) The exploitation of minerals and establishment of plantations in the Americas pushed demand for slaves to higher levels hence trade with the region expanded. g) The increased demand for raw materials to feed the growing industries in Europe led to increased demand for slaves in cotton farms in the Americas. h) The rivalry between the Portuguese and the Spaniards and with the Britons over the control of slave trade pushed the trade to a higher new level. i) The fact the trade was very lucrative led to its further expansion. j) Improved technology which meant ability to construct greater capacity ships. Th is enhanced transportation of more slaves from West Africa and thus development of the trade . **Impact of trans-Atlantic trade on the people of West Africa** a) It caused immense suffering to many people. b) It led to forced emigration of about 10 million people to the Americas between 1500 and 1888. c) Many slaves died between capture and arrival to their destinations. d) Depopulation occurred in areas where slaves were taken from. This led to underdevelopment since the young and productive people were taken away. e) African traditional industries were destroyed by the sale of cheap manufactured goods from Europe. f) There was increased conflict between communities especially where the gun was used. This led to destruction of property during the inter-community wars. g) Many African communities were weakened and were left unprepared for the scramble and partition of Africa which soon followed. h) It led to rise and growth of states e.g. Asante, Dahomey. i) It led to founding of Liberia and Sierra Leone as settlements for slaves who were freed. j) It led to changes to social roles; women became the heads of their families due to the enslavement of men. k) Some African cultures spread to the Americas e.g Jazz Music and samba dancing styles of Brazil and even witchcraft. l) The trade led to the rise of the mullato population. E.g in Senegal, where they are mainly found in Goree and Dakar, as a result of the intermingling between the European traders and the African women. m) It contributed to the decline of the trans-Saharan trade and the colonization of West Africa. **Economic impacts of slave trade** a) It led to introduction of new (manufactured) goods in West Africa which undermined many indigenous technologies like smithing and medicine. b) Africa was depleted of her vital manpower that was greatly needed in agriculture and defence. This led to economic retardation. c) Destruction of African property during the slave raids. d) Led to the eventual decline of the Trans Atlantic trade at its abolition. e) Stimulated development of ports in West Africa and in Europe. f) African leaders accumulated a lot of wealth e.g Dahomey, jaja, Asantehene. g) It led to development of European economies. A number of large cities grew along the coastal ports. For example Glasgow, Bordeaux Liverpool and Nantes. h) Growth of industrialization in Europe as the slave labour ensured constant flow of raw materials into the industries. i) Some of the slave dealers accumulated enormous wealth. For example, the merchants like Barclays Brothers and sailing companies like Lloyds. j) The trade led to the expansion of plantation farming in USA (cotton and sugar plantations) which relied on slave labour. **Decline of the trans-Atlantic slave trade** In 1807, the British government made a decision to abolish slave trade. Factors that led to the abolition of slave trade; a) Rise of humanitarians in Europe such as Christians and scholars condemned it on moral grounds. The missionaries wanted it to be stopped because they wanted good conditions for the spread of Christianity. The formation of the humanitarian movements in Engl and aimed at stopping all kinds of cruelty including slave trade, flogging of soldiers and child labour. b) Industrialization in Britain was one of the main forces behind the abolition .E.g. Britain industrialists urged its abolition because they wanted Afri cans to be left in Africa so that Africa can be a source of raw materials for their industries, market for European manufactured goods and a place for new investment of surplus capital. c) Formation of Anti-slavery movement and the abolitionist movement in 1787. Its chairman was Granville Sharp and others like Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce who gathered facts and stories about the brutality of slave trade and slavery to arouse public opinion in Britain. d) The attainment of independence by USA in 1776 left Britain in a dilemma since she had no colonies where she would take the slaves to work. e) The French revolution of 1789 and the American revolution of 1776 emphasized liberty, equality and fraternity (brotherhood) of all human beings. As a result, people began to question whether anyone had a right to deprive fellow man of his liberty when he had done wrong. f) The British desire to protect their national interests, British planters wanted slave trade stopped to avoid competition with other European planters .This is because other planters were producing cheaper sugar, British sugar accumulated hence the need to stop over production. g) The closure of the American slave market after the defeat of the South American states in the American civil war of 1865 left the slave dealers with no market for their slaves. h) The rise of leading London economists with new ideas e.g. Prof. Adam Smith(challenged the economic arguments which were the basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labour is cheaper and more productive than slave labour, Rousseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all men. i) Influential abolitionists like William Wilberforce (a British member of parliament) urged the British government to legislate against the slave trade in her colonies. They in turn influenced public opinion against slave trade. j) The ship owners stopped transporting slaves from Africa and began transporting raw materials directly from Africa and America to Europe, which led to a decline in slave trade. **TRANSPORT** **Definition of Transport** Transport is the movement of people and from one place to another.Transportation is usually classified by the medium in which the movement occurs. For example, land, air and water transport.Transport can be categorized into traditional and modern means. a) Traditional means of transport. The means of transport at this category were land and water evolved. **Land transport** People move on land either by walking or by using other human powered transport. People also use domestic animals as a means of transportation **Human transport** Human powered transportation included carrying goods on their backs, heads and shoulders. Africans were used as porters during the slave trade. Human porterage still goes on in the modern society. **Limitation of human porterage**<br><br> Human porterage was cumbersome, slow and tiresome. Humans Carry limited amount of goods at particular time. It is not convenient over long distances. <br><br>**Animal transport** Early human beings used the domesticated animals to carry loads on their backs or pull carts. Such animals are referred to as pack animals.In 500 AD a paddled collar was devised that rested on the animals shoulders. In 200 AD saddles were introduced in Egypt. Horse shoes were introduced in 700 AD ***Donkey\Ass*** The first animals to be used as pack animals; they were used in Egypt as early as 3400bc to carry weight upto 80kg. They were commonly used in the trade between Nubia and South Sudan. In Ukambani today, donkeys are used to fetch water. ***Oxen*** Referred to as draught animals used for ploughing and pulling carts and also transportation of goods and people. ***Horses*** They were first rode but were later trained to pull wagons, chariots and passenger coaches. In the Roman Empire, they carried soldiers during war. (Soldiers on horseback are referred to as cavalry. **Disadvantages of horses** a) It is highly susceptible to diseases. b) It cannot survive in tsetse fly infected areas. c) The weight limit of the load it can carry is 120kg d) They are not suitable in arid and semi-arid areas because they need a lot of water. NB; - horses are mainly reared by the rich as a symbol of high social status. Mules.A crossbreed of a horse and a donkey, they are sterile and carry loads upto 110kg.they are mostly used in mountainous areas in central and southern Europe and in Mexico. **Camels** It is referred to as the ship of the desert. What makes a camel ideal in desert transport? a) It has a unique ability to survive for long without food and water. b) They have an incredible water storage capacity, they do not sweat lose much moisture. c) They have broad padded, two toed feet ideal for walking on desert sand. d) The nostrils have flaps which keep away sand during sandstorms. e) Its fur is thick enough to protect it from the sweltering desert heat by day and ext reme cold conditions at night. f) The hump contains a lot of fat which the camel uses when it goes without eating Camels were commonly used during the trans-Saharan trade. They are in use in Kenya today among the Galla and Somali carrying weight upto 200kg. Llamas and alpaca. Members of the camel family found in central and south America. They carry load upto 40 kg. **Elephants** They are used in Asia to carry people and heavy loads upto 250kg. In India, they were used to transport people and goods during war in 2500BC. In Africa they were used in warfare in 270BC. **Water Buffalo**. A member of the cattle family and the only type of buffalo that has been domesticated. The cape buffalo of Africa and the Pygmy buffalo of Philippines have not been domesticated. It isused to pull ploughs and do other heavy work in India and south East Asia. **Reindeer** A long-horned deer family breed used in the cold parts of Canada, Sweden and Norway for riding and transportation. It also provides milk, meat, hides and horns. ***Dogs*** Dog types like Bouriers were used to pull small carts and sledges, especially in the Arctic thus making transportation of gods and people easy. Dogs are also used in guiding blind people in sports and as pets at home. **Advantages of animal transport** a) Pack animals can be used in largely inaccessible areas. The Llama, for example is used in the mountainous areas with narrow and meandering paths and steep cliffs. The camel is well adapted for deserts. b) Animals are cheap to maintain. They attract very little maintenance costs, since only feeding costs are incurred. c) Pack animals are safe as accidents are rare probably because they do not speed.. d) Animals help to maintain the ecological balance since they do not interfere with the environment. e) Pack animals are capable of sensing danger. For example, horses and dogs can sniff out an enemy from a distance. This enhances security as dangerous confrontations with an enemy can easily be avoided. **Disadvantages of animal transport** a) Animal transport is slow and tedious. The animals need to feed and drink along the way. b) Pack animals may be attacked by wild animals, disease- causing insects such as tsetse- flies and disease. a. Their movement is limited to the day only and cannot travel at night. b. They can only carry small loads as compared to vehicles. c. Some pack animals such as donkey are stubborn when tired and heavily loaded. The camel is only suited for the desert. d. Pack animals use is limited to short distances as they fatigue when they travel for long. **The wheel** The wheel was invented in sumeria at about 3000bc. By 2500BC, they had invented the spoked wheel used on horse drawn chariots. The chariot was used in Mesopotamia at around 2000BC and later spread to Egypt, Persia, Rome, china, Africa and Europe. The cart or wagon pulled by humans or animals was the first wheeled vehicle. The wheeled wagons and carts created the need for roads Today many types of wheels are in use. For example, the steering wheel for cars, turbines for jet engines and gyroscopes used in the automobile pilot technology. Ways in which invention of the wheel impacted on road transport a) More roads were constructed to use wheel vehicles for transport b) Road transport became faster and efficient c) Bigger loads could be carried hence was cost effective profitable d) It made the use of motor engine driven vehicles possible e) It enabled man to move over long distance to disseminated ideas and interact. **Water transport** Water transport has progressed from early rafts and canoes to the modern large passenger and freight ships. **Rafts** A raft is a simple floating structure, usually made by tying together floating material like animal skin, papyrus stalks or logs. The earliest people to make rafts were the Australians. They made rafts called catamaran by tying logs together. Long poles were then used to drive the raft.Rafts however sank easily and required a lot of manpower upstream. A canoe was a narrow boat that was propelled by one or more paddles. The oldest canoe was made by stripping the bark from trees (bark canoes). Later a new canoe was made from a hollow on a log (dug-out canoe).In Kenya, canoes are used for transporting people and goods and for fishing in inland lakes and rivers. **Oar-driven boats** Boats are small vessels for travelling on water and are powered by oars, sails or motor. The Egyptians pioneered in the building of boats that used oars (a short wooden pole with a flat end) instead of paddles in 3000BC. The Phoenicians, Greeks and the Romans developed oardriven trading vessels and warships. **Sailing ships.** Humankind learned that the wind could move a boat more easily than human beings if the ship had a piece of cloth fixed on poles (sail). The Egyptians used the sailing ships by 3000BC on the Mediterranean and Red seas. The Greeks made sailing ships known as galleys which were used for trade and war. They used war galley known as triremes to defeat the Persians and Phoenicians.Sailing ships were depending on monsoon winds discovered by Hippalus. The Arabs and Persians relied on the monsoon winds to reach the east African coast.The Portuguese invented a three-masted ship called a caravel as the one used by Christopher Columbus and other explorers to sail to America and the Far East. The Carrack used by Vasco da Gama was five-masted to sail to east Africa. Ferdinand Magellan became the first person to sail around the world using a Sailing ship Fast sailing ships called clippers were made in 1840s in America. It was a long and narrow ship with sharp bows and almost straight sides.However, sailing ships could not sail on windy days and seasons. Some communities however still use sailing ships upto today for sports, fishing and leisure.By the 12th c AD, the magnetic compass was being used in navigation aid **Factors that led to the development of various forms of transport** a) Technological development during the scientific age which enabled man to invent machines which could be used to manufacture various parts of cars , rails, airplanes, ships and motor boats. b) Expansion of geographical knowledge encouraged the development of transport so as to enable man to search new places faster and more safely. c) Introduction of specialization as a means of production which necessitated exchange o goods and services which could only be made possible through development of transport and communication. d) Population increase hence demands for more food and goods hence the need for essential transport system. e) In order to satisfy the desires of man there was need to develop a system of transport that would enable man to get the goods and services he needed so much. **Modern means of transport** **Road transport** The invention of the wheel stimulated the construction of roads. The Roman soldiers built hard and straight roads all over Europe and North Africa by around 300 BC. The roads were built by digging a trench, 1.5metres deep which then would be packed with heavy stones or rocks. Rough and fine concrete was added to the foundation, then layers of gravel, chalk and cement. The road surface was slightly convex with deep trenches on the sides. Roman roads declined with the fall of the Roman Empire.Attempts to built better roads in Europe in the 18th c were made by George Wade (1673- 1748) built 400km of roads and John Metcalfe (17171-1810) built 290km of roads.However modern road construction is attributed to John McAdam (1756-1836). McAdam laid three layers of small broken stones packed tightly together. He then placed a layer of gravel which was bound together by the weight of a vehicle. These roads were called the flexible road or macadamized road. These roads were straight and had a smooth surface. They were widelyused all over the world. They have curved surfaces and had a Good drainage system. They are cheap and durable.The roads were later improved by adding tar to produce a water proof surface called tarmac. By 1820, Britain had built 200,000km of road. **Advantages of macadamized roads** a) They were durable with three layers of small broken stores b) They were cheap to construct using stones as the basic material for construction c) They had a smooth motoring surface since the gravel layer was bound together by the weight of vehicles d) They were straight hence reduced occurrence of accidents e) They were easily drained due to their smooth surface and being raised. **The bicycle** In 1790, a Frenchman, de Divrac made the first bicycle which was pushed with the feet thus called a walkalong. A german named Baron Karl Drais invented a walkalong called draisine which had a steering bar connected to the front wheel.In 1860, Ernes Michaux, a French locksmith, invented a bicycle with two wheels and pedals attached to the front wheel.In 1866, Piere Allement a Frenchman, was given the first patent on a bicycle, boneshaker. It had iron wheels fixed to wooden spokes. In 1873, a bicycle named a high- wheeler was introduced in England. The firs bicycle in England was made by Kirk Patrick Macmillan of Scotland.James Starley is referred to as the father of the cycle industry. In 1870, he invented the tension spoked wheel in which the rim and the hub were connected by wire spokes.John Dunlop invented the tyre filled with compressed air in 1888 which replaced the iron tyres and solid rubber tyres.In 1893, a bicycle with a diamond shaped frame with a roller-chain-drive and a compressed air wheel was invented.The bicycle is today used all over the world not only for transport, but also for sporting and leisure activities. The advantage of a bicycle is that it easily used on narrow paths and on a fairly level surface. It is also cheap and convenient. **Motor vehicles** These are self-propelled power-driven land transportation devices used to transport people or goods, especially on land. The device converts fuel into energy to provide the power for the vehicle to move.The first attempt to power drive devices was the suggestion by a Swiss clergyman J.H Genevoisin 1760 that wind springs be used to move wheels on roads.However the making of an engine that could drive a vehicle is attributed to a French engineer, Nicholas Joseph Cugnot (1725- 1804). He built a three wheeled steam-driven vehicle in 1769, though he abandoned his experiment prematurely. In 1883, a German, Gottlieb Daimler (1834-1900) produced a high speed petrol engine which he fitted on a wooden cycle in 1885. Karl Benz (1844-1929) fitted the same engine on a w tricycle in the same year.In 1886, Daimler made the first petrol driven car with four wheels. Benz built the first four wheeled Benz car in 1893. In the same year, an American, Charles Duryea (1862-1938) built the first gasoline powered automobile. The tyres made by Dunlop were fitted on these cars to make them more comfortable.The first car in the motor industry, Panhard-Hevassor, was made by a French company which had bought the rights to use Daimlers engine.In 1903 in USA Henry Ford founded the Ford Motor Company in Detroit leading to mass production of cars in the world. For example the model TFord was developed in 1909.Students read more on the motor vehicle inventions. **Impact of road transport** a) Roads have promoted trade within and between countries since goods are transported by road to various markets. This case is true in east Africa. b) Road transport has stimulated industrial development as raw materials to factories and manufactured goods to the market are easily transported. c) Development of towns and urban centres along roads has been as a result of improved road transport. d) Many countries earn a lot of foreign exchange from the sale of motor vehicles. For example Japan, Germany and USA. e) Employment opportunities are created as many people work in the motor vehicle industry while others are employed to construct and maintain roads. **Advantages of road transport** a) Since it is the commonest mode of transport, it reduces the cost of movement of goods and people as well as promoting social interaction. b) It is cheaper compared to other forms of transport. Roads are easier to construct and maintain when compared to railway transport. c) It is faster when compared to water and railway transport unless in the case of electric trains. d) Roads are flexible and link with other forms of transport such as water, railway and air. **Disadvantages of road transport** a) The high number of accidents on roads leads to loss of lives. b) Road transport is responsible for pollution which causes environmental degradation. Key notes for the teacher and students- @Cheloti 2012-2013 20 c) Due to an increased number of vehicles on roads, traffic congestion is a major concern in most urban cities and towns. d) Roads may sometimes inconvenience the users when they become impassable. e) The quantity of goods carried is limited as roads cannot carry bulky goods compared to the railway. f) The use of roads is limited to specific areas. It cannot go beyond land e.g across the sea or lake. g) Construction of all-weather roads is expensive. Developing countries find themselves constrained by limited resources that are needed to construct all-weather roads. **Rail transport** Railway lines are paths of parallel metal rails that allow a wheeled vehicle to move easily by reducing friction. Initially, they were used in 1800s to guide horse drawn wagons. Later the steam engine replaced horses as the means of transport.The development of modern railway was a gradual process that started in Britain and Germany with the use of wooden rails.A British engineer, Richard Trevithick (1771-1833) designed a steam engine that was small enough to be put on a truck. This he fitted on a railway locomotive which he had bought in 1804 to pull a cargo and passenger train in south Wales. Fenton, Murray and Wood of Leeds built the John Blenkinsopp locomotive in 1812. William Hedley built the puffing Billy in 1813.George Stephenson (1781-1845) a coal miner in Newcastle, England invented a locomotive engine called the Blucher which pulled eight laden wagons in 1814. He also built the worlds first public railway between Stockton and Darlington near Durham in 1825. In 1829, Stephenson and his son, Robert, built the most improved engine, the rocket, which had a speed of 48 km per hour. In 1830, he built the Northumbrian and the planet.In 1825, in the United States, Colonel John Stevens built a tiny experimental locomotive. In 1929, a major railway was built by the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company to serve a coal mine.Germany and Belgium had railroads by 1835, Russia by 1837, Spain by 1848 and Sweden by 1856.In 1892, a Germany Rudolf Diesel designed a heavy oil-driven-engine which replaced the steam engine. It was cheaper and efficient.The first diesel railcar was used in 1913 in Sweden. Later diesel engines were replaced with electric engines which was an invention of the Siemens Brothers and John Hopkinson in Britain in 1883. The electric train from Paris to Lyon covers a distance of 212 km in one hour.Railway transport has remained a major mode of passenger travel. In Europe and Japan, major cities are connected by high speed passenger trains such as the French TGV (Train a Grange Vitesse) and the Japanese Shinkansen trains travelling at a speed of 300km/h. **Results of railway transport.** a) It has promoted the movement of people thus leading to increased social and cultural interaction. People can migrate easily in Europe thanks to the faster electric trains. b) It has promoted trade as goods, light, heavy or bulky, are transported efficiently to the markets. It also supplements the use of other forms of transport. Key notes for the teacher and students- @Cheloti 2012-2013 21 c) It has stimulated industrial development since in dustrial products and raw materials can now be transported faster and in large quantities. d) Railway transport has stimulated the growth of urban centers. In Kenya for example, urban centres like Nairobi, Kisumu, Mombasa and voi either developed along the railway line or at the terminus. e) It has facilitated the spread of religious faiths and political ideas. This was the case in Kenya during the period of missionary work and colonization. In a way railway transport therefore facilitated European occupation of overseas colonies. f) There has been a significant improvement in agriculture since agricultural goods are transported more easily and faster using the railway. g) It has been a source of employment for many people I maintenance, engine driving etc. h) It has facilitated the exploitation of natural resources like mining, fisheries and forestry. The raw materials from these resources are transported faster using the railway. i) Railway transport has stimulated economic growth since it is a source of revenue for many governments. **Disadvantages of railway transport** a) It is expensive to construct. The wagons are also expensive to buy and maintain. b) Railway transport lacks in flexibility. It can only pass through certain landscapes. c) Smoke emitted from the trains lead to environmental pollution. d) Railway accidents might be rare but when they happen, they are fatal. This was the case in Kenya in 1998 when 200 people lost their lives. e) Railway transport is not self sufficient. T has to be supplemented with road transport. **Water transport** **Canal vessels** A canal is an artificial river that is used to transport people and goods. It may be built to link a ricer and a lake, sea or a sea with a sea. Apart from transportation, their water may be used in irrigation like in the case of River Nile.Canals have been used for centuries for transportation. The earliest canal was built by the Europeans nearly 4000 years ago to link the river Nile and the Red sea.The longest canal, the Grand Canal in china is bout 1900km long and it links the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers.Canal building in Europe was pioneered by the Romans who built them for transportation, irrigation and drainage. The Dutch, British and the French also constructed elaborate canals.Canal building in the US began in 1817 and ended in 1825 with the construction of the Erie Canal which is 845 km long connecting Hudson River with Lake Erie. It is now known as the New York State Barge. Up to 1840, 4,800 km of canals had been constructed in USA.Another type of canals is the ship canals, for example the Suez Canal, Panama Canal and Kiel Canal, which are deeper. The Suez Canal in Egypt is 195 km long and links the Mediterranean Sea with the red sea. It was constructed between 1859 and 1869 by a French company under. Ferdinand Lesseps. The Kiel Canal links the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. The Panama Canal was built by the USA Government between 1904 and 1914 linking the pacific and Atlantic oceans. It is the most important canal as it shortened the long and dangerous trip around the southern tip of south Africa. The St. Lawrence Seaway is the longest and most important inland waterway system in North America. It is 3,800 km long and was completed in 1855 in USA and 1895 in Canada. **Steamships** Steamships were made after the invention of the steam driven engine. The first attempt to make a steamship was made by Dr. Denis Papin of France when he fitted a steam engine to a boat and sailed along river Fulda in Hanover. In 1736, Jonathan Holls of Gloucestershire patented a steam tugboat but it was nev er tried.In 1774, Comte J B dAuxiron of France experimented with a steamboat but also failed like Papin as it broke down.In 1775, C Perier became the first person to move a small boat powered by steam engine o river Seine in Paris.The first successful steamboat was built and tried out in1783 by a Frenchman called Marquis de Jouffrey on River Saone near Lyons in France. In America, John Fitch built a steamboat in 1787. It was used on river Delaware between Philadelphia and Trenton. In 1809, William Symington and Miller Pat succeeded in constructing a wooden steamship that was used on the Forh-Clyde Canal in southern Scotland.In 1807, in America, Robert Fulton had invented a double paddle-wheeled steamboat known as Clermont which began operating on the Hudson River. In1807, the phoenix became the first steamship that made regular voyage from Philadelphia to New York.In 1819, the savannah became the first ship equipped with a steam engine to cross the Atlantic Ocean.In 1853, the peninsular and oriental Line built the iron-screw steamer, Himalaya, the biggest vessel as at that time.John Elder invented a compound engine with two cylinders which reduced fuel consumption in steamships. In 1838, Sirius sailed from London to New York, the Great Western, without using sails crossed the Atlantic in 15 days from Bristol.In 1839, the Archimedes and the Robert F Stockton were built using Smiths and Ericcsons patent.The most important ship to cross the Atlantic was the Great Britain built by the Islamabad Kingdom of Brunei in 1843. The first USA trans-Atlantic steamers were the Herman and Washington.The first merchant ship to be all-welded without any rivets in its hull was the MS Fullagar in 1920. **Importance of the discovery and use of the steamship** a) Man could no longer depend on nature wind for power. This made travel by sea easier and more comfortable. b) It led to expansion of international trade since transportation became cheap. c) Bigger volumes and varieties of goods could be carried including those that required special handling like petrol. d) It formed the basis for colonization as colonizers could move to other continents easily. e) It increased international migrations and spread of races, cultures, diseases, intermarriages, languages and religion f) It led to greater expansion of geographical knowledge. It gave access to countries bordered by sea. g) It led to expansion of world economies, industries, trade and commerce. h) Spread of plants and animals internationally. **Motor- Driven ships** With the invention of the internal combustion engine, oil replaced coal. The Caspian Steamer Wanal was built in 1903 was the first sizeable ship with an internal combustion engine.In the 20th c, the use of atomic energy (nuclear power) was developed. The first ship to use atomic power was the Nautilus in 1956. In 1961, an American merchant ship, MV Savannah, propelled by nuclear power was launched.There are two types of ships based on the service offered; a) The Liners operate regular scheduled services on defined trade routes charging advertised rates. b) The Tramp ships carry any suitable cargo between any two points based on a negotiated contract. They have no regular route or timetable. **Modern passenger Liners** The cruise ship, the most important passenger liner, is a specially designed vessel providing luxurious surroundings and entertainment to passengers. It is about 270 m and carries 2000 passengers. New passenger Liners were developed after World War II for example the American United States of 1952 and the British Queen Elizabeth 2 of 1969. The liners were overtaken by the development of the aeroplane and airline transport and only a few remain today. **Freight Vessels** These are Special Ocean going ships designed for carrying large amounts of cargo. Containerships transport large metal containers that have been pre-loaded with cargo. Some container ships carry over 6,800 containers. **Military Vessels** In 1859, the French launched Gloire, the first iron-plated ship. During the American civil war (1861-1865), two iron-plated ships were used. In world war II, battleships, Aircraft carriers (can carry 85 aircrafts) , cruisers, destroyers, destroyer escorts(frigates), minesweepers, torpedo boats, landing craft and other support vessels were developed. **Hydrofoils and hovercraft** These are specialized water vessels (a hydrofoil has small wing-like surfaces called foils attached to the bottom of its hull that lifts the hull out of water when the hydrofoil accelerates. A hovercraft is lifted entirely off the water surface by a cushion of air and are propelled by giant air propellers or by water jets) **Ferries** These are vessels used to transport people, animals and vehicles over water in places where bridges would be inconvenient or impossible to build. **Motorboats and personal craft** These are small boats that are used for recreational purposes with either out boat motors or in boat motors. **Pipeline transport** This is a form of transport used to move liquids, gases or solid liquid mixtures over long distances. The most common liquid that is transported by pipeline in many countries is water. Others are oil and gas. Pipelines are also used to transport solids suspended in liquids such as coal slurry which consists of powdered coal suspended in water. **Air Transport** This is the fastest form of transport over long distances and continents. Different types of Aircraft exist. **Aeroplane** An airplane is an aircraft heavier than air that uses wings to obtain lift in order to fly thus transporting people, mail and cargo from place to place. They are also use in warfare. The development of an aeroplane started in 1783 when a successful manned flight was made in France by two brothers, Jacques and Joseph Montgolfier using a hot air balloon. Sir George Cayley, an English scholar and inventor, built model Gliders that could sail in the air in the 19th c. Later, Pilcher added wheels to the gliders in order for them to be towed into the air. By 1850, power driven planes were built. An English engineer, John String built and designed power-driven planes. In December 1903, An American astronomer, Samuel Langleys almost won the honour of perfecting the power driven airplanes, by making a full size airplane called the aerodrome. The plane unfortunately crashed in Potomac River before being launched. On 17th December 1903, two weeks after Langleys failure, the Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur Wright, produced the first manned power driven aeroplane at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina USA. Their machine was a wooden glider fitted with a petrol engine and two propellers. In 1906, a Brazilian- born aviation pioneer made the first officially observed European flight in a powered bi- plane.In 1909, Louis Bleriot of France became the first person to fly a plane across the English Channel in 35.5 minutes. In 1915, the Germans used the first mono-plane during the First World War. In 1919, John N. Alcock and Arthur W Brown flew non-stop across the Atlantic from New Foundland to Ireland.Later improvements in the plane were replacement of wood and cloth with aluminum and stainless steel, invention of a retractable gear that improved streamlining in planesBy 1920, plane speed had gone up to 303 km /h. in 1940; it was 755 km/h.The best known aviator in 1920s was Charles Linburgh who accompanied a non-stop flight from New York to Paris in 1927 in his single monoplane called the spirit of Saint Louis in 33 hours.In 1920, the first scheduled passenger service was made between Amsterdam and England by KLM Dutch Airlines.In 1930, the first pressurized plane was launched. The most popular passenger plane at that time was the DC-3 built by Douglas Aircraft Company. It had a capacity of 30 people and moved at a speed of 320 km. **The jet engine** The jet engine was invented by German engineers in 1939.the first jet powered airplane was the german Heinkel HE -178. The first practical jet fighter was the Lockheed P-8 developed in 1944.During the post war period, the jet engines were put to commercial use.. For example, the Boeing 707 flight which was launched in 1958 in USA. The Boeing 747 Jumbo Jet which entered the market in 1970 can carry 375 passengers, 20 tonnes of freight and move at a speed of 900 km/h.The Supersonic Loans Port (SST) is designed to fly at speeds of over 1180 km/h. the Russian TU-144 and the French British Concorde are both SSTs and entered passenger market in 1972. **Helicopters** It is a type of airplane which obtains its lift from a set of rotor blades rather than fixed wings. The first successful helicopter was made in 1907 when a French helicopter left the ground for a few seconds.Germany made the first practical helicopter in 1936 while the United States Army unveiled its wartime helicopter in 1942. **Uses of helicopters** **Lighter- than-air-vehicles** These include balloons relying on hot air and lighter than air gases like helium and hydrogen for lift.Airships that combine lighter than air gas bags with propellers navigation were initially used for passenger traffic but their usage declined due to several fatal accidents. For example the disaster that befell the German airship, Hindenburg, in New Jersey in 1937. **The rocket engine** Rocket engines use fuel. They carry chemicals which enable them to burn their fuel without air supply. The first rocket engine to be used was by a German manufacturer, Fritz von Opel in 1930. An American, R H Goddard also developed a modern rocket in Massachusetts in the USA. Factors which encouraged the development of air transport. a) The effect of the First World War- it increased demand of war planes-jet fighters and fighter planes flying over 600kph were manufactured. b) The arms race and the cold war which also made many countries to acquire many planes.-fear, jealousy and competition based on ideological differences. c) Desire for comfort among passengers and the need to transport perishables quickly. d) Expansion of international trade and desire for more wealth. e) Colonization and international migrations. f) The expansion of the tourist industry. g) Vast improvement in science and technology and growth of industries. **Results of air transport** 1) Air transport is a major global employer. The air transport industry directly generates 5.5 million jobs globally and contributes USD 408 billion to global GDP. It directly contributed USD 1,830 billion to world GDP in 2007 and generated 79 million direct jobs globally 2.8% of total employment. 2) Air transport is an important facilitator of international trade, thereby promoting economic growth and development. Forecasts suggest that the global economy will become even more dependent on trade over the next decade. World trade is expected to nearly double, rising at more than twice the rate of global GDP growth, with China, India and emerging markets leading the way. 3) Air transport stimulates Tourism which makes a major contribution to the global economy.The air transport industry plays a major role in supporting tourism. Over 40% of international tourists now travel by air, up from 35% in 1990. At the same time, the WTTC estimates that foreign visitors account for just fewer than 25% of overall tourism spending around the world. This includes spending by business travelers, as well as those on leisure trips or visiting friends and relatives. 4) Air transport is a significant tax payer. Unlike other transport modes, the air transport industry directly pays for its own infrastructure costs. The user charges collected by airport operators pay both for the day-to-day services they provide to airlines and their customers, and also for the massive investment in runways, terminals and other infrastructure required for a modern, efficient air transport service. In addition, companies in the air transport industry make significant tax payments to national treasuries. 5) Air transport expands the range of consumer choices and opportunities to visit other countries and to experience new cultures. 6) Air transport delivers humanitarian aid. Air services play an essential role in humanitarian assistance to countries facing natural disasters, famine and war through cargo deliveries, refugee transfers or the evacuation of people trapped by natural disasters. They are particularly important in situations where access is a problem for example, air drops are among the first response of aid agencies to stem a humanitarian crisis. 7) Air transport also plays a vital role in the rapid delivery of Medical supplies and organs for transplantation worldwide. 8) Air transport provides access to remote areas. Air transport provides access to remote areas where other transport modes are limited. Many essential services, such as food deliveries, hospitals, education and post, would not be available for people in such locations without air services. And residents would be isolated from family, friends and business contacts. 9) Air transport has improved security as soldiers can be flown to troubled areas. Aeroplanes are also used in espionage 10) Air transport has led to improvement f space exploration. Satellites are used to study objects in space such as stars and planets. 11) Air transport has promoted international cooperation and understanding. People from different countries can exchange ideas.. 12) It has provides the fastest means of transport for passengers and goods thus increasing cultural and social exchange. 13) Aeroplanes are used to break hail in order to cause rain. 14) Plans and other aircraft have added to variety to sporting and entertainment. E.g the staging of fighter plane shows in public holiday celebration. 15) Aircraft has revolutionized warfare especially during the Second World War when countries began using panes in warfare. 16) International terrorism has been facilitated in the recent past by aeroplanes. Incidents of planes being hijacked are becoming common in the world today. 17) Air transport contributes to environmental pollution due to waste discharged by the burning fuel. Jets cause noise pollution. 18) Air transport has enhanced agriculture as planes are used to spray and dust insecticides on crops in the case of large scale farming. They are also used in quick delivery of perishable farm produce from horticultural farms. 19) Planes assist in fire fighting, inspecting fence lines and power cables and border patrol. 20) Aeroplanes are used in making aerial survey in cartography thus improving map making. 21) Air transport enhances wildlife management and conservation. Counting of animals by wildlife officers is one used planes. 22) In meteorology, air transport has enhanced weather survey. 23) Air transport sometimes leads to deaths of many people when fatal accidents occur. For example, the mid-air blow-up of the trans World Airline plane over the Atlantic ocean in July 1996, the 5th may 2007 crashing of a Nairobi bound KQ 507 moments after leaving Duala international Airport in Cameroon killing 114 passengers. **Space exploration** This is the attempt by scientists to reach the heavenly bodies namely the stars and moon to learn more about them and their importance to man as a whole. Space age refers to the period in which the exploration of space became possible. It began with the launch of the first artificial satellite in October 1957 by the soviet union - Sputnik.The first human to go to space was a Russian Major Yuri Gagarin using Vostok I in April 1961. Inthe same year an American, John Glenn also went to space.Neil Armstrong, an American Became the first man to land on the moon in July 1969 in his space craft, Apollo II. He was accompanied by Edwin E Aldrin Jr and Michael Collins. Many other have toured the moon since then.Later on a space shuttle was built. The first space shuttle, Columbia, launched in 1981, carried two American astronauts, John W. Young and Robert L Crpens. In 1983, the space shuttle, challenger released a satellite into space. One of the crew members, Sally K Ride became the first woman astronaut to go to space.In 1984, Kathryn D Sullivan became the first American woman to walk in space .By 1988, there were 300 operating satellites in space while 1200 were not functioning. **Challenges facing space exploration** a) Deadly hazards like cosmetics and solar radiation and micro meteorites dangerous to spacecraft. b) Hostile natural environment which is unsuitable for human life making it very expensive. c) Extreme temperatures and light intensities. Extreme darkness and brightness. Such difficulties have been overcome through development of new tools and techniques for space navigation. **Importance of space exploration to man** a) Spacecrafts continue to provide information about conditions in space in particular about the weather. b) Reports derived from weather satellite can act as warning systems about impending storm. c) It helps us to gain more knowledge about our planet earth. e.g. a scientific satellite known as Vanguard 1 sent back pictures, which showed that the earth was slightly pear- shaped. d) Communication satellites like the Telstra and Relay have made it possible to send television programmes and telephone calls over much longer distances. e) In 1965, the US achieved another momentous feat in space communication. The mariner4 in a deep space probe sent back pictures of mars that were taken as it passed the planet. f) Some space exploration offers possibilities without limit. Planets themselves may have metals and other resources that men on earth need. g) Information about outer space may make it possible to make rain and make long- range weather forecast more accurately than before. h) Some scientists are optimistic that space research might make it possible for human beings to settle on some planets; so far, we are not very definite about this. i) Humankind can benefit from medicine prepared under ideal conditions on the planet namely dust free and germ free medicine. j) Space exploration enhances technological development. k) It facilitates own understanding of the universe. l) It leads to improved manufacture of aircrafts, telescope and related machines. m) Contributed to development of advanced air force weapons. **Advances in transportation** Africas first high speed train system, the Gautrain, was officially lanced in Johannesburg on 8th June 2010 to connect the cities of Johannesburg and Pretoria with a 160 km/h rail service. **Effects of modern forms of transport** a) It has made local and international trade more efficient. Trade in perishable goods such as flowers and vegetables have been expanded thanks to air transport. b) Population migration and settlement all over the world has been encouraged using the means of transport. c) It has facilitated the quick transfer of technology and ideas as people interact d) It has made industries more efficient. Raw materials, industrial workers, and manufacturedgoods are transported to their destinations cheaply and quickly. e) It has promoted tourist industry which is a major foreign exchange earner in many countries. Accessibility to tourist attraction sites has greatly improved. f) It has generated employment opportunities to many as road constructers, drivers, pilots and mechanics. g) It contributes additional revenue to the government. Countries charge toll fee, license fee and fuel levy. h) Air transport enhances space exploration. i) Has contributed to the growth of the service sector like banking and insurance. j) Transport has promoted humanitarian assistance particularly in disaster situations, e.g distribution of relief food, medical services and evacuations during catastrophes and wars. k) It has led to growth of schools and hospitals and social amenities. In Kenya most schools and hospitals are located along transport routes. l) It has led to agricultural development. Farmers have been able to increase food production since they can transport farm produce and inputs more efficiently and effectively. m) It has stimulated the growth of urban centres. Towns such as London, Nairobi and Harare started off due to their location along transport rous. The towns have also grown due to their transport function. n) Transport has enhanced political control in countries. National security has been enhanced due to accessibility of many areas of a nation. o) Transport facilitated colonization of Africa and Asian countries. Railway systems helped them to conquer and suppress local resistances to facilitate easy administration. **Negative effects of transport.** a) Transport systems are responsible for many accidents in world leading to loss of lives. The Mtongwe ferry accident in Kenya claimed 257 lives in 1994; a plane crash in Ngong in 2012 killed the minister for internal security professor George Saitoti and six others. b) Transport is responsible for environmental pollution. Different forms of transport emit poisonous gases to the atmosphere. Oil tankers cause oil spills in the sea s leading to marine pollution. c) Unless they complement each other, different forms of transport are unreliable. For example, water and railway transport have to be complemented by road transport. d) The growth of international terrorism has been attributed to transport network. Communication **Definition** This is a Two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange information but also create and share ideas and messages.Communication includes writing, talking and Non-verbal communication (facial expressions, body posture, or gestures. **Traditional forms of communication.** The methods of communication that were used in the traditional society included; **Gestures** These are signals or body movements intended to pass a message. The person to whom the gesture is directed must know the meaning of the gesture. It is sometimes referred to as sign language.(a combination of gestures that simulate actions or a sound) **Body language** Sometimes gestures are used to enhance and emphasize speech. They are used where silence is required yet communication is vital like in operating theatres, and in traffic control. **Verbal communication-language** This is the commonest form of communication among human beings involving the use of sound (spoken language) in combination with some gestures or alone, to express messages.There are over 6000 distinct languages world today. **Signals** The use plants on the roadsides, the shaving of hair, physical marks on ones body or property are means through which communication is passed to others. **Fire and smoke signals** Fire and smoke signals were used to send quick and urgent messages. Fire and smoke signals were coded such that strangers could not interpret the message correctly. They were commonly used in warning people of an impending danger.The Jews used fire signals (torch light) to proclaim their feast days on mount Olives.Fire and smoke signals were always sent at night. **Advantages of using fire and smoke signals** a) Fire and smoke signals Conveyed messages faster than a messenger. b) Confidentiality of messages was upheld since the messages were coded and could not be interpreted by strangers. c) It was a cheap method of passing a message. **Disadvantages of fire and smoke signals** a) Messages could not be sent over long distances. b) Ranges of messages passed were limited. c) It was restricted by weather conditions/smoke is useless in cloudy and misty days. It is difficult to set fire in wet conditions. Smoke could be blown by wind. d) It was of little use if no one was on the look out to see and interpret. **Drumbeats** In drumbeating as a means of communication, each beat was coded for relaying different messages. For example there were different beats for ceremonies, announcing funerals, meetings, declaration of war, arrival of strangers and impending attack.Once the initial beat was heard, the other drummers could pick up the beat in different areas thus spreading the message very quickly. **Advantages of drumbeating** a) Drumbeats could relay a wide range of messages-different beats could convey different messages. E.g. death, danger, festivities. b) In most cases drum beating could be used at any time both day and night whereas smoke signals could only be used during the day. c) Drum beats relayed specific messages whereas smoke relayed general messages. d) Drum beats could be used all seasons whereas smoke signals could not be used during certain seasons e.g. when it is raining.`` e) Drumbeats could convey messages over wide areas. f) Messages by drumbeat were conveyed faster compared to smoke signals. The major disadvantage of drumbeats was that at times it was difficult to differentiate the beats and therefore, the message could not be clearly interpreted thus leading to confusion. **Horn blowing** They were used to make public announcements, summon warriors or invite people to an important meeting. This was done by specialists with different tones that passed different messages thus passing a wide range of massages. **Screams and cries** Screaming was effective mostly on hill or mountain tops because of echoing. There were different ways of screaming in different situations.. Ululations signified feasting or good news like child birth. **Running messengers** Sometimes there was use of trust worthy runners for very personal and urgent messages. However the accuracy of the message delivered depended on the memory of the messenger. An Athenian soldier, Phidippides, is remembered in history as a great messenger for covering great distance from Marathon to Athens. Unfortunately, he dropped dead shortly after arrival. The Marathon race is named in his honour. Messengers are still used to deliver messages today although there has been tremendous improvement after invention of writing. **Disadvantages of using messengers** a) Messages could not reach recipients on time since the messengers walked on foot to their destinations. b) Messengers sometimes forgot the message they were to deliver thus leading to inaccurate messages being passed. c) Information could be distorted in the process. Sometimes wrong messages were delivered. d) Messengers could be attacked on the way by wild animals. e) The distance to be covered by messengers was limited since they walked on foot. However this problem was overcome with improvements in forms of transport. **Written messages** The oldest record of writing date back to about 5000years. Different communities use different symbols and alphabets to write messages. The messages were recorded on scrolls, stone tablets parchment (dried animal skin) or paper.The earliest forms of wring were pictographic and ideographic. Examples of these were the cuneiform of Sumerians and Hieroglyphics of the Egyptians. **Cuneiform Writing** Wedge-Shaped Writing **Scrolls** Scrolls are rolls of paper which were rolled around rods of wood or ivory for writing on. They were commonly used among the Egyptians, Romans, Asians, Jews, Greek, Hebrews, Chinese and Japanese. Papyrus Reeds along the Nile were used for making writing material. Pens and brushes were also made from the reeds and the hard part of a feather.The Hebrews used scrolls for their sacred writings. **Stone Tablets.** The Sumerians wrote on clay tablets. Writing was done on wet clay which, after drying, hardened like a stone and left a permanent impression.. for example, Hammurabi the law giver wrote his laws on stone pillars for all to read and obey. The Ten Commandments were also written on stone tablets.On the left is a stela, which has all 282 of Hammurabis laws engraved on it. This stela is located in the Louvre Museum in Paris, France. These tablets have been discovered by archaeologists and looked at by historians. **Advantages of written messages** a) They provided reliable information that was not easily forgotten. b) Information was stored in that form for future reference. c) Information could be interpreted into different languages so that it could be accessible to many. d) The message in most cases was accurate. **Limitations** a) They were only limited to literate people. b) At times the information could be biased depending on the writers orientation. c) Written messages were open to misinterpretation. **Modern means of communication** Numerous modes of communication have been evolved over time since the time primitive speech was the main means of communication. The modern means of communication include telephone, radio, television, video, cinema, telegraph, telex, electronic mail. Pager etc.The methods are categorized into telecommunications and print media. **Telecommunications** This is a term that describes the technology of receiving and sending messages by telephone, radio, television, telegraph, telex, facsimile or e-mail. The message can be verbal, written or pictorial.There are a wide range of devices in telecommunication through which messages can be sent in a variety of ways. For example, Telephone. This a communication device which is used to relay sound waves by converting them into electrical signals and then reconverting them into sound waves. Telephones carry sound over a distance using electric current. The history of the invention of telephones starts with the success of a Scottish-born American inventor, teaching speech to deaf children in Boston Massachusetts, Alexander Graham Bell, who built an experimental telegraph which broke down after one day. Bell constructed a transmitter and a receiver for which he received a patent on March 7, 1876. Assisted by Thomas Watson, he discovered that voice can be sent using wires.Later, Almon Brown Strowger of Kansas City, Missouri, invented the first automatic telephone exchange using electromagnetic switchboard (Strowger Switches) in 1897. By 1900, long distance service was possible through the use of repeaters (electromagnetic devices placed along the route of the call) which amplified and repeated conversations into the long distance instrument. Radio transmission later replaced underground and submarine cables for long distance transmission.In 1877, Graham Bell opened the Bell Telephone Company. In 1900, it was sold t o the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) In Kenya, telephone communication was introduced in 1908 and has grown tremendously **Cell phones** A cellular telephony is a type of wireless communication which uses many base stations to divide a service area into multiple cells.The concept of cellular phones began in 1947 when researchers looked at the crude mobile car phones and realized that by using small cells with frequency reuse, they could increase the traffic capacity of mobile phones Dr Martin Cooper, a former general manager of the systems division at Motorola is considered the inventor of the first modern portable handset. Which he used for the first time in April 1973.The development of mobile telephony technology was slow in the earlier periods due to the hindrance by the strict federal regulations in USA and Europe. In 1921, the USA mobile Radio began to operate.In June 1946, the first American Commercial mobile radio telephone service was introduced in Saint Louis, Missouri.By 1950s, the first telephone equipped cars took to the roads in Stockholm.In 1964, the Bell system introduced the mobile telephone service. By 1982, commercial cellular phones were being used in the USA and Tokyo in Japan. By 1987, USA had over 1million cellular telephone subscribers.Currently, there are many mobile manufacturing companies are now in operation. For example, Nokia, Motorola Inc., Sony, Alcatel, Samsung, Sagem, Siemens, AG, and Sony Ericsson.There are also a number of mobile phone service providers. In Kenya, the main ones are Safaricom, Airtel, Orange and Yu **Standard Features of cellphones** a) They are used for making and receiving calls. b) All have a personal phone book. c) They all have the ability to send and receive SMS. d) They have the ability to store messages and display and record the telephone number of a caller. The following features are not standard and vary from phone to phone. a) Calculator, clock and calendar. b) Access to the internet c) Digital camera capability d) A variety of ringtones **Limitations of cell phones** a) They may be prone to poor reception especially where they are reliant on internal antennas. b) Their use is dependent on the availability of electricity. The phone must be recharged after a number of days. In areas where accessibility to electricity is a problem, mobile phones may not be so much in use. c) The continuous use of mobile phones has raised fears of possible side effects of radioactive rays on human beings. d) Handsets are easily stolen due to their small size. **Television** The a public broadcasting medium that uses a point to multipoint technology to broadcast to any use within the range of the transmitter. In 1855, the idea of a television was perceived but only came into use in 1922 when a Scot, Loggie Baird, showed how moving images could be transmitted by electromagnetic waves.In 1931, the cathode ray tube (CRT) was invented in USA. The CRT transforms beams of electrons into visible images on the screen. This led to development of modern television.The first television broadcasting service was launched in 1936 by BBC.I 1942, Baird invented the colour transmission.In Kenya, broadcast television began after a television station was opened in 1970. This was the Voice of Kenya. Kenya was connected to worldwide television via Longonont Satellite Station in1972. In 1990, KTN, the second channel was introduced in Kenya **Cable Television** Cable television, a commercial service that links televisions to a source of many different types of video programming using Coaxial cables, was introduced in Kenya in 1994. The television users with personal satellite dishes can access satellite programming directly without a cable installation.Recently, the digital television (DTV) was invented. This is the transmission of audio and video of digital signals, in contrast to analog signals Television is an important means of communication since it is an audio-visual device. **Its importance can be summarized as follows;** a) It conveys news and information from all over the world more vividly than other means of communication such as radio. b) It is a source of entertainment as it shows music and drama programmes. c) It is a device that may be used in educational broadcasting. Some educational programmes are broadcast on television. For example, programmes that sensitize people on HIV and AIDS pandemic. d) It is used in commercial advertisement by manufacturers and companies thus enabling them to sell their products. e) It is the best means of transmitting ideas since it commands attention. f) It is a source of employment in the television stations. g) Television has enabled humankind to bridge the gap of real-time communication between different time zones in the world. **Disadvantages.** a) TV can only be viewed where there is electricity. It is expensive to install solar panels in areas where there is no electricity. The car batteries that may be used require constant charging. b) Pornographic programmes have eroded cultural values, especially among the youth. Such programmes originate in the west and the youth want to imitate what they see. c) Watching violent programmes has created the culture of violence among the youth. For example, watching of wrestling and violent movies. d) Some advertisements encourage deviant behavior. For example, advertisements of alcohol and cigarettes. e) Watching television can sometimes become addictive in some homes thus limiting the time to participate in other activities. **Radio.** The invention of the radio was a significant development in the electronics industry. In 1864, an English mathematical physicist, clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) suggested that there was the existence of waves.In 1888, a German, Heinrich Rudolph Hertz, (1857-94) demonstrated the existence of electromagnetic waves (vibrations) that travel through space, which were named after him. These waves could be used in wireless communications. In 1901, an Italian, Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) invented the radio and sent a radio transmission across the Atlantic from poldhu in Cornwall to Saint John, Newfoundland, Canada.The radio gained prominence during the World War I as it was used to communicate.The Marconi Company made the first radio broadcast in Britain in 1920.The British Broadcasting Company (BBC) was set up in London in 1922.Kenyas Radio Broadcasts before independence depended on the BBC. The VOK began to air programmes after independence. In 1990, VOK changed its name o KBC. In 1995, the FM meter Band was launched thus leading to an increase in radio stations **Importance of radio** a) Radio is easy to access since people can afford to buy the device. b) News and information from the radio is quickly received throughout the country c) It can also be accessed by the illiterate people who can listen and understand the radio news if broadcast in the language they can understand. d) Radio is used to enhance communication in transport systems like motor vehicles, railway, ships and airplanes. e) Radios are sometimes used to broadcast educational programmes and important government communications on issues like health, agriculture and family planning. f) The radio is a source of entertainment. E.g through Music and drama programmes. g) Radio can be used by manufacturers and companies to advertise their products thus stimulating business. h) Radio communication has enhanced space exploration. Radio signals are used to communicate with space vehicles. **Telegraph** This is a device or process by which messages are passed over a distance, especially using radio signals or coded electrical signals.Telegraph messages are sent by a code in which numbers, letters and punctuation marks are represented by a combination of dashes and dots.The earliest code to be used was the Morse code which evolved into the international Morsecode.A message sent by a telegraph was called a telegram. Radio invention made it possible for wireless telegraphy.Samuel Morse (1791-1892) is credited for the invention of the electric telegraph. In 1837, Morse made the first crude telegraph and by 1844, he successfully sent a telegraph over line.By 1845, the first public telegraph was operating between Washington and Baltimore.In 1851, the first telegraph cable was laid under the English Channel between London and Paris.In 1866, the Trans- Atlantic cable was established.In 1872, most cities in the world were linked by telegraph. **Disadvantage.** ~ Communication through the telegraph could be rendered unreliable where accidents and poor weather could cut telegraph cables. **Internet.** This is a computer-based global communication network system that links thousands of computers using telephone lines. Currently Mobile phones are also used in internet communication.Internet forms one of the inexpensive and fastest communication means in the world today which has gained popularity..Internet was introduced in the 1970s. Currently there are over 4000 million users of internet in the world today with its popularity being manifested in the social media networks like facebook, Twitter. **Results of internet.** a) Education has been developed since research can be done on the internet. b) E-commerce can be done on the internet hence enhancing the sale of goods and services. c) The running of government operations can be done on the internet since the government may use it for internal communication, distribution of information and automated tax processing. d) Internet has led to expansion of Business as people use it to interact with other business people. e) Individuals use the internet to communicate through e-mail or other social network platforms such as facebook, Twitter, Skype, etc.Electronic Mail. (E-mail)This kind of communication is also reliant on internet. The communication is done using either computer or mobile phones with the help of a modem. E-mails first came into widespread use in 1990s and has today become a major contributor to business development. It has taken the lead ahead of telephone, fax, radio and television in communication. **Facsimile transreceiver (fax)** This is a method of transmitting text over telephone network. A written, printed or pictorial document is scanned then sent and reproduced photographically at the destination. The message /picture is transmitted within 30 seconds. The Fax machine was developed by a german named Arthur Korn in 1902 and was commercialized in 1926. **Telex** This is system of direct dial teleprinter which uses a keyboard to transmit typed text over telephone lines to similar terminals **Satellites** A Satellite is a spacecraft or an artificial device orbiting the earth, moon or another planet, transmitting back to earth scientific information. It is launched at a velocity of at least 28,960 km per hour (escape velocity) to enable it overcome gravitational pull of the earth and thus remain in space.In 1680, a British Scientist, Isaac Newton, introduced the idea of artificial satellites.The first message to be transmitted by satellite was the Christmas greeting by President Dwight D Eisenhower of the USA in 1958.In 1969, the first television pictures were relayed around the earth by satellites from Apollo II astronauts. In October 1957, USSR sent sputnik I, the first satellite into the orbit. In the same year, the first living passenger, a little dog called Laika, was carried into space by a satellite.In 1961, a Russian Yuri Gagarin went into space on board of a satellite.In 1969, an American, Neil Armstrong, in his spacecraft Apollo I, landed on the moon.In 1981, the US released the first space shuttle which is manned, airplane like craft which orbits the earth.In 1983, Challenger, the space shuttle, released a satellite into space. In 1986, an accident occurred on the space shuttle, Challenger, killing seven Astronauts **Pagers/beepers** These are portable communication message devices. In using it, the person sending the message uses a phone and calls a pager number. The impact of telecommunications today. a) Telecommunication has revolutionized communication through enabling faster and easier communication between individuals. This has increased interaction and therefore international understanding. b) Telecommunication has enhanced information management e.g the use of computers for information storage and processing and the internet in communication. c) Telecommunication devices are also sources of entertainment. Radios and television broadcast music and movies to entertain people. d) Telecommunication systems like television bring reality to the viewers by transmitting live pictures. e) Telecommunication devices enhance cultural exchange and understanding through showing programmes from other countries. This helps people to appreciate other peoples culture and even enrich their own. f) Telecommunication systems have promoted water and air transport. Ships at sea and airplanes use these devices to send signals to guide captains and pilots. g) Telecommunication systems have made world trade and businesses more effective and efficient. People can quickly place orders for goods and get news of world markets and commodity prices. h) Telecommunications has enabled organizations, government institutions and individuals to access information and programmes at their convenience. This has led to effective management and good governance. i) Countries have also improved their security systems by using radio and radio calls and mobile tracking systems to combat crimes. j) Modern war fare has been revolutionized. Modern weapons depend on telecommunication services that provide accurate and reliable information. For example, satellites are used to guide missiles. k) Remote areas are no longer inaccessible thanks to telecommunications. People can communicate using cell phones even from the most remote areas of a country. l) Telecommunication systems have promoted space exploration. Man has been able to send spacecraft to the moon, mars and Venus using communication satellites. m) Telecommunication is a source of employment in many countries. Many people offer services, operate systems and maintain them. n) Governments earn revenue from telecommunication systems. This revenue promotes economic development. For example taxes collected from licensing of service operators, manufacturers of telecommunication systems etc. **Negative attributes to telecommunication**. a) Telecommunication has promoted international social crimes such as fraud, drug trafficking and terrorism. b) Some forms of telecommunication promote immorality among children and the youth in the world through watching of pornographic materials. c) Some telecommunication devices cannot be accessed by many people due to the expense of acquisition and installation. d) Telecommunication devices have an addictive effect for many users. This affects speed of development in developing countries AS people sit for long hours watching television instead of engaging in productive activities. e) Mobile phone users risk suffering from effects of the constant exposure to radioactive rays which may cause certain types of cancer. **Print media** This refers to all that is printed or written down and published. For example, journals, books, newspapers, magazines etc. **Newspapers** It is an unbound publication produced at regular intervals and devoted primarily to current events and advertisements. Before printing was invented, the oldest newspaper, The Siloam Inscription,(a stone on which news were recorded) was in circulation among the people of Mesopotamia at around 700 BC.The Chinese court journal, Tsing Pao, published in Peking in AD 500 was another early form of newspaper.The Roman Bulletin, Acta Diurna, used by Emperor Julius Ceaser from 60BC to post government daily announcements was also an early form of newspaper.Printing was invented by a german, Johannes Gutenberg, in the 15th century. The first publication, Strasbourg Relations, was published in 1609The London Daily Post also known as the Public Advertiser was published by Henry Woodfall and his son Sampson Woodfall in 18th c. The London Times was first published as the Daily Universal Register by John Walter in 1785. It changed its name to Times in 1788.In 1900, C Arthur founded the Daily Express. The first newspaper in Kenya was the African Standard founded by Alibhai Mullas Jeevanjee, in Mombasa in 1902. It later changed its name to the east African standard in 1905. And moved its operations from Mombasa to Nairobi in 1910.in 1928, Jomo Kenyatta published a local newspaper in Kikuyu, Muigwithania aimed at spreading the views of the Kikuyu central Association and promote kikuyu culture.The Daily Nation was established by the Aga Khan in 1960In 1983, the Kenya Times was founded by Hilary Ngweno and later bought by KANU and owned jointly with a Briton Robert Maxwel **Types of Newspapers**. ***Daily Newspapers*** These print atleast one edition every weekday. Some print morning and evening edition when necessary. Examples of daily newspapers include the Daily Nation, The standard, the Toronto Star and The Los Angeles Times. ***Weekly Newspapers*** These are published once a week. They contain news of interest to people in a smaller area, maybe a city or a neighborhood. For example the east African in Kenya and the weekly Telegraph in Britain. ***Special interest Newspapers*** They concentrate on news of special interest to a particular group for example an ethnic community, a corporation or a trade organization. They can be daily, weekly or monthly. ***Periodicals*** These are publications released at regular intervals and containing news, feature articles, poems, fictional stories etc. they also contain photographs and drawings. Periodicals aimed at general audience are called magazines.Periodicals differ from newspapers in that whereas newspapers deal with sometimes daily news and are unbound, periodicals like magazines and journals focus on more specialized material and deal with news in form of summaries or commentaries. They are printer on finer paper with smaller bound pages and issued at a longer interval than a day when compared to newspapers. ***Magazines*** These are periodical publications with specialized information on particular issues. They are published fortnightly, weekly or monthly.The oldest magazine is Eileens Oxford Gazette published in 1665, later became the London Gazette.The first periodical to use the word magazine in its Title was the Gentleman Magazine published in 1731 in Britain. The oldest magazine in Kenya is the Kenya Official Gazette (1900-1963), renamed the Kenya Gazette after independence. Other were the Leader of the British East African Company, Wathiomo Mukinyu by Consolata Catholic Missionaries in Nyeri, Tangaza by Harry Thuku, the East African Chronicles and the Colonial times by the Asian Journals These are periodicals with a narrower target audience such as scholarly publication. They specialize in particular themes or professions. For example the Review of Political Economy, Canadian Journal of African Affairs, the East African Journal of Social Sciences and the East African Medical Journal. **DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIES** Industry is defined as the skill of making other products from raw materials. It involves extraction and processing into finished products of raw materials **Early Sources of Energy.** Energy is the ability to do work. The following are the early sources of energy that can be identified. **Wood.** Wood developed as a source of energy after the discovery of fire. It was used as follows; a) Making fire which provides heat to warm people during cold seasons lighting, to cook roots and roast meat, for hunting(bushfires), tool-making to harden tips, means of communication, food preservation b) Charcoal made from wood fuel provided heat that was used for steaming water to provide steam power for steam engines during the industrial revolution. This is a form of energy still in use today since it is cheaper and easily available. **Wind**. Wind was used to drive sailing ships during the trade between East African Coast and the Far East.Windmills were used in China to grind grain and process foods They were also used to pump water from polders in Netherlands.Windmills are also used to generate electricity. Windmills are mainly used in areas with fewer trees like in Isiolo, Garissa, Wajir and Mandera.However the use of wind as a source of energy is disadvantaged by its being irregular and inconsistent in direction and strength. **Water.** Water has been harnessed to produce HEP. Water was used to turn wooden propellers (water wheels) which in turn turned grindstones to grind grains into flour.In England, it was used in the Textile and paper industry to turn spinning machines.In Italy water- powered machines were used to make copper pots, weapons of war, to spin silk and to sharpen various tools. Water also is not reliable as a source of energy since the levels may be too low during dry weather for HEP production. **Uses of metals in Africa** The age of metals in Africa is divided into the Bronze and Iron Age. Man moved from the Stone Age to the age of metals because metals had the following advantages; a) Metallic tools were more durable. They could not break easily. b) Cutting edges of metals could be sharpened. c) Malleable Metals could be heated and reworked into deferent usable designs when need arose d) Metals are not prone to waste. Broken pieces can be smelted and reworked into useful items. For example a broken spear into an arrow. The following are examples of metals that were used in Africa. **Gold** This was the first metal to be used by humankind. It was used in Meroe, Egypt, Wangara in Ghana and in Central Africa. Gold is malleable and therefore it could be easily moulded into the desired shape without smelting it. Its softness however implied that tools made from gold could bend easily. It was also heavy and could not be found everywhere. **Uses of Gold** a) It was used to make ornaments and decorations. In Egypt, it was used to make jewellery like rings, bangles and bracelets. b) It was used to make utensils, such as plates, vases and drinking vessels. c) It was used to make swords and flint knife handles among the rich in Egypt. d) It was used to make coins in Egypt. e) It was used as a trade item in East, central and West Africa f) It was used to make weapons such as sword and knife blades. g) Gold was also a measure of wealth in Egypt. **Copper** Though quite soft, copper as harder than Gold and could make better tools. The Egyptians were the earliest people to use copper by 3000 BC.The metal could further be hardened by mixing it with other metals to form alloys during smelting. **Uses of copper** a) Making utensils and containers such as pots and pans. b) The Egyptians used copper to make axes, tools, Chisels, Pins and fish hooks. c) It was used to make ornamental bangles, rings, helmets, needles, wire chains and statues. d) It was used as a medium of exchange in the form of copper bars. e) It was used to make daggers (weapons). f) It was used as a trade commodity. Those with copper exchanged it with other goods that they did not have. g) It was used to make alloys like Bronze and Brass. ***Bronze.*** Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin which makes it harder than copper. It was used during the Bronze Age. In Africa Bronze was used among the Yoruba, Dahomey and Asante in Nigeria and in Benin. And also in Egypt. Benin was the centre of Bronze. **Uses of Bronze.** a) Making stronger weapons such as shields, spears, arrowheads, swords and daggers. b) Making sculptures and decorations. For example, in Benin it was used to make objects for religious ceremonies, masks and decorating the kings palace. It decorated temples, palaces and pyramids in Egypt. c) Making knives, containers, pans and vases. d) It was a store of wealth. e) It was used to make tools, shields and chariots. **Disadvantages of Bronze.** a) The tools lost their sharpness and became blunt quickly since the metal was relatively soft. They required constant sharpening. b) Bronze was not cheap. The mixture of copper and yin had to be acquired through trade thus making bronze expensive. c) It was difficult to get an appropriate proportion of each of the two metals. Iron. **Two theories that explain the origin and spread of iron working in Africa are**; 1) It was first introduced in North Africa from the Middle East by the Phoenicians and the Assyrians, and then spread to west, East Central and South Africa. 2) The art of iron working probably developed independently in Africa as evidenced by the Archaeological evidence in Buhaya (the oldest Iron Age site that existed between 5th and 6th C AD ) , North West of Tanzania. The Buhaya iron is associated with the pottery style known as Urewe-ware. The Hittites were the first people to smelt and use iron in around 1500BC. The skill then spread to the Assyrians. The idea then spread to Africa between 400 and 500 BC and became widespread in the Nile Valley.By 5th c it had spread upto Meroe (the Birmingham of Africa) then to Ethiopia. From Carthage and Tunisia, it spread to West Africa, at Taruga in Nigerias Jos plateau at around 580BC, then to Lake Chad by 500 AD **Ways in which the iron culture spread in Africa**. 1) Through wars of conquest e.g. Egypt versus Assyrians where the Assyrians forced the Egyptians to learn to use iron from Meroe to make strong weapons. 2) Trade e.g. the Mesopotamians traded with Africans. The North African then traded with the West Africans, thus spreading the iron smelting technology across the Sahara. 3) Intermarriages e.g. Arabs and Africans intermarried and hence a new iron culture and technology developed. 4) Through learning and acquiring the technology from neighbors. 5) Increased demand for iron tools for agriculture, weapons and iron products increased trade in iron. 6) Migrations. E.g in east Africa where the Bantus and nilotes arrived from West African region with the iron culture which they introduced to east Africa. 7) Travelers and messengers who gave out and received the gifts of iron **Uses of Iron** a) It was used as medium of exchange. Iron bars were used as currency. b) To make agricultural tools such as hoes and pangas this increased food production. c) Weapons such as spears and arrows were made of iron, which strengthened some communities while others who lacked the same were easily defeated. d) Iron was used as a trade item where those who did not have it acquired it through barter trade. e) It was used for storing wealth. Smithers used iron bars as a measure of value. **Effects of iron working** a) It promoted empire building. Many kingdoms and empires relied on strong iron, weapons to fight expansionist wars e.g. Egypt, Benin and Mwene Mutapa empires. b) It led to migrations especially of the Bantus who war able to protect themselves during the journeys using iron weapons. c) It promoted agriculture since large tracts of land could now be used to produce more food using stronger tools. d) Adequate food resulted in population increase and later migration to areas with sparse population. e) It resulted in specialization and division of labour as some people became iron smelters while others engaged in other activities like trade. f) It stimulated construction and building works using stronger metals like iron. Better houses, temples and bridges were built. g) Metal technology also had an impact on religion in that metals began to be used when performing religious rites and in royal palaces e.g. the golden stool among the Asante. h) Trading and industrial towns developed within and around the major mining centres like Meroe Axum, in Ghana, in Zimbabwe and in Benin. i) Trade was promoted in that sometimes iron was used as currency and others became important items of long distance and regional trade. **INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN EUROPE**. The Industrial Revolution was a period from 1750 to 1850 where changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural conditions of the times. It began in the United Kingdom, and then subsequently spread throughout Western Europe, Northern America, Japan, and eventually the rest of the world.The industrial revolution in Europe occurred in two phases;The old phase was from 175-1850 and began in Britain and spread to other European countries like France (1825), Germany (1840), Belgium (1870) and Russia (1890). In USA, it began after the American civil war of 1861 to 1865. In Japan it began in 1900. In Kenya, it is hoped to be done by 2030. **Characteristics of industrial revolution in Europe** a) The use of machines to replace human and animal labour. b) The use of steam power as a new source of energy to replace water, wind and animal power. c) Increased exploitation and use of coal, iron and steel. d) The rise of the factory system in owns instead of the cottage industries in homes. e) The development of better forms of transport including the use of railways, roads and water. f) Improved living standards and an increase in the human population who required more manufactured goods. g) The production of goods on large scale. Machines worked faster than human labour. h) The development of science and the application of scientific knowledge in production. i) There was development of trade as manufactured goods were sold locally and abroad. j) The rise of modern capitalism that provided enough wealth which was then invested back into industry. k) The growth of trade Union Movements to carter for the rights of industrial workers. **Uses of Various Sources of Energy** **Coal** This is a compact black or dark brown, carbonaceous rock which is a fuel and source of coke, coal gas and coal tar.Abraham Darby invented the process by which coal was turned into coke in 1709 thus discovered that coal produced immense heat. Coke was used to smelt iron. **Uses of coal** a) To heat water to high temperatures so as to produce steam. b) To provide lighting. c) To drive steam engines in factories. Some generators depended on coal heat to produce steam. d) To drive locomotives. This promoted transport. e) It was a raw material in the manufacturing of dye and pharmaceutical products. **Disadvantages of Coal** a) It is bulky and transporting it is difficult. b) It produced too much smoke when used in locomotives. Also gases released during the burning of coal e.g sulphur dioxide polluted the air and caused acid rain. c) Coal was expensive to mine and to transport to the required destination. d) Coal mining was risky to miners who often lost their lives when mines collapsed and buried them. **Petroleum.(often referred to as oil)** Before 1850, oil was known to American farmers as a substance that affected food production in farms. It was an American Don, Bissel who carried out an analysis of oil samples at a university lab and established that oil was both a fuel and lubricant. The use of oil became widespread with the invention of the internal combustion engine by Gotlieb Daimler. **Uses of oil.** a) To power vehicles, aeroplanes and ships b) To generate electricity used in lighting and cooking. c) To run engines in industries d) Tar (Bitumen), a by-product of petroleum is used to tarmac roads. e) Greasing of metals in industries was also done by petroleum by-products such as grease. f) Certain petroleum chemicals are used in making of drugs, fertilizers, synthetic fibre and plastics. **Disadvantages of oil** a) For countries importing oil, it is expensive to transport. b) Prospecting for oil is quite expensive. c) Oil may also affect the environment, since extracting large quantities of petroleum may cause land to sink. **Steam.** Steam is boiling water turned into gas. It was used for first time around 100 AD in a steampowered engine developed by a Greek scientist called Hero.In the 16th century, Thomas Savery, a Briton, built a steam engine which could pump water out of a coal mine.In 1712, Thomas Newcomen improved Saverys design, though he design was still ineffective.In 1764, James Watt improved on Newcomens engine to make it more effective and by 1800, 320 of Watts engines were in use in Britain.In 1801, Richard Trevithick installed one of Watts engines in a road vehicle. Three years later, he produced a steam-driven locomotive that ran on rails.In 1830, George Stephenson improved on Trevithicks work and invented the first steam locomotive, the rocket. In all these engines, coal was used to produce steam. **Uses of steam** a) It was used to drive heavy machinery in factories and to turn turbines that generated power for industrial use, e.g driving, spinning and weaving machines. b) It was used for pumping water out of coal mines. c) It was used in steam powered locomotives and ships. d) The massive temple doors in Egypt were only opened using steam. **Electricity** Electricity was discovered by an English Scientist called Michael Faraday (1791-1861) in 1831 when he invented the electric Dynamo.His principal of electromagnetic induction was the beginning of both the dynamo and the electric Motor. The energy used energy from coal, oil, steam or water to produce electricity. The use of electricity became widespread from 1900. **Uses of electricity** a) Lighting. b) Heating and cooking. c) Powering machines in factories. d) Communication. Electric signals are used in communication gadgets. e) Powering transport vehicles such as electric trains and electric cars. **Disadvantages of electricity** a) It can be dangerous if not properly installed or used. b) The generation and distribution of electricity is very expensive thus making its use limited to fewer people in developing countries. **Other sources of energy** **Atomic energy** In 1896, A French physicist, Antoine Henri Beckquerel (1852 -1903), discovered that uranium produces radiation or energy in waves. (Radioactivity). This was the birth of the development of Atomic energy.In 1938, Hahn and Stressman discovered the process of Atomic fusion which leads to production of Atomic energy.In 1942, a group of scientists led by Enrico-Fermi at the university of Chicago, USA, built the first Nuclear research Station which resulted in the invention of the nuclear reactor and later the discovery of an Atomic Bomb like one which was used Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.In Belgium and France, 60% of the electricity is produced from atomic power. However, atomic energy when used in war can be very fatal.Radioactivity also endangers both animal and plant life.Polluted air, where radioactivity has taken place causes fever, diarrhea and death. For example the radioaction accident in 1985 at Three Mile Island in the USA and at Chernobyl near Kiev in Ukraine in 1986 had fatal consequences. **Solar Energy.** It is obtained directly from the sun and is used to dry firewood, clothes and to cook food. In 1714, Antoine Lavoisier made a solar furnace which could melt metals.An engine using solar power was used to run a printing press in Paris in 1880.The use of solar water heaters was widespread in USA by 1900.In 1954, the first solar cell which turned sunlight into electricity was made. The energy was then used to heat water and generate electricity. **Uses of Solar energy.** a) Drying agricultural products. b) Distilling of salty water to get salt crystals. c) Heating water in homes and industry d) Heating and lighting buildings e) Cooking using solar cookers f) Irrigating using solar water pumps, g) Powering satellites in space. **Advantages of solar energy** a) It is clean and is available in places where sunlight is readily available. b) It is natural and therefore free, non-pollutant and inexhaustible source of energy. **Iron and steel** Iron was not really a source of energy but the industrial revolution was dependant on the availability of iron **Uses of iron** a) Production of machines for textile industry. Water pipes and ploughs were made of iron. b) Production of steam engines. c) Building of trains, railway lines ships, wheels, bridges and coach frames.In an attempt to overcome the disadvantages of iron (it was too heavy and could rust easily), in 1856, an Englishman, Henry Bessemer produced steel out of Iron and Carbon. (Steel is an alloy of iron and Carbon and is lighter, flexible, stronger and harder than iron).Stainless steel, commonly used in cutlery is an alloy of Steel and Chromium. **Uses of steel** a) The construction of rail lines, bridges, cars and ships. b) The manufacturing of machinery especially in the agricultural and industrial sector. c) Reinforcement of concrete in buildings and roofing houses. d) Making of containers and utensils. **INDUSTRIALIZATION IN BRITAIN** This change, which occurred between 1750 and 1830, happened because conditions were perfect in Britain for the Industrial Revolution. The transformation was facilitated by the following factors; a) Availability of coal and iron ore which served as a basis for heavy industries. Coal was a source of energy for use in the industries. Iron was used in the manufacture of machinery. b) The agrarian revolution ensured that important raw materials were available for the industries and also made food more available for the many factory centres c) Existence of a large population which provided steady internal market for the manufactured goods/domestic local markets. There was also Availability of external markets in her colonies for the industrial produce. d) Existence of cottage industries which acted as a base for industrial take-off in Britain. It was easier to turn to mass production of goods on the basis of the small scale production in cottage industries. e) Due to the enclosure act, many peasants became available to offer unskilled labour especially following their displacement from the rural areas. f) Political stability and strong leadership that existed at the time created a condusive environment for investments when compared to other European countries. g) Well developed transport and communication network e.g railway, canals, bridges, harbours and roads which promoted industrialization. h) Existence of good banking and insurance systems which gave financial help and security to the industries. i) Britain had a strong navy that guarded her trade routes thus protecting her merchants from foreign competition. j) Policy of free trade encouraged industrialization/ existence of the merchant and middle class who formed pressure groups that forced the government to adopt measures favoring their industries.britain had no internal customs barrier to hurt her industrial growth. k) Availability of wealth/capital that stimulated industrial revolution. Britain had accumulated a lot of wealth from her trade with other countries and her colonies in America and Africa.e.g. The steam engine was made in Britain by a wealth Briton. l) Availability of industrial raw materials in her vast colonies. **INDUSTRIALIZATION IN CONTINENTAL EUROPE.** The Industrial Revolution on Continental Europe came a little later than in Great Britain. **Reasons why other European countries delayed in the industrialization process.** a) The political upheavals in France, Germany and Italy were responsible for the delay in the take- off of industrialization. b) The existence of a feudal economy in which the peasant farmers could not afford to buy industrial goods nor raise capital to invest in industry. c) The system of farming implied that inadequate raw materials came from the farms thus making it difficult for industrial development. d) Their system of transport was not developed. e) Unlike Britain, these countries did not have an enterprising class of people and scientists ready to take up the task of industrial investment and invention. **Factors that led to industrial development in continental Europe** a) Political stability and strong leadership that followed the unification of Italy and Germany and end of Napoleonic rule in France created a contusive environment for investments when compared to other European countries. Feudalism was also abolished. b) The agrarian revolution that had taken place in continental Europe ensured that the countries had raw materials for their industries. Other strategic raw materials like coal and iron were readily available. c) There was adequate capital from the rich traders who willingly invested in industry. Britain also gave loans to the European countries to industrialize. d) Existence of good banking and insurance systems which gave financial help and security to the industries. e) Existence of a large population which provided both skilled and unskilled labour required by the industries. f) The European governments supported the industrial ventures that were aimed at enhancing economic development. French and Germany governments gave tax concessions and subsidies to encourage industrialization. g) Existence of a steady internal and external market for the manufactured goods/there was a high European population that consumed most goods locally. h) Well developed transport and communication network e.g. better roads, railway and water transport which meant that industrial workers, raw materials and finished goods could be transported easily. i) Countries in continental Europe had vast sources of energy such as coal, steam power and electricity which enhanced industrial development. j) The development of new skills in science and technology facilitated industrial growth. Some European countries like France and Germany sent their people to Britain to acquire skills and ideas in science and also invited English technicians to their countries. **Effects of the industrial revolution in Europe** a) Creation of employment opportunities. Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in the new mills and factories. b) Emergence of Factories and urbanization. Industrialization led to the creation of the factory system was largely responsible for the rise of the modern city, as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of employment in the factories. c) Improved Standards of living. Living conditions and health care improved during the 19th century. The famines that troubled rural areas did not happen in industrial areas. d) Population increase. As living conditions and health care improved during the 19th century, Europes population doubled every 50 years. Infant mortality reduced. e) Local and international trade developed. Manufactured goods were sold locally while others were exported to America. The industries also created market for raw materials from Africa and Asia. f) European economies became diversified as a result of industrial growth. This led to specialization e.g. traders, bankers, mechanics and agriculturalists. g) Development and use of machinery in agriculture led to increased production h) Improvement in Transportation and technology. The expansion of business and factories expanded Canals, highways and railways were expanded. i) Large scale production of a wide range of goods. new methods of farming , such as the use of fertilizers and new crop breeds were developed j) The industrial revolution promoted development of science and technology. There was increased utilization of knowledge in production of goods as well as scientific inventions such as invention of electricity. k) The emergence of trade union movement. The Industrial Revolution concentrated labour into mills, factories and mines, thus facilitating the organization of combinations or trade unions to help advance the interests of working people. l) Eventually effective political organization for working people was achieved through the trades unions who began to support socialist political parties that later merged to become the British Labour Party. m) It led to Political corruption - the amount of money generated by the Industrial Revolution created a class of super rich who could buy any politician or process. n) Environmental damage - there were few if any rules regarding how resources could be removed and used. The air was horribly polluted from factories, as was the soil and rivers. o) There was increased exploitation of natural resources in Europe during the revolution. Iron, coal and steel production increased. p) Industrial revolution was accompanied with economic Exploitation of people. While jobs were created, sometimes the jobs were dangerous and people died. Harsh working conditions, Child labour, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were prevalent. q) Rise of unemployment. The rapid industrialization cost many craft workers their jobs. Many weavers found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines to produce cloth. r) The industrial revolution was responsible for the scramble and partition of Africa. The colonies produced raw materials for industries in Europe and also acted as markets for goods processed in Europe. For this reason, many European nations sought to have as many colonies as possible. **The scientific Revolution** Science is the systematic study of the nature and behaviour of the material and physical universe based on observation. The scientific revolution refers to the history of science in the early modern period, where sudden development in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, medicine and chemistry transformed views of society and nature. **Causes of scientific revolution** a) Discovery of the New World. Exploration/conquest leading to discovery of new plant/animal life. Traditional link between navigation and astronomy + great advances made by Portuguese navigators fueled an interest in learning more about the stars b) Invention of the Printing Press, allowed for rapid dissemination of scientific knowledge. Numerous books and newsletters were in circulation keeping people informed of science c) Rivalry among Nation-States. Constant warfare among nation-states pushed for scientific development by placing an importance on technology, or applied science. Powerful leaders of nation-states funded scientific development. d) Renaissance / birth of knowledge. During this period, Human interest in the classical world increased. Renaissance time made people to develop interest in research/ learning. e) The need to solve their daily life problems like shortages, disease etc. necessity is the mother of all inventions. f) Financial support for governments and individuals. Governments and individuals financed scientific research. g) Religion failed to answer all questions. This sometimes betrayed mans belief in supernatural power thus emphasizing research. **Scientific inventions**. Scientific inventions have roots in the ancient civilization in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, China and India. Early inventions were witnessed in the field of medicine, astronomy, agriculture, medicine and mathematics as follows; a) The Egyptians discovered geometry which they used on farms. They discovered dead body preservation method (mummification). Build pyramids for their pharaohs using knowledge in mathematics. b) Greeks like Pythagoras contributed to mathematics, especially the right angled triangle as early as 200BC, Euclid did some work in geometry. Archimedes discovered how the lever works. Ptolemy is remembered for geographical work especially production of the Atlas. c) The Chinese made cloth from silk and developed acupuncture skills. They invented paper making in 70 AD. They made gunpowder and the calendar. d) The Indians invented the decimal system in mathematics. e) The Muslim Arabs developed the art of architecture as evidenced by the construction of unique mosques. **Period Inventor and invention** 1473-1543 Nicolas Copernicus a polish astronomer. He discovered that Celestial bodies possess uniform, circular motion around a central point. 1564 - 1642 Galileo Galilei. In 1609 the Italian mathematician invented the telescope and observed the universe. He accepted Copernican astronomy and the implicit necessity of a 'new' physics to replace Aristotelian mechanics. 1571 - 1630 Johannes Kepler. Used Brahe's data to confirm that the sun was the center of the universe and the earth and other planets revolved around it.1642 - 1727 Sir Isaac Newton). He explained theories of motion and inertia with the force of gravity. Newton also described the composition of light. 1743-1794 Antoine Lavoisier, a Frenchman. He showed that air was made of hydrogen and oxygen elements. He stated that chemical substances comprised different elements. 1766-1844 John Dalton, an English Teacher was the founder of modern chemistry and is famous for the atomic theory all matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms. 1706-1790 Benjamin Franklin (USA) he stated that lightning was a form of electricity. He came up with the theory of electricity and invented the lightning rod. 1791 - 1867 Michael Faraday creates the electric motor, and develops an understanding of electromagnetic induction, which provides evidence that electricity and magnetism are related. In 1831, he invented the electric dynamo, a machine which produced electricity from a magnet. 1799 - 1878 Joseph Henry's research on electromagnetic induction is performed at the same time as Faraday's. He constructs the first motor; his work with electromagnets leads directly to the development of the telegraph. **Impact of scientific inventions** **Impact of scientific inventions on agriculture** a) Food production has been increased thanks to the use of farm machinery, fertilizers, pest 1831-1979 James Clerk Maxwell pointed out that acceleration of electric charges emitted electromagnetic radiation. The ideas underlying Maxwells theories of electromagnetism describe the propagation of light waves in a vacuum. 1787-1854 . In 1827, George Simon Ohm determined that the current that flows through a wire is proportional to its cross sectional area and inversely proportional to its length or Ohm's law. 1876 Nicolaus Otto, A German traveling salesman named constructed the first practical internal combustion engine; it used a four stroke cycle of a piston to draw a fuel-air mixture into a cylinder, compress it, mechanically capture energy after ignition, and expel the exhaust before beginning the cycle anew. 1847-1869 Alexander Graham Bell, In 1876, at the age of 29, invented his telephone. 1701 Tull, Jethro invented a horse-drawn seed drill. 1764 Water frame invented by Richard Arkwright - the first powered textile machine. 1888-1946 John Logie Baird is remembered as the inventor of mechanical television (an earlier version of television). Baird also patented inventions related to radar and fiber optics. 1755 Robert Bakewell produces Leicester sheep through selective breeding methods. In 1769, Bakewell breeds Longhorn cattle through selective breeding 1786 Andrew Meikle, a Scottish engineer, develops threshing machine 1831 Cyrus McCormick invents the first commercially successful horse-drawn reaper for harvesting wheat 1837 John Deere develops and manufactures the first commercially successful cast -steel plough 1831 1860s John Fowler pioneers the use of engines for ploughing and drainage channels 1879 Anna Baldwin patents a milking machinea vacuum device connected to a hand pumpto replace hand milking. Invention receives a patent but not commercially successful. 1842 The first grain elevator is built by Joseph Dart in the U.S. 1850 Edward Quincy invents the corn picker 1764 Spinning jenny invented by James Hargreaves - the first machine to improve upon the spinning wheel. 1733 Flying shuttle invented by John Kay - an improvement to looms that enabled weavers to weave faster. 1779 Crompton invented the spinning mule that allowed for greater control over the weaving process. 1785 Cartwright patented the power loom. It was improved upon by William Horrocks, known for his invention of the variable speed batton in 1813. 1847 -1931 Thomas Alva Edison is Most famous for his invention of the electric incandescent light bulb. 1853 - 1937 Elihu Thomson. His experiments eventually led to the adoption of alternating current technology. 1913 Robert Adler. He is Most famous for his invention of the wireless TV remote control. 1856 -1943 Nikola Tesla is Recognized as one of the outstanding pioneers in the electric power field 1765-1825 Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1794. The cotton gin is a machine that separates seeds, hulls and other unwanted materials from cotton after it has been picked. 1895 Wilhelm Rntgen discovers x rays. 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie separate radioactive elements. 1898 Joseph Thompson measures the electron, and puts forth his "plum-pudding" model of the atom -- that the atom is a slightly positive sphere with small, raisin -like negative electrons inside. and control methods and scientific breeding. Hybrid seeds have been developed together with new animal breeds. b) Scientific inventions have stimulated scientific research in the field of agriculture. This is done in schools, agricultural institutes and colleges. c) Farming of perishable foods has been made possible due to invention of preservation methods for foods like canning and refrigeration. d) Increased food production has led to increase in population. There is increased food security. There is also increased trade. e) Biotechnology has contributed to diversification of agriculture leading to greater crop and animal production. f) Farming has been revolutionized from small-scale subsistence farming to large scale economic activity due to mechanization on farms **Negative impacts of scientific inventions on agriculture**. a) The consumption of chemically treated and stored food has raised concern for food related disease such as cancer and heart diseases b) Use of pesticides and fertilizers sometimes poses the challenges of cost. Some pesticides are toxic and therefore harmful to humans and animals. c) Consistence use of fertilizers impoverishes the soil fertility. The more the fertilizer is used the more the soil becomes infertile. d) Traditional crops are being threatened by biotechnology and development of hybrids. **Impact of scientific inventions on industry**. a) Large quantities of goods can be produced due to scientific inventions. This has led to enjoyment of economies of scale. b) Efficient sources of energy necessary for industrial production have been developed. New forms of energy such as nuclear, solar and electricity have been invented. c) Improvements in transport and communication have stimulated industrial development. Movement of labour, raw materials and manufactured goods is efficient. d) There has been increased exploitation of resources like factories, fisheries, minerals etc as factories yearn for raw materials due to increased production. e) The large scale manufacture of goods has led to growth of trade. This in turn has created wealth for industrialized nations. f) Space exploration has been enhanced through science. Satellites are used in photographing of the earths surface and in weather research. g) Science has revolutionized military technology. Dangerous weapons have been manufactured. h) There is faster dissemination and spread of ideas or knowledge and skills due to development of printing press, and internet development. i) Industries have created job opportunities. Exploitation of mineral deposits has created employment. **Negative impact of scientific inventions on industry** a) Scientific inventions in industry have led to industrial wastes and pollutants that contribute to environmental pollution. Smoke pollutes the air, machines cause noise pollution etc. b) Human life has suffered unnecessarily due to development of war weapons and accidents on roads and aeroplanes. c) Many people have been rendered unemployed due to development of machines. Impact of scientific inventions on medicine a) Discovery of various medicines to treat both animals and human diseases has boosted both curative and preventive measures in promoting health. b) Improved nutrition has reduced the number of disease that kills man. Population has there increased as a result of reduced death rate. c) Proper diagnosis of disease is now possible with the use of x-rays and other modern scientific methods. With accurate diagnosis, proper treatment can be given. d) The manufacture of various drugs has been facilitated by scientific discoveries. Many companies produce drugs that prevent and cure diseases. **Factors undermining scientific revolution in third world countries** a) Lack of enough funds for scientific research. b) High level of ignorance and illiteracy. c) The educational systems do not allow for development of inquisitive mind and development of interest in science. The system is not science oriented. d) The brain drain; the few specialized scientists have migrated to areas with greener pastures like Europe and America. e) There is too much dependence on developed countries for nearly everything manufactured or scientifically produced. f) Lack of adequate support from the government. This is clear in the type of budgetary allocations to scientific research. **Measures that can be undertaken to promote scientific research in third world** **countries.** a) Putting emphasis on the teaching of sciences in schools. b) Making available financial resources for scientific research. c) Emphasizing on competitions and congresses in schools and colleges. d) The government of Kenya has set up research institutions and centres of science and technology. e) Scientists have been trained locally and abroad on new knowledge in science and technology. f) International cooperation conferences in science, which bring scientists together, are organized and attended by Kenyan scientists. **Emergence of selected world industrial powers** **United States of America.** This is the third largest nation in the world after Canada and China Industrialization of the USA began in the mid 19th c and she had emerged as a major industrial power by mid 20th c. USA remains the only superpower in the world after collapse of USSR in 1990. **Factors influencing the industrialization of USA**. a) Abundance of natural resources like iron ore, oil from the oilfields of Texas, copper and coal. There were also agricultural raw materials like cotton, corn, wheat and Tobacco plus forest resources which boosted industrial development. b) Good transport and communication. The USA government developed transport systems in the country. For example railway (opened in 1869), roads, and water transport. Electronic communication was also developed. c) Availability of both skilled and unskilled labour some of which came from the immigrant population. The American system of education gave room for acquisition of necessary skills. d) There were scientific and technological advances to support the industrial process especially by the Europeans who moved to USA. The education system also promoted research which further boosted industrialization. e) Foreign investments in the 19th c from countries like Britain led to industrial development. f) The high American population was a source of domestic market for her industrial products. Her high quality products were also on high demand outside America. g) Enterprising citizens. The Americans were ready to venture into business. Some had good managerial skills. For example John Rockfeller ventured in the petroleum sector, Andrew Carnegie and James Hill in the steel and iron industry. Henry Ford in the mass production of cars. h) Long periods of political stability since her independence assured investors of security and thus paving way for industrialization. i) Availability of sources of energy like coal, petroleum, gas and HEP and later Atomic energy. j) The capitalism policy encouraged both local and external investors since it allowed private ownership of property. k) Government support. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1933-1945) and Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) provided capital to develop transport systems. l) The 1st and 2nd World wars. During the war period, European nations were unable to produce goods since they were busy fighting. This enabled USA to expand her market as she initially kept away from the war. **Germany** The unification of Germany took place in 1871 after which she began to emerge as an industrial power. **Emergence of Germany as an industrial power was aided as by the following** **factors.** a) Establishment of the customs union, Zollverein. This linked the german states and removed trade barriers hence leading to free trade and economic growth in Germany. Transportation of goods and communication was eased by the customs union. b) Germany was rich in coal which was an important source of energy for the industries. HEP and Atomic energy was also produced o boost industrialization. c) Abundance of natural resources like water and minerals like iron ore from Alsace and Lorraine, coal, oil and copper which were vital industrial raw materials. d) The large Germany population was a source of both skilled and unskilled labour. The system of education also ensured availability of skilled labourers. e) There was also a large domestic market from the large population. Her products were also on high demand from the rest of Europe. For example, her vehicles (Volkswagen, BMW and Mercedes Benz) f) Existence of good transport and communication networks of roads, railway and waterways. This ensured easy transportation of raw materials to factories and finished goods from industries to the market. g) Existence of long periods of political instability in Germany after unification in 1871 under the leadership of Otto Von Bismarck which ensured investor security. h) The availability of finance for industrial growth from the rich german citizens and from loans granted by USA in 1924. The Marshal Plan after 1945 was another source of finance. i) The existence of a hard working and enterprising people in Germany. For example, Krupp Meyer Thyssen who promoted the development of industries in steel. Egells and Harkoft Borsig made great contributions in the field of machinery. Germans industrialization was however interrupted during the two world war periods. At the end of world war Germany was able to recover and progress in industrial development. **Factors which enabled Germany to recover after world war two.** a) West Germany still had a high population which was an important resource in terms of labour. There were also a high number of immigrants from European countries like Turkey and Italy. b) The USA marshal Plan ensured that the required finance was available to assist her industries. c) Germany industries were not totally destroyed by the two wars. d) Industrial \unrests was not very common in Germany, and therefore, industrialization was not interrupted. e) Good leadership accelerated the industrialization process. Between 1949 and 1955, Germany chancellor Konrad Adenaur proved to be an able leader who encouraged industrial growth. **Japan.** Japan is a nation that has achieved a great deal in industrialization. In the 18c, Japan was faced with civil wars. Later she made contacts with the west, through which her leaders realized that industrialization could strengthen Japan as a nation. Great strides towards industrialization were made during the reign of Emperor Meiji from 1896. **Factors that enabled Japan to emerge as an industrial power** 1. She had enterprising citizens who were hard working and determined. They are always ready to undertake risks in business. The national motto just in time confirms their efficiency. 2. The Long period of political stability especially after World War II has promoted industrialization. 3. The role played by America in financing the industrialization process in Japan as a means of preventing her from falling under the influence of communists after world war II. This enabled Japan to build many industries in the post war period. 4. Japan is a country whose industrial growth has never been slowed down by industrial disputes. The Japanese work for life. When one is employed in Japan, they put the interest of the employer first. This therefore reduces industrial disputes. 5. The Japanese goods are always of high quality and affordable. For example the vehicles, thus ensuring a steady market both local and international. 6. The Japanese education system is technically oriented ensuring production of skilled. Unskilled manpower has been made availability thanks to the abolition of the policy of feudalism that enabled labourers to move from the farms to the industries. 7. Japan has a well developed transport and communication network of railway, roads, water transport, large airports and electric trains. This has enabled improved transportation of raw materials to factories and manufactured goods to markets 8. Existence of an industrial base. Before World War II, Japan had already attained a certain level of industrial development. Many industries were not completely destroyed during the war period. The industries were repaired after the war. 9. Japan has a highly developed renewable hydro-electric power given the existence of large and fast flowing rivers. 10. The government invited expatriates and deployed them to local industries. In 1870, a group of 100 Japanese were sent out to western European factories to learn. 11. Geographical factors. The countrys terrain did not favour agriculture thus making industrialization the best option to improve her economy. 12. The open investment policy encouraged the west to invest in her industrialization. The government encouraged foreign industrialists to plough back their capital and resources into the Japanese economy. **Industrialization in the third world countries.** The term Third world refers to developing nations of Africa, Asia and South America. Most of them are former colonies of European powers and there resources were used to develop the mother countries during the colonial period. **Reasons why many developing countries have lagged behind in industrialization**. a) Long periods of colonization relegated them to the role of suppliers of raw materials and as markets for industrial goods from developed nations at the expense of their own industries. b) Poor transport and communication systems has undermined industrialization since raw materials and manufactured goods cannot be transported to their various destinations. c) Inadequate capital. Most of the third world countries have poor agricultural-based economies which cannot support meaningful industrialization. d) Poor technology. The use of appropriate technology in third world countries is lagging behind and this hampers exploitation of natural resources and manufacturing of goods. e) Many developing countries face stiff completion from the industrialized nations that produce high quality products and have an advanced marketing system for their goods. f) High levels of illiteracy among majority of the population in developing countries leads to lack of technical and scientific skills necessary for industrial take off. g) The protectionist policies adopted by developing countries have discouraged private enterprises and foreign investment. Policies like nationalization and imposition of import duties discourage investors in many countries. h) High levels of poverty in third world countries mean low domestic market. Governments also spent most of their resources to provide for the basic needs of their citizens at the expense of industrialization. i) Many third world countries have been faced with political instability problem. This has hampered industrialization. There are numerous civil wars or cross-border conflicts in many countries. j) Third world countries often poor disaster management strategies. The devastating effects of natural disasters affect industrialization. k) Lack of skilled personnel. Many well trained people migrate to the developed nations in search of well paying jobs. Since independence however, some have made tremendous effort to industrialize. For example, South Africa, Brazil and India. **Brazil** The fourth largest nation in the world after Canada, China and USA, she was colonized by Portugal and attained her independence in 1882. In the last 25 years, she has been able to expand and diversify production of manufactured goods. **Her industrialization has been in four main sectors namely;** 1.***Petroleum and petrochemical industries***. She has petrochemical complexes based in the states of Balica, Rio Grande, Dosul and Sao Paulo. 2.***Motor vehicle industry***. The country has earned a lot of forex through the massive manufacture and sale of motor vehicles since 1997. 3.***Aircraft and aerospace industry***. The Brazilian Space Agency (AEB) and the National Institute of Space Research (NPE) have been involved in the Brazilian space programme which comprises the construction of satellites and launching of space craft. 4.***Electricity generation industry***. The main source of Brazilian electric energy is water. In 1996, 92 % of all her electricity power generation was HEP. **Factors that have facilitated industrialization in Brazil** a) Availability of Cheap and both skilled and unskilled labour from the countrys large population especially after the abolition of slave trade. b) Plentiful natural resources. For example mineral supplies like gold, coal, iron ore, uranium, and manganese etc, agricultural raw materials like coffee, sugarcane, cocoa and maize and forest resources are a great boost to industrialization c) Availability of hydro-electricity as early as 1905 to boost industrialization. Coal is also available. d) Foreign capital. There was heavy influx of foreign capital from countries such as the USA,Canada, Britain, Portugal and France which led to establishment of industries in the country. e) Improved transport and communication. Railway lines were constructed in most parts of Brazil thus opening the interior areas for the exploitation of natural resources and transportation of manufactured goods. f) Good economic policies adopted by President Getulio Vargas (1930-1945) have contributed to industrialization in Brazil. He encouraged the development of transport and communication. He encouraged the harnessing of HEP. He Provided loans and subsidies to certain industries. Adopted protectionist policies of imposing heavy duties on imports. He encouraged exploitation of oil. g) Development of banking in major Brazilian cities such as Manaus, Salvador, Brasilia and Sao Paulo facilitated provision of loans to individuals who wanted to venture in business. h) Large Internal and external markets. Increased Trade between Brazil and other countries has led to growth of external market to supplement the available market locally. i) The World War II which made it hard for her to import goods from Europe thus compelling her to manufacture her own goods. **Obstacles to industrialization in Brazil.** a) High levels of poverty (more than 40% of the population is poor) meaning low purchasing power. Governments also spent most of their resources to subsidize the basic needs of their citizens at the expense of industrialization. b) Inability to fully exploit her natural resources especially those found in low population zones like the south where labour for exploitation is lacking. c) Huge foreign debt. A lot of money is being used to service these debts at the expense of industrialization. d) Poor technology. The use of appropriate technology for exploitation of natural resources and manufacturing of goods is still lagging behind in Brazil. e) Stiff completion from the industrialized nations like USA and Western Europe that produce high quality products and have an advanced marketing system for their goods. f) The resources of Brazil are monopolized by the multinational companies that are based there. The government therefore has no freedom to exploit them for use in industries. **SOUTH AFRICA** She attained majority rule in 1994 after a long struggle against the apartheid regime. The country has achieved great strides in industrialization with many industries including iron and steel industries, engineering, locomotive, chemical, textile, cement, light industries and tourism **Factors influencing industrialization in South Africa** a) The country is endowed with mineral resources such as gold, diamonds, Iron etc. b) Availability of Cheap and both skilled and unskilled labour from the countrys large population. c) Availability of natural resources. For example mineral supplies like gold, lead, iron ore, uranium, manganese, Zinc, Bauxite, Tin, Chromium, Tungsten, Phosphate etc. some of these resources are in plenty and are exported to earn forex. d) Development of hydro-electricity has boosted industrialization. Coal is also available from the Witwatersrand. e) Development of transport and communication. Railway lines, water and road network have been improved thus opening the resources for the exploitation and for transportation of manufactured goods. Air transport is also well developed thus enhancing business operations. f) Availability of capital from her trade in other materials. g) Government support. The government has adopted sound economic policies that promote industrialization. For example imposing heavy tariffs on the imported commodities as a means of protecting local industries, encouraging foreign entrepreneurs to invest in the country and encouraging local investors. h) South Africa is endowed with a variety of tourist attractions like wildlife which boost the tourism industry. i) Large Internal and external markets. Increased Trade between South Africa and other countries especially after end of the apartheid rule has led to growth of external market to supplement the available market locally. **Challenges facing industrialization in South Africa.** a) Long periods of apartheid rule was accompanied with sometimes violent resistance and struggle for majority rule which created an atmosphere not conducive for investment b) The country suffered long periods of economic sanctions imposed by the United Nations between 1948 and 1994 which affected her manufactured goods that could not access external markets. c) There were rampant industrial strikes in the country, during the apartheid regime which affected industrialization. d) The HIV and AIDS scourge has ravaged the countrys labour force thus seriously undermining the industrial efforts. e) There is stiff completion from the industrialized nations in Western Europe that produce high quality products and have an advanced marketing system for their goods. f) High levels of insecurity which, at times, discourages would-be foreign investors. g) High levels of poverty in South Africa mean low purchasing power. Manufactured goods perform poorly locally. **India.** Since Indias independence from Britain in 1947, the country has continued to experience extensive industrialization **Factors that facilitated Indias industrialization**. a) Existence of good industrial base from the textile and leather industries. The British governor Lord Dalhousie also laid a good foundation for industrialization by promoting road construction and cotton growing. b) Also cottage industries like smithing and textiles existed in India long before colonialism. This formed the basis for modern industries c) Availability of Cheap and both skilled and unskilled labour from the countrys large population which is almost at a billion mark d) Existence of raw materials. For example mineral supplies like iron ore, manganese and coal allowed development of heavy industries. Cotton was also available as a textile industry raw material e) Development of energy sources like coal and hydro-electricity has boosted industrialization. Other sources of energy include oil, natural gas and nuclear energy.. f) Development of transport and communication. The great trunk road from Calcutta to Punjab and sea transport development has led to resource exploitation and transportation of manufactured goods. Communication services have also been greatly improved. g) Good technical and scientific education available in India has produced experts who are in great demand in industry and agriculture. h) Availability of capital from her trading contacts with European countries like Portugal, Britain, France and Holland. i) Good national development plans. In the first five-year development plan of 1951, the government adopted sound economic policies that prioritized agriculture especially modern farming. The second phase emphasized industrialization, especially decentralization if industries to high population areas where labour and market existed. j) The government has imposed protective tariffs on the imported commodities as a means of protecting local industries. k) Political stability. India has enjoyed a long period of political stability since her independence thus giving investors confidence. l) Development of banking in India has enabled farmers and industrialists to access credit facilities. **Challenges facing industrialization in India** a) Competition from goods manufactured in the developed countries; the developed nations produce goods of high quality than those manufactured by the Indian industries. b) High population in India requires that the government spare enough capital to feed the people. The government spends a lot of revenue in developing agriculture to feed her people. c) High poverty levels i.e. majority of the Indian population is poor and do not have adequate purchasing power for her manufactured goods/ the local market is therefore limited. d) Lack of efficient communication and transportation infrastructure hence poor movement of goods and labour. e) Natural calamities e.g. drought and floods that destroy raw materials for industries. f) Political conflicts e.g. with neighboring Pakistan, and the civil unrest hinders industrial development. **URBANIZATION** This is the process by which people are attracted to live in towns or large settlements. An urban centre is any area with a human population of 20,000 people or more. **Early Urbanization.** Some of the early urban centres in Africa included Cairo, Meroe/Merowe and Kilwa. Factors that influenced development of urban centres in Africa. a) Existence of transport routes-Meroe/Merowe located at an intersection of transport routes. b) Availability of water for irrigation which increased food production and influenced growth of towns e.g. Cairo. c) Industrial development areas of industries grew up as towns since they attracted laborers e.g. Cairo. d) Commercial activities like trade-location along trade routes. e) Strategic location which ensured security and thus ample growth e.g. Kilwa. f) Growth of religion some grew rapidly because they were religious centres. g) Mining led to development of towns e.g. Meroe, Johannesburg. **Cairo.** This is the capital city of Egypt. The city was founded in 969 AD when the conquerors from Tunisia, The Fatimid Dynasty invaded and conquered Egypt **Factors for the growth of Cairo** a) The Nile River provided water for domestic use and was also a means of transport. This enabled Cairo to grow. b) Availability of water for irrigation which increased food production and influenced growth of Cairo. c) Industrial development various industries developed in Cairo. Food processing industries and construction works. The industries attracted migrants from rural areas. d) Fertile Nile Valley. the Valley had adequate rainfall and the river always carried silt which it deposited downstream to provide e) The Suez Canal which was opened in 1869 opened a new trade route which encouraged the arrival of thousands of Europeans. Commercial, administrative and public buildings were constructed during this time. f) Commercial activities like trade-location along trade routes. The Strategic location along the Nile attracted caravans which would pass through Cairo from North, west and Central Africa g) The opening of the Aswan High Dam in 1902 enhanced food production through irrigation thus influencing Cairos growth. h) The effects of the two world wars which disrupted Egypts trade with other countries thus compelling her to find ways of substituting imports. This boosted industrialization i) Cairo is a cultural centre being home to treasures preserved from the early Egyptian civilization and Islamic culture in their museums. The city of a thousand Minarets. j) Cairo also grew as a centre of education and medicine. Several institutions of higher learning such as the University of Cairo, American University and Azar University contributed to this. **Functions of Cairo** a) It was a national capital and a political centre of the Arab world. b) It serves as the transport and commercial centre of North Africa and the Middle East. c) It is a recreational centre housing many recreational facilities like stadiums and entertainment halls d) Cairo has been a historical centre being the house to the Egyptian civilization for over 5000 years e) Cairo serves as an industrial centre. Many of these developed during the industrialization process. For example, textile, vehicle and communication equipment assembly plants. Cairo faces the following problems today; a) High population. Cairo is the largest city in Africa and the Middle East. One fifth of Egypts population stays in Cairo. In 1988, her population was 11 million. b) Scarcity of food. The high population in the city has caused food shortage. c) Unemployment. The number of unemployed people in Cairo is increasing every year mainly due to the high rate of migration to the city and the natural population increase. d) Housing problems. Between the Nile and the main airport, between 250,000 to 900,000 poor people have put up shanties. This area is commonly reffered to as the city of Death. e) Traffic jams. f) Pollution from the industries, vehicle exhaust, desert storms and garbage burning. g) High crime rate. This is mostly due to the high unemployment level Solutions to the problems facing Cairo. a) The food shortage problem is being tackled through reclaiming land for agriculture. The Aswan high Dam provides water for irrigation. b) The housing problem is being addressed by constructing industries in the suburbs to reduce the population in the city. c) Traffic jams have been eased through the launching of the Cairo Metro in 1987, which was Africas first subway system, which serves the Ramses station to the north and Helwan area to the south. It conveys 60,000 passengers per hour. **Meroe/Merowe.** This was the second capital of the kingdom of Kush and emerged as a city in 650 BC. It rose to become an important industrial centre and specifically iron working producing weapons, hunting and farming tools. **Factors for growth of Meroe.** a) Existence of transport routes-Meroe/Merowe was located at an intersection of transport routes (from east via the red sea and from north via Egypt). This promoted trade with other parts of the world. b) Abundance of wood fuel, from the heavily forested Blue Nile / white Nile intersection area, which was a key to the prosperity of the iron-working industry. c) Mining Merowe was located in a region endowed with a lot of iron. **Social effects of the growth of Merowe** a) The Merotic language developed to replace the Egyptian language previously used by the Nubian founders of Merowe. b) New architectural developments took place in the region. These were characterized by tombs where rulers were buried after death, ruins of temples, palaces and homes. c) Other industries developed besides the iron working industry. For example, weaving of cotton, cloth and pottery **Functions of Meroe during the colonial period** a) Meroe was a centre of iron working hence an early industrial centre. b) A mining centre since Meroe had iron ore, which it mined. c) A religious function since it had many temples where people worshipped their gods. The priests who headed the Meroe church had their headquarters in Meroe. d) It was a centre of trade. e) It was an administrative and political centre. f) Transport centre-major trade routes converged and radiated from Meroe. **Factors that led to decline of Merowe** a) The rise of Axum kingdom of Ethiopia which denied her access to the red sea. b) The increasing desertification of the region, perhaps due to the rapid deforestation. The city began declining in 350 BC. **Kilwa** The town is among the city states that developed along the east African coast. Her greatness was due to the Persian influence. One of its Shirazi rulers from Banadir Coast in Persia, Ali Ibn Hassan, transformed the town into a large city.The sultan erected a stone citadel to protect the island from external enemies. He also forced other conquered city-states to pay tribute to Kilwa.Later on Sultan al-Hassan Ibn Sulaiman I built the Great mosque of Kilwa in 1270 AD and a luxurious palace referred to by historians as Husuni Kubwa. **Factors influencing the growth of Kilwa** a) Exemplary leadership provided by the Shirazi Leaders who kept enemies off and forced the neighbouring city-states to pay tribute to Kilwa. b) The strategic location of Kilwa enabled her to attract merchants as it was a convenient stopping place. c) Monopoly of the sofala Gold Trade. The control of the Sofala Gold trade had fallen in the hands of Kilwa by 1300 AD d) The gleaming buildings of Kilwa such as the great Mosque and palace made her the Jewel of the Zenj Coast, minting her own coins to add to her prosperity.. the mosque became a tourist attraction later own **Functions of Kilwa.** a) It was a major trading centre flourishing mainly due to the gold trade. b) It was a major defence centre since it was heavily fortified against external aggression by a stone citadel. c) It was a religious centre. Mosques for Islamic worship were located at Kilwa e.g the great mosque. d) It was an administrative centre which housed palaces for the rulers and other rich people.However 14th C AD, Kilwas prosperity began to decline due to the following reasons. **Factors that led to the decline of Kilwa.** a) Disruption of the Gold trade/ civil wars among communities. b) Dynastic rivalries/ family feuds. c) Series of rebellions among some of the towns. d) Conquest by the Portuguese who even burnt the towns. **Factors that led to the collapse of early urban centres in pre-colonial Africa** a) Collapse of state system and kingdoms for example Kush collapse and the coastal city states. b) Collapse of trade and their economic systems e.g. the trans-Saharan trade and long distance trade. c) Collapse of Arab influence I east Africa and east Africa. d) Impact of Portuguese conquest leading to destruction of towns like manda and decline of others. e) Introduction of new types of trade e.g. legitimate trade which replaced slave trade. f) European colonization brought in a new social political and economic order. g) Exhaustion of mineral resources e.g. gold as in case of sofala and Kilwa as well as Meroe. Some minerals lost value. h) Changes in transport routes as new roads by-passed some towns thus diverting trade to other centres e.g. Timbuktu i) As a result of stiff competition, some towns dwindled as others expanded. **Early urban centres in Europe** **Athens** This is one of the early states in ancient Greece that flourished after the Persian wars of between 490-480 BC.Athens developed from a farming settlement situated in a defensive site. It had many beautiful buildings such as the Parthenon (a large temple built between 460 and 430 BC in honour of Athena, the goddess of Athens). The acropolis was the highest part of the town.Athens had narrow streets and some of its houses were made of unbaked bricks or mud and thatched roofs.There were frequent outbreaks of diseases due to poor sanitation.The concept of democracy first developed in Athens. At the centre of the city was a market, Agora, which was used as an assembly hall for debates.Athenians were divided into four classes. a) First class the richest that were the most heavily taxed. b) Second class- provided the cavalry for the army. c) Third class- provided the soldiers for the infantry. d) The fourth class- the poorest and who paid no taxes. Athens began to decline due to the Peloponnesian wars (431-404 BC). It was finally crushed in 338 BC by Phillip of Macedonia.Currently Athens is the capital of Greece with a population of 4 million. **Factors that led to growth of Athens.** a) Trade and commerce. Their soils of the surrounding areas were infertile and, therefore could not support agriculture. The Athenians therefore resorted to trade to obtain foods in exchange for wine, wool and olive oil. b) Security. Athens was located in an easily defensible place. The town was surrounded by water, valleys and highlands making it difficult for an external enemy to attack. c) Religious activities. The area was a worship centre. People coming to the Parthenon temple contributed to the growth of the town. d) Accessibility and communication network. The port of Athens was located about six kilometres from the city thus making Athens a transport centre. e) Availability of water. **Functions of Athens.** a) It was a cultural centre. The Greeks loved to watch play. In Athens, there was the great theatre of Epidaurus. b) An educational centre. In Athens, every person was taught how to read and write. Athens became a centre of scholarly work producing great thinkers like Socrates, Plato, Pythagoras, Archimedes and Aristotle. c) Athens was a sports centre. There were Gymnasiums where boys were taught games which were developed into what came to be known as Olympics. d) Religious centre. The Parthenon temple was a great manifestation of this function. People coming to the Parthenon temple contributed to the growth of the town. **London.** The capital city of England, it is situated on the estuary of the river Thames. Its name is derived from the name Llyn Dun which means Celtic Lake Fort. The town developed during the Roman rule in Britain in A.D 43.By 314 AD London had become an early centre of Christianity.In 1381, the city was adversely affected by a serious peasant, revolt that led to massive destruction of property.By 18th c, London had emerged as an elegant city though however also with numerous urban related problems. In 1890, it hosted the worlds first electric train. **Factors influencing growth of London** a) Trade-money obtained from trading was used to build the city. b) Industrialization-industry such as textile, ship building, metal works, etc led to the growth of London. c) Improved transport London is well served by a network of railway and roads. This facilitated the movement of goods and people. d) Shipping activities-there are many harbours in London enabling expanded loading and unloading activities e) Population growth. f) London was the seat of government for a very long time. **Functions of London** a) It was a transport and communication centre. The city was inter-connected with roads which served various parts of Britain. The city houses the main international airports on UK. E.g. Heathrow- the busiest airport in the world. b) It is a political and administrative capital with offices for the Prime Minister and cabinet. The Monarchical offices are also located here. c) It is a commercial centre. Many financial institutions such as banks and other commercial and trading activities attract a lot of traders. d) An industrial centre. London was an early centre of the textile industry. There are light service industries in the city. e) It is an educational centre, housing institutions like the oxford university, the University of London, founded in 1836, etc. f) London is a historical centre. The city has theatres for the performance of cultural activities and museums which display artefacts of Historical importance. **Problems of London** Like many large cities worldwide, London has its share of problems: a) Overcrowding, b) Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population. In 1988, for example, nearly 1 in 8 people were unemployed throughout London and the situation in the inner city was worst c) Poor housing and homelessness. This has led to development of slums. d) Transportation is another problem. However, an excellent public system has helped to alleviate this. e) Air pollution continues to be a major challenge. f) Rural-urban migration by the job seekers causing overcrowding in the city. g) Poverty. This was a greater problem in London in the initial stages. **Modern cities in Africa.** **Nairobi.** Nairobi developed as a depot and camp for the railway workers during the construction of the kenya-Uganda railway **Factors influencing the growth of Nairobi** a) Excellent location in an area almost midway between Mombasa and Lake Victoria. b) There was adequate supply of water. c) The land was suitable for construction of workshops as it was flat. d) The climate was suitable for Europeans. Cool temperatures at an altitude of 1700m. e) It was surrounded by a fertile countryside producing adequate foods. f) Transfer of the seat of the colonial government in 1907. **Functions of Nairobi.** g) It was a transport and communication centre. The city is inter-connected with roads which served various parts of the country. The city houses the main international airport- JKIA. h) It is an administrative capital with offices for the head of state, cabinet, parliament and department of defence. i) It is a regional headquarter of various international bodies like UN, ILO etc. j) It is a commercial and financial centre. Many financial institutions such as banks and other commercial and trading activities attract a lot of traders. k) An industrial centre. Nairobis industrial area hosts many key industries in Kenya and east Africa. l) It is an educational centre, housing institutions like the University of Nairobi, kenya polytechnic and other key institutions m) It is a tourist centre. The town boasts of various tourist attractions such as the Nairobi National Park, National Museums etc. **Problems facing Nairobi** a) Rural-urban migration by the job seekers causing overcrowding in the city. b) Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population. c) Poor housing. The population growth in Nairobi to 3 million has not corresponded to the development of housing. d) Inadequate social services including health services and educational facilities. e) Congestion on roads caused by an increase in the number of vehicles on the roads while the road network is not expanding. f) Poor town planning has led to poor drainage, especially during heavy rains when a lot of flooding occurs g) Pollution continues to be a major challenge in Nairobi. The factories located in the city are a cause of air and noise pollution. h) Water shortage caused by the high rate of expansion in the town and the depletion odf water reservoirs. i) The rate of HIV/AIDS infection is very high. **Solutions to these problems** a) New housing projects are being developed. For example the Mathare slums upgrading project. b) The education and other social services are being provided through a cost-sharing scheme between the government and the town dwellers. c) The government is addressing the transport/congestion problem through the upgrading of the Thika superhighway to an eight lane highway; the Nairobi Syokimau Railway service was commissioned by president Kibaki I November 2012 to de-congest jogoo road. Etc. d) The government is encouraging the expansion of the informal sector as an alternative source of employment. e) The government is rehabilitating street families by taking them to school s to acquire relevant skills to make them useful to the nation. f) New water projects have been put in place. For example, the third Nairobi water Project from River Chania. g) The government is sensitizing, through NGOs and GOs, civilians about responsible sex as a measure to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS. **Johannesburg.** The city started as a mining camp in 1886 after the discovery of gold in the Witwate- rsrand. This attracted thousands of people coming to prospect for minerals and seek for employment. By the end of 19thc, the population of Johannesburg had risen to 166,000 people. **Factors which contributed to the growth of Johannesburg** a) Existence of minerals/discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand which resulted in a rush of people to the area. b) Availability of energy i.e. coal which was an important source of energy to the mines, industries and homes. c) Excellent location in the veldt/plain making construction work easy. d) Its proximity to Vaal River which supplied plenty of water to industries and domestic use. e) Area around Johannesburg is fertile and therefore agriculturally productive ensuring steady supply of food. f) The organization of the city council which has ensured that financial control and revenue collection is effectively and the city able to manage its growth problems. g) Government policy of supporting industrial development. This has favored its growth. **Functions of Johannesburg**. a) It was a transport and communication centre. The city has a highly develope d network of transport lines since it served the mining industry. In June 2010, it became the first city in Africa to house an electric train service. b) An industrial centre. Its manufacturing functions include mining, metalwork, engineering, diamond cutting, jewellery manufacturing and food processing. c) It is a commercial and financial centre. Many financial institutions such as banks and other commercial and trading activities attract a lot of traders. It is also a major shopping centre in South Africa. d) It is an educational centre, housing institutions like the University of Witwatersrand, teacher training colleges and other key institutions. **Problems facing Johannesburg** a) The problem of racial segregation. The black Africans who work around Johannesburg were often treated almost as slaves though they were the majority in the country. b) Poor housing. Most of the workers who work in and around Johannesburg live in shanties, mainly because of underpayment c) Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population. Though the city is an industrial town, her industries have failed to provide sufficient employment for all people in the town. d) Rural-urban migration by the job seekers causing overcrowding in the city. e) A large gap between the affluent class, especially the Europeans and the poor people who majorly are African f) Congestion on roads caused by an increase in the number of vehicles on the roads while the road network is not expanding. g) The city has the highest crime rate in the world. h) Inadequate social services including health services and educational facilities. i) Water shortage caused by the high rate of expansion in the town and the depletion ofwater reservoirs. j) The rate of HIV/AIDS infection is very high. **Solutions to the problems** a) The apartheid regime was ended in 1994 thus ending the problem of racial segregation. b) The new government of South Africa is trying to come up with better housing estates. c) Crime has been contained by creating more job opportunities. d) The government is sensitizing, through NGOs and GOs, civilians about responsible sex as a measure to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS **Impact of agrarian development on urbanization in Africa** a) The practice of agriculture forced people to adopt a sedentary lifestyle. Such settlement formed the basis of the earliest urban centres. b) Early agriculture led to specialization. The areas where the potters, iron smelters weavers and fishermen did their work grew up into urban centres c) From the agrarian revolution, there was adequate food for town dwellers. **On urbanization in Europe** a) The revolution in Europe led to a landless society who moved to urban centres seeking employment. This promoted urban growth. b) Increased agricultural production ensured steady supply of raw materials to the new industries hence further growth of the industries. c) Agricultural expansion meant the big farmers had to borrow loans hence the expansion of banking facilities in towns leading to further growth. d) Agricultural produce entering and leaving countries had to be handled in ports hence towns near coasts grew. Impacts of industrial revolution on urbanization in the world. a) The establishment of many factories drew many people to towns in search of employment, the mining industry attracted many people to work in the mines. The mining camps soon grew up into towns. b) Industrial revolution stimulated innovations in transport and communication ensuring faster movement of people to further expansion of trading towns. c) The growth of industry has led to expansion of port towns to handle increased manufactured goods for export and raw material for factories e.g. growth of London, Budapest, Marseilles, Lagos and Cairo. d) The use of machines replaced human labour and caused layoffs. Those who lost their jabs sometimes became a security risk hence an increase in crime. e) The many inefficient factories that came up after the revolution have caused massive air and water pollution. f) Rural urban migration has exerted pressure on the limited resources and services the towns can offer. **Consequences of urbanization on European communities during the 19th c.** a) Rural urban migration by Africans looking for better opportunities led to increased crime levels and insecurity for the Europeans. b) Air pollution which also affected them. c) Creation of employment for the Europeans in the developing industries. d) Creation of markets for agricultural produce due to increased urban population. e) Europeans were deprived of cheap African labour as most of them moved to urban areas. **ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN SOCIETIES** Despite the high amount of decentralization of African communities in the 19th c , there existed a few who were centralized. For example, Buganda, Ethiopia, Buganda, Asante, Mandinka, Ndebele and shona among others. **The Baganda** These were a Bantu speaking people of the Buganda kingdom in Uganda. The Buganda Chiefdom had emerged as early as 140 AD as a subject state of Bunyoro- Kitara Kingdom **Origin of Buganda kingdom** The kingdom was crystallized around the counties of busiro, kyadondo and mawakota. Traditions also state that the first king and creator of Buganda kingdom was Kintu who came from the east around Mount Elgon region. It is believed he entered Buganda with 13 clans. Other theories attribute Bugandas origin to the Luo. That Kimera Kato, a brother of Isingoma Rukidi Mpunga the founder of the luo-babito dynasty in Bunyoro was the founder of Buganda.It is also probable that Buganda might have been one of the many kingdoms founded by the bachwezi- the demi-gods.Other clans of Buganda are believed to have come from the ssese islands. **Factors that led to the growth of a strong Buganda Kingdom** a) Good strong and able leaders like Kkyabagu, junju and Suna etc. who propelled it to prosperity by uniting the people and restructuring the existing administration system. b) Buganda Was small and a compact kingdom and therefore easy to manage. Other kingdoms like Bunyoro-Kitara were too large with a class system. c) Its strategic location in a defensible position in the lake region was of great advantage over her rivals Toro and Bunyoro. She lay next to Lake Victoria giving her defence, communication and transport advantage. On the east were small states of Toro and Ankole who posed no threat. d) Good climate and fertile soils in the region. This enabled successful growing of Bananas, their staple crop. e) The contacts with the Waswahili enabled her to gain riches and weapons/guns. f) The kingdom had a strong loyal army to defend it from her warring neighbors. The Kabaka even possessed a royal navy that kept guard over Lake Victoria. g) Existence of a centralized government making the kingdom cohesive. h) The ganda traditions allowing the kabaka to marry from every clan as means of ensuring unity. i) System of labour organization. The tradition demanded that farming be done by women while the men were involved in other activities such as politics, carpentry, war, bark cloth making and smithing j) The wars of conquest which finally led to her expansion. **How Buganda kingdom was governed**. Buganda kingdom had a highly centralized monarchy under the kabaka who enjoyed absolute powers. His position was hereditary. The Kabakas Court was the nerve centre of the Baganda community. All symbols of Royal authority were kept in the court. E.g. the throne (Namulondo), royal Drums, spears and stools. The kabaka was the political leader of the Baganda kingdom. He was the Head of the traditional religion lubale/ he was the chief priest. He was the judicial head and the final court of appeal/he was the supreme judge. The was the commander-in- -chief of the armed forces.He appointed senior government officials and dismissed them when need arose. He controlled trade. The capital of the kingdom was at Mengo, where the palace, Lubiri, was situated. The kabaka appointed senior government officials and dismissed them when need arose. Forexample, he appointed the katikiro, omulamuzi and omuwanika i.e. prime minister, chief justice and treasurer respectively who assisted him in administration. He also appointed mugema (the senior most chief among the Bataka), Musenero (the chief Butler) and Mfumbiro (the chief baker).The katikiro was in charge of organizing tax collecting and public works. He planned wars in the Kabakas name. He had to protect the kabaka during war. He was responsible of informing the kabaka of the decisions he made on court issues. Below him were omulamuzi (chief justice) and omuwanika (treasurer) who were directly responsible to the kabaka.The Bataka were minor chiefs in charge of clans, guarded land, collected taxes, carried out conscription to the army and presented the page boys to the kabaka.Peasants served under chief and were to fight in wars. Slaves (badus) served the king chiefs in their homesteads. Pages and bagalagala (sons of chiefs and other nobles) served the kabaka too.To ensure unity the kabaka married from principal clans.There was a Lukiko which advised the kabaka and was the final court. It comprised 69 members who were nominated by the kabaka (positions were not hereditary). It made laws and debated issues concerning the kingdom. It also directed tax collection and planned expenditure, it acted as the final court of appeal, and it represented the needs of the people to the kabaka. It helped the kabaka in general administration. It checked the activities of government. **Political organization** The kingdom was divided into counties (Ssaza) and sub-counties. Each county was under Ssaza chiefs whose position was hereditary initially before the kabaka began to appoint them as a means of making them accountable. Each Ssaza was divided into a gombolola headed by a gombolola chief, who maintained law and order and collected taxes. The gombololas were further divided into smaller sub-divisions called miluka each under a miluka chief. The miluka was divided into kisoko. The smallest administrative unit among the Baganda was the village council. The Abatongole appointed by the kabaka, governed the vassal states **Social organization of the Baganda** The kingdom was divided in social classes with the royal family occupying the top of the hierarchy, then ruling class, the chiefs who ruled over the peasants or commoners known as bakopi.At the bottom of the social class were the slaves (Badu) who were acquired mainly through raids on neighbouring communities such as Busoga, Toro and Bunyoro. The Baganda believed in the existence of many gods some of whom included; a) Katonda, God the creator whose home was in heaven. The prayers to him were done every morning and were conducted by the head of the homestead. b) Kibuuka, God of war and thunder. c) Mukasa, goddess of fertility who was worshipped in order to bless the nation with more children, livestock and a bumper harvest. d) Kiwanuka, god of lightning. e) Nawagenyi, goddess of Drought. The community also believed in the existence of ancestral spirits whose main responsibilitywas to maintain discipline in the clans since the spirits were believed to restrict their influence to close relatives. Balubaale were the spirits of people who had supernatural powers and were consulted through prophets or mediums. The Baganda had religious leaders, led by the kabaka, then the mediums, prophets, and medicine people.There also existed sorcerers called Balopo who were feared since they could cause harm to people.The Baganda religion however was greatly undermined by the influx of the Waswahili and ArabMuslims into the community in the 19th c. The Baganda society was polygamous. For example, the kabaka was required to marry from all clans to maintain links in the society.There was division of labour according to sex. Women tilled the land while men engaged in warfare, built houses, and made clothes from bark-cloth.As a form of rite of passage, the Baganda went through formal education that trained them in their rites. **Economic organization.** a) Bugandas economy was based on agriculture and the production of the staple food bananas (matoke). b) The baganda also kept large herds of livestock. The bahima herded Kabakas herds. From the livestock, they obtained milk and meat to supplement their diet. c) The baganda conducted raids on their neighbours like the Buddu, Busoga and Kyaggwe through which they acquired slaves, livestock and ivory. d) There was division of labour, women worked in fields while men were involved in construction of roads, bark cloth making, smithing and war. e) The kingdom was deeply involved in local, regional and international trade. They exchanged bark cloth and beans for cattle from their neighbours. She exchanged slaves and hides for guns, glassware and cotton cloth from coastal traders. f) The baganda practiced iron working, producing hoes for cultivation and weapons for defence. Some of these items formed their trade items. Rich iron deposits were also acquired by waging wars against their neighbours. g) Handcraft was an important activity and included basketry and pottery. h) The textile industry consisted of bark cloth manufacture. i) Salt mining was an important activity. j) Fishing on Lake Victoria k) The baganda also engaged in some hunting activities to acquire ivory. **SHONA** The Shona were a Bantu-speaking people who comprised the Rozwi, Kore kore, Zezuru and Manyika sub-groups. The first stone buildings in Zimbabwe are believed to have been the work of the Shona. Their capital was at Mapungubwe, south of the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashi rivers.About 1450 AD, the Rozwi Groups gained dominance and established a centralized political system. They established the Mwene Mutapa Empire which ruled until the time of the Ngoni invasion in the 1830s. **Political organization of the Mwene Mutapa Empire** The emperor was the head of the state and government. Succession of authority was hereditary. Important emperors included Chikura, Nyatsimba, Mutota and Matope. Religion played a role in government and united people. The emperor was a semi- divinereligious leader, a military leader and the chief priest. He was the only one who could communicate with the spirits of the ancestors. It was believed that when Mwene Mutapa died, he became a Mudzimu and automatically qualified to be worshipped as a national ancestral spirit.The ancestral spirits (Vadzimu) communicated peoples problems to god.Religion also influenced laws.The priests were used as spies and link between the emperor and the people. Another unifying factor in the kingdom was the royal fire. It was from the continuous fire that each vassal chief carried a flame to his chiefdom that he kept burning as a symbol of national unity.The empire was divided into provinces namely Guruhaswa, Mbire, Utere, Banua, and Manyika each headed by a lesser chief. The most important chiefs in the empire sent their sons, with tribute in form of cattle, gold, slaves and ivory, each year to pay homage to the Mwene Mutapa as goodwill ambassadors.There was a standing army of warriors which was used for defence and expansion of the kingdom. Revenue from trade was used to run the army and sustain the empire.The position of importance held by Mwene Mutapa led to the creation of a complex Style of administration around him. The government officials included the court steward, treasurer, commander-in-chief of the army and Mbokurumme (kings sister-in-law). Others were the queen mother, the emperors sister and nine principal wives, the doorkeeper and the chief cook and head drummer. At the lower level were the lesser chiefs who paid tribute to the king by providing cattle, labour and agricultural produce. **Economic organization of the Shona**. The Shona country enjoyed ample rainfall with fertile soils thus enabling them to engage in the following economic activities; a) The Shona were mixed farmers who cultivated crops and reared animals. Among the agricultural produce were corn, millet, ground nuts, beans, watermelons, tomatoes, fruits and cabbages. b) The Shona practiced trade, specifically long distance trade between them and the Arabs and Waswahili at sofala. They gave Gold and ivory for cotton cloths, glassware, copper items, guns, daggers and knives. c) They were skillful hunters. They hunted elephants for their ivory which was in great demand. They also gathered wild honey and wild fruits to supplement their diet. d) The shona were skilled craftsmen who made articles like spears, hoes and knives. Others were goldsmiths who used gold to decorate. They also practiced cloth making from wild cotton and bark fibres. **Social organization of the Shona** Among the shona, Mwene Mutapa was regarded as a divine king and was therefore venerated. When he was well, the nation was also well.The shona religion was based on the Mwari cult. They believed in the all powerful God, Mwari/Murungu. His worship was done through several priests who were mainly produced by the Rozwi clan. The priests presided over religious functions in sacred places of worship, shrines where sacrifices were offered.The shona believed in ancestral spirits. They had two kinds of spirits, Vadzimu or family spirits and Mhondoro or clan spirits. The spirits communicated though an intermediary, Svikiro, a departed family or clan spirit.The shona had a national spirit Chamiruka who settled clan disputes and also protected the people against injustice in the government.The shona had a kinship system which was patrilineal (inheritance through the father). The shona were divided into clans whose names were coined from animals like leopard, monkey, elephant etc. it was a taboo to consume meat from such animals.They were a polygamous community which was viewed as a means to enable the family to have enough members to provide labour.The shona lived in stone buildings. Their skill in masonry is associated with the ruins of Mapungubwe found in Zimbabwe. **The Asante** The Asante are one of the Akan-speaking peoples who occupy the southern part of Ghana, west Africa. By the middle 18th c, the Asante/Ashanti had established the most dominant state in modern Ghana. **Origin of the Asante Kingdom** The empire Developed in the 1670s. It was formed as a result of competition for gold fields in the Akan forestland. In the 1500s: Akan peoples came into contact with Portuguese traders. Wealthy owners of the Akan gold mines begin to trade gold for Benin slaves with the Portuguese. In the 1670s, Osei Tutu was a military leader and head of the Oyoko clan of the Akan peoplesTook control over a trade center near Kumasi and established this as his capital city. This happened after his maternal uncle Obiri Yeboa, the leader of the Oyoko clan was killed during war.A company of Akwamu troops are believed to have been instrumental in facilitating Osei Tutus rise to power. He conquered the neighboring chiefdoms and took control of their trade. He took the title of ASANTEHENE. He Collected taxes from the chiefdoms on profits from the gold mines. He built a standing army by demanding that chiefdoms provide soldiers. He sought the support of religious leaders throughout the region. For example, a priest of the shrine of the war god (Otutu0 called Anokye in Akwapim played a role in ensuring that Osei Tutu became the Asantehene.). He established the GOLDEN STOOL as a symbol of his rightful rule. **The Golden Stool** Akan peoples become Asante (Ashanti) By 1700, Osei Tutu controlled most of the gold fields of the Akan forestland.Osei Tutu was succeeded by Opoku Ware (1717-1750). During his rule, he will extend the Asante kingdom to include most of what is today present-day Ghana. The new city-states now included Kumasi, Juaben, Bekmai, Mampon, Kokofu and Nsula.Opuku Ware will participate in the slave trade with the Europeans, selling war captives and growing very wealthy. Asante were one of the last great kingdoms to fall to the Europeans in the late 19th century. **Factors that led to the rise and growth of the Asante Empire** a) The Asante had a strong economy based on agriculture. Both food and cash crops like Kola nuts were cultivated. This helped to increase the population. b) The Asante had capable political leaders they included Obiri Yeboa (1670-1678), Osei Tutu (1680-1717) who unified the people through the Golden stool that he created and Opuku Ware (1720- 1750). c) The several city-states that emerged around Kumasi supported each other. Most of them were related by the fact that they originated from the same Oyoko clan. d) The growth of the Trans- Atlantic slave trade brought a lot of wealth to the Asante people. The wealth was instrumental in the prosperity of the Kingdom. e) The centralized political system under the Asantehene provided stability. f) The Odwira festival that was held annually helped to make the state more cohesive. g) The Asante were brave and proud people, and the need to free themselves from the oppressive rule of Denkyira, their former masters, motivated them to create a strong state. **Political organization** The Asante had a centralized political system. The Nucleus of the Asante Empire was five citystates of Kumasi, Dwaben, Bekwai, Kokofu and Nsula.The empire comprised of three parts, namely Kumasi (Metropolitan Asante), Amatoo states and Provincial Asante. Each part had its own system of administration though the three cooperated in some areas. Kumasi was directly ruled by the Asantehene and was recognized as Kumasihene. **Metropolitan Asante** These were the five states that lay 35 miles around Kumasi and which recognized the Asantehene as the supreme authority. The government of the metropolitan Asante consisted the confederacy council made of the Kings (Omanhene) of the various states and presided over by the Asantehene. The Asante Union provides a good example of a federal system of government. All the states within the metropolitan Asante paid tax to the Asantehene which was used to pay for the administration and form an army.Each of the five states had its own state council that made important decisions. Each also had its own Black stool that symbolized their power over the state .The omanhenes were expected to give the right of declaring war on another Omanhene, attended the annual Odwira festival (to pay allegiance to Asantehene, settle disputes and honor the dead), grant own subjects the right to appeal to the high court set up for the union of the capital and recognize the right of Asantehene to impose national levies.Neither the Asantehene nor the Omanhene enjoyed dictatorial powers.The kingdom had an army that was divided into several wings. Though overall leadership of the army was provided by the Asantehene, each Omanhene command his own forces. The Asantehene was deputized by Mamphohene who automatically take over army leadership whenever the Asantehene was unavailable.Among the Asante, there was compulsory military service for all able- bodied men in the empire (a system borrowed from the Akwamu).The Asantehene established a national festival called the Odwira festival during which all The Omanhene assembled in Kumasi to show their loyalty to the Asantehene, to honor the deadand to solve disputes amongst themselves. It also enhanced unity amongst the Asante states. The golden stool, an idea invented by a priest called Okomfo Anokye (he claimed it came from the sky in 1695) during the reign of Osei Tutu, made the office of the Asantehene acceptable. It was a source of unity as it bound together the Asante states since they all recognized its sacredness. **Provincial Asante** It comprised all the states conquered by the Asante in the 18th century (subject states). Such people were represented in the army and paid taxes to the Asantehene. Osei Tutu appointed two consuls who resided in each subject state to supervise their affairs. An efficient bureaucracy was established in each o the provincial Asante states with the Asantehene appointing senior officials directly himself **Social organization** The Kingdom was composed of many communities who spoke the Akan language. The clans that made up the Akan speakers included the Akyem, Kwahu, the Fante, the Wassa, the Assin and the Akwapem. All these communities shared the same social institutions like the forty-day calendar, same marriage and naming rites. The basic social unit was the clan.They had a matrilineal system of inheritance. The birthright of each family passed through the mother from one generation to the other. The practiced polygamy marriage due to wealth and comfort in society and prohibited inter clan (paternal and maternal clans) marriages. The Odwira festival helped unite the society besides the golden stool. The Asante was socially stratified into social classes e.g. the rulers, rich, peasant farmers and slaves. The Asantehene and his family comprised the royal family together with the Omanhene. The saves among the Asante were majorly war captives. Some of the female slaves could be elevated to concubines and later become entitled to some rights.They believed in magic and superstition and also worshipped gods and goddesses i.e. they were polytheists. Their supreme creator was Nyame (Nyambe).They believed in their ancestors as mediators between the people and God (gods). The Odwira festival was held annually to honour ancestors and solves my disputes. They offered sacrifices to their gods/ancestors including human sacrifices.The Asante hence was considered semi-divine being and highly regarded. Creative arts like dancing music, sculpture were highly respected in society. **Economic organization of the Asante** Being located in an area rich in terms of land fertility forest resources, mineral resources and rainfall, the Asante Empire thrived economically in the following ways. a) Being located at the point of convergence of the trans-Atlantic trade routes, the Asante people participated in the trade providing gold, slaves and ivory in exchange for cotton, cloth, guns and gunpowder. They also provided middlemen and porters during the trade. b) The Asante practiced agriculture, growing crops like yams, vegetables and fruits. They also kept livestock like cattle. c) The community practiced gathering of Kola nuts and hunting for game meat from the forestto supplement their diet. d) They practiced iron working and made crafts such as baskets and pots The Asante community however became a victim of the same economic wars it waged against her neighbours especially the Fante and Denkyira. In 1873, the British came to the aid of the Fante thus greatly weakening the Asante power. **Reasons for the collapse of the Asante Empire.** a) The type of political organization in the kingdom did not encourage cohesion. Some states in the provincial Asante had no attachment to the golden stool/were semi - independent/ condition of a state within a state. b) Leadership struggle between the Asante and dwaben; a neighboring rival of Asantes state. c) Civil wars /Constant rebellions from the conquered states /wars with other tribes e.g. war with the afante. d) British interference in the Asante affairs through the 19th c. they had a burning desire to destroy the Asante empire and colonize the region.. they even supported dwaben in her war against Asantehene e) Periodic interference with trade and trade routes as a result of wars weakened the financial position of the empire i.e. Abolition of slave trade as a major source of income. f) The Anglo-Asante wars which the British won led to final destruction of the empire. **CONSTITUTIONS AND CONSTITUTION MAKING** The term constitution refers to a set of agreed principles and rules which state the structure and powers of a government.The constitution of Kenya is a supreme law that binds all people and all state organs at national and county level. It outlines the structure of government, defines the powers and prerogatives of the head of state, states the compositions, functions and powers of parliament, states the compositions of the executives and outlines the duties and rights of the citizens. Constitutions vary in various countries depending on different experiences and their form is determined by the following. a) The historical background of a country b) Geographical factors. For example the numerous islands of Japan must be catered for in their constitution c) Religious beliefs of the people. Some countries have the Islamic Sharia law in their constitution e.g Libya and Somali d) Race composition of a country. For example, in South Africa the apartheid racial policy had been included in their constitution. **Functions of a constitution** a) The constitution provides the legal ground from which the laws of the country are made. b) It spells out the powers of government and its relationship to the gove rned. c) It spells out the rights and duties of all citizens. It also provides the options a citizen has, legally, if those rights and freedoms are violated. **Types of constitutions** ***1. Written constitution***. This is a constitution in which the basic principles concerning the organization of government, powers of its various agencies and rights of the subjects are consciously written down in one document.The first country to adopt a written constitution was USA after she attained political independence from Britain on 4th July 1776. France adopted it in 1791following the French revolution of 1789. The primary objective of these adoptions was to include the rights of the citizens to avoid abuse by those in power. Other countries with written constitutions include many European, African, Latin American and Asian countries. Kenya also has a written constitution. **Characteristics of a written constitution** a) It acts as a standard of reference to which the acts of the government of the day may always be compared. b) It is a rigid document that cannot be altered easily. c) It is only amended through a clearly spelt out procedure which is followed to the letter. d) There must be a special body entrusted by the legislature with the work of drafting the constitution. e) Once drafted the constitution must get the approval of the legislature. **Advantages of a written constitution** a) Since the procedures of amending a constitution are clearly spelled out, it is not easy for politicians or other interest groups in the society to alter it. b) In case of a crisis, the constitution provides very clear guidelines on the procedures to be followed, thus restoring stability in the country. c) Since a written constitution is rigid, it therefore recognizes that there are fundamentals in a state, e.g rights of citizens, powers and duties of the president, which should never be easily changed. Change can only be done after adequate consideration. d) It is fundamental to a newly formed nation so as to take off in an orderly and organized manner. e) A written constitution is important to ensure that the identity of the various groups are preserved and maintained in a country with diverse racial groupings, religion and ethnic composition. f) Since it is arrived at after thorough and careful consideration by all, it therefore unites the people in the nation as it would have acquired recognition and acceptance from the majority of the citizens. **Disadvantages of a written constitution.** a) Due to its rigidity, it can fail to respond to changing circumstances and can therefore easily become obsolete. b) A written constitution tends to make the judiciary too powerful as it I the only body that interprets the document. Where the executive and the legislature control the judiciary, the constitution can easily be manipulated. c) Some written constitutions are too detailed and rarely understood by the ordinary citizens. d) The procedure for amending the constitution is slow and costly. This causes delays which could lead to civil disorder in a society. **2. Unwritten constitution** This is a constitution where the fundamental principles of the organization and powers of the government are not contained in one document but rather in several scattered documents to add to the customs of a country. For example, the British constitution. **Sources of British constitution** a) Statutes. This refers to an Act of Parliament. Examples of statutes that comprise the British constitution are; ~ Act of Union with Scotland of 1707 that determined the territorial boundaries within which the United Kingdoms constitution operates. ~ Parliament Act of 1911 that governs the relationship between the House of Commons and the House of Representatives ~ The Reform Acts of 1832 and 1834 which determine succession to the throne. b) Customs. This refers to ancient or traditional practices or the common law. For example, the first born inheriting the throne. c) Laws of precedents. Past accepted principles may be applied to a new set of facts in a judgment and this may eventually become part of the law of the land. d) Customs of parliament. House procedures including standing orders and other regulations are part of the British constitution. Key notes for the teacher and students- @Cheloti 2012-2013 82 e) Historical documents. The following two Important documents form part of the British constitution; ~ The Magna Carta (1215AD) that contained the promises by the England King that he would not levy taxes outside the three legal feudal taxes without the consent of the legal counsel. ~ The Petition of Right (1628) in which King Charles I agreed not to levy taxes unless through the Act of Parliament. f) The Conventions and Practices that have become respected over the years are also part of the British constitution. **Advantages of unwritten constitution** a) It is flexible and adaptable to changing circumstances in the society. This is especially valuable during periods of rapid socio-economic and political changes. b) It is indigenous and therefore suited for a state. c) It can be changed by ordinary legislative process. d) It provides continuity with the nations traditions and is therefore accepted and respected by the people. **Disadvantages of an unwritten constitution** a) It gives the courts too much work in handling matters as they search for constitutional principles not only in judicial decisions but in different statutes and customs. b) Because of the nature of the unwritten constitution, it is not easy to protect the rights of people effectively as the fundamentals of the state are not recorded in a few or a single document. c) An unwritten constitution tends to be vague and indefinite as compared to the written constitution. d) An unwritten constitution presupposes that the people are politically conscious and alert and will ensure that their rights and liberties are respected. **Features/qualities of a good constitution.** a) Definiteness; it must depict clear intelligence and one which facilitates thinking. It must define its content clearly. b) It should be comprehensive/ it must be short but inclusive of all the issues involved in government operation. c) Should be durable and elastic/ it should neither be too rigid to amend or change nor so flexible as to encourage interference of its basic principle. d) Should be able to protect fundamental rights and freedom of citizen/a bill of rights must be provided for in the constitution, showing the extent to which the government can interfere with individual rights. e) Amendment procedure must be stated clearly. f) The constitution must be representative of the diverse social and political spectrum of the people. g) It must exhibit supremacy of the people/ it must make the will of the people as the basis of government. h) It must stipulate the choice of government through free and fair elections i) Statement of national wealth. /It must have a clear statement on how resources are to be managed and how wealth created is to be distributed.Constitution making process in Kenya in pre-colonial, colonial and post colonial eras. **Pre- colonial era** The rules and regulation that formed the constitutional basis of pre-colonial communities in Kenya were mainly formulated by the councils of elders and then handed down from generation to generation.The constitution was unwritten constitution guiding only the political, economic and socio cultural activities **Colonial Era (1885- 1960)** Kenya was under the British colonial rule after the Berlin Conference upto 1963. The constitutional developments in the country were greatly influenced by the settlement of immigrant communities like the white settlers, the Asians and Christian missionaries. These communities competed with the Africans for control of economic resources and political power.The turning point in Kenyas pre-colonial constitutional developments was the outbreak of Mau Mau war and subsequent declaration of a State Of Emergency on 20th October 1952 by Sir Evelyn Barring. When the colonial secretary Oliver Lyttelton visited Kenya in 1954, he proposed the following constitutional reforms. ~ Establishment of a multi-racial council of ministers representing the three races setting ground for two Indian and one African minister (B. A Ohanga became the first African Minister) ~ It Proposed direct representation of Africans in the LEGCO ~ Lifting the ban on African political parties/district associations. In 1958, a new constitution was proposed by Lennox Boyd. The constitution led to increased number of elected Africans in the legislative council (from 8 to 14). It led to introduction of multi-racial representation in the legislative council. It led to the increase of the number of African ministers to two. The African elected members demanded for a constitutional conference culminating into the independence constitution. The independence constitution (1960-1962) The first Lancaster House Conference (1960) Attended by all members of Legco and two nominated members, the conference received the following demands; a) Africans demanded for true democracy, where one man would have one vote. b) The Arabs wanted to retain the ten-mile coastal strip, while Somalis wanted reunification with Somalia. c) Michael Blundell, representing a section of Europeans demanded for a multi-racial government while Captain Briggs representing the white extremists demanded for creation of provinces along racial lines. All these proposal were moderated by the British government The period after the first Lancaster House conference witnessed a lot of differences among Africans and among other races. Among the Africans, the differences culminated into the formation of KANU in March 1960 at Kiambu with James Gichuru as president and KADU in Ngong Town with Ronald Ngala as the president.The main difference between KADU and KANU was that while KANU was advocating gor a unitary government, KADU wanted a federal system.The second Lancaster House conference (1962).When KANU refused to form government despite winning the elections, demanding for the release of Jomo Kenyatta, KADU formed a rather minority government that was heavily dominated by the colonial officials. Such a government was rejected by most people thus creating instability that led to the British Authorities calling for the second Lancaster House Conference. **The following important issues were discussed**; a) The future of the coastal strip that belonged to the sultan prior to colonialism. b) The future of North Eastern Province(North Frontier District) c) Security of the minority. The participants in the formulation of the independence constitution were representatives of various political parties: - Paul Ngei (APP), KADU and KANU. Others were representatives of the Asian and European communities.The 1962 conference settled for a federal structure with a strong central government.A coalition government was formed briefly but when the 1962 constitution was promulgated, it was followed by a general election in May 1963.The third and final conference in 1963 resulted in the drafting and adoption of Kenya's first independent Constitution by the British Parliament The 1963 constitution established a parliamentary system with executive powers vested in a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister, The Queen of England remained Head of State. **Independence (1963)** Kanu won the May elections and Kenya Attained internal self-government with Jomo Kenyatta as the first Prime Minister on 1st June 1963. Kenya attained full independence on 12th December 1963 when the Queen ceased to be the head of state.Kenya has been using the Independence Constitution upto August 2010 though with so many amendments. **Main provisions of the independence constitution of Kenya** a) The independence constitution provided for a regional/majimbo government with each of the seven regions having a regional assembly and president. The boundaries of the regions were given protection in the constitution. b) It also provided for a bicameral parliament consisting of the senate and the house of representatives/upper house and lower house. The lower house comprised 117 elected members and 12 special members. The senate comprised 41 members representing the 41 administrative districts and one representing Nairobi city.Though the senate was subordinate to the House of Representatives, it had powers to authorize declaration of a state of emergence, 65% of the senators were required to approve the amendment of constitution. Also all Bills required approval of both houses. c) The constitution stipulated that the Prime Minister (appointed by the governor) was to be head of Government and Queen the Head of State, represented by the Governor General. The powers of the governor were defence of the country, foreign affairs, internal security and approval of legislation. d) The constitution recommended a multiparty system of government and the party with the majority of seats forming the government. e) It contained the Bill of Rights, which protected the individuals rights. The Bill of rights was modeled on the European convention on Human Rights and Fundamental freedoms. f) The constitution provided for an elaborate scheme to protect the minority rights. The minorities in this case were the Europeans, Asians and some indigenous communities. g) Independent Electoral commission was set up consisting of the speakers of the two houses and a nominee of the Prime Minister. Also it comprised nominees representing the regions. This was to ensure impartiality and honesty in elections. h) The constitution provided for an independent and impartial judiciary to ensure justice and prevent corruption. Judges were accorded security of tenure which was extended to the Attorney General, the governments principal legal advisor. i) It provided for public service commission. The aim was insulate the civil service recruitment and promotions from abuse and corruption. j) An independent land board. **Post colonial Era (1963-2010).** From independence to Mult-party democracy period (1963-1991) Like many former British colonies, Kenya started off with a west Minister system of government.The first Constitutional amendment in independent Kenya was in 1964. Kenya became a republic and the executive became presidential. The senate and regions were also abolished.A Constitutional review in June 1982 officially transformed Kenya into a one-party state.A parliamentary act in December 1991 repealed the one-party system provisions of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system. The period after 1992 was influenced by Global issues like the decline of the cold war, collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 and the intensified struggle for democracy all over the world.In 1997, the Inter Party Parliamentary Group (IPPG) was formed with membership from the Opposition and KANU mps. The aim was to come up with minimal constitutional reforms to level the ground before the 1997 general elections **The following reforms were approved**; a) The KBC shall observe fairness in providing balanced all-inclusive political views in the news coverage. b) Membership of the Electoral Commission to be reviewed to accommodate the interest of the opposition. c) Registration of Parties would be done without unnecessary delay. d) The powers of the chiefs that would likely interfere with political activity at local level be contained. e) The police Act be amended to provide for politically impartial police force f) To repeal a number of laws restricting civil and political rights, ad abolition of the offence of sedition In 1997, a constitutional review commission, called the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC), was established to provide civic education, seek public input and prepare a constitution. In October 2000, parliament passed a Bill entrenching the CKRC into the independence constitution. It was now headed by Professor Yash Pal Ghai and comprised 15 commissioners. In June 2001, the CKRC was expanded to include other groups like the Peoples commission following the amendment of the 1997 Constitution of Kenya Review Act.The CKRC act specified a 2 year time frame for completion of the review process.However, its activities were marred by controversy in 2002 and the ultimate dissolving of parliament in October 2002 by president Moi. He even attempted to dissolve the commission, thanks to its being entrenched in the independence constitution.When the NARC government took over power in 2003, the review exercise was reviewed. The National Constitutional Conference was convened at Bomas of Kenya and came up with what came to known as the Bomas constitution. However the political elite did not support the Bomas .In 2005, Parliament amended the constitution of Kenya Review Act to allow the Attorney General to come up with the Proposed New Constitution, popularly known as the Wako . The constitution was ultimately rejected by Kenyans at the constitutional referendum in 2005 because of disagreements amongst various stakeholders.In December 2007, Kenyans participated in the general elections that were followed by Post Election Violence caused by the controversy that surrounded the results of the elections. **Steps towards realization of a new constitution in Kenya from 2008**. a) On 28 February 2008 The National Accord and Reconciliation Act (NARA) was signed by President Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga .Agenda No 4 of this arrangement was a new process to finalize the long awaited constitution of Kenya The main provisions of the National Accord were: ~ Establishment of a grand coalition government with two parties; PNU and ODM sharing power. ~ Raila Odinga was to become Kenyas second Prime minister after the position was created in the accord arrangement ~ Two deputy Prime Minister Positions would be filled by the PNU and ODM parties respectively. ~ Provision for An expanded cabinet with the two parties being accorded slots as per their proportion in the house. b) In 2008 the Constitution of Kenya Review Act 2008 was passed and a Committee of Experts (CoE) was established as the main technical constitutional review organ to drive the process. c) The CoE was chaired by Nzamba Kitonga, the deputy chair was Ms Atsango Chesoni, other members were Ms Njoki Ndung'u, Mr Otiende Amolo,Mr Abdirashid Hussein, Mr Bobby Mkangi, Professor Christina Murray (South Africa), Dr Chaloka Beyani (Zambia) and Dr Frederick Ssempebwav (Uganda). d) 23 February 2009 Members of the CoE were appointed by the President were later on sworn in, e) On 17 November 2009 CoE released the to the public and invited views and comments on the constitution, f) By 23rdFebruary 2010. CoE had submitted the final of constitution to the Parliamentary Select Committee. g) On 4thaugust 2010 Kenya held a Constitutional Referendum where the new constitution was overwhelmingly endorsed. h) On 28th august 2010, the new constitution was promulgated and became operational making Kenya the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitutions. **Stages in the constitution making process in Kenya since independence** 1) Debate over contentious issues. Issues like the entrenchment of section 2A in the independence constitution in 1981 raised concerns among various stake holders and groups. The issue of whether to include the position of Prime Minister or not has also been debated for many years. 2) Collection of public views. The Saitoti commission (the Constitution review commission established by Moi in 1990) had the objective of collecting views of Kenyans concerning how KANU was to operate in the best way possible. In June 2001, the CKRC, chaired by Yash Pal Ghai was mandated to collect views as part of the constitution review process. 3) Civic education. In 2001, the Ghai Commission was mandated and funded to provide civic education. 4) Convening of constitutional conferences. For example, The 2002 National Constitution Conference at Bomas of Kenya and other similar conferences. 5) Drafting of the constitution. This involved both local and international experts who drafted the constitution between 2000 and 2010. This was mainly the work of the Ghai led CKRC and the Committee of experts led by Nzamba Gitonga. 6) The referendum. During the 2005 referendum, the Wako constitution was rejected. In August 2010, another referendum was held and the 2010 proposed New Constitution was approved. 7) Promulgation of the constitution. On 27th of August 2010, President Mwai Kibaki presided over the promulgation of the new constitution of Kenya. **Constitutional Changes in Kenya since independence upto 2010** 1) The 1963 independence constitution marked the end of colonial rule and transformed the colony into a dominion. It established a parliamentary system with executive powers vested in a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the Queen of England from the majority party in Parliament. The Queen of England remained Head of State as represented by the Governor General who was also the Commander-in-Chief 2) By the 1stamendment Act 28 of 1964, published in November 1964, Kenya became a republic and the executive became presidential. The amendment outlined the criteria to be met by a presidential candidate. It made provision of a Vice President who would be appointed by the president from among the members of parliament. Jaramogi Oginga Odinga became the first occupant of that office. 3) By The 2nd amendment Act 38 of 1964 published on 17th December 1964, the senate and regions were also abolished. 4) 3rd amendment Act 14 of 1965, published on 8th June 1965, altered parliamentary Majorityrequired for approval of a state of emergency to only a simple majority from the previous 65%. The term region was replaced with province. The amendment altered the title of Supreme Court. 5) By the 4th amendment Act 16 of 1966, published on 12th April 1966, commonwealth citizens became eligible for Kenyan citizenship. Also any legislator jailed for six months or more or missed to attend eight consecutive parliamentary seatings without the speakers permission had to forfeit his/her parliamentary seat. 6) On 28th April 1966, an amendment was passed, published on 30th April, to compel MPs who defected from sponsoring party, to resign from parliament and seek re-election. This amendment targeted Kenya Peoples Union (KPU) of Jaramogi Odinga that had been formed that year. The amendment was published, tabled, debated, passed and received presidential assent within 48 hours. (it was nicknamed the KPU amendment). 7) In May 1966, the Public Security Act was passed, published on 7thJune 1966, empowering the president to detain a citizen without trial on grounds of being a threat to state security. The president also acquired power to control freedom of the press. 8) In 1966, a constitutional amendment abolished the Bicameral Legislature and replaced it with a Unicameral Legislature, chosen directly by the electorate. The Act was published on 4th January 1967. The voting majority to change the Constitution was lowered to two-thirds of the MPs. 9) In 1968, by the 9th amendment, published on 12th April 1968, the president was empowered to alter provincial and district boundaries. The act abolished the provincial councils and all representatives to the provincial and district boundaries. This marked the end of regionalism. 10) In 1968, by the 10th amendment, Act 45 published on 12th July 1968, the procedure for presidential elections and succession in the event of his death was laid down. Also, that all candidates for a general election should be nominated by a political party. The act also gave the president power to nominate 13 MPs to replace the 12 specially elected members of the House of Representatives. 11) In 1974, the age qualification for presidential candidates was also lowered to 35 from 40 years. The minimum voting age was altered from 21 to 18 years. 12) In 1975, an amendment of the constitution empowered the president to pardon any election offender at his own discretion. This was done to favour Paul Ngei who been found guilty of an election offence. It was named the Ngei Amendment. The bill went through all the stages in one afternoon and received presidential assent the following day. 13) In 1975, Kiswahili was declared the national language of the national assembly. 14) In 1977, the Kenya court of appeal was established after the breakup of the East African Community. 15) The 18th amendment Act passed in 1979 was the first one under president Moi. It provided that public officers had to resign six months in advance in order to qualify as candidates for parliamentary elections. 16) In 1979, both Kiswahili and English were declared languages of the national assemb ly. 17) By The 19th amendment Act of 1981 published in 1982, Kenya became a de jure one party state. KANU became the only lawful party in Kenya. The infamous section 2A was introduced in the constitution. (Kenya had been a de facto one party state between 1969and 1982). The post of Chief Secretary was created to head the public service. The first occupant being Jeremiah Kiereini. 18) By the 1985 20th amendment Act, the High Court began acting as a Court of Appeal. 19) The 21st amendment Act passed in 1985 repealed Section 89 of the constitution which provided for the acquisition of Citizenship for anyone born in Kenya after December 11th 1963. 20) In 1987, the security of tenure of the Attorney General, Chief Secretary, The Comptroller and AuditorGeneral was removed. The president could now dismiss them at will. Office of chief secretary was abolished. 21) In 1988, the security of tenure of Puisine Judges and Chairman of Public Service Commission was removed. The removal of security of tenure of the above officers sparked a lot of condemnation from LSK and main stream churches. 22) In 1988, an amendment was pass that provided the police with powers to hold a suspect in custody for upto fourteen days before taking him/ her to court if the crime constituted a capital offence. This is what led to detaining of persons suspected of opposing the government in the dingy basement of Nyayo House where some were tortured to death. 23) 1990- Security of tenure of the offices of AG and Controller and Auditor General was reinstated. 24) A parliamentary act in December 1991 repealed the one-party system provisions (section 2A) of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system. Multiparty elections were held the following year in December. 25) In 1991, an amendment that was passed limited the tenure of the president to a maximum of two-five year terms. 26) After 1997 elections, Parliament, on the initiative of the government, passed the Constitution of Kenya Review Act that set the pace for comprehensive constitutional reforms. 27) A constitutional review commission, called the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC), was established to provide civic education, seek public input and prepare a constitution. 28) In October 2000, parliament passed a Bill entrenching the Constitution of Ken ya Review Commission (CKRC) headed by Professor Yash Pal Ghai into the independence constitution. 29) In 2005, Parliament amended the constitution of Kenya Review Act to allow the Attorney General to come up with the Proposed New Constitution, popularly known as the Wako 30) The constitution was ultimately rejected by Kenyans at the constitutional referendum in 2005 because of disagreements amongst various stakeholders . 31) The rejection of the constitution by Kenyans in the referendum of 2005 meant that the 1963 constitution (as amended) remained the basic law of Kenya. . 32) 28 February 2008The National Accord and Reconciliation Act (NARA) was signed by President Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga to end violence that erupted after the December 2007 presidential elections. Agenda No 4 of this arrangement calls for a new process to finalize the long awaited constitution of Kenya 33) In 2008 the Constitution of Kenya Review Act 2008 was passed and a Committee of Experts (CoE) was established as the main technical constitutional review organ to drive the process. The CoE was chaired by Nzamba Kitonga; the deputy chair was Ms Atsango Chesoni, other members were Ms Njoki Ndung'u, Mr Otiende Amolo,Mr Abdirashid Hussein Mr Bobby Mkangi Professor Christina Murray (South Africa) Dr Chaloka Beyani (Zambia) and Dr Frederick Ssempebwav (Uganda.) 34) On 28thaugust 2010, the new constitution was promulgated and became operational making Kenya the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitution. **Key changes in the New Constitution.** a) Reduction of presidents executive powers. b) Devolution of power to regions (creation of county and national governments.) c) Creation of the senate and national assembly to constitute parliament. d) On Citizenship, Birth and registration are the only recognize ways of attaining Kenyan citizenship. Dual citizenship is now recognized by the constitution. e) Recognition of the Kadhis courts as subordinate courts in the judicial court system. f) Expansion of the citizens Bill of Rights to guarantee equal representation for either gender in all governance structures. **FEATURES OF THE NEW CONSTITUTION.** Why there was need to have a new constitution in Kenya. The rise of gender sensitivity in Kenya/The need to address the rights of women <br><br>which had not been adequately addressed in the outgoing constitution. <br><br> The constant misuse of executive authority by the Moi and Kenyatta regime/ the need <br><br>to give less or more power to the executive. <br><br> The need to depart from the colonial policies that found their way into the outgoing <br><br>constitution. The need to safeguard against social vices like corruption and land grabbing. The need to enhance unity and realize a liberal society due to political maturity. **Problems that Kenya faced in realization of a new constitutional dispensation.** a) Party differences have been transferred to the constitution making process e.g. the NARC fallout, the ODM wrangles between Raila and Ruto. Etc. b) Sectarian interests based on tribe, religion, age, sex which is hard to satisfy. E.g in relation to creation of counties, Kadhis court and land laws. c) Attempts to project personality, individual or group interests rather than national interest into the process. d) Direct misinformation of the public and propaganda by politicians and other groups with selfish interests. e) Illiteracy and ignorance of the electorate and therefore easily misled. f) Tension and sometimes violence marred the whole review process. g) Limited financial resources and personnel h) Lack of unity of purpose and co-operation among existing political parties hence difficulty in hammering out compromise.. i) Inadequate civic education/wrong civic education. j) Lack of consultation with all the interested stake holders. k) An attempt to tie the constitutional review process with election time-table, political programmes and interests. **Why Kenyas new constitution is regarded as supreme.** a) The Constitution is the supreme law of the Republic and binds all persons and all State organs at both levels of government. b) No person may claim or exercise State authority except as authorized under the Constitution. c) The validity or legality of the Constitution is not subject to challenge by or before any court or other State organ. d) Any law, including customary law that is inconsistent with the Constitution is void to the extent of the inconsistency, and any act or omission in contravention of the Constitution is invalid. e) The general rules of international law shall form part of the law of Kenya. f) Any treaty or convention ratified by Kenya shall form part of the law of Kenya under this Constitution. **Functions of the Kenyan constitution** a) It is the fundamental law of Kenya. b) It has helped in establishing the philosophy, character and structure of the Kenyan government. c) It has laid down principles which determine government power and duties. d) It r regulates, distributes and limits the functions of different institutions of the state. e) It spells out the basis of relationship between the Ke nyans and the government and what rights should be in that relationship. **Role played by the Kenyan constitution in governing the country** a) It protects the interests of the weak in the society from those who would want to dominate them. b) It checks the powers of the dictatorial rulers. c) It defines how to rise to power hence preventing unnecessary power struggles. d) It provides for the separation of powers between the three arms of government. e) It defines the powers of those in authority hence preventing misuse of power. f) It defines relations with other countries g) It specifies on how a government is to be formed. **DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS** **What is democracy?** The is derived from the Greek word Democratia (Demos meaning people and Kratas meaning rule or power). It is a form of government where political decisions are directly in the hands of the citizens. **Key aspects of a real democracy.** a) Political aspect. The consent of the governed (expressed directly or indirectly through their elected representatives) must be sought when making political decisions. Public opinion must be given priority in governance. b) Social aspect. Human dignity must be valued at all times. Every individual should be free to organize his own lifestyle, hold and express opinions, enjoy company of others and join associations. c) Economic aspect. All citizens must be provided with equal opportunities. Exploitation of humans by fellow humans should be eliminated. Means of production should be nationalized to reduce inequalities between the rich and the poor. **Types of democracy** 1) Pure or direct democracy. This is where the people are directly involved and participate in decision-making. Such a democracy has an advantage in that the laws made are easily accepted by all the people since they feel they own the laws. This is common form of democracy in smaller organizations and was also used in ancient Greece. 2) Indirect democracy. This is a type of democracy where citizens exercise their right in decision making not directly as individuals, but through their agreed representatives, elected by the citizens. Parliament acts as the basic institution in this type of democracy. The elected may make Appointments of persons to fill other positions like the Cabinet or carry out Nomination (hand-picking of additional representatives to join the elected ones. 3) Constitutional Democracy. This is where democracy is exercised but within the limits of the constitution. The minority rights are guaranteed (freedom of expression, association and worship).It is also referred to as Liberal democracy and is a form of representative democracy. **Merits of democracy** a) It is founded on the concept of the people and therefore leaders cannot ignore the people from whom they get authority to rule. It is most popular form of government. b) It recognizes equality among all the people without discrimination. It advocates equality before the law and anyone can rise to power regardless of ones background or environment. c) It promotes patriotism or national pride as it urges people to participate in their governance. This reduces chances of a revolution d) It promotes liberty and peace as it advocates for peaceful coexistence. People develop a sense of cooperation. It can also promote international cooperation when extended beyond the borders. e) Since it is based on moral and educative values, democracy helps individuals to develop their personality. It develops initiative of the people and their sense of responsibility. f) Democracy balances the liberty of the individual with the power of the state.**Demerits** **of democracy** a) Democracy promotes dictatorship by the majority. The majority government by fulfilling the election pledges to please the supporting electorate ends up neglecting the political, social and economic interests of the minority who did not vote for it. b) Democracy encourages class struggle and corruption as only those that possess money can engage in intensive campaigns and get elected due to their influence. Then once elected, they pass laws that protect their interests. c) A democratic government is usually slow and wasteful since consultations have to be made when making a decision. Time and public resources are used in the process of seeking the views of the majority. d) The ethical value of democracy is questionable. It is not easy to find an honest, sincere man of good moral character being elected. e) Democracy may perpetuate incompetence since it is numbers which matter when choosing a leader not the leadership qualities. Where a majority of the electorate is ignorant, they may make poor decision during elections thus promoting incompetence. f) Although democracy is regarded as the rule of the majority, in essence, it is the elected minority who rule. Democracy is therefore as a form of dictatorship by the informed or elected minority. **Principles of democracy.** ***Principle-basic truth or general law***. a) Freedom of speech, debate and enquiry. The basic healthy political culture among a group of people is based on open debate among citizens where they can express their views without fear. b) Peoples participation as a whole in government. Through free, fair and regular elections, the government should remain a servant of the people and not master. Democracy is based on consent which can be withdrawn if the government fails to satisfy peoples expectations. c) Open and accountable media. The media must be open in their agenda and be held accountable to the public. Media monopolies should not be allowed to develop. d) Economic democracy. This implies the decentralization of economic power so that individuals and communities can be economically empowered to create and control their own wealth. e) Equality before the law. Judgment should be made in accordance with a written law, rather than in an arbitrary manner. Each citizen also has an equal ability to seek and receive justice. ***Human rights*** Human rights refers to the accepted principles of fairness and justice- or the universal moral rights that belong equally to all people in their capacity as human beings regardless of sex, race, and tribe, and language, place of origin, age or political beliefs. Why human rights are important. a) Rights are necessary for human beings to achieve a dignified life, fulfill their potential and to satisfy both their physical and spiritual needs. b) Rights are inherent to human beings. One has rights purely because they are human. They are not granted by the state. c) Rights empower citizens and residents by giving them control in decision making organs of the state. d) Rights justify special treatment of minorities and other special or disadvantaged groups or communities. e) Rights provide guidance to organs of state regarding the exercise of state power. f) Rights such as the right to vote, freedom of expression and of the press ensure the public access the necessary information necessary for the protection of democracy and ensure accountability of public authorities. g) Respect for human rights limits internal and external conflicts and strengthens national unity. **Classification of Human rights** a) Social economic and cultural rights. On the basis of these rights, the state is expected to pursue policies that enable individual, families or groups to earn a living and provide basic needs including education and medical care for themselves. b) Solidarity rights. These are rights that focus on the whole community. They require that the state to pursue policies which do not destroy natural resource or waste financial resources but instead create conditions for peaceful co-existence.***These rights include*** ***the right to***clean, healthy and sustainable environment, peace, and development. c) Civil and political rights. The rights include the right o vote, right to think and to have access to information. These rights ensure a secure space for the individual to pursue their values and interests. **Groups that monitor human rights in Kenya** a) Lawyers and Judges and other professionals including teachers. b) Religious groups c) Journalists (The media-print and electronic). d) The police force e) Association and special commissions, e.g business associations, women groups, the Kenya National Human Rights and Equality Commission (KNHREC), among others. f) pressure groups **Characteristics of human rights**. a) They are universal. Human rights apply equally to everyone by virtue of being a human being. b) They are indivisible. One right cannot be applied if the other does not exist. They are inherent. c) Incase circumstance demand they can be suspended. For example during war, or during disease outbreak like Ebola or other contagious diseases, one may be denied the right to freedom of movement. d) Human rights have limitations. As people enjoy their rights, they should respect the rights of others. **United Nations Charter on human rights.** This is a document that contains the basic human rights to which every person by virtue of being a human being is entitled to. It also reaffirms the equality of the rights of all men and women. The Universal Declaration if Human Rights was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10th December 1948.. Member states that signed the document are supposed to publicize the declaration in their countries The basic human rights contained in the Charter include; 1. All human beings are born free and equal. 2. Everyone is entitled to all rights and freedoms set forth in the declaration without discrimination on basis of sex, race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, racial origin birth or any other status. 3. Everyone has a right to life, liberty and security. 4. No one should be held in servitude or slavery or perform forced labour. 5. Everyone has a right to recognition as a person before the law. 6. Every person is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law. 7. Every persons dignity should be respected and protected. 8. Everyone has a right to nationality. One is free to change nationality. 9. No person will be subjected to physical or psychological torture, corporal punishment or cruel and inhuman treatment. 10. Everyone has a right to free movement and residence within the borders of each state. 11. Everyone has a right to ownership of property alone as well as in association with others. State cannot take away ones property without proper compensation. 12. Every citizen has a right to peaceful assembly and association. 13. Every citizen is free to make political choices, which includes the right to form, or participate in forming, a political party and to participate in the governing process of the country. 14. Every person has the right to the highest attainable standard of health, which includes the right to health care services, including reproductive health care. 15. Every person has the right to accessible and adequate housing, and to reasonable standards of sanitation. 16. Every person has the right to be free from hunger, and to have adequate food of acceptable quality. 17. Every person has the right to clean and safe water in adequate quantities. 18. Every person has the right to social security 19. Every person has the right to education. Elementary education shall be compulsory while technical and professional education should be made generally available. 20. Every person has the right to a clean and healthy environment. It is our duty to ensure that the environment is protected for the benefit of present and future generations. 21. Every person, whether individually or as a group, has freedom to manifest any religion or belief through worship. 22. An adult has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex, based on the free consent of the parties. Parties to such a union enjoy equal rights. 23. Every person should be subjected to an efficient, lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair administrative action. 24. Everyone has freedom of opinion and expression. 25. Everyone has a right to seek and enjoy, in other countries, asylum from persecution. The right is however enjoyed only for political reasons. 26. Everyone has a right to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal in the determination of ones rights and obligations. 27. Everyone has a right to protection of the law against interference or attacks against ones property, home or correspondence. 28. Everyone has a right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and protection against unemployment. 29. Everyone has a right to leisure, which includes reasonable working hours and periodic holidays with pay.ght to freely participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts e.g drama, music, dance etc. 30. However every person has various duties to the community in which they live. 31. Freedom from torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. **Importance of the UN Charter on human rights.** a) Protection of human rights, which is the core thing in the UN Charter, is important for the Establishment and maintenance of peace and security. Where there is violation of human rights, it becomes difficult to prevent conflict and maintain peace. b) Respect for human rights is an important requirement for efficiency and effectiveness in governance. The principle of non-discrimination, principle of international human rights law, enables one to strive for more equitable societies even within the level of resources available. c) Respect for human rights promotes development. National development strategies can only lead to tangible improvement in the lives of people if they have as their key objectives realization of economic, social and political rights. d) The UN Declaration provides a guideline for collective action towards eradication of poverty. e) The UN human rights mechanisms have given utmost attention to countering of terrorism as a way of protecting human rights. f) A SOCIETY that observes respect for human rights reduces the chance of conflict outbreak. g) The UN Charter on human rights is the foundation on which peace-making (peace- building and peace-keeping) is built. Any strategy to achieve peace anywhere is accompanied by strategies to uphold human rights like was the case in Yugoslavia. h) In recognition of human rights, the UN has played a key role in giving humanitarian assistance to the people of different countries suffering from effects of natural disasters and other emergencies. i) The UN Charter on Human rights promotes the rights of women and their empowerment by affirming the equal rights for women and fighting discrimination based on gender j) The UN Charter champions the rights of vulnerable groups like the minority migrant workers, abused children, indigenous people and persons with disabilities. **The Kenyan Bill of Rights** This is a statement of human or civil rights in the constitution of Kenya. The Bill of Rights is covered in chapter four of the constitution of Kenya (2010). **Importance of the Kenyan Bill Of Rights** a) States that every individual has the right to life b) It guarantees liberty to all citizens by forbidding enslavement, detention without trial etc. c) It protects the individual from all forms of torture and inhuman treatment d) It guarantees the protection of private property and allows Kenyans to own property anywhere in the country. e) It protects individuals freedom of conscience and religion. f) It guarantees the protection of the freedom of speech and expression g) It gives Kenyans the right to move freely throughout the country and to reside in any part of the country. h) It guarantees individuals against any form of discrimination on the basis of colour, creed, and gender. i) It protects individual against arbitrary search, arrest and entry into ones property without his/her consent **Rights and fundamental freedoms contained in the Kenyan Bill of Rights.** ***1. Right to life.*** Life begins at conception and no child should be deprived of life deliberately. Abortion is not therefore permitted unless occasioned by the need for emergency treatment or life of the mother is in danger. People who attempt to commit suicide are also punishable on the strength of their right ***2. Equality and freedom from discrimination*** Every person is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law. This means that both men and women are equal before the law. Any form of discrimination is illegal and is prohibited in the constitution. ***3. Human dignity*** Every persons dignity should be respected and protected. One must not ridicule or embarrass other members of society. ***4. Freedom and security of a person.*** This right protects a person from being detained without a good reason and without trial. No person will be subjected to physical or psychological torture, corporal punishment or cruel and inhuman treatment. ***5. Freedom from slavery, servitude and forced labour.*** No one should be held in servitude or slavery or perform forced labour. Every employer should treat his or her employees with dignity and not to force them to work. ***6. Right to privacy.*** Every person has a right NOT to have him or herself, his or her property searched, or his or her possessions seized. Not revealing a persons family or private affairs unnecessarily or private communications interfered with. ***7. Right to assembly, demonstration, picketing and petition.*** Every citizen has a right to assemble and participate in peaceful demonstrations and even present petitions to public authorities. **8. Political rights** Every citizen is free to make political choices, which includes the right to form, or participate in forming, a political party and to participate in the activities of, a political party.Every citizen has the right to free, fair and regular elections based on universal suffrage and the free` expression of the will of the electors for any elective public body or office Every adult citizen has the right, without unreasonable restrictions, to be registered as a voter; to vote by secret ballot in any election or referendum and to be a candidate for public office, or office within a political party and, if elected, to hold office. ***9. Freedom of movement and residence*** Citizens have a right to free movement and ownership of property in any part of the country. Anyone is also free to leave the country or enter and remain in the country ***10. Economic and social rights*** Every person has the right to the highest attainable standard of health, which includes the right to health care services, including reproductive health care.Every person has the right to accessible and adequate housing, and to reasonable standards of sanitation.Every person has the right to be free from hunger, and to have adequate food of acceptable quality.Every person has the right to clean and safe water in adequate quantities.Every person has the right to social security. Every person has the right to education.A person shall not be denied emergency medical treatment.The State must provide appropriate social security to persons who are unable to support themselves and their dependants. ***11. Consumer rights*** Consumers have the right to goods and services of reasonable quality.Consumers have the right to the information necessary for them to gain full benefit from goods and services.Consumers have the right to the protection of their health, safety, and economic interests.Consumers have the right to compensation for loss or injury arising from defects in goods or services. ***12. Right to fair labour practices*** Every worker has a right to fair labour practices like fair remuneration, reasonable working conditions, the right to join or practice in trade union activities and the right to go on strike .Every employer has a right to join an employers association and participate in its programmes and activities **Responsibility.** One must respect the right to fair labour practices of ones employees. Employees on the other hand must conduct themselves responsibly, even during strikes, to avoid causing physical injury to innocent people, or destroying property. ***13. Right to clean and healthy environment.*** Every person has the right to a clean and healthy environment. It is our duty to ensure that the environment is protected for the benefit of present and future generations. ***14. Freedom of conscience, religion, belief and opinion.*** Every person, whether individually or as a group, has freedom to manifest any religion or belief through worship, practice, teaching or observance, including observance of day of worship.One cannot be denied employment or educational opportunity because of belonging to a particular religion or because of ones belief or religion.A person cannot be forced to engage in any act that goes against his or her belief or religion. ***15. Freedom of expression.*** This guarantees all Kenyans the freedom to seek, receive or impart ideas or information. It also guarantees freedom of artistic creativity, academic freedom, and freedom to conduct scientific research. ***16. Freedom of media.*** The freedom and independence of the media is guaranteed. The state should not interfere with the media. ***17. Access to information*** Every person has a right to access information held by the state, or by others, which may be required for the protection of any right or fundamental freedom. The state is expected to make public any important information affecting the nation.Every person has a right to the correction or deletion of untrue or misleading information that affects the person. ***18. Freedom of association*** Every person has the right to form, join and participate in the activities of an association of any kind, provided that the association is not engaged in illegal activities, such as stealing or killing. ***19. Protection of the right to property*** Every person is entitled to own property either individually or as a group, in any part of the country. However the property has to be legally acquired.This right provides all Kenyans a fair opportunity to invest in property and thus, prosper. ***20. Right to language and culture*** Every person has the right to use a language, and embrace the culture of the persons choice.Every person has the right to form or join cultural groups. Every person is also protected from being forced to join any such group.Each linguistic group is free to use their language, practice their culture, and form associations and other organs of the civil society.It is unacceptable to force another person to perform, observe or undergo any cultural practice or rite. ***21. Right to family*** An adult has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex, based on the free consent of the parties. Parties to such a union enjoy equal rights. Both parties have a responsibility to respect the rights of their spouses during marriage and even in the event of its dissolution.It is wrong to deny ones spouse access to marital property after separation or divorce. The constitution also recognizes marriages conducted under traditional, religious, personal or family law. Marrying of underage persons and forced marriages are outlawed in the constitution. ***22. Fair administrative action*** Every person should be subjected to an efficient, lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair administrative action. This promotes efficient administration in public offices. ***23. Access to justice.*** Everybody should access justice and a reasonable fee will be charged to enhance this, if required. If this is not free, many people will not access justice which will continue to be a preserve of the rich people. ***24. Right of arrested persons.*** An arrested person has; a) The right to be informed promptly in a language that the person understands of the reason for arrest, the right to remain silent and he consequences of not remaining si lent. b) The right to remain silent. The right of a person to choose to talk or to remain silent. c) The right to communicate with an advocate and other persons whose assistance is necessary (freedom of speech with all those who will assist him or her in the case.) d) The right of not being compelled to make any confession or admission that could be used in evidence against the person. e) The right t be held separately from persons serving a sentence ( should not be held in prisons alongside those already convicted) f) To be brought to court as soon as reasonably possible, as but not later than twenty four hours after being arrested. g) To be charged or be informed of the reason for the extension of detention or release, at the first court appearance. h) To be released on bond or bail, on reasonable conditions, pending a charge or trial, unless there are compelling reasons as to why one cannot be released. ***25. Fair hearing.*** Every person has the right to have any dispute that can be resolved through a court hearing be resolved in such a manner that will accord him or her fair and public hearing. An accused person has the following rights; a) To be presumed innocent until proven otherwise. b) To be informed of the charges. c) To have adequate time and facilities to prepare a defence. d) To a public trial before a court. e) To have the trial begin and be concluded with few delays. f) To be present when being tried. g) To be represented by an advocate and be informed of this right immediately. Depending on the circumstances, the accused may be assigned an advocate by the state and at the states expense. h) To remain silent and not testify during the proceedings. i) To be informed in advance, of the evidence the prosecution intends to present, and to have reasonable access to that evidence. j) To challenge the evidence. k) To refuse to give self-incriminating evidence. l) To have the assistance of an interpreter if the accused person cannot understand the language used in the trial. m) If convicted, to appeal, or apply for review by a higher court. ***26. Rights of persons detained, held in custody or imprisoned.*** A person, who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned under the law, retains all rights and fundamental freedoms in the bill of rights. Except those that are impractical and inapplicable under the circumstances.A person who is detained or held in custody is entitled for an order Habeas Corpus- This is a law that states that a person who has been arrested should not be kept in prison longer than a particular period of time unless a judge in a court has decided that it is right. It is the right of the person who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned to be treated in a humane manner. **Application of the Kenyan bill of rights to specific groups of people in Kenya** **Rights enjoyed by Children in Kenya** A child refers to a young person from birth to full physical development. The term also refers to a person who has not attained the age of eighteen. The rights of children are contained in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, and International Agreement on the Rights of the Child put in place in 1990. The rights include; **a) Survival rights** ~ Every child has the right to a name and nationality from birth. ~ Every child has the right to basic nutrition, shelter and health care. **b) Development rights** ~ Every child has the right to free and compulsory basic education. ~ Every child has the right to parental care and protection, which includes equal responsibility of the mother and father to provide for the child, whether they are married to each other or not. c) Right of protection ~ Every child has the right to be protected from abuse, neglect, harmful cultural practices, all forms of violence, inhuman treatment and punishment, and hazardous or exploitative labour. ~ Every child has the right not to be detained, except as a measure of last resort, and when detained, to be held for the shortest appropriate period of time. ~ Every child has the right to separate from adults and in conditions that take account of the childs sex and age. ~ Every child has the right to a childs best interests are of paramount importance in every matter concerning the child. ~ Children should be protected from exploitation such as child labour. Rights enjoyed by Persons with disabilities in Kenya. (a) A person with any disability is entitled to be treated with dignity and respect and to beaddressed and referred to in a manner that is not demeaning. A person with any disability is entitled (b) A person with any disability is entitled to access educational institutions and facilities forpersons with disabilities that are integrated into society to the extent compatible with the interests of the person. (c) A person with any disability is entitled to reasonable access to all places, public transport and information. (d) A person with any disability is entitled to use Sign language, Braille or other appropriate means of communication. (e) A person with any disability is entitled to access materials and devices to overcome constraints arising from the persons disability. **Rights of the Youth in Kenya.** (a) Right to access relevant education and training. (b) Right to have opportunities to associate, be represented and participate in political, social, economic and other spheres of life. (c) Right to access employment. (d) Youths are protected from harmful cultural practices and exploitation. **Rights of Minorities and marginalized groups in Kenya** The constitution specifies a marginalized community as; ~ A community that because of its relatively small population has been unable to fully participate in the integrated social and economic life of Kenya as a whole. ~ A traditional community that, out of need or desire to preserve its unique culture and identity from assimilation, has remained outside the integrated social and economic life of Kenya. ~ An indigenous community that has retained maintained a traditional lifestyle and livelihood based on a hunter or gatherer economy. ~ Pastoral persons and communities, whether nomadic or settled and because of their relative geographical location, have experienced only marginal participation in the integrated social and economic life of kenya as a whole. **Rights of Minorities and marginalized groups** a) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to participate and are represented in governance and other spheres of life. b) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to be provided special opportunities in educational and economic fields. c) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to be provided special opportunities for access to employment. d) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to develop their cultural values, languages and practices. e) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to reasonable access to water, health services and infrastructure. **Rights of older members of society in Kenya** a) Right to fully participate in the affairs of society. b) Right to pursue their personal development. c) Right to live in dignity and respect and be free from abuse. d) Right to receive reasonable care and assistance from their family and the State. **The Kenya National Human Rights and Equality Commission** This commission was entrenched in the Constitution of Kenya (2010) to replace the KNHRC. The commission constitutes atleast three but not more than nine members appointed by the president with the approval of the national assembly. ***Objectives;*** a) To protect the sovereignty of the people. b) To ensure secure observance by all state organs of democratic values and principles c) To promote constitutionalism **Functions of the Kenya National Human Rights and Equality Commission.** a) It has a duty to promote respect for human rights an d develop a culture of human rights in the republic. b) A duty to promote protection and observance of human rights in public and private institutions. c) It monitors, investigates and reports on the observance of human rights in all spheres of life in the republic, including observance by the national security organs. d) It receives and investigates complaints about alleged abuses of human rights and takes steps to secure appropriate redress where human rights have been violated. e) It acts as the principal organ of the state in ensuring compliance with obligations under treaties and conventions relating o human rights. f) It investigates any conduct in state affairs, or any act or omission in pu blic administration in any sphere of government, which is alleged or suspected to be prejudicial or improper, or to result in any impropriety, or prejudice. g) It investigates complaints about abuse of power, unfair treatment, manifest injustice or unlawful, oppressive, unfair or unresponsive official conduct. **HISTORY FORM THREE NOTES**<br><br>1**. EUROPEAN INVASION AND THE PROCESS OF COLONIZATION OF** **AFRICA** ***Introduction*** In the last Quarter of the 19th century, Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Belgium and Portugal were in Africa, competing for colonies to boost their social, economic and political standing.They convened the Berlin conference of 1884-1885 (convened by Otto Von Bismarck, the Germany Chancellor) where they shared Africa in Europe without regard to the inhabitants. This is what is termed the invasion of Africa.By 1914, apart from Liberia and Ethiopia, the rest of Africa had been colonized **The scramble and partition of Africa** **Scramble** It refers to the rushing for something.In the African situation, it meant the rush for and struggle by European powers to acquire various parts of Africa during the 19th century. **Partition** It refers to the sharing of something. In the African situation, it referred to the actual division of Africa by European powers during the Berlin conference of 1884 - 1885Methods used by Europeans to acquire colonies in Africa. **1) Signing of treaties**; a) Treaty signing with African leaders. ~ The British signed the Maasai Agreements (1904 and 1911), Buganda Agreement of 1900 and the Lewanika-Lochner treaty with Lozi. The royal Niger Company had by 1884, signed 37 treaties through George Goldie, with African leaders in Niger delta, Yorubaland and Gambia. ~ Carl peters signed treaties on behalf of Germany with the chiefs of Uzigua, Ukami, Usagara and ungulu. These treaties facilitated the acquisition of those areas for colonization. b) Treaties signed amongst European powers. These were known as Partition Agreements. For example; ~ The Anglo-Germany Agreements of 1886 and 1890 and Heligoland between the British and the Germans over the sharing of East Africa. ~ The Anglo Italian treaty signed in 1891 between the Italians and the British over possession of Eritrea and the Somali coast. ~ The treaty between the British and Portugal and France in 1890 on the sharing of Madagascar (France) Mozambique and Angola (Portugal). **2) Military conquest/ Use of force**. Europeans employed outright war against those societies that resisted their invasion. E.g a) The French war against the Mandinka of Samori Toure (1870-1899) and their conquest of western Sudan from Senegal to Chad specifically in the Tukolor Empire, Segu and Masina by 1898. Tunisia, morocco and Algeria were acquired forcefully. b) The British used military force in the Nandi resistance from 1895-1905, the Chimurenga wars involving the Shona/Ndebele against the British, forced acquisition of Egypt and Sudan c) The Germans fought the Maji Maji wars from 1905- 1907. d) The Italians were defeated during their Ethiopian campaign, by Menelik II in the battle of Adowa in 1896. e) The Portuguese forcefully established their rule over Angola, Guinea Bissau and Mozambique. **3) Use of missionaries as frontrunners.**The Europeans used missionaries, carrying a bible in one hand and a gun in the other, who tried to convince the Africans to support the European goals. ~ Missionaries manipulated local quarrels and took sides in a view to promote European occupation. For example, in the case of Buganda where we had religious conflicts between Protestants, Muslims, Catholics and Traditionalists. ~ Sometimes the missionaries went to war against each other and against Africans. E.g the Franza-Ingeleza war of 1892 that pitted the Protestants (British) against the Catholics (French). Fredrick Lugards intervention on the side of Protestants set stage for the acquisition of Uganda by the British. ~ In Bulozi, Father Francois Coillard convinced Lewanika of the benefits of British protection. ~ In Nyasaland (Malawi) which was depicted as Livingstones country, missionaries (read role of Scottish missionaries) shaped public opinion in favour of imperial control. **4) Treachery and Divide and rule policy** ~ The Europeans instigated inter-tribal wars causing some Africans to support them against warring communities. E.g. use of the Wanga against the Luo and the Luhya in Kenya, the Ndebele/shona against the Lozi in Rhodesia. ~ The Italians lied to Menelik II by signing a treaty of friendship but which was published in Italian version indicating that Ethiopia had agreed becoming an Italian protectorate. ~ The Maasai agreement was written in a language that the Lenana never understood. 5) Use of company rule. The British and the Germans used chartered companies to acquire and rule their colonies. For example, the role played by the British South African Company of Cecil Rhodes, Imperial British East African Company of Sir William Mackinnon and the German East Africa Company of Carl Peters. 6) Luring/enticements. The Europeans gave gifts like cloth, weapons tools, drinks etc to African chiefs like Lewanika of the Lozi and Mwanga of Buganda thus luring them into collaboration. 7) Diplomatic skills. This involved building relations with African leaders, which were later, used to acquire the areas. The British employed this method in Maasailand and Yorubaland. 8) A blend of diplomacy and force. The British for example initially signed treaties with the Ndebele (Moffat and Rudd treaties), but they fought them during the Ndebele war of 1897. **FACTORS THAT LED TO THE SCRAMBLE FOR COLONIES IN AFRICA** **Economic factors** ***1. The industrial revolution in Europe.*** a) The revolution led to search for markets for European manufactured goods in Africa resulting in scramble for and partition. b) The need for raw materials. The machines invented processed goods faster than use of hand. The Europeans came to Africa in search of raw materials like cotton, palm oil, copper and iron ore. c) Cheap labour was also readily available in Africa after the abolition of slave trade. d) There was desire by the entrepreneurs to invest excess capital gained from accumulation of profits from industrial investment. Africa provided an avenue for investment. e) Industrial revolution led to improved transport system, which was necessary for effective colonization. f) The military hardware manufactured during the revolution enabled Europeans to conquer African territories. g) The discovery of medicine enabled the Europeans to survive the African conditions and protect themselves from diseases such as malaria, yellow fever etc. h) Those who were rendered unemployed in Europe due to invention of machines had to move to Africa to assist in harnessing raw materials. i) Industrial revolution led to intense rivalry in trade, which was projected, into Africa. ***2. Speculation about the availability of deep pockets of minerals in Africa***. Gold and Bronze had been items of trade in Africa for centuries. The discovery of Diamond at Kimberly in the 1860s and Gold in the 1870s precipitated their appetite for Africa more. **Political reasons**. ***1. Unification of Germany after under Otto Von Bismarck after the Franco-***<br><br>***Prussian***war of 1870-71. The rise of Germany upset the balance of power in Europe and there was need to rebalance out through acquisition of colonies in Africa. France for example had to redeem her lost glory (especially after the loss of mineral rich Alsace and Lorraine provinces) by acquiring eight colonies in Africa. <br><br>***2. The rise of Public opinion in Europe**.*There was growth of public support towards the acquisition of colonies. With the rise of democracy in European states in the 19th c, it was fatal for any government to ignore public opinion. a) For example in 1882, due to public demand, the French assembly was compelled to ratify De Brazzas treaty with Chief Makoko thus creating a French colony in Congo. b) German took over South-West Africa (Namibia), Togo and Cameroon due to what Bismarck termed as public demand. c) In Britain, the public demanded that Britain must maintain her position as the leading colonizing power by taking her share in Africa. ***3. Militarism***. Army officers in Europe favoured colonial expansionist wars to give them greater opportunities for glory or promotion. a) For example, in Sudan, it was the military offers, in search of glory, and not the French government who directed the extent of French colonization. b) British soldiers like Wolseley Kitchener supported the expansion of the British Empire in Africa. ***4. The rise of Nationalism***. In Europe, there was the rise of a general feeling of civilians that their nations should acquire overseas colonies for national prestige. The Germans began feeling they belonged to a superior race that must be shown by acquiring colonies in Africa. **Strategic reasons** ***1. Construction of the Suez Canal***. (The Egyptian question). ~ The construction of the Suez Canal, opened in 1869, promoted a link between Europe and Asia/ shortened the routes to Far East. It also promoted international trade. It also made Egypt gain some strategic importance to Europeans. ~ The inability of Khedive Ishmael (1863-1879) to pay for the cost of the construction of the canal (due to his extravagancy) led to British full occupation of Egypt in 1882, being a major shareholder in the Anglo-Suez Company that owned the canal. ~ The dismayed French planned diversions of the Nile waters, and make Egypt a desert, after occupying territories to the south of Egypt. ~ It was against the backdrop that Britain claimed Uganda (source of the Nile) in 1894, Kenya (the gateway to Uganda) in 1895 and Sudan (where the Nile passes) in 1898. ***2. French activities in West Africa and the Congo*** The activities of France in Congo and West Africa, after loss of Egypt, through their Italian agent Savorgnan de Brazza in connection to acquisition of colonies alarmed other powers. This encouraged powers like Germany to join in the scramble and acquire Togo, Cameroon, Namibia and Tanganyika. ***3. The personal activities of King Leopold II of Belgium.*** ~ He endeavored to create a personal empire. In 1876, Leopold convened the Brussels Geographical Conference where he formed a business company, the International African Association comprising explorers and traders with a mission to civilize Africa, abolish slave trade and establish free trade. ~ As a result of the activities of his agent, Henry Morton Stanley who created the Congo Free State, Leopold had established a personal empire in 1884 . ~ It was the activities of king Leopold leading to intense rivalry amongst European nations over Congo that led to the convening of the Berlin Conference in 1884. **Social reasons** ***1. The work of Christian missionaries*** ~ They created an atmosphere of friendship with Africans by giving those gifts like cloths and beer, introducing economic activities like farming, carpentry, clerical work, among Africans, that were important virtues in the process of colonization. ~ Where they were in danger, they pressurized their home governments to protect them. ~ The missionaries had direct contact with the people of the interior of Africa and they were front-runners who paved way for the colonialists through their works. ~ They preached peace, love and hard work and hence calmed down the emotions of Africans towards the Europeans. ~ Some of them wrote exaggerated reports about Africa to convince Europeans to take interest in Africa. ***2. The growth of European population.***The growth of European population steadily to about 420 million in the 19th century led to the quest for new outlets to resettle the population.E.g Britain settled some of her people in Australia, New Zealand, USA, Canada and South Africa. German, Portugal and Dutch also had to find places in Africa to settle some of their people. ***3. Anti-slave trade campaigns- Humanitarian factor***. The humanitarians in Europe like William Wilberforce and Granville Sharp, and the missionaries who led the crusade against slave trade advocated for colonization of Africa in order to stop it and introduce Legitimate Trade.When slave trade was abolished, many European nations used it as an excuse to remain in some parts of Africa, control the region, enforce the anti-slavery treaties, and promote legitimate trade. **The pull factors** a) Existence of Vast natural resources in Africa. There were pockets of minerals in various parts of Africa and ivory awaiting exploitation. This attracted the Europeans. b) Well developed trade/trade routes in the interior. Imperialists used these routes as transport routes to penetrate the interior. c) Existence of Navigable Rivers. For example, rivers like Congo and Niger made transportation easy d) Existence of weak Decentralized local communities. Most African communities were decentralized with no military structures therefore offering little resistance to European invasion. e) Frequent wars / inter community wars. These wars weakened African communities and were left ill prepared for any resistance. Some readily collaborated with the Europeans. **THE PROCESS OF PARTITION** The fore runners to the process of partitioning Africa were the early explorers, missionaries and traders. Their activities were succeeded by the making of treaties and agreements in various parts of Africa between trading companies and the locals. . For example, the Buganda Agreement, the Heligoland Treaty and the Berlin act of 1884- 1885.In places where the Europeans employed diplomacy, they won the support of many Africans who collaborated with the intruders. The Europeans sometimes blended diplomacy with wars of conquest or use of force especially against the resisting communities.The partitioning boundaries were drawn along physical features like rivers, mountains, etc.The Berlin conference On 15th November 1884, Britain, Germany, France, Belgium, the USA, Portugal and Italy convened in Berlin to lay down the rules for the partition and eliminate conflicts amongst European nations. Africans, whose continent was being shared, were not represented in the conference The Berlin Conference of 1884-85, partitioned Africa into different spheres of influence without recourse to war. **Terms of the Berlin act of 1884-1885.** a) That all signatories must declare their sphere of influence an area under each nations occupation b) That once an area is declared a sphere of influence, effective occupation must be established in the area through establishment of firm colonial infrastructures to be followed by colonial administration. c) That any state, laying claim to any part of Africa must inform other interested parties in order to avoid future rivalry. d) That any power acquiring territory in Africa must undertake to stamp out slave trade in favour of legitimate trade and safeguard African interests. e) That if a European power claims a certain part of the African coast, the land in the interior next to the coast became hers. f) That the Congo River and the Niger River basins were to be left free for any interested power to navigate. g) The European powers vowed to protect and safeguard European interests in Africa irrespective of their nationality. **Impacts of the Partition** **Political effects** a) Introduction of European administration minimized intertribal wars and civil strife. b) It led to development of strong African leadership and beginning of state formation. c) Colonial government structures inherited by most independent African states have continued to be models of governments in African countries. d) Rise of African nationalism to fight colonialism led to the development of African political awareness. e) The Europeans gained fame, prestige and national glory by having colonial possessions. f) Negatively, it led to collapse of African traditional political systems and leadership. g) Use of divide and rule promoted ethnic disunity that continues to trouble Africa many years after independence. h) Boundary creation split apart many African communities. For example, the Somali are found both in Kenya and in Somalia, the Maasai in Kenya and Tanzania and the Ewe in Ghana and Togo. i) In some cases some communities whose cultures were incompatible found themselves bunched together. **Social impacts** a) Through the protection offered to missionaries, it stimulated the spread of Christianity to various parts of Africa. b) It led to development of urban centres. Some towns grew as centres of administration e.g. Nairobi and Machakos. Others grew as railway terminus e.g. Kisumu. c) African welfare was boosted. Some African benefited from western education and health facilities introduced by the Europeans. d) European languages were introduced in Africa. e) Negatively, it created landlessness as European settlers appropriated African land. f) The Africans adopted some negative aspects of western culture. g) Many Africans lost their lives through resistance. **Economic effects** a) There was construction of roads, railway and other forms of infrastructure, which helped to open up the interior. b) Imperialization helped to widen market for African produce especially with the establishment of local industries. c) Africans were exposed to European manufactured goods/ increase in essential commodities. d) Partition speeded up the economic growth of European nations. e) Negatively, forced labour and exploitation of African resources left many parts of Africa impoverished and underdeveloped. f) Africans were exposed to heavy taxation and denial to participate in economic activities like farming, trade etc. **AFRICAN REACTION TO EUROPEAN COLONIZATION.** **RESISTANCE** Some communities were keen on defending their age-old and ancient political, social and economic institutions and viewed the arrival of the Whiteman with suspicion. Their leaders did not want to lose their power, wealth and sources of prestige. Others were militarily prepared for the Europeans. E.g the Mandinka, Nandi, Ndebele and Ethiopia. Some resisters were centralized states enjoying immense unity making it easy to mobilize people for a war. **The Maji Maji Rebellion (1905- 1907).** The Maji Maji Uprising in Tanganyika was the most significant African challenge to German colonial rule in its African colonies. The Uprising lasted two years c over 10,000 square miles. Tanzania had been acquired largely by Dr. Karl Peters, who signed treaties with the Chiefs of Usagara, Ungula, Uzigua and Ukami, in 1885. The Rebellion involved the Zaramo, Matumbi, Bena, Ngindo, Pogoro, Bunga, Ngoni, Luguru, Wamwera and Ndendeule **Causes of the maji maji rebellion.** 1. When Germany established its control over Tanganyika by 1898, it imposed a violent regime in order to control the population. Kings who resisted German occupation were killed. Africans resented the cruel, brutal, harsh and ruthless rule of the Germans. 2. Africans resented the Creation of new system of administration using Akidas and Jumbeswho terrorized the people and misused their positions. 3. The African population was also subjected to high taxation by the Germany East Africa Company to raise revenue for administration. The Matumbi on their part felt that the Germans should instead have paid the Africans for using their land. 4. The Africans resented a system of forced labour, whereby they were required to grow cotton and build roads for their European occupiers. The Africans were treated inhumanely while at work by the Akidas. 5. The Germans had no respect for African culture in that they misbehaved with Ngindo women. Crimes like rape, fornication and adultery, committed by the Germans were punishable by death among the Ngindo. 6. Christian missionaries discredited traditional belief and practices e.g. condemning sacred places as places of witchcraft. This greatly offended the Africans. 7. Germans had alienated land from Africans as a way of making the railway pay for the cost of its construction. The arrival of German settlers in U sambara area in 1898, Meru in 1905 and Kilimanjaro area in 1907 led to massive loss of African land. 8. Africans were forced to grow cotton in the communal cotton growing scheme, where they got very little payments. In 1902, Peters also ordered villages to grow cotton as a cash crop (for export) with each village, charged with producing a quota of cotton. This policy annoyed Africans who could no longer effectively work on their on farms to produce food. 9. The Ngoni were seeking revenge for the Boma Massacre of 1897 during which their soldiers were killed in large numbers. 10. The role of Kinjeketile Ngwale in instilling confidence in the Africans to unite and rise up against the Germans 11. The 1905, a drought that threatened the region making Africans incur heavy losses on a crop that was not even edible, combined with opposition to the government's agricultural and labor policies, became the immediate cause of the rebellion against the Germans in July, 1905. **Course of the maji maji war.** The oppressive regime bred discontent among the Africans, and resentment reached a fever pitch in 1905 when drought hit the region. A Ngarambe prophet, Kinjikitile Ngwale emerged, who claimed to know the secret to a sacred liquid which could repel German bullets called "Maji Maji," which means "sacred water." Ngwale claimed to be possessed by a snake spirit called Hongo.Thus, armed with arrows, spears, and doused with Maji Maji water, the first warriors of the rebellion began what would become known as the Maji Maji Rebellion. The rebellion was led by Kinjeketile Ngwale, Abdalla Mpanda and Ngamea. On July 31, 1905, Matumbi tribesmen marched on to Samanga and destroyed the cotton crop as well as a trading post. Kinjikitile was arrested and hanged for treason. However, Kinjekitiles ideas were spread widely through a whispering campaign called Njwiywia or Jujila by the Matumbi. Matumbi warriors uprooted cotton from an Akidas farm at Nandete to provoke the chiefs to fight. On August 14, 1905, Ngindo tribesmen attacked a small party of missionaries on a safari; all five, including Bishop Spiss (the Roman Catholic Bishop of Dar es Salaam) were speared to death. The Ngindo drove their hated Akidas from their area. They boycotted cotton picking.By August 1905, Germans were restricted to four military stations i.e. Wahenga, Kilosa, Iringa and Songea. The apex of the rebellion came at Mahenge in August 1905 where several thousand Maji Maji warriors attacked but failed to overrun a German stronghold. On October 21, 1905 the Germans retaliated with an attack on the camp of the unsuspecting Ngoni people who had joined the rebellion killing hundreds of men, women, and children. This attack marked the beginning of a brutal counteroffensive that left an estimated 75,000 Maji Maji warriors dead by 1907. Forces from Iringa under Captain Migmann assisted in the recapture of Kabata by Major Johannes.Reinforcement arrived from Germany and in 1907 warriors were defeated by Governor Graf Von Gotzen. The Germans employed the scorched earth policy which destroyed all property on sight. The Africans lost faith in the magic water. Some surrendered while others fled to Mozambique. **Consequences of the maji maji uprising** a) There was massive loss of lives. In its wake, the Maji-Maji rebellion left 15 Europeans and 389 African soldiers and between 75,000 and 100,000 insurgents dead. b) There was massive destruction of property, as villages and crops were burnt when Germans applied the scorched earth policy. c) Southern Tanganyika experienced severe famine as farms and granaries were destroyed. This disrupted economic activities such as agriculture and trade. d) Thousands of families were displaced during the war. This was because of the fear that gripped the land, forcing people to flee in different direction. e) The war undermined the German economy in Tanganyika, as numerous economic activities came to a standstill. f) There was loss of leadership in African communities which created disorganization and demoralized the African people. Most captured leaders were hanged or imprisoned. A total of 47 Ngoni chiefs were hanged. g) Africans resigned to colonial authority. The revolt broke the spirit of the people to resist and the colony remained calm, realizing they did not have better weapons to fight with. h) The uprising undermined the Africans confidence in their traditional religion. The magic water failed to protect them against the German bullets. i) The uprising laid the foundation to Tanganyikas Nationalism. The uprising would become an inspiration for later 20th Century freedom fighters who called for similar interethnic unity as they struggled against European colonial rule. j) Although the Maji Maji Uprising was ultimately unsuccessful, it forced Kaiser Wilhelm's government in Berlin to institute reforms in their Tanganyika administration as they realized the potential cost of their brutality. **Reforms introduced by the German administration after the maji maji uprising.** a) Corporal punishment was abolished by the German administration. Those settlers who mistreated their workers were punished. b) Forced labour for settler farms was abolished. c) Communal cotton growing was stopped and Africans were to plant their own cotton and get profit from it. d) Better educational and medical services for the Africans were introduced. e) Africans were involved in administration of the region as Akidas and Jumbes. f) Newspapers that incited settlers against Africans were censured. g) Kiswahili became an official language. h) A colonial department of the German government was set up in 1907 to investigate and monitor the affairs of the German East Africa. i) The new governor rejected extra taxation of Africans. j) Colonial administration in Tanganyika was now tailored to suit the Africans. **Role of religion in the Maji Maji rebellion.** a) It gave people courage, loyalty and confidence to fight the Germans. b) It gave spiritual strength to fight a superior force. c) Through religion, suspicions among communities were wiped out. d) Religion stood above tribal loyalty/all followed it regardless of tribe. e) Religious cults like bolero/kolelo promised people the destruction of the white man. f) It provided the ideology, which guided the war efforts. g) It sustained the morale of the warriors. h) It provided a common plan of action based on mass action i) It provided leadership during the war e.g. the prophetic leaders. j) It was used, to address the so many African grievances emanating from the harsh German rule. **The Mandinka Resistance.** **Samori Toure (c. 1830-1900)** One of the great kings and fighters of African freedom was the great Samori Toure. Born about 1830 in Sanankaro, SE of Kankan in present-day Guinea, Samori Toure chose the path of confrontation, using warfare and diplomacy, to deal with the French colonial incursion. His father was a Dyula trader, leading Toure to follow his familys occupation. In the 1850s, he enrolled in the military forces at Madina (present-day Mali) to liberate his mother, captured during a slave raid by king Sori Birama of Bisandugu. Displaying extraordinary military skill and prowess, he and his mother were subsequently released in 1858. Coupled with his experience as a Dyula trader, he built his army. Samori employed the triple thrust of persuasion, threat and war, in the same way as Sundiata did in Mali, to organized Malink chiefdoms and expand the Mandinka state. Between 1852 and 1882, Samori Toure had created the Mandinka Empire with the capital at Bisandugu, in present day Gambia.Samoris army was powerful, disciplined, professional, and trained in modern day warfare. They were equipped with European guns. The army was divided into two flanks, the infantry or sofa, with 30,000 to 35,000 men, and the cavalry or sere of 3,000 men. There was a third wing of 500 men forming specially trained bodyguards. In 1881, Samori extended the empire to the east as far as Sikasso (in Mali) to the west, up to the Futa Djallon Empire. Meanwhile, the French were extending eastwards from Futa Djalon while the Mandinka were extending westwards towards Kenyeran trading centre, Next to the rich Bure Gold fields.In 1882, at the height of the Mandinka empire, the Frenc h accused Samori Tour of refusing to withdraw from an important market center, Kenyeran (his army had blockaded the market). They thus started war on him. His bid to obtain assistance from the British to deal with the French failed as the later were not willing to enter into conflict with the French. From 1882 to 1885, Samori fought the French and had to sign infamous Bisandugu treaty on 28th march 1886 and then 1887. **Significance of the Bisandugu treaties (1886-1887**) a) To Toure, these were acts of delay the real confrontation that with the French that would come at an opportune time. b) He hoped that by this treaty, he would reach out at the British for a friendship treaty to enable him secure trade routes from the north under Tieba of Sikasso. c) The French on their part hoped to use the treaty to enable them to arrange the conquest of the Tukolor Empire. d) The treaties put the Mandinka under brief French protection. In 1888, he took up arms again when the French reneged on the treaty by attempting to foster rebellion within his empire. In 1890, he reorganized the army and concluded a treaty with the British in Sierra Leone, where he obtained modern weapons. He now stressed defense and employed guerilla tactics. **The Franco- Mandinka war (1891-1898)** **Causes of the Franco-Mandinka war (1891-1898)** a) Samori wanted to safeguard the independence and religion of his empire. Being a staunch Muslim, he could not tolerate non-Muslims on his land. b) He was not ready willing to lose the rich Bure Mines to the French whether through diplomacy or warfare. c) His empire was at that time enjoying military and economic superiority. The French incursion was merely a threat to his territorial expansion that was to be fought at all costs. d) His participation in trade had enabled him to acquire modern arms thus enabling him to build an equipped and well trained army which did not fear the encounter French. He even had facilities for arms repair. e) His scheme to play off the British against the French, between 1882 and 1889, had failed. This upset him and therefore left him only with the fighting option. f) The activities of the French of selling arms to his enemies such as Tieba of Sikasso were viewed by Samori as an act to weaken the Mandinka dominance. **Course of the franco-mandinka war.** Samori waged a seven year war against France whose army was led by Major Archinard. In 1891, with his improved weaponry and reorganized army, he defeated the French. In 1892, French forces overran the major centers of the Mandinka Empire, leaving death and destruction in their wake. In 1894, the French assembled all their troops in western Sudan (Senegal, Mali, Niger, etc) to fight Samori.Between 1893 and 1898, Samoris army retreated eastward, toward the Bandama and Como, resorted to the scorched earth tactic, destroying every piece of land he evacuated. He moved his capital east from Bisandugu to Dabakala, thus creating a second empire in 1893. This enabled him to delay the French. He formed a second empire, and moved his capital to Kong, in upper Cote dIvoire. **Disadvantages of Samoris second empire** a) He was cut off from Freetown where he used to buy firearms. b) He was at war with the communities, which he had attacked in his expansionist wars. c) His southern frontier was open to French attacks from the Ivory Coast. d) At his new empire, Samore was cut off from his gold mines at Bure thus; he had no wealth to keep his army running. e) The occupation of the Asante Empire by the British in 1896 meant that enemies from all corners surrounded Samori Toure. In 1898, Samori, forced to fight a total war against innumerable odds like famine and desertion that weakened his forces, was captured on September 29, 1898, in his camp in Gu (l) mou at the town of Sikasso in present-day Cte dIvoire and exiled to Ndjol, Gabon, where he died of pneumonia on June 2, 1900. **Factors that aided Samori Toure in offering a protracted resistance to the** **Europeans** a) He had established military workshops with a trained cadre of artisans whom he used to repair and manufacture his own weapons. This guaranteed regular supply of weapons during the resistance. b) He himself was a courageous fighter, a greater organizer and a military tactician and he personally commanded his army on the battlefield. c) His adoption of the Scorched Earth Policy as he mobilized the entire population to retreat left the French to starve and delay their advance. d) The success witnessed in trade enabled him to acquire guns and horses from the north, which were important in the resistance. e) Through trade and subsequent tribute collection, he obtained adequate wealth, which he used to maintain a large army. f) He had a large strong and well-organized army of 35,000 men, which was a formidable force for the French. g) He used diplomacy in dealing with the French to buy time to reorganize and strengthen his army, and to negotiate with the British in Sierra Leone to guarantee regular supply of guns. h) French soldiers were ignorant of the strange land they were fighting in and were faced with further problem of tropical disease. i) Some of his soldiers had served in the French colonial army and were thus familiar with the French tactics. j) He used Mandinka nationalism and Islam to unify the army. Many of Samoris soldiers believed that they were fighting a Jihad (holy war) and therefore fought with determination. **Why samori was finally defeated.** a) Since his army and community were constantly on the move, they could not engage in any gainful economic activity to replenish their supplies. b) The abandoning of the rich Bure Gold reserves as Samori retreated meant he had lost an important source of revenue that was initially used to sustain the army. c) When he moved to his second empire, He was cut off from Freetown where he used to buy firearms. d) Samori failed to get any support from other African societies due to lack of unity. Ahmed Seku of Tukolor and Tieba of Sikasso chose to rather assist the French than support Samori. e) His second empire was open to attack from all sides by either the British or the French, making it difficult to defend. f) The French had superior weapons and better means to re-equip their stores. They were also determined to defeat samori to set up an overseas colonial empire. g) The use of the scorched earth policy was resented by the civilians since it left them with nothing after destruction. It thus starred up local resistance. h) Even within his own empire, there was no total unity. The non-Mandinka communities and non-Muslims in the empire who had felt mistreated during his reign supported the French. i) The refusal by the British to assist Samori dented his hopes of getting a European ally against the French. j) Samoris retreat to Liberia was blocked and his capital besieged. He had to surrender to the French. **The Ndebele Resistance** **Background** The Ndebele were descendants of Nguni conquerors from South Africa (fleeing from the mfecane wars) who occupied what is now Matabeleland. Mzilikazi (Ndebele King) opened the door for the London Missionary Society led by Robert Moffat, who settled in Matabeleland in 1859. They assisted him in repairing his guns, inoculating cattle, writing and interpreting letters and providing medical care to the sick. Hehowever had little interest in Foreigners and even had those whose who accepted missionary influence killed. Mzilikazi died in 1868 and his son Lobengula took over.Lobengula was the Ndebele king at the outbreak of the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893. He went to great lengths to appease the increasingly aggressive British imperialists from the South, Portuguese invasion from Angola and Mozambique and Germans from the south west. He used his diplomatic skills to buy time before engaging in war with the British. He even tried to pit one European nation against the other (the Boers and the British). He in 1870 had granted a mining concession to Thomas Baines of Durban Gold Mining Co. in order to diffuse white intervention. In 1888, Lobengula signed the Moffat treat y which stated that he was not to sign any other treaty with other European groups without British permission. Rhodes sent his partner and agent Charles Rudd to compel Lobengula to acquiesce to the Rudd (mining) Concession- a verbal agreement between Lobengula and BSA Co granting the company a mining monopoly in Matabeleland. In return, he was to get a gunboat on River Zambezi or 500 sterling ponds, a monthly salary of 100 sterling pounds, 1000 rifles and 100,000 cartridges. Lobengulas conditions for concession were not incorporated in the final text. When the terms of the treaty were interpreted to him, he learned that he had been tricked into surrendering his kingdom to Europeans.In 1889, he repudiated the treaty and sent a fruitless delegation of Indunas (Motshede and Babiyance) to London to meet Queen Victoria. Despite the Ndebele king's repeal of the concession, Rhodes, supported by the British crown, enacted a charter of the newly created British South Africa Company investing it with an array of rights: the right to ma.ke treaties, to pass laws and to subject the natives to its police force, as well as to make grants of minerals and land to white settlers. Lobengula was thus pushed into reluctant resistance by white greedy rapacity. **Causes of the 1893 Ndebele war.** 1. The Ndebele detested the treachery used by the British in compelling Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession 2. British occupation of Matabeleland had ended Ndebele powers over the shona whom they always raided for cattle and women. 3. The British acts of provocation (inciting the Shona to raid the Ndebele for cattle). When the Ndebele chose to attack the shona, the British would then fight them under the pretext of protecting their interests in Mashonaland. 4. The attempt by the Ndebele indunas to punish some shona who disobeyed King Lobengula became the immediate cause. **Course of the war.** The war broke out in October 1893. The British army was led by Dr.Starr Jameson and comprised the shona police and other mercenaries from South Africa. At that time, the Ndebele had been weakened by smallpox and inferior weapons leading to little confrontation between them and the British. Lobengula chose to evacuate his people towards Northern Rhodesia. Atthe two battles of Shangani River and Mbembezi. The Ndebele were defeated by superior European gun-fire. Lobengula finally fled to Bulawayo where he died in 1894. The conquerors took advantage of the natives' inner divisions, with people of the low castes remaining passive and even some traitors helping the invaders. The aftermath of the British conquest in Zimbabwe was that cattle were seized from the natives and their land taken. Even the for the small plots that were left to them, Africans were often forcibly prevented from ploughing and sowing, since they were subjected to tax-collection and coerced labour in whiteowned farms. The Ndebele were pushed to the reserves of Gwaai and Shangani. **Second Matabele War (the Chimurenga war 1896-1897)** The war of liberation which was dubbed Chimurenga, or the Second Matabele War was a fulfillment of prophesy of a great Shona spirit, Mbuya Nehanda, sister of the great Shona prophet Chaminuka. Mlimo, the Ndebele spiritual leader is in fact credited with fomenting the Second Ndebele War. He convinced the Ndebele that the White settlers were responsible for the drought, locust plagues and the cattle disease rinderpest ravaging the country at the time. **Causes of the Chimurenga war** a) The war broke out because the Shona and the Ndebele feared disruption of their age- old and valued trade and trade routes. b) They fought for economic and trade independence. The company had stopped shona Gold and ivory trade with the Portuguese and forced them to trade only with the company only and at low exchange rates. c) They were fighting against land alienation. The BSA Company had alienated the Ndebele land and pushed them to the Gwaai and Shangani reserves that had no water and were infested with tsetseflies. d) The war eroded the Ndebele traditional authority. When Lobengulas sons were sent to South Africa by Rhodes for education, they were denied chance of succeeding their father. e) They detested the removal of the rights of chiefs to allocate land. The British ruined the regimental system and refused to recognize the power of the indunas and Ndebele laws. f) The British began to assume the rights to punish the subjects on behalf of the chiefs. Sometimes even the chiefs were also punished. E.g, Chief Moghabis village was burnt. g) They revolted against taxation which was an interference with their economic independence. The hut tax, introduced in 1894 was collected with much brutality. h) The Ndebele were not pleased with the recruitment of the shona in the police force. They felt humiliated as the shona took the chance to revenge for the many years of oppression. i) They resented the general brutality of the whites when dealing with the Africans, like threatening the black people with punishment just before pay, to cause them to run away. j) They wanted the removal of the policy of forced labour on European mines and farmswhere workers operated under deplorable conditions, often whipped with syambok (whip) and worked for long hours without chance to engage in activities of their choice. k) The company disregarded the Ndebele customs especially the class system. They treated everybody equally, including the Holi who were traditionally slaves to the Ndebele aristocrats. The traditional leaders were sometimes flogged before their subjects. l) The confiscation, by the company, of 250,000 head of cattle in 1893 from the Ndebele. Leaving them with only 50,000 affected by cattle disease. The rights to raid the shona for cattle was also denied. m) The people were resented more by the Natural calamities that continued to afflict them and which religious mediums like Mlimo blamed on the presence of the whites. n) The influence of the Mwari cult leaders who urged people to resist with an assurance of victory against the British and immunity against the European bullets. **Course of the war**. Mlimo's call to battle happened at a time when the BSA Co's Administrator General Matabeleland, Leander Starr Jameson, had sent most of his troops to fight the Transvaal Republic in the ill-fated Jameson Raid in Dec. 1995 leaving the country's defenses in disarray. War in Matabeleland.On 29th March 1896, the Ndebele High Priest Umlugulu, with senior indunas, organized a ceremony to install Umfezela as Lobengulas successor. On that day, The Ndebele rebels killed the whites on their farms as they found them by surprise. They also killed African policemen in the British force. The European settlers took refuge in fortified camps in Bulawayo, Gwelo, Belingwe and Mangwe.The British immediately sent troops to suppress the Ndebele and the Shona, but it cost the lives of many settlers, Ndebele, and Shona alike. The Matabele military defiance ended only when Burnham found and assassinated Mlimo, thanks to a Zulu informant. The Ndebele finally agreed to peace talks with Rhodes during which Rhodes agreed to disband the shona police and give the Ndebele headmen some powers as indunas. **The War in Mashonaland** On 17 June 1896, the Hwata dynasty at Mazowe attacked the Alice Mine. They succeeded in driving away the British settlers from their lands on 20 June 1896. In the same month, Mashaykuma, working with the local spiritual leader Kagubi, the Zezuru Shona people in killing a British farmer Norton and his wife at Porta Farm in Norton. With the war in Matabeleland ending in October 1897, Gen. Carrington was able to concentrate his forces on Mashonaland. Nehanda Nyakasikana and Kagubi Gumbo- reshumba were captured and executed in 1898, but Mkwati, a priest of the Mwari shrine, was never captured and died in Mutoko. Traditional leaders played a major role in the rebellion, notably Chief Mashayamombe, who led resistance in Mhondoro, Gwabayana, Makoni, Mapondera, Mangwende and Seke. **Role of religion in the organization of the S hona Ndebele resistance** a) Religion united the Shona and Ndebele who had hitherto been bitter rivals. / The two communities entered a common plan of action. b) It boosted and sustained the morale of the masses and gave them spiritual strength to fight a might force. c) Religion was used as a base of mass action. It provided the resistance with a common ideology. Much of the ideology used was derived from Umlugulu, the chief priest of the Ndebele Nyamanda, Lobengulas eldest son and Mlimo, the medium of Mwari Cult d) Religious leaders provided leadership to the war against white aggressors who were considered immoral and brutal. e) The Mwari Cult provided an important organization link between the Ndebele and shona since it was widespread. f) The most important representatives of the Mwari Cult were Mkwati and Singinyamatse who were the backbone of the spiritual unity of the Ndebele. **Why the Ndebele and shona were defeated** a) Disunity among Africans and between Shona and Ndebele. They fought on different fronts. Even some African communities supported the British against the shona and Ndebele. b) The Ndebele social class lacked unity of purpose. The former aristocrats fought on their own while the former slave classes chose to even cooperate with the British. c) British soldiers were well trained as compared to African soldiers. They also got reinforcement from Botswana and South Africa. d) The arrest and execution of African leaders like Nehanda, Kagubi and Singinyamatse demoralized the people. e) The British had superior weapons as compared to African inferior weapons. f) The magic failed to protect them against the enemy bullets. Many people were killed by the British including the leaders of the Mwari cult. g) The determination of Cecil Rhodes, who negotiated for peace with Ndebele thus ending the war. This made the suppression of the Shona by the British easy. **Results of the war.** a) The Africans lost their independence as the British established their authority over them. b) There was an enormous loss of life and property. c) The African land was alienated and they confined to reserves d) Africans in reserves were be subjected to forced labour. e) The war led to rapid spread of Christianity as the local people lost faith in their religion. f) The Ndebele indunas gained recognition as headmen. g) The Africans were exposed to severe famine, as the war hindered farming. h) The colonial office in London lost confidence in company rule due to its poor administration. **COLLABORATION** ***What is collaboration?*** This was a style in which Africans responded to European intrusion through diplomacy, adaptation or allying with the Europeans for military support and for material gains **Reasons for collaboration by some African communities.** a) Some African kings needed to safe guard themselves against internal and external enemies. e.g. Lewanika of Lozi who was facing threat from the Ndebele and the Ngoni. b) Others wanted to promote trade with the imperialists so that they can gain material wealth. For example, the Wanga and the Shona. c) Influence of the missionaries who convinced some African leaders to collaborate in order to get western education and civilization. E.g, Franois Coillard encouraged Lewanika to collaborate with the British. d) In some communities, there was need for protection against other European powers e.g. the Lozi against the Portuguese. e) Others were merely in need for assistance to gain regional supremacy. E.g the Maasai who were on downward trend as the Nandi were raising. f) To some it was a means of showing courtesy visitors assuming that they would leave soon and being ignorant of European intentions. For example, Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda. g) Other African leaders influenced some communities. For example, Chief Khama influenced Lewanika of the Lozi to resist. h) Having witnessed the European military might against the resisting neighbours some communities saw it futile to resist stronger force **The Lozi Collaboration** **Factors, which influenced Lewanika of the Lozi to collaborate with the British** a) Lewanika was encouraged to collaborate with the British by King Khama of Botswana who had already benefited from British protection against the Dutch in South Africa. b) The European missionaries who had visited him earlier influenced Lewanika. For example, Franois Coillard who convinced Lewanika to ally with the British to gain western education. c) Lewanika needed support against Portuguese and Germans who were approaching his territory. d) Lewanika wanted the British to protect his kingdom from attacks by other African communities such as the Ndebele and Shona-protection against African enemies. e) Lewanika also wanted the British to protect him against internal enemies e.g. in 1884, Lewanika faced an internal rebellion-to safeguard his position. f) Lewanika desired western education especially for his sons and civilization in his country. g) Desire for promotion of trade between Britain and his people. He was keen on acquiring European goods such as firearms for territorial defence. h) He was fearful and considered it futile to resist a strong military force like Britain. **How Lewanika collaborated with the British.** Signing of treaties e.g. he first signed a treaty with Harry Ware in 1889 before signing the Lochner Treaty of 1890 and the Corydon Treaty of 1898. These treaties put Bulozi under British protectorate.Lewanika became friendly to British agents like Frank Lochner and the missionary, Franois Coillard, whom he allowed to establish a permanent mission station within his territory. He sent his sons to the Coillard mission school as a show of acceptance of westernization. **Lochner Treaty of 1890.** It was British missionary Francois Coillard who negotiated for the meeting between Frank Lochner, acting on behalf of Rhodes, and Lewanika in 1890. The treaty put Lewanikas Kingdom under the protection of the British South African Company. **Terms of the treaty.** a) Lewanika gave the BSA Company mining rights in Bulozi except in certain farming and iron mining areas. b) The company promised to protect the kingdom from outside attacks. c) The British company promised to pay the king 2000 sterling pounds a year and 4% royalties of all minerals mined in the area. d) A promise was made to develop trade, build schools and develop telegraphy in the kingdom. e) Lewanika would still be a king but just a constitutional monarch, not an absolute ruler as before. f) That a British resident would be posted in Lealui, the capital of the Kingdom, to monitor company activities and advise Lewanika on foreign affairs. The treaty consequently implied that Lewanika had given up his kingdom to the British company.In 1897, Robert T. Coryndon a former police officer was sent as a British resident in Bulozi. Upon his arrival, he made arrangements for the signing of the Lawley treaty of 1898 which further reduced the size of the area governed by Lewanika. In October 1900, he signed another treaty, the Coryndon Treaty with Lewanika. The Coryndon Treaty (1900) ***It had the following terms;*** a) The British government would be responsible for administration of Bulozi. The company administrator would answer to the High Commissioner at the cape. b) The company would appoint officials and pay for the administration of the area. c) The company would provide schools, industries, postal services, transport and telegraphic facilities. d) Lewanika would receive only 850 sterling pounds a year as his stipend. e) The company was allowed to acquire land on the Batoka plateau. f) The company maintained its rights to prospect for mineral in Bulozi. g) Lewanika was to stop slavery and witchcraft in his area. h) Lewanika was made paramount chief of Barotse. His powers were reduced more when more white settlers arrived in 1905 ready to participate in government. NB; the Coryndon treaty made Lewanika a mere employee of the company, receiving only a stipend. He lost control of the former vassal states that no longer would pay tribute to him since they were now under the British.In the final run, Lewanika lost his independence just like any other collaborator or resistor. **Results of Lewanika collaboration** a) Schools and health centres were put up in his kingdom. b) He got British protection from Ndebele attacks. c) It marked the beginning of the erosion of the independence and traditional authority of his empire. Lewanika lost his authority as the administration was taken over by the British South Africa Company d) The British recognized Lewanika as a paramount chief of Barotse and gave him necessary protection. e) Lewanika received payment of 2000 yearly f) The British South Africa Company took over the control of the minerals g) The Lozi land was alienated and given to British settlers h) The Lozi were later forced to pay taxes in order to maintain the administration. i) The Lozi were forced to work as labourers on settlers farms j) The Lozi were employed in the civil service k) The British South Africa Company developed infrastructure in Barotseland l) The British used Barotseland as a base to conquer the neighbouring communities. **The Buganda collaboration.** By the mid 19th century, Buganda had become the most powerful state in the interior of East Africa. However despite this might, the Kabakas (Mutesa I and Mwanga) chose the path of collaboration instead of resisting the European intrusion. **Why kabaka Mutesa I (1856-1884) collaborated with the Europeans.** a) His kingdom was under threat form Khedive Ishmael of Egypt. He therefore wanted British assistance against the Egyptian threat. b) There was threat from his traditional enemy, Omukama Kabalega of Bunyoro Kingdom. c) Mutesa wanted to establish a centralized religious authority over Buganda to counter there power wielded by the traditional priest of the Lubaale Cult and the Muslim power and influence. d) He wanted modernization and to gain Prestige from association with the Europeans. For example, western education, medicine and other material benefits. e) He had the desire to trade with Europeans to get their goods especially firearms. **Kabaka Mwanga (1884-1898)** Mwangas main problem when he took over power was religious indecision which eventually generated political instability. In January 1885, he executed three C.M.S converts. In October 1885, he had Bishop Hannington killed. In May 1886, 30 young converts were burnt to death at Namugongo for refusing to denounce their Christian faith. In 1888, under the urge of the traditionalists, he unsuccessfully attempted to expel all foreigners whom he blamed for causing chaos in his kingdom. He instead was disposed by a combined force of Muslims, Catholics and Protestants and replaced by his brother Kiwewa, sharing authority with foreigners.In 1890, Mwanga recaptured the throne assisted by the Christians and Kabalega of Bunyoro kingdom. He signed a protectorate treaty with Carl peters for the Germans and rejected a treaty offer by Fredrick Jackson of IBEACO. IN 1891, Mwanga signed a treaty of collaboration with Fredrick Lugard, the First British administrator sent to Uganda. This was after the Heligoland Treaty of 1890 had put Uganda a British sphere of influence. **Why Mwanga collaborated** a) He wanted to acquire protection from internal and external enemies e.g religious groups and Banyoro. b) He wanted to secure his position and safeguard the Baganda from interference. c) He wanted the British to help him Gain regional supremacy over the surrounding kingdoms of Bunyoro, Ankole and Toro.However, throughout all the religious conflicts that continued in Uganda between the Protestants and the Catholics, Kabaka Mwanga always supported the Catholics to the Chagrin of the British administrators. He was disposed by Lugard in 1894 after the capture of his palace at Mengo.Under Kabaka Mwanga II, Buganda became a protectorate in 1894. This did not last and the Kabaka declared war on Britain in on July 6, 1897. He was defeated at the battle of Buddu on July 20 of the same year. He fled to German East Africa where he was arrested and interned at Bukoba. The Kabaka later escaped and led a rebel army to retake the kingdom before being defeated once again in 1898 and being exiled to the Seychelles.While in exile, Mwanga II was received into the Anglican Church, was baptized with the name of Danieri (Daniel). He spent the rest of his life in exile. He died in 1903, aged 35 years. In 1910 his remains were repatriated and buried at Kasubi.The war against Kabaka Mwanga II had been expensive, and the new commissioner of Uganda in 1900, Sir Harry H. Johnston, had orders to establish an efficient administration and to levy taxes as quickly as possible. This he did through the Buganda Agreement of 1900 **The Buganda agreement** The Buganda agreement was signed in 1900 between Sir Harry Johnstone, British Official, and Apollo Kagwa, representing the Baganda **Reasons for signing of the Buganda agreement** a) The treaty was to define the position of Buganda in the country. b) To introduce law and order in the country. c) To reduce the cost of British administration since Buganda was to meet the cost of administration. d) To define the relationship between Buganda and the British government. **Terms of the Buganda agreement** a) The Buganda laws were to remain in effect as much as they did not interfere with protectorate laws that were to be applicable to Buganda Kingdom as well. Bugandakingdom was to be ruled by the Kabaka with the assistance of Katikiro. The Lukiko was to be the legitimate body making laws of Buganda and it was to compose 89 members. b) Buganda people were to pay poll and hut tax. However, No tax was to be levied on Buganda unless approved by the Lukiko (parliament). Revenue from Buganda was to be merged with all the revenue from other provinces. c) The kabaka, ministers and Chiefs to be paid since they were now employees of the British government. d) Buganda boundaries were defined to include parts of Bunyoro (the ten sazas she had acquired from Bunyoro). The kingdom was therefore expanded to twenty counties. To ease administration, each county was placed under a Saza Chief. e) Land tenure system was changed to include land on freehold basis (Mailo land) and crown land. The crown land was for protectorate government while the Mailo land was particularly for the kabaka, his ministers and his chiefs. f) Though Buganda became a province within the protectorate, Ganda system of government was recognized and modified. It was to have three ministers (katikiro, treasurer and chief justice.). The Lukiko had fixed number- 20-saza chiefs, 60 notables and 6 Kabakasappointees. **Results of the Buganda agreement.** a) British overlord ship was confirmed over Buganda. b) Buganda was reduced to a status of a mere province. c) The position of the king was reduced he lost his power to give or withhold land as well as the power to appoint or transfer chiefs. d) The 1900 Agreement led to the birth of early nationalistic movements. For example, the Bataka Opposition Movement in the 1920s by the landless class people rising up against the land-owning group. e) Modern economy and western education were introduced with Buganda taking the lead. f) Buganda formed the basis for the British administration as baganda were appointed as British administrators. g) It strengthened the special position of Buganda in relation to other communities in Uganda. h) Sazas were increased from 10 to 20 and saza chiefs got land and right to impose land rent. i) It led expansion of Christianity and decline of Islamic influence. j) Bunyoro kingdom became aggrieved as results of loss of part their territory that was transferred to Buganda by the British. This caused friction later. **Results of African collaboration** a) Just like resistors, the collaborating communities also lost their independence and were eventually colonized. Bulozi and Buganda finally became British Protectorates. b) The collaborating community leaders gained some recognition, though with reduced powers. Lewanika foe example became the paramount Chief of Barotseland while Kabaka gained the title, His Highness. c) The collaborators were able to secure some amount of protection from their traditional enemies. The Lozi were protected from the Ndebele while the Baganda were protected from the Banyoro. d) The collaborators were used by the Europeans to exert their authority over other African societies. The baganda on their part were used to administer Busoga. e) The collaborating Africans gained from missionary work. Lewanikas sons for example gained western education. Hospitals and schools were also built in the kingdoms. f) There was increased trade between the collaborating communities and the Europeans. The communities gained European goods such as glassware, clothes, guns and ammunition. g) The collaborators just like resistors were later subjected to economic exploitation such as land alienation, mining, taxation and forced labour. **ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN KENYA** **CAUSES OF THE SCRAMBLE FOR EAST AFRICA** **Factors that contributed to the scramble and partition of East Africa** ***1. The rise of Nationalism in Europe. The Unification of Germany, after the***Franco- Prussian war (1870-71) upset the balance of power in Europe and there was need to rebalance out through acquisition of colonies in Africa including east Africa. The Germans also felt that the only way their nation could gain recognition among other European powers was through securing colonial possession. ***2. Strategic location of East Africa in relation to Egypt. Europeans were concerned*** with the source of the river Nile in East Africa and control of the Suez Canal. Therefore, the ownership of East Africa was crucial to the Egyptian affairs. East Africa, had, from the days of the Portuguese conquest in the 15th century, proved to be a strategic location for fresh supplies. That is why the Germans and the British competed for possessions in the region. ***3. The need to speed up economic development of the European countries. The*** industrializednations were rushing for colonies to tap raw materials to keep their factories running. There was also a popular believe that East Africa contained pockets of precious metals awaiting exploitation. They were also driven by the search for market for European produced goods. The Europeans were also looking for places to invest their capital. ***4. The rise of Public opinion in Europe. There was growth of public support***towards the acquisition of colonies. E.g., the Daily Press in London spoke well about acquiring colonies. ***5. Social factors.*** ~ East Africa was to be occupied as a means of stamping out slave trade and replacing it with legitimate trade. ~ The Europeans were keen on spreading their culture to east Africa. ~ They wanted to protect their missionaries who were already operating in east Africa **The process of Partition** The Berlin conference failed to fully resolve the rivalry between the Germans and the British in East Africa. The activities of Karl Peters and Harry Johnstone for the Germans and the British respectively in the Mount Kilimanjaro region depicted intense rivalry which almost led to war.The two signed treaties with local chiefs as a way of legalizing their arbitrary declaration of their spheres of influence. Karl peters even declared german protectorate over Ungulu, Uzigua, Usagara and Ukami.These activities together with those of Sir William Mackinnon of the Imperial British East Africa Company became the immediate cause of the partition of east Africa.The partition of East Africa was sealed through the following two treaties. **The Anglo-German Agreement of 1886** The agreement facilitated peaceful settlement of the german and British claims on east Africa as follows; a) The Sultan was given the 16 KM (10mile) coastal strip from Vanga to Lamu. He also acquired islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, mafia, Lamu, pate and Towns like Lamu, Kisimayu, Mogadishu, Merca, and Brava. b) Germany acquired the coastline of Witu the region between river Umba in the North and river Ruvuma in the south. c) The British got the territory north of river Umba up to river Juba in the north. However, the treaty failed to determine the western boundary, thus leaving Uganda up for grab to any power that got there first. Uganda therefore became a theatre of intense rivalry between Karl Peters who even secured a treaty with Kabaka Mwanga in 1890 and Fredrick Lugard who tried in vain to sign a treaty with Kabaka Mwanga. This tension is what led to the Heligoland Treaty of 1890. **Terms of the Heligoland Treaty of 1890** a) Germany officially recognized Uganda as a British sphere of influence/protectorate. b) Germany abandoned her claim over the territory of Witu for British in exchange for Heligoland island in the North sea c) Germany accepted British protectorate over Zanzibar and Pemba. d) Germany acquired a strip of land on Lake Tanganyika from Britain and the Coastal region of Tanganyika from the Sultan of Zanzibar. e) The Sultan of Zanzibar retained a 16km (10 miles) Coastal strip. This treaty thus ended the scramble for and partition of East Africa. **BRITISH OCCUPATION OF KENYA** **Methods used by the British to occupy Kenya.** a) Signing of treaties. The following treaties were signed either by the British or on behalf of the British to facilitate their occupation of Kenya; ~ A treaty by Sir William Mackinnon and the Sultan of Zanzibar Barghash in 1887 which effectively put Zanzibar under the British for 50 years. ~ The Maasai Agreements of 1904 and 1911 between Oloibon Lenana and the British ~ The Anglo-Germany Treaties of 1886 and 1890. b) Collaboration. The British collaborated with communities like the Wanga and Maasai who were later used as bases to extend British Authority over other areas. c) Establishing operational bases. The British built Forts like Fort Smith (Kabete) and Fort Hall (Muranga) to enhance their political control. d) Use of company Rule. In the initial stages, due to the fear of the enormous costs of effective occupation and administration, the British mandated the IBEA. Company to administer the Kenyan protectorate.The Imperial British East Africa Company of Sir William Mackinnon was given the royal charter in 1888 and thus had the following new powers; a) Levying and collecting taxes and institute custom duties in the area. b) Establishing political authority and Maintain of law and order in the British East Africa. c) Promoting legitimate trade and Eradicate slave trade d) Developing and civilizing the indigenous peoples with the assistance of the imperial consul based in Zanzibar. **Achievements of the IBEAC.** a) The company succeeded in quelling local aggression in the British spheres of influence from communities such as the Nandi, Maasai and Akamba. b) The company established a series of Forts at Kibwezi, Machakos, Smith and Dagoretti, which laid the basis for colonial administration in Kenya. c) The company improved transport and communication in the protectorate by pioneering road construction in Kenya. For example the Sclaters Road between Kibwezi and Busia in 1894 which assisted in transportation of railway building materials. d) The company succeeded in eradicating slavery to some extend and securing freedom for many slaves. e) The company also developed a rubber industry along the coast and the interior. **Reasons why Britain used the IBEA Company to administer her possession** a) Absence of a clear policy on the administration of colonial possessions. This gave room to the use of the company to administer the colony. b) The company could provide cheap administrative capital that Britain had failed to raise for colonial governance. The colonies were not yet economically viable c) There was a problem of inadequate personnel to be used in the administration of the colonies. d) I.B.E.A.Cos long experience in the region. The company had invested heavily in east Africa, hence making its participation in the administration of the colony inevitable. **Why company rule had failed by 1895.** a) The region lacked strategic natural resources for export thus making the IBEACO, a trading company, to operate at a loss and narrow its revenue base. Minerals like Gold, copper and Diamond were not existent. b) The company lacked sufficient capital to carry out the day- to- day administrative operations. The company had spent the little funds available in the construction of fortified trading stations, with little reward. c) Transportation of goods in the region proved expensive and slow as the region did not have any navigable rivers d) The company faced the problem of poor coordination of its activities caused by lack of proper channels of communication between the head office in Europe and the offices in the colony. e) Some of the company officials were corrupt and therefore misappropriated funds. f) The company faced numerous resistances especially in the Nandi country thus disrupting their operation. At one time, Fort Smith was set on fire by African resisters. g) Some of the company officials lacked experience in administrative matters since most of them came merely as traders. h) The company officials also were affected by the harsh tropical climate and diseases like malaria and sleeping sickness that killed many. The company thus surrendered the Charter in 1895 to the British government for a compensation of 250,000 dollars **Factors facilitated the establishment of the British control over Kenya during the** **19th century?** a) The Christian missionary factor. They created an atmosphere of friendship with Africans, which was important for colonization. They also occasionally called home for protection against hostile communities. b) Presence of trading company (IBEACO. The companies through their agents signed treaties with African rulers and among themselves as a means of initiating effective occupation of Kenya. c) Superior military power/good army. The European armies were more efficient than he African ones. This was witnessed in the ability to quell the numerous wars of resistance like the Nandi resistance. d) Disunity among African communities. By the time the British came to East Africa, the Wanga were up against the neighboring communities in western Kenya, the Nandi and the Maasaiwere at war and the Mijikenda against the coastal Arabs over land. This was of advantage to the British. e) Signing of treaties. There was Collaboration of some communities with the British. The Maasai signed the Maasai Agreement of 1900. The Wanga also signed various treaties with the British. f) The British policy of indirect rule was readily acceptable, thus reducing the chances of resistance. g) Financial support from the home government. **KENYA PEOPLES RESPONSES BRITISH INVASION OF KENYA** Africans in Kenya offered varied responses to the British intrusion into their country. Some resisted while other collaborated.The communities that resisted actively included the Nandi, Agiryama, Bukusu, Somali and sections of the Agikuyu **The Nandi Resistance (1895-1906)** **Reasons why the Nandi resisted British occupation of their land** a) The Nandi had gained a lot of pride, having subdued their neighbours E.g the Luo, Maasai, Abagusii and Abaluhyia. At that time, they were enjoying a sense of superiority that gave them confidence to take the British Intruders head-on. b) The Nandi military superiority made them feel equal if not superior to the whites. Their warriors were well- trained and equipped and had gained a lot of experience through the numerous cattle raids the conducted against their neighbours. c) The Nandi detested the physical appearance of the white people which they considered as evil and must be expelled from their community. d) The Nandi were opposed to Land alienation by the British. They disliked the grabbing of their land for railway construction/white settlement. e) Kimnyoles prophecy that foreigners would dominate the Nandi motivated them to fight against the Europeans. f) The Nandi had a long history of resisting and fighting intruders. They had successfully warded off the Arab and Swahili traders in the 1850s. g) The Nandi resisted as a means of safeguarding their independence which they had enjoyed for a long time. h) The Nandi also enjoyed unity under the leadership of Koitalel Arap Samoei between 1895 and 1905. This had helped them to register numerous victories against neighbouring communities. They therefore felt strong enough to resist the British. **Course of the Nandi rebellion** The Nandi wars of resistance began in 1895. The Nandi mainly employed guerilla warfare ambushing the caravan traders and mail carriers who passed in their territory. When two Nandi warriors strayed into the Guasa Mesa administrative camp headed by Andrew Dick in 1895, he murdered them as a response to the attacks by the Nandi on foreigners passing in their territory.The Nandi retaliated through the murder of a British trader, Peter West and thirty of his workers. This sparked off British punitive expeditions against the Nandi with the first in 1897 which however failed to stop the Nandi raids. When the railway reached the Nandi territory, they refused to cooperate with the railway builders and even kept stealing building materials to make weapons and ornaments. They even ambushed and murdered railway builders.In 1900, the British sent three punitive expeditions under Colonel Evatt, the commander of the Uganda Rifles reinforced by the Maasai, Baganda, Swahili and Indian mercenaries.The Nandi were supported by the Kipsigis enabling them to resist for so long causing high death toll on the British and the Nandi as well.The year 1901 witnessed a temporary truce worked out by the British administrator, Walter Mayes (1901-1905), after realizing the heavy causalities both sides were experiencing. The war was re-ignited when the Nandi realized that the British had started settling and farming on their land. They destroyed the railway in protest. The British reacted by destroying crops and villages and stealing cattle for the next three years. The Nandi war of resistance only ended when the British officer in Nandi, Captain Meinertzhagen, hatched a plan to have Koitalel, the chief coordinator of the rsistance, killed. He and his advisers were killed in October 1905, during a peace meeting convened by Meinertzhagen. The Nandi finally sought for peace in December 1905 ending the ten year long resistance. **Why the Nandi offered the longest and strongest ever resistance to the British** **intrusion in Kenya.** a) The British intrusion into their territory happened when the Nandi were at the best of their power and superiority. b) Existence of a superior military organization based on the age set system. The Nandi army was strong and could match any foreign force. The regimental age-set system supplied the Nandi with young men who were experienced in battle, disciplined, organized and were effective. c) The Nandi also possessed knowledge of weapon manufacture and repair through their local ironsmiths and using stolen railway material. d) The Nandi enjoyed regular supply of food and war equipment which sustained the fighters for a long period. This was mainly aided by the Nandi mixed economy enabling them to turn livestock for food when the British destroyed crops. e) The Nandi had good knowledge of the terrain in which they were fighting the intruders thus having an advantage over the British who were not familiar with the terrain. The difficulties faced by the British as posed by the terrain disadvantaged them durin g the resistance f) The Nandi knowledge of Guerilla tactics. This enabled them to organize many surprise attacks while vandalizing key British installations like the telegraph lines. g) The existence of strong leadership. The Nandi leadership was religiously inspired and therefore very strong. The Orkoiyot was their symbol of unity and strength and was believed to possess some supernatural powers that gave courage to the fighters. h) Their enemies, the British troops, were slowed down in their advance by problems like respiratory disease due to the wet and cold climate. The Nandi were accustomed to these conditions i) The Nandi received assistance from the Kipsigis fighters the Elgeyo, Lembus and Nyangori which enabled them to hold off the British for Six weeks in 1900. **Why the Nandi were defeated in the hands of the British** a) The British obtained support, against the Nandi, from the collaborating communities like the Somali and the Maasai. b) The British military strength remained superior to that of the Nandi especially in terms of the weapons. Their guns were superior to the Nandi spears. c) There was an outbreak of smallpox in the Nandi country 1890. This weakened them by killing many and rendering others unable to fight on. d) They Nandi failed to get support from the neighboring Kenyan communities like the Luo and the Abaluhyia who were not friendly to them. e) The treachery employed by Captain Meinertzhagen, the British commander who lured Nandi Orkoiyot Koitalel Arap Samoei to a meeting where he was killed. f) The death of Koitalel Arap Samoei demoralized the Nandi into even signing for peace. g) The British used Scorched Earth Policy, which seemed more punitive to the Nandi since their houses were burnt and livestock confiscated. **Results of the Nandi resistance.** a) The Nandi country was colonized by the British after 1906. The Nandi lost their independence. b) There was massive loss of life. Koitalel Arap Samoei, his entire council of elders and over 1000 warriors were killed. The British also experienced casualties on the part of their forces. c) There was destruction of property through burning and looting. E.g the British confiscated at least 5000 herds of cattle and burnt more than 5000 huts and grain stores. d) There was massive land alienation. The Nandi were pushed into reserves where they experienced impoverishment due to drought and cattle diseases. The Nandi lot their territory and traditional salt licks at Kapchekendi and Kamelilo that were now inhabited by the whites. e) The Nandi military organization disintegrated thus making them lose their dignity and authority in the region. f) The Nandi were separated from their close cousins and allies the Kipsigis through the creation of the Nandi Reserves where they were confined. Their economic lifestyle of grazing animals freely was also disrupted. g) Many Nandi warriors were recruited into the colonial police. **Agiriama resistance.** A Bantu speaking group inhabiting the coastal region, their reaction to the British invasion was motivated by the reaction of the Mazrui Arabs and the Swahili who rose up against the British in 1895.The Agiriama reaction began as an offer of support to the Mazrui Arabs, with whom they had long trading links, during their conflict with the British over succession to the TakaunguSheikhdom. The Agiriama was also hitting back against the Busaidi Arabs who were encroaching on their territory. The British had supported the Al Busaidi collaborators throughout succession conflict.The British reacted by bombarding Rashids Headquarters at Mweli forcing the Agiriama and the Mazrui to resort to guerilla warfare. While the Mazrui Arabs later surrendered, the Agiriama now resorted to full scale rsistance against the British encroachment in 1914. **Causes of the Agiriama resistance** a) They did not want to pay taxes, especially hut tax that was hurting to traditionally polygamous group, to the British. The British also were forcing them to pay it in terms of labour instead of allowing them to sell their grains and livestock to pay. b) They had lost their independence/the British replaced the Agiriama traditional rulers with their own appointees c) They were opposed to forced labour on British plantations for little or no pay especially on land that had been snatched from them. d) The British did not respect their culture. The British policemen at Kitengani insulted the Agiriama culture by raping their women. e) The Agiriama were reacting against forced conscription into the Kings African Rifles. They were forced to produce 1000 able-bodied men within a month, join the British army f) They lost their land to the British due to the massive land alienation for settler farming. They were forced to offer paid labour on their own former land to the chagrin of the elders. g) The British, who were seeking to take over the Agiriama role as middlemen, disrupted their trade in ivory and food stuffs h) They disliked the British-appointed headmen whose duties included collection of taxes and recruitment of labour. **Course of the resistance** The Agiriama resistance was inspired by a Giriama prophetess, Mekatilili WA Menza. She was joined by an Elder, Wanje wa Madorika in mobilizing people to a mass resistance against the British rule.The immediate course of their reaction was the forced military recruitment into the KAR. To provoke the British to war, they barred their young men from moving outside their villages to work.Mekatilili and Wanje called on the people to return to their ancestral shrine at Kaya Fungo and offer sacrifices and denounced all appointed puppet rulers in favour of the traditional council of elders. The two administered traditional oaths to unite and inspire the people to war. I.e. the Mukushekushe oath for women and the Fisi oat for men.When a state of emergency was declared by the British over the Agiriama, they resorted to Hitand-run warfare. They attacked the homes of loyalists, Europeans and collaborators forcing the missionaries to seeker refuge at Rabai. The British countered the hit-and-run warfare with burning villages and crops and driving away livestockThe resistance only subsided when Mekatilili and Wanje were arrested and deported to Kisii.The Arabs, under Fadhili bin Omari, mediated between the Agiriama and the British, marking the end of the war under the following terms; a) The Agiriama to offer a specific number of labourers for European settlers and public works. b) They would also offer a certain number of able-bodied men to serve in the Kings African Rifles. c) The British would occupy all the land to the north of River Sabaki. **Role of Mekatilili in the Agiriama resistance**. a) She encouraged the Agiriama to face the British by administering the Mukushekushe and Fisi oaths to unite the people to war. b) She presented the grievances of the Agiriama, some of which the British later addressed. c) She rallied the people together against a common enemy thus laying the basis for nationalistic struggles for independence. **Results of the Agiriama resistance to the British** a) Many people lost their lives some as fighters while others were caught in the crossfire. b) The Agiriama lost their independence to the British c) There was Rampant destruction of property i.e. food stores at home, food crops in the fields and cattle. Some property was lost through confiscation. d) The communitys economic activities were disrupted, especially the lucrative trade at Takaungu, where they had been acting as middlemen. e) The Agiriama were prohibited from brewing traditional liquor. f) The British withdrew their order demanding Agiriama to move out of their homes. g) For the first time women took up the leadership of the rebellion e.g. Mekatilili **Bukusu resistance** **Reasons why the Bukusu resisted the British rule** a) They wanted to safeguard their independence and culture i.e. circumcision. b) They were being compelled to recognize Nabongo Mumia as the overall leader of Abaluhyia. c) The Bukusu did not like the idea of paying taxes to the British through force. d) They resented the British demand in 1894, that the Bukusu warriors surrender guns they possessed. e) The British invasion had happened when the Bukusu were enjoying immense military power. **Course of the resistance** The Bukusu resistance began with the ambush of a trade caravan heading to Ravine through bukusuland. The Bukusu stole all the rifles. When they were commanded to surrender all the guns in 1894 and declined, the British sent a punitive expedition which however was defeated. The British administrator at Elureko, Charles Hobley sought for reinforcement from Major William Grant of the Ugandan protectorate. In 1895, at the battles of Lumboka and Chetambe, the Bukusu were summarily defeated. **Methods used by the Bukusu to resist the British.** a) Use of Warfare. They directly fought the British troops led by Major William Grant, at Lumboka and Chetambe hills. b) Ambushes. The Bukusu ambushed a caravan of traders, sent by the commanding officer at Kavirondo to the Ravine Station. c) Revolting against rule by Wanga agents. The Bukusu Murdered a Wanga agent, Hamisi, who had been sent, to administer the area. ` **Effects of the Bukusu resistance** a) The Bukusu lost most of their land through massive land alienation b) They lost their independence as bukusuland was declared part of the British East Africa **Protectorate** c) There was massive loss of life within the Bukusu and the British forces. d) There was loss f property and disruption of Bukusu economy. The Bukusu lost their cattle and sheep. e) Bukusu women and children were taken prisoners by the British. **The Somali resistance.** The Somali resistance was a reaction to the British declaration that Jubaland was a British protectorate. They were led by their leader Ahmad bin Murgan. **causes of Somali resistance.** a) The Somali were opposed to the division of Somaliland into the British and Italian spheres of influence, which separated the clans. b) They were opposed to punitive expedition sent against them by the British. c) The Somali people being Muslims were opposed to being controlled by the British who were Christians. d) The British attempted to stop the Somali raiding activities against their neighbors. e) The Somali were against British control of their pastureland and watering points. f) The British wanted the Somali to drop their nomadic way of life. **Course of the resistance.** The British initially reacted minimally to the Somali aggression on their Kisimayu neighbourhood in 1898 due to the following reasons; a) They viewed such an undertaking as to expensive in terms of the arms and military personnel that would have been involved. b) The Somali were a nomadic group therefore it was very hard and time consuming to suppress them. c) There was no economic justification for waging such a war on a highly unproductive territory. However, when the Somali murdered the British sub-commissioner for Jubaland, Mr Jenner, in 1900, the British dispatched a punitive expedition of Indian regiments against them.The Somali rose up again in 1905 against the British after they had procured Firearms. The Somali skirmishes continued into 1914 with the change of boundaries and finally ended in 1925 when Jubaland was put under the Italian Somaliland. **Results of the Somali resistance** a) There was massive loss of life, as many Somalis were killed. Sub-commissioner Jenner was also killed. b) The British divide the Darod and Hawiye clans through the boundary changes of 1914. c) The Somali cattle were confiscated. d) Somali lost their independence through the declaration of the protectorate status. e) The process of colonization by Europeans was delayed considerably. f) There was favorable boundary change that saw Ogaden being placed under Italian Somaliland. **Collaboration** In Kenya, the Maasai, Wanga and a section of the Agikuyu, Akamba, and Luo collabo rated. **The Maasai collaboration** In the 19th century, the Maasai community changed from a once feared community to one marred by succession disputes and natural calamities. The Disputes between Lenana and Sendeyo over succession of Mbatian after he died weakened the Maasai community to the level of merely collaborating with the British intruders. Sendeyo moved with his followers to northern Tanzania leaving behind Lenanas group who chose the path of collaboration. **Reasons for the Maasai collaboration with the British** a) Losses of the Maasai military supremacy. At the time the British came to Kenya, the Nandi had overtaken the Maasai in terms of military superiority. They therefore sought for foreignsupport against their aggressors. b) Internal feuds. There were a series of succession disputes in the period between 1850 and 1890 caused by differences in economic activities. In one of the disputes, when Lenana seemed to be losing to Sendeyo, he appealed to the British for support. c) Natural calamities/disasters. The Maasai country witnessed severe hunger, livestock and human diseases in the 1850s. These weakened them more making them unable to resist. d) Threat and wars from the Agikuyu. When the Maasai went to reclaim their women and children at the end of the hunger period, they were met with outright threat of attacks from the Agikuyu. They therefore sought British support. e) Prophecy of Mbatian. He prophesized the coming of a white man who was more powerful and that the Maasai should not bother to resist him. f) Lenana personally chose the path of collaboration because he wanted to consolidate his position and that of his kingdom. He was looking for the much needed military support to overcome his sibling, Sendeyo of the Loita Maasai. **The process of Maasai collaboration.** The attempt by Lenana to secure assistance against Sendeyo was the beginning of his collaboration with the British.The Kedong massacre incident (Maasai warriors attacked a caravan of Swahili and Agikuyu traders travelling from Ravine) and the resultant death of 100 Maasai at the hands of three white men (Andrew Dick and two French companions) made the Maasai the immediately seek for collaboration with the British.They cooperated with the British in establishment of colonial administration. The provided mercenaries in the British punitive expedition against the Nandi, Kipsigis and Kikuyu. Maasai were rewarded with cattle acquired from uncooperative peoples e.g. The Nandi and Agikuyu They exchanged gifts and used British manufactured goods. Lenana was made a paramount chief. Between 1904 and 1923, a fair proportion of the Maasai agreed to be moved from one grazing land to another to pave way for British settlement.They signed the first Maasai agreement in 1904 by which they moved into two reserves, one to the south of Ngong and the railway and the other up on the Laikipia plateau. A corridor of five kilometres was set aside in Kinangop for the Eunoto ceremony that accompanied circumcision. The second Maasai agreement of 1911 implied the Maasai abandon the Laikipia plateau to rejoin others in the enlarged southern reserve. **Results of the Maasai collaboration** a) Lenana was made a paramount chief of the Maasai in 1901. b) The collaboration led to the separation of the Maasai related clans. The Purko Maasai were divided into the Loita and Ngong Maasai. c) There was massive land alienation with the Maasai being moved to the Ngong and Laikipia reserves and later the southern reserve. d) Maasai freedom in conducting rituals was curtailed with their confinement to a five square-mile reserve for initiation rites. e) The Maasai lost their independence. Just like any other part of kenya, Maasailand became part of the British protectorate. f) There was total disruption of their territorial integrity. Even their cattle economy was disrupted as the number of livestock was reduced. There was an attempt to cause them to abandon their nomadic habit. g) The Maasai gained material reward in form of cattle and grains looted from resisting communities like the Nandi and Luo of Ugenya. h) Their age old custom of livestock cross- breeding with their Samburu neighbours was disrupted with the curtailing of their migratory behaviour. Their stock was therefore weakened. i) Some Maasai were hired as mercenaries against the resisting communities such as the Nandi and Agikuyu. **Wanga Collaboration** Nabongo Mumia, the Wanga leader from 1880, was an ambitious and shrewd leader who had the desire to expand his Kingdom through collaboration with British intruders and soliciting their military assistance. **Reasons for Wanga Collaboration** a) Nabongo Mumia hoped that by collaborating, he would be made a paramount Chief of the entire western region. b) There was family rivalry over leadership. This compelled Mumia to seek help against his brother Sakwa. He wanted to safeguard his position at home. Key notes for the teacher and students- @Cheloti 2013 c) He wanted British protection against the Nandi, who were by then enjoying military superiority, the Bukusu and the Luo of Ugenya d) He wanted to revive a disintegrating kingdom. e) He wanted to take advantage of the British western civilization particularly education and religion. He also wanted material gains from the British. f) He aimed at achieving territorial expansion. Mumia aimed at ruling up to Kabras, Kimilili, Marama, Butsotso, Ugenya and Samia. g) He realized that his community was very small and it was futile to resist the militarily superior Europeans. h) Having realized that the British declaration of western Kenya as their sphere of influence was inevitable, he chose to become their ally at the earliest opportunity ever. **Process of Wanga Collaboration.** Mumias contact with the outside world began when he befriended the Swahili and Arabcaravan traders and later the IBEA Company merchants when they visited wangaland.They built a fort and a trading station at Elureko, his capital, which was to remain the headquarters of the British administration in western Kenya until 1920. **Ways in which Nabongo of Wanga collaborate with the British.** a) He offered his seat-elureko to become an operational base of the British expeditions. b) He offered his men to fight alongside the British in their expeditions against other communities. c) He provided Wanga agents to aid the British in administering the conquered areas. d) The Wanga provided food, water and shelter to the British invading forces. e) They gave the British free passage through their territory and offered them hiding places during the battles. f) Mumia signed treaties of friendship with the British. **Results of the Wanga collaboration with the British.** a) Wanga kingdom was strengthened using military support from the British. Wanga kingdom was expanded. Nabongo gained more territories e.g. Samia, Bunyala and Busoko b) Their king Mumia was declared a paramount Chief thus raising his prestige. He ruled as a British paramount chief ruling as far as Bunyala, Gem , Ugenya and Alego, upto 1926, when he officially retired c) Mumia warriors became agents of the British colonialism. The warriors were used to subdue the Luo, Bukusu and Nandi. d) The Wanga Princes became agents of British rule over western Kenya. For example, Mumias half-brother Murunga was appointed chief of the Isukha and Idakho. e) Mumias headquarters at Elureko became the seat of British administration in western Kenya upto 1920 when it was moved to Kakamega. f) Mumia and his people gained material benefits from the British through trade, western education and religion. g) Nabongo Mumia became an important ally of the British administration in western ken\ya, providing them with vital information over the appointment of chiefs and Headmen in western Kenya. h) Due to the Wanga Collaboration, there was intensified enmity and hostility between the Wanga people and other Abaluhyia subsections who viewed the Wanga as traitors. i) However, The Wanga, just like any other collaborator or resister lost their independence when Kenya was declared a British Colony in 1920. **Mixed reactions** The communities that exhibited mixed reaction were the Akamba, Agikuyu and Luo. **The Akamba Reaction** The arrival of the British traders threatened to destabilize the prominence enjoyed by the Akamba as middlemen during the long distance trade. The British even tried to stop the Akamba from organizing raids on their Oromo, Agikuyu and Maasai neighbours. ***Why did the Akamba decide to resist British administration***? a) The British failed to respect Akamba traditions and customs. For example, the cutting down of the ithembo (shrine) tree for a flag post at Mutituni in 1891. b) When the Akamba attacked the Agikuyu, The British intervened against them. This was not taken kindly. c) The Akamba were protesting the misconduct of Company officials based at Machakos who stole from the local people and raped Akamba women. d) The establishment of colonial administration disrupted the long distance trade, which was the Akamba lifeline. e) The establishment of British rule meant loss of independence for the Akamba. f) The establishment of military posts in Ukambani without their consent. The British built a fort at Masaku in 1890. g) The British kept on disrupting their peace by sending military expeditions that resulted in death and massive destruction of property. h) The Akamba were also resisting forced labour. **Course of the Akamba resistance.** In 1890, Nzibu Mweu led he Akamba in boycotting to sell goods to the company agents. Prophetess Syonguu also ordered the Iveti Warriors to attack the Masaku fort in the same year as a reaction to the cutting down of the ithembo tree for a flagpole.The British agents were defeated during this surprise attack.When the British tried to stop the Akamba raids on their neighbours in 1894, a Warrior, Mwatu wa Ngoma ordered the Akamba warriors, who had been inspired by medicinemen, to attack the British. The British responded with devastating consequences on the side of the Akamba forcing them into collaboration with the British District Commissioner, John Ainsworth. Mwatu wa Ngoma became a collaborator.Later, another gallant fighter, Mwanamuka, led the Kangundo people to attack the colonial police at Mukuyuni and Mwala, killing six. With the assistance of Maasai mercenaries, the British sent a punitive expedition against the Akamba and even confiscated their livestock.When Mwanamuka tried to blockade the Lukenya area to cut off communication between Fort Smith and Masaku, he was met with devastating consequences that forced him to also petition for peace. **Why a section of the Akamba collaborated with the British**. a) They had lost heavily during the Akamba-British war of 1894 causing them to fear the British. b) The ruthlessness with which the British attacked the Akamba scared many warriors into collaborating. For example, the Machakos station superintendent, Leith dispatched troops to deal with Syonguus forces in 1891, causing merciless killings and looting of property. c) Some especially the trades collaborated expecting material gains. d) Collaborators wanted to gain prestige. e) They wanted to get guns to be used in robbing for wealth. f) The Akamba had been weakened by the 1899 famine and were therefore unable to effectively tackle the British. **Reasons for the Akamba defeat** a) Some of the Akamba were not patriotic to the resistance course. Some self-serving opportunists allied with the colonial agents with the aim of enriching themselves thereby resulting in the Akamba defeat. b) Internally, the Akamba lacked territorial cohesion. It was therefore very difficult to coordinate a strong resistance to British rule among a highly segmented society lacking in a centralized system of government. c) Sections of The Akamba community experienced severe famine in 1899. They were weakened to the level of being unable to stage a gainful resistance to the British. d) The role of missionaries who pacified some sections to the level of collaborating with the intruders. The missionaries actively undermined their religious practices and traditional beliefs. e) When the Akamba caravan trade and raiding activities were disrupted, they had lost a significant source of livelihood and thus became weakened more. **Consequences of the Akamba reaction** a) The Akamba lost their independence as their territory was declared a British protectorate. b) There was massive alienation of Kamba land to pave way for white settlement. c) Many people, especially the Akamba warriors lost their lives during the confrontations with the British soldiers. d) The British interfered with the Akamba culture by cutting down the Ithembo tree and raping their women. e) The Akamba were subjected to heavy taxation in order to raise revenue for the colonial administration. f) Many of the Akamba men were forcefully conscripted into the Kings African Rifles to fight in World War I. **The Agikuyu reaction** The Agikuyu was also a highly segmented nature lacking in territorial unity. This explains why they had mixed reaction against the British. Explain the causes of Agikuyu resistance. a) The British failed to respect Agikuyu traditions and customs. The missionaries campaignedagainst female circumcision and Kikuyu forms of worship. b) Misconduct of company officials. They stole from the local people, killing some of them, and raped Agikuyu women. c) The Agikuyu were revolting against the forced supply of grains and water, by their women, to the British soldiers. d) There was massive land alienation, which had left many landless or pushed to unproductive land. e) Harassment of the Agikuyu, by British punitive expeditions. To enforce their policies, the British usually applied excessive force. f) The British had begun meddling in the Agikuyu internal affairs making them suspicious of their intentions. g) Fear of Loss of independence by some leaders like Waiyaki wa Hinga. h) The Agikuyu were reacting against the punishment meted on them by the British for raiding Fort Smith in 1892. **Reasons why some Agikuyu collaborated**. a) Agikuyu leaders like Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu and Karuri wa Gakure wanted to derive personal wealth and prestige through collaboration. b) Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu and Karuri wa Gakure hoped that by collaborating, they would be made paramount Chiefs among the Agikuyu. c) The collaborators wanted British protection against their enemies amongst the Agikuyu and other neighbouring communities. d) They wanted to take advantage of the British western civilization particularly education and religion. e) They also wanted material gains from the British through trading with them. f) The Agikuyu of Nyeri realized that it was futile to resist the militarily superior Europeans.They therefore chose to collaborate. **Organization of the Agikuyu reaction** When captain Lugard established a fort at Dagoretti in 1890, he began relating with Waiyaki WA Hinga who was in charge of the area. Wayakis people supplied Lugards men with food.However, when Wilson took over from Lugard who had left for Uganda, his soldiers began looting food and livestock from the Agikuyu. The Agikuyu reacted by setting the Dagoretti fort on fire. Waiyaki was arrested by the forces sent by Sub- commissioner Ainsworth, and died enroute to Mombasa. It is alleged that he was buried alive at Kibwezi after provoking his captors.Kinyanjui WA Gathirimu, a collaborator, succeeded Waiyaki at Dagoretti. In 1899, Fort Dagoretti was closed down due to a series of raids. Francis Hall opened another Fort at Muranga (renamed Fort Hall after his death in 1901) after the locals were subdued and forced to accept the British Colonial rule. British trader John Boyes forged an alliance with Karuri WA Gakure, the Agikuyu leader at Fort Hall, which enabled him to subdue the resisting Agikuyu groups. He also made contacts with Wangombe of Gaki (Nyeri) who together with Gakure supplied the British with mercenaries in exchange for confiscated loots from resisting groups.Meinertzhagen, who succeeded Francis Hall in 1902, subdued the Muruku and Tetu section (led by Chief Gakere) of the Agikuyu. Chief Gakere was murdered and his associates deported to the coast after they wiped out the entire Asian caravan on the slopes of the Aberdares.The Agikuyu of Iriani (Nyeri) were defeated in 1904 and their Aembu and Ameru allies sought for peace in 1906, having seen the effects of resisting.By 1910, British rule had been established in the entire Mount Kenya region. With the Agikuyu settling peacefully in the reserves upto 1920s when they began to agitate again. **Results of the Agikuyu mixed reaction.** a) The reactions fuelled mistrust, hatred and animosity in most of Kikuyuland. Such feelings of mistrust continue among the Agikuyu of Muranga, Kiambu and Nyeri up-to- date. b) There was massive alienation of Agikuyu land by the British with the help of the collaborators like Wangombe WA Ihura and Gathirimu who gave land to the British for construction. c) Some Agikuyu leaders amassed a lot of wealth and rose to prominence. For example, Karuri wa Gakure and Wangombe of Nyeri, d) The collaborators like Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu and his people received western education and were converted to Christianity. e) There was massive loss of lives for the resisters. For example Waiyaki wa Hinga and many Agikuyu fighters were killed. f) The Agikuyu, both collaborators and Resisters lost their independence when their territory was declared a British protectorate. g) The Agikuyu wars of resistance forced the British to shift their administrative base from Fort Dagoretti to Fort Hall. h) There was massive destruction of property. The Agikuyu razed down Fort Dagoretti. The Agikuyu villages were burnt by the British. **The Luo reaction.** The resisters were the Luo of Sakwa, seme, Uyoma, Ugenya and Kisumu. The collaborators were the Luo of Gem and Asembo, led by Chief (Ruoth) Odera Akango. **Reasons for the resistance against the British by the Luo of Ugenya.** a) To protect their land and national heritage. b) To protect their freedom and independence c) Protect their livestock, grains and fish from being taken by the British soldiers who were undisciplined d) The Luo had become a formidable nation in the area and did not entertain any intruder. e) They were also provoked by the punitive expedition sent against them by Mumia and the British. **Why the Gem and Asembo Luos collaborated.** a) Their chief, Odera Akango had been influenced by the Wanga Neighbours who had gained materially from their collaboration. b) Odera also needed British assistance to subdue the Luo of Seme, Uyoma, Sakwa and Ugenya, and the Nandi, who were a threat to his people. c) He realized the futility of resisting the British through the experience of his neighbours. **Course of the Luo resistance.** The Luo of Ugenya set off the resistance by attacking the Wanga in an attempt to expand. They vandalized British key installations like the telegraph wires and administrative stations.In 1896, the British sent an expedition against them and 200 people were killed. When the British attacked the Seme Luo for cattle and Grains, they were provoked into revolting. They attacked the Asembo Luo who had collaborated with the British. The British invaded them in 1898 with devastating effects in terms of property and life loss. The Luo of Kisumu rose up in 1898 attacking a British Canoe party on Winam Gulf for taking their fish without paying. They were however overcome.The Gem and Asembo Luos led by Ruoth Odera Akango supported the British throughout all these confrontations. **Results of the Luo reaction** a) Both collaborators and resisters lost their independence to the British. b) The Luo lost their property through burning and looting. c) There was massive loss of lives, especially among the Ugenya Luo. d) It Bred hatred between the collaborators and resisters e) The collaborating communities were able to gain western education and religion as the British established schools and missions in their areas. f) The African leadership was replaced with the British administration, thereby undermining traditional political systems. g) The Luo were alienated from their land to pave way for the British occupation and settlement. **Colonial system of administration in Kenya** In their administration of Kenya, the British employed both central government and local government as the basic administrative framework. **Central Government** The protectorate was divided into provinces headed by Provincial commissioners, who acted as representatives of the Governor. The governor was answerable to the colonial s ecretary in Britain. **Hierarchy of colonial administration in Kenya** 1. Colonial secretary. Based in London, he was the political head of the British colonial administration and overall coordinator of the colonial policies as passed by the British parliament. 2. Governor. Reporting to the colonial secretary, he was the representative of the British government in the Kenyan colony. He headed the executive council which effected colonial policies and programmee he gave assent to laws from the LEGCO before they were implemented. 3. Provincial Commissioners. They represented the governor at provincial level and implemented the policies and laws that were enacted by the legislative council that was established in 1907. They supervised the work of DCs, Dos and the entire provincial administration on behalf of the governor. 4. District commissioners. They implemented policies and maintained law and order and security in their districts. They headed the District Advisory Committees. They coordinated the work of Dos and Chiefs. 5. District Officers. They implemented orders from the DCs and coordinated the work of the chiefs. They maintained law and order in their divisions. 6. Chiefs. They acted as a link between the people and the Governor at local levels. They maintained law and order at the locations and coordinated the work of headmen. 7. Headmen. They were a link between the government and the people at the grassroots level. They mobilized people for development within their villages. ***NB.**The principal function of Chiefs and Headmen under the Headmans Ordinance and* *Chiefs Authority Act was tax Collection and labour recruitment for public works and* *European settlers. Their duties were confined in the African reserves.* The advisory and Executive Councils guide the governor and effected the colonial policies. **Local Government**. The British introduced the Local Government in colonial Kenya because; a) They wanted to involve the local communities in administration of the region. This would reduce the costs of administration. b) They wanted to mobilize local people in resources exploitation in order to stir up development c) Local Government was a means of providing a legal forum for the local people to make decisions about their day to day affairs d) The Local Government would provide an important link between the Central government and the locals. e) The Local Government would provide a means through which the government would understand Africans better. f) It also originated from the desire by European settlers to safeguard a number of privileges for themselves by getting directly involved in local administrative units **Local Native Councils** They were established in 1922 after the passing of the Native Authority Ordinance. In 1924, the District Advisory Councils (DACs) were renamed Local Native Councils (LNCs) **Objectives of the LNCs** a) To encourage and develop a sense of responsibility and duty among the Africans. b) To provide a mechanism through which educated Africans could articulate their grievances at District level. c) To ensure proper restriction of the Africans in their reserves. d) To provide a means through which the government would understand the Africans better so that to contain them. **Achievements of the Local Native councils** a) The councils succeeded in restriction African political Agitations and other activities to their reserves. b) The LNCs provided basic social needs like water, cattle Dips, Public Health, Education and Markets. c) They succeeded in maintaining basic infrastructure in their areas of jurisdiction. d) They succeeded in collecting taxes to finance their operations. NB; in 1948, the LNCs were renamed African Native Councils. Pascal Nabwane became the first African chairmen of the ADCs in 1958. The ADCs operated as local authorities for Africans until 1963. **Impact of Local government** a) It exploited local resources and initiated development. b) It created a link between the central government and the local people. c) It helped maintain law and order using the small police force set up in 1896. d) It promoted infrastructural development and general welfare of Africans. It used the levied taxes to improve social services such as schools and hospitals. e) It helped in the arbitration of African disputes through the District African Courts. E.g, Land disputes were settled by the LNCs. **Factors that undermined the local Government** a) Shortage of trained personnel to work in the LNCs and ADCs. b) Poor transport and communication leading to poor coordination of their activities. c) Lack of adequate revenue to finance their operations as the colony lacked strategic mineral resources. d) There was a lot of rivalry between the settlers and the locals, later becoming the freedom struggles. This hampered the operations of the councils. e) Racial discrimination was so pronounced that basic services were absent in African areas. Many Africans survived through self-help schemes. **COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION** The methods mainly used by the British to administer their colonies were ***1. Direct rule.*** ***2. Indirect rile***. **Difference between direct rule and indirect rule.** Indirect rule was a system under which the British recognized the existing African political system and used it to rule over the colonies.Direct rule was a system where the Europeans/the British entrenched themselves in the direct administration of their colonies. Indigenous political and administrative institutions and leaders are replaced with European systems. **Indirect rule** This was a policy advanced by Fredrick Lugard, the British High Commissioner in the protectorate of Northern Nigeria from 1900 to 1906.To Lugard, as summed up in his book, The Dual Mandate in the Tropical Africa (1922),the resident acts as a sympathetic adviser to the native chief, on matters of general policy. But the native ruler issues his instructions to the subordinate chiefs and district heads, not as orders of the resident but as his own.Such a system was applied in Kenya and in West Africa. **Why Britain used indirect rule in Kenya and Nigeria** a) Britain lacked enough manpower to handle all the administrative responsibilities in the colonies. For example, in the Nigerian protectorate, there were only 42 British officials by 1900. b) Lack of adequate funds for colonial administration from the parent government made her use the existing traditional political system as a means of cutting down the administrative costs. c) The use of indirect rule was a means of diffusing the expected stiff resistance from the Africans. The traditional rulers were to be made to feel that they had lost no power. d) The policy of administration had succeeded in India and Uganda, thus motivating them to apply it in Kenya and Nigeria. **British rule in Kenya** In Kenya, the British lacked both funds and experienced personnel to facilitate their administration. Kenya also did not have a reference model of an administrative system like that in Buganda Kingdom. It was only among the Wanga section of the Abaluhyia and the Maasai where traditional chiefs that were recognized by the British existed. Where the institution of chieftainship did not exist as the case of the Agikuyu, the British appointed chiefs (men with ability to communicate in Kiswahili and organize porters) like Kinyanjui WA Gathirimu in Kiambu, Karuri wa Gakure in Muranga and Wangombe wa Ihura in Nyeri. The passing of the Village Headman Act in 1902 gave the chiefs the responsibilities of maintaining public order, hearing of petty cases and clearing of roads and footpaths.The 1912 0rdinance increased the powers of the chiefs and their assistants (headmen); they were now allowed to employ other persons to assist them, such as messengers and retainers. They were to assist the District officers in Tax collection and control brewing of illegal liquor and cultivation of poisonous plants like Cannabis sativa. They were to control carrying of weapons and mobilize African labour for public works. ***The selected colonial chiefs however faced two problems;*** a) Most of them lacked legitimacy and were therefore rejected not only by the African elders who regarded them as nonentities, but also by the young generation who saw them as tools of colonial oppression and exploitation. b) Many of the colonial chiefs were young and inexperienced. c) Many of the chiefs also became unpopular since they used their positions to amass riches in terms of large tracts of land, livestock and wives. E.g Chief Musau wa Mwanza and Nthiwa wa Tama acquired 8000 herds of cattle and 15 wives respectively in kambaland.The structure of administration was as discussed earlier with governor being answerable to the colonial secretary in London. Below him were provincial commissioners, district commissioners, district Officers and Chiefs.All the administrative positions above that of the chief were occupied by European personnel. **The British in Nigeria.** Nigeria comprised the Lagos colony and protectorate, the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and the Northern Nigeria Protectorate. These regions were later amalgamated into the Nigerian protectorate in 1914.In Northern Nigeria, Fredrick Lugard employed indirect rule. **Reasons for the use of indirect rule by the British in northern Nigeria.** a) The system was cost-effective. There was need to reduce the administrative cost by using the local chiefs in administration while employing very few British officials. b) Northern Nigeria had communities with a well-organized centralized system of government complete with Islamic sharia whose use provided a base to govern the protectorate. i.e. The Sokoto Caliphate c) The vastness of the region coupled with the inadequate British administrative work force and Poor transport and communication network made it difficult for the British officials to effectively administer some parts of the region. d) The system would help dilute African resistances since governance was by local rulers. TheBritish were keen on guarding against the local resistance to their administration. e) The method ensured smooth transition from African to British dominion. It was a way of deliberately preparing Africans for self-government. f) Indirect rule had been tried successfully in Uganda and India. **Indirect administration as applied in northern Nigeria** In Northern Nigeria, the existing emirates with centralized system of administration formed thebasis of local governance. The Emirs were retained and were to rule under supervision of the British resident officials.The British administration was based on the local customs and laws. Chiefs chosen by the British were to be acceptable by the local people. Local chiefs collected taxes and a portion of it was given to the Central Government.Local Native Courts operated as per the laws of the land. The Emirs were allowed to try cases in their own Muslim courts.The Emirs were mandated to maintain law and order. They possessed firearms.In 1914, Northern and Southern Nigeria were Brought under one syatem of administration. However Lugard found it hard to apply indirect rule in Southern Nigeria. **Why indirect rule was not successful applied in southern Nigeria** a) Southern Nigeria lacked a centralized indigenous system of administration, which would have been vital in the application of indirect rule. b) The south had many ethnic groups, many languages and many disparities in customs, whichdenied it the homogeneity necessary for the application of indirect rule. c) The southern people were infuriated by the British introduction of new concepts like forced labour and direct taxes. d) The British did not give themselves time to understand the operation of the social, political and economic systems of the people of southern Nigeria. e) The educated elites in the south felt left out of the administration of their own country in favour of the illiterate appointees of the British. f) There existed communication barrier between the British supervisors, the warrant chiefs and the people, which sometimes led to misinterpretation and misunderstanding. g) The warrant chiefs sometimes misused their powers in tax collection and molesting women sexually. h) The brutish had used excessive force in dealing with any form of resistance and this made them unpopular **Problems associated with indirect rule as a system of government.** a) Indirect rule could only e applied where centralized government was present. Its application in stateless societies often faced difficulties. b) Where chiefs were imposed, especially in the stateless societies, their authority lacked legitimacy and only resulted in suspicion and lack of confidence. This would lead to constant riots when they tried to exert their authority. c) Local people even in the highly centralized states looked at indirect rule as curtailing the authority of their local rulers and hence resented it. E.g the Yoruba state in Nigeria. d) Some inexperienced British officials tended to interfere too much with the vital African customs and practices e.g. among the Asante thus bringing further problems. e) Different administrations had different views on the degree of indirect rule to be applied hence confusion was created. It was difficult to draw a boundary between the advisory and supervisory roles of colonial powers. f) Language was a problem and there was need for interpreters. Communication was poor and made adaptation difficult. g) Education of chiefs was necessary but even this took a long time and needed patience and skillful knowledge which the British did not have. **Effects of indirect rule.** a) The system led to transformation of the role of traditional African chiefs. they now began to recruit fellow Africans to provide labour to the colonial government and even fight in world war I. the chiefs thus became unpopular. b) The indigenous system of administration was modernized by the British especially in northern Nigeria. c) Many African chiefs used their positions to accumulate a lot of wealth at the expense of their people. Chiefs like Wangombe and Gakure in central Kenya acquired large tracts of land. d) Indirect rule created suspicion and mistrust between the educated elites and the traditional chiefs who were given power ib southern Nigeria. The elite reacted by forming political movements thus leading to growth of nationalism in Nigeria. e) Indirect rule helped preserve African cultures, unlike assimilation which sought to replace them. **DIRECT RULE** This system was mainly used in regions with large white settler population such as Algeria, south Nigeria and Zimbabwe. **Direct rule in Zimbabwe** Zimbabwe was colonized by the British South African Company under John Cecil Rhodes. Rhodes used his resources to sponsor a group of South African Europeans who set out to establish in Southern Rhodesia, a satellite of South African System. They began off by engaging the Ndebele in a series of wars from 1893 before finally occupying the fertile land in Mashonaland and Matabeleland. **Characteristics of direct rule in Zimbabwe** a) Zimbabwe had a large number of European settlers with their population rising to 50,000 by 1931. The whites therefore maintained an advantaged position throughout their administration of Zimbabwe. b) Many of the British settlers developed the attitude and consequently the belief that the territory was pre-ordained to be a white settler colony. c) The territory was administered by a commercial company (B.S.A.C) for a long period (1890-1923) d) An administrator below who was a long chain of European civil servants performing simple administrative duties headed BSAC. e) Direct method of administration was applied to the Africans who had initially resisted the intrusion. New chiefs were appointed to dethrone the traditional leaders. f) The Legislative Council that was begun in 1898 gave the European settlers political Rights to the extent that by 1923, they had attained some self-governance. g) The system was characterized by massive alienation of African Land compelling Africans to provide labour to the new European settlers. h) There was racial segregation which was effected through the Legislative Council. African communities suffered greatly in the hands of the settler regime. **Reasons for use of direct rule by the British in Zimbabwe** a) The British desired to fully control the economy of Zimbabwe and maximize on profit generation through direct involvement in administration. b) The Shona and Ndebele resistance against British intrusion made the them not to trust the Matabele chiefs nor use them as British agents c) There was lack of reliable political system to be used in indirect administration of the region. The local political institutions based on the Induna system had been destroyed when the British conquered and occupied Zimbabwe. d) Existence of enough B.S.A Co personnel on the spot who were familiar with the area as well as the British system of government. e) Favourable climatic conditions and the expected rich mineral deposits attracted many settlers who later provided the necessary personnel. f) There was a strong desire by the Europeans to be able to direct their own affairs and destiny without interference from within or without/The spirit nationalism **The BSAC administrative structure in Southern Rhodesia (1905-1923)** The government was headed by a resident Commissioner who was appointed by the Company stationed at Salisbury. Below him were various commissioners in charge of the Districts (all Europeans). Below them were African Chiefs whose duty included collecting tax, recruiting labour and maintaining law and order.In 1898, a LEGCO was established heavily dominated by the European settlers. An Executive Council, consisting of the Resident Commissioner and 4 nominees of BSA.Co was also established. In 1902, a Native Affairs Department, headed by a European Native Commissioner was created thus entrenching the dominance of Europeans in Zimbabwe. The duty of the commissioner was to allocate land to Africans, collect taxes and recruit labour.For lack of enough valuable minerals in Zimbabwe as expected, the Europeans compensated by acquiring large tracts of land from African communities with some having grants of upto 3000 acre pieces of land.( Europeans occupied 21 million acres while Africans despite their majority were confined to 24 million acre reserves.) The Company relinquished control in 1923 to for Zimbabwe to become a crown colony. **Crown colony Rule (1923-1953)** Why the settlers favoured crown colony over merger with South Africa. a) The merger would have led to domination by Afrikaners in their political matters. b) Their economic interests would have been neglected in favour of those of Afrikaners. As a crown colony, a Governor was appointed in 1923 to represent the Queen of England. British government was empowered by the constitution to veto any legislation that would discriminate against Africans. This however never happened practically. For example, the government formulated the Two-Pyramids Policy or parallel development policy characterized by discrimination against Africans. At the base of the pyramid was the majority Africans relegated to offering cheap labour for the white settlers. At the apex were the minority whites who took the highest positions in the economic and political system.To legitimize the two pyramids policy were two Acts that were passed in 1930 and 1934. **a) Land Apportionment Act of 1930** The Act introduced rigid territorial segregation with land being divided into whites and Africans portions. No African was allowed to acquire land outside their segregated portion.The minority whites acquired over half of the best arable land. Africans were given the semi arid areas infested by mosquitoes. Land was categorized into four; 1) Native Reserve Area- for Africans population. The Land was characterized with congestion since it was inadequate. 2) Native Purchase Area- for Africans to buy. Such areas had harsh climatic conditions. 3) European Area- For Whites only. 4) Unassigned Area- For government expansion of buildings and other uses. **Effects of the Land Apportionment Act on Africans** a) Many Africans became migrant labourers, moving to mines, towns and European farms to provide cheap labour since their land was unproductive. b) Large tracts of African land were alienated and they were confined to only 29 million acres while only 50,000 whites occupied 49 million acres of land. c) This exposed Africans to problems like overgrazing that further deteriorated their land. d) There was widespread poverty among Africans. For those on the reserves, they faced starvation, those in towns faced slum life. e) Africans suffered racial segregation in provision of social services in urban areas. f) There was disruption of social roles as African men moved to towns and settler farms. Women took over mens jobs in the reserves. g) Land apportionment became the seedbed for the rise of African nationalism in Zimbabwe. h) Africans were exposed to over taxation to compel them to provide labour to the Europeans. **b) The Industrial Conciliation Act of 1934.** The prime objective of the Act was to protect white workers from African competition. The government through the act prohibited Africans from setting up a trade union. Africans from beyond southern Rhodesia were imported to provide labour to the whites at low wages.The act resulted in relegation of Africans to the lowest level while skilled jobs were set aside for the Europeans. The two acts resulted in the humiliating conditions for the Africans which resulted in the rise of African Nationalism that continued more after the Second World War.As an answer to African agitation, the government invited more white settlers giving them more large tracts of land. The settlers also began to agitate for the formation of a federation of the three central African territories (southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland).In 1953, the British government gave approval for the formation of the federation of central African countries. **The Central African Federation.** The federation was organized as follows; 1) Each territory had its own government responsible for local administration. 2) Each territorial government was responsible for all aspects of native affairs within its boundaries. 3) The British government was directly involved in the administration of the two northern protectorates. 4) An African Board was established to ensure that no racist legislation against the Africans was passed in the federation parliament. 5) The Federal Parliament was given powers to deal with all matters involving more than one territory and foreign affairs.The first Prime Minister of the Federation, Garfield Todd, being sympathetic to African protests over formation of the federation, legalized the formation of trade Unions and funded African education and Agriculture. Unfortunately when Todd was replaced in 1958, all his programmees were abandoned. In 1963, the federation was dissolved and shortly afterwards Malawi and Zambia became independent as southern Rhodesia remained a self -governing colony. **The reign of Ian Smith** Ian Smiths Rhodesian Front Party, controlled by the white extremists with no regards for Africans, won the 1962 elections.On 15th October 1965, Smith led the settlers to announce a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI), from Britain implying that political leadership was now fully in the hands of the white rebel settlers. This declaration provoked instant protest not only within Africa but also from the international community. UN declared sanctions against South Rhodesia though countries like South Africa and Portugal unfortunately continued to trade with her making the sanctions ineffective.In 1970, UDI declared itself a republic under a new constitution that entrenched whites position in Zimbabwe by spelling the following; a) Voting qualifications for Africans were revised and were now based on income. This automatically disenfranchised the majority of Africans. b) The land tenure system was revised to enable the Europeans to purchase land from the government.Meanwhile the war of independence had began in 1966, provoked by the 1965 UDI declaration, with a patriotic front formed by Zimbabwe African National Union(ZANU) of Mugabe Robert and Zimbabwe African Peoples Union(ZAPU) of Joshua Nkomo waging a guerilla warfare.Zimbabwe became independent in 1980, with Robert Mugabe as the fits Prime Minister. **Effects of British rule in Zimbabwe.** a) It led to African land alienation by white settlers/ Africans were displaced from their ancestral lands. b) The establishment of white settlement subjected Africans to abject poverty and suffering.Africans were subjected to intense economic exploitation through taxation and forced labour. c) African traditional economy was undermined as many of the Africans were forced to work for the Europeans. d) African interests were ignored in the day-to-day running of the colony. e) African traditional rulers lost their autonomy and became mere puppets of British administration. f) African cultures were undermined, for example through the separation of families as people sought alternative livelihood. g) The white settlers were to enhance the production of cash crops as transport, trade and industry were developed. h) Africans were denied freedom of movement and confined I reserves. i) Positively, it led to development of transport network the region. j) It led to introduction of new crops in the region k) It led to rise of nationalism as many Africans could no longer bear the burden of suffering in the hands of the whites. **ASSIMILATION** **Definition.** This was a system of administration in which French colonies were given a culture and civilization similar to that of France. This system was influenced by the French revolution of 1789, which emphasized the equality of all men.In Africa, it was perfected by Lewis Faidherbe in Senegal when he was governor from 1854 to 1865.To many historians Assimilation was a deliberate French policy to help them destroy African Chieftaincies and Kingdoms that were thriving at the time of their arrival. Under the system, Africans had to; ~ Learn the French language. ~ Practice the French legal system. ~ Apply the French civil and political system. ~ Convert to Christianity and learn French mannerism including eating and dressing habits.Later on assimilation evolved into association which had been first applied in Africa in central Africa by Savorgnan de Brazza.Association involved letting the subjects develop independently due to the belief that nonwesterners were racially inferior and would therefore never be accepted as equal to Europeans even when assimilated. **French administration in West Africa** The French system of administration was highly centralized.The eight French colonies were grouped into the confederation of French West Africa. They were governed from one capital, Dakar, Senegal.The federation was headed by a Governor-General answerable to the French Minister for colonies in Paris. Each colony was headed by a lieutenant- Governor answerable to the Governor-General in Dakar.Each colony was divided into cercles (provinces), each headed by a commandant de cercle. Each cercle was further divided into small districts each headed by a chef de sub-division below whom were African chiefs (chefs de cantons in charge of locations). At the base were chefs de village in charge of the sub-locations.All the French overseas colonies were seen as overseas provinces and each elected a deputy to the French Chamber of Deputies in Paris (lower House). However the French administrators appointed lacked high standards of education and some were military officers simply rewarded with senior administrative positions. This led to inefficiency. **French administration in Senegal** In Senegal, the policy of assimilation was only applied in the four communes of St.Louis, Goree, Rufisque and Dakar. In the rest of the country, African chiefs who ruled were put I three grades namely; a) Chefs de province: - equivalent of the paramount chiefs, they were usually successors of the pre-colonial chiefs. b) Chefs de Canton: - these were ordinary people appointed by the French officials due to their ability, to be charge of locations. They kept register of taxpayers the location, helped the government in conscription of Africans into the army and assisted in mobilizing forced labour for road construction and other public works. c) Chefs de village:- these were usually traditional heads of the community(village) who were given the responsibility of collecting taxes, maintenance of law and order, organizing relief during floods and locust invasion and maintaining roads I their areas. The privileges which were enjoyed by assimilated Africans in the four communes of Senegal included; ***Economic privileges*** ~ They were exempted from forced labour. ~ They were allowed to work in France. ~ They were exempted from paying taxes. ~ They were allowed trading rights like the French people. ***Political privileges*** ~ They were allowed to send representatives to the French Chamber of Deputies. ~ They were enfranchised like the French people in France (right to vote) ~ They enjoyed the rights of the French Judicial System like the French. ~ They were allowed to operate Local Authority structures which were similar to those in France. ~ They were allowed to retain Muslim law. ~ They were exempted from arbitrary arrest/through the Indigenization policy. **Characteristics of assimilation.** a) Administrative assimilation. There was an administrative relationship between the French colonies and their mother country. Colonies were regarded as overseas provinces. b) Political assimilation. The colonies were represented in the French chamber of deputies thus maintaining a close political identity. c) Economic assimilation. The French currency was used in the colonies to enhance the economic relationship. d) Personal assimilation. Africans in the Quatre communes were given French citizenship and other privileges enjoyed by French citizens. **Reasons why assimilation was successful in the four communes** a) There was a high percentage of Mullato population within the communes, who readily accepted the French culture making it easy for the French to apply assimilation. b) Africans were familiar with Europeans and their culture due to long interaction with them through trade. c) Many people had converted to Christianity and this made it possible for the French to apply their policy. **Factors that undermined the application of the French policy of assimilation in West** **Africa** a) There was opposition by local people who did not want the French to interfere with their culture. b) The Traditional African rulers resisted the policy since they did not want to lose their authority and influence over the assimilated people. c) The French traders in West Africa also opposed the system they viewed assimilated Africans as a potential threat to their commercial monopoly in the region. d) The policy of assimilation ran the risk of undermining the very foundation of French colonialism, as it was not possible to exploit Africans who had attained the assimile status. e) Missionary school system of education undermined the French policy of assimilation since there was segregation in provision of mission education. f) Nationalism conflicted with the policy of assimilation. g) Assimilation was becoming too expensive to the French government especially because West African colonies were not self-supporting yet. h) The vastness of the French colonies made it difficult to supervise the implementation of the policy. i) Muslims resisted fiercely the French attempt to convert them to Christianity. j) Racial discrimination against the indigenous people also contributed to the failure of the system. This is because many Frenchmen never accepted assimilated Africans as their equals. k) The French citizens in the motherland opposed the policy as they feared being outnumbered in the chamber of deputies. **Ways in which Nationalism undermined the policy of Assimilation in French West** **Africa.** a) It emphasized loyalty or devotion to ones country and national independence or separatism, which were against the policy of assimilation. b) Nationalists agitated for boycott of anything of French origin. c) The nationalists created awareness on the value of African culture and systems; this encouraged Africans to condemn assimilation. d) The nationalists created awareness on the importance of African unity which exposed the hypocrisy of assimilation **Consequences of assimilation in Senegal.** a) The policy of assimilation undermined African cultures, as many Africans embraced the French culture. For instance, the French language became the official language in the colony. b) The authority of traditional African leaders was eroded and even many were replaced by the assimilated Africans. c) The colony was incorporated into the French republic and regarded as an overseas province of France. d) Africans from Senegal were allowed to participate in the political matters of France. Some Senegalese like Blaise Diagne were elected as deputies in the French parliament. e) The spread of Islam was greatly frustrated, especially in the four communes where Africanswere converted to Christianity. f) A great rift emerged between the assimilated Africans , who were regarded as French citizens and the rest of African communities , who were subjected to taxation and forced labour **The policy of association.** Under this system, the French colonial government was to respect the cultures of her colonial peoples and allow them to develop independently rather than force them to adopt French civilization and culture.Unlike the assimilated Africans, subjects retained their cultural practices e.g polygamy and Islam. The subject came under a system of law known as indigenat where the subject could suffer arbitrary arrest or be forced to serve a longer period in the army than assimilated citizens **Why the French government replaced the policy of assimilation with that of** **association in 1945** a) The French had realized that assimilation would lead to equality between them and the colonized people. b) Assimilation was too expensive especially because West African colonies were not selfsupporting yet. c) The method clashed with the commercial interests. The French businesspersons and their friends in the colonial administration saw Africans as source of cheap labour. They therefore disapproved the idea of uplifting them. d) The French had realized that not all the colonial people could be assimilated. Only the elite ones among them could. Association aimed at transforming the Native elites into Frenchmen while allowing the other masses to learn enough French for communication purposes. e) They had realized that there was need to allow the colonies to enjoy the freedom of developing according to existing traditional political and social structure. / respect for the culture of her colonies. **The similarities between the French and the British colonial administrations** a) Both methods emphasized the superiority of the colonial master and his overlord ship in Africa. The Europeans were in charge and took all senior positions. b) The administrative systems applied in both were meant to assist the colonial masters in controlling their territories in Africa. c) Both systems led to massive economic exploitation of resources in Africa. E.g. minerals, labour, and market land etc. d) In both Africans reacted to the systems in a hostile manner. e) Both methods led to loss of independence and freedom for the African. f) In both, every power trained a local army to maintain law and order. g) In both, Africans were oppressed through taxation and forced labour. h) In both, the position of chief was created where there was none. I.e. in Kenya, Southern Nigeria, and Somali. **Main differences** a) The British were keen to appoint traditional rulers as chiefs. The French on the other hand were not keen to appoint traditional rulers but simply handpicked individuals who met their qualifications (those who embraced French culture and civilization). b) The British gave the traditional rulers a lot of power, unlike the French who undermined African chieftaincies. c) The British colonies were administered separately by a governor accountable to Britain, unlike the French colonies which were governed as federations equated to provinces of France. d) Most of the French administrators were military officers. The British used a mixture of amateurs and professionals. e) Whereas the British applied mainly the policy of indirect rule, the French applied the policy of assimilation and later, association. f) The French colonies elected their representatives to the Chamber of Deputies in France, while British colonies had legislative councils where policies were debated in the colonies. g) Laws applied in the French colonies were legislated in France while in British colonies laws were enacted by the respective legislative assemblies. h) In French colonies, assimilated Africans became French citizens with full rights, while the elite in the British colonies remained colonial subjects. i) Indirect rule preserved African cultures while assimilation undermined them. **SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS DURING THE COLONIAL** **PERIOD IN KENYA.** **The Uganda Railway** The railway was built between 1896 and 1901 with George Whitehouse as the Engineer. Work was mainly done by 32,000 Indian coolies and 5,000 clerks and craftsmen. The locals could not provide skilled labour. It costed the British taxpayers about 6 million sterling pounds. Reasons for the construction of the Uganda railway line. a) To promote trade with the outside world by encouraging the exploitation of available resources and enable the colony sustain itself b) To link Uganda with the Coast so that the British can achieve their strategic interests. c) To enable missionaries to go the interior to spread Christianity. d) To help stop slave trade since slaves would no longer be needed to ferry goods to and from the coast. e) To provide quick, safe and convenient means of transport for government administrators/troops f) Open up Kenya for economic development/to stop slave trade/promote legitimate trade g) To maintain law and order so that economic development could be achieved. h) To make Africans more productive and able to generate revenue in form of tax to the colonial government. i) To activate interior trade to enable transportation of imported goods to the interior of the colony. **The construction** The railway construction works commenced in Mombasa in 1896. By 1901, the railway had reached Kisumu (then Port Florence) passing through Nairobi in 1899. Numerous feeder lines were later laid down as follows; The Nairobi Thika Branch(1914), Konza Magadi (1915), Voi- Moshi(1918), Rongai- Solai (1925), Eldoret-Kitale(1926), Eldoret- Jinja (1927), Gilgil-Nyahururu(1929), Thika- Nanyuki(1930)and Kisumu Butere(1930) In 1948, the Kenya Uganda Railway had been linked with the Tanganyika network to become the East African Railways. **Problems experienced during the construction of the Uganda railway.** a) There was insufficient labour since African labour force was not forthcoming. In the case of the Akamba and the Maasai, they were forcefully recruited. b) The climate of the interior was not suitable for the European labour force. The Europeans constantly fell ill, thus interfering with construction progress. c) The Arab rebellion under Mbaruk Rashid between 1895 96 at the coast delayed the railway construction. d) There was an additional expense of constructing special jetties since Mombasa port was not large enough. e) The Man-eaters of Tsavo created danger and havoc to the construction works. f) The rift valley terrain was difficult. It was rugged with many hills and escarpments thus causing difficulties in construction. g) Hostility of some Kenyan communities to intruders e.g. the Nandi who vandalized the railway and telegraph lines. h) Insufficient building material since most of them came from Europe and their delivery often delayed, **The effects of railway construction.** a) It led to development of European settler farming in order to make the railway pay for its construction. b) There was rampant land alienation. The colonial government alienated African land for railway construction forcing communities like the Maasai and Nandi to move into reserves. c) There was rise of wage labour for the railway and later for the settler farmers. d) It led to growth of urban centres along the railway line e.g. Nairobi. e) Railway construction promoted economic growth of the East African region. This is because farm produce and other commercial products could easily reach market. f) It led to rise of large Asian settlement since many Indians were employed as railway workers. This Asians boosted trade in east Africa. g) It led to development of other forms of infrastructure like the roads and telecommunication lines. This stimulated trade development. h) It led to transfer of the administrative capital from Mombasa in 1905 to Nairobi. i) When the railway reached Kisumu in 1902, it led to major changes to the ad ministrative boundaries within East African region. Initially, the western region up to Naivasha was part of Uganda. j) The railway became a major revenue source for the colonial authorities. k) It facilitated the establishment of colonial rule in Kenya since it was possible for rapid movement of troops. l) It facilitated the cultural and social interaction among the different races. m) The railway made rural-urban migration and the resultant enterprises such as hawking and charcoal selling possible. n) Other forms of transport and communication developed and expanded along the ralwayline. For example: roads and telecommunications. o) Christian missionaries were able to move into the interior, where they established missionschools. **SETTLER FARMING AND COLONIAL LAND POLICIES** As a means of raising revenue to meet the cost of administering the Kenya colony and maintain the Uganda railway, the colonial government encouraged the influx of white settlers to the white Highlands. The administration did this by; a) Providing efficient railway transport connecting the coast and the interior b) Alienating of the white highlands for European settlement. c) Advertising the availability of free land in foreign newspapers d) Giving loan incentives e) Providing security The settlers however faced the initial challenges of crop and animal diseases, labour shortage, lack of inputs and African aggression. **Why the colonial government encouraged white settlement in Kenya.** ***The reasons why the colonial administration led by Sir Charles Eliot (1900- 1904) and*** ***later Sir Edward Northey encouraged settler farming in the white highlands were;*** a) They hoped that settler farming would meet the cost of administration and railway maintenance. b) The British industries were also in need of cheaper raw Materials in an increasingly competitive European Market. These raw materials would be cheaply produced by the settlers. c) The settlers would also help control the prevailing Asian immigration and influence in Kenya. d) The colonial government wanted to make Kenya a white mans country by encouraging white settlers to form the backbone of the economy. e) Kenya Highlands had cool wet climate and fertile volcanic soils suitable for Europeansettlement and agriculture. f) There was need to get rid of social misfits in Europe and the landless who would be offered avenues in the Kenya colony. g) Existence of already willing entrepreneurs lake Lord Delamere and Captain Grogan who were ready to come to Kenya and engage in profitable agriculture. **Factors which promoted settler farming** a) The land policies availed cheap African labour to settler farmers. The alienation of African land and Creation of African reserves forced Africans to work in the settler farms. b) Africans in Kenya were not allowed to grow some cash crops in order to enable Europeans continue getting cheap African labour for their farms. c) The government built and maintained various forms of transport. For example the railway, Bridges and roads which facilitated faster movement of produce and inputs. d) The government Reduced freight charges in the importation and exportation of agricultural inputs and products. e) The government encouraged formation of cooperatives to help in the processing and marketing of produce. f) The establishment of financial institutions such as Agricultural Finance Corporation and Banks provided the settlers with credit facilities. g) The government availed extension services for crops and animal farming through the establishment of the Department of Agriculture and research stations to improve the quality of crops and animals. h) Trade tariffs were also removed and settlers were granted concessions. **Problems experienced by settlers.** a) Inadequate labour as Africans refused to work. Bush clearance and preparation of land for cultivation was therefore a problem. b) Constant raids by the local inhabitants such as the Nandi, Maasai and Agikuyu threatened their peace and security. Some communities even raided their dairy farms for cattle. c) Some of the settlers lacked faring experience. Some of the settlers had not engaged in farming before and therefore lacked basic agricultural knowledge. d) Inadequate capital often hindered procurement of farm inputs. Machinery, labour. Some settlers became bankrupt and could not meet the day to day operational costs on the farms. e) Lack of proper knowledge on farming seasons hence crop failure. The climate and soils in the colony were alien to the settlers. f) There was the problem of poor transport and communication as it had become difficult for the government to network all areas occupied by settlers with roads and communication lines. g) Inadequate and unreliable market for their produce. They mainly relied on foreign market which could not serve in the case of perishable commodities. h) Pests and diseases were prevalent in the white highlands. The settlers were assailed by various human, animal and crop disease. **Settler Crop cultivation** The main crops cultivated were coffee, wheat, tea and sisal. ***1) Coffee***. Coffee was first introduced by the Roman Catholic Fathers of St. Austins Mission near Nairobi in 1889. It required plenty of farm inputs in terms of chemicals and labour. Therefore was a preserve of wealthy European settlers.Coffee Planters Corporation was founded in 1908 by Lord Delameres Efforts, and led to the spread in the growing of coffee. By 1913, coffee had become the leading cash crop in Kenya grown mainly in Muranga, Thika and Kiambu.Africans were unfortunately not allowed to grow coffee until 1937 **Reasons why Africans in Kenya were not allowed to grow coffee before 1937** a) Europeans wanted to continue getting cheap African labour for their farms. This could not be available if Africans were allowed to earn some money through growing of coffee. b) European settlers did not want to compete with Africans in coffee growing. They feared that it would limit market for their produce. c) The settlers claimed that Africans did not have knowledge of growing coffee. They claimed that African participation in cash crop growing would lead to low quality products. d) They feared that diseases would spread from African farms to settler plantations. e) European settlers claimed that African farmers would produce low quality coffee due to inadequate resources. ***2) Wheat.*** It was introduced in Kenya in 1903 by Lord Delamere who experimented on his Njoro farm. It was however until 1912, when a more resistant variety was developed, that wheat growing took root in Kenya.In 1908, Lord Delamere set up Unga Ltd which boosted wheat farming in Kenya. It was grown in the Nakuru and Uasin Gishu areas. Like coffee, wheat farming was the preserve of wealthy European settlers from Australia, Canada, Britain and South Africa. Africans began to grow wheat only after independence. ***3) Sisal.*** It was introduced in Kenya from Tanganyika in 1893 by Richard Hindorf, a german Doctor. Initially, it was cultivated around Thika in 1904. By 1920, it had become the second largest income-earning crop after coffee.The main sisal growing areas included Baringo, Koibatek, Ol Donyo Sabuk, Ruiru, Thika, Voi, Taita and Taveta.Africans began growing coffee in 1964 though its growth declined due to the completion it faced from synthetic fibre. ***4) Tea.*** Tea was introduced in Kenya in 1903 around Limuru by Messrs Caine Brothers. It was until 1925 when tea began being grown successful with large tea estates being established by tea companies like Brooke Bond and Africa Highland from India.The main tea growing areas were Nandi, Kericho, Sotik, Nakuru, Muranga and Kiambu. **Stock rearing.** Lord Delamere carried out many experiments in sheep and cattle rearing at his Equator Ranch in Njoro though the Maasai raids in his farm and cattle diseases frustrated his efforts.After cross-breeding exotic types with local stock, he came up with more resistant variety. The government also set up an experimental livestock farm in Naivasha. In 1925, the Kenya Cooperative Creameries was established due to Delameres efforts. Later, the Uplands Bacon Factory was established near Limuru to promote pig rearing. In 1930, the Kenya Farmers Association (KFA) was established Colonial land policies in Kenya.To empower the settlers to take up more arable land in Kenya, the Legislative council passed the following Land Acts or Ordinances; 1) The Indian Acquisition Act (1896). it empowered the authorities to take over land for the railway, government construction and public utilities. 2) The Land Regulations Act (1897). It allowed the government to offer a certificate of occupation and a lease of 99 years. This Act encouraged settlers to take up land left vacant by the Agikuyu due to drought and famine. 3) The East African Land Order in Council (1901). It defined crown land as all public land which was not private. The government could take up any land at will, sell it or lease it for use by settlers. 4) The Crown Land Ordinance (1902). It allowed the government to sell or lease crown land to Europeans at 2 rupees per 100 acres or rent at 15 rupees per 100 acres annually. 5) The Maasai Agreement (1904). It led to creation of the Ngong and Laikipia reserves while the settlers took up Maasai land for livestock farming. For example Lord Delamere in Nakuru. 6) The Elgin Pledge of 1906. The government through the British Secretary of State, Lord Elgin confirmed that the Highlands were reserved for settlers. This barred the Asian attempts to buy land in the highlands. 7) The second Maasai Agreement of 1911. The Maasai were pushed out of the fertile Laikipia reserve to pave way for more European settlement and large scale farming. 8) The Crown Land Ordinance (1915). This provided for land registration scheme for settlers. It defined crown land as land occupied by and reserved for Africans who could be evicted any time. Farm sizes wee increased from 5,000 to 7,500 acres. 9) The Kenya Annexation Order in Council (1920). It announced that Africans were tenants of the crown even in the reserves. 10) The Land Commission (1924). It fixed boundaries of the reserves, which were later legalized in 1926. 11) The Native Trust Ordinance (1930). It stated that African reserves belonged t the Africans permanently. 12) The Carter Commission (1932). It fixed the boundaries of the white highlands, leading to population pressure in the African reserves. All Africans were removed from the highlands into the reserves. 13) The Kenya Highlands Order in Council (1939). It fixed boundaries of the white highlands and reserved them permanently and exclusively for Europeans. **Effects of the colonial land policies** a) The displaced Africans were confined to native reserves thus leading to congestion/overuse of land. By 1914, settlers like Lord Delamere and Captain Crogan owned 100,000 and 220,000 acres of land, respectively, at the expense of African congestion in the reserves. b) Africans who lost their land became poor. Many Africans became squatters and lived in misery and hopelessness. c) The situation in the reserves and the landlessness forced to supply labour in settler farms for wages in order to pay taxes. d) The displaced Africans moved to towns looking for employment. Their movement to towns led to growth of urban centres. e) The traditional socio-economic set-up of the Africans was disrupted. Communities could no longer migrate in search of better lands and pasture. Family roles changed as women increasingly took over headship of families while men sought for paid employment. f) The large European farms suffered acute shortage of labour as many Africans were unwilling to work on them. g) It led to the introduction of the Kipande System enforced by the Native Registration Ordinances of 1915 and 1920, to prevent the African labourers from deserting their duties on European farms. h) Taxes were imposed on Africans and were to be paid only in monetary form. This was meant to compel Africans seek for wage employment. i) The reserving of the highlands for the whites only denied Indians access to agricultural land, compelling them to resort to businesses and residences in urban areas. j) Loss of land led to bitterness and made Africans later to form political organizations to demand for their land/spread of nation **THE DEVONSHIRE WHITE PAPER.** The Mandate of the League of Nations compelled Britain, just like any other colonial authority to institute reforms that would involve addressing African grievances. Governor Edward Northey who had given many concessions to the settlers was recalled to Britain in 1922. **Other reforms that were instituted were;** a) Abandonment of Racial segregation policy in Kenya except in the highlands. b) Allowing Asians to elect four members to the Legco, which was initially settlerdominated. This however was not done until 1933.In March 1923, settlers in a form of protest to these reforms sent a delegation to London to try to settle scores with the Secretary for Colonies, the Duke of Devonshire. The fundamental set of principles that were issued in this meeting are what came to be known as the Devonshire White Paper. **Factors that led to the issuing of the Devonshire white paper.** a) The influence of The Dual Mandate. This was a book of the League of Nations that had regulations concerning colonial mandates. Britain was committed to the principle of trusteeship whereby she was interested on its African population than European settlement b) The rise of race conflicts i.e. Africans versus European dominion and European versus Asian conflicts. The Indians were opposed to the privileged position of European settlers. c) The banning of racial segregation .The decision by the colonial government to ban racial segregation apart from the white highlands only, disappointed the settlers who wanted the ban lifted hence they sent a delegation to London to see the colonial secretary. d) The African general resentment. Their resentment was on land alienation, forced labour, taxation system, kipande system, low wages and no political representation. **Terms of the Devonshire White Paper** a) White highlands were reserved for European settlement only b) Indians would be allowed to elect five members to LEGCO not on a common roll, but on a communal roll. c) Racial segregation was abolished in all residential areas. d) Restriction on Indian immigration was lifted e) A nominated missionary was to represent African interests in the LEGCO. f) The European Settlers demand for self government in Kenya was rejected. g) African interests were declared paramount before those of immigrant races if there was a conflict. h) The settlers were to maintain their representation in the LEGCO. i) The Colonial Secretary was given mandate to exercise strict control over the affairs of the colony. **Implications of the Devonshire white paper.** The issuance of the paper left the Settlers, Asians and Africans more dissatisfied than ever before as follows; On the part of the settlers; a) The Indian call for equality, to them, was unrealistic since they could not stomach the mixing of Oriental and Western cultures in Kenya. b) Since European culture was superior, they felt that racial segregation was justified in all spheres. c) To the settlers, instead of giving in the Indians grievances, they would rather give in to African demands since they had moral rights to protect African interests. d) To them, the white highlands were primarily theirs and they had a legal claim over them. ***On the Asian part;*** a) They wanted equality of all races instead of settler dominance in Kenya especially pertaining to settlement in the white highlands. b) They opposed policies on residential segregation and restriction on their immigration. The government was inviting more settlers to check Indian immigration into Kenya by this time. c) They wanted direct and adequate representation in the Legco based on a common roll free election (not communal roll). d) They objected separate taxation for Europeans and Indians and segregated education. The Devonshire White paper was therefore viewed as the product of the struggle between the Asians and the Europeans. The paper made the Asians join their African comrades in the struggle for freedom, especially in the trade Union Movement.Settler dominance In Kenyan affairs continued upto 1963 despite recommendations done in the white paper. **Results of the Devonshire white paper** a) The Devonshire white paper saved Kenya from becoming another Rhodesia or South Africa.The European demand for self-government was rejected. b) In theory, settlers dominance was weakened but in practice, the white paper upheld the dominance of the settlers more than that of the Africans e.g. segregation in residential areas in towns continued, they dominated the economy because they retained the white highlands. c) The paper did not satisfy the Asians since they did not gain access to the white highlands. d) Although many Asians came to Kenya, the Asians did not achieve equality with Europeans through a Common Roll. The Indian congress refused to cooperate with the government; they declined to hold elections for the Legislative Council seats offered to them. No Asian seats, five in all were occupied until 1933. e) Africans were to be represented by a nominated missionary, John Arthur, instead of representation by an African. For the first time, Africans were represented in the Legco. f) The Devonshire White Paper Benefited the Africans by declaring/recognizing Kenya as an African country where African interests should be paramount g) It failed to resolve African land and labour grievances. h) It sensitized the Africans on their plight leading to formation of politi cal parties. **URBANIZATION** Towns that were already in existence before the advent of colonialism include Mombasa, Lamu and Malindi. Many other towns in the interior grew during the colonial period. **Factors which led to the establishment of urban centres in Kenya during the** **colonial period** a) Development of transport network. Construction of roads and the Uganda railway led to growth of some towns as transport terminus or along the transport lines e.g. Nairobi, Voi, Nakuru and Kisumu. b) Growth of trade in the interior of Kenya. Most towns began as trading centres for Indian commercial entrepreneurs. E.g Machakos, Nakuru, Kisumu, Nairobi and Voi. c) Development of administrative posts. The colonial government established administrative posts in various parts of the country. These posts later grew into urban centres. E.g Fort Hall, Embu, Kapsabet, Meru and Garissa. d) Rural-urban migration. The movement to urban areas by African labourers from various parts of the country led to further growth of urban centres. e) Development of agriculture. Settler farming led to growth of towns like Eldoret which began as agricultural collection centres f) Development of Agro-based industries like flour mills, meat-processing plants and sawmills which attracted labourers from all parts of the country to be transformed into urban centres. g) Development of mining activities. This stimulated development of industries in the mining areas leading to urban growth. E.g. Kakamega, Athi River and Magadi. **Why Africans moved to urban areas in colonial Kenya.** a) The Urban centres had recreational facilities and social amenities which attracted the Africans, fed up with hardship conditions in the reserves. b) The Africans expected Job opportunities with better wages in the towns where there were industries as compared to the rural areas. c) Some Africans were escaping from forced labour and taxation. d) The African entrepreneurs wanted to take advantage of the wider markets in the towns to escape poverty in the crowded reserves. **Ways through which the colonial government controlled Africans migration to** **urban centers.** a) Taking headcount of those who were supposed to live in urban centres b) Enacting strict rules about migration into urban centre c) Creation of African reserves d) Ensuring that only those who had specific activities to undertake in the urban centres lived there e) Introduction of kipande system. **Positive effects of urbanization during the colonial period.** a) It promoted interaction between people of diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds, who exchanged ideas and experiences. The centres became seedbeds of political activities that eventually culminated into the struggle for independence. b) Urbanization promoted national integration and instilled a sense of nationhood among Kenyans as it watered down the differences and prejudices between communities. c) The welfare associations formed by Africans in urban areas, like the Bara Association in Mombasa for all hinterland people, united them for a common cause by lessening ethnic hostilities. d) Through sporting and cultural activities that took place in towns, relationships between different ethnic groups and races were cemented. e) Many Africans benefitted from the numerous employment opportunities as shoe shiners and repairers, charcoal sellers, hawking in industries and in European homes. f) Due to the Abundance of labour and raw materials, industries in urban areas expanded further. **Negative effects of urbanization during the colonial period in Kenya** a) There were inadequate housing facilities to meet the demands of the people. This led to overcrowding especially in slums/shanties led to the outbreak of diseases. Lack of planning of housing led to poor drainage and sanitation facilities. b) Africans in urban areas were subjected to racial discrimination. The social services provided to the Africans were inadequate and of poor quality. Even houses in towns were occupied according to the various racial groups, with Europeans enjoying the best facilities. c) Increased population in urban centres led to serious water shortages. d) Establishment of industries in urban centres led to pollution of the environment, whichaffected the health of the inhabitants. e) There was rampant unemployment as urban centres could not cope with the large influx of labourers and increased competition for the available jobs f) Many unemployed people in urban areas got involved in social vices / crimes such as drug abuse, alcoholism and promiscuity, due to desperation and poverty. g) Africans working in urban centres received low wages with employers taking advantage of the high supply of labour, which affected their standards of living. h) The mass rural-urban migration brought about intensification of migration regulations to control the numbers of African migrants. The Kipande system became stricter. i) Economic activities in the rural areas were disrupted by the absence of men who had moved to urban areas. Women took up mens roles. **EDUCATION AND HEALTH** **Education.** Formal education in colonial Kenya was provided by four groups; ~ The Christian Missionaries. ~ The Colonial government through local councils. ~ The Africans themselves. ~ Community organizations(Asians) Major milestones in the development of education in Kenya during the colonial period. Initially, the provision of education was the preserve of the missionaries. For example, the Church Missionary Society (CMS) pioneered by setting up a school at Rabai in 1844 and another in Mombasa in 1873. **Features of Missionary education** a) It was elementary. The subjects taught included religion, writing, reading, reading, hygiene and arithmetic. b) It was industrial and technical in approach, aiming at training Africans to be carpenters, masons, agricultural assistants and shoe repairers. c) It was denominational and aimed at inculcating doctrines of a particular church in the learners. **Objectives of Missionary education.** a) To impart in the Africans Agricultural Skills in order to promote settler farming. b) To give the Africans basic technical skills to improve their industrial knowledge. c) To train some Africans as Catechists to enhance the spread of Christianity. d) To offer Africans basic literacy and numeracy to read the bible and do simple arithmetic.Education development in Kenya in the period between 1904 and 1963 was facilitated by the following factors; 1) The WWI ex-soldiers experiences which convinced them of the advantage of higher education. 2) Increase in African nationalism that demanded for better education for Africans. 3) The need to produce better and more skilled manpower for the future independent Kenya. 4) Primary education had produced qualified children who needed higher education. In 1911, the colonial government agreed to share the burden of providing education to Africans with the missionaries. In 1913, the first Government African School was started at Machakos. It became a centre for Technical and Teacher training. In 1918, the education commission made the following far-reaching recommendations to the government in line with the Fraser Commission report of 1908 which had recommended a racially segregated system of education; a) Provision of technical education to Africans. b) Maintenance of racially segregated Schools. c) More cooperation between the colonial government and the missionaries. d) Appeals for grants-in-aid for mission schools. In 1924, a commission came to Kenya (the Phelps Stokes Commission) to look into the education situation. It recommended that Africans should receive Practical AgriculturalOriented Education suitable for rural areas. Other recommendations included; a) That there should be a uniform system of education in all government and missionary schools. b) That sufficient training for teachers and related personnel should be enhanced by establishing colleges. c) That schools should be built in the rural areas. This was done through the education ordinance of 1924. Due to its recommendations, the Native Industrial Training Centre was built at Kabete in 1924 and Jeanes School, Kabete (1925) for offering technical and industrial education. Other schools were started later at Kapsabet, Kajiado, Tambach, Kitui, Kwale, Kabianga and Kapenguria.The 1924 Education Ordinance created an advisory committee on African education. The representation to the committee was missionaries, colonial officials and settlers. The same year, more schools were built with the assistance of the newly formed Local Native Councils. In 1931, another Education Ordinance helped in the establishment of Kakamega GAS In 1932, Kisii GAS in 1934, and Kabianga. Finance for African education was to come from the colonial government.From 1925, the missionaries began providing advanced level education to Africans. Initially secondary education was the preserve of the Europeans. In 1926, the Alliance of protestant missionaries set up Alliance High School. Catholics established Kabaa in 1927 and Mangu School in Thika in 1930 for Africans. In 1938 and 1939, Maseno and St. Marys Yala were started as secondary schools. **Achievements of missionaries in provision of education.** a) They designed a curriculum with emphasis on agriculture, tailoring, masonry and carpentry. b) They established the first secondary schools for Africans such as Alliance (1926), Kabaa (1927), Maseno (1938 and Yala (1939). c) They trained African teachers to man the Bush Schools (schools found in remote areas consisting of mud huts with grass-thatched roofs) and teach in independent schools. d) They offered the necessary financial and material support to make these schools operational. Secondary schools for whites included Prince of Wales (Nairobi School), and Duke of York (Lenana School) for European boys, Kenya Girls High School (Kenya High) and Limuru Girls for European Girls.Schools for Indians include the Asian Railway School (1904) and other schools developed by the government in Mombasa and Nairobi. Also community-based schools like Allidina Visram and the Arya Samaj Foundation.Hospital School became the first multi-racial school in 1953.In 1934, a District Education Board was created to plan education in districts, establish primaryschools and manage the schools.In 1949, the Beecher Committee was instituted to look into African education From 1961, Asian and African pupils begun to join European schools.Provision of elementary education by Africans was pioneered by John Owalo of the Nomiya Luo Mission in 1910. **University Education.** Africans in Kenya got opportunity for university education at Makerere which was established in 1922 initially as a technical college and became an affiliate of the University of London on 1949. In 1954, the Royal Technical College, Nairobi began to offer higher education and became an affiliate of the university of London in 1959 to offer the first degree courses in 1961 when it became known as the royal college. **Community based education** This was done mainly by Asian families of Ismaili and Arya Samaj for the Indian traders in urban areas. Allidina Visram, A wealthy man, also established centres of higher education. **African Role in educational provision** Africans began their own schools for the following reasons; a) They wanted to protect certain cultural practices like feral circumcision and polygamy. b) They wanted to access higher education, since the government and missionaries were only offering them technical and industrial education, so that to be able to compete for the white-collar jobs with other races. c) They would also use the schools as a forum to air their grievances and to create political awareness in their community. The Nomiya Luo Mission built several schools in Nyanza between 1908 and 1910. Other schools were built in Gem-Luanda region between 1913 and 1918 and in central Kenya in 1923 in Kiambu. In 1934, the Kikuyu Independent Schools Association (KISA) and the Kikuyu Karinga Education Association founded more schools. In 1938, Githunguri Teacher Training College had been established under Mbiyu Koinange. **Health.** **Developments in provision of health services in colonial Kenya** Initially, just like in the case of education, the Christian missionaries were concerned with provision of health services in colonial Kenya. The colonial government was majorly concerned with eradication of plague, malaria and sleeping disease which the Pioneer European settlers suffered from. Preventive medicine was later introduced to help stop various infections of killer diseases.The Church of Scotland Mission and the Church Missionary Society soon opened medical facilities in Kikuyu (1902), Kaimosi (1903), Kaloleni (1904) and Maseno (1905). Dr, Arthur, a missionary and pioneer doctor, put up the Thogoto Mission Hospital in 1907 and the facility exists prominently upto today as the Kikuyu Eye Unit Hospital and Kikuyu Rehabilitation Centre. **Objectives of the Health centres.** a) To eradicate diseases such as smallpox, malaria and sleeping sickness. b) To train medical personnel to handle western medicine. c) To improve health and hygiene for Africans and Asians in towns where they lived in overcrowded areas lacking in sanitary facilities. Africans began being trained in the provision of emergence health services during the first war. (The East African Medical Corps was formed). Between 1919 1922, missionaries began to train Africans as Medical Dressers and Dispensers. After the opening of the Alliance medical college in 1920 and the establishment of a Medical training centre under the Nurses and Midwives Ordinance many African school leavers trained as laboratory and pharmacy assistants.A Public Health Ordinance was passed in 1921 giving the Medical Department powers to institute measures for the control of malaria and prevent communicable diseases. As a follow up to the 1921 Ordinance, new health units were established in the four different African reserves. The Rural Dispensary System was established to supplement the missionary efforts in provision of health care. Health centres were built in rural areas as part of the colonial government efforts to improve health facilities.After 1945, the Development and Research Authority (DARA) gave 47,000 sterling pounds for health care and improvement of health services. In 1949, the Bureau of Medical Research was set up as an agency of the East African High Commission.In 1950 King George IV hospital (today the Kenyatta National Hospital) was started as a hospital for Africans and in 1951, it started training female nurses.By 1962, there were over 100 rural health centres in the country. **Role of Africans in Health Provision** Africans were more pre-occupied with superstitions and over-reliance on traditional medicine which negated their participation in provision healthcare..The traditional medicinemen were dismissed by missionaries despite their wealthy knowledge on herbal Medicine. Today, many people rely on traditional herbalists to compliment healthcare provision. **POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN** **KENYA (1919-1963)** **Early Political Organizations In Kenya Upto 1939** African participation in the First World War contributed to rapid political developments in Kenya in the following ways; a) When many African from different communities and countries met, they realized that they shared numerous interests and problems which necessitated political unity. b) The Africans disapproval of the Whitemans immortality during the war, as he could also get wounded, die and suffer like them. This motivated them to strive for equal rights when they came back. c) The introduction of many unfair measures after the war made their lives difficult. For example, governor Northey introduced the Soldier settlement scheme in 1919 to settle British ex-soldiers while African ex-soldiers got a raw deal. **Other factors for the rise of early political organizations included;** a) The introduction of the Kipande system in 1920 which was used to force Africans to provide labour for the European settlers. b) The replacement of the Indian Rupee with the shilling in 1921 meant that those in possession of the rupee had valueless money at a short notice. c) The reduction of African wages and the increase in hut tax and poll tax in 1920 from 10 to 16 shillings. d) The change of status of Kenya from a protectorate to a colony in 1920 which d awned on the Africans that the Whiteman was here to stay unless this move was fought. **Kikuyu Association** This was the first political organization in Kenya. It was founded in 1920 by Loyalist Kikuyu chiefs, concerned about the continued grabbing of African land for European settlement.They also complained about the planned reduction of African wages after the replacement of the rupee with the shilling, the kipande system which they equated to slavery.The patron was Paramount Chief Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu and Chief Koinange wa Mbiyu was the president. The secretary was I.M.Ishmael. Other members were Josiah Njonjo, Philip Karanja, Mathew Njoroge and Waweru wa Mahui. The Association, being made of loyalist chiefs, was never aggressive in its demands. The members therefore failed to get any meaningful concessions from the government.Later, Harry Thuku and Abdalla Tairara joined the association together with other Christian converts who were labourers, colonial house servants and clerks in Nairobi and central Kenya.When Thuku tried to introduce radicalism in the Association, he was forced to decamp on 7th June 1921 and founded the Young Kikuyu Association. **The East African Association.** It began off as Young Kikuyu Association (YKA) in 1921 having been inspired by the Young Buganda Association in Uganda. Its founders included Harry Thuku, Abdalla Tairara, Mwalimu Hamisi and Muhamed Sheikh.Harry Thuku, the leading founder of this association was a mission educated elite who was working as a telephone operator in Nairobi. He became dissatisfied with the nonaggressiveness of the Kikuyu Association which was dominated by loyalist chiefs, in pressing the colonial government for Africans demands.YKA being very aggressive demanded; ~ The return of African land. ~ Better working conditions for Africans. ~ Reduction of taxes. ~ Withdrawal of Kipande system which had been introduced in 1920. ~ Increase in wages. YKA incorporated other ethnic community members thus necessitating it to change the name to the East African Association in July 1921. The officials included Harry Thuku (Chairman) George Samuel Okoth, Abdalla Tairara, Kibwana Kambo, Jesse Kangethe, Z. K. Sentongo from Uganda, Maitei ole Mootian, Molanket ole Sempele from Tanzania, James Mwanthi and Muhamed Sheikh. EAA became a very popular association in the 1920s attracting huge crowd in its meetings. **Grievances of the East African Association** ~ They were demanding for the removal of the status of Kenya as a colonial territory. ~ They were demanding for a common roll for all in the legislative council elections. ~ They wanted the return of the alienated land, back to African owners. ~ They were opposed to forced labour. ~ They wanted more educational facilities and opportunities for Africans. ~ They were demanding that all labour in urban areas be paid fair wages. ~ They wanted the compulsory selling of cattle be stopped. ~ Removal of Kipande System. ~ Protested European domination of government. ~ Wanted hut tax that was exclusively paid by Africans abolished. Due to the radical approach that was adopted by Harry Thuku, the colonial Governor had him arrested on 15th March 1922 and detained at the Kingsway Police Station (now Nairobi Central Police Station). On 16th March 1922, a Kikuyu Woman, Muthoni Nyanjiru, challenged the African men to violence demanding the release of Thuku. More than 21 people including Muthoni Nyanjiru, were killed when the police opened fire on the over 1000 people who were surging forward.Harry Thuku was deported to Kisimayu. His colleagues Waiganjo and Mugekenji were banished to Lamu as EAA was banned. **Consequences of Harry Thukus arrest** a) The political parties that succeeded the EAA continued using even more radical approach when they realized that the colonial government was determined to continue using Iron Rule in Kenya. b) Governor Edward Northey was recalled to London by the then Colonial Secretary, Sir Winston Churchill due to the way he mishandled the Thuku affair. c) The colonial government did not allow formation of any other countrywide political Associations among Africans until 1945. d) Thuku became the undisputed flag-bearer of Kenyan Nationalism prior to formation of later political parties. **The kikuyu central association.** When EAA was banned, its former officials Joseph Kangethe and Jesse Kariuki founded the Kikuyu central Association. It was formed in 1924 at Kahuhia, Fort Hall with Kangethe becoming the president and Henry Gichuru, secretary. Job Muchuchu (Treasurer), James Beauttah (secretary-general) and Jesse Kariuki (vice-president). All these were extremist politicians whose activities were closely monitored by the government. **Grievances of the Kikuyu Central Association.** ~ They were demanding for the removal of the 1915 Crown Land Ordinance that made Africans mere tenants and not real owners of their land. ~ They were demanding for African representation in the Legislative Council. ~ They were opposed to forced labour. ~ They wanted free primary education as opposed to the colonial education system. ~ Establishment of a secondary school, training facility for hospital workers and a school for girls. ~ Removal of kipande system. ~ They demanded that all colonial laws be translated into Gikuyu Language so that all members of the community could understand them. ~ They demanded for the appointment of a well-educated Paramount Chief elected by the majority of the Agikuyu. ~ Wanted hut tax abolished and other taxes reduced ~ They advocated for the growing of coffee and other cash crops by Africans. ~ To work towards the restoration of alienated African land. ~ To pressurize the colonial government to abolish racial segregation. ~ Respect of African culture & customs e.g. Circumcision/polygamy ~ Agitating release of political prisoners e.g. Harry Thuku. By 1925, KCA had attracted membership from all large urban centres in Kenya and the Kikuyu squatters in the Rift Valley. They presented their demands to Governor Grigg when he visited Fort Hall in 1925.In 1927, KCA relocated its headquarters from Muranga to Nairobi in order to link up with other Kenyan elites. In 1928, Jomo Kenyatta became its Secretary- General, taking over from James Beauttah who had been transferred from Nairobi in an act of sabotage by the government. Kenyatta started the Association newspaper, Muigwithania which was instrumental in reviving the cultural values of the Agikuyu.When the Hilton Young Commission was formed in 1927 to look into the question of the federation of Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika, KCA through Jomo Kenyatta presented the following demands to it; ~ Introduction of free primary education for Africans. ~ Provision of secondary and higher education for Africans. ~ Abolition of kipande system ~ Appointment of Africans to LEGCO ~ Release of Harry Thuku ~ Giving of Title Deeds to Africans as a guarantee against any further land alienation. ~ Rejection of the proposed East Africa Federation KCA championed female circumcision arguing that it was a beautiful cultural practice which eradicated prostitution in the community. When the Church of Scotland Mission, African inland Mission and CMS expelled all sympathizers with the practice from their missions, KCA responded by leading the pack in the beginning of independent schools and churches.KCA sent Jomo Kenyatta, accompanied by Parmenas Mukiri, to present Agikuyu grievances in 1929 to the colonial office in London. It also helped kikuyu elders in preparing evidence to the Kenya Land Commission in 1931.Rivalry for power within the KCA between 1931 and 1938 nearly rocked the association.The Association was banned in 1940 alongside others. **Kavirondo Tax Payers and Welfare Association** It started as Young Kavirondo Association (YKA) in December 1921 at a Baraza held in Ludha, central Nyanza, by mission educated Luo and Luhyia men. The meeting was meant to discuss issues affecting African communities.The official of the Association were Jonathan Okwiri (chairman), Simon Nyende (Treasurer), Benjamin Owuor (secretary), Rueben Omulo, Ezekiel Apindi, George Samuel Okoth, Mathayo Otieno, Joel Omino and Jolmeo Okaka. The demands of the YKA included; ~ They were demanding for addressing of the problem of change of the status of Kenya from a protectorate to colonial territory. ~ Demanded for a government school to be built in central Nyanza. ~ Demanded for a self- government for nyanza province with a separate legislative council and an elected African president. ~ They were opposed to forced labour and labour camps. ~ An end to land alienation. ~ Creation of the position of paramount chief for central and southern Nyanza, just like Mumias was for northern Nyanza. ~ Removal of Kipande System. ~ Demanded to be given title deeds for their land. ~ Wanted hut tax removed. ~ The advocated for better wages. The members presented their demands to the Nyanza PC in May 1922 and met governor Northey in Kisumu in July 1922 at Nyahera in Kisumu. The governor agreed to authorize the closing down of labour camps and reduce taxation. However, the revocation of the Crown Colony Status was out of question.In 1923, however, government, alarmed by the mobilization level of YKA in Nyanza, compromised its leadership and Jonathan Okwiri handed over chairmanship to Archdeacon Owen fearing the banning of the association the way EAA had been.Under Owen YKA changed its name to KTWA with its emphasis shifting from political grievances to social grievances focusing on killing rats, digging latrines and keeping compounds clean. It also adopted the use of written memoranda in expressing their grievances. All Nyanza chiefs became Vice-presidents of the association under its new constitution.In 1931, the association split up into Luo and Luyia Factions due to disagreements. The Abaluhyia faction formed the North Kavirondo Central Association that had close links with the KCA. It was formed with the objective of stopping any further land alienation for European use without compensation, especially after the 1930s Kakamega Gold rush.By 1944, many of the top leaders of the KTWA had been co-opted into the colonial administration with Okwiri becoming a chief. Benjamin Owuor, Nyende and Okwiri were made members of the LNC in central Nyanza. KWTA was therefore weakened and became extinct in 1944. **Ukamba Members Association** UMA was formed in 1938 by Samuel Muindi Mbingu (Chairman), Elijah Kavula (Vice- chairman), Isaac Mwalozi (secretary) and Simon Kioko (treasurer) as an association of the Akamba of the eastern part of Kenya.The leaders who founded this association were closely associated with East African Association of Harry Thuku. For example, James Mwanthi, Ali Kilonzi and Muhamed Sheikh. **Reasons for the formation of Ukamba Members Association** a) The Akamba wanted to fight against land alienation for European ranchers causing shortage of land for grazing. b) To oppose the colonial policy of de-stocking who argued that overstocking was responsible for soil erosion in Kitui and Machakos regions. In 1936, the Liebigs Group established a meat processing plant to effect the de-stocking policy. c) To oppose heavy taxation. d) To represent the Akamba peoples interests. e) To fight for the Akamba rights and freedoms They wrote memorandum to the colonial government with the assistance of Asian lawyers. It mobilized people to fight for their rights through meetings and signing of petitions. They got support from KCA and the Asian representative to the Legco, Isher Das.The association used Muigwithania journal of KCA to advance their cause. On 28th July 1938, UMA members including women and children demonstrated and marched to Nairobi with their cattle to seek audience with the governor over destocking and grazing policies. They staged a sit in Nairobi for 6 weeks led by Muindi Mbingu until the governor conceded to their demands at a meeting in Machakos. However, their leader, Muindi Mbingu was arrested in September 1938 and deported to Lamu until 1946. The Association was banned at the beginning of World War II. **Problems that faced UMA in its operations** a) The colonial government had a negative attitude towards the activities of the association. This discouraged open participation. b) Arrest of their leader Muindi Mbingu and his deportation to Lamu demoralized the movement. c) The Association alongside others was banned, with the World War II looming. **Coast Africa Association** The Association was formed in 1943 with Noah Mwana Sele as president, Muhamed bin Mwichande as vice president, E.W. Timothy as secretary General and H.G.Banks as honorary treasurer. Other officials were Muhamed bin Omar, Enoch Benjamin and H. Harrison. b) The elevation of Shimo la Tewa to a high school. c) The establishment of evening classes in the region so as to give African adults a chance to pursue basic western education. d) to protest inadequate healthcare services for the Africans. e) They were demanding for appointment of Africans as administrators. f) They demanded that tax collected from African drinks be used to develop African rural areas. g) They demanded for the revocation of allocation of Mijikenda land to Asians and Arabs. h) They demanded for African representation of Coast region in the LEGCO in 1947. Unlike other Associations CAA did not present their grievances in political meetings bur instead used written memoranda and also their newspaper, the Coast African Express whose editor wads Elkana Young. This explains why the association existed while others had been banned. ***In 1955 however, the association began to disintegrate due to the following reasons;*** a) The departure of their leaders Francis Khamisi and Ronald Ngala who joined the Mombasa African democratic union and the LEGCO. b) Leadership wrangles based on ethnic consideration. c) Shortage of funds to run the activities of the association. It succeeded in achieving elevation of Shimo la Tewa school into a high school and a Legco position for the Mijikenda. **Taita hills Association** It was formed on 22nd June 1939, being modeled on the KCA and UMA styles. Its objectives were; ~ To achieve equal political status with whites and Asians. ~ To help the Taita community to advance. ~ To protest the destocking policy. Most of the fertile land of the community had been occupied by European settlers who were growing coffee on it. ~ Oppose the plan to relocate the Wada Wida people from Taita hills to Samburu to create room for settlers. ~ They were opposed to the kipande system and forced labour. The Europeans forced the Wataita to work on coffee plantations and ferry the coffee over long distances for low wages.The pioneer founder of the Association was Daniel Mapinga, a young catechist, who began mobilizing the Wataita against oppressive measures used by the colonial government. Unfortunately he died in 1837.In 1939, Woresho Kolandi Mengo, Jimmy Mwambichi and Paul Chumbo took over his course and established THA with the help of KCA leadership. **Achievements** a) The association succeeded in stopping the governments plan to relocate the Wada Wida people from Taita hills to Samburu to create room for settlers. b) The colonial government stopped the de-stocking plan among the Wataita. c) The government revised the Taita reserve boundaries and reduced the land initially carved for European settlers. **Problems experienced** a) It failed to attract prominent personalities I Tata. b) It lacked support of all the African groups in the region. For example the Wataveta and Wagisiga were reluctant to join THA. c) The association was banned alongside others in May 1940. d) Their leader Mwambichi was deported after being arrested. **Problems faced by early political organizations.** a) Their members were subjected to harassment by the colonial government, especially arresting and dispersing demonstrators. b) The organizations were demoralized through the deportation of the leaders like Thuku (EAA). Muindi Mbingu (UMA) and Mwambichi (THA). c) The associations experienced political wrangles between members as witnessed in KCA between 1931 1nd 1839 and CAA upon departure of its tow key leaders. d) Many of the leaders of the organizations had little experience in running political parties and therefore mismanaged their offices. e) The organizations were faced with financial inadequacy. Many Africans were experiencing financial problems due to land alienation, taxation and poor working conditions and therefore could not adequately contribute to the associations. f) There was a lot of disunity since most organizations were ethnic-based **Features of the political associations formed in Kenya before 1939** a) They lacked a national outlook since they were ethnic (tribal based/oriented/urban based). Most of them were confined to one or two ethnic communities except EAA. b) Most of them received material and moral support from the Asians c) Mission-Educated African young men led them. For example, Harry Thuku, Okwiri and Mwambichi. d) They were formed in response to socio-economic and land problems of various ethnic groups. e) They all agitated for an end to European exploitation and oppression rather than demand for political independence. f) Most of them did not attract large membership due to their ethnic tendency. g) They were non-militant and tended to be moderate and their demanded. h) They were characterized by squabbles over leadership. **Achievements of early political parties.** a) They provided political education to the African communities through their political rallies. b) They communicated the communities feelings to the colonial government through publications, memoranda or speeches. c) They defended the African cultures against further erosion by the European missionaries. For example KCA defended female circumcision among agikuyu. d) They re-awakened the masses by making them conscious of the political situation in the country. d) Some succeeded in to stop further land alienation by restraining the Europeans from displacing the Africans to the reserves. For example THA succeeded in stopping the governments plan to relocate the Wada Wida people from Taita hills to Samburu to create room for settlers. e) The played the role of trade Unionism by fighting for the welfare of the workers in the absence of formal trade unions. f) They publicized Africans grievances to the international community. For Example, the role played by Jomo Kenyatta on behalf of KCA. g) They pioneered in the growth of nationalism by forging inter-community relations in the struggle for independence. **EMERGENCE OF INDEPENDENT CHURCHES AND SCHOOLS MOVEMENT** **IN KENYA** This was an expression of African protest against European interference with traditional African economic and political organization. **Reasons why independent churches and schools emerged in Kenya** a) The desire by majority of Africans to retain their cultural values while at the same time converting to Christianity. Many were unhappy with the western influence of Christian missionaries who taught against traditional customs. b) Africans were unhappy with the 3Rs style of education in mission schools which only prepared them for low positions in government or employment on European farms and homes. They desired to be equal to Europeans and Asians. c) Independent schools emerged as a reaction against colonial domination and exploitation in terms of taxation, kipande, forced labour and racial discrimination. d) Africans desired leadership in their own churches instead of being led by European missionaries whom they viewed as agents of colonialism. e) The role played by Africans like John Owalo and Elijah Masinde who claimed to have received divine calls to begin independent churches. f) Some Africans felt dissatisfied with the interpretation of the scriptures. The Holy Spirit Church, for example, broke away on this account. g) Some churches were formed to allow Africans to express their Christianity freely through dancing, singing and drum beating which many mission churches did not accommodate. h) Characteristics of independent churches and schools. **Characteristics of independent churches and schools.** a) All of them accommodated African cultural values. b) Both churches and schools valued Christianity and western education but were against the westernizing influence by missionaries. c) Africans held positions of leadership in the churches and schools. d) Most Churches and schools worked closely with the African political association. **The independent churches movement in Nyanza.** John Owalo is credited for leading in the establishment of independent churches in nyanza. He stared as a Roman Catholic, then joined the Church of Scotland mission (CSM) at Kikuyu before moving to the CMS first in Nairobi, then defected to Maseno. The reason why Owalo suffered from denominational defection is because he was seeking for a mission church that accommodated African cultural values and where Africans could be given a say I terms of leadership and worship. In 1907, Owalo claimed to have received a direct call from God with instructions to begin his own church. Though CMS at Maseno dismissed him as a lunatic, the colonial authority (Nyanza PC John Ainsworth) granted Owalo permission to start his own mission. In 1910, he founded the Nomiya Luo Church, which became the first independent church in Kenya. Owalo proclaimed himself as a prophet equating similar to Jesus. Other independent churches in Nyanza included; 1) Dini ya Roho (Holy Spirit Church) founded among the Luhyia in 1927 as a breakaway from the Friends African Mission. The members claimed to speak in tongues and believed in baptism by the holy spirit, 2) Joroho church founded by Alfayo Odongo Mango in 1932 among the Luo. It was similar to Dini ya Roho. 3) The Christian Universal Evangelical Union founded in 1938 In Siaya by Ismael Noo, a school teacher linked to the Anglican Church at Maseno. He began off as one of the leaders of the revival movement at Maseno, which emphasized salvation by the blood of Jesus and public confession of sin. His movement insisted that men and women should have sexual intercourse since they were saved. His church attracted many women and soon he was accused of infidelity with peoples wives.He officially broke away from the Anglican Church at a convention at Nyabondo in Nyakach to establish the Christian Evangelical Union. The church is currently known as the Christian Evangelical Church, having changed its name in 1965. **The independent churches and schools movement in central Kenya** Due to its proximity to Nairobi, the seat of colonial administration, central Kenya experienced the presence of white settlers more than any other region in Kenya. The schools established by the so many missionary groups in the region only aimed at imparting basic literacy and numeracy skills to African converts. As the evangelized, the \missionary groups condemned many traditional African practices and values like polygamy, consumption of traditional brews and female circumcision. It is behind this backdrop that independent churches and schools emerged in central Kenya. **Kikuyu Independent schools** Kikuyu elders out of the desire for western education for their children, without necessarily being Europeanized, set up independent schools. In 1913, a Kikuyu elder, Mukunga wa Njehu, donated land at Gaithieko, Kiambu where the first independent school In central kenya was built.In 1925, another school had been built and registered at Githunguri.The independent Schools Movement emerged in the 1920s as a result of the expulsion from mission schools of the children of the supporters of female circumcision. The two bodies that emerged as a consequence were***Kikuyu Independent Schools*** ***Association (KISA) and the Kikuyu Karinga Educational Association (KKEA)*** **The Kikuyu Independent Schools Association** The Body was closely associated with the Independent Pentecostal Church and was predominantly in Muranga, Nyeri and Embu. Following a showdown over female circumcision, the kikuyu elders got permission from the DC to build a prayer House around Gituamba on land donated by two elders, Kagere Gatundu and Gathai Gachohi of Thiru sub-location. Between 1929 and 1932, a school was set up at the church. This success inspired the emergence of similar churches and schools in Mariira, Kahiti and Gakarara in Kandara, Muranga.In 1934, KISA was established to coordinate the efficient running of these schools with its leaders including Daudi Maina Kiragu, Musa Muriithi, Hezekiah Gachui, Peter Gathecha and Johana Njoroge.The Association had the responsibility of establishing more schools and maintaining them as well as mobilizing funds for teacher training programmes. Their activities got the support of the colonial authorities which even permitted establishment of more schools that must be registered at the DOs office.By 1935, KISA had established 34 independent schools with an enrolment of 2,518 pupils. Similar schools emerged in the Rift Valley among the kikuyu squatters. **Challenges encountered by KISA.** a) There were inadequate funds to support the large number of pupils and schools. b) Many teachers were untrained. c) Many of the KISA leaders lacked proper management skills. d) Mission schools fought the efforts of KISA leaders. e) There were disagreements among KISA leaders where some demanded for money for the land they had donated for the schools.The independent churches also suffered from lack of ordained ministers. This problem was solved when KCA invited the Most Reverend William Alexander, the Archbishop of the African Orthodox Church in South Africa in 1935, who established a seminary at Gituamba and ordained Daudi Maina Kiragu, Philip Kiande and Harrison Gachukia Kimanga as Ministers.In 1937 after Archbishop Alexander had left, Daudi Maina Kiragu and Harrison Gachukia Kimanga broke away and formed the African Independent Pentecostal Church which they claimed was independent from external influence.In 1938, KISA named their church the Independent Pentecostal Church. By 1952, at the time of its banning, KISA had 168 schools with an enrolment of 60,000 pupils in central Kenya and rift valley. **Kikuyu Karinga Educational Association** The association emerged out of a split at the Gituamba between the Muranga group and the -Kiambu members who were radical and were more closely associated with KCA. The term Karinga means pure implying unpolluted kikuyu customs and values. KKEA was opposed to all forms of cooperation with either the missionaries or the colonial authority.By 1940, it had established 12 schools in Kiambu and 11 in the rift valley. By 1952, it had established schools at Moshi and Arusha in Tanganyika. It established its own church in 1952(the African Orthodox Church of Kenya), relying on church ministers trained at Gituamba seminary. It was led by Arthur Gathuna and Philip KiandeThe Association was banned in 1952 after declaration of a State of Emergency.In 1939, the Kenya Teachers Training College was established at Githunguri, Kiambu, to train teachers for the independent schools. Mbiyu Koinange was the first principal. It was closed in 1952 alongside other independent schools. **Problems faced by independent churches and schools** a) Poor leadership as many churches and schools were led by people without any management experience. Many of them lacked trained personnel who could run them efficiently. b) They faced a lot of hostility from the colonial government and missionaries who constantly harassed them. c) Ideological differences among their leaders on which name to adopt. There were also many leadership squabbles as all founders wanted to be recognized. d) The schools were forced to follow the official syllabus and become members of the District Education Board. e) The independent churches and schools competed with mission churches and schools for followers with the later declaring war on certain African practices **POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS AND MOVEMENTS AFTER 1945.** ***Factors that hastened political development in Kenya after 1945.*** a) The Acquisition of western education by many Africans by 1945 which enabled them to articulate their grievances more forcefully and to understand political developments outside Kenya. b) The return of the ex-servicemen after the second world war which exposed the myth of the white supremacy making Africans ready to fight them. Moreover, the colonial government failed to reward African ex-soldiers to embitter them more. c) The change of government from Conservative to Labour Party in Britain in 1946 stimulated a new attitude in Britain towards decolonization. Africans in Kenya took advantage of this attitude. d) The granting of independence to India and Pakistan in 1947 aroused great confidence among Africans in Kenya to also clamour for their own independence. e) The rise of Pan-Africanism in Africa after the 1945 Manchester conference contributed to the new demands for political independence in Kenya. f) The formation of the UNO and the pressure it exerted on the European powers to decolonize helped the Kenyans in their course. g) The emergence of United States and the Soviet Union as super powers in the world contributed to the decolonization process. USA was keen to see Britain and France grant independence to their subjects in the world in order to secure new markets. h) The signing of the Atlantic Charter in 1941 by Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt which demanded that when the WWII ended, all subject peoples should enjoy the right to self-determination. i) The costs incurred by the European nations during WW2 made their taxpayers become reluctant to raise any more funds for colonial expenditures. **Characteristics of political parties formed after 1945.** a) They had a national outlook as members were drawn from different ethnic groups b) Their main objectives was to fight for independence c) Educated elites led them d) They had a large membership. e) They demanded for fair taxation for Africans. f) They all demanded for improved conditions for African workers. g) They all demanded for the return of alienated land. **Kenya African Study Union** When Eliud Mathu was nominated to the Legco on 10th October 1944, a number of well educated Africans led by Francis Khamisi agreed to form Kenya African Union (KAU) with the following objectives;. a) To assist Mathu in his new task as the first African nominated to the LEGCO. b) To create a Multi-ethnic political grouping representing the interests and constitutional rights of all Africans effectively. c) To advocate for more constitutional reforms for Africans. d) To demand for better living and working conditions. The interim officials were Harry Thuku (chairman), Francis Khamisi (Secretary) and Albert Owino (treasurer). Other officials were James Gichuru, John Kebaso, Simeon Mulandi, Harry ole Nangurai, S.0. Josiah, F.M. Nganga, Jimmy Jeremiah, J.D. Otiende and S.D. Jakay.Two weeks after its formation, the governor ordered its officials to change its name to the Kenya African Study Union as it was meant to help Mathu in studying African problems.In January 1945, James Gichuru became the president of KASU after Harry Thuku resigned, being unable to cope with radicalism in the union. Under Gichuru, KASU published a newspaper - Sauti ya Mwafrika that concentrated on African grievances and the proposed East African Federation which they opposed. The organization rejected proposals to give more powers to European members in the Executive council. They refused to accept a European dominated government of the East African Federation. Later in 1946 on KASU changed its name to KAU feeling that the former name was inappropriate. **Kenya African Union** Formed in February 1946, the main demands of KAU were; ~ They protested against inadequate African representation in the LEGCO. ~ They protested against the lack of Participation of Africans in the governance of Kenya. They even demanded for Self-government for Africans. ~ They were against the continued existence of the Kipande System and forced labour. ~ They demanded improvement of the African working conditions with better wages equal to what was paid to other races. ~ They demanded an end to Land alienation and racial discrimination. ~ They demanded an end to Imposition of taxes. ~ They demanded compensation of ex-servicemen. ~ They were protesting against Lack of education opportunities for Africans. The return to Kenya by Kenyatta in 1946 marked the beginning of mass nationalism. On 1st June 1947, Kenyatta became president of KAU after Gichuru stepped down for him. W.W.W. Awori was elected vice-president and Ambrose Ofafa and Muchohi Gikonyo were elected treasurer and secretary respectively.Kenyatta travelled widely in Kenya where he urged people to join KAU. After 1947 KAU began to face the problem of a standoff between Radicals like Fred Kubai and Paul Ngei who wanted to use force to acquire independence, and moderates like Kenyatta himself. Radicals who included Bildad Kaggia took over the Nairobi branch of KAU.When the national delegates conference was held in 1951, Jomo Kenyatta retained presidency, J.D. Otiende became secretary General, PAUL Ngei assistant SG and Ole Nangurai Treasurer. Between 1948 and 1950, KAU faced serious financial problems even failing to pay rent for its offices at the IBEA building. **Other problems that faced KAU** a) Kenyatta also appeared too busy to run the affairs of the party as he doubled up as the Principal of Githunguri TTC. b) The party also faced a lot of hostility from the colonial government and the white settlers. c) There were rampant ethnic divisions within the membership of KAU being complicated by the fact that the party appeared to be dominated by one ethnic group, the kikuyu. d) Majority of the African population, who were illiterate, lacked political awareness under could not understand the political efforts required of them. When the Mau Mau movement began, the Nairobi office of Kubai, J.M.Mungai and Kaggia worked closely with it. KAU continued to expand its membership in Kenya with Ramogi Achieng Oneko opening a branch in Kisumu in 1951, Johana Adala and Boaz Muha opened a branch in Maragoli and Muinga Chokwe opened one in Mombasa.In 1952, KAU rallies were banned outside Nairobi after a political meeting in Nyeri, attended by the leader of Mau Mau, Dedan Kimathi, which attracted over 25,000 people thus startling the government. When a state of emergency was declared in 1952, KAU leaders were arrested for being behind Mau Mau. Walter Odede became the acting president, Joseph Murumbi acting secretary and W.W.W.Awori-acting treasurer.The acting official presented a 24-point memoranda to Oliver Lyttelton , secretary of state for colonies when he came to kenya during the emergency period, demanding the release of the Kapenguria six (Jomo Kenyatta, Paul Ngei, Kungu Karumba, Bildad Kaggia, Achieng Oneko and Fred Kubai) Walter Odede, the acting president was late arrested on 9th march 1953 while Murumbi escaped to Bombay, India as KAU was banned on 8th June 1953. **Achievements if KAU** a) Party members especially from the Nairobi branch gave moral and material support to the Mau Mau freedom fighters. b) The party provided guidance and political support to Eliud Mathu, the first African representative to the Legco. c) The party laid the foundation for the growth of the Kenya African National Union that ushered in independence in Kenya. d) Some of the members of the party were active members of Mau Mau. For example, Fred Kubai and Bildad Kaggia. **THE MAU-MAU REBELLION 1951 - 60** Mau-Mau is an abbreviation which stands for Mzungu Arudi Ulaya, Mwafrika Apate Uhuru (meaning let the white man go back to Europe and the Africans regain Independence).Sometimes the movement was referred to as the Land and Freedom Army and the Anake-aForty.Sometime in the late 1940s the General Council of the banned Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) began to make preparations for a campaign of civil disobedience involving all of the Kikuyu in order to protest the land issue. The members of this initiative were bound together through oath. The rituals obliged the oath taker to fight and defend themselves from Europeans.In These oath rituals, There were rumors about cannibalism, ritual zoophilia with goats, sexual orgies, ritual places decorated with intestines and goat eyes, and that oaths included promises to kill, dismember and burn settlers. The oaths were a cultural symbol of the solidarity that bound Kikuyu men, women and children in loyalty together in their opposition to the colonial government. It also instilled courage and unity among people,Nonetheless, the British were scared by the oath, made taking the Mau Mau oath a capital offence. The British also screened Mau Mau suspects and forced them to take a 'cleansing oath', a strange instance of colonialism 'gone native'. **CAUSES OF THE MAU-MAU REBELLION** a) The unemployment of the ex-soldiers who had been promised jobs after the World War II, but instead were made porters on European-estates. Similarly, people were retrenched, traders pushed out to business by Asian retail trade monopoly and European settlers. b) Africans, especially the Kikuyu, wanted their land returned. By 1948, 1.25 million Kikuyu were restricted to 2000 square miles (5,200 km), while 30,000 settlers occupied 12,000 square miles (31,000 km) fertile land. In the reserves Africans suffered from congestion, starvation and diseases like typhoid, cholera. c) It was a reaction against the Kipande system. This was a method of identity cards imposed on Africans to restrict them from unnecessary movements. d) The introduction of racial discrimination in Kenya. The Europeans equated the black colour with low intelligence, uncivilized, barbaric and a backward race. All the best hotels, restaurants, schools, recreational centres and most fertile soils in Kenya were reserved for the whites only. e) Africans were fed up of heavy and harsh taxation by the Europeans. Failure to pay tax was punishable by taking away the land or even imprisonment. So the Africans were forced to go and work under harsh condition and for long hours, yet poorly paid. f) The dominance of the economy by the Asian and white settlers. The Africans were not allowed to take part in meaningful business, were not given positive consideration in awarding jobs. g) They also wanted to be exposed to the social services e.g. education. The white settlers frustrated the African efforts to set up schools even the few educated Africans were not employed in the civil service. h) Africans feared a gradual destruction of their culture by the whites e.g. the missionaries were totally against the circumcision of women among the Kikuyu and the traditional view of twins. i) Africans wanted a fair share in the administration of their country (Parliament). For a long time many Kenyans were excluded from decision making and political participation the whites and Asians in the Legislative Council did not represent their interests. j) The return of Jomo Kenyatta in the 1950s after his studies in Europe, he came back with a wider vision to convince the Kenyans about their rights and they therefore united and rebelled. k) The role of educated Kenyans who aware of their rights as citizens and in turn educated the rest about their place in society. This prompted them to rebel against the whites. l) The colonial policy discouraged Africans from growing cash crops like coffee, tea, cotton, pyrethrum for fear of competition with the Africans who would grow rich and challenge the colonial administration. m) Forced labour. Africans were obliged by colonial law to offer labour on the plantation this was to be done forcefully without offering any payments. This kind of new slavery inspired the occurrence of the Mau Mau rebellion. n) Influence of the Second World War. Many Kenyans who participated in this war discovered the weakness of the white man and the loopholes in their systems of administration. These included General China, Dedan Kimathi among others who also acquired good military skills. o) The move was a quest for constitutional reforms in Kenya. African political parties had been banned with impunity and their leaders like Harry Thuku, Muindi Mbingu and Mwambichi detained p) They were protesting colonial brutality especially the mistreatment of Africans on the white farms. Many Africans were killed at the slightest excuse like in the case of the upland Bacon **Factory Massacre in September 1947.** **The course of the uprising.** On May 1, 1949, six trade unions formed the East African Trades Union Congress (EATUC). The union leaders joined with the "Forty Group," which was a roughly cohesive group mostly composed of African ex-servicemen conscripted in 1940 when attempts for a union members strike failed on May 16th 1950. In June 1951, the urban KAU radicals (Mutonyi, Isaac Gathanga, Bildad Kaggia, Paul Ngei and Fred Kubai) created a secret Central Committee (Muhimu) to coordinate the oath campaign throughout Nairobi and outside Nairobi. It also formed armed squads to enforce its policies, protect members from the police, and kill informers and collaborators. Different leaders led the Land and Freedom Armies. Three of the dominant Active Wing leaders were Stanley Mathenge; Waruhiu Itote (known as General China), leader of Mount Kenya wing; and Dedan Kimathi, leader of Aberdare forest wing. Others were General Ndungu Gicheru, General Mwariama and General Matenjagwo (one who never shaves). Other armies were in Nairobi, Kiambu, Fort Hall and Rift Valley. They were mostly equipped with spears, simis (short swords), kibokos (rhino hide whips) and pangas (machete). Some made their own gunswhile others employed armed robberies on police stations and isolated settler homes. African and Asian merchants funded the movement by paying protection fees.On 1st of October 1952, Mau Mau assassinated a Nairobi councillor, Tom Mbotela, who was a government loyalist. On 3 October, Mau Mau claimed their first European victim when they stabbed a woman to death near her home in Thika. A week later, on 9 October, Senior Chief Waruhiu, a strong supporter of the British presence in Kenya, had been shot to death in broad daylight in his car. His assassination gave Governor Baring the final impetus to declare a State of Emergency on 20 October 1952. Early the next morning, the British carried out a mass-arrest of 180 alleged Mau Mau leaders and subjected six of them to a trial (the Kapenguria Six); the real militants, such as Dedan Kimathi and Stanley Mathenge, fled to the forests. While much of the senior leadership of the Nairobi Central Committee was arrested, Local rebel committees took uncoordinated decisions to strike attack settlers and there was an abrupt rise in the destruction of European property and attacks on African loyalists. On January 24, 1953, Mau Mau, possibly former servants, killed settlers Mr. and Mrs. Ruck, as well as their six-year-old son, on their farm with pangas. White settlers reacted by dismissing all of their Kikuyu servants because of the fear that they could be Mau Mau sympathizers. Naivasha Police Station was raided in March 1953.Over 1800 loyalist Kikuyu were killed. Operating from the safety of the forests, the Mau Mau mainly attacked isolated farms at night, but occasionally also households in suburbs of Nairobi.In May 1953, the Kikuyu Home Guard became an official part of the security forces. It became the significant part of the anti-Mau Mau effort. On March25March 26, 1953, nearly 1000 rebels attacked the loyalist village of Lari, where about 170 non- combatants were hacked or burnt to death. Most of them were the wives and children of Kikuyu Home Guards serving elsewhere. In the weeks that followed, some suspected rebels were summarily executed by police and loyalist Home Guards.In June 1953 General Sir George Erskine arrived and took up the p ost of Director of Operations. A military brought in 20,000 troops who were used aggressively. The Kikuyu reserves were designated "Special Areas," where anyone failing to halt when challenged could be shot. The colonial government created so-called pseudo-gangs composed of de-oathed and turned ex-Mau Mau and allied Africans, sometimes headed by white officers. They infiltrated Mau Mau ranks and made search and destroy missions. By September 1953, the British knew the leading personalities in Mau Mau, the capture of General China in January the following year provided a massive intelligence boost on the forest fighters. On April 24, 1954, the Army launched "Operation Anvil" in Nairobi, the forest fighters' source of supplies, money and recruits, and the city was put under military control. By the end of 1954 there were 77,000 Kikuyu in concentration camps mainly deported from Nairobi. In June 1954, a policy of compulsory villagization was started in the reserves to allow more effective control and surveillance of civilians and to better protect pro- government collaborators. When the program reached completion in October 1955, 1,077,500 Kikuyu had been concentrated into 854 "villages."The last Mau Mau leader, Dedan Kimathi, was captured by Kikuyu Tribal Police on 21 October 1956 in Nyeri with 13 remaining guerrillas, and was subsequently hanged in early 1957. His capture marked the effective end of the Uprising, though some Mau Mau remained in the forests until 1963 and the Emergency remained in effect until January 1960. **Mau war by other communities** ~ In April 1953, a Kamba Central Committee was formed by Kamba rebels who were all railway men and effectively controlled the railway workforce. They organized acts of sabotage against the railway lines during the emergency. ~ Rebel Maasai bands became active in Narok district before being crushed by soldiers and police who were tasked with preventing a further spread of the rebellion. ~ In Maragoli, Chief Mukudi of Bunyore was associated with the movement. ~ Other communities involved were the Kipsigis section of kalenjin, Luo etc. **Factors, which facilitated the MAU MAU uprising.** a) Oathing, which united the people and gave them the courage, determination and momentum for the rebellion course. b) The use of guerilla tactics ensured less loss of life and prolonged war. It made it difficult for the British to suppress the rebellion. c) The support to the fighters from the civilians who supplied food, water, spying etc. d) Strong leadership for the movement by people like Dedan Kimathi, Waruhiu Itote (General China), Stanley Mathenge and General Matenjagwo. e) The deep resentment of the people against the Europeans gave them the reason to continue fighting. f) The natural forests of Mount Kenya and Aberdere ranges provided good hideouts for the fighters. g) The fighters had enough weapons. They accessed weapons like the homemade guns, swords and Machette to add to what they were able to seize from the settlers. **Problems that faced Mau Mau Rebellion** a) The fighters lacked transport and communication facilities. b) They were faced with adverse weather conditions, operating in the Aberdere and MountKenya Forests that were extremely cold. c) In the Wild environment, they were frequently attacked by wild animals. d) They lacked proper fighting equipment when compared to the weaponry of the Europeans. e) They faced brutality from the British forces when they were retaliating. f) There were constant divisions and disagreements among the fighters. g) The movement suffered from the infiltration of spies in form of pseudo-gangs who exposed their military strategies. h) The movement suffered from lack of proper coordination due to the use of forest hideouts and mountain terrain by the guerrillas which prevented them from developing a wellcoordinated strategy. i) The arrest of the movements key leaders General China and Dedan Kimathi dealt in a devastating blow. j) The movement suffered from a disjointed recruitment process with some fighters being coerced into membership which put their loyalty to doubt. **Results of the Mau Mau uprising** a) Many people died as a result of the war. The official number of Kenyans killed was estimated at 11,503 by British sources. More than 1,800 Kenyan civilians and 32 British civilians were killed by Mau Mau militants. b) The war attracted the attention of British citizens and international community to the crimes committed by the colonial administration. British forces committed widespread human rights abuses, including rape, torture and castration. c) Many Africans were arrested and detained while thousands were seriously injured during the interrogations. For example, 11 of the 88 detainees at Hola Camp lost their lives as the rest were seriously injured in brutality incident. d) The war speeded up the march to independence especially when the realty of the inability of the colonial administration to govern kenya dawned on the British government e) The uprising led to destruction of property. Villages, houses and crops were burned down. f) The war led to the relocation of the Agikuyu, Ameru and Aembu communities from Nairobi region as their jobs were taken by people from western and rift valley who did not participate in the rebellion. g) The uprising led to the reduction of the influence of the settlers in Kenya as it was realized that it was the enormous settler influence that was responsible for the insurgence. h) The war forced the colonial authority to apply tough measures to restrict the activities of African political parties such as KAU that was banned in 1952. i) The war led to the beginning of a program of villagization and land reform consolidated the land holdings of the Kikuyu, thereby creating emergency kikuyu villages in various parts of the country. j) It led to the declaration of a state of emergence in Kenya on 20th October 1952. k) The war bred bitterness among members of Agikuyu Aembu and Ameru where some were government loyalists while others were Mau Mau supporters. l) The war resulted into the land reform measures that came to be known as the SwynnertonPlan of 1954 that sparked off the resettlement of Africans in the countryside. **Swynnerton Plan** Refusing to give more land to the Kikuyu in the reserves, which could have been seen as a concession to Mau Mau, Baring turned instead in 1953 to Roger Swynnerton, Kenya's assistant director of agriculture. The primary goal of the Swynnerton Plan was the creation of family holdings large enough to keep families self-sufficient in food and to enable them to practice alternate husbandry, which would generate a cash income. **Recommendations of the Swynnerton Plan of 1954** a) The survey and enclosure of African land in high potential areas. b) The processing of title deeds and giving out title deeds to the owners. Only progressive African farmers would get title deeds and benefit from the land reforms. c) A few Africans were allowed to practice new agricultural methods and obtain credit as well as title deeds. d) A few African s were allowed to practice individual land ownership. e) A few progressive African farmers were allowed to grow cash crops. Kenya African National Union During the emergency period, (From October 1952 to December 1959) African participation in the political process increased rapidly. The Kenya African National Union (KANU) was formed after the First Lancaster House Conference of January 1960 resolved that nationwide political parties be formed in Kenya as a step towards decolonization.On 27th march 1960, at a meeting at Kirigiti, Kiambu convened by ex- KAU strongmen, James Gichuru and Oginga Odinga, KAU merged with Kenya Independent Movement and the People's Congress Party to form KANU. The colonial government declined to register KANU with Kenyatta as president since he was still in detention.In May 1960 James Gichuru took the presidency with Odinga as his deputy. Tom Mboya became the secretary General and Arthur Ochwada his assistant. Ronald Ngala and Daniel Moi were elected treasurer and assistant treasurer respectively in absentia as they were attending a commonwealth parliamentary Association meeting in London.In the partys constitution, drafted by Mwai Kibaki and Tom Mboya, the following were the objectives; a) To attain political independence for Africans inn Kenya. b) To achieve national unity through a unitary national constitution under one central government. c) To create a society based on African socialism. d) To eradicate poverty, ignorance and disease. e) To get back African land. f) To have all political detainees released. g) To unite with liberation movements in other countries in a Africa in order to end imperialism and colonialism in the continent. h) To encourage good neighbourliness in the East African Region. When Kenyata was released, he took over leadership of the party. During the independence elections in may 1963, KANU won 73 seats against KADUs 31 and African Peoples Partys 8 . Jomo Kenyatta became the Prime Minister on 1st June 1963. **Achievements of KANU in the struggle for independence.** a) KANU mobilized Africans in Kenya and united them in the struggle for independence. b) Through its numerous nationwide meetings, it provided political education to the Africans in Kenya. c) It participated in the independence constitution making process by being part of the Lancaster House conference of 1962. **Challenges faced by KANU in the struggle for independence.** a) There was disunity among its members with some suspicious of the big communities who had taken up key leadership positions b) The party faced the problem of lacking adequate funds to carry out its countrywide campaigns for Independence. c) The KANU leaders suffered from ideological differences with some opposing the unitary system of government as advocated by the partys constitution. d) Some members were dissatisfied with the way party affairs were being run especially the elections which they felt were not fair. **Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU)** KADU was formed in 1960 as an alliance of minority ethnic political groups to protect the rights /interests of the minority groups against possible domination of KANU /majority groups.Its senior leaders included Ronald Ngala (president), Masinde Muliro (Vice president), Daniel Arap Moi (chairman), Martin Shikuku (secretary General) and Justus ole Tipis (treasurer).KADU leaders advocated for a federal system while KANU group were advocating for a unitary system of government.When KANU refused to form government while Kenyatta was still in detention, KADU formed the first coalition government with the Europeans and Asians who belonged to Michael Blundells New Kenya Party after garnering 11 seats in the May 1961 elections.In 1962, KADU and KANU formed a coalition government while awaiting the 1963 elections.Following the defeat by KANU in the May 1963 elections, it became the major opposition party until 1964 when it was disbanded after persuasions from Jomo Kenyatta. **Roles played by the Kenya African Democratic Union in the struggle for** **independence.** a) It united the smaller communities in Kenya. E.g the Kalenjin, Luhyia, Maasai and coastal communities. b) It educated/ mobilized Africans against the colonial domination. c) It pressed for the release of Jomo Kenyatta while hopping that he would eventually join on their side. d) It participated in drawing up the independence constitution in the second Lancaster House conference. e) As an opposition party though for a short time, it helped to provide checks on the KANU government. **Challenges faced by KADU** a) There were suspicions of dominance of the party by some communities. b) The party faced the problem of lacking adequate funds to carry out its countrywide campaigns for Independence. c) Wrangles between senior officials of the party often undermined the partys operations. d) Illiteracy among the majority of the members left the top leaders with too much responsibility over party affairs. e) The party was prone to manipulations by the colonial authority in its operations. f) The party members were faced with a lot of pressure from KANU to decamp.**African** **Peoples Party** The party also emerged after the 1962 Lancaster House conference, founded by Paul Ngei, one of the radical members of KAUs Nairobi branch. Paul Ngei had similar fears just like the founders of KADU that the Akamba interests would not be catered for in the proposed government arrangement that favoured KANU as well as KADU.The party was formed in February 1962. After Kenya became a republic in 1964, APP decamped from the opposition to join KANU. **The trade-union movement.** The early trade Unions in Kenya were formed along racial lines though all form them aimed at addressing labour problems that faced workers. The first trade union in Kenya was the Indian Trade Union formed in 1914 in mombasa. Upto 1914, there existed no African trade union in Kenya because of the following reasons; a) Artisans and farm labourers were not allowed to join or form associations since it was feared they would organize sudden and unofficial strikes. b) Majority of the Kenyans were illiterate and lacked the knowledge to run workers unions. c) The migrant labour system militated against the establishment of such unions. d) The colonial government fought attempts by Africans to form workers organizations. For this reason, in the 1920s, African political organizations doubled up as also defenders of workers welfare.In 1922, Asian workers in the railway department formed the Railway Artisans Union but its officials were sacked by the government causing it to wind up in 1923.in 1930s, a Trade Union Committee was formed in Mombasa by Masons and labourers with R.M. S hah as its president.In 1934, the Indian Trade Union became the Kenya Indian Labour Trade Union (KLTU ) whose membership was from other towns in Kenya.By 1935, the union began admitting members from other races necessitating it to change its name to Labour Trade Union of Kenya (LTUK). When it expanded its membership to the rest of East Africa in 1939, it became known as the Labour Trade Union of East Africa (LTUEA) on 14thJanuary 1947, over 15,000 striking African workers of Mombasa formed the African Workers Union (AWU). Muhamed Kibwana was elected president, Mwangi Macharia-secretary, Mbaruk Kenze-treasurer and Chege Kibachia executive officer. **The Unions demands included;** a) A salary increase due to the high cost of living. b) Implementation of the policy of equal pay for equal work regardless of race. c) Respect for African workers wherever they were employed. d) Payment of sufficient allowances to cater for African wives and children. e) Elimination of the deliberate strategies applied by employers to keep Africans in their places of work all the time.The Union changed its name to African Workers Federation on 24th January 1947 at the advice of Eliud Mathu who also convinced them to end the strike. Meanwhile a trade dispute tribunal led by Mr. Justice Thacker was set up to look into the workers grievances.The AWF became very popular to all workers in Kenya due to the success of the strike. However its leaders were either repatriated from Mombasa to their reserve areas or as was the case of Kibachia, arrested and detained in Baringo district.Achievements of AWF. a) It mobilized workers from different communities to come together and fight for better wages. b) It provided education to the workers about their rights. c) It introduced the concept of collective bargaining among workers in Kenya. d) It fought for better living and working conditions for workers. e) It advocated for better allowances for African workers wives and children, a factor which resulted in better wages and salaries for workers. f) Its activities made the colonial government change its attitude towards labour unions and start to give attention to workers grievances. g) It succeeded in exposing the Kenyan workers grievances to the international community as its strike was internationally publicized. **Kenya Federation of Labour** Following the enactment of the Trade Unions Ordinance in 1952, various small African trade unions (Kenya Local Government Workers Union, Domestic and Hotel Workers Union and East AFRICAN Federation of Building and Construction) united to form the Kenya Federation of Registered Trade Unions (KFRTU). Its officials included Mwichigi Karanja (president), Aggrey Mwinya(secretary general), S. Ondiege, Elikana Okusimba, Silas Okeya, David Jomo, S. Osore, James Wainaina and Dishon Sambili. Among the demands of KFRTU were the following; ~ Increase in African wages. ~ Improvement of the living conditions and poor housing for its workers ~ Protest against the arrest and detention of union officials. ~ Protest against forceful evacuation of the Aembu, Ameru and Agikuyu from Nairobi In 1953. ~ Protest against increase in the price of tea and bread in 1955 ~ Protest against the continuity of the state of emergency. In 1953, Tom Mboyas Kenya Local Government workers Union (KLGWU) joined KFRTU. The following were elected officials in the 1953 elections. David Njomo- prrsident, Stephen Obwaka- vice president, Tom Mboya- general secretary, G.W.Owuor- assistant SG, Daniel Ngethetreasurer and John Opiyo- ass treasurer. In 1955, it changed its name to the Kenya Federation of Labour (KFL) representing 35,000 members. Due to Tom Mboyas efforts KFL was affiliated to the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU). **Achievements of KFL.** a) It kept the spirit of African nationalism alive during the emergency period when political associations had been banned. b) It secured international support through its affiliation to ICFTU for the cause of African nationalism. c) It educated Africans on their rights as workers. d) It helped to improve the living conditions of African workers securing for them a major salary increment in 1956 e) It prepared some African nationalists for leadership roles in the struggle for independence. For example, martin Shikuku and Tom Mboya. **Role of trade union movement in the struggle for independence in Kenya** a) Trade Unions mobilized workers to strike against colonial government. b) They Motivated workers to sustain the struggle for their political rights/self governance c) They provided national political parties with funds required for their operation. d) Trade union leaders became prominent leaders of political associations that fought for independence. e) They introduced the concept of collective bargaining for workers in Kenya. f) The unions promoted regional cooperation in east Africa. g) They improved working conditions of the Africans through their welfare duties. h) They intensified the spirit of nationalism after ban on political parties. i) They provided a training ground for nationalist leaders e.g. Thomas Mboya j) Educated Africans on their rights **Problems faced by trade unions during the colonial period** a) There was fear of victimization and harassment from the colonial authorities especially in the pioneer years. b) The migrant nature of African workforce paused a challenge to their membership. c) Ignorance of the African people about trade unionism and its role. d) Poor leadership which affected the running of pioneer trade unions. e) Shortage of funds since they relied on meager contributions from the poorly paid workers. f) Mismanagement of funds by the officials due to inexperience or corruption. g) Ethnicity, which had a hand in the choice of leaders for the unions. h) Constant wrangles among the leaders of the unions. **ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE** Key women contributors in the struggle for independence.. 1. Mekatilili WA Menza of Giriama who mobilized and administered oaths to the kaya elders to cause the Agiriama resistance 2. Moraa, a Kitutu, prophetess of Gusii who was instrumental in the Gusii resistance. 3. Mary Muthoni Nyanjiru, famously remembered for inciting men to riot when Harry Thuku had been arrested in Nairobi in March 1922 4. Syotune wa Kithuke, a Kamba prophetess who used the kilumi dance in 1911 to mobilize the Akamba to protest against British colonialism. role played by women in the struggle for independence. a) The women acted as spies to the Mau Mau fighters in Nairobi and other urban centres. They supplied arms to fighters. b) They contributed to the establishment of independent churches and schools. For example, Legio Maria was co-founded by a Woman, Aoko, in western Kenya. c) They provided food to the fighters in the bushes. d) In central Kenya, they composed songs and dances, which ridiculed colonial chiefs and other agents of the colonial system. E.g Muthirigu. e) They, looked after families, as the men were busy fighting in bushes. f) In the 1930s, some section of the agikuyu women formed the Mumbi Central Association, feeling that KCA was not recognizing their contribution. g) The hid the fighters in houses. h) They participated in the oathing ceremonies, some acting as chief oathing administrators. i) Some participated actively in the freedom wars and were even killed e.g. Marshal Muthoni, Elizabeth Gachika etc. j) They participated in demonstrations and meetings to fight colonialists. k) They joined the MAU MAU fighters in the forest, with the main role of organizing and coordinating the rural network. They Supplied information to their husbands in the bush. l) They smuggled arms from the whites to the fighters. m) They led and inspired the resistance through their prophecy and encouragement e.g. Moraa and Mekatilili. n) In 1960, a woman, Priscilla Abwao, took part in the Lancaster House Conference. London, to prepare the independence constitution. **Role of women in the Mau Mau movement.** a) Some women were fully-fledged warriors fighting alongside men. 'Field Marshall' Muthoni went to fight alongside famous warriors of the forest like Dedan Kimathi Waciuri. b) The women in the camps made sure that the family continued intact through all of the while their men were out fighting. They would weed and grow food for family use. c) While men were in the forests, Mau Mau women continued to educate their children to be the future leaders of their government. Women would collect money and smuggle the brightest children out of Kenya to study overseas through Sudan, Ethiopia and Egypt. d) Many women sought support for Mau Mau internationally. E.g, Mama Sarah Sarai, an ally of Kenyattas, when out of the country would get people to write in support of Mau Mau. e) Some women offered their property for use by mau mau. In Nairobi, Mama Josephine Muthoni offered her cars to be used for Mau Mau activities. Mama Elizabeth Waruirus house in Pangani which became a Mau Mau meeting place. f) Women were first class spies and informers. They supplied information to the forest forces. g) Women supplied guns, would do anything to get them. Sometimes they killed for them. h) Women had primary responsibility for the organization and maintenance of the supply lines. Operating from villages, thousands of women acted as go -betweens and carriers of food and firearms, and generally provided a system of intelligence. i) Women composed songs like the Kanyegenuri, to commemorate their deeds, like the bravery of Mary Nyanjiru. Years later the song became the Mau Mau anthem of resistance j) They also recruited for Mau Mau fighters. k) They officiated at and participated in oathing ceremonies. Some like Waithera allowed themselves to be subjected to unnatural sexual acts for the sake of the movement. l) In forest camps, women would serve male leaders as Kabatuni (a small platoon to be commanded by the man), doing minor military duties like cleaning guns as well as seeing to the other needs like meeting his sexual needs. m) Some women were co-opted in the political Arena in the mau mau duo-sex councils. For example Muthoni Ngatha - even rose to the senior position of Field Marshal. In June 1953 Wagiri Njoroge was crowned as the Queen of Mau Mau and ruled for 7 months. n) Women also contributed the services of their children who served as errand boys and girls and informers. o) Women were allowed to flirt with "enemies" to gather vital information, weapons and other resources. For example, in Gakenia's village in Nanyuki, four girls lured four loyalist African soldiers to Kaarage Forest where the soldiers were killed and their rifles taken. p) Some women like Wanjiru were appointed judges in Nakuru's Mau Mau Courts which passed sentences on anti-Mau Mau crimes. These illustrated by the emergence of a small number of women who acted as executioners. **Problems caused by presence of women in forests during mau mau wars** a) Some women could not withstand the harsh forest conditions of torrential rains and bitter cold and constantly fell sick b) Many women could not defend themselves against enemies and were therefore a burden to men. c) Women would be extra mouths to feed, but would do very little useful things in return. d) Occasionally, women could cause tension and conflict among male guerillas as the men competed for sexual favours from the small number of women. **CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE.** **African representation to the Legco.** In 1944, Eliud Mathu, a former teacher at Alliance School, the first African was appointed to the LegCo. KAUs demand for more representation in 1946 caused the appointment of Benaiah Ohanga as the second African to the LegCo. By 1948, there were four Africans in the LegCo compared to 11 Europeans, 5 Asians and 2 Arabs. Various commission reports made significant pointers to the fact that the British government had realized the need to involve Africans in the administration and need to reduce settler influence. For example; ***1) The Report of the East African Royal Commission of 1955 proposed;*** ~ An end of racial segregation. ~ Increased involvement of Africans in the colonial administration ~ Opening of the Kenya Highlands to all races. ***2) The Swynnerton Plan of 1954 proposed the consolidation and registration of*** African land with a view to having better land management. ***3) The report on African wages and the Lidbury Commission on Civil Service*** recommended better pay for African workers. **The Lyttelton Constitution** In 1954, the British secretary for colonies visited Kenya in the wake of the Mau Mau Uprising and made the following constitutional proposals; a) A multi- racial Council of Ministers to replace the executive council, which would include one African (B.A. Ohanga, minister for community development and African affairs), two Asians and three Europeans. For the first time, Africans were represented with members with executive powers. b) Lifting the ban on African political Associations. This was done in 1955 though only Africans were allowed to form local (district based) political organizations. Tom Mboya formed the Nairobi Peoples convention Party while D. Mwanyumba formed the Taita African Democratic Union. John Kebaso formed the Abagusii Association, Argwings Kodhek formed the Kenya National Congress and John Keen the Maasai Front. c) Africans were able to take part in elections of 1957. /it proposed multi-racial elections. However, other than race-pegged rules for participation in the elections, voting qualification for Africans were based on income, property and education d) Proposed direct representation of Africans in the LEGCO. In march 1957, the African elections to the Legco were held and Tom Mboya(Nairobi), Masinde Muliro( Northern Nyanza), Oginga Odinga(Central Nyanza), Lawrence Ogunda(south Nyanza), Ronald Ngala( Coast ), Daniel Arap Moi( Rift Valley), James Miumi(Ukambani) and Bernard Mate (central)were elected. The elected Africans formed the African Elected Members Organization (AEMO) with Odinga as chairman and Mboya as secretary. **Demands of AEMO after formation** a) They contested the fewer African positions in the LegCo by condemning the Lyttelton constitution. While elected members were 29, nominated members were 30, majority of who were Europeans. b) They protested the rigid voter qualification requirements imposed on Africans and demanded that every African of 21 years and above be allowed to vote, regardless of education or income. c) They demanded that registration of voters be done on a common roll. d) They called for the end of a State of Emergency. **Role played by AEMO in the struggle for independence up to 1963.** a) They formed pressure groups to demand for greater political rights for Africans. e.g., formation of AEMO. b) They formed the core team, which pressurized for independence. c) They made known the grievances of Africans in International Fora. d) They networked with other African nationalists elsewhere e.g. in Ghana and Nigeria to hasten achievement of independence in Kenya. e) They fought for the release of detained nationalists e.g. Kenyatta. f) They formed he national political parties e.g. KANU and KADU, which led the country to independence. g) They educated and created awareness among the masses about the nationalists struggle. h) They took part in the formulation of the independence constitution. **The Lennox-Boyd Constitution.** In 1958, Sir Allan Lennox- Boyd, who had succeeded Oliver Lyttelton as secretary State for Colonies visited Kenya and made the following constitutional proposals; a) An increase by six LegCo Seats for Africans to bring their total representation to 14 seats. b) A special membership in the LegCo, with four members from each race, who were to elected by other members of the LegCo. c) An increase of the number of African ministers to two. AEMO members rejected the Lennox-Boyd proposals saying they still favoured white monopoly in the colony especially the specially elected membership to LegCo. AEMO also called for the unconditional release of Jomo Kenyatta. They even boycotted the Legco from 1958 to 1959 when a new constitutional conference was promised. Acted of Betrayal became evident among Africans when Musa Amalemba and Wanyutu Waweru accepted the special seats appointment and even Amalemba went ahead to appointed the second African Minister for Housing in 1958.Other developments in 1959 included; ~ The White moderates led by Michael Blundell (who resigned as minister of agriculture) formed the New Party of Kenya (NPK). He was backed by 46 non -African members of the LegCo for his ideas of multi-racialism. ~ The white extremists led by Captain Briggs formed the United Party (UP) demanding for the abolishing of the LegCo and replacing it with regional assemblies. This was aimed at preserving the white highlands as one regional assembly for European benefits. ~ Increased divisions on AEMO between radicals and moderates .Ngala, Moi, Mate, Towett and Nyagah resigned from AEMO to form the Kenya National Party (KNP) advocating multi-racialism. This party was interestingly joined by all Arab and Asian members. ~ The radicals led by Mboya, Odinga and Gikonyo Kiano formed the Kenya Independent Movement (KIM) that was exclusively for African membership. They demanded convening of a full constitutional conference to discuss Kenyas future and release of Jomo Kenyatta. **The Lancaster House Conferences** The Conferences were called to iron out the differences that arose out of the fact that both radical Europeans and AEMO members opposed multi-racialism. **The First Lancaster House Conference (1960**) The conference was convened by Ian MacLeod, the secretary of state for colonies. it was attended by all members of the LegCo.. The African team was led by Ronald Ngala and Tom Mboya was the secretary. The conference came up with the following compromise decisions; a) The 12 elective seats In the LegCo would remain intact. b) There were to 33 open seats in the LegCo, which were to be vied for on a common roll. c) Another 20 seats would be reserved 10 of these for Europeans, 8 for Asians and 2 for Arabs. d) The composition of the Council of Ministers was to be altered to incorporate 4 Africans, 3 Europeans and 1 Asian. e) The conference authorized the formation of countrywide political parties for Africans. KANU and KANU were formed.The Lancaster conference however failed to entirely please both Africans and the settlers. Some settlers, finding the new turn events so tough began to sell their property and leave Kenya. Africans though feeling that they had not been given a responsive government, accepted ministerial positions as follows; a) Ronald Ngala- Minister for Labour, Social Security and Adult Education. b) Julius Gikonyo Kiano- Minister for Commerce and Industry. c) Musa Amalemba- Minister for Housing, Common Services, Probation and Approved Schools. d) James Nzaui Miumi- Minister for Health and Welfare. Out of fear of political domination by the big tribes the following new alliances were formed; a) The Kalenjin Political Alliance of Taita Towett. b) The Coast African Political Union of Ronald Ngala. c) The Kenya African Peoples Party of Masinde Muliro. In the 1961 elections KANU won but refused to form government demanding release of Kenyatta. KADU was invited by the governor, Patrick Renson to form a coalition government with Europeans and Asians. When Kenyatta came on 21st August 1961, Kariuki Njiiri offered his Muranga seat to Kenyatta to enable him join LegCo. **The second Lancaster conference (1962)** The main aim of this conference, called by the then secretary for colonies, Reginald Maulding was to the independence constitution acceptable to the two main parties KADU and KANU. It also aimed at reconciling the differences between the two parties. KANU delegation was led by Jomo Kenyatta while Ngala led the KADU group. KANU conceded many KADU grounds to enable success of the negotiations. **Main provisions of the independence constitution of Kenya** a) The independence constitution provided for a regional/majimbo government with each region having a regional assembly and p resident. b) It also provided for a bicameral parliament consisting of the senate and the house of representatives/upper house and lower house. c) The constitution stipulated that the Prime Minister was to be head of Government and Queen the Head of State, represented by the Governor General. d) The constitution recommended a multiparty system of government and the party with the majority of seats forming the government. e) It contained the Bill of Rights, which protected the individuals rights. In the elections of 1963, KANU won with 73 seats against KADUs 31, APPs 8. Jomo Kenyatta became the first Prime Minister on 1st June 1963.On 12 December, Kenya attained full independence. On 12th December 1964, Kenya became a republic with Kenyatta becoming an executive president. **EMERGENCE AND GROWTH OF NATIONALISM IN AFRICA** **Factors for the rise of nationalism in Africa** a) The exposure of Africans to severe economic exploitation during the colonial period. For example land alienation in the Kenya Highlands, in southern Rhodesian, Algeria and South Africa which was accompanied with forced labour where the labourers faced mistreatment. b) Africans were fed up of heavy and harsh taxation by the Europeans. They were exposed to heavy taxation, ranging from hut tax to breast tax in Belgian Congo. c) Africans were fed up with the gradual destruction of their culture by the whites. Missionaries totally dismissed the age-old African traditions as being barbaric. This explains why independent schools and churches sprung up in central Kenya. d) The introduction of racial discrimination to go hand in hand with colonialism. All the best social amenities in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Kenya were reserved for the whites. The Europeans equated the black colour with low intelligence, uncivilized and a backward race. e) Africans resented colonialism because it interfered with their political institutions. The colonial rulers disregarded traditional rulers, appointing their own puppets in their place. f) The Acquisition of western education by many Africans by 1945 enabled them to articulate their grievances more forcefully and to understand political developments outside Africa. g) The return of the ex-servicemen after the second world war which exposed the myth of the white supremacy making Africans ready to fight them. Moreover, the colonial government failed to reward African ex-soldiers to embitter them more. h) The change of government from Conservative to Labour Party in Britain in 1946 stimulated a new attitude in Britain towards decolonization. This motivated African nationalists. i) The rise of nationalism in Asia, culminating into the granting of independence to India and Pakistan in 1947 aroused great confidence among Africans who worked closely with Asian nationalists like Jawaharlal Nehru, the India Prime Minister. j) The rise of Pan-Africanism in Africa after the 1945 Manchester conference contributed to the new demands for political independence in Africa Many African lites attended the conference which served as a source of awakening. k) The formation of the UNO and the pressure it exerted on the European powers to decolonize helped the Africans in their course. l) The emergence of United States and the Soviet Union as super powers in the world contributed to the decolonization process. USA was keen to see Britain and France grant independence to their subjects in the world in order to secure new markets. m) The signing of the Atlantic Charter in 1941 by Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt which demanded that when the WWII ended, all subject peoples should enjoy the right to self-determination. **NATIONALISM IN GHANA** The British annexed Gold Coast in 1874 after quelling a stiff resistance by the Asante. In response to the British imperialism, the Fonte Confederation was initiated in 1868, marking the birth of African Nationalism in Ghana. In 1897, the Aborigines Rights Protection Society was formed to guard against the alienation of African land.In the 1930s, African elites like J.B. Danquah launched the Gold Coast Youth Conference in order to awaken the youth to the economic and social needs of the country.Their efforts bore fruits because in 1946, governor Burns embarked on constitutional reforms leading to increased African representation in the LegCo. (Of the 18 slots given to Africans in the LegCo, 13 were to drawn from among the chiefs while 5 were to be popularly elected). The elites formed the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) and invited Kwame Nkrumah, a graduate of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, to come and lead it since most of them were professionals lacking time for political commitment. Nkrumah appeared to have more political experience having participated in the 1945 Manchester conference. **Factors for the growth of nationalism in Ghana** a) The early Introduction of cocoa growing led to adoption of money economy in Ghana ahead of other countries. This enabled faster social and economic transformation of the people. b) The colonial governments attempt to tamper with cocoa growing by ordering cutting of coca trees hurt people to the level of developing nationalistic feelings against the British. c) Ghana was one of the first countries in Africa to receive western education from the missionaries. There was a large class of elites with western university education accompanied with leadership skills to spearhead nationalism their country. d) The existence of ex-servicemen in Ghana also played an important role in the campaign for independence. e) The granting of trading licences by the government selectively to European traders while deliberately denying then Africans. f) Ghana had comparatively better developed transport and communication system. Also being a small country, movement of information, ideas and people was easy, quick and efficient. This facilitated nationalist activities. g) The charismatic and strong leadership provided by Kwame Nkrumah brought cohesiveness among people of Ghana. He formed the CPP party, which became the symbol of struggle for the oppressed people of Ghana. h) The participation of Kwame Nkrumah in the Pan-African Manchester conference in 1945, which championed the right of countries to self-determination, made the country take the lead in Africa in championing this right. i) The people of Ghana were more exposed to international affairs than other countries in Africa due to its location in a region, which had the earliest contacts with European traders and colonizers. The peak of nationalism in Ghana.On 28th February 1948, the ex-soldiers led the Accra riots, protesting to Governor Gerald Creasy the failed fulfillment of the government pledges while in service during the World WarII. Two rioters were killed. The shooting incident sparked of chaos in the town leading to another 29 Africans being killed. Nkrumah was arrested together with his colleagues popularly known as the Big Six. (Nkrumah, Danquah, William Ofori, Addo, Adjei and Obetsebi Lamptey). This arrest popularized Nkrumah among the Africans. The 1948 Alken Watson commission blamed the social-economic oppression for the riots. The governor ordered for constitutional reforms led by J.H Coussey.On 12th June 1949, Nkrumah broke ranks with the conservative UGCC senior members and formed the Convention Peoples Party (CPP). His party gained support mainly from among the primary school leavers, store- keepers, artisans, peasants and cocoa farmers. Nkrumah advocated positive action through legitimate political action, newspaper and political campaigns and constitutional application of boycotts, strikes and non-cooperation based on the policy of absolute non- violence on the basis of Mahatma Gandhi teachings. He started a newspaper, The Accra Evening News to expound CPP views. He was arrested, but secured landslide victory in the February 1951 elections while in jail. He was released to become the leader of government business in the new cabinet. CPP also won in the 1954 elections in which a new party, the National Liberation Movement (NLM) had emerged to compete CPP. NLM membership mainly from the Ashanti, were uncomfortable with Nkrumah because; ~ He came from a small ethnic group little known in southern Ghana. ~ His radicalism did not please the conservative Ashanti leaders. Again elections were called in July 1956 and CPP trounced NLM. This time, the British accepted the results and on 6th March 1957, the country attained political independence under Kwame Nkrumah **Achievements of CPP under Kwame Nkrumah** a) CPP under Nkrumah united Africans of all ranks in Ghana in the struggle for national liberation. b) The party introduced the concept of positive action to pressurize the government to liberate Africans. c) CPP formed the first African government in Africa in 1951 after winning the elections. Under Nkrumahs leadership, Ghana began attaining economic development. d) CPP, under Nkrumah, advocated for unity of all Africans in the country us other parties like NLM advocated for regionalism, a factor that enhanced progress towards political libration.How Kwame Nkrumah contributed to the liberation struggle in Africa. a) He funded nationalists in other countries e.g. Guinea and Algeria. b) He supported other African leaders who faced political threats from their former colonial masters. c) When some countries were faced with threats from their former colonial masters after independence like in the case of Patrice Lumumba in DRC, Nkrumah provided them with his support. d) He championed trade unionism in Africa. e) He attended pan-African congress in 1945 which was key to defining the liberation struggles in Africa. f) He initiated the formation of the Ghana- Guinea Union in 1958 as a practical step towards building African unity. g) He convened two pan-African conferences in April 1958 and the all African Peoples conference in December 1958 that led to the formation of O.A.U in 1963. **NATIONALISM IN MOZAMBIQUE** Mozambique was among the last countries in Africa to attain independence from the Portuguese. Even before the Berlin conference, Mozambique and Angola were considered Portuguese colonies owing to the laters interests in the region dating back to the pioneer years. **Reasons for slow process in decolonization process of Mozambique.** a) Mozambique was colonized by a colonial power that was very poor and backward and which needed to keep its hold on her to enable her economy grow. She was an important source of revenue for the Lisbon government. b) Mozambique housed many settlers who had invested heavily in farming, mining, building, construction and in other sectors. They were therefore reluctant to leave. c) Mozambique was an important market for Portuguese products. Portugal was not willing to let go easily. d) The support, which the colonial government got from South Africa, enabled them to get uranium, which they used, for making bombs used to suppress African independence riots. They also got electricity and assistance to built caborra bassa dam on Zambezi. e) Mozambique was big geographically with very poor infrastructure i.e. roads and communication facilities. This hampered fast movement of people and ideas. f) Unlike other colonized countries, Mozambique suffered the worst kind of exploitation and repression/ rigorous censorship and surveillance by security forces, which discouraged emergence of nationalism. g) The Portuguese practiced racism out of fear that if they educated Africans and gave them equal status, the Africans would outnumber them and throw them out. **Factors for the growth of nationalism in Mozambique.** a) The arbitrary replacement of the traditional rulers by the Portuguese administrators whenever they felt they were not performing. b) The massive alienation of African land by the Portuguese who pushed Africans to regions of unfavourable conditions. c) The exposure of Africans to severe economic exploitation like forced labour where the labourers faced mistreatment. d) The rampant racial discrimination through which Africans continued to lose agricultural land to the Europeans. Being from a poor country, the Europeans competed with Africans for simple jobs like taxi driving and often gaining advantage on racial lines. e) The Portuguese imposed many restrictions on Africans, limiting their freedom of expression and intellectual advancement. For example, General Salazar, who rose to power in the 1920s, ensured strict censorship of the press. f) The security police treated Africans with great cruelty. Any political unrest was crushed ruthlessly. **The peak of nationalism in Mozambique**. In early 1960, the Makonde people of Cabo Delgado province formed the MozambicanMakonde Union (MANU).In June 1960 MANU organized a peaceful protest but in which over 600 Africans perished in police firepower. The government outlawed all African organizations with membership of over thirty people. African political activities went underground. Mwalimu Julius Nyerere inviting some of the liberation groups to relocate to Tanzania in 1962. The political groups united to form the Liberation Front of Mozambique (FRELIMO) with Eduardo Mondlane Chirambo, formerly a lecturer at Syracuse University in USA, as its first president.From 1962 to 1964, FRELIMO undertook guerilla training in Bagamoyo and at the Mozambique institute in Dar es Salam in preparation for war. From September 1964, they began a full-scale war against the Portuguese along river Ruvuma and extending their attacks on the Cabo Delgado province. By 1967, the Portuguese forces numbered 65,000 soldiers.Mondlane Eduardo was assassinated in 1969. Samora Machel was elected to become the FRELIMO army commander in 1970.The coup detat in Lisbon in 1974 was a blessing to FRELIMO movement since soldiers who did not favour colonial wars by Marcello Caetano carried it out. The new military junta finally signed an agreement with FRELIMO the enabled the setting up of a transitional gover nment in September 1974. He handed over power to the Africans in 1975 with Samora Machel becoming the first president. Machel died in 1986 in a plane crash blamed on the South African Apartheid regime, unhappy with his support for African nationalists in South Africa.Samora Machels widow, Graca Machel, married South African President Nelson Mandela in 1994. **Reasons why the struggle for independence in Mozambique was violent** a) The depth of suffering by ordinary people in Mozambique was unbearable. b) The harshness of the Portuguese administration could only be matched with similar violence. c) The unwillingness of Portugal to ease her colonial hold and begin the process of decolonization. (they were deeply entrenched in Mozambique) d) Extreme exploitation of Mozambique resources e.g. land, labour, minerals. e) Widespread land alienation left many landless. f) To uproot the Portuguese from Mozambique, they had to use full-scale military operation by the liberators because the masters did not see any sense of granting Mozambique independence peacefully. **Factors that facilitated the defeat of the Portuguese colonial armies by FRELIMO in** **Mozambique.** a) A few Africans were privileged to acquire university education in Portugal and came to form the bulk of FRELIMO leadership. b) The overwhelming support Mozambique fighters received from other African states e.g. Tanzania, Zimbabwe and DRC. From these countries, they gained moral and military support. c) FRELIMO was a formidable, well-organized force, which witnessed rapid expansion from a mere 250 in 1964 to 35000 in 1967. d) The forested environment favoured guerilla warfare. Moreover, the soldiers knew the topography of the country. e) The local population gave their logistic support to the fighters, having become tired of the extreme suppression by the Portuguese administration. f) The movement fighters had their own supply of food. g) African countries through OAU were united against the Portuguese in Mozambique. h) The communist countries notably USSR and china gave FRELIMO military aid. i) FRELIMO adopted the right strategy; liberating the country bit by bit and systematically. This approach won the local peoples support for the movement. j) The FRELIMO Army consisted of all tribes, all sexes and all ages. The women played a very important role in the success of the war. I.e. spies, some fought, hiding the fighters and cooking for them. **Problems that faced FRELIMO in the war against Portuguese** a) Africans experienced severe shortage of basic needs while in the forests. The government forces ensured that food and other supplies did not reach the fighters. b) The attitude of the church in Mozambique made many African faithful reluctant to support the liberation war. The church termed FRELIMO a terrorist organization. c) FRELIMO suffered internal divisions due to ideological differences and selfish ambitions among some of the nationalists. African elites like Reverend Uria Simango and Lazaro Kavandame saw FRELIMO as an instrument of acquiring assets for their own selfish benefits. d) Competition from rival guerilla movements like Revolutionary Committee of Mozambique (COREMO) which broke away from FRELIMO in 1965 due to the laters lean towards socialism. e) The assassination of FRELIMO leader Eduardo Mondlane in Da es Salaam on 3rd February 1969 was a great blow to the nationalists. f) The brutality employed by the Portuguese in dealing with FRELIMO sympathizers. For example at Wiriyamu, in December 1972, 400 civilians, protesting against the Portuguese administration, were massacred. g) The apartheid regime in South Africa and the Unilateral Declaration of Independence regime in south Rhodesia combined forces to fight the nationalists in Mozambique since they were a threat to their countries. **SOUTH AFRICA.** The complex nature of nationalism in South Africa was due to the following reasons; a) The country was not colonized by one specific European power. b) The existence of valuable mineral deposits made the Europeans more aggressive in their efforts to control the wealth in South Africa. There existed different types of nationalism in South Africa namely; ~ The British nationalism ~ Afrikaner nationalism ~ African nationalism. **Afrikaner nationalism** Afrikaners were the Dutch speaking speaking settlers. The Afrikaner nationalism emerged in the 19th century reaching its peak in 1948 when their Nationalist Party under Daniel F. Malanwon the lections introducing the Apartheid policy. **Reasons for the birth of Afrikaner Nationalism in South Africa.** a) The desire to regain the culture against Anglicization, which they considered, was alien. (Anglicization of power, language and cultures) b) The Boers hated the British rule, which they considered as alien. c) The British were dominant in many spheres of life yet they could neither speak nor understand Afrikaners language. d) The Boers wanted to rule South Africa and restore Boer culture, language, education and literature. e) They favoured republican states and complete independence for South Africa and noncooperation with British to fulfill their divine mission of bringing civilization to the heathen. f) The Jameson raid flared up Boer sentiments. Jameson, a Briton led a force of 500 soldiers to invade Transvaal, a Boer territory. g) Formation of union of South Africa under British terms. **African Nationalism** Its roots are traced in the 17th century with the first Boer occupation of South Africa. Africans resisted strongly against the interference with their political freedom and economic resources. This was in form of the Xhosa and Ndebele wars of the 17th c and the Zulu wars of 1870s led by Cetewayo.In 1906, a Zulu chief named Bambata staged another African uprising this time against the British who had annexed the Zululand in 1887.From 1910, when the union of South Africa was created and the Afrikaners gained political control of South Africa, Africans lost all the political privileges they previously enjoyed like ability to vote and contest parliamentary seats.Africans founded independent churches and formed organizations like the Orange River Organization. **Factors for the growth of African nationalism in South Africa** a) The role of the Christian religion whose ideals encouraged Africans to fight for equality, as all people were equal before God. The Boers however treated Africans with contempt. b) The exposure of Africans to severe economic exploitation like land alienation and causing them to be subjected to forced labour on Afrikaner farms. Even the native Land Act of 1913 denied Africans the right to purchase land outside the areas set aside for Africans. c) The influence of Pan-Africanism in South Africa as early as the 19th century when people like Rev. Dube founded the Ohlange Institute to educate fellow Africans in South Africa. d) The introduction of racial discrimination enshrined in the apartheid law of 1948 convinced Africans that only freedom could save them. All the best hotels, restaurants, schools, recreational centres and most fertile soils were reserved for the whites only. e) The Acquisition of western education by many Africans like Rev. Dube, Walter Sisulu and Nelson Mandela enabled them to articulate their grievances more forcefully. They became pioneers of early African political parties. f) The return of the ex-servicemen after the second world war which exposed the myth of the white supremacy making Africans ready to fight them. The war also exposed them to democratic ideals elsewhere. g) The great exploitation of African labour through Labour regulations and laws. For example, the Mines and Works Act of 1911 effectively excluded Africans from all skilled occupations confining them to manual occupations in Mines and farms. h) The development of large urban centres created an enabling environment for Africans to forge close inter-ethnic relations that enabled them to counter the Afrikaner racist policies. **Formation of the African National Congress, 1912** Opposition to the Natives Land Act led to the formation of the South African Native NationalCongress (renamed the African National Congress [ANC] in 1923) by South Africa's educated African elite in a meeting at Bloemfontein on January 8, 1912. ~ The founding president was John L. Dube, a minister and schoolteacher. ~ Pixley Ka Isaka Seme, a lawyer, was appointed treasurer. ~ Solomon T. Plaatye, a court translator, became secretary general. ~ Other members were Thomas Mapikela, Walter Robusana, Solomon Plaatye and Sam Makgatho.The congress was moderate in composition, tone, and practice. However, In 1940s, a militant form of nationalism emerged under the ANC Youth League formed in 1943 led by Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu and Oliver Tambo, emphasizing the inalienable right of the Africans to the African continent. As a result of the Leagues activities, violent confrontations between ANC and the government broke out in 1952 in Witwatersrand, Kimberley and Eastern Cape.The Congress of the People and the Freedom CharterIn 1952, Albert Sisulu became the president of the organization and presided over the congress of the people which adopted the Freedom Charter on June 25 and June 26 1955.The congress drew 3,000 delegates from; ~ The black (the ANC). ~ White (the Congress of Democrats). ~ Indian and coloured (the the SA Coloured People's Congress) political organizations ~ The multiracial South African Congress of Trade Unions (SACTU). The Freedom Charter emphasized that South Africa should be a non-racial society with no particular group assumed to have special rights or privileges. After adoption of the charter, in 1956 the police arrested 156 leaders, including Luthuli, Mandela, Tambo, Sisulu, and others, and put them on trial for treason in a court case that dragged on for five years. The Pan-Africanist Congress and Sharpeville. The Africanists, led by Robert Sobukwe, criticized the ANC for allowing itself to be dominated by 'liberal-left-multi- racialists. They formed their own organization, the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) in 1959. In March 1960, the PAC began a national campaign against the pass laws. One such demonstration outside the police station at Sharpeville, the police fired on the demonstrators, killing at least 76 of them and wounding 186. Approximately 18,000 demonstrators were arrested, including the leaders of the ANC and the PAC, and both organizations outlawed. **The ANC and the PAC Turn to Violence** Prohibited from operating, both the ANC and the PAC established underground organizations in 1961. The militant wing of the ANC, Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation), targeted strategic places such as police stations and power plants. Poqo (Blacks Only), the militant wing of the PAC, engaged in a campaign of terror, targeting in particular African chiefs and headmen believed to be collaborators with the government and killing them. 17 Umkhonto leaders, including Walter Sisulu were arrested at Rivonia farm house. Along with Nelson Mandela, they were tried for treason. Albert Luthuli was confined by government to his rural home in Zululand until his death in 1967. Tambo escaped from South Africa and became president of the ANC in exile. Robert Sobukwe of Poqo was jailed on Robben Island until 1969 and then placed under house arrest in Kimberley until his death in 1978. The Johannesburg railway station bomber, John Harris, was hanged. **The Black conscious movement - Soweto, 1976** In the absence of other forms of political expression, young people sought alternative means to express their political aspirations. African university students, disappointed with the multiracial National Union of South African Students (NUSAS), decided to establish the South African Students' Organization (SASO) in 1969 with Steve Biko, an African medical student at the University of Natal, as president.In 1972, a Black allied workers union and the Black Peoples' Convention (BPC) was set up to act as a political umbrella organization for the adherents of black consciousness. In 1972, SASO organized strikes on university campuses resulting in the arrest of more than 600 students. On June 16, 1976, hundreds of high-school students in Soweto marched in protest against use of Afrikaans as a Language of instruction. Over 360 African school children were killed.On 12th September 1977, Steve Biko, who had been held in indefinite detention, died from massive head injuries sustained during police interrogation. In October 1977, SASO, the BPC and all black consciousness organizations were banned. **The peak of African nationalism in South Africa** In 1983, P.W. Botha's government proposed establishment of separate houses of parliament for each racial group. In place of the single House of Parliament were; ~ A 50-member (all-white) House of Assembly. ~ A 25-member (coloured) House of Representatives. ~ A 13 member (Indian) House of Delegates. **Implications and results** ~ Whites thus retained a majority in any joint session. ~ Liberal government opponents denounced Botha's plans arguing it would permanentlyexclude Africans from any political role in South Africa. ~ Most blacks strongly condemned the new constitution as it reinforced the apartheid notion. ~ Indians and coloureds also condemned the constitution feeling it weakened their participation in the political process ~ Radical Afrikaners, led by Eugene Terry Blanche, vowed to use all means, including violence, to make sure that apartheid was not weakened.The United Democratic Front (UDF), which was formed in late 1983 and the National Front (NF) aimed to use nonviolent means to persuade the government to withdraw its constitutional proposals and do away with apartheid. The UDF membership included, Bishop Desmond Tutu and the Reverend Allan Boesak, who emerged as its prime spokesmen.Black trade unions meanwhile resorted to economic and political protests. For example, TheNational Union of Mineworkers (NUM), formed in 1983 by Cyril Ramaphosa, successfully brought work in mines to a stop in a dispute over wage increases. By end of 1985, 879, fatalities and 8000 arrests were linked to political unrest. ANC and UDF were banned.Meanwhile, Supporters of the Zulu-dominated Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) and the banned ANC clashed in an upsurge of "black-on-black" violence that would cause as many as 10,000 deaths by 1994.President Botha resigned under pressure on August 14, 1989, the Electoral College named de Klerk to succeed him in a five-year term as president. In October 1989, De Klerk released Walter Sisulu and others except Mandela. He announced on February 2, 1990, the impending release of Mandela and unbanning of the ANC, the PAC, and the SACP, and the removal of restrictions on the UDF and other legal political organizations. Mandela was released on February 11, 1990, at age 71 after 27 years in prison. ANC officials elected Mandela deputy president in March 1990, under ailing president, Oliver Tambo.Between June 5, 1991 and June 17, 1991, the government repealed the pillars of apartheid, the Land Act of 1913, the Group Areas Act of 1950 and Population Registration Act of 1950, (the most infamous, which had authorized the registration by race of newborn babies and immigrants). Most international sanctions were lifted soon after the Population Registration Act, Group Areas Act, and Land Acts were repealed. In mid-1992 due to escalating violence, by IFP supporters on ANC sympathizers in Boipatong delayed the process of negotiation for elections. On March 5, 1993, Chris Hani, the popular general secretary of the South African Communist Party (SACP), was murdered threatening the process again.On April 12, 1994, a team headed by former British foreign secretary Lord Carrington and former United States secretary of state Henry Kissinger attempted in vain to break the logjam that was keeping the IFP out of the elections. However, on April 19, Buthelezi --under intense pressure from trusted local and international figuresincluding a Kenyan diplomat professor Washington Okumu, relented and agreed to allow the IFP to be placed on the ballot.When the elections finally took place on schedule, beginning on April 26, 1994, ANC won 62.6 percent of the vote; the NP, 20.4 percent; and the IFP, 10.5 percent. Mandela was unanimously elected president by the National Assembly on May 9, 1994, in Cape Town. He was inaugurated on May 10 at ceremonies in Pretoria. **Key South African Nationalists** ***Nelson Mandela*** Nelson Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in Umtata, to a Thembu royal family of Transkei. His forename Rolihlahla, means "troublemaker". Later he was given a clans name, Mandiba. His father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa, was a local chief and councillor to the monarch. In 1926, Gadla was sacked for corruption. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, a member of the amaMpemvu clan of Xhosa. At a local Methodist school when he was about seven, he was baptised and given the English forename of "Nelson". His father died of an undiagnosed ailment when he was nine. Aged 16, he underwent the circumcision. Mandela joined Clarkebury Boarding Institute in Engcobo, the best secondary school for black Africans in Thembuland. In 1937, he moved to Healdtown, the Wesleyan college in Fort Beaufort where he took an interest in boxing and running. Mandela joined Fort Hare University, where he met Oliver Tambo, a long time friend. He was studying Bachelor of Arts but was expelled in his first year for being involved in a Students' Representative Council boycott against university policies. Mandela relocated to Johannesburg, fearing early forced marriage, where met with his friend and mentor, Walter Sisulu. After 1948 Mandela began actively participating in politics. He led in the ANC's 1952 Defiance Campaign as secretary General of the youth league. Mandela and 150 other participants in the freedom charter adoption were arrested on 5 December 1956 and charged with treason. In 1961 Mandela became leader of the ANC's armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation). He coordinated sabotage campaigns against military and government targets.On 5 August 1962 Mandela was arrested and was imprisoned in the Johannesburg Fort. On 11 July 1963 police arrested other prominent ANC leaders at Rivonia, north of Johannesburg. Together with Mandela, they were charged with capital crimes of sabotage at the Rivonia Trial. All were sentenced to life imprisonment on 12 June 1964 on Robben Island. Mandela remained there for the next 18 of his 27 years in prison. In March 1982 Mandela was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison, along with other senior ANC leaders. In 1988 Mandela was moved to Victor Verster Prison where he remained until his release on 11 February 1990. Mandela returned to the leadership of the ANC led the party in the multi-party negotiations that led to the country's first multi-racial elections in 1994. Mandela and President F. W. de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993. Mandela, as leader of the ANC, was inaugurated on 10 May 1994 as the country's first black President after the 27th May 1994 Elections.As President from May 1994 until June 1999, Mandela presided over the transition from minority rule and apartheid. He helped to resolve the long-running dispute between Libya on one hand, and the US and Britain, over bringing to trial the two Libyans indicted of the Lockerbie bombing on 21 December 1988. Mandela decided not to stand for a second term and retired in 1999, to be succeeded by Thabo Mbeki. In July 2001 Mandela was diagnosed and treated for prostate cancer. In June 2004, at age 85, Mandela announced that he would be retiring from public life.On 8th December 2012; Mandela was hospitalized at a Military Hospital near Pretoria suffering from a recurring lung infection. On 15 December, Mandela had surgery to have gallstones removed. He was released from the hospital on 26 December 2012.Until July 2008 Mandela and ANC party members were barred from entering the United Statesexcept to visit the United Nations headquarters in Manhattanwithout a special waiver from the US Secretary of State, because of their South African apartheid-era designation as terrorists. ***Robert Mangaliso Sobukwe*** Sobukwe was born in Graaff-Reinet in the Cape Province on the 5 December 1924. He attended a Methodist college at Healdtown and later Fort Hare University where he joined the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) in 1948. In 1949 Sobukwe was elected as president of the Fort Hare Students' Representative Council. In 1950 Sobukwe was appointed as a teacher at a high school in Standerton. In 1954 Sobukwe became a lecturer of African Studies at the University of the Witwatersrand. He identified with the Africanists within the African National Congress. He edited The Africanist Newspaper in 1957, criticizing the ANC for allowing itself to be dominated by 'liberal-left-multi-racialists. He later left ANC to form the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC). He became its first President in 1959.On 21 March 1960, Sobukwe led a march of PAC supporters to the local police station at Orlando, Soweto in order to openly defy the Pass laws. In a similar protest in Sharpeville, police opened fire on a crowd, killing 69 in the Sharpeville Massacre. Sobukwe was arrested, convictedof incitement, sentenced to three years in prison and later interned on Robben Island. Sobukwe was released in 1969 and allowed to live in Kimberley with his family under house arrest. He died on 27 Feb. 1978 Due to lung cancer and was buried in Graaf-Reinet on 11 March 1978. **Albert Luthuli** Albert Luthuli was born near Bulawayo, Rhodesia, around 1898 to a Seventh-day Adventist missionary John Bunyan Luthuli and Mtonya Gumede. When His father died, his mother returned to her ancestral home, Groutville in Stanger, Natal, South Africa to stay with his uncle, Martin Luthuli. On completing a teaching course at Edendale, Luthuli became principal and only teacher at a primary school in rural Blaauwbosch, Natal. Here he also became a lay preacher. In 1920 he declined a scholarship to University of Fort Hare to provide financial support for his mother. In1928 he became secretary of the African Teacher's Association and in 1933 its president. He was also active in missionary work. He became chief in1936, until removed from this office by the government in 1952 due to what colonial authority called conflict of interest.In 1944 Luthuli joined the African National Congress (ANC). In 1945 he was elected to the Committee of the KwaZulu Province Provincial Division of ANC. A month later Luthuli was elected president-general of ANC. In 1955, he attended an ANC conference only to be arrested and charged with treason a few months later, along with 155 others. In December 1957, Luthuli was released and the charges against him dropped. Luthulis leadership of the ANC covered the period of violent disputes between the party's "Africanist" and "Charterist" wings. In 1962 he was elected Rector of the University of Glasgow by the students, serving until 1965. In 1962 he published an autobiography titled: LET MY PEOPLE GOIn July 1967, at the age of 69, he was fatally injured in an accident near his home in Stanger. **Methods used by nationalists in South Africa in their struggle for liberation from** **white minority rule** a) They used force to fight for their independence. b) Africans used mass media to articulate their grievances, spread propaganda and mobilize the masses. c) Riots e.g. the Soweto riots of 1976 against the proposal to make Afrikaner (Boer language) the medium of instruction in all schools. d) There were demonstrations against Press Laws in 1960 at Sharpeville leading to massacres. e) Guerilla fighters trained in Algeria, Ghana etc carried out acts of sabotage like bombing strategic installations and power plants. f) The role of the clergy .e.g. Desmond Tutu who bitterly campaigned worldwide against apartheid. g) Use of diplomacy and negotiations to convince the whites about the futility of apartheid policy. h) Use of slogans such as Freedom Charter (1955) which proclaimed south Africa belonged to all races and called for political, social and economic equality i) They sent petitions, delegations to international forum. j) They formed political parties e.g. ANC, PAC, UDF and trade union activism to pressurize the government to change. k) They used job boycotts and strikes. l) They organized defiance campaigns and demonstrations in the streets to provoke the police to arrest them. m) They formed underground movements after the Umkhonto we Sizwe. n) Pressure from youth groups e.g. Steve Biko formed the Black Consciousness Movement as a weapon to counter oppression through organized strikes. o) Africans serving jail terms organized hunger strikes. **Problems encountered by African nationalists in South Africa** a) The colonial government employed the method of Banning of political organizations as a means of frustrating the struggle for independence. .g ANC, PAC, and CP which restricted their activities b) The Nationalists were harassed, arrested and detained or jailed by the authorities e.g. Mandela, Oliver Tambo Sisulu, Sobukwe e.t.c c) Many were forced into exile or flee the country in search of political asylum and restriction. d) A lot of violence was unleashed on them/ Killing of many nationalists and Africans such as Steve Biko and the 1960 Sharpeville massacre of school children spreading fear. e) Deliberate policy of divide and rule was employed to weaken African unity e.g. establishment of black homelands or Bantustans which eventually brewed the conflict between ANC and IFP of Buthelezi. f) The racist regime used emergency powers to harass and frustrate Nationalist leaders. g) The nationalists faced the problem of lack of money and other resources which slackened the struggle. h) Nationalists were denied access to state owned radio and other media outlets. Those media were instead used as a means of propaganda against the nationalists. i) Banning of trade unions also frustrated the activities of nationalists. Where they were allowed to exist, they were monitored by the police. j) The nationalists faced the challenge of movement restrictions through the pass laws that were introduced. k) African Journalists were harasses and their newspapers proscribed by the government. **LIVES AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF KENYAN LEADERS** **Jomo Kenyatta.** ***Early life*** Jomo Kenyatta was born Kamau wa Ngengi to Ngengi wa Muigai and Wambui in Gatundu, Kiambu on 20th October 1891. His father died while Kamau was very young was adopted by his uncle Ngengi, who inherited his mother. When his mother died during childbirth, young Kamau moved from Ng'enda to Muthiga to live with his medicine man grandfather Kng wa Magana.He joined the Church of Scotland Mission (CSM) at Thogoto, as a resident pupil. In 1912, having completed his mission school education, he became an apprentice carpenter. In 1914, he converted to Christianity, assuming the name Johnstone Kamau. He left the mission later that year to seek employment as an apprentice carpenter on a sisal farm in Thika.To avoid forced recruitment as WWI soldier, he lived with Maasai relatives in Narok, where he worked as a clerk for an Asian contractor. He took to wearing a traditional beaded belt known as a 'Kenyatta', a Swahili word which means 'light of Kenya'.In 1922 Kamau adopted the name Jomo Kenyatta, and began working for the Nairobi Municipal Council Public Works Department as a store clerk and water-meter reader. **Marriage and family.** In 1919 he married Grace Wahu. On 20 November 1920 Kamau's first son Peter Muigai was born. Grace Wahu lived in the Dagoretti home until her death in April 2007 at the age of around 100.In 1942, he married Edna Clarke and Peter Magana was born in 1943. In 1951 Kenyatta married Ngina Muhoho, daughter of Chief Muhoho and was independent Kenya's First Lady, when Kenyatta was elected President. **Kenyatta and politics** Kenyatta joined the EAA in 1922 which disbanded in 1925.Kenyatta worked as editor of the KCA's journal between 1924 and 1929, and by 1928 he had become the KCA's general secretary. In May 1928 Kenyatta launched a monthly Kikuyu-language newspaper called Mwgwithaniawhich was intended to draw all sections of the Kikuyu together. He also made a presentation on Kikuyu land problems before the Hilton Young Commission in Nairobi in the same year.In February 1929 Kenyatta was dispatched to London to represent the KCA in discussions with the Colonial Office. He wrote several letters and in the letter published in The Times in March 1930 set out five points: ~ The security of land tenure and the return of the land taken by European settlers. ~ Improved educational opportunities for Black Africans. ~ The repeal of Hut and poll taxes. ~ Representation for Black Africans in the Legislative Council. ~ Freedom to pursue traditional customs (such as female genital mutilation) He returned to Kenya on 24 September 1930. He returned to London in 1931. In 1932 to 1933, he briefly studied economics in Moscow. at University College London from 1935 studied social anthropology. Kenyatta published his own book, Facing Mount Kenya in 1938. **Kenyatta and pan-Africanism.** In 1945, with other prominent African nationalist figures, such as Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Kenyatta helped organize the fifth Pan-African Congress held in Britain. Kenyatta and the struggle for independence.On arrival into Kenya in 1947, he became principal of Kenya Teachers College Githunguri.In 1947, he was elected president of the Kenya African Union (KAU) after James Gichuru stepped down.From 1948 to 1951 he toured and lectured around the country. He also published My People of Kikuyu and The Life of Chief Wang'ombe, a history shading into legend.The Mau Mau Rebellion began in 1951 and KAU was banned, and a state of emergency was declared on 20 October 1952. Kenyatta was arrested in October 1952 and indicted with five others (Bildad Kaggia, Fred Kubai, Paul Ngei, Achieng Oneko and Kungu Karumba).At Kapenguria trials lasting 5 years, Rawson Macharia who was the main prosecution witness later confessed that he had been bribed to give false information about Kenyatta. The defense was led by British barrister D.N. Pritt. The court led by Judge R.S. Thacker, sentenced Kenyatta and his team on 8 April 1953 to seven years imprisonment with hard labour and indefinite restriction thereafter.Kenyatta remained in prison at Lokitaung in north western Kenya until April 1959, after which he was detained in Lodwar.On 14 May 1960, he was elected KANU President in absentia. In 1960, Ambu Patel, a follower of Mahatma Gandhi formed the Release Jomo Kenyatta Committee. On 23rd march 1961, Kenyan leaders visited him in Lodwar. On 11 April 1961, he was moved to Maralal with daughter Margaret. On 14 August 1961, he was released. **Leadership** Kenyatta was admitted into the LegCo after his release in 1961, after Kariuki Njiiri gave up his Kigumo seat for him. In 1961 and 1962, he led the KANU delegation to first and second Lancaster Conference in London to negotiate Kenya's independence constitution. Elections were then held in May 1963 and KANU beat KADU by winning 83 seats out of 124. On 1 June 1963, Kenyatta became prime minister of the autonomous Kenyan government. On 1 June 1964, Kenyatta became an executive President following amendment of the Constitution to make Kenya a republic. **Commentary** Historians have questioned Kenyattas alleged leadership of the radical Mau Mau movement. Kenyatta was in truth a political moderate. It is even alleged that the colonial administration deliberately arrested him to protect him from the radical KAU members who accused him of betraying their course. (There were three attempts to assassinate him before he was arrested). His marriage of Colonial Chief's daughters, his post independ- ence Kikuyu allies mainly being former colonial collaborators, and his short shrift treatment of former Mau Mau fight ers after he came to power, all strongly suggest he had scant regard for the Mau Mau **Kenyatta and nation building** On 10 November 1964, KADU officially dissolved and its representatives joined KANU, forming a single party. Kenyatta was re-elected un-opposed in 1966, and the next year had the Constitution amended to expand his powers. In the 1969 elections, Kenyatta banned the only other party, KPU led by Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, detained its leaders, and called elections in which only KANU was allowed to participate. Kenyatta made use of detention, ethnic loyalties, and careful appointment of government jobs to maintain his commanding position in Kenyas political system.Kenyatta was again re-elected unopposed as President in 1974He remained president until his death four years later in 1978. **Sickness and Death** President Kenyatta had suffered a heart attack in 1966. In April 1977, then well into his 80s, he suffered a massive heart attack.On 14 August 1978, he hosted his entire family, including his son Peter Magana who flew in from Britain with his family, to a reunion in Mombasa. On 22 August 1978, he died in Mombasa due to old age. He was buried on 31 August 1978 at a mausoleum on Parliament grounds.Kenyattas tenure as president featured the following problems. a) There was a great split within KANU due to his land policy. Kenyatta compromised with the whites over their property. The Land-buying companies formed to buy European farms favoured one community. b) From the onset of independence, KADU advocated for Majimboism and therefore opposing national unity. c) The 1966 term featured border conflicts with Somalia, and more political opposition. He made the Kikuyu-led KANU practically the only political party of Kenya. He placed several of his Kikuyu tribesmen in most of the powerful state and security offices and posts. d) Increasing loss of confidence in his government suspected of complicity in murders of Pio Gama Pinto, Tom Mboya and J.M. Kariuki. MP and Lawyer C.M.G. Argwings- Kodhek and former Kadu Leader and Minister Ronald Ngala. e) Poverty, ignorance and disease were serious problems in Kenya in the early years of independence. f) There was shortage of manpower since the inherited educational policy left Africans illequipped for skilled employment. g) Kenya did not have adequate funds to provide for is development needs. h) There was a serious problem of poor transport and communication. i) The existence of Banditry (Shifta Menace) in north-eastern kenya also shifted attention from economic development. **Achievements.** a) Mzee Jomo Kenyatta is credited with leading Kenya to independence and setting up the country as a relatively prosperous capitalist state. b) He oversaw a peaceful land reform process, oversaw the setting up of the institutions of independent Kenya, and also oversaw Kenya's admission into the United Nations. c) During his reign, the country was reasonably well governed, peaceful and stable, the economy developed and grew rapidly and attracted high levels of foreign investment, and a black Kenyan professional and business middle class was established. **Failures** a) Kenyatta failed to mould Kenya, being its founding father, into a homogeneous multi- ethnic state. The country remains a de facto confederation of competing tribes. b) His resettlement of many Kikuyu tribesmen in the country's Rift Valley province is widely considered to have been done unfairly. c) His authoritarian style, with elements of patronage, favouritism, tribalism and/or nepotism drew criticism and dissent, and set a bad example followed by his successors. d) He had the Constitution radically amended to expand his powers, consolidating executive power. e) He was also been criticized for ruling through a post colonial clique of his relatives, mainly African Kikuyu colonial collaborators from Kiambu, while giving scant reward to the real fighters for Kenya's independence. f) Kenyatta has further been criticized for encouraging the culture of wealth accumulation by public officials their office influence, thereby deeply entrenching corruption in Kenya. g) His policies are also criticized for leading to a large income and development inequality gap in the country favouring mainly Nairobi and the Country's Central Highlands, over others. **Tom Mboya** Thomas Odhiambo Mboya was born on August 15, 1930 in Kilimambogo, near Thika town.In 1942, he joined St. Mary's School Yala. In 1946, he went to the Holy Ghost College (later Mang'u High School), where he passed well enough to proceed to do his Cambridge School Certificate. In 1948, Mboya joined the Royal Sanitary Institute's Medical Training School at Nairobi, qualifying as an inspector in 1950 and employed by the Nairobi City Council.In 1955, he attended Ruskin College, Oxford, where he studied industrial management. In 1956, he returned to Kenya and joined politics at the height of Mau Mau uprising. **Political life** A year after joining African Staff Association, he was elected its president. He molded it into a trade union named the Kenya Local Government Workers' Union. Upon returning from Britain, he contested and won a seat against incumbent C.M.G. Argwings-Kodhek. In 1957, he formedhis own party, the People's Congress Party. In 1958, during the All- African Peoples' Conference in Ghana, convened by Kwame Nkrumah, Mboya was elected as the Conference Chairman at the age of 28.In 1960, Mboya together with others formed KANU. As Secretary General of KANU, Mboya headed the Kenyan Lancaster House delegation.After Kenya's independence on 1 June 1963, Mboya was elected as an MP for Nairobi Central Constituency (today: Kamukunji Constituency) and became Minister of Justice and Constitutional Affairs.As Minister for Economic Planning and Development, he wrote "Sessional Paper 10" (adopted by Parliament in 1964), which provided a model of government based on African values.He was gunned down on July 5, 1969 on Moi Avenue, aged 38 years.Mboya left a wife and five children. He is buried in a mausoleum located in Rusinga Island which was built in 1970. **Ronald Ngala** **Early career** Ngala was born in 1922 at Gotani in Giriama country. In 1929 the family moved to Vishakani near Kaloleni, which was to be Ngala's home for the rest of his life. Ngala attended Alliance High School and Makerere University College where he gained a teaching diploma. He worked as a teacher and later became headmaster of Mbale Secondary School in Taita-Taveta. In 1952 he was transferred to Buxton School in Mombasa where he served as the principal. **Political career** Ngala was elected to the Legislative Council in 1957 to represent the Coast Rural constituency.He formed the African Elected Members Organization (AEMO) together with other elected African MPs.at a meeting held on May 14, 1960 in Kiambu he was elected as the KANU's treasurer, a position he declined to take. At a meeting held in Ngong on June 25, 1960, the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU) was formed with Ngala as its leader, in opposition to KANU.At the 1961 legislative council elections Ngala formed the first African government. Ngala became Leader of Government Business and later Prime Minister.On 12 November 1964 the leaders of KADU, including Ronald Ngala, Masinde Muliro and Daniel arap Moi decided to dissolve KADU and join KANU. Ngala in the post independence periodRonald Ngala was made Minister of Cooperatives and Social Services in the Kenyatta government. He went on to become one of KANUs vice-presidents at the 1966 Limuru Conference. Ngala remained active in the government until he died in a road accident in 1972. The circumstances of Ngala's death in 1972 were suspicious. **Daniel Arap Moi** **Early life and entry into politics** Daniel Arap Moi was born on 2nd September, 1924 in Kurieng'wo in Sacho Location of Baringo County, raised by his mother Kimoi Chebii following the early death of his father. His elder brother Tuitoek played a guardian role, influencing him to go to school at an early age. In 1934, Moi joined African Inland Mission School, Kabartonjo. On October 20th 1936 he was baptised Daniel. In 1938, he transferred to African Inland Mission, Kapsabet and later to Government African School, Kapsabet where he was a school captain and a captain of the football team. He attended Tambach Teachers Training College. He worked as a teacher from 1946 until 1955. He was posted as a Head teacher at Kabarnet where he studied privately and passed London Matriculation Examinations. He was promoted in 1949 to the rank of P2 and transferred to Tambach Government African School as a Teacher Trainer. President Moi married Helena (Lena) Bommet in 1950 and they were blessed with 8 children; 3 daughters and five sons, (Jennifer, Doris and adopted daughter June; Jonathan, Raymond, John Mark, Philip and Gideon). But they separated in 1974, before his presidency.. Lena died in 2004. **Mois long political career.** In October 1955 the Electoral College selected Moi from a list of eight nominated candidates to fill a vacancy left by Joseph ole Tameno who resigned from the unofficial benches of the legislative council. In 1957, when elections were held, for LEGCO, Moi won with a landslide against Justus Ole Tipis and later joined AEMO. In 1959, he led AEMO members to visit Jomo Kenyatta in detention in Lodwar. In 1960 he founded the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU) with Ronald Ngala to challenge the Kenya African National Union (KANU) led by Jomo Kenyatta.Moi was among the Kenyan delegation under the auspices of KADU who went to the London Constitutional talks of June 1960. Moi was elected to the Kenyan parliament in 1963 from Baringo North. Since 1966 until his retirement in 2002 he served as the Baringo Central MP and only served as a vice -president from 1967 until 1978 when he became the president.In 1976, the Kiambu Mafia, tried to infamously change the constitution to prevent the vicepresident automatically assuming power in the event of the president's death. However, Kenyatta withstood the political pressure and safeguarded Moi's position. **Presidency** When Jomo Kenyatta died on 22 August 1978, Moi became president. Political realities dictated that he would continue to beholden to the Kenyatta system which he had inherited. On 1 August 1982, fate played into Moi's hands when forces loyal to his government defeated an attempted coup d'tat by Air Force officers led by Hezekiah Ochuka. Moi took the opportunity to dismiss political opponents and consolidate his power reducing the influence of Kenyatta's men in the cabinet. He appointed supporters to key roles and changed the constitution to establish a de jure single-party state. Moi, his regime now faced an economy stagnating under rising oil prices and falling prices for agricultural commodities, singlehandedly convinced the KANU delegates at a conference at Kasarani in December, 1991 over the restoration of a multi-party systemin 1992 and 1997, marred by political violence and absence of an effective and organized opposition, Moi had no difficulty in winning, skillfully exploited Kenya's mix of ethnic tensions. Mwai Kibaki was elected President on 29 December 2002 and Moi handed over power to him. **Moi After retirement**. After leaving office in December 2002, Moi lived in retirement but still retained some popularity with the masses. He spoke out against a proposal for a new constitution in 2005. On 25 July 2007, Kibaki appointed Moi as special peace envoy to Sudan. On 28 August 2007, Moi announced his support for Kibaki's re-election. Moi owns the Kiptagich Tea Factory, established in 1979, which in 2009 the factory was under threat of being closed down by the government during the Mau Forest evictions. **Challenges and achievements** The major test to His leadership was in August 1982 when a detachment of Airforce soldiers attempted to overthrow his government but they were crushed. **Achievements** ~ Moi served as Chairman of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) for two consecutive terms - 1981 and 1982. ~ He has also been involved in mediation between various conflicting sides in Uganda, Congo, Somalia, Chad, Sudan, Mozambique, Eritrea/Ethiopia, Rwanda, and Burundi etc. ~ He served as Chairman of Preferential Trade Area (1989-1990), COMESA (1999- 2000), E.A. Co-operation (1996- 2002) and Inter-Governmental Authority on Development IGAD (1993 -1998). ~ He has travelled widely, being called upon as a president to provide peace keeping forces in troubled parts of the world like Chad, Uganda, Namibia, Mozambique, Iran/Iraq, Kuwait, Yugoslavia, Liberia, Morocco, Angola, Serbia/ Croatia, D.R. Congo, Sierra Leone and East Timor. ~ Moi has supported the formation of regional economic bodies to increase trade and as a means for the developing countries to have a united voice in the global economy. ~ On 30th December 2002, Moi handed over power to Mwai Kibaki in a peaceful transition that followed the Narc victory over Kanu in the December 2002 General Elections. ~ Currently, Moi is setting up a foundation through which he hopes to participate in solving conflicts in the horn of African and the Great Lakes Region as well as help rehabilitate street children and those orphaned by HIV/aids. **Jaramogi Ajuma Oginga Odinga (Oct.1911 Jan 20, 1994).** **Early years and career** Oginga Odinga was born at Nyamira Kango, in Sakwa location in Bondo, in October, 1911. Christened Obadiah Adonijah, he later renounced his Christian names and became known as Ajuma Oginga Odinga.Young Odinga began his formal education in 1926, at Maranda. He sat for his common entrance examination in 1929. He Attended Maseno School where he sat his STD 8 exams in 1934. He enrolled at Alliance High School in 1935 upto, finishing his formal education with a diploma in education from Makerere University College in 1939. From 1940 to 1942 Odinga taught mathematics at the Church Missionary Society school, Maseno. From 1943 to 1946 he was headmaster of the Maseno Veterinary School. Odinga and Economic and social independence In 1944, he quit teaching and formed the Bondo Thrift Association in 1945.In 1947, he founded the Luo Thrift and Trading Corporation for commercial and political purposes, serving as its managing director until 1962. LUTATCO build their first shop, MasenoStore, posho mills at Ngiya, Bondo and Dudi. The company owned Ramogi Press in Nairobi in 1947, publishing a Dholuo newspaper, Ramogi, edited by Achieng Oneko, Odingas student in Maseno School. They also published Nyanza Times, Radioposta, Sauti ya Mwafrika and Mumenyereri. Between 1956 and 1957, they built Ramogi House and Africa House Kisumu. He helped to form the Luo Union, which brought together all the Luo people. His efforts earned him admiration and recognition among the Luo, who revered him as Ker a title previously held by the fabled classical Luo king, Ramogi Ajwang, who reigned 400 years before him. Odinga became known as Jaramogi (man of the people of Ramogi). Odinga travelled across the major towns in East Africa raising funds that resulted in the building of the Ofafa Memorial Hall in Kisumu in 1957 which became the headquarters of the Luo Union. **Odingas political contributions (1948-1963)** In 1947, he won the central Nyanza African District Council elections. In 1948 he joined Kenya African Union (KAU) having been influenced by a Luo Union and KAU leader, Ambrose Ofafa. In 1957 and became the political spokesman of the Luo. The same year, he was elected member of the Legislative Council for the Central Nyanza constituency. He became the chairperson of AEMO formed by the eight African elected Members of the LEGCO. He with Mboya and Kiano formed the Kenya Independence Movement after AEMO began to disintegrate. After the 1960 Lancaster House Conference, attended by a unified African delegation, Odinga emerging as one of the radical group leader, dissatisfied Africans with the conference decisions.Odinga and other members of the legislative council formed the Kenya African National Union (KANU). Odinga's KANU used its strong showing in the 1961 general elections to help gain Kenyatta's release. **Odinga after independence** Kenya gained independence in Dec 1963, and Odinga was appointed minister for home affairs.When Kenya became a Republic in 1964, he was its first Vice-President. As VicePresident he did not agree with Jomo Kenyatta's government, and he resigned his post and quit KANU in 1966 to form the Kenya People's Union (KPU). He openly challenged the government's use of private and foreign investment capital and its close ties with the West.Within KANU, a coalition formed against Odinga and in 1966 a KANU reorganization conference abolished his post of party vice-president. In October 1969, Odinga together with Achieng Oneko and other KPU members were jailed by the government. The KPU was banned, and he stayed in prison for 15 months. Odinga remained an opposition leader throughout the1970s. After Kenyatta's death in 1978, the new president, Daniel Arap Moi, tried to bring Odinga back into KANU. Moi, appointed Odinga as chairman of the Cotton Lint and Seed Marketing Boardwhere he did not last long, because he was still outspoken against Kenyatta's policies. When Odinga was reinstated into the party in 1980, he attacked Moi and Kenyatta as corrupt and protested U.S. military presence in Kenya.Odinga attempted to register a political party in 1982, but his plans were foiled when Kenyawas made a de jure single-party state in 1982, KANU party again banished Odinga.Throughout the 1980s, Odinga remained vocal in calling for democracy. In 1984, he tried to launch and register the Ramogi Development Trust (RADET) but the government denied it registration. **Odinga and the Struggle for multi-parytism in the 1990s** In 1991, Odinga founded the National Democratic Party, but the government refused to recognize it and briefly jailed Odinga. Later that year Odinga and five other opposition leaders formed the Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD). But FORD split in 1992, and Jaramogi formed FORD-K finishing fourth behind Moi, Matiba and Kibaki. In 1993, Odinga's reputation suffered when he admitted taking a campaign contribution from a bank accused of bribing government officials. In the months before his death in January 1994, Odinga tried to reconcile his branch of FORD with KANU, but without success. **Wangari Maathai** **Early life of Wangari Maathai.** Maathai was born on April 1, 1940 in the Ihithe village, Nyeri County, in the central region to Muta Njugi, a farm labourer on a white owned farm in the rift valley. In 1950, she joined Ihithe Primary School for primary education in 1951, Maathai moved to St. Cecilia's Intermediate Primary School at the Mathari Catholic Mission in Nyeri where she studied for four years.During this time, she converted to Catholicism, taking the Christian name Mary Josephine. In 1956 she joined Loreto High School Limuru. She was chosen to study at American universities in September 1960 under the Kennedy Airlift or Airlift Africa. In 1964, she joined the University of Pittsburgh to study for a master's degree in biology.In January 1966, upon her return to Kenya, Maathai dropped her Christian name, preferring to be known by her birth name, Wangari Muta. In April 1966, she met Mwangi Mathai, whom she later married in 1969 and had three children with him.In 1971, she became the first Eastern African woman to receive a Ph.D., (in Anatomy) from the University of Nairobi. She was a member of the Nairobi branch of the Kenya Red Cross Society, becoming its director in 1973. In 1979, her husband, Mwangi Mathai divorced her, saying she was too strong-minded for a woman and wife and accusing her of adultery with another Member of Parliament. **Wangari Maathai as political activist.** In 1979, Maathai ran for the position of ch airman of the National Council of Women of Kenya (NCWK). She lost, but was chosen to be the vice-chairman of the organization. In 1980, Maathai was elected chairman of the NCWK unopposed. However NCWK was left virtually bankrupt, as Future funding by government was channeled to Maendeleo Ya Wanawake a progovernment splinter group.In 1982, she resigned from the University of Nairobi to campaign for a Parliamentary seat in her home region of Nyeri. However, she was disqualified from vying.On February 28, 1992, Maathai and others took part in a hunger strike in Uhuru Park, to pressure the government to release political prisoners. The protest continued until early 1993, when the prisoners were finally released. After the first multi-party election of Kenya, in 1992, Maathai traveled with friends and the press to areas of violence in order to encourage them to cease fighting. After her friend and supporter Dr. Mukanga was kidnapped, Maathai chose to go into hiding.During the elections of 1997, Maathai ran for parliament and for president as a candidate of the Liberal Party. She lost the election.On July 7, 2001, shortly after planting trees at Freedom Corner in Uhuru Park in Nairobi to commemorate Saba Saba Day, Maathai was again arrested. Later that evening, she was again released without being charged.Maathai again campaigned for parliament in the 2002 elections, this time as a candidate of the National Rainbow Coalition; she won with an overwhelming 98% of the vote. In January 2003, she was appointed Assistant Minister in the Ministry for Environment and Natural Resources and served in that capacity until November 2005. In December 2007, choosing to run as the candidate of a smaller party Maathai was, defeated in the parliamentary election. The life of Wangari Maathai as an environmental conservationist.Following the establishment of the Environment Liaison Centre in 1974, Maathai became the chair of the board. In 1974, with her husband as the MP for Langata constituency, Maathai founded the Envirocare Ltd., a business that involved the planting of trees to conserve the environment. This led to the planting of her first tree nursery, in a government tree nursery in Karura Forest. On June 5, 1977, marking World Environment Day, Maathai led the NCWK in a procession from Kenyatta International Conference Centre to Kamukunji Park where they planted seven trees in honor of historical community leaders. This was the first "Green Belt" planted by what became the Green Belt Movement. In 1982, she was approached by Wilhelm Elsrud, executive director of the Norwegian Forestry Society. Who partnered with the Green Belt Movement and offered her the position of coordinator. In 1987, Maathai stepped down as chairman of the NCWK and focused her attention on the newly separate nongovernmental organization.In October 1989, Maathai learned of a plan to construct the 60 -story Kenya Times Media Trust Complex in Uhuru Park. Her protests, some leading to her being harassed, led to the foreigninvestors to cancel the project in January 1990. In June 1992, both Maathai and President Arap Moi traveled to Rio de Janeiro for the UN Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) where she became a chief spokesperson despite government protest. In 1998, Maathai protested against the privatization of large areas of pu blic land in the Karura Forest. In August 16, 1999, when the president announced that he was banning all allocation of public land.On October 8, 2004, Maathai became the first African woman, and the first environmentalist, to win the Nobel Peace Prize for her contribution to sustainable development, democracy and peace.On March 28, 2005, she was elected the first president of the African Union's Economic, Social and Cultural Council and was appointed a goodwill ambassador for an initiative aimed at protecting the Congo Basin Forest Ecosystem. **Achievements of Wangari Maathai** a) As a member of the Kenya Association of University Women, she was on the forefront in campaigning for equal benefits for the women while at the university and also as a member National Council of Women of Kenya (NCWK). b) She succeeded in stopping the government from encroaching on a public utility at Uhuru park to construct the 60-story Kenya Times Media Trust Complex. c) She succeeded in pressurizing the government to release political prisoners through painful hunger protests at Uhuru Park. The prisoners were released in early 1993. d) Maathai was the first African woman, and the first environmentalist, to win the Nobel Peace Prize for her contribution to sustainable development, democracy and peace. e) Maathai has been very instrumental in environmental protection through the Green Belt Movement. **THE FORMATION, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT** **OF KENYA.** **THE ELECTORAL PROCESS**. **Role of the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission in Kenya.** a) The Commission is responsible for conducting or supervising referenda and elections to any elective body or office. b) It is responsible for continuous registration of citizens as voters and regular revision of the voters roll. c) It Prescribes and reviews electoral boundaries in constituencies and wards at intervals of not less than eight years, and not more than twelve years. The constitution provides for 290 constituencies established under the following considerations; ~ Community of interest, historical, economic and cultural ties ~ Geographical features and urban centres ~ Means of communication d) It is responsible for regulation of the process by which parties nominate candidates for elections. e) The commission is responsible for settlement of electoral disputes, including disputes relating to or arising from nominations. However it does not handle election petitions and disputes subsequent to the declaration of election results. f) The registration of candidates for election. g) Educate/informs the public on the requirements for voters and contestants h) Facilitation of the observation, monitoring and evaluation of elections. i) It is responsible for regulation of the amount of money that may be spent by or on behalf of a candidate or party in respect of any election. j) Identifies, appoints and trains election officials. k) Verifies and announces election results l) Prepares ballot papers and other election materials. m) Identifies and recommends polling stations. **Types of elections.** There are three types of elections in Kenya; ***a) General elections***. These are elections held after every five years. Initially they were meant to be held on the second Tuesday in August on the fifth year. But this has since been altered due to the delay in new constitution implementation process ***b) By elections.***These are elections of new leaders to fill vacant seats left following deaths of occupants, resignation or annulment of their election through successful petition in court. ***c) Re run elections***- this are elections held exactly one month after the general elections involving only two presidential candidates in case of no clear winner in the general election. **Why Kenyans elect their representatives to parliament every five years.** a) It is a constitutional requirement that Kenyans elect MPs after every five years. b) The elections give Kenyans a chance to practice their democratic right of choosing their representatives. c) It enables Kenyans control their elected representatives i.e. the fear of losing election ensures that elected representative serve the electorate well. d) It enables Kenyans choose between representatives and between parties that express the policies that they agree with. e) Through periodic elections, Kenyans are able to participate in activities of their government The following methods have been used in elections in Kenya. a) Mololongo (queuing) b) Acclamation c) Secret ballot. **THE 2007 ELECTIONS IN KENYA** The electoral process that was adopted by the ECK under the stewardship of Samuel Kivuitu in the 2007 election was very unfair and yielded false results. This caused the outbreak of violence, bloodshed, destruction and loss of property.The Kreigler commission that was formed to look into the causes of the 2008 violence reported the following weaknesses. a) Irregularities in the voter register which excluded 30% of the potential voters the register contained names of deceased persons. Women who had attained the voting age were found to be under represented. b) Imbalanced distribution of registered voters among constituencies. Some constituencies like Embakasi had over 200, 000 registered voters while others like Mandera East had less than 20,000 registered voters. c) Rampant cheating where in some cases the votes cast were more than 100% of the registered voters. d) Existence of exclusive strongholds with some electoral areas being out of bounds for some political parties. e) There was a defective system of voter tallying and relaying of information. Some of those declared winners finally lost their seats through election petitions. f) Incompetence of the ECK officials with even the chairmen stating clearly that it was impossible to establish who won the elections. g) The results relayed sometimes faced integrity queries. Some officials relayed cooked results. h) The composition of the ECK raised suspicion especially among the opposition. **The principles that govern the electoral process in Kenya.** a) All citizens have the freedom to exercise their political rights b) Not more than two-thirds of the members of elective public bodies shall be of the same gender. c) Persons with disabilities must receive fair representation. d) There must be universal suffrage based on the aspiration for fair representation and equality of vote. e) The elections should be free and fair and will be by secret ballot, free from violence, intimidation, improper influence or corruption. f) The elections will be conducted by an independent body, transparent; and administered in an impartial, neutral, efficient, accurate and accountable manner. **Legislation on Elections.** The following legislations govern the electoral process in Kenya. **a) The constitution of Kenya**-that is a sovereign state and republic with the people owning all sovereign power directly or through democratically elected leaders. ***b) The national assembly and presidential elections Act-***it outlines the steps to be followed in the registration of voters, nomination of candidates, polling and counting of votes and other related processes. ***c) The local government act***- it gives the procedure and rules for conducting elections for county, municipal and town councils. ***d) The electoral offences Act***. it lays out the election offences like bribing of voters, threatening voters, voting more than once or causing violence on polling day or during campaigns. **Voter registration.** ***Qualifications of a voter in an electoral process in Kenya.*** a) One must be an adult citizen at least 18 years old. b) He/she must be a Kenyan citizen in possession of an identity card or passport. c) He/she must be a registered voter. d) He/she must been registered at only one registration centre e) One must not be an insane person. f) He/she must have been convicted of an election offence during the Preceding five years. **Voter and civic education.** Voter education refers to the provision of information, materials and programmes to voters with the intention of informing them about the specifics of voting process for a particular election. For example, information on who is eligible to vote, where and how to register.Civic education is aimed at conveying knowledge to the citizens about the countrys politica l system and context. For example, information about the system of government, the nature and powers of the elective offices, to be filled in an election. Nomination of candidates. There are two categories of Nominations a) Party nominations b) IEBC nominations **Party nominations** This refers to the selection of political party candidates to contest in an election. It is done through queuing, acclamation or secret ballot. It may involve nomination for county, parliamentary or presidential elections. **IEBC nominations** Once the political parties have nominated their candidates, they are presented to the IEBC for formal nomination to contest the presidential, parliamentary or county/civic elections. **Independent candidates** A person is eligible to stand as an independent candidate under the following conditions; a) The person should not be a member of a registered political party and should not have been a member for atleast three months immediately before the date of elections b) He/she must be a registered voter. c) He/ she must satisfy the educational, moral and ethical requirements as per the constitution or act of parliament. d) In case of national assembly elections, he/she must attract the support of atleast 1000 registered voters in the constituency. e) In case of the senate, one must attract the support of atleast 2000 registered voters in the county. **Conditions that must be met by one wishing to be elected Member of Parliament**. a) A person is eligible for election as a Member of Parliament if the person is registered as a voter. b) If the person satisfies any educational, moral and ethical requirements prescribed by the Constitution or by an Act of Parliament. c) if he is nominated by a political party, or is an independent candidate who is supported in the case of election to the National Assembly, by at least one thousand Registered voters in the constituency; or in the case of election to the Senate, by at least two thousand registered voters in the county. **Disqualifications for one from being elected a Member the National Assembly.** a) If the person is a State officer or other public officer, other than a Member of Parliament. b) If a person has, at any time within the five years immediately preceding the date of election, held office as a member of the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission. c) If a person has not been a citizen of Kenya for at least the ten years immediately preceding the date of election. d) If a person is a member of a county assembly. e) If one is of unsound mind. f) If one is declared bankrupt. g) Is subject to a sentence of imprisonment of at least six months, as at the date of registration as a candidate, or at the date of election. h) If one is found, in accordance with any law, to have misused or abused a State office or public office. **An elected MP may lose his/her seat in parliament under the following** **circumstances.** a) When he/she ceases to be a Kenyan citizen. b) He /she receive a jail sentence exceeding 6 months or death penalty from a court of law. c) When he/she resign, through writing to the speaker, from the national assembly. d) When he/she is declared bankrupt by a court of law. e) When he/she is found to be of unsound mind. f) When he/she resigns from the sponsoring political party or as an MP. g) When he/she fails to attend 8 consecutive sessions during the life of a particular parliament without permission from the speaker. h) When he/she defects from one party to another. i) When he/she having been elected to parliament as an independent candidate, decides to join a political party. **Campaigns.** The campaign periods starts immediately after IEBC nomination of candidates and ends 12 hours before the polling day. The main purpose of campaigns is to give the voters chance to assess aspiring candidates and their party policies and strategies and then decide the right candidate. **Polling** Voting is done in the polling station. It takes place from 6.00am to 6.00 pm on the Election Day.Counting of votes begins after the closure of the exercise. The presiding officer then announces the number of votes garnered by each candidate. The returning officer, the election officer in the constituency then tallies the total votes from all the polling stations and announces per candidate in the constituency. He/she declares the elected mp for the constituency and councilors of each ward. He announces the number of votes per candidate for the presidential elections. The IEBC then declares the validly elected candidates for the presidential, National Assembly and Senate. Factors likely to interfere with free and fair elections in Kenya. a) Ethnic loyalties/polarization/Party loyalties. People may be compelled to vote along tribal lines, in total disregard of the leadership records or accomplishment of those they elect. b) Illiteracy of some voters. This curtails their ability to mark the ballot papers correctly. c) Inadequate civic education. The lack of adequate sensitization of the voters can lead to ineffective election process. d) Violence. Harassment of voters by rival groups/ Insecurity/fear instilled in candidates. All forms of chaos makes accessibility to voting stations by voters difficult. e) Corruption of candidates and their supporters. This is through bribing of voters to vote for certain candidates. f) Incompetent election officials. Some election officials are partisan and therefore unable to preside over elections competently. g) Rigging. On many occasions aspiring candidates or their agents have complained of rigging. h) Transport difficulties. The electoral process in Kenya has been faced with the problem of Inaccessibility of some polling stations i) Communication problems. During the voting day, some remote areas experience communication problems between the headquarters and the polling stations. j) Extreme weather conditions. Delivery of polling materials has sometimes been affected by bad weather. k) Gender insensitivity. For a long time, women have not been given a fair share in the electoral process in Kenya. l) Use and misuse of mass media. Some politicians own some media houses, sometimes they have subjected them to misuse. There has been also the problem of imbalance when it comes to media coverage of elections. Electoral guidelines and regulations that may help minimizeirregularities. a) Whatever voting method is used, the system must be simple, accurate, verifiable, secure, accountable and transparent. b) The votes cast must be counted, tabulated and the results announced promptly by the presiding officer at each polling station. c) The results from the polling stations must be openly and accurately collated and promptly announced by the returning officer. d) Appropriate structures and mechanisms to eliminate electoral malpractices must be in place, including the safekeeping of electoral materials. **Electoral disputes** **The following must be observed as pertains to election disputes**: a) Electoral petitions, other than in a presidential election, must be filed within 28 days after the declaration of the election results by the IEBC. b) Service of a petition may be direct or by advertisement in a newspaper with national circulation. **ELECTION OFFICIALS** The following are the officers appointed by the IEBC to assist in administering elections. ***1. District election coordinators.***- Officials responsible for all electoral matters at district level. They act as a link between people at the grassroots level and the IEBC headquarters. ***2. Registration officers***. they register voters in each constituency and issue them with voters card. ***3. Returning officers.*** are in charge of elections in a constituency which has several polling stations. They perform the following functions: a) They set up polling booths in each polling station. b) They receive nomination papers from prospective candidates c) They distribute ballot papers and boxes to polling stations. d) They supervise the voting and counting of votes in the constituency. e) They appoint the presiding officers in each polling station. f) Announcing the results of the elections. ***4. Presiding officers.***in charge of polling stations. And perform the following duties; a) They conduct the polls in an orderly, free and fair manner at the polling station. b) They ensure that every eligible voter votes only once. c) They help illiterate voters mark ballot papers. d) They seal the ballot boxes and transfer them to a central point in the polling station where the votes will be counted. e) They maintain law and order at polling stations and report any irregularities to the returning officer. f) They ensure that there is impartiality in conducting. ***5. Polling clerks***. On the polling day, they assist and guide voters, particularly those who are illiterate. ***6. Security personnel***. police officers maintain law and order during the polling and counting of votes. ***7. Counting clerks***. they sort out ballots and then count the ballots per candidate. ***8. Party agents***. they represent candidates or political parties in a polling station or counting hall to ensure that the polling and counting procedures are transparent , orderly , free and fair. ***9. Observers***. these are neutral persons who make observations and write reports on the polling and counting exercise to indicate if the elections were free and fair or not. **FORMATION OF GOVERNMENT** **NATIONAL GOVERNMENT** Kenyans directly or indirectly exercise their sovereign or absolute power through their democratically elected representatives. This power is delegated to the state organs or arms of government namely; a) The parliament and the legislative assemblies in the county assemblies. b) The national executive and the executive structures in the county government. c) The judiciary and independent tribunals. **The process of National government formation.** After every election, the party with the majority of seats in the house forms the government by appointing cabinet secretaries from among professionals (not among elected MPs) with the approval of the National Assembly. The president then appoints the judiciary with the a dvice of the JSC. The president-elect is sworn in by the chief Justice and the members of the three arms of government also take oath.The three arms of government operate independently and work on checks and balances The executive is responsible for running the country by developing and implementing policies that lead to national development.Even after dissolution of parliament after its expiry, the cabinet exists until a new one is appointed. This is to ensure that there is no power vacuum and that government operations continue. **Role of government in Kenya** a) Government ensures that social and economic development is undertaken by putting in place policies to improve schools, hospitals, agriculture, trade, housing and industry. b) It upholds human rights and freedoms and ensures that all citizens live in peace and harmony through the administration of justice and maintaining law and order. c) Government organizes an effective defence force to protect the country from internal and external aggression. d) It also has a duty to establish sound foreign policies to promote international cooperation with other countries by setting up foreign embassies and high commissions. e) It has a duty to foster national unity by recognizing diversity and ensuring equitable sharing of national and local resources. f) Government protects and promotes the interests and rights of the minorities and marginalized communities. **COUNTY GOVERNMENT** The county government is composed of County assemblies, county executive committees and county public service and exist in each of the 47 counties throughout Kenya. A county government consists of; a) Members (one member per ward) elected by the registered voters of the wards in a general election in Kenya. b) The Speaker, who is an ex officio member. c) Members appointed by the county governor, with the approval of the county assembly, from among persons who are not members of the assembly. **The structure of the executive arm of the county government**. The executive authority of the county is vested in the county executive committee. The committee consists of; a) The county Governor and the Deputy County Governor who are the chief executive and deputy chief executive of the county respectively. b) Members who are not members of the assembly and appointed by the County Governor, with the approval of the assembly. They should be not more than ten other. If the assembly has less than thirty members, the members should be One-third of the number of members of the county assembly. NB; ~ Members of a county executive committee are accountable to the county governor for the performance of their functions and exercise of their powers. ~ The appointed members of the county executive committee cease to hold office once the office of the county governor falls vacant. **The election of a county governor.** The county governor is directly elected by the voters registered in the county at a general election for a term of 5 years. To be eligible for election as county governor, a person must be eligible for election as a member of the county assembly. If re-elected, can serve for another final term of 5 years. Each candidate for election as county governor nominates a person as his/her running mate to be the deputy governor. **Removal of a County Governor from office.** A governor may be removed from office under the following grounds; a) Gross violation of the Constitution or any other law. b) When the county governor commits a crime under national or international law. c) When the governor abuses office or is accused of gross misconduct. d) When he/she suffers from Physical or mental incapacity that hinders performance of the functions of office. ***The office of the county governor falls vacant when the holder of office;*** a) Dies. b) Resigns, in writing, addressed to the speaker of the county assembly. c) Is convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment for atleast twelve months. d) Ceases to be eligible to be elected as a county governor. e) Is removed from office under the constitution. The deputy county governor assumes office as a county governor for the remainder of the term of the county governor when a vacancy arises. Where the deputy governor is unable to act or his office is also vacant, the speaker acts as governor and elections must be held within sixty days after the speaker assumes office. **THE COUNTY ASSEMBLY** The composition of a County Assembly in Kenya is as follows; A county assembly consists of <br><br> Members (one member per ward) elected by the registered voters of the wards in a <br><br>general election. <br><br> Members of special seats (no more than two-thirds of the membership of the assembly <br><br>is of the same gender.) <br><br> Members of marginalized groups, including persons with disabilities and the youth. The Speaker, who is an ex officio member. Nb-The members for special seats and marginalized communities are nominated by political parties in proportion to the seats received in the election in a particular county. **The functions of a county assembly** a) County assemblies make laws for the effective performance of the county government. b) It acts as a watch dog over the county executive committee. c) It receives and approves plans and policies for managing and exploiting the countys resources, and, developing and managing the infrastructure and institutions. **Conditions that must be met by a person seeking for election to a County Assembly** a) The person must be a registered as a voter in his/her county. b) The person must have been a Kenyan citizen for atleast ten years before the elections. c) The person must be able to read and write in English and Kiswahili. d) He or she must be of sound mind. e) The person must be of unquestionable morals and ethics f) If a public officer, he/she must relinquish his/her public work. g) The person must be nominated by a political party h) If he/she is an independent candidate, must be supported by at least five hundred registered voters in the Ward concerned. i) The person must not have been declared bankrupt. j) The person must not have served a sentence of imprisonment of more than six months. k) The person must not have misused or abused a State or public office. **Vacancy in the office of member of county assembly may happen if the member;** a) Dies. b) Is absent from eight sittings of the assembly without permission, in writing, of the speaker of the assembly and is unable to offer satisfactory explanation for the absence. c) Resigns, in writing, addressed to the speaker of the county assembly. d) After being elected to the assembly as a member of a political party, he/she resigns from the party, or is deemed to have resigned from the party, or after being an independent candidate, the member joins a political party. e) Gets to the end of the term of the assembly f) Becomes disqualified for election after the court rules in favour of an election petition made against him/her. **Speaker of County Assembly** The speaker is elected by the county assembly from among persons who are not members of the county assembly. The speaker presides over the county assembly. Another member of the assembly may be elected to play the role of a speaker in case of the absence of the speaker. **STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT.** **The three arms of government are:** ***a) Judiciary*** ***b) Executive*** ***c) Legislature*** **LEGISLATURE.** The two components of the Kenyan Parliament/legislature are; 1. The National Assembly. 2. The Senate. **The Composition and membership of the National Assembly.** The National Assembly consists of; a) Two hundred and ninety members, each elected by the registered voters of single member constituencies. b) Forty-seven women, each elected by the registered voters of the counties, each county constituting a single member constituency. c) Twelve members nominated by parliamentary political parties according to their proportion of members of the National Assembly to represent special interests including the youth, persons with disabilities and workers. d) The Speaker, who is an ex officio member. **Membership of the Senate** The Senate consists of; a) forty-seven members each elected by the registered voters of the counties, each county constituting a single member constituency b) Sixteen women members nominated by political parties according to their proportion ofmembers of the Senate elected. c) Two members, being one man and one woman, representing the youth. d) Two members, being one man and one woman, representing persons with disabilities. e) The Speaker, who shall be an ex officio member. The official languages of parliament are English, Kiswahili and Kenyan sign language. Parliament quorum is 50 members for the national assembly and 15 members for the senate. **Office of parliament** The following are the officers of parliament; ~ Speakers and deputy speakers. Two Speakers, ex-officio member, one for each of the two houses. Each is elected by members of the respective house from among persons who are qualified to be elected as members of parliament but are not MPs. A deputy speaker is elected from among members of each of the houses by the mps. Their offices become vacant when; ~ A new house of parliament first meets after an election. ~ When he/she resigns, dies. ~ When a house resolution of two-thirds removes him/her from office. The speakers Preside at any sitting of the house. In a joint meeting of the two houses, the speaker of the national assembly assisted by that of the senate presides over. The speaker has no vote in parliament and in case of a tie, The question is lost. The six speakers in Kenya since independence include; *1. 2008-upto date- Kenneth Marende.* *2. 1993-2007- Francis Ole Kaparo* *3. 1991- 1992-Professor Jonathan Ngeno* *4. 1988- 1990-Moses Arap Keino* *5. 1970 1987-Fredrick Mbiti Mati.* *6. 1964-1969-Humphrey Slade became the first speaker of the single house.* *7. 1963- Muinga Chokwe (speaker of the upper house)* *8. 1963- Humphrey slade (speaker of the lower house).* **Role of the speaker.** a) He/she presides over the proceedings of the house and ensures that they are conducted in accordance with the rules of procedure. He enforces standing orders in the house. b) The speaker disciplines members of the house who violate standing orders by ordering such them to leave the house or be barred from attending three house consecutive sittings. c) Maintains order during debates and enforces rules which govern conduct of the house. The speaker interprets the rules of the house. d) He/she gives the MPs chance to contribute towards house debates to ensure that the minority are given a fair hearing before the will of the majority prevails. e) He/she represents and protects the authority of the house. f) He/she organizes and determines the business to be conducted in the house by receiving Bills, motions and questions for discussion in the house, and then prepares an order paper. g) He/she adjourns sittings if the house lacks a quorum. h) He/she keeps and maintains the attendance register and grants permission to MPs to be absent from sessions. MPs going out of the country must inform the speaker of their absence from Kenya. i) He/she heads the National Assembly department and takes charge of its general administration and welfare. He/she is responsible for preserving dignity and order and for the comfort and convenience of the members and staff within parliament buildings. j) He/she chairs the speakers committee, the committee of powers and Privileges and the Order Committee. k) The speaker issues orders and makes rules for the regulation of visitors to parliament and represent parliament in its relations with foreign countries. l) The speaker chairs the branches of the commonwealth Parliamentary Association, InterParliamentary Union and the Union of African Parliaments. He/she represents Parliament at the commonwealth speakers conference. m) He/she declares parliamentary seats vacant and issues writs for general elections and byelections. n) He/she receives and accepts letters of resignation from members of parliament. o) He/she swears in members of parliament before participating in the House deliberations. p) He, summons parliament to a new when parliamentarians are on recess. **~ Party leaders** As part of parliament officers, there is the leader of the majority party and leader of minority party. The majority party leader is the person who is the leader in the national assembly of the largest party or coalition of parties. The minority party leader is the person who is the leader in the national assembly of the second largest party or coalition of parties. **Role of party leaders.** a) They promote and uphold national unity through party activities. b) They enforce adherence to principles of good governance, democracy and upholding human rights and fundamental freedoms and gender equality and equity. c) The leaders work to advance the goals of the party and ensure their programme is carried out to the satisfaction of the party. d) The leader of the majority party has to ensure and maintain support for legislation. e) The leader of the minority party has to protect the rights of the minority. f) The leader of the majority party has to ensure accountability and transparency in the party. And the government. **Functions of parliament in Kenya.** a) The elected members of parliament Represents the will of the people, and exercises their sovereignty. b) Parliament considers and passes amendments to the Constitution c) It has powers to alter county boundaries as provided for in the Constitution. d) Parliament has the duty to protect the Constitution and promote the democratic governance of the Republic. e) Parliament is the sole body that has the power to make provision having the force of law in Kenya **Functions of the National Assembly in Kenya.** a) The national assembly represents the will of the people and expresses their sovereignty since it represents people from the 290 constituencies and special interest groups. b) The National Assembly deliberates on and resolves issues of concern to the people in the Constituencies and special interest groups. c) The National Assembly enacts legislation that affect the nation-not the county government. For example the money bill may be introduced only in the national assembly. d) The National Assembly determines the allocation of national revenue between the levels of government/it controls revenue and expenditure in the republic. e) It appropriates funds for expenditure by the national government and other national State organs/ it exercises oversight over national revenue and its expenditure. f) The National Assembly reviews the conduct in office of the President, the Deputy President and other State officers/It may initiate the process of removing them from office. g) The National Assembly approves declarations of war and extensions of states of emergency. **Functions of the Senate in Kenya.** a) The Senate represents the counties, and serves to protect the interests of the counties and their governments. b) The Senate participates in the law-making function of Parliament by considering, debating and approving Bills concerning counties. c) The Senate determines the allocation of national revenue among counties/It exercisesoversight over national revenue allocated to the county governments. d) The Senate participates in the oversight of State officers by considering and determining any resolution to remove the President or Deputy President from office. **The process of law making in Kenya.** **What is law making?** This is the process of enacting new laws or amending the existing ones. The two conditions for the start of a law making process are a) The presence of a speaker or his deputy. b) A quorum of fifty members of the national assembly. c) A quorum of 15 members of the senate. **What is a bill?** A bill is a proposed piece of legislation (law). Bills originate in the National Assembly. A Bill not concerning county government is considered only in the National Assembly, and passed in accordance with the Standing Orders of the Assembly. A Bill concerning county government may originate in the National Assembly or the Senate, and is passed in accordance with the Standing Orders of the Houses. Bills are classified into two; ***a) Public Bill***- these deal with matters of public policy that affect all citizens of Kenya. They are also categorized into two; a. Government Bill-introduced by cabinet secretaries. b. Private members Bill.-introduced by back-benchers in the national assembly a) Private Bill.-this is a bill that affects a particular person, associations or people living in a small part of the country. Money Bill This a bill that has provisions dealing with taxes, payment of charges by public, appropriation , receipt ,custody or issue of public money, raising or guaranteeing of any loan, its repayment or other matters relating to such monies. **The process** ~ The government departments and public offices to be affected by a bill consult first before it is drafted. A bill is then drafted by the government draftsman (the parliamentary counsel)in the attorney generals chambers. ~ When the cabinet is satisfied with the , it is published in the Kenya gazette at least fourteen days before it is introduced to parliament. The main purpose of this is to give the public chance to view and criticize the Bill. The proposal is also presented to parliament to give members chance to research on it on preparation for a debate in thefuture. ~ A Bill is first introduced by any member or committee of the relevant House of Parliament, but a money Bill may be introduced only in the National Assembly. ~ Before either House considers a Bill, the Speakers of the National Assembly and Senate jointly resolve any question as to whether it is a Bill concerning counties and, if it is, whether it is a special or an ordinary Bill. ~ When any Bill concerning county government has been passed by one House of Parliament, the Speaker of that House refers it to the Speaker of the other House. ~ If both Houses pass the Bill in the same form, the Speaker of the House in which the Bill originated shall, within seven days, refer the Bill to the President for assent. ~ The National Assembly may amend or veto a special Bill that has been passed by the Senate only by a resolution supported by at least two-thirds of the members of the Assembly. ~ Within fourteen days after receipt of a Bill, the President assents to the Bill; or refer the Bill back to Parliament for reconsideration by Parliament, noting any reservations that the President has concerning the Bill. When a bill is referred back to parliament, the following procedure is followed; a) Parliament may amend the bill in light of the presidents reservations or pass the bill a second time without amendments. b) If parliament amends the Bill after consideration of the presidents reservations, the speaker must resubmit the bill to the president for assent. c) Parliament could pass the bill without amendments or with amendments that do not fully accommodate the presidents reservations if supported by; ~ Two-thirds of the members of the national assembly, and ~ Two-thirds of the delegations in the senate, if the bill requires approval of the senate. ~ The bill then has to be submitted by the appropriate speaker to the president for assent within seven days. ~ If the president fails to assent the bill within seven days, the bill will be considered acted upon and therefore considered null and void. **The process of the bill coming into force as a law.** After presidential assent, a Bill becomes a law or an act of parliament. It is then published in the official gazette, the Kenya gazette, within seven days after assent.Sections of it may also be published in the local dailies so as to publicize the law t o all residents in the country.The Act of parliament then comes into force as a law on the fourteenth day after its publication in the Kenya Gazette unless the Act specifies a different date or time when it will come into force. The law then binds everybody in the country. **Special Bills concerning county governments.** Such Bills, when passed by senate, can only be amended or vetoed by National Assembly by a resolution of of the members. When the veto or amend fails to pass, the speaker of the National Assembly must within seven days refer the Bill in the form adopted by the senate to the president for assent. **Ordinary Bills concerning counties.** If one house passes an ordinary bill concerning counties and the second house rejects it , the Bill must be referred to the mediation committee.A mediation committee refers to a committee comprising equal number of members from both houses appointed by the speaker with the task of formulating a version of the Bill that both Houses could pass. Both houses will then vote to pass or reject the formulated version. The Bill is considered rejected if the committee fails to reach an agreed version within 30 days.If the second House passes it in an amended form, the bill must be taken back to the orig inating house for consideration. If the originating house passes it as amended; it is referred to the president for assent within seven days. If it rejects it, it is referred to the mediation committee. **Parliamentary supremacy** **Meaning of parliamentary supremacy** This refers to the sovereign power exercised by parliament which makes law for the country.Parliament is supreme because, through elections, it has the peoples mandate to legislate and govern on their behalf and is the only means through which people control government. **How parliamentary supremacy is upheld in Kenya.** a) It is the only Body that makes and repeals laws. Technically, a constitutional court can overrule an act of parliament, but parliament can change the law to prevent that from happening. b) Parliament can remove the president from office by impeachment. A member of the national assembly, with the support of at least a third of all the members, may move an impeachment motion. c) Parliament through an amendment of the constitution, can limit the powers of the executive. It can also pass a vote of no confidence in the government, compelling the president and his/her cabinet secretaries to resign. d) Cabinet secretaries are accountable to the parliament for their activities in the ministries under their control. They have to answer questions in parliament about their ministries. e) Bills prepared by the cabinet have to be legislated by parliament, which is a law making body. f) Parliament has to approve government expenditure. The Cabinet secretary in charge of Finance annually presents the budget to parliament for approval by MPs. - the public accounts committee scrutinizes government expenditure. The Auditor and controllerGeneral check the expenditure of all ministries and reports to parliament. ***NB; - The upholding of parliamentary supremacy however depends largely on the*** ***integrity and maturity of members of the national assembly***. **Ways in which parliamentary supremacy in Kenya is limited.** a) Parliament cannot make laws that contradict traditional customs and practices of the people, unless people want change. b) Parliament cannot pass a law that contradicts the constitution. /the supremacy of the constitution is upheld. c) Increased power of the cabinet can reduce parliaments authority. If the cabinet is too powerful, it may influence parliamentary decisions. d) The president can limit the supremacy by making independent decisions. For example, the president has emergency powers which sidestep parliamentary supremacy. State of Emergency does not follow parliamentary directions. e) Parliament supremacy can be limited by the application of international laws. Parliament may be forced to ratify a law out of necessity; failure to ratify an international law may invite punitive actions on the country. f) Delegated legislation may also limit its powers, i.e. the operation of the county government by-laws may limit parliamentary supremacy although national legislation prevails over county legislation. g) Referendum may be used to decide important issues as opposed to parliamentary decisions. **Merits of parliamentary supremacy/parliamentary system.** a) It increases harmony, since the legislature and the executive work together. This is realized when MPs, who represent the electorate, bring their views to the executive (cabinet secretaries) in the legislature. b) This system allows ordinary citizens to participate in the governing process by electing their representatives to articulate their views on issues of national interest. c) It ensures a responsible and responsive government since the cabinet is controlled by parliament in its actions. Cabinet cannot ignore public opinion, since people choose the MPs. Such could risk a vote of no confidence. d) It instills a sense of responsibility in the executive since cabinet secretaries have to sit and answer questions in the house. e) The system legitimizes actions taken by the government, particularly when such actions originate from recommendations passed by the MPs- the peoples representatives. f) A parliamentary system gives citizens a chance to participate in national political leadership through presenting themselves for election as members of parliament or county assemblies. g) It provides for regular elections, giving the electorate the chance to reject non performing MPs and elect others who can perform. h) Parliament is a training ground for effective leaders; the system enables Kenyans of ability and experience to prove their worth in parliamentary debates. **Demerits of parliamentary supremacy.** a) It only works well where there are two parties; with one ruling while the other in opposition. In a case where there are more than two parties. A coalition government may be formed and this form of government is sometimes weak and unstable. Also where the legislature is dominated by one party, the cabinet tends to be dictatorial. b) Such government may not be effective in times of emergencies. The head of government has to consult with the cabinet and the legislature before acting. c) It weakens the executive. It compels the cabinet secretaries to spend most of their time in parliament instead of dealing with matters of their ministries. **Terminative Role of Parliament in Kenya.** This means that parliament has the power to impeach a president or pass a vote of no confidence in the government by a two-thirds vote majority of the national assembly, forcing the government to resign. **Functions of the Parliamentary Service Commission** a) The Commission is responsible for providing services and facilities to ensure the efficient and effective functioning of Parliament b) It is responsible for constituting offices in the house. c) It prepares annual estimates of expenditure of the parliamentary service and submitting them to the National Assembly for approval, and exercising budgetary control over the service. d) It is responsible for undertaking, singly or jointly with other releva nt organizations, programmes to promote the ideals of parliamentary democracy. e) It performs other functions necessary for the well-being of the members and staff of Parliament; or prescribed by national legislation. **THE EXECUTIVE** **Meaning of the executive.** This is the arm of government which deals with the implementation of laws made by parliament. It is charged with the administration of affairs of a country as well as affairs which affect the country from outside. **The National executive comprises;** *a) The president.* *b) The deputy president.* *c) The cabinet.* *d) The attorney general.* *e) The director of public prosecutions* *f) The public service.* **The president.** He is the Chief Executive Officer of the republic of Kenya. He is the head of state and government in Kenya. He is the commander-in-chief of the Kenya Defence Forces. He is a symbol of national unity.He holds office for a five year term from the date of being sworn in to office and the term expires when the next candidate elected as president is sworn in. the constitution gives a twofive year term as the maximum period for the presidents position. **Qualifications for election as President in Kenya.** a) A person qualifies for nomination as a presidential candidate if the person is a citizen by birth b) The person must be qualified to stand for election as a Member of Parliament. c) He or she must be nominated by a political party, or is an independent candidate and is nominated by not fewer than 2000 voters from each of a majority of counties. NB;- A presidential candidate, whether affiliated to a political party or independent, must garner 50% plus one of all the votes cast in the election.A candidate must also attract 25% of the votes cast in more than half of the counties in kenya in order to qualify to be a president. **Disqualifications one from vying for election as a president in Kenya** a) If the person owes allegiance to a foreign state. b) If he is a public officer, or is acting in any State or other public office. **Assumption of office of the president.** ***The president-elect assumes office by taking two oaths namely;*** ~ The oath of affirmation of allegiance ~ The oath of affirmation for execution of the functions of office. If the president-elect dies before assumption of office, the deputy president-elect is sworn in as acting president. A new fresh election to the office of president must be held within sixty days after death of the president-elect.The president must be sworn in public before the Chief Justice. **Importance of a presidential election.** a) The citizens get a chance to exercise their democratic right. It is the essence of democracy in a government. The people have a choice to elect a president directly, freely, and fairly. b) It is a means through which the people of Kenya give the president the mandate to rule the country and act on their behalf. c) It helps to check dictatorship. The president becomes responsible and accountable to the electorate. He cannot go against public opinion. d) The president enjoys legitimacy of power because it is derived from the people **Powers and functions of the president of Kenya as derived from the constitution of** **Kenya.** a) As the Head of State, he performs the following functions; ~ He represents the government and the people of Kenya both locally and internationally. ~ He receives foreign diplomatic and consular reprentatives. b) He is the head of Government. ~ He nominates a deputy president to deputize him. ~ He nominates and, with the approval of the national assembly, appoints or dismisses cabinet secretaries, the attorney general, the Director of Public Prosecutions, the secretary to the cabinet, Principal secretaries, High Commissioners, Ambassadors, and diplomatic and consular representatives, the chief justice and the deputy and all the judges in line with the recommendations of the Judicial Service Commission c) He is the Commander-in-Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces ~ He has powers to declare a state of emergency, declare war with the approval of parliament. ~ He is the chairperson of the National Security Council of Kenya. d) The President has the duty to safeguard the Constitution, ensure the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms and the rule of law, safeguard the sovereignty of the republic, promote and enhance unity of the nation and promote respect for diversity. e) The President has legislative powers to address the opening of each newly elected Parliament. He also addresses a special sitting of parliament once every year and any other time. f) The President chairs Cabinet meetings and assigns responsibility for the implementation and administration of any Act of Parliament to a Cabinet Secretary. g) He presides over national holidays during which he expounds on government policy. h) He confers honours in the name of people and republic on men and women of Kenya for outstanding achievements. E.g. OGH, OBS, DSM, HSC and EBS. i) He may, on petition of any person, exercise mercy powers in accordance with the advice of the advisory committee. E.g.; ~ Grant a free or conditional pardon to a person convicted of an offence. ~ Postpone execution of any punishment for an offender , for a specified period, or indefinitely ~ Substitute a less severe form of punishment. ~ Remit all or part of a punishment. j) The President ensures that the international obligations of the Republic are fulfilled through the actions of the relevant Cabinet Secretaries. NB-the constitution provides the president with immunity from criminal proceedings during the tenure of office in respect of anything done or not done in exercise of the powers granted by the constitution. But this immunity does not extend to a crime for which the president may be prosecuted under any treaty to which Kenya is part to, and which prohibits such immunity. **The process of Removal of President by impeachment.** A member of the National Assembly moves a motion for the impeachment of the President on the following grounds; a) A gross violation of a provision of the Constitution. b) President commits a crime under national or international law. c) For gross misconduct. If a motion is supported by at least two-thirds of all the members of the National Assembly, the Speaker informs the Speaker of the Senate of that resolution within two days.The President continues to perform the functions of the office pending the outcome of the proceedings.Within seven days, the Speaker of the Senate convenes a meeting of the Senate to hear charges against the President.A special committee appointed by the senate investigates the matter; and report to the Senate within ten days.If the special committee reports that the particulars of any allegation against the President have not been substantiated, further proceedings shall not be taken. If any of allegations against the President have been substantiated, the Senate, after according the President an opportunity to be heard, votes on the impeachment charges.If at least two-thirds of all the members of the Senate vote to uphold any impeachment charge, the President shall cease to hold office. **Reasons that may lead to a presidential by-election in Kenya.** a) The presidents election may be nullified by court due to election offences. b) The serving president may die while in power. c) The president may resign. d) If the president becomes physically /mentally incapacitated. e) Parliament may pass a vote of no confidence in the president /government. f) If the serving president deserts/defects from the party that sponsored him to parliament. g) If the serving president ceases to be a Kenyan citizen. **THE DEPUTY PRESIDENT** The deputy president is nominated by the presidential candidate during a general election. The process of Electing and swearing in of a Deputy President in Kenya. a) A candidate, (qualified for nomination for election as President) is nominated by each candidate in a presidential election. b) The Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission then declare the candidate nominated by the person who is elected as the President as the Deputy President. c) The swearing in of the Deputy President-elect is before the Chief Justice or, in the absence of the Chief Justice, the Deputy Chief Justice and in public. d) The Deputy President-elect assumes office by taking and subscribing; a) The oath or affirmation of allegiance. b) The oath or affirmation for the execution of the functions of office. **Under the following circumstances, one can cease to hold the office of the Deputy** **President** a) At the end of term of office when the person next elected President at an election is sworn in. b) When the Deputy President assumes the office of President. c) On resignation, death or removal from office of the Deputy President **Functions of the Deputy President in Kenya.** a) The Deputy President is the principal assistant of the President and shall deputize for the President in the execution of the Presidents functions. b) The Deputy President performs the functions conferred by the Constitution and any other functions of the President as the President may assign. c) When the President is absent or is temporarily incapacitated, and during any other period that the President decides, the Deputy President shall act as the President. ***NB-The Deputy President is not permitted to hold any other State or public office.*** **The cabinet.** **The composition of The Cabinet in Kenya.** The Cabinet consists of a) the President; b) the Deputy President; c) the Attorney-General; and d) Not fewer than fourteen and not more than twenty-two Cabinet Secretaries. The President nominates and, with the approval of the National Assembly, appoints **Cabinet Secretaries.** A Cabinet Secretary should not be a Member of Parliament. Secretary to the cabinet.This office is an office in the public service.The office holder is nominated and appointed by the president, with the approval of the national assembly**.** **He/she has the following responsibilities;** a) Taking charge of the cabinet office. b) Arranging the business of the cabinet subject to its directions. c) Keeping minutes of the cabinet. d) Conveying decisions of the cabinet to the appropriate persons or authorities. e) Serving other functions as directed by the cabinet. **Principal Secretaries.** Each state department is under the administration of a principal secretary. He/she is nominated and appointed by the president from among persons recommended by the public service commission and approved by the national assembly. This office is an office in the public service. **General Functions of the cabinet.** a) The cabinet Advises and assists the president in governing the country. b) The cabinet Discusses matters of national and international concern with the president. c) The cabinet Formulates government policies and programmes. During parliamentary debates, the secretaries defend the same policies, interpret them to the people and ensure their implementation. d) The cabinet initiates new bills and table government bills in the National assembly. e) Cabinet secretaries on their individual capacity give direction to operations within their ministries. f) The secretary for finance formulates and prepares the national budget which he/she then presents to the National Assembly. **The principle of collective responsibility of the cabinet.** a) The cabinet does not work in the light of day. Cabinet must abide by oath of secrecy. b) It requires that the cabinet must act together as a team. The cabinet must speak together with one voice on all matters of government policy. c) All cabinet members are collectively responsible to parliament and to the people through parliament. One act of a cabinet secretary is taken to be an act of all the members of the cabinet. d) A minister would resign if in his conscience he cannot abide by the principle of collective responsibility. **The functions of the Attorney-General in Kenya.** a) The Attorney-General is the principal legal adviser to the Government. b) He represents the national government in court or in any other legal proceedings to which the national government is a party, other than criminal proceedings. c) He performs any other functions conferred on the office by an Act of Parliament or by the President. d) The Attorney-General has authority, to appear as a friend of the court in any civilproceedings to which the Government is not a party. e) The Attorney-General has duty to promote, protect and uphold the rule of law and defend the public interest. **The Director of public prosecutions.** The DPP is nominated and with the approval of the National Assembly is appointed by the president to hold office for a term of eight years and cant be re-appointed. He/she does not require the consent of any person or authority for the commencement of criminal proceedings. His/her powers may be exercised in person or by subordinate officers acting under general or special instructions.A person qualified to be appointed a DPP should have the qualifications to be appointed a judge of the High Court. **The functions of the Director of Public Prosecutions.** a) The Director of Public Prosecutions has power to direct the Inspector-General of the National Police Service to investigate any information or allegation of criminal conduct. b) The Director of Public Prosecutions exercises State powers of prosecution and may institute and undertake criminal proceedings against any person before any court (other than a court martial) in respect of any offence alleged to have been committed. c) He has powers to take over and continue any criminal proceedings commenced in any court (other than a court martial) that have been instituted or undertaken by another person orauthority, with the permission of the person or authority. d) He has powers to discontinue at any stage, before judgment is delivered, any criminal proceedings instituted by the Director of Public Prosecutions or taken over by the Director of Public Prosecutions. **THE PUBLIC SERVICE** The public service includes all state organs in both levels of government and all state corporations. **Values and principles of public service** a) High standards of professional ethics. b) Efficient, effective and economic use of resources. c) Responsive, prompt, effective, impartial and equitable provision of services. d) Involvement of the people in the process of policy making. e) Accountability of administrative acts. f) Transparency and provision to the public, of timely, accurate information. g) Fair competition and merit as the basis of appointments and promotions h) Representation of Kenyas diverse communities. i) Providing adequate and equal opportunities for appointment, training and advancement at all levels of the public service, for women and men, members of all ethnic groups and persons with disability. **The Public Service Commission.** This is the body charged with the responsibility of recruiting, promoting and managing the affairs of the public servants in Kenya in order to make it a motivated and an efficient workforce.The commission consists of a chairperson, a vice chair person and seven other members appointed by the president with the approval of the National Assembly. The commission has a secretary who is the CEO and is appointed by the commission for a term of five years and is eligible for re-appointment. **The following persons do not qualify for appointment to the commission;** A person who in the proceeding five years, held office, or stood for elections as; i. A member of parliament or the county assembly. ii. A member of the governing body of a political party. iii. If the person holds any state office. iv. A holder of an office in a political organization that sponsors or supports a candidate for election as Member of Parliament or county assembly. **Functions and powers of the Public Service Commission.** a) The Commission is responsible for establishment and abolishment of offices in the public service. b) It appoints persons to hold or act in Offices in the public service and confirm appointments. c) It exercises disciplinary control over and removes persons holding or acting in public offices. d) It promotes the values and principles throughout the public service. e) It investigates monitors and evaluates the organization, administration and personnelpractices of the public service. f) It has the duty to ensure that the public service is efficient and effective. g) It develops human resources in the public service. h) It reviews and makes recommendations to the national government in respect of conditions of service, code of conduct and qualifications of officers in the public service. i) It evaluates and reports to the President and Parliament on the extent to which the values and principles that govern public service are complied with in the public service. j) It hears and determines appeals in respect of county governments public service. Offices in the public service that are exempted from the regulation and control of the public service commission; a) State offices. b) An office of high commissioner, ambassador or other diplomatic or consular representative of the republic. c) An office or position subject to: ~ The Parliamentary Service Commission. ~ The Judicial Service Commission. ~ The Teachers Service Commission ~ The National Police Service Commission. d) An office in the service of a county government, with the exception of powers to create and establish offices. The commission can not appoint a person to hold office or act in any office on the personal staff of the president or retired president, except with the consent of the president or retired president. **Ways in which a public officer is protected by law while in service.** a) A public officer shall not be victimized or discriminated against for having performed the functions of office in accordance with the Constitution. b) He/she shall not be dismissed, removed from office, demoted in rank or otherwise subjected to disciplinary action without due process of law. **Organs of national security.** National security is the protection against internal and external threats to Kenyas territorial integrity and sovereignty, its people, their rights, freedoms, property, peace, stability and prosperity. **Principles that promote and guarantee national security in Kenya.** a) National security is subject to the authority of the constitution and parliament. b) Operations of national security must be consistent with the law and must respect the rule of law, democracy, human rights and fundamental freedoms. c) In performing their functions and exercising their powers, national security organs must respect cultural diversity of the communities within Kenya. d) Recruitment by the national security organs must reflect the diversity of the Kenyan people in equitable proportions. **National security organs in Kenya.** The national security organs are; a) The Kenya Defence Forces. b) The National Intelligence Service. c) The National Police Service. **National Security Council** This is a body whose main responsibility is to exercise supervisory control over national security organs **Composition of the National Security Council** The Council consists of a. The President. b. The Deputy President. c. The Cabinet Secretary responsible for Defence. d. The Cabinet Secretary responsible for foreign affairs. e. The Cabinet Secretary responsible for internal security. f. The Attorney-General. g. The Chief of Kenya Defence Forces. h. The Director-General of the National Intelligence Service. i. The Inspector-General of the National Police Service. **Functions of the National Security Council in Kenya.** a) It exercises supervisory control over national security organs. b) It has duty to integrate the domestic, foreign and military policies relating to national security in order to enable the national security organs to co-operate and functioneffectively. c) It makes assessment and appraisal, the objectives, commitments and risks to the Republic in respect of actual and potential national security capabilities. d) The Council reports annually to Parliament on the state of the security of Kenya e) With the approval of Parliament, The Council is responsible for deploying national forces outside Kenya for regional or international peace support operations; or other support operations. f) It approves the deployment of foreign forces in Kenya. **The Kenya Defence Forces.** The Kenya defence Forces comprises; a) The Kenya Army, established in 1963 and which protects the country against external land-based aggression. b) The Kenya Air force, established in 1963, disbanded in 1982 and renamed 82 Air force. It helps in the control of locust invasion. c) The Kenya Navy, based in Mombasa and created in 1964, patrols Kenyas territorial waters and is always on the alert for sea-borne invasions, and for illegal landings and departure, and unauthorized fishing by foreign vessels in Kenyan waters. **Functions of the Kenya Defence forces.** a) The Defence Forces are responsible for the Defence and protection of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Republic. b) They assist and cooperate with other authorities in situations of emergency or disaster. c) They may be deployed to restore peace in any part of Kenya affected by unrest or instability only with the approval of the National Assembly. d) The forces also assist in the preservation of internal security. For example the handling of the attempted coup by the Kenya Army in 1982. e) They participate in nation building activities such as road and bridge construction. f) The military also assists the public during emergencies and calamities such as floods, famine, fire outbreaks, landslides and other disasters. For example during the E l Nino rains-construction of mobile bridge on Mombasa-Nairobi highway. g) The Navy specializes in detecting and fighting off criminals who use water masses like the Indian Ocean to commit crimes within the Kenyan territory. E.g. Somali Pirates. h) The Kenya Army takes part in peacekeeping Missions, such as the United Nations peace keeping operations in different parts of the world and also the African Union and Commonwealth. **The Kenya Defence Council.** Its composition is as follows; a) The cabinet secretary responsible for defence is the chairperson. b) The Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces. c) The Three Commanders of the defence forces. d) The Principal Secretary in the ministry responsible for defence. **Functions.** It is responsible for the overall policy, control and supervision of the Kenya Defence Forces. **Challenges facing the Kenya Defence Forces.** a) There has being cases of indiscipline, such as the abortive coup attempt in 1982. b) There have been rampant cases of corruption facing some members of the Kenya Defence Forces, especially on matters of recruitment of new members into the defence forces, purchase of military and police equipment and deployment of officers on specialized duties. c) Tribalism, regionalism and nepotism have also been experienced in the Kenya Defence Forces, thereby demoralizing hardworking officers who are left out unfairly during promotions. d) Sometimes the Kenya Defence Forces faces the problem of lack of adequate funds to equip the forces with good equipment to facilitate their work. e) The majority of the military personnel are not provided with opportunities to acquire further education. f) Piracy and militia attacks and raids at the Kenyan Borders also present a major security challenge to the Defence Forces. g) Invasion of Kenyas territorial waters by foreign fishermen and foreign fishing vessels from the big nations challenges the ability of the Kenya Navy to curb illegal fishing. h) The location of Moi Airbase at Eastleigh presents a big challenge to the air force. The Airbase was built by Britain in 1964 when the population in the area was scarce. Today the area has human congestion i) The defence forces also face challenges related to allegations on violations of human rights. After the 2008 elections violence, the Kenya Army was deployed to restore peace in Mt. Elgon, where they were accused of violating human rights by killing people, destroying property, and sexually assaulting women. **The National Intelligence Service.** Initially called the Special Branch, This is an independent civilian government agency dedicated to protecting the national security interests of Kenya and safeguarding its citizens from threats such as terrorism and corruption. **Function of the National Intelligence Service** a) It is responsible for security intelligence and counter intelligence to enhance national security. b) It liaises with the National police CID to investigate some of the threats that have criminal implications e.g. terrorism. And lay the appropriate charges. c) Information gathered by the NIS assists the government in decision making and planning. d) The NIS in its operations protects human rights issues and the individual freedoms. **Challenges facing the National Intelligence Service.** a) Lack of trust from Kenyan citizens. The citizens are reluctant to provide information to NIS as they view it not to be any different from the former Special Branch which was known to be a tool of oppression and torture. b) The body lacks financial credibility and political independence. The extent to which NIS is Neutral in its handling of sensitive affairs is questionable. c) Lack of a clear distinction between accountability and necessary secrecy has sometimes brewed tension. It is difficult to audit the activities of the Body just like any other government organization, due to the nature of its tasks. d) The growing volumes and complexity of communications presents a significant security challenge for national intelligence and government agencies that seek to intercept, process monitor and analyze it. e) External and internal threats for example Al-shabaab militia from Somalia, Merille Warriors from Ethiopia and Al-Qaeda attacks. Internally, the refugees hosted in Kenya and the illegal migrants from Somali and Sudan are also a threat. The problem of drug trafficking is also a threat. f) Continuous capacity building training is a necessity, given the complexity of the task. However this remains a challenge. g) Limited financial and human resources since inadequate funds are allocated to the service. This limits its operations. Sometimes even the staff employed is incompetent. h) Political interference- with the aim of using the service to gain political mileage. i) Ignorance of the Kenyan people on the kind of tasks the service undertakes and the advice it gives to the government. For example, anytime the country has been faced with tension or violence as was the case in 2008, the public seem not to understand the role of NIS. j) The organ does not have implementation powers and is limited in terms of the ability to follow up an implementation of the advice given to the government. **The National Police Service.** The East African Protectorate Police was first created in the 1890s. In 1920, it was renamed the Kenya Police. In 1953, control of the entire police force was placed under the Commissioner of Police. The National Police service was established in 2010 with a mandate to function throughout Kenya. It is headed by the Inspector-General who appointed by the president with the approval of the parliament.He / She exercises independent command over the national police service **The National polices Service Consists of;** a) The Kenya Police Service, headed by a deputy inspector general also appointed by the president in accordance with the police service commission recommendations. b) The Administration Police Service, headed by a deputy inspector general also appointed by the president in accordance with the police service commission recommendations. **Functions of the National Police Service** a) The National Police Service is responsible for the operations of the Kenya police service and the Administration police service in Kenya. b) It has the duty of ensuring the highest standards of professionalism and discipline among its members. c) It has the duty to prevent corruption and promote and practice transparency and accountability. d) It has the duty to ensure that organs operating under it comply with constitutional standards of human rights and fundamental freedoms. e) It ensures that the staff is trained to the highest possible standards of competence and integrity and to respect human rights and fundamental freedoms and dignity. f) It fosters and promotes relationships with the broader society. **Functions of the police service (Kenya police service and administration police** **service).** a) The police maintain law and order to ensure that those who break the law are arrested. b) The police protect the law in order to safeguard both life and property. c) It investigates crime and prosecutes offenders in the court. d) The police confines suspected criminals in remand as they await the hearing and judgment of their cases in the court. e) The police regulate traffic and arrests traffic offenders. They also check for defective or unroadworthy vehicles on the road in order to safeguard life. f) Provides assistance and relief services to victims of natural calamities such as floods, fire outbreaks and other emergencies. g) Takes part in national projects such as road construction, bridges, hospitals and other national facilities. h) The police take a leading role during public holidays. They control the crowd and entertain people. i) They liaise closely with international police (Interpol), in order to investigate and arrest international criminals such as terrorists and notor ious Somali pirates. **Challenges facing the National Police Service** a) The police lack adequate transport and communication equipment necessary to discharge their duties. Lack of facilities such as radios, motor vehicles etc. b) Frequent road accident and congestion on roads add pressure to police work. c) Many members of the public in Kenya have Negative attitude towards the police making it difficult for them to discharge duties. d) Poor conditions of work and remuneration demotivates the police force. e) The police force has been accused of Corruption, sometimes demanding for money from the public. This undermines the maintenance of law and order. f) Easy access to dangerous and sophisticated weapon by criminals makes police work more difficult. g) Terrorism is a serious challenge to the police in Kenya. Some of the terrorists have targeted members of the police force. h) Political interference in the work of the police compromises the integrity of the police force. i) Modernization and advancements in ICT also some with major challenges for the police. Incidents of cyber crimes have escalated in the world, including kenya. j) Lack of regular in service training for police officers to cope with emerging challenges. This challenge is even compounded by the problem of recruiting of people with low academic qualifications into the force and who cant deal with sophisticated cases. **The National Police Service Commission.** **The structure of the National Police Service Commission.** The Commission consists of the following persons, each appointed by the President; a) A person who is qualified to be appointed as a High Court Judge, and who is appointed by the president. b) Two retired senior police officers, each of whom is appointed by the president. c) Three persons of integrity who have served the public with distinction, each of whom is appointed by the president. d) The Inspector-General of the National Police Service. e) Both Deputy Inspectors-General of the National Police Service. **Functions of the National Police Service Commission** a) The Commission recruits and appoints persons to hold or act in offices in the service. b) The commission confirms appointments, and determines promotions and transfers within the National Police Service c) It observes due process, exercises disciplinary control over and removes persons holding or acting in offices within the Service. **Possible solutions to challenges facing the national security organs.** a) The security organs have acquired modern telecommunication equipment and vehicles to improve transport and communication in the security force. b) Introduction of the post of public Relations Officer/ Spokesman in the organs to coordinate and disseminate information. c) Raising of qualification requirements for anybody aspiring to join the security organs. This has paved way for employment of university graduates in the forces. d) Introduction of professional training programmes for officers with the aim of improving the effectiveness of the organs of national security. e) The terms and conditions of service for the members of the security organs have been improved f) Community policing has-been introduced to help the security forces to get information from the public through hotlines and suggestion boxes. g) There is increased patrolling by the Kenya navy as far north as Somali border to address maritime defence more seriously. h) The aviation experts have recommended the relocation of Moi Airbase from its current location which id congested. **Correctional services.** The Correctional service Department in Kenya has its origins in the adoption of the India Prisons Act in Kenya in 1894 by the colonial government. Initially, prisons were under the supervision of the provincial Administration.In 1963 the Prisons Act was enacted to harmonize the treatment and conditions of offenders in Kenyas penal institutions. The Acts milestone provisions were; a) Youth corrective training centres b) Extra-mural and penal employment c) Provision for organization, discipline, power and duties of prisons officers. Correctional services in Kenya are provided by the former Kenya Prisons Service. The Kenya Prisons Reform Programmee in 2001 adopted The Open Door Policy under which the following reforms were initiated. a) Interactive collaboration with all stakeholders in the administration of criminal justice such as courts of law and members of the National Police Service. b) Improvement in the management and conditions of the prisons, including rehabilitation programmes, with a view to empower prisoners with knowledge and skill, hasten their reintegration into society and empower them to be law abiding citizens upon release. **The functions of Correctional Services in Kenya.** a) They Rehabilitate/correct criminals through counseling. b) They deter known criminals from committing other crimes. c) They administer Punishment to sentenced criminals as prescribed by the court rulingsimplement the decisions of the courts regarding treatment of prisoners. d) They confine prisoners convicted by the courts of law to ensure that the rights and freedoms of the public are protected. e) They provide vocational training for prisoners in fields that they make them productive citizens of the country at the end of their jail term. f) They keep watch over he behaviors of suspected criminals whose cases are still pending in the law courts. g) They take care of the welfare of prisoners by providing them with the necessary medical attention. h) They confine suspected dissidents who are a threat to state security. **Challenges facing correctional services in Kenya** a) The challenge of overcrowding in prisoners on the rise, overcrowding in correctional facilities has been inevitable. This results in poor living and sanitation conditions for inmates. b) Disease outbreak is a very common problem in our prisons mainly caused by inadequate and congested facilities. HIV and AIDS is rampant in prisons c) Mistreatment of inmates by warders. This has once happened at Kingongo when some inmates were allegedly tortured and killed by warders when they attempted to escape. d) Food shortage, inadequate medical facilities and poor clothing further compound the situation in prisons. The following reforms have been undertaken to improve the conditions of correctional services in Kenya. a) Improvement in the quality of food, medical services and living conditions for prisoners. b) Provision of sufficient beddings and clothing. c) Introduction of extra-mural Penal employment for petty offenders to ease congestion in the prisons. d) There has been supply of new and comfortable motor vehicles for efficient transport in the correctional services department. e) Petty offenders have been constantly released to ease congestion in prisons. For example the release of a record 11,500 prisoners in December 2003. Death row inmates who have also been in jail for over ten years have been released. f) Easing of access to prisons/visits by members of the public/relatives. g) Introduction of public Relations office to disseminate information. h) Streamlining the hearing of cases with a view of keeping prisoners in remand for a short period before sentencing them. i) The national government has also become directly involved the affairs of those receiving correction services. **THE JUDICIARY.** Judicial authority and legal system. Judicial Authority is derived from the people and is vested in courts and tribunals established by the constitution. **Principles that guide Judicial Authority in Courts and Tribunals in Kenya.** a) Justice must be done to all, irrespective of status. b) Justice shall not be delayed. c) Alternative forms of dispute resolution must be pursued including reconciliation, mediation, arbitration and even traditional dispute resolution mechanism. d) Justice shall be administered without undue regard to procedural technicalities. e) The purposes and principles of the constitution must be protected and promoted. **Ways in which the traditional Dispute resolution is limited in Kenya.** a) The mechanisms used in traditional dispute resolution should not contravene the Bill of RIGHTS. b) The traditional court should not operate in a way that is repugnant to justice and morality or results in outcomes that are regnant to justice or morality. c) The operations of the traditional courts should not be inconsistent with the constitution. **The structure of the judicial system in Kenya.** The Hierarchy of the court system in the Kenyan judiciary is in accordance with; a) The seriousness of the cases the courts handle. b) The punishment they give out c) The geographical area of operation. The courts have either original or appellate jurisdiction. **Difference between original and appellate jurisdictions.** ~ Original jurisdiction refers to the ability of a court to hear cases brought to a court for the first time. ~ Appellate jurisdiction is the powers of a court to hear appeals brought in from a lower court.The Judiciary consists of the judges of the superior courts, magistrates, other judicial officers and staff. The Head of the Judiciary is the Chief Justice with the Deputy Chief Justice as the Deputy Head of the Judiciary.Chief Registrar of the Judiciary is the chief administrator and accounting officer of the Judiciary. **The System of courts is as follows** ***1. Superior Courts*** Supreme Court consisting of the Chief Justice who is the president of the court, the Deputy Chief Justice-the vice-president of the court; and five other judges. **Appointment to the Supreme Court requires the following qualifications;** a. Degree in law from a recognized university or an advocate of the high Court of Kenya. b. Atleast fifteen years experience as a superior court judge or a distinguished academic, judicial officer, legal practioner and or other relevant legal field. c. High moral character, integrity and impartiality. Supreme Court Judges retire at the age of seventy Five Years. **Functions of the Supreme Court of Kenya.** a) The Supreme Court has exclusive original jurisdiction to hear and determine disputes relating to the elections to the office of President. b) It has appellate jurisdiction to hear and determine appeals from the Court of Appeal; and any other court or tribunal. c) The Supreme Court gives an advisory opinion at the request of the national government, any State organ, or any county government with respect to any matter concerning county government. d) It has of right in any case involving the interpretation or application of the Constitution. e) All courts, other than the Supreme Court, are bound by the decisions of the Supreme Court ***2. Court of Appeal***consisting of judges, not fewer than twelve, a president of the Court of Appeal elected by the judges of the Court of Appeal from among themselves. (The court of Appeal has membership of 30 Judges currently). Each judge to be appointed to the court of Appeal should have ten years experience as a superior court judge or atleast ten years as a distinguished academic or legal practioner.The court of appeal does not have original jurisdiction except on an application for a stay of execution pending appeal to it on contempt proceedings. **Function of the Court of Appeal in Kenya.** The Court of Appeal has jurisdiction to hear appeals from the High Court; and any other court or tribunal as prescribed by an Act of Parliament. ***3. High Court***headed by a Principal Judge of the High Court, who shall be elected by the judges of the High Court from among themselves. **Functions of the high court of Kenya.** a) The High Court has unlimited original jurisdiction in criminal and civil Matters. b) It has jurisdiction to determine the question whether a right or fundamental freedom in the Bill of Rights has been denied, violated, infringed or threatened. c) It has jurisdiction to hear an appeal from a decision of a tribunal appointed to consider the removal of a person from office. For example, appeals from the courts martial, Business and rental Tribunals on matters related to the constitution. d) It has jurisdiction to hear any question respecting the interpretation of the Constitution including the determination of the question whether any law is inconsistent with or in contravention of this Constitution; e) It determines any matter relating to constitutional powers of State organs in respect of county governments and any matter relating to the constitutional relationship between the levels of government. f) The High Court has supervisory jurisdiction over the subordinate courts and over any person, body or authority exercising a judicial or quasi-judicial function, but not over a superior court g) It listens to appeals from the lower courts when the parties involved are not satisfied. h) It deals with disputes that take place outside Kenya's territorial wate rs/maritime. i) It hears appeals from decisions made by professional disciplinary tribunals involving advocates of the high court and other members of the profession. j) It acts as a constitution court by determining whether a case brought before it is constitutional or unconstitutional. k) It listens to appeals from special courts when the parties are not satisfied with the decision made. l) It corrects/amends the irregularities in decisions made by lower courts. m) It hears cases that carry death sentences / involve large sums of money. n) It deals with cases that concern land/succession disputes. o) It hears election petitions. p) It exercises divorce jurisdictions in matrimonial matters, q) It hears appeals from tribunals E.g. Rent Restrictions, Business Premises Rent Tribunal. **Termination of the services of a judge from office.** ***A judge can be dismissed from service on the following grounds.*** a) Inability to perform the functions of the office arising from mental or physical incapacity. b) A breach of a code of conduct prescribed for judges or superior courts by an act of parliament. c) Bankruptcy. d) Incompetence. e) Gross misconduct or misbehavior. **The process of removal of a judge from office.** Such a process is initiated by the Judicial Service Commission on its own initiative or on petition of any person to it based on any of the dismissal grounds.The commission, if satisfied with the petition or initiative, forwards the matter to the president, who will suspend the said Judge, within Fourteen Days after receiving the petition and on advice of the Judicial Service Commission.A tribunal is then appointed to determine the case. If the Judge is aggrieved by the decision of the Tribunal, he/she may appeal to the Supreme Court within ten days after the tribunal has made its recommendation. The president will finally act in accordance with the recommendation of the tribunal. ***4. Subordinate courts***. **a) The Magistrates courts**. Its jurisdiction in both Civil and criminal cases is limited to geographical areas. However the courts have unlimited Jurisdiction in proceedings concerning claims under customary law such as dowry, divorce, legitimacy, inheritance and the administration of estates of the deceased person.They have unlimited jurisdiction in dealing with matters related to land, adultery and inheritance. These are the courts responsible for sentencing persons who have broken law of the land. **Reasons why a person who has broken the law should be sentenced by a court.** i. To deter the criminal from future crimes. ii. To deter others from committing similar offences since they would have known the punishment for breaking the law. iii. To secure for the public a period o protection from the offender who is in prison. iv. To reform the criminal through counseling and corrective training v. To satisfy the demands of the people for retribution through punitive justice. **b) The Kadhis courts.** The courts are headed by a Chief Kadhi and not fewer than three Kadhis Qualifications for appointment as a Kadhi. a. One must profess the Muslim religion. b. One must possess such knowledge of the Muslim law applicable to any sects of Muslims. The jurisdiction of the Kadhis Court is limited to the determination of questions of Muslim Law relating to personal status, marriage, divorce or inheritance in proceedings in which all concerned parties profess to the Muslim religion. **c) The Courts Martial.** This is a subordinate court that was established under the Armed Forces Act after the abortive 82 Air force coup. It has penal or disciplinary powers to ensure discipline within the armed forces. they try cases involving assisting an enemy, cowardice, desertion, insubordination, neglect of duty, drunkenness, malingering and absence without leave. There is no right to appeal to the high court against the decisions of the courts martial unless they involve constitutional cases. **Industrial Court** **Juvenile Court** **The Judicial Service Commission.** Membership of the JSC is as follows. a) The Chief Justice who is the Chairperson of the Commission. b) One Supreme Court judge elected by the judges of the Supreme Court. c) One court of appeal judge elected by the judges of the court of appeal. d) One High Court Judge and one magistrate, of whom one must be a woman and one a man elected by members of the association of judges and magistrates. e) The attorney General. f) Two advocates , one woman and one man each with atleast fifteen years of experience, elected by members of the statutory body responsible for the professional regulation of advocates (LSK) g) One person nominated by the public Service Commission. h) One woman and one man to represent the public, not being a lawyer, appointed by the president with the approval of the national assembly. i) The chief registrar of the Judiciary, who will be secretary to the commission. Members, except the AG and Chief Justice hold office for a term of 5 years and can be reappointed for one further term **Functions of the Judicial Service Commission** a) The Judicial Service Commission promotes and facilitates the independence and accountability of the judiciary and the efficient, effective and transparent administration of justice. b) It recommends to the President persons for appointment as judges. c) It reviews and makes recommendations on the conditions of service of judges and judicial officers, other than their remuneration; and the staff of the Judiciary. d) It appoints, receives complaints against, investigates and removes from office or otherwisediscipline registrars, magistrates, other judicial officers and other staff of the Judiciary. e) It prepares and implements programmes for the continuing education and training of judges and judicial officers. f) It advises the national government on improving the efficiency of the administration of justice. **The concept of Independence of the Judiciary in Kenya.** a) In the exercise of judicial authority, the Judiciary is subject only to the Constitution and the law and not to the control or direction of any person or authority. b) The office of a judge of a superior court cannot be abolished while there is a substantive holder of the office. c) A member of the Judiciary is not liable in an action or suit in respect of anything done or omitted to be done in good faith in the lawful performance of a judicial function. The Judicial Act protects Judges and Magistrates against any form of victimization and molestation. d) There is a separate system of command for the judiciary unlike other government departments. e) Appointment of the magistrates is done independently by JSC, which is independent of PSC. The president in consultation with the Judicial Service Commission appoints the Judges. f) The judges are bound by the Oath of Allegiance to perform their duties without fear or favour. g) Judges enjoy security of tenure. h) Statutes fix salaries and allowances of Judges. **Challenges facing the judiciary in Kenya.** a) There is constant Conflict between the three arms of government. This hinders the just operation of the judiciary. Too much interference from the Executive has undermined the independence of the Judiciary. b) The long court processes have always delayed dispensation of justice in Kenya. c) Corruption. This is common among the Judges who sometimes compromise their integrity due to greed/ Public doubts of its impartiality due to rampant corruption d) Inadequate personnel. There are few qualified judges. For example in 2002, there were 47 judges serving a population of 30 million people. This causes delay in hearing of cases. e) There is constant termination of cases by the Attorney General thereby denying justice to some genuine cases. f) Poor co-ordination within the court system g) Incompetence of some judicial officers. E.g. poor and inconsistent judgments. This has been attributed to flawed appointments and promotion procedures. h) Lack of adequate funds to cater for the needs of the judiciary. This has led to inadequate court structures and facilities such as equipment, chairs, libraries etc. i) Lack of continuous legal education to keep them a breast of the latest legal development and skills in information technology. j) There is a lot of ignorance among the public in Kenya on judicial affairs and their legal rights/ignorance on the legal rights. Members of the public fear the courts and the court language. k) Information on the judiciary has not been made available to the public and it appears to be a preserve of a few. l) Litigation fees are high limits publics access to the courts. **Solutions to the problems facing Kenyas Judiciary.** a) There has been increased legal education given to officers and members of the public by the judiciary and other bodies like Kituo Cha Sheria, which releases information booklets and offers free legal advice to people. b) The terms and conditions of service for judges and other officers were improved in 2002 in order to make them work better. c) The government also set up a committee led by Justice Aaron Ringera in what was famously referred to as Judicial Surgery, to investigate the conduct of judges. Those who were adversely mentioned in the report were suspended. d) The government has recruited more legal officers to reduce the backlog of cases in courts. e) The passing of the Vetting of Judges and Magistrates Act, 2011 (VJM Act) In March 2011, established the Judges and Magistrates Vetting Board, chaired by Sharad Rao ,which is carrying out the vetting exercise to restore public confidence in the Judiciary. **Some of the mile stone decisions undertaken to restore public confidence in the** **judiciary include;** ~ The suspension of Deputy CJ Nancy Baraza and her final resignation for harrassing an innocent security guard. ~ Dropping of President of the Kenyan Appellate Court Justice Riaga Omollo for political bias and authoritarian demeanor while carrying out his activities on the bench. ~ Dropping Judge Samuel Bosire for condoning torture of suspects during Coup trial in 1982. ~ Dropping of Court of Appeal Judge Emmanuel Okubasu for being unsuitable to continue holding office. Joseph Nyamu ~ Justice Mohammed Ibrahim, though Praised as impartial and immune to corruption, was dropped for having an overflowing in-tray of cases ~ Appellate judge Roselyn Nambuye was kicked out due to delays in delivering more than 270 judgements and being too wordy in her ruling. However Nambuye and Mohammed Ibrahim successfully appealed against the decision which once more saw their reinstatement on 21at September 2012 pending further investigations. **The Rule of Law.** **Meaning of the Rule of Law.** This is the absolute supremacy or predominance of regular law as opposed to arbitrary power.The concept is associated with the view of Albert Venn Dicey who published a book, The Law of the Constitution in 1895, in which he presupposes the supremacy of the law. That all persons whether individual or in government, are subject to the law. In Kenya, all citizens and residents are subject to and governed by the same law irrespective of their status, race and religion **Elements of the rule of law.** a) The principle of legality. The state can only exercise those powers granted to it by the law. It should be a government of laws and not of men. b) Separation of powers of the three arms of government. This refers to the practice of dividing the powers of government into the executive, legislature and judicial functions equally and putting in place a system of checks and balances to ensure they control each other. The three functions are to be independent of each other. c) Equality before the law. Everyone should be treated equally under the law. d) The judiciary must work without favour or the fear of intimidation in the administration of justice. **The principles of the Rule of Law.** Joseph Raz in an article titled, The Rule of Law and its Virtues outlines the following eight principles of the rule of law. a) All laws should be prospective and open. A new law should only apply in future. b) Laws should be durable and not changing every other day. c) No centre of power, and specifically parliament, should enjoy monopoly right in making laws for citizens of a country, the judiciary should scrutinize parliament. d) The independence of the judiciary should be protected. e) The principal of natural justice should form an important element in the judicial system of a country. f) There must be easy accessibility to the courts of law. They should neither be expensive nor intimidating. g) The security forces should not use force in contravention of the law. Meaning of the concept of Natural Justice. it refers to the requirement that the bodies that resolve disputes adhere to at least minimum standard of fair decision making **Two principles govern the Concept of Natural Justice.** 1. The person affected by an impending decision must have the right to a fair hearing prior to the decision being made. 2. The person or body hearing the case should act in good faith and without Bias. The right to fair hearing a) The accused must be given prior notice of the case against him and given a chance to respond. b) The accused must be given chance of knowing the case against him and stating his own case. c) The person charged should have opportunity to consider, challenge and contradict any evidence, being fully aware of the allegations leveled against him. d) The person has a right to legal representation by a legally qualified person. e) All legal decisions should have reasons within the law.. **The rule against Bias.** Full inquiry must be conducted into the circumstances involved before the Arbitrator makes a decision. The decision made should be impartial with the adjudicator lacking interest in the outcome.A person is presumed innocent until proven otherwise and the police have no right to beat up suspects. **HISTORY FORM FOUR NOTES**<br><br>**World War** World War I or the First World War was a war fought by many countries, which is why it is called a "world" war. It started in 1914 and ended in 1918. 135 countries took part in World War I, and more than 15,000,000 people died in the war. **World War One - Causes** The First World War, which began in August 1914, was directly triggered by the assassination of the Austrian archduke, Franz Ferdinand and his wife, on 28 June 1914 by Bosnian revolutionary, Gavrilo Princip. This event was, however, simply the trigger that set off declarations of war. **The actual causes of the war were;** **1) The system of Alliances** An alliance is an agreement made between two or more countries to give each other help if it is needed. A number of alliances had been signed by countries between the years 1879 and 1914. For example, the Dual Alliance signed by Germany with Austria Hungary in 1879 and later joined by Italy in 1882 to become the triple Alliance. This system led to the division of Europe into two antagonistic power blocs. It led to fear and suspicion between nations. It transformed local disputes into a general conflict. The Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy were directly opposed by the Entente powers of France and Russia and later included Great Britain to form the Triple Entente in 1907. **2) Imperialism** Imperialism is when a country takes over new lands or countries and makes them subject to their rule. By 1900, the British Empire extended over five continents and France had control of large areas of Africa. With the rise of industrialism, countr- ies needed new markets. The amount of lands 'owned' by Britain and France increased their rivalry with Germany who had entered the scramble to acquire colonies late and only had small areas of Africa. **3) Economic rivalry.** According to Marxism, the highest form of capitalism would ultimately lead to an inevitable war through economic rivalry. In the late 19th century, all European powers had industrialized or had started. Therefore, to match the needs of economy and industry, nations sought to expand their territory through imperialism in order to gain raw mater- ials and markets. This then led to the clash of imperial interest between nations and ultimately led to conflict and war. **4) Militarism** Militarism means that the army and military forces are given a high profile by the government. The growing European divide had led to an arms race between the main countries. The armies of both France and Germany had more than doubled between 1870 and 1914 and there was fierce competition between Britain and Germany for mastery of the seas. The British had introduced the 'Dreadnought', an effective battleship, in 1906. The Germans soon followed suit introducing their own battle- ships. The German, Von Schlieffen also drew up a plan of action that involved attacking France through Belgium if Russia made an attack on Germany. **5) Nationalism** Nationalism means being a strong supporter of the rights and interests of one's country. The Congress of Vienna, held after Napoleon's exile to Elba, aimed to sort out problems in Europe. Delegates from Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia decided upon a new Europe that left both Germany and Italy as divided states. Strong nationalist elements led to the re-unification of Italy in 1861 and Germany in 1871. The settlement at the end of the Franco-Prussian war left France angry at the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany and keen to regain their lost territory. Large areas of both Austria-Hungary and Serbia were home to differing nationalist groups, all of whom wanted freedom from the states in which they lived. **6) Moroccan Crisis** In 1904 Morocco had been given to France by Britain, but the Moroccans wanted their independence. In 1905, Germany announced her support for Moroccan indepe- ndence. War was narrowly avoided by a conference which allowed France to retain possession of Morocco. However, in 1911, the Germans were again protesting against French possession of Morocco. Britain supported France and Germany was persuaded to back down for part of French Congo. **7) Bosnian Crisis** In 1908, Austria-Hungary took over the former Turkish province of Bosnia. This angered Serbians who felt the province should be theirs. Serbia threatened Austria Hungary with war. Russia, allied to Serbia, mobilized its forces. Germany, allied to Austria-Hungary mobilized its forces and prepared to threaten Russia. War was avoided when Russia backed down. There was, however, war in the Balkans between **SPECIAL COVERAGE** **The First Moroccan Crisis** The First Moroccan Crisis clearly indicated that Germanys relation with France was at best fragile. In 1905 Morocco was one of the few African states not occupied by a European power. In May 1905 it was agreed that an international conference should be held on Morocco in Algeciras. **The Algeciras Conference of 1906** The main aim was to decide what was to be done with regards to Morocco. The two main protagonists at Algeciras were France and Germany. However, it soon became very clear to Germany that other European powers had sided with France Britain, Spain and Italy. The Algeciras Conference ended on April 7th 1906.The Germans got very little out of the conference. The plan to create a triple alliance or even a quadruple alliance to isolate Great Britain failed. Arguably, by the end of the conference, Britain and France had even closer ties to one another. A German presence in North Africa had also failed to materialize. The French media portrayed Germany as an inferior nation, much to the concern of the more experienced politicians in Paris. The Algeciras Conference may have resolved the crisis in Morocco but the outcome clearly defined Europe into certain camps. At this conference Germany publicly lost out . **The Agadir Crisis of 1911 (the Second Moroccan Crisis.)** The Agadir Crisis occurred in 1911 just four years after the First Moroccan Crisis. Germanys attention was diverted after the 1905-06 crises by other issues, mainly building up her navy so that it rivaled the Royal Navy. As a result France spent five years having far more influence in Morocco than Germany. They backed the corrupt Sultan, Abdul Aziz, who was accused by some of his countrymen of selling out Morocco to the French. The half-brother of Aziz, Mulay Hafid, took a stand on behalf of the Moroccan people who proclaimed him Sultan in January 1908. Fez also came under attack. In April 1911 a decision was made in Germany to send troops to Fez to support the foreign contingent living there. The plan was to send German warships to Agadir and Mogador ostensibly to defend German citizens in Morocco. A gunboat, the Panther, was sent to Agadir on July 1st 1911. **What part did the Agadir Crisis play in the outbreak of World War One?** The episode proved that Germany was hell-bent on trying to dominate Europe as a whole. Winston Churchill and David Lloyd George were among those who believed this. 1911 and 1912 when the Balkan states drove Turkey out of the area. The states then fought each other over which area should belong to which state. Austria -Hungary then intervened and forced Serbia to give up some of its acquisitions. Tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary was high. **8) The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand** A secret society called Ujedinjenje Ili Smrt, ('Union or Death') or Black Hand was founded in Belgrade, an outgrowth of an older Serb nationalist group: Narodna Odbrana. When it was learned that the Heir-Apparent to the Austrian throne, Franz Ferdinand, was scheduled to visit Sarajevo in June of 1914, the Black Hand decided to assassinate him. Three young Bosnians were recruited, trained and equipped: Gavrilo Princip, Nedjelko Cabrinovic and Trifko Grabez. The murders of Franz Ferdinand and Sophie brought Austro-Serbian tensions to a head. As Vienna took a hard line against Serbia, the other powers in Europe took sides. The wheels of war gained speed. The Crisis of July turned into world war, just over thirty days after Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie were shot. **System of Alliances.** By 1914, Europe had divided into two camps. 1) The Triple Alliance was Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary. 2) The Triple Entente was Britain, France and Russia. **1) The Triple Alliance** The alliance between Germany and Austria was natural. Both spoke the same language - German - and had a similar culture. Austria was in political trouble in the south-east of Europe - the Balkans. She needed the might of Germany to back her up if trouble got worse. Italy had joined these countries as she feared their power on her northern border. Each member of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria and Italy) promised to help the others if they were attacked by another country. By the close of the war the Central Powers had been extended to incorporate Bulgaria and Turkey **2) The Triple Entente** The Entente Powers comprised a military alliance - driven by a variety of inter-related treaties - of France, Great Britain and Russia.The Entente alliance sprang from the military concerns of Germany's neighbours to east and west. Russia and France; accordingly in 1894 they signed an alliance based upon fears of growing German power. Britain subsequently forged alliances with both Russia and France once it became clear that Germany intended to construct a navy to match the Royal Navy in the late 1890s. Thus the Entente Alliance was not a formal alliance. The term was later replaced by the more general 'Allies' to include other nations including Italy and Japan. **THE COURSE OF THE WAR.** The war was fought in three continents; Europe, Africa and Asia and both on land and on the sea. In Europe, the war was fought in two fronts 1. The Western Front was where most of the fighting between Germany and the Allies happened. The war in western front was fought in Belgium and France as per the Schlieffen plan. Count Alfred von Schlieffen, mastermind of the Schlieffen Plan, served as Germany's Chief of the Imperial General Staff from 1891 to 1905. It was Schlieffen's plan, long after he retired fro army (1906) that was used for the August 1914 attack on France that was to trigger World War One. The Schlieffen Plan entailed an attack on France (while Russia mobilised her army) followed by an attack on Russia. The plan meant that Germany could place the bulk of her military might on one frontier and then move it to another. **The basic mechanics of Von Schlieffens plan were;** a) A devastating attack on France via neutral Belgium as soon as Russia had announced her intention to mobilise, which would take six weeks. b) A holding operation on the Russian/German border to be carried out if necessary and if required. c) Germany was to use 6 weeks to defeat France. a massive and successful surprise attack against France would be enough to put off Britain becoming involved in a continental war d) Germany would then use her modernised rail system to move troops quickly from the French operation to the Russian front. Russia would then be attacked and defeated. **The Schlieffen Plan was daring but it had a number of glaring weaknesses:** a) The actions of Russia determined when Germany would have to start her attack on France even if she was ready or not. b) It assumed that Russia would need six weeks to mobilise. But she mobilized faster than it was assumed. c) It assumed that Germany would defeat France in less than six weeks. Early on July 31, Russia began a full mobilization of its forces in preparation for war with Austria-Hungary. On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia and German troops began moving into Luxembourg in preparation for invading Belgium and France. On August 2, Germany contacted the Belgian government requesting free passage through Belgium for its troops. This was refused by King Albert and Germany declared war on both Belgium and France on August 3.The German Army went into Belgium on the 4 August. On the same day, Great Britain started a war on Germany, because Britain was a friend of Belgium. When the Germans got to the Belgian city of Lige, they did finally push the Belgians out of the city, but it had taken longer than the German generals had planned.On December 24-25, 1914, there was a temporary halt to the fighting on parts of the Western Front. This was the Christmas truce.The initial force behind the Christmas Truce came from the Germans. Christmas was celebrated in full, with men visiting across the lines and gifts of food and tobacco being exchanged. As Christmas ended, both sides reluctantly returned to war, the bonds forged at Christmas slowly eroded as units rotated out and the fighting became more ferocious.By 1915, the Western Front had become a stalemate as both sides engaged in trench warfare.The men on both sides took spades and dug lines of trenches went all the way from Switzerland to the North Sea, because they did not want to be killed. In front of the trenches, there was barbed wire that cut anyone who tried to climb over it, and mines that blew up anyone who tried to run across the "no man's land" that was in between the trenches. Gas was also an important weapon used.The war in the west was static in the next three years and attempts by the military commanders on both sides to break the stalemate led to deaths of many soldiers. At the battle of the Somme in 1916 60,000 British men died in a single day. It was one of the bloodiest days in the history of the British army. Seeking to shatter the Anglo-French lines, the German Chief of Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, began planning a massive assault on the French city of Verdun. The Battle of Verdun lasted from February 21, 1916 until December 18, 1916 and was one of the longest and bloodiest battles of World War I. A brutal battle of attrition, Verdun cost the French an estimated 161,000 dead, 101,000 missing and 216,000 wounded. German losses were approximately 142,000 killed and 187,000 wounded. 2. The Eastern Front was fought in Central and Eastern Europe and was one of the main places where World War I took place. The start of the war on the eastern front involved an attack on Russia on 1st of august 1914. On August 6, Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia and six days later entered into hostilities with France and Britain. The Russians were decisively defeated by allied forces of Austria and Germany at the battle of Tanneberg in august 1914 and at the battle of Missourian Lakes in September 1914. **War in the seas** Some of the fiercest battles between the Allies and the central powers took place in the sea.By May 1916, Germanys main fleet was stationed in the North Sea to attack Britains fleet. However, the British intelligence decoded the German wireless code and was able to prepare the royal navy to fully counter Germanys challenge. Both sides suffered causalities in the war that followed. 11 german ships and 14 British ships were lost. **Importance of Britains supremacy at sea** a) The British naval forces assisted in blocking the central powers particularly the Germans from accessing food and raw materials from other parts of the world. This derailed their war plans. b) Her naval supremacy enabled the allies to capture colonies of the central powers. c) The sea blockade enabled the allies to maintain uninterrupted communication with other allied forces, as well as safeguard the british food and raw material supplies from other parts of the world. **The final phase of World War 1** The final phase of the war was a second Germany onslaught on France in 1918 where the Germans were decisively defeated in the hands of USA soldiers. **End of World War I.** ***Two events that led to the end of World War I were:*** 1) Russias withdrawal from the war after the Great Russian revolution. 2) The declaration of war by the United States of America against the central powers. **The First Russian Revolution** In 1917, there was a revolution in Russia. The Russian people didn't want to fight anymore, because the war had been putting burdens on them, and many of them were poor and hungry. **The Second Russian Revolution** Two factions fought to rule over Russia. The passive Mensheviks lost against radical Bolsheviks. The leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) which was Communist who followed the ideas of Karl Marx. The new government sued the Germans for peace, and signed a peace treaty called Brest-Litvosk with the Central Powers in March 1918 at the city of Brest Litovsk. The Germans and Russians stopped fighting. This gave Germany lots of land in Eastern Europe and the Baltic Sea **USA entry into the war.** The German generals using submarines named U-boats (underwater boats) attacked American ships (Lusitania) that were carrying food and weapons to Great Britain. Some Americans were killed by the submarines.Germany also wrote a secret telegram note to Mexico suggesting that the two countries work together to attack the United States (the Zimmerman Telegram- because the person who sent it was named Arthur Zimmerman- the german foreign minister). **Other reasons why USA entered the war on the side of the Allies were;** a) America was concerned with safeguarding her trade with Britain. (US Anglo relationship was strong). USA was fully aware that the a defeat of Allied powers would cost her financial and industrial institutions b) The USA and British intelligence were able to link some Germany sympathizers with the industrial sabotage in factories and trade unions in the USA. c) Cruelty of the Germans led to the growth of anti-Germany feelings in the United States. Many of the Allies sympathizers had relatives in either France or Britain. American people decided that they wanted their country to enter the war to punish Germany. On April 6, 1917 the United States declared war against Germany and became part of the Allies.The socialist politicians declared Germany a republic and met with the Supreme Commander of the allied forces on 7th November 1918, Ferdinand Foch, to negotiate for end of the war with very stiff terms to the Germans. **The stiff terms given to the Germans included;** a) Germany to withdraw from all occupied territories, including overseas colonies. b) All German forces west of the Rhine to be withdrawn. c) All German warships to surrender to the Allies. d) Occupation of some parts of Germany by the Allies. e) All Allied prisoners of war to be released. The Germans were given 72 hours to either accept or reject these stiff conditions. Protesting bitterly, they signed an armistice on 9th November 1918. At 11:00 AM on 9th November 1918, the war ended. **Reasons why the allies won World War I.** a) Allied powers had many supporters drawn from 25 states some of which were Britain, France, Belgium, Russia, Italy, USA, Japan and Portugal. They had more manpower than the central powers. b) Germany failure to effectively control her expensive colonies and others turned against her. c) USA entry into war on the side of the allies accelerated the defeat of the central powers. The industrial might of USA and her economic wealth helped the Allies to force the central powers to their knees. d) The Allies had able and focussed political leaders like Lloyd George-the British Premier and Georges Clemenceau, the French Premier. e) Germans/axis powers made serious technical mistakes like invasion of the neutral Belgium by Germany which turned the world opinion against the central powers. f) Superior naval power of the Allies. The superiority of the British Royal Navy enabled the Allies to enforce a naval Blockade that caused severe food shortages among the central powers. g) Germany fought the war on many fronts. h) Germany was badly led down by her colleagues like Italy who decamped and Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary who had to be assisted all the time. Turkey on her part easily accepted defeat. i) The Allies had financial and industrial resources in Europe and in their colonies which were used to great advantage during the war. j) The Allies had powerful weapons e.g. they used Tankers, Aircraft and Battleships. k) The allies were united under the Command of General Foch which disadvantaged the central powers. German also used young and inexperienced soldiers after 1918 due to heavy causalities. l) The central powers were surrounded by the Allies as they lay in the centre of Europe. They also lacked an extensive coastline and thus were easily blockaded. **The Peace Treaties.** In January 1918, Woodrow Wilson, President of the USA, outlined, in his speech to the congress, the fourteen points that were essential in maintenance of world peace. **Among these were three great principles that formed the basis of world peace** **namely;** 1. Self-determination of all peoples, i.e, the right of peoples all over the world to determine their own fate. 2. The need to make public all diplomatic and international agreements. 3. The need to establish a League of Nations which would provide an avenue for discussing all international problems, protect small states from aggression by large ones.In January 1919, statesmen from the 27 Allied powers converged at Paris, France to determine the fate of the defeated central powers. The central powers were not party to the discussions but were required to sign on the final . The Key personalities at the conference were; *a) Lloyd George( PM of Britain)* *b) George Clemenceau (PM of France)* *c) Woodrow Wilson (President of USA)* *d) Vittorio Orlando (PM of Italy)* Five treaties were signed with each of the central powers separately as follows; *a) The Treaty of Versailles with Germany (28th June 1919)* *b) Treaty of St. Germaine with Austria (10th September 1919)* *c) Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria (27th November 1919)* *d) Treaty of Trianon with Hungary (4th June 1920)* *e) Treaty of Sevres in 1920 and Lausanne in 1923 with Turkey.* **The Treaty of Versailles.** It should be noted that all the above treaties were generally referred to as the Treaty of Versailles. **Terms of the Versailles Treaty of 1919.** a) The treaty declared Germany an aggressor who was supposed to pay reparations and whose military capability was to be reduced. b) She lost all her colonial passions with the African colonies being taken from her and put under supervision of the League of Nations. c) The treaty of St. Germaine provided for the creation of Yugoslavia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Malta as mandated territories. d) Germany was totally disarmed and only allowed to retain a force of 100,000 soldiers and her navy was disbanded. Military conscription was banned in Germany. e) Germanys population and size was reduced as Austria, with a large German population was allowed to remain independent. Italy acquired Stria, the Italianspeaking region of Austria. f) Rhineland was to be permanently demilitarized. Germany troops were not allowed in the region. h) By the treaty of Versailles, Germany lost the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to France. i) The treaty established the League of Nation. **Failures of the treaty of Versailles.** a) The treaty handed Germany a heavy punishment as if she was the only one to blame for World War 1. This provoked deep resentment and bitterness among the German nationals. b) The treaty ignored the interests of the colonial people. The former colonial possessions of Germany and turkey were handed over to France and Britain in total disregard to the African grievances during the Versailles conference c) The treaty failed to carter for the interests of the minority in Europe. The new republic of Austria was forbidden from merging with Germany though a national vote was for the merger. d) Italy was given a raw deal in the settlement. She was only given Stria, an Italian speaking region formerly belonging to Austria. e) Though the treaty proposal for the formation of the League of Nations came from the USA president Wilson, the US constitution prohibited commitment to such an organization, whose membership required a nation to help a future victim of aggression. **RESULTS OF WORLD WAR I** a) Nationalist movements in Asia and Africa grew in strength and number after the war and a sense of patriotism arose. b) USA gained an upper hand in the post war European affairs. She emerged as a leading world power. c) German military capability was reduced on land and sea and heavy indemnity imposed on her. She lost all her colonies, which were made mandated territ ories of the League of Nations. d) The end of the war marked the beginning of the decline of western imperialism. As early as 1920, there was a possibility of independence for colonial countries. The war encouraged imperial powers to give more freedom to their subjects. e) The end of the war witnessed the creation of new states e.g. Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Finland. f) Germany and Italy fell in the hands of dictators e.g. Mussolini and Hitler. g) The war Created bitter feelings and mistrust among the countries that fought in the war. This continued until the outbreak of the Second World War. h) It led to the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 in Russia as radicals took over government there. i) It led to a change of government in Britain. j) There was greater use of motor vehicles and aircraft, which facilitated transport. k) The art of surgery improved. l) Between 1914 and 1918, European factories were destroyed and business brought down hence heavy losses. m) There was massive destruction of property and infrastructure. n) It led to the great depression 1920 to 1921, which affected economies worldwide. o) It led to increased taxation by he colonial authorities to meet war and post -war demands. **THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS** **Origin and organization of the League of Nations.** The League of Nations was established by the victors of the First World War in 1920 at the treaty of Versailles with the main aim of preventing the occurrence of another war. The idea of its formation was mooted by Woodrow Wilson, the US president who was supported by Lord Robert Cecil of Britain, Jan Smuts of South Africa and Leon Bourgeois of France.The League of Nation came into force during the first meeting in London Britain,on 10th January 1920. **Reasons for the formation of the League of Nations in 1920.** a) It was formed for the Maintenance of world peace / It was specifically created to prevent the outbreak of another world war b) The League of Nations was meant to foster international cooperation in solving problems as they arise. c) It was formed to jointly take instant action against an agreed aggressor by economic and possibly by military means. d) Members were to secure and maintain fair and humane conditions of labour as one way of maintaining peace in the world. e) It was formed to oversee development of territories lost to central powers during the First World War. E.g. Tanganyika, Togo, South West Africa etc. **The main organs of the League of Nations were;** ***The Council.*** It was made up of permanent and Non-permanent members. The permanent members were France, Britain, Italy and Japan. Non permanent members were four, elected by the general assembly.The main role of the council which sat in Geneva was to appoint committees and secretary General with the approval of the majority of the Assembly. It also dealt with disputes amongst member states, reduction of armament, execution of arbitral awards and admittance and expulsion of members. ***The Assembly.*** It met once a year at Geneva and was comprised of three delegates from each member state. It elected non-permanent members to the council. The functions of the Assembly included; a) Control of the Budget of the organization (including contributions and expenditure). b) Admission of new members after approval of a two-thirds majority. c) Appointment of non-permanent members of the League of Nations Council. d) Consideration of treaties. e) Supervision of the work of the League of Nations council. f) Appointment of the 15 judges of the permanent Court of International Justice. g) Giving approval to the appointment of Secretary-General. ***The Secretariat.*** The Secretariat, based in Geneva, consisted of the secretary general and his staff. It was the administrative body of the League of Nations. It kept records of the organization and conducted correspondences including treaties by member states. It implemented the decisions of the League of Nations. It provided continuity between one meeting of the council or the assembly and the next, ***The International Court of Justice.*** Set up between 1920 and 1922, it comprised of eleven judges and four deputy judges elected for nine years by the assembly and the council. It was based at the HagueHolland. Decisions made by the court were binding on all parties in dispute. International Labour Organization.It consisted of 4 delegates- two for member states and two for workers from each member state. Its main aim was to maintain good working conditions for men, women and children. ***The Mandates Commission.*** It had then responsibility of supervising the administration of the trustee colonies. The League of Nations also had several specialized agencies. **Achievements of the League of Nations.** a) The League of Nations, through the Permanent Court of International Justice, maintained international peace and security. E.g. in the city of Danzig in spite of the hostility between the poles and the Germans. b) The League of Nations achieved its objective of treating the minority with humane. The International Office for Refugees, for example, assisted refugees. Victims of the Nazi persecutions were also assisted. c) The league assisted in the administration of the trust territories, through the Mandates Commission. E.g. in Togo, Tanganyika Cameroon and Rwanda-urundi. In addition, the territories acquired from turkey. E.g. Iraq and Palestine. d) The league was able to solve several interstate disputes in a peaceful manner. E.g the frontier dispute between turkey and Iraq over the Mosul province (1924 -1926), the dispute between Poland and Germany over northern Silesia. e) The league successfully restored financial stability in Austria following the economic slump in the country after the World War 1. f) It successfully enforced control over the manufacture and sale of arms. It also held disarmament meetings. g) The league ensured signing of peace treaties to promote security in the world. For example, the Locarno treaties of 1925 that settled boundary disputes between Germany and France. **Failures of the League of Nations.** The League of Nations failed its Prime objective of maintaining world peace in the following ways; a) It failed to solve the Sino-Japanese dispute after Japan invaded Manchuria in China in 1931. Japan after refusing to abide by the Leagues demands that it withdraws from the Chinese territory, even pulled out of the league in 1933. b) The Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935. Benito Mussolini, rather than accept the Leagues verdict that he withdraws Italian troops from Ethiopia, pulled out of the League. c) The League failed to stop German Violation of the terms of the Versailles Treaty. She embarked on a remilitarization programme and established a navy and an airbase. d) Nations continued to make many defensive pacts in total disregard of the Treaty of Versailles. e) Germany invaded other regions such as Poland and Austria between 1936 and 1939, while Russia invaded Finland in 1939 in violation of the League of Nations. **Factors that undermined the effectiveness of the League of Nations.** a) Member countries were not willing to take disputes to the international court of justice. b) German was still determined to increase its military strength and continue with its aggression policy. c) Individual nations were more pre-occupied with national interests and pride, at the expense of the organizations interests. d) The Versailles peace settlement resolutions were too harsh to Germany thus leaving the Germans aggrieved and refuse to cooperate with the League of Nations. e) The League of Nations lacked the executive authority to implement its resolutions. f) USA congress refused to ratify the treaty of the League of Nations. This denied the organization diplomatic and economic strength. g) There was shortage of funds to implement the functions of the League of Nations. h) The Appeasement Policy of Britain and France forced them to stand aside and avoid taking a firm action against Japan when she invaded china, Germany when she invaded and occupied Rhineland, and Italy when she attacked Ethiopia. **The Second World War.** The 1930s witnessed the rise of dictators in Europe like Adolf Hitler of Germany, Benito Mussolini of Italy and General Francisco Franco of Spain who intentionally defied international opinion and disregarded the Versailles Treaty and League of Nations. Their activities and those of Japan began to interfere with prevailing peace in the world. This happened at the time when USA had retreated into isolation leaving the task of maintaining world peace only to Britain and France.The Second World War involved most countries in the world with millions of people conscripted for service in both the military and war related industries. **Causes of the Second World War.** ***a) Germanys dissatisfaction based on territorial grievances.*** The Versailles treaty of 1919 imposed harsh and humiliating conditions on Germany, which aggrieved the Germans to the level of being ready to go to war again. ***b) The rise of nationalism in Europe.*** In Germany, the chancellor, Adolf Hitler who had the desire to dominate the whole world, fuelled it. For example, he encouraged German speakers in Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia to demand independence from Czechoslovakia. Italy under Mussolini invaded Ethiopia, in 1939 to regain her lost glory and national pride after the Adowa defeat I 1896. Syria rose up against France. ***c) Political developments in Europe.*** In Italy in 1922, the fascist government under Benito Mussolini came to power. In Germany, Hitlers Nazi government assumed power in 1933. The Fascist government in Italy emphasized on the regaining of lost glory. The Nazi government began a fresh new policy of aggression. ***d) The economic problems caused by the great depression of 1929 to 1931.*** The great slump led to widespread unemployment, declining wages, poverty etc. these led to social discontent and political unrest in many countries of the world. ***e) The failure of Germany to pay reparations.*** This was followed by the French invasion of the Ruhr industrial region- a German territory. This led to increased tension. ***f) Weakening of the League of Nations.*** Japan left the League of Nations after protest over Manchuria, which she had grabbed, from china. Italy left the League of Nations after Mussolini had grabbed Abyssinia and annexed it against the will of the allies and Ethiopians. Russia invaded Finland in 1939 and the league was unable to intervene. There were many secret treaties among members of the league. ***g) The Spanish civil war (1936-1939).*** The republican revolution of 1931 ended the Spanish monarchy. The struggle between the royalists and socialists, however, continued. The European powers took sides in the civil war. France, Britain and Russia supported the royalists. Germany and Italy supported General Franco who was fighting from exile in Morocco. ***h) Growth of military alliances.*** Hitler and Mussolini established a military pact in 1936 (The Berlin-Rome Axis). it became the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis with the joining of Italy. The alliance between Russia and German to divide Poland widened the gap between them and the allied forces. It created fear and suspicion. ***i) The invasion of Poland by Germany.*** This happened in September 1939 was the immediate cause of the war. This upset Britain and France, who stated their intensions of assisting Poland. They declared war on Germany in October 1939. ***COURSE OF WORLD WAR 2*** The invasion of Poland by German forces on 1St of September 1939 and the subsequent declaration of war against Germany by Britain and France on 3rd of September 1939 marked the beginning of the Second World War. Meanwhile on 17 th September 1939, the USSR attacked Poland from the East, as per the secret clause in the Nazi -Soviet act of August 1939. Poland had been overrun by German and Russian forces by 27 th September 1939. The country was divided between Russia and Germany. **The phoney war.** This was a period during world war two when no major military operations were undertaken on the western front although war had been declared on Germany by France and Britain. The period lasted eight months from 3rd of September 1939. It was used by the Allied countries to fully mobilise their forces for an attack on Germany since they had not initially been prepared. Hitler on his part did not want to be involved in war in the west since his armies had not fully recovered from the consequents in the east. During this period, two unsuccessful attempts were made to bring peace; a) On 6th October 1939, Hitler and Stalin of Russia made an attempt to convince the to accept the Nazi Occupation of Poland and make peace. b) On 7th October, King Leopold of Belgium and Queen Wilhelmina of Netherlands appealed to the Axis powers and the Western Allies to make peace. War in Western Europe.On 9th April 1940, Hitler launched a sea-borne invasion against Norway after attacking Denmark via land. They were assisted by a Norwegian Nazi sympathiser Vidkund Quisling. The prime minister of Norway and his Ministers fled to London and Hitler established a puppet government in the country. The defeat of British and French forces in Norway sparked off a parliamentary revolution in Britain forcing the PM Neville Chamberlain to resign to be replaced by Sir Winston Churchill. Germany extended their attack on Luxembourg, Netherlands and Belgium. The Allies were unable to contain the German advance and even retreated to the French port of Dunkirk, marking a major defeat of the allies in Europe.On 14th June 1940, the Germans captured Paris forcing the new Prime Minister Paul Reynaud to sue for peace with Hitler on 22nd June 1940. Under the peace agreement, The Germans took over Alsace Lorraine, Northern France and the Atlantic coastline. the French government fled to Vichy, southern France. **Why the French were defeated so quickly.** a) The French forces were not psychologically prepared for the war and thus were found divided. b) The French forces were not as well organized as the Germans thus exposing various military weaknesses. For example, the Germans were supported by combat planes which the French did not use. c) Poor communication between the army and the airforce. The French generals failed to coordinate the war properly to the extend of ignoring the fact that the Airforce could have been used to drive German Bombers off. Having succeeded in their Paris onslaught, the Germans attacked Britain in July 1940. However, Winston Churchill, the British Premier, had mobilized forces to resist this attack successfully he even obtained reinforcement from USA. The battle of Britain determined the future of World War II. It forced Hitler to delay his attacks. **War in North Africa.** WWII in Africa was marked by the Italian successful attack on French and British Somaliland. Under Marshal Graziani, the Italian forces advanced to Egypt though unsuccessful. In June1942, German forces moved to North Africa to reinforce the Italians.However, British forces led by General Bernard Montgomery moved quickly and captured Malta which would have been used as a base for attack by the Germans. General Montgomery attacked the Germans at El Alamein in Egypt, forcing them to move to west. On 8thNovember 1942, British and American forces invaded Morocco and Algeria.Although the Germans continued fighting in Tunisia, by May 1943, their Army under General Rommel had surrendered. **War in the Balkans.** In August 1940, Hitler Attacked and captured Romania and Bulgaria. In April 1941, Yugoslavia and Greece were taken. Crete was taken in May 1941.On 22nd June 1941, Hitler attacked USSR forcing the Russian troops to retreat. However, he failed to capture Moscow before the onset of winter. In June 1942, the Germans resumed their offensive. They were finally defeated at the battle of Stalingrad on 31st January 1943 by the Russian Red Army led by Marshal Zhukov. The Germans lost 300,000 men while 100,000 survivors surrendered. By May 1944, the Russians had pushed the Germans from their territory and were approaching Germany itself. **Why the Germans were defeated during the Russian Invasion.** a) The Germany army was fighting in several fronts at the same time as compared to the allies. This lack of concentration in one area allowed the other Russian army to defeat them. b) The soviet forces employed the scorched earth policy which left very little for the German forces. c) The Germans ill-treated the soviet people and exploited their economic resources causing resentment and unity to fight with determination. d) Weak leadership by the German military leaders contributed to their defeat. **USA entry into World War I.** The Japanese attack on the American great Naval Base at Pearl Harbour on the Hawaiian island is the one incident that dragged USA into WWII.On 8th December 1941, the USA, Britain and the Netherlands declared war on Japan. The Germans and Italians also declared war on the USA. Russia kept off the war in Asia having signed a treaty with Japan.Japan resisted fiercely. Her airforce sank two British battleships on 10th December 1941.She captured Hong Kong, Malaya in Malaysia and took over the great naval base at Singapore. She also occupied Burma, Dutch East Indies, the Philippines and parts of the western pacific islands.The Japanese forces were repulsed while on their way to Port Moresby, New Guinea in may 1942.In 1942, Britain used her bases in India to attack Japan. Japan attacked India in 1944, but the strong and large allied forces defeated the Japanese at the battle of Kohima. **The defeat of Germany.** After 1942, the tide of success began to turn against Hitler. German forces were defeated by the allies in North Africa and France. By March 1945, the Allies had crossed the Rhine, pushed the Germans out of France in June 1944.The Germans were meanwhile facing the Russian attack from the East. Hitler accepted defeated and handed over power to one of the Military Generals to retreat to an underground Bunker in Berlin.On 29th April 1945, Hitler married his long term Mistress Eva Braun. On the following day, he committed suicide by shooting himself while Eva Braun took Poison. On 7th May 1945, the Germans surrendered unconditionally **Why the Germans were defeated.** a) Germany had acquired far too many territories and she was unable to effectively control them. b) The USSR recovered from her losses and began to rearm in a bid to fight against Germany. c) The USA entry into the war in 1941 on the side of the allies contributed to the eventual defeat of the Germans. d) Germanys Axis powers were only four, fighting against more than 27 allies. Even among the Germany collaborators, Italy surrendered while Bulgaria and Romania also were a burden to the Germans. **The defeat of Japan.** After Germany surrender, Japan continued with fierce fighting sometimes employing the services of suicide bombers known as Kamikaze. The allies were able to liberate the territories captured by Japan After the defeat at Okinawa, Japan was certain of defeat, but her PM , Admiral Suzuki Kantaro, did not believe in unconditional defeat. On 6th August 1945, a bomber Aeroplane, Enola Gay, commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets, flew over Hiroshima dropping a 4535.15kg atomic bomb. About 78,000 people died. On 8th August 1945, Russia attacked Japan. On 9th August 1945, an even larger Bomb was dropped on Nagasaki killing more than 40,000 people. Japan surrendered unconditionally on 15th August 1945 bringing WWII to an end. **Factors that enabled the allied powers to win the Second World War.** a) Allies had more wealth in terms of food, raw materials and equipments. b) Allies controlled the North Sea, which ensured safe transportation of troops and equipment. They were also able to block the central powers in the sea. c) Entry of USA in the war led to defeat of Germany. America had strong American air force and war resources, d) Germanys inability to control her expansive territories and some turned against her and in favour of the allied powers. e) The unity, morale and determination of the allied leaders and fighters. f) Popular sentiment was for allied victory and Hitlers defeat. g) Hitler's over-confidence and craziness did not allow him to comprehend the enormity of opposition up against him and the axis forces. h) External support especially from the colonial people in Africa, Asia and elsewhere. i) Axis powers dropped out of war one by one. j) Allies had better industries and financial resources/ superior economy, war tactics and superior diplomacy by all the allied powers. k) The axis powers made serious tactical mistakes e.g. Hitler failed to prepare for a winter campaign in Russia and was obsessed with the idea that Germans must not retreat. l) When the USSR recovered from her losses, she rearmed her self and attacked Germany. **Social results of Second World War** a) Depopulation and great suffering as Millions of people perished either in war or due to famine and diseases. b) People suffered psychologically and emotionally from the loss of loved ones and torture of the war. c) The end of the war witnessed change in the status of women. Women started doing work, which was initially monopolized by men. E.g. military and management. d) There was permanent ill health and shortening of life for millions of peoples because of years of under- nourishment or captivity. e) There was massive Destruction of property such as homes, houses, buildings, roads and bridges. f) A large number of people were displaced as people moved to look for peaceful areas and this led to great suffering. The new refugees included the Jews, Slavs and the poles. g) The war fomented bitter feelings and mistrust among the countries that fought h) The war helped to shade off the myth popularized by Europeans that they were a superior race to Africans as European causalities in the war proved that they were mortals **Identify the political effects of the World War II.** a) Defeat of axis powers led to government changes in Germany, Italy and Japan. b) The division of Europe into two opposing blocks led to the cold war, which was followed by an arms race between USA and USSR. c) Germany was divided into two. The communist East and the capitalist West. The city of Berlin was also divided between the east and the west. d) Germany and Italy were weakened especially with the loss of their colonies. e) U.S.A & U.S.S.R emerged as superpowers. The pre-war balance of power was destroyed and the power vacuum was filled by two new superpowers, the USA and USSR f) A weakness of the League of Nations to prevent the outbreak of war was demonstrated. This Led to UNO formation. g) There was rise of nationalism in Asia and Africa. It led to Africans struggle for independence because they were confident knowing that Europeans were no superior to them. Nationalists among the Asians leading to attainment of independence in Pakistan and India in 1947, in Burma (Myanmar) in 1948, and in Ceylon (Sri Lanka.) in 1949. h) The Japanese destroyed the myth of European military superiority due to the defeat of British and American forces in the Far East. i) New states were created. In 1948, the state of Israel was established in the Middle East, to settle the Jews who were displaced during the war. **Economic effects of World War 2.** a) Agriculture and industries were disrupted due to lack of equipment, raw materials and human resources. b) External trade almost came to a standstill because of fear and insecurity. c) It led to increased dependency on colonies by European powers. There was need of raw materials to reconstruct the destroyed industries. d) Some Industries were established in the colonies to manufacture goods because of the difficulties faced in running them during the war. e) It led to the rise of European economic cooperation. The post war economic destructions led to the need for cooperation. This paved way for formation of the European Economic Community in 1957. **INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS** International Relations refers to the cooperation or interaction between individuals or groups of nations of the world **Benefits of international relations.** a) Enhance peace and security in the world the diplomatic policies of nations call for peaceful settlement of disputes, thus reducing war incidences. b) Promote understanding and unity. This done through Encouraging cultural exchange between nations. c) Help in getting collectives solutions to world problems. Problems of global concern like desertification, global warming, armament and environmental pol lution, are dealt with collectively. d) Promote economic growth through trade. Due to good relations , there is expanded international trade which enables countries to acquire goods they dont produce e) Developing countries get financial assistance. Developed nations have continued to provide financial and technical assistance to developing nations **Ways in which nations relate internationally.** a) Economic relations. This is through trade and commercial activities among nations. For example, developed nations giving loans and grants to developing nations. b) Diplomatic relations. This is a peaceful means of relationship between nations in which there is exchange of Ambassadors or High Commissioners. c) Political relations. This involves cooperation between countries with similar political systems or ideologies. E.g. USA and Western Europe, in 1964, Tanganyika united with the island of Zanzibar to form the United Republic of Tanzania. d) Socio-cultural relations. This takes place in form of exchange and competition between dance troops, musicians, acrobats, sports teams, theatre groups etc, e.g. participation in Commonwealth Games. **International Organizations** There are two types of international organizations; 1. International Governmental Organizations (IGOs) for example UN, Commonwealth, NAM and African Union.( formed by two or more sovereign states). 2. International Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) created by individuals or private organizations. E.g. International Red cross, Amnesty International and Transparency International. **Role played by International Governmental Organizations.** a) The provide member states with a forum to consult and tackle problems of concern. b) They act as regulators in their fields to ensure the welfare of Humankind e.g World Health Organization (WHO) regulates health sector through immunization, vaccination and other prevention campaigns. c) They enhance peace and security through peace-keeping missions and response to disasters. d) They contribute to charity and facilitate equitable distribution of resources in the world. For example, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank advance loans to developing nations. **THE UNITED NATIONS.** The UN was founded after world war Two as an organization of independent states with the following objectives; a) To promote and maintain international peace and security and prevent the occurrence of another world war. b) To foster friendly relations among nations of the world. c) To promote respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms. d) To promote social progress and better living standards of the people. e) To protect the interests of minority groups such as women and children. f) To promote economic growth among member states who are working towards reconstructing the world economy that was destroyed by the World War 2. g) To replace the league of nations which had collapsed before the outbreak of world war 2 **Formation of the United Nations.** The signing of the Allied declaration in London on 12th June 1941 marked the first step in the formation of the UN. On 14th August 1941, Franklin Delano Roosevelt of USA and Winston Churchill of Britain, meeting in USA, proposed a set of principles for international collaboration in maintaining peace and security. This was the Atlantic Charter. The charter pledged respect for human Freedom, Allowed all nations the freedom to choose the form of government they preferred and provided that no territory should change hands after war without consent of its people.On 1st January 1942, representatives of Allied nations meeting in Washington signed the Declaration by United Nations and proclaimed support for the Atlantic Charter. This marked the first official use of the term United Nations as suggested by President Roosevelt in reference to the 26 nations. The first Blueprint of the UN was prepared at a conference held at Dumbarton Oaks Estate, Washington from 21st September to 7th October 1944. Representatives of USSR, USA, UK and China agreed on the aims, structure and functions of a world organization.On 11th February 1945, the Yalta Conference held by US president Roosevelt, UK PM Churchill and Russian PM Stalin declared the resolve to establish an international organization to maintain peace and security.On 25th April 1945, the United Nations Conference on International Organization began in San Francisco, USA attended by delegates from 50 nations. It drew a 111 Article Charter which was adopted on 25th June 1945.The UN began its official functions on 24th October 1945 after ratification of the charter by USSR, USA, Britain, China and France. **Organization of the UNO.** Membership to the UN is open to all peace-loving nations that accept the obligations of the charter. By 1945, only 51 states had signed the charter. Kenya Joined on 16th December 1963By April 2003 membership had grown to 191 states. **To achieve its aims, the UN spelt out in its charter the following principles;** a) It is based on the sovereign equality of all its members. b) All member states must fulfil, in good faith, their charter obligations. c) All member states must settle international disputes by peaceful means and without endangering peace, security and justice. d) They must refrain, in their international relations, from the threat or use of force against others. e) They must give the United Nations every assistance to any action it takes in accordance with the charte`r, and shall not assist states against which the United Nations is taking preventive or enforcement action. f) The United Nations must ensure that states which are not members act in accordance with these principles insofar as necessary for maintenance of international peace and security. The UNO structure comprises six principal organs as follows; **THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY** This is the main deliberative organ of the UNO, but which cannot enforce action on members. It comprises all member states. **Functions of the UN General Assembly.** To help in its operation, the general assembly has the following committees; The political and security committee, the special political committee, the economic and financial committee, the committee on social ,humanitarian and cultural issues, the trusteeship committee , the administration/budget committee and the legal affairs committee. **THE SECURITY COUNCIL** It has 15 members from 15 countries. Ten of these are non -permanent. It also has five permanent members namely china, France, USA, Russia and UK.Its main function is to maintain world peace and security. **ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL** Its membership is 54. 18 are elected each year for a term of three years.Its function is to coordinate the economic and social work of UN and its specialized agencies. E.g. in trade, status of women. Population, science and technology. **TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL.** It inherited the work of the Mandates Commission of the former League of Nations. It had responsibility over the territories under colonial rule-. - To promote social, economic, political and educational advancement of the inhabitants of the trust territories.Consists of five permanent members and six additional ones appointed by the General Assembly. **THE SECRETARIAT.** The head of the secretariat is the secretary general. It has its headquarters in New York. Its staff members come from 139 countries. Its work covers all areas outlined in the UN Charter. **THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE.** It has its headquarters at Hague. It is the principal judicial body of the UN. It gives advisory opinions on legal questions. It has 15 judges. **SPECIALIZED AGENCIES.** These are separate specialized agencies which are autonomous organizations related to the UN by special agreements. (REF TO PAGE 49 OF EVOLVING WORLD) Past Secretary Generals of the United Nations Organization since its inception. a) Trygve lie of Norway (1946-1953). b) Dag Hammarskjld of Sweden (1953-1961) c) U Thant of Burma (1961-1971) d) Kurt Waldheim of Austria (1972-1982) e) Javier Perez de Cueller of Peru (1982-1991) f) Boutros Ghali Boutros. Of Egypt (1992-1996) g) Kofi Annan of Ghana (1997-2000) h) Ban Ki Moon.(2000 up to present) **Achievements of the United Nations Organization.** a) The organization has succeeded in keeping peace amid the threats of nuclear war and seemingly endless regional conflicts in the world. UNO has developed more than 35 peacekeeping missions and observer nations. b) The UN specialized agencies are engaged in a vast array of social work, affecting positively, every aspect of peoples lives around the world. E.g., child survival and development, environmental protection, medical research, agricultural development, education etc. c) The organization has helped in promoting democracy around the world. It has enabled people in more than 45 countries to participate in free and fair elections, e.g. in Namibia, Cambodia, El Salvador, Eritrea, Mozambique, South Africa etc. d) The UNO has promoted development of skills and potentials vital for all aspects of development. The UNDP, in close co-operation with over 170 member states and the UN agencies designs and implements projects for agriculture, industry, education and environment. e) It has helped in promotion of Human Rights. Since the adoption of the u niversal declaration of human rights in 1948, the UN has helped to enact more than 80 agreements on political, civil, economic, social and cultural rights. f) It has played a vital role in environmental protection. The Earth Summit, the UN Conference On Environment and Development held in Rio De Janeiro in 1992, resulted in treaties on biodiversity and climate change g) Promoting self-determination and independence. The organization has brought about independence of 80 countries that are now among its member states. h) Providing humanitarian aid to victims of conflicts. More than 30 million refugees fleeing war, famine or persecution have received aid from the UN high commission for refugees since 1951. **Problems facing the United Nations Organization in its operation.** a) National sovereignty. Many countries disregard the UNO resolutions in favour of their sovereignty. b) It is unable to stop aggressions and conflicts between individual countries when super powers are involved. c) Lacks sufficient funds to carry out its work efficiently. E.g it has not always been able to send enough peacekeeping forces due to lack of sufficient funds. d) It lacks an effective machinery to affect its decisions. It also lacks a standing army to implement and effect its resolutions. e) The permanent members with veto powers often adopt policies that promote their own national interests at the expense of the collective interests of most countries in the world. f) Loyalty to other organizations. UNO members are also members of other organizations; the interests of these organizations are not in accord with those of the UNO. g) Ideological disputes among member states have hampered the work of UNO in promoting world peace. This was manifested in the cold war period. h) The arms race. The UNO has found it difficult to achieve world peace because of the arms race in different parts of the world. The arms race generates and sustains conflict rather than peace. i) Differences in economic development levels of member states militate against cooperation. j) The increased occurrence of natural disasters such as famine, floods and epidemics has created an unexpected demand for economic resources. This automatically the UNs resources. **THE COMMONWEALTH.** Origin and structure of Commonwealth of Nations. It is a voluntary association of 54 sovereign countries around the world, which were initially part of the British Empire.The commonwealth origin is the British Empire comprising the British protectorates, colonies and dominions, which included Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Newfoundland, Irish Free State and South Africa. The idea to launch the association is traced back to 1839, with the publication of the Durham report.The modern commonwealth began in 1947 with the end of the British rule in India. In 1949, India and Pakistan joined the commonwealth.The commonwealth secretariat is based in London. It deals with day to day running of the organization and organizes meetings. The head of the commonwealth is the Queen/King of England. The Commonwealth has the Heads of State Summit which meets for a week every two years to discuss political and economic issues.There are also the Ministerial meetings once after every three years to deal with different issues. The commonwealth has specialized agencies dealing with various areas of concern. **Membership to commonwealth.** It comprised 54 developed and developing nations. The members are categorized as follows; 1. Britain and her Dominions of Canada, Australia and New Zealand. 2. African Nations. 3. Asian nations. 4. Islands from the Caribbean, Pacific and Mediterranean. **Characteristics of commonwealth states.** a) Members of the commonwealth use English as a common language. b) Members maintain cultural ties. For instance, they participate in the commonwealth games every four years. c) Members co-operate in the field of education. d) Members recognize the queen of England as the head of commonwealth. e) Members have a common military tradition based on the British military system. They also promote military exchange programmes. f) Members share common democratic institutions from Britain such as parliamentary system of government. g) Members have adopted constitutions that are almost similar. **Objectives that led to the formation of the commonwealth nations.** a) To promote world peace and international understanding. Members are expected to abide by the UN Peace programmes. b) To promote development of poor member states. c) To intensify co-operation between member states, in matters of education, sport and economic development. d) To ensure personal liberty and equality of rights to all citizens regardless of race, colour, creed or political beliefs. e) To oppose all forms of colonial dominion by being committed to the principles of human dignity and equality, self-determination and non-racism. f) To promote the exchange of knowledge, professionalism and cultural, economic, legal and political issues. g) T fights poverty, ignorance and disease to remove wealth disparities and raise the living standards, and achieve a more equitable international soci ety. h) To enhance free international trade by removing trade barriers, bur tat the same time, giving due consideration to the special requirements of the developing countries. **Organization of the Commonwealth.** The structure of the commonwealth comprises of three organs; **1. The Head of state Summit**. It meets once in every two years for a week for extensive decisions and consultations. Decisions are reached by consensus. **2. Ministerial Meetings**. The commonwealth ministers of Finance, Foreign Affairs and defence hold regular meetings once every year. Ministers of Health, Education and Law hold meetings once every three years **3. The Commonwealth Secretariat**: headed by the secretary general and with a staff of 350 drawn from member countries. It co-ordinates co-operation among members. The first secretary General was Arnold Smith of Canada. In 1990, Chief Emeka Anyaoku of Nigeria became the first African Secretary General. **4. Specialized Agencies**. a) The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-Operation; supplies funds, finance, experts and advisers for projects carried out in member states. b) The Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau; it provides co-operation in the field of agriculture. c) The Commonwealth Parliamentary Association; helps to improve relations between parliamentarians of member states. d) The Commonwealth Regional Health Secretariat for East, Central and Southern Africa; promotes co-operation in health. benefits of membership to Commonwealth. a) Member states have received technical expertise through the provision of experts and advisers in various fields e.g. agriculture. b) The developing member states of the organization have acquired skilled manpower through the provision of scholarship and setting up of training programmes by nations like Britain and Canada. c) Member states have been able to interact with one another through activities such as the commonwealth games and cultural exchange programmes. d) Member states have conducted trade among themselves with relative ease and this has helped them to develop their economies. e) The organization has promoted friendship and understanding among member states through conferences such as The Heads of Government meetings. f) It has enhanced democratization process in developing member states of the organization Functions of commonwealth (REF to evolving world page 60) **Problems facing Commonwealth of Nations.** a) Differences in economic development levels of member states militate against cooperation. Members coming from developing world have very different outlook from those coming from the developed world. b) Ideological disputes among member states have hampered the operations of the Commonwealth of Nations. c) Lacks sufficient funds to carry out its work efficiently. Poor members normally owe many debts to their foreign masters and would therefore toe to their demands. d) The problem of sovereignty. Many countries disregard the commonwealth resolutions in favour of their sovereignty. e) It lacks an effective machinery to affect its decisions. It also lacks a standing army to implement and effect its resolutions. f) Loyalty to other organizations. commonwealth members are also members of other organizations; the interests of these organizations are not in accord with those of the commonwealth g) The colonial legacy. Many problems arising from past colonial policies have rocked the organization. E.g. the land issue in Zimbabwe. h) The influence of other organizations like NATO who weaken the commonwealth by wooing members to their regions. i) Race and colour problem. The conflict between white and black people or other color has become another setback. j) Dominance by the big powers. This has caused dismay to the organization. Serious inner tension still undermines the commonwealth activities. **THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT** **NAM STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION** NAM was an organization that did not have formal structures like UNO and Commonwealth. It did not have a secretariat or a constitution. The movement had a unique administrative style as follows. **Coordination** The administration is non-hierarchical, rotational and inclusive, providing all member states, regardless of size and importance with an opportunity to participate in global decision making and world politics.The country that hosts the summit holds office until the next summit. Non-aligned countries place the onus of an administrative structure on the country assuming the chair. The country is required to create or designate an entire section of the ministry of foreign affairs to deal specifically with the Non-Aligned Movement. The chairs ambassador in the United Nations essentially functions as the minister of Non-Aligned Affairs.NAM has also created contact groups, task forces and committees to facilitate the chairs responsibility as follows; **The Coordinating Bureau.** This is the focal point for coordination. It reviews and facilitates the harmonization of the NAM working groups, contact groups, task forces and committees. Working Groups, Contact Groups, Task Forces and Committees.They include NAM High-level working group for the restructuring of the United Nations, NAM working group on Human Rights, Disarmament, Committee on Palestine, Contact Groups on Cyprus, and Task Force on Somalia etc. these groupings meet often. **Non-Aligned security Caucus.** The countries that make up the NAM council caucus are expected to constantly strive to adopt unified positions so that the decisions and positions of NAM are reflected in the Security Council decisions without prejudice to their sovereignty. **Joint coordinating committee** This is a coordinating committee established in 1994 and sitting in New York, whose main mandate is to promote cooperation and coordination between the NAM and the Group of 77 in promoting the interests of developing countries in international fora. **Coordination of non-aligned countries in the UN centres.** This is aimed at facilitating coordination and cooperation with the coordinating bureau and enhances the role of NAM in the international Fora. **The Troika.** The concept of Troika emerged on 6th April 1997 in New Delhi, India, during the meeting of foreign ministers of NAM representing past, present and future chairs. The concept simply implies a meeting of past, present and future chairs who began to meet in September 1997 as a discussion forum. **Panel of economists** This is an ad hoc panel of economists formed from Non-Aligned countries to assess the current international economic situation from the perspective of developing countries and to identify and analyze their major issues of concern. **Documentation.** This is the responsibility of the host country but after wide consultation. The host country must circulate the First not later than one month before the meeting. **Decision making.** The movement makes all its decisions by consensus. This concept presupposes understanding of and respect for different points of view, including disagreement and mutual accommodation. This promotes solidarity and unity of the movement. **NAM Meetings** **They include the following** a) Conference of Heads of State and Government. This is NAMs highest decisionmaking authority and meets once every three years. It has two committees, one on political issues and another on economic and social issues. The summit is held atleast one month before the regular session of the UN General Assembly. During the summit, there is a formal ceremony for handing over the chair. b) Ministerial conference. Its task is to review developments and implement decisions of the preceding summit and also discuss matters of urgency. The conference meets 18 months after the summit. c) Ministerial meeting in New York during a session of the UN General Assembly. This is a meeting of foreign ministers annually in New York at the beginning of the regular session of the UN Assembly. The purpose of the meeting is to deliberate on the items of the Agenda of the General Assembly that are of major importance to the movement. d) Ministerial Meeting of the Coordinating Bureau. The main task is to prepare for the summits, and where necessary, to consider issues of major importance to the movement. e) Meeting of the Ministerial Committee on Methodology. The attendance is by all NAM members and its meetings are held by the decision of the summit or the ministerial conference. The meetings are chaired by the chair of NAM. f) Meeting of the standing ministerial committee on economic cooperation. These meetings are meant to strengthen south-south cooperation, reactivate the dialogue between the developing and developed countries and enhance the role of the UN General Assembly, in international cooperation for development. The meetings are held frequently upon recommendation of the coordinating Bureau. g) Ministerial Meetings in various fields of international cooperation. They discuss issues like agriculture, information and external debt. h) Extraordinary Meetings of the Coordinating Bureau. They address exceptional cases that call for urgent consideration. i) Meetings of the Working Groups, Task Forces, Contact Groups and Committees. The meetings are held as often as necessary. **The growth of NAM.** After the Bandung Conference of 1955 which established the movement, NAM has attracted many developing counties. . A number of conferences have been held since then; a) The first summit, Belgrade, 1961. The attendance was by 25 non-aligned countries who met at a time when world peace was threatened seriously by the looming nuclear war. The meetings objective was to prevent the outbreak of a nuclear war in the world. b) The second summit, Cairo, 1964. The summit of October 1964 was attended by 47 Nations and 10 observers. There were 28 representatives from Africa. The conference mainly focused on problems facing NAM countries due to colonial inheritance, policies of former colonial powers and the rivalry between the great powers.. c) The third summit, Lusaka, 1970. The attendance was by 53 members the meeting resolved that time was ripe for declaration on peace, independence, cooperation and democratization. The members were out to fight colonialism and racism. The main resolution was the members determination to achieve economic emancipation. d) The Fourth Summit, Algiers, 1973. It was attended by 75 members, eight observers, three guest nations and 15 liberation movements. The meeting was an attempt to transform the existing system of economic and financial relations in a manner that would liberate developing countries from a subordinate role into an equal position with industrialized countries. The members developed an action programme in the interest of economic cooperation. e) The fifth Summit, Colombo, 1976. It was attended by 86 members, who focused on the liberation of Zimbabwe and Namibia, the abolition of apartheid in South Africa as a way of promoting world peace. f) The sixth Summit, Havana, 1979. The conference was attended by 93 members, 12 observers, 8 guest nations and seven new members. The meeting declared that imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, apartheid, racism, foreign aggression, expansion, occupation, domination, interference or hegemony, Great power bloc, Subjugation, dependency and pressures in international relations as enemies of nonalignment. The chairman of the summit was Fidel Castro who put forth his ideas that the socialist bloc is a natural ally of the movement. g) The seventh summit, New Delhi, 1983. It was attended by 96 members, 16 observers and 20 guest nations. The summit took place at a time when there was intense confrontation as the great powers continued to amass nuclear weapons. . Indra Gandhi appeared to be the moderate leader to host the conference and soften the impact of Cuban radicalism. The conference discussed peace, nuclear disarmament, development strategies for north-south Dialogue on a new world economic order, and the south-south cooperation for collective self-reliance. h) The eighth summit, Harare, 1986. It marked NAMs silver Jubilee. The main concern was Namibias independence and apartheid in south Africa.. NAM emphasized its sanctions against the Pretoria (South Africa) regime. It drew an action plan to deal with the threat posed by South Africa. The summit came up with a special solidarity fund to help the frontline states. i) The Ninth summit, Belgrade, 1989. j) The tenth Summit, Jakarta, 1992. k) The eleventh Summit, Cartagena de Indias, 1995. l) The twelfth Summit, Durban 1998. m) The thirteenth Summit, Kuala Lumpar, 2003. **Performance of the Non-Aligned Movement.** Though critics have questioned the relevance of NAM after dismantling apartheid and achieving independence, and after end of cold war, there still exist situations that require NAMs participation. **Reasons why NAM is still relevant.** a) NAM is the only forum that can articulate the voice of justice and sanity in the world in view of the unending Arms Race. b) NAM is the only forum through which the demand for a less unjust world economic order can be raised given the kind of hold the developed nations still have on developing nations. c) NAM remains the third worlds shield against the pressures of the superpower elephants that can easily trample on the grass of the lesser animals even after end of cold war. d) NAM can still play a role in addressing emerging world issues such as terrorism, environmental degradation, HIV/AIDS and racism. **Achievements of NAM.** a) It has helped speed up the attainment of freedom in states that were under colonial bondage. b) NAM has assisted its members in safeguarding their national security and territorial integrity. c) Nan-aligned nations also worked to eliminate conflict between the superpowers. This helped in the promotion of peace and security for the non-aligned world. India for example played a role in solving the Korean War, the Suez crisis and IndoChinese conflict. d) NAM created a conducive environment for peace, justice, equality and international cooperation by contributing to the relaxation of international tension by keeping clear of the two military blocs, USA and USSR. e) The movement has strengthened African and Asian Countries diplomatically at a time when they lacked necessary physical strength. They were able to exert their voting power as Afro-Asian bloc to influence world affairs. f) NAM provided an international forum where members voices could be heard. It was able to work to dismantle apartheid by its two-third world community membership despite the Reagan administrations opposition to sanctions against South Africa. g) The movement has given members freedom to put their national interests before those of the great power blocs. h) The NAM through the Cairo and Colombo Summits termed as World Disarmament conferences, played a key role in the disarmament process. The 1967 Treaty of Tlatelolco, signed by 22 states, set up a weapon Free Zone in Latin America. i) The Non-aligned states have helped in international crisis management since they are not committed to any course of military action. For example during the 1961 Berlin crisis, Nehru of India and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana went to Moscow for a peace mission, while Achmad Sukarno of Indonesia and Modibo Keita of Mali went to Washington DC to try and create a conducive atmosphere for managing the crisis. j) NAM has worked towards creation of new international economic order. Members of the movement are able to trade with both the great power blocs. Membership to the Group of 77 in the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) is drawn from the non-aligned nations. The non-aligned nations were open to aid from both blocs and also ready to expand their trade with both sides of the ideological divide. k) The Solidarity fund established during the Harare Summit of 1986 cushioned the frontline states against the economic sanctions imposed on apartheid South Africa. l) NAM has worked to create the new scientific and technological order. The members have demanded a new scientific and technological order by favouring access to the most advanced technology and scientific research available as a means of bridging the technological gap between the developed countries and developing ones. **Factors which have undermined the activities of the Non-Aligned Movement.** a) Political instability is frequently experienced by some member states. For example, civil wars and military coups in DRC, the Sudan, Rwanda, Burundi, interstate wars like in the case of Iran and Irag. This has undermined their contribution to the movement. b) Economic ties between the third world countries and their colonial masters had made it difficult for the member states to pursue an independent line. c) Border disputes between neighboring member countries has weakened the course of the movement. E.g. between morocco and Algeria, North Korea and South Korea, Vietnam and Cambodia, Ethiopia and Somalia, Uganda and Tanzania etc. d) Economic backwardness of some of the member states has made it difficult for them to meet their obligation in the movement as national needs come first in view of the meager resources of some of the nations. e) Ideological differences between member states have undermined their co operation. Its large size of 116 members by 2004 has frustrated its ideological coherence and organizational solidarity. Whereas some countries are inclined towards the west, others are inclined to the east. f) Membership to other organizations like AU, commonwealth and the French community, has made it difficult for some states to participate actively in the affairs of the movement. g) Breakup of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War has destabilized the movement. As power bloc rivalry subsided, NAM appeared to become irrelevant. h) Conflicting national interests. Individual national interests have failed to agree with the objectives of the movement. i) Personality differences between leaders of member states have undermined the . For example, several leaders rejected the radical views of Fidel Catron of Cuba. j) Differences unrelated to the principles of NAM have developed among members. For example at the Colombo Summit of 1978, several Arab states were keen to see Egypt expelled from the movement on grounds that she had signed a separate peace treaty with Israel. This was not an agreement with a superpower and therefore had nothing to do with NAM. k) NAM lacks a permanent Army or a permanent institutional framework or machinery that can enable it carry out its activities effectively. For example, it fai led to persuade irag and Iran to end the 8 year long war from 1980. **THE COLD WAR.** The Cold War refers to the strained relations that existed between the western world led principally by the United States and the communist East led by the USSR, after the Second World War. It was so called because it was fought not with weapons, but with words, propaganda, military and financial aid to enemies of the opposing sides. Although there was no actual physical confrontation, Cold War was characterized by a conflict of the most serious and deadly kind. **Causes of the Cold War.** a) Ideological differences. There was deep-seated fear and mutual suspicion between USA and USSR over the spread of their ideologiescapitalism and communism. E.g The establishment of the Soviet Union through acquisition of satellite states was a measure to contain capitalism. b) Disagreement over the issue of disarmament. The use of atomic bomb on Japan by USA towards the end of World War II alarmed USSR. The two sides failed to agree on an arms reduction plan and continued to stockpile atomic bombs. c) Economic rivalry. In 1947, the USA President Harry S. Truman introduced the Marshal Plan, a scheme to assist western European countries that had been devastated by war. The USSR in turn formed Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), an economic cooperative plan for Eastern Europe. This further heightened the hostility between the west and the east. d) Formation of military alliances. In April 1949, the USA, western European countries and Canada formed a military alliance through the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty in Washington D.C. (NATO). The formation of NATO ended USAs isolationist policy. Russians responded by signing the Warsaw Pact, in May 1955, a military alliance of communist countries. These alliances fostered hostility between countries. e) The use of Russian veto powers in the UN. Russia used her veto powers to defeat UN proposals, which she accused of being pro-USA. The struggle by the two powers to dominate the UN increased tension between them. f) Disagreement over the future of Germany as a whole. Western allies wanted a strong Germany to assist in the economic prosperity of other nations. Russia was keen on a politically and economically weak Germany to safeguard against another invasion. NB- in 1961, the USSR built the Berlin Wall, thus dividing East Berlin from West Berlin. g) USAs military advancement. By 1945, the USA was the only country that possessed atomic weapons. This created fear. **COURSE OF THE COLD WAR.** The cold war was fought in Europe Asia, Latin America and Africa, **The course of the Cold War in Europe** The cold war in Europe involved a conflict between the West and the East. The highlights of this conflict included Russias overwhelming encroachment and dominance of Eastern Europe. Russia used her military might to impose communist governments on many states like Poland and Romania. They also fanned civil wars. E.g the Greek civil war of 1946. There were widespread outbreaks of violence and demands of freedoms in Poland and Romania, based on western ideologies, in politics and economy.In Czechoslovakia, communist Russia orchestrated protests against reforms based on western ideologies, by the Dubcek Government, which was supported by the west. Dubcek was arrested and flown to Moscow. Dr. Husak, a Russian ally was installed. **The following are the major developments that characterized cold war in Europe.** a) In March 1947, the US president Harry Truman, through The Truman Doctrine declared that the USA would support free people resisting subjugation by armed minorities. In 1947, USA took over Britains commitment in Greece and turkey to support the anti-communist regimes. b) In 1947, the US Secretary of state, George Marshall came up with a proposal which was to become the Marshall Plan. This was a plan through which the US would make a major contribution to the economic recovery of Europe. The plan was rejected by USSR terming it an American interference in the internal affairs of other nations. c) Stalin set up the Communist Information Bureau (COMINFORM) to coordinate the work of communist parties in Europe and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) to counter the US Marshal Plan. d) The NATO and Warsaw Pact. By the treaty of Brussels in March 1948, Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg formed a defensive alliance against any form of aggression (It became the North Atlantic Treaty Organization-NATO, in April 1949 when other European Nations joined it. In response to NATO, the Soviet Union signed the Warsaw Pact in Poland on 14th May 1955 with East \Germany and six Eastern European countries. The existence of NATO and Warsaw Pact only intensified the hostilities. e) The Berlin Blockade. Germany was divided into two zones, East and West. Russia treated East Germany as a satellite state thus curtailing trade between east and west. This move almost led to starvation in the west as East Germany was the main producer. In May 1948, all roads and rail routes into West Berlin were sealed off by Russian troops. For over two years, food, coal medical supplies and other necessities to the 2 million people in West Berlin were airlifted since there was no land linkage. The blockade ended in may 1949 with diverstating consequences. f) Partition of Germany. The west was prepared to give freedom to the Germans as a whole to decide their own fate. Russia was determined to ensure that East Germany remained dominated by communism under Russian control. On 23rd may 1949, the western occupation zone in Germany became the Federal Republic of Germany with Konrad Adenauer as the chancellor in September elections. On 7th October 1949, the soviet zone formed the Germany Democratic Republic.In August 1961, the East Germans built the Berlin Wall, curtailing communication and flow of refugees from the west. **The cold war was fought in Asia.** In Asia, China was the first front of Cold War. She embraced communism, following the successful takeover of the country by the forces of Mao Tse-tung in October 1949, assisted by the Russians. The Sino-Soviet Treaty of friendship was signed in 1950. Korea, formerly controlled by Japan, was another front for cold war in Asia. When Japan was defeated in 1945, Korea was occupied from the south by American forces, from the north by Russians, placing the country under joint control. The occupying powers failed to unite the two Korea sections when she became independent.In 1948, the USA announced the formation of the Independent Democratic Republic of Korea in the South. The Russians formed the Peoples Republic of Korea in the north.On 25th June 1950, North Korea Forces invaded South Korea in an attempt to unite. UN condemned this and An American General, Douglas MacArthur led the UN forced that repulsed the invaders. The cold war spread to Vietnam, with USSR and USA clashing over Vietnam, formerly a colony of France that had been seized by Japan. The two super powers supported different nationalist leaders in the struggle for independence from France.The Russians supported Ho Chi-Minh who led a revolt by the Vietnamese, against the French. USA supported Ngo Dinh Diem. The Vietnam War erupted as a resultThe Vietnam War was the heaviest cost of containing communism by Americans in a distant country. Americans were humiliatingly defeated in 1975 with a causality of 53,000, despite employing over 400,000 troops. The communist guerillas, the Viet Cong, established a communist government in South Vietnam. The war strengthened American hostility towards Russia There was an armed conflict between the super powers in Afghanistan from 1978. The height of the conflict in Afghanistan was the Boycott of the Moscow Olympic Games in 1980 as a protest against USSRs involvement in Afghanistan. The conflict took the form of a civil war which was only eased in 1989 when the USSR began to withdraw its troops. **The cold war in Latin America (the Cuban Missile Crisis)** Cuba became the theatre of cold war when USA unsuccessfully supported the Cuban dictator, General Fulgencio Batista against Fidel Castro who was fighting to end Batistas regime. Fidel Castro overthrew the Batista regime in 1958. The new government immediately gained recognition from many world nations including USA and USSR In 1960, Fidel began a communist nationalization programme of American oil refineries and sugar plantations. This strained relations between him and the US who attempted unsuccessfully to invade Cuba in 1961 at Bay of Pigs. In January 1962, Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States.In May 1962, USSR leader Nikita Khrushchev secretly built missile installations in Cuba as a means of countering any future American invasion, in exchange for sugar. The discovery, by American president J. F. Kennedy in October 1962, of the Russian missile installations in Cuba was the beginning of the most serious cold war crisis. He declared that any nuclear missile attack from Cuba would be taken to be an attack by the USSR and USA would respond accordingly.USA declared a Naval Quarantine on Cuba to blockade any Russian Vessels This most serious cold war crisis was only ended when the Russian leader Khrushchev removed the missiles from Cuba and dismantled Russias bases in Cuba. **The Cold War in Africa.** The cold war in Africa was majorly witnessed in Ethiopia and Angola. In Ethiopia, Mengistu Haile Mariam, overthrew Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974, with the assistance of USSR. Haile Mariam introduced socialist programmes, However, they were short-lived up to the end of his rule in May 1991, when Russians withdrew their assistance.In Angola, on 11th November 1975, Angola attained her independence from Portugal, with the assistance of the Soviet Union and Cuba.Soon after, a bruising civil war broke out. USA supported the rebels, led by Jonas Savimbi and his UNITA movement based in Ovimbudu. Cuba and Russia supported the MPLA government based in Luanda. Democratic elections were held in Angola in 1989, when USSR eased their aid to MPLA. **FACTORS that led to the Cold War dtente by world powers.** a) The death of Stalin and the flexibility of Stalins successor, Nikita Khrushchev. The successor of Joseph Stalin, after his death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev, was more flexible and willing to relax both cold war abroad and Authoritarianism at home. He announced the policy of peaceful coexistence in 1956. b) The willingness of David Dwight Eisenhower, Trumans successor, to reach compromise with the Soviet Union over a number of issues. For example he convened the Camp David Summit in 1959, with Khrushchev in which a cooperative spirit emerged between the east and the west. However this happened against the backdrop of the Cuban missile crisis. c) The signing of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (The SALT Treaty) in 1972. The treaty, signed between USA and Russia limited strategic arms to certain quantities. This was followed by the Improvement of the Chinese American relations in 1972 and American relations with Russia. In 1972. President Nixon visited Beijing and Moscow d) The introduction of reforms in Russia by Mikhail Gorbachev. In 1985, Gorbachev introduced the Glasnost (openness policy) and the perestroika reforms (economic restructuring that appealed favourably to the west) which won him the Nobel peace Prize in 1990. e) The adoption of President Reagans Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) in 1983. This initiative led to setting up of space stations that would destroy every missile in the sky. This was Star Wars. f) The collapse of the Communist rule in Europe. Russias president recognized the independence of other republics of USSR in 1989 thus weakening Russias position. Western democracy was introduced in Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and Poland. g) The successful re-unification of Germany under Helmut Kohl in 1990. The nations united to form the republic of Germany. This was a clear indicator of the joint commitment of the superpowers in maintaining their spheres of influence had been weakened. h) The dissolution of the Warsaw Pact. With the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, the Warsaw pact started to fall apart. In November 1990, the Paris Charter was signed, effectively dissolving the Warsaw Pact. i) The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990. Several of its states seceded. Russia officially became an aid receiver instead of an aid donor. j) The signing of the START Treaty in 1991 by Gorbachev and George Bush, after the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks. The treaty officially ended the cold war. Destruction of weapons of mass destruction commenced. **Effects of the cold war** a. It brought immense divisions and conflict to people of the same continent, region and countries based on pro-west or pro-east ideologies. E.g. in Angola b. Oppressive regimes found their way to power, supported by either the west or the east. c. There was untold suffering to the people. Disease, poverty and refugee camps became common sights. d. There was destruction of the economy as infrastructure was destroyed by war. As communist systems failed to produce wealth, unemployment and poverty set in. e. It created mistrust and suspicion amongst nations. f. It led to arms race. It led to militarization of regions and countries. g. It led to political crises and actual war e.g. civil wars in Korea and Vietnam, the Suez Canal crisis of 1956 and the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. h. It threatened international peace and security. Insecurity in the world increased. i. Led to formation of Non-Aligned Movement by third world countries. j. Led to formation of economic alliances and military alliances like NATO (1949) and the Warsaw pact (1955). COMECON (1949) and the European Economic Union (1957. k. The cold war led to development in science and technology. The war Stimulated space science/space race. **Effects of the end of Cold War on Africa.** a) Some African countries that were formerly socialist are in problems following collapse of USSR in 1990. E.g. Somalia, Ethiopia, Angola and Mozambique. b) The end of the cold war has led to the removal of financial aid and military support for some African countries. Military or food aid is no longer rushed to countries experiencing problems because there is no more superpower competition. E.g failure to prevent the Rwanda genocide and failure to assist in the Somali crisis and the current Al- shabaab crisis. c) There was emergence of new world political and economic order. The end of war has led to emergence of USA as a world policeman over developing nations. The countries must act according to USA wishes or suffer lack of aid and receive harassment from superpowers. d) It has led to marginalization of Africa in international affairs. e) There are conditionalties for getting aid from the western powers. Besides, Africa no longer has a choice of donors who comprise mainly of western world countries. COOPERATION IN AFRICA Cooperation in Africa refers to the way African countries relate to each other. It is stimulated by the economic exploitation and political domination by Western Eu rope. The cooperation has been in form of; a) Pan-African Movement b) Organization of African Unity (African Union) c) The East African Community d) Economic Community of Western African States. e) Common Markets for Eastern and Southern Africa. **PAN-AFRICANISM.** **Meaning of Pan-Africanism.** Pan means all and Africa refers to the continent. Africanism refers to those of African Origin.Pan-Africanism is a belief in the uniqueness and spiritual Unity of Black people acknowledging their right to self determination.It is a movement aimed at unifying all the people of African descent in the world. It stands for economic, political and social advancement for all peoples of African descent throughout the world. **Origin and Development of pan-Africanism.** The movement has roots in the trans-Atlantic slave trade that took place between 15th and 19th c. the trade was responsible for the dispersal of black people all over the world. The suffering the slaves underwent made them become conscious of their colour and origin. The Africans viewed themselves as having a common destiny. Even those who remained in Africa were later subjected to the colonial experience including forced labour, land alienation, taxation, poor wages, discrimination corporal punishment rape and murder.The movement first started as the Pan Black Movement for the American and Caribbean black only. Several African Americans wanted to uplift the lives of fellow Africans in USA and in Africa. They included Martin Delaney, Alexander Cromwell, Bishop James Johnson, Wilmot Blyden and Bishop Turner. The leading pan -Africanists in America were Booker T Washington, Marcus Moziah Garvey, Dr. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois and George Padmore.The pioneer African pan-Africanists included Kwegyir Aggrey from Gold Coast, Wilmot Blyden from Liberia, Kwame Nkrumah from Ghana and Leopold Sedar Senghor.The Pan Black Movements enlisted all blacks worldwide. It sometimes was called Pan Negro Movement and was pitted against the evils of racism.Pan Black Movement gave birth to Pan-African Movement, which had its first meeting in London in 1900 attended by 32 delegates, drawn from USA, Africa, Canada, West Indies and Britain.Sylvester Williams, a lawyer from Trinidad, coined the term Pan-Africanism. By 1920, an all-African idea had been developed.The first pan- African congress for Africans was held in Manchester England in 1945, also attended by Jomo Kenyatta. **Causes of pan-Africanism.** **a) The Trans-Atlantic slave trade.**It took place between 15th and 18th centuries. Africans who were forced into slavery in America during this period suffered a lot under the white people. The Africans in Diaspora, through humiliation and sadness realized they had a common destiny. **b) Colonization of Africa**. The division of Africa into 50 colonies separated some communities. It also put together various people of different history and culture. The divide and rule tactics of colonialists brought deep divisions among same communities. The Africans realized later on that there was need to find a common ground to bring about change. **c) The need to correct the negative ideas about Africa and Africans held by** **Europeans.** The whites held a popular belief that Africans belonged to an inferior race without ability to run their own affairs. **d**) Pan-Africanism was a fight against Racism-Africans were despised and ridiculed on the ground of colour and hair texture. e) The evolution of leadership cadre of educated class of Africans- leaders like Kwame Nkrumah, Sedar Senghor, Jomo Kenyatta and Blyden wanted to prove that Africans were a civilized people with a rich history and culture. f) European missionaries had discriminated against the Africans /Africans formed independent churches contributing to the rise of Pan -Africanism**.** **Objectives of the Pan-African movement** a) To unite all the peoples of African origin in the struggle for emancipation from social discrimination and colonial rule. b) To challenge the ideology of white supremacy on which European colonization was based. c) To improve the African living conditions in the Diaspora and in the African continent. d) To secure democratic rights for all African peoples e.g. right to vote. Form political associations etc. e) To restore the dignity of the black people and liberate them from the bondage of slavery. f) To create a forum through which protests against European colonization and racial discrimination could be channeled. g) To find better ways of establishing better relations between the Europeans and Africans on the one hand and among Africans on the other hand. h) To appeal to missions and humanitarians to protect Africans against colonial aggression and exploitation as well as land alienation. i) To fight neo-colonialism **LEADING PAN-AFRICANISTS.** **1. Marcus Garvey (1887-1940)** He was born on 17th August 1887 in the West Indies island of Jamaica to a family offreed slaves. The fact that Marcus was very dark is what shaped his philosophy of Pan Africanism. While a young man, he witnessed great European and Mullato discrimination on account of his complexion.He arrived in USA in 1916 after widely travelling in south and Central America and Britain. While in England, he was greatly encouraged by Mohammed Duse to lead the peoples of African descent all over the world in the struggle for liberation.He developed the Pan-African philosophy in USA through which he sought to make Africans take pride in their blackness and cultural heritage. He founded the Negro Empire in New York in 1920. He organized a black convention in 1924 in New York during which he launched the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) whose HQs were to be at Harlem, New York. UNIA had the following objectives; ~ To create universal fraternity among the Black Race. ~ To assist uplift the civilization of African communities. ~ To establish a central nation for the black race. ~ To establish academies for African children. ~ To promote African cultures. Garvey founded a Journal The Negro World and the African Orthodox Church under a black Patriarch or chief Bishop and a Black Madonna as the symbol of his church. He advocated for the return to Africa by the Africans. To Garvey, freedom was to be gained through economic empowerment of Africans. To this end, he mobilized African Americans to contribute funds to establish black businesses like the Black Starline Shopping Company. The project however collapsed due to mismanagement. He was arrested, tried and convicted of fraud (collecting funds unlawfully) and imprisoned for five years. He was deported to his home country Jamaica after two years in Jail where he died in 1940.He is credited for succeeding in mobilizing Africans to take pride in their cultures and complexion. **2. Booker T. Washington.(1856-1915)** He was born in 1856 in USA to a poor slave family. He acquired a university degree in Agriculture at Hampton Institute.He is credited for promoting African Education. He started a model institute for training blacks in agricultural and industrial skills (the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama).Unfortunately, Washington adopted a policy of cooperation with the government as a means of winning acceptance by the European community. To him, Africans ought to gain wealth in order to attain equal status with Europeans and end racial discrimination.He began the National Negro Business League with the help of a European Andrew Carnegie.He died in 1915. **3. Dr. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois.** He was born in great Barrington, Massachusetts, USA on 23rd February 1868. He was the first black to receive a PHD Degree and become a professor of History, Economics and Sociology. He was also a renowned journalist.He greatly disagreed with Booker T. Washingtons policy of accommodation and cooperation. In 1905, he established the Niagara Movement to protest against racial discrimination. In 1900, he was one of the founder members of the National Association for the advancement of Coloured Peoples (NAACP) an association that championed for the struggle for Negroes civil rights in America.He prepared the pan-African conferences that were held between 1900 and 1945 to fight against slavery, colonial exploitation and repression of Af rican peoples. He was the chairman of the Manchester Conference of 1945..In 1961, he relocated to Ghana where he became a citizen, on invitation of Nkrumah. He died in 1963 in Ghana. **THE PAN-AFRICAN CONGRESSES (1900-1945)** a) The 1st pan-African conference, London, 1900. It was held at the Westminster Townhall from 23rd to 25th July with 32 participants from Africa, USA, Canada and West Indies. The conference was sponsored by a Trinidad lawyer Henry Sylvester Williams who coined the term Pan-Africanism. The conference marked the entry of Du Bois into Pan Africanism where he made his famous statement The problem of the 20th c is the problem of colourline. **Objectives of the conference.** ~ To unite people of African origin in all parts of the world. ~ To appeal for the end of European colonization and exploitation of Africa. ~ To look for ways of establishing better relations between the Caucasian and African races. ~ To initiate a movement for securing the full rights for all Africans in and outside Africa and promote the economic rights. ~ To appeal to missionaries and philanthropists in Britain to protect Africans against aggression by colonizers. **Conference Agenda** ~ Human Rights Violation against blacks in South Africa. ~ Living conditions of blacks in different parts of the world. ~ Racial discrimination against Africans all over the world. The conference sent a Memorandum to the Queen of England demanding respect for the rights of Black People especially in the British Empire. b) The 2nd Pan-African Conference, Paris, 1919. The conference coincided with the Paris Peace conference. The conference was convened by William Du bois who had been sent to Paris by NAACP to investigate the allegations that African American troops stationed in France during world war I experienced racial discrimination and to represent the interest of the black peoples at the Paris peace conference. The conference made the following recommendations; ~ The need for international laws to protect Black people. ~ African land to be held in trust for Africans. ~ The prevention of exploitation of African nations by foreign companies. ~ The rights of Africans to be educated. ~ That slavery and capital punishment were to be abolished. ~ The right of Africans to participate in their government as fast as their development permitted. c) The 3rd Pan-African Conference 1921. The conference was held in three sessions in London, Brussels and Paris. The London session was attended by 41 Africans, 35 American coloureds, 7 West Indies and 24 Africans living in Europe at that time. It was patronaged by Du Bois. The conference demanded for the establishment of political organizations among the suppressed blacks. It emphasized international and interracial harmony and democracy. d) The 4th mPan-African congress (London and Lisbon 1923.) it reiterated earlier resolutions and also demanded that black people be treated like human beings. e) The 5th Pan-African Conference, New York 1927. It was mainly attended by African Americans and was partly sponsored by European Philanthropists. It discussed the attitude of the communists towards pan-Africanism. f) The 6th Pan African conference, Manchester 1945.it coincided with the end of the World War II. It was convened by the Pan African Federation which had been formed in 1944 by 13 organizations representing students welfare and political groupings. Leaders of the federation were George Padmore, Ras Makonnen (Ethiopia). C.L.R Wallace Johnson and Jomo Kenyatta. The conference was greatly inspired by the liberation of Ethiopia in 1941 and Clause three of the Atla ntic Charter (1941) (that USA and British governments would respect the right of all people to choose the form of government under which to live) which Winston Churchill claimed was not applicable to the Africans.The conference was convened on 15th oct. 1945 and was attended by 90 delegates who included Du Bois(West Indies), Nkrumah(Ghana), Kenyatta(kenya), Padmore(Trinidad), peter Abrahams(south Africa), Ras Makonnen(Ethiopia) , Magnus Williams representing Azikiwa Nnamdi (Nigeria), Obafemi Owolowo(Nigeria) and Kamuzu Banda (Malawi) and 11 observer nations Du bois chaired the conference while Nkrumah and Padmore were joint secretaries. **Uniqueness of the conference.** a) The conference was mainly organized by Africans from the continent unlike earlier ones which were organized by the Africans in Diaspora. The only exceptions were W.E.B Du Bois and Padmore. b) Representatives of white philanthropists were absent. Neither did they finance the conference. c) Many African trade unions were represented. These included the trade Unions from Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Ghana and Gambia. Most of West Indies was also represented. **Key Resolution of the Manchester Conference** a. Africans should concentrate on winning political power through non-violent means e.g strikes and boycotts. b. African intellectuals should play an important role in mobilizing the masses to fight for political liberation. Pursuant to the conference resolutions, Kwame Nkrumah established the West African National Secretariat (WANS) on 15th December 1945 in England to act as a regional body for Pan African Federation, promote unity in West Africa. WANS published a newsletter, The New African, whose main aim was to inspire the youth in Africa to resist imperialism. **Why the 1945 Manchester (Pan-African) Congress was a landmark in the history of** **Africa.** a) For the first time leading African representatives in the continent attended e.g. Jomo Kenyatta, Kwame Nkrumah, Kamuzu Banda, Haile Sellasie etc. on coming back , they all adopted radical nationalistic demands for independen ce of their states. b) It was the first congress that strongly condemned European colonization of Africa and demanded the autonomy and liberty of African states. c) The congress was instrumental in granting of independence to Ghana in 1957 and to Egypt soon after. d) It set the pace for organization of similar conferences in the African continent like; the 1958 All African Congress and the 1960 Tunis-Pan African Peoples Conference. e) During the conference, the solidarity and unity among Africans began to develop and paved way to the formation of Organization of African Unity. f) It marked the establishment of the movements activities in Africa. Why pan-African movement was not active in Africa before 1945 a) There was lack of adequate African representation in the movement before 1945. Africans in the movement were few and were staying outside Africa as political exiles or students. b) Colonial authorities could not allow Africans to organize a movement that was against their policies. Such movements were outlawed. c) The divide and rule policy used by the Europeans made it impossible for Africans to communicate and cooperate. d) Africans in each colony were mainly concerned with issues that affected them directly e.g. Land alienation, forced labour and taxation. e) The only Countries that were independent (Liberia and Ethiopia) could not champion pan-Africanism since they had their own internal problems and paid little attention to international matters e.g. Ethiopia and Liberia. f) Lack of venue to hold meetings on the African soil since the colonial government would not have allowed such meetings. g) Poor state of transport and communication at the time did not permit fast spread of Pan-Africanism. h) Few people were educated and only a minority in Africa had higher education hence there was widespread illiteracy and ignorance. i) Africans were too poor to contribute to pan-African efforts. **The role of Kwame Nkrumah in Pan-Africanism.** a) He participated in the 1945 Manchester Conference as the secretary during which he proposed that delegates go back to their countries and spearhead the nationaliststruggle for political independence. b) He established the West African National Secretariat (WANS) in England to coordinated pan African federation activities in West Africa and promote pan Africanism. c) He founded the Convention Peoples Party (CPP) in 1949which led Ghana to Independence in 1957. d) As president of Ghana, Nkrumah inspired many African countries to struggle for political independence, and the black civil rights movement in the USA to fight for their rights. e) In 1958, he hosted the first pan-African conference of independent states in Accra which pledged to assist fellow Africans to fight for political independence. f) He funded nationalists in other countries e.g. Ghana and Algeria. g) He supported other African leaders who faced political threats from their former colonial masters. For example he assisted the Guinean leader, Sekou Toure , with Loans following the withdrawal of French support to the country after independence h) He championed trade unionism in Africa as a means of promoting pan-Africanism. During the Manchester conference as a joint secretary with George Padmore, he allowed participation of trade Unions from Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Ghana and Gambia. i) He participated in convening various pan-African conferences that led to the formation of O.A.U, an association of independent African states. NB- it is most probably because of his fight against western domination that Nkrumah was eventually overthrown in 1966 in a military coup that forced him into exile. He died on 27th April 1972 in Bucharest, Romania, where he had gone to seek treatment for cancer. **Reasons why the pan-African movement became active in Africa after 1945.** a) World War II strengthened nationalism in the continent. The Africans quest for political independence received a boost with support from UNO, USA and USSR. b) The 1945 Pan-African Conference in Manchester, brought many African elites together. They later inspired their colleagues back home to join the movement. c) The attainment of political independence in India in 1947 and Burma (now Myanmar) in 1948 encouraged many nationalists in Africa. d) The slowing down of the pan0africanism activities in America during the cold war period activated the same in Africa. USA tried to control activities of people like Padmore who had links with USSR. e) The attainment of independence by Ghana in 1957 inspired other African nations to focus on the liberation of their respective countries rather than fight for the betterment of fellow Africans outside the continent. **Performance of the Pan-African Movement..** **Achievements of Pan-Africanism.** a) The movement created political awareness among people of African origin and a sense of deep concern for suffering of blacks all over the world. b) It put in place Steps towards the restoration of status and dignity to the African people, which had been eroded by slave trade, colonialism and racism. c) The movement provided an important forum where the people of African origin could discuss their problems. It promoted brotherhood among Africans. d) The movement led to the Development of the spirit of solidarity among the African people when dealing with issues that concern the continent. e) It laid the basis for the Formation of OAU, which later became the African Union (AU). f) The movement enabled African leaders to be more committed to African issues. For example the black caucus in the USA played an important role in pressurizing the US congress to take drastic measures against the Apartheid regime in South Africa. g) The movement laid the foundation for the interest in research on African culture, history, literature, music, religion, medicine, art, etc. this empowered Africans by enabling them to understand the status quo. h) The movement played an important role in the advancement of African nationalism by encouraging peoples of African origin to take pride in their ancestry and demand their rights. i) The movement condemned Mussolinis attempt to colonize Ethiopia in 1935 by organizing protests in major towns like New York, London, Brussels and Paris. **Challenges encountered by the pan African movement.** a) Many European groups fought the activities of the pan Africanists. The fact that Marcus Garvey was arrested, tried and convicted of fraud (collecting funds unlawfully) and imprisoned for five years is a clear manifestation of this. b) It was difficult for the Africans to participate in African affairs since majority of Africans were still under colonialism. c) Due to lack of economic empowerment and lack of education, many of the pan African projects did not succeed. The Marcus Garvey project for instance collapsed due to mismanagement. d) Illiteracy and ignorance amongst some people of African origin hindered them from offering constructive support. e) The movement was restricted to the African continent after independence in 1960s. ***The absence of African-Americans in the continents affairs dealt a big to its progress.*** f) Division among Africans after independence e.g. Radical and the conservative leaders and between the francophone and the Anglophone countries. g) The European powers domination of the international media was used to water down the importance of pan-Africans by spreading negative propaganda. h) Some of the pan-African leaders could not agree on the best strategy of uplifting the welfare of the African origin peoples. i) The deep economic connection between colonies and the mother countries hindered any meaningful cooperation. j) Lack of venues to hold conferences in Africa especially before 1957 meant that the movement could not take root in Africa quickly. The far-away venues were inconveniencing. The Pan-African movement activities after 1950. Despite the challenges mentioned, the movement was still active in Africa after 1950 as manifested in the political developments that took place in the 1950s and 1960s. **The following conferences were convened during that period.** 1) The 1st Conference of Independent African States, Accra, Ghana April 1958. In attendance were the eight independent African states of Ghana, Egypt, Morocco, Ethiopia, Liberia, Tunisia Sudan and Libya. the delegates pledged to assist fellow African countries who were fighting for political independence.. 2) The All-African Peoples conference, (Accra De. 1958) the conference was attended by freedom fighters and trade unionists from all over Africa. It was chaired by Tom Mboya of Kenya The conferences main resolution was to use all means to acquire political independence and to encourage unity between the African leaders. 3) The All-African Peoples Conference, Tunis, January 1960. It strengthened the desire for unity among African states. 4) The 2nd Conference of Independent African States, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, June 1960. The conference was the forerunner to the formation of a continental Body, OAU. The conference exposed sharp division among African states over the situation in Congo, where Patrice Lumumba was facing problems with his former colonial masters. 5) The Brazzaville Conference December 1960 Attended exclusively by the 12 francophone conservative African states, the conference emphasized the need to respect international Frontiers and noninterference in the internal affairs of any African state. They promised political support for Mauritania in her boundary disputes with morocco. 6) The Casablanca conference, January 1961. It was a reaction to the resolutions of the Brazzaville conference by the radicals who supported Morocco in her dispute with Mauritania. They advocated for the removal of foreign troops in Congo. 7) The Monrovia conference, May 1961. It attracted both moderates and conservatives and aimed at uniting the antagonistic groups. The conference emphasized the absolute equality of all states. The conference succeeded in uniting the hostile groups through the undertaking of two crucial events; ~ The Algerian Referendum of 1961, which passed that the Algerians wanted political independence from France. ~ The situation in Congo stabilized after 1961. **ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (OAU)** **What was the OAU?** It was an association of independent African states that existed between 1963 and 2002, when it was renamed the African Union (AU) **Origin and development of OAU.** It was formed as a climax of a series of pan- Africanism congresses up to 1963. In January 1961, several African independent states, i.e. Egypt, Ghana, morocco, Libya and Algeria, met in Casablanca and pledged to help Patrice Lumumba of Congo against the secessionist Tsombe. In May 1961, another group of African states, i.e. Liberia, Tunisia and Togo met in Monrovia and agreed to work in unity to solve the Congo crisis. In august 1961, a bigger group made up of former French colonies met in Brazzaville to find a solution to the Congo crisis.In 1963, the regional groupings compromised and joined with others to form one organization. In May 1963, foreign ministers of 32 independent African states met in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, to prepare the agenda for the heads of state meeting.The heads of states met under chair of Emperor Haile Selassie and gave birth to OAU, with Selassie as its first chairperson. Its membership grew from 32 at the time of its inception to 54 ***NB; when the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic was admitted to the OAU in 1984,*** ***Morocco withdrew since she claimed that SADR was part of her territory.*** **The Charter of OAU.** **Objectives of the OAU.** a) To provide African countries it a permanent organization through which they could discuss issues affecting them and lay strategies for solving them. b) To provide identity for the newly independent countries of Africa in a world dominated and controlled by the white race. c) To co-ordinate and assist in the speedy decolonization of the rest of Africa. d) To improve the living standards and conditions of African people as a group and as individual states. e) To help in the Defence of the independence of African states and maintenance of the sovereignty of these countries. f) To promote cooperation among the African states in economic, social and political fields so as to improve living standards. g) To promote and enhance African solidarity and unity. h) To support world, peace organizations like the UN and the Non-Aligned Movement. i) To promote peaceful settlement of disputes. j) To promote non-interference in the internal matters of member states. **The fundamental principles of OAU as outlined in the charter.** a) Recognition of the sovereign equality of member states. b) Non-interference in the internal affairs of member countries. c) Respect for the sovereign and territorial integrity of each country and its inalienable right to independent existence. d) Peaceful settlement of disputes. e) Condemnation of political assassination or any form of subversion by one country in another member country. f) Dedication to the emancipation of territories under colonial rule. g) Adherence to the principle of non-alignment. **The structure of the former OAU.** The OAU charter borrowed heavily from that of the United Nations Organization. The only difference is that no member of OAU enjoys veto powers. All members have equal privileges and vote. The charter outlined the structure of OAU as follows;The Assembly of Heads of State and Government. This was the supreme organ of OAU meeting once a year to discuss specific urgent matters and electing a chairperson every year. A two-third majority vote was used to decide critical issues.The Council of Ministers. It was made up of all foreign ministers of OAU member states and met twice a year to prepare agenda for the meeting of heads of state and government. It implemented decisions passed by heads and prepared the OAU budget.The General Secretariat. Headed by the secretary general elected by the Assembly of Heads of state, it offered the administrative services to the organization on daily basis. The past secretaries were Kifle Wodajo of Ethiopia (1963- 1964), Diallo Telli Boubaker of Guinea (1964-1972), Nzo Ekangaki of Cameroon (1972- 1974), Eteki Mboumoua of Cameroon (1974-1978), Edem Kodjo of Togo (1978-1983), Peter Onu of Nigeria (1983-1985), Ide Oumarou of Niger(1985-1989). The last was Salim Ahmed Salim from Tanzania.The Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration. It was charged with the task of settling disputes involving members. It had membership of 21 states and served for a term of five years.Specialized Agencies. The OAU also comprised specialized agencies and committees that handled the technical business of the organization. E.g. the OAU Liberation Committee-to co-ordinate activities of liberation movements. The Economic and Social Commission, the Commission on Education, Science and Culture, the Defence Commission, the Supreme Council of Sports Etc. **Achievements of OAU.** a) It offered solution to border disputes between member states like Kenya vs. Somalia, Ethiopia vs. Somalia, Libya vs. Chad, morocco vs. Algeria, Chad vs. Nigeria and the Rwanda Burundi conflict. b) The OAU achieved total liberation of African countries, with South Africa being the last one. It offered military support to the nationalistic struggles in Mozambique, Angola, Rhodesia, Namibia and South Africa. c) It condemned human rights violation in countries like Namibia and South Africa. It encouraged economic sanctions against the apartheid regime of South Africa. d) Through the OAU, African governments were able to speak with one voice on matters affecting Africa and they even attempted to formulate a common foreign policy. e) It provided a forum for discussing Africas common problems like desertific ation, foreign interference, and dependency and at the same time sought for solutions to the problems. f) The organization embarked on common economic ventures for Africa. For example creation of the African Development Bank (ADB) which represented the collective contribution by all Africans towards emancipation of Africans from economic backwardness. g) It encouraged construction of roads and railways to link different regions. E.g. Tanzam, the Great North Road and the Trans-African Highway. This improved economic co-operation between member states. h) It created a cultural identity for African countries sports and the All -African Games, which provided Africans with the opportunity to meet and socialize. i) Through its refugee agency, it addressed itself to the refugee problem in the continent. E.g. refugees from countries like Rwanda, Burundi, Chad, Gambia, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia have been assisted. j) It was instrumental in the formation of regional organizations like ECOWAS, SADDC and COMESA. **Problems that faced OAU during its operation.** a) Differences in economic development levels and in history of member states militated against co-operation. b) Ideological differences among member states, especially during the Cold war period, hampered the operations of the OAU. c) It lacked sufficient funds to carry out its work efficiently. The members were poor given that all of them were third world countries. d) The problem of sovereignty. Many countries disregarded the OAU resolutions in favour of their sovereignty and national interests. e) It lacked an effective machinery to effect its decisions. It also lacked a standing army to implement and effect its resolutions hence the term Toothless Bulldog coined by Gadaffi to refer to it. f) Loyalty to other organizations. OAU members also belonged to other organizations like ECOWAS, COMESA, The Arab League etc; the interests of these organizations were not always in accord with those of the OAU. g) The colonial legacy. Many problems arising from past colonial policies have rocked the organization. E.g. The land issue in Zimbabwe. There is also the problem of NeoColonialism in trade. h) Interference by the big powers. This has caused dismay to the organization. i) Emergence of dictators like Amin Dada of Uganda, Bakassa Jean Bedel of Central African Republic, And Mobutu of Congo. j) Civil strife in various countries remained unresolved for a long time. E.g in Sudan, Rwanda, Ethiopia, Nigeria. This made cooperation difficult. **THE AFRICAN UNION** **Origin of the African Union.** On 9th September 1999, the Heads of State and Government met in Libya and made the Sirte Declaration calling for the establishment of an African Union and a pan-African parliament.On 29th may 2000, the document for the formation of African Union and Pan- African Parliament was adopted by the joint sitting of legal experts and parliamentarians. On 2nd June 2000, heads of state and government meeting in Lome, Togo adopted the Constitutive Act of the African Union drafted by the council of ministers. The AU was born in 2002, at a Summit held in Durban, South Africa, where the first Assembly of Heads of State of African Union was convened. **Differences between the former Organization of African Unity and the present** **African Union.** a) Unlike the O.A.U, the A.U challenges the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of member states. It allows for intervention whenever a member state experiences conflict or widespread human rights violation. b) O.A.U was like an Association of African Heads of State, but A.U is like a Union of African Peoples. Increased participation of all African people is manifested in the proposed Pan-African Parliament and an economic, social and cultural council. c) Unlike the O.A.U the African Union has an accountability mechanism. An African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) has been developed as a means through which countries can be held accountable on matters of security, development, stability and cooperation. d) Unlike the O.A.U, the A.U has a broader development plan for Africa e.g. through the New Partnership for Africas Development-NEPAD whose main objectives include to promote accelerated growth and sustainable development, to eradicate the widespread poverty in the continent and to halt the marginalization of Africa in the globalization process. e) Unlike OAU, AU presupposes the establishment of a security council and the African Court of Justice with law enforcement powers(A standing military) **The AU Charter.** **Objectives of AU.** a) To accelerate the political, social and economic integration of the continent. b) To promote and defend the African common positions on issues of interest. c) To defend the independence and territorial integrity of African states and maintain the sovereignty of these countries. d) To promote democratic principles and institutions, popular participation and good governance. e) To establish the necessary conditions which enable the continent to play its rightful role in the global economy and in international negotiations. f) To promote cooperation among the African states in economic, social and political fields so as to improve living standards. g) To achieve and enhance greater African solidarity and unity. h) To promote peace, security and stability in the continent through peaceful settlement of disputes. i) To advance the development of the continent by promoting research in all fields, particularly in science and technology. j) To encourage international cooperation, taking into account the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. k) To work with relevant international partners in the eradication of preventable diseases and promotion o good health on the continent. **The structure of African Union** The AU charter outlined the structure of AU as follows; ***1. The Assembly***. This is the supreme organ of AU meeting once a year to elect a chairperson and determine the common policies of the union, consider requests for admission, monitor implementation of policies and decisions, appoint and terminate the judges of the court of Justice among other functions.(students to make additions) Decisions are either by consensus or by two-thirds majority vote. ***2. The Executive Council.***It is made up of Foreign Ministers or the authorities designated by the member states. Its core function is to co-ordinate union policies ion areas of common interest like foreign trade, ener gy, industry, water resources and environmental protection. Such functions can be delegated to specialized technical committees. ***3. The Commission/Secretariat***. Comprises a chairperson, deputy chairperson and eight commissioners and staff members. It deals with the administrative issues and implements decisions of the Union. ***4. The Permanent Representatives Committee***. It comprises the Ambassadors to the AU. Its main responsibility to prepare for the executive council and run the association daily. It seats permanently in Addis Ababa. ***5. Specialized committees and Agencies.***The AU also comprised specialized agencies and committees that handled the technical business of the organization. E.g the Committee on Rural Economy and Agricultural Matters, the Committee on Monetary and Financial Affairs, the Committee on Trade, Customs and Immigrations Matters, the Committee on Transport and Communication, the Committee on Education, Human Resource and Culture, the Committee on Health, Labour, and Social Affairs. ***6. The economic and social council.***It performs advisory functions ***7. Specialized technical committees.***E.g the Committee on Rural Economy and Agricultural matters, the Committee on Trade , Customs and Immigration Matters, The Committee on Industry, Science and Technology, the Committee on Transport, Communication and Tourism, the Committee on Health, Labour and Social Affairs, the Committee on Education, Culture and Human Resources. **They perform the following roles;** a) Prepare projects and programmes of the Union and submit them to the executive council. b) Ensure supervision, follow-up and evaluation of the implementation of decisions taken by the organs of the Union. c) Ensure co-ordination and harmonization of projects and programmes of the Union. d) Submit to the Executive council, their reports and recommendations on implementation of the African Unions Act. ***8. Other proposed structures though not yet in place are;*** ~ The peace and Security Council to comprise 15 members to monitor and intervene in conflicts. ~ The Pan-African Parliament responsible for ensuring civil society participation in AU matters. ~ The Court of Justice to deal with human rights abuses in Africa. ~ Financial Institutions like The African Central Bank, the African Monetary Fund and the African Investment Bank. **THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY** Founded on 6th June 1967, it comprises Kenya Uganda and Tanzania. **Origin of the East African Community.** Its origin can be traced back to 1902- the efforts of the British and German colonial governments to establish a unified administration over the East African territories.For example, the East African Court of Appeal was established in 1902, The East African Postal Union in 1911, East African Customs Union in 1917, East African Currency Board in 1920 And East African High Commission in 1948.On 9th December 1961, the East African High Commission was replaced with the East African Common Services Organization with the headquarters in Nairobi.The treaty to establish the East African Community was signed on 6th June 1967. The organization came into force on 1st December 1967. **Objectives of the East African Community.** a) To maintain a common markets for the member states and promote balanced economic cooperation. b) To provide common services to the three member states especially in the areas of transport and communication. c) To promote political co-operation between the three countries and hence peace and security. d) To facilitate the movement of the people within the region to foster greater cooperation and understanding among them. e) To expand the market in a region where population and incomes are low. **Challenges that faced the East African Community up to 1977.** a) Suspicion over perceived dominance among members. Tanzania and Uganda accused Kenya of acquiring the lions share of benefits from the community. Kenyan industries for example were protected more by the common external tariffs. b) Personality differences. This was between individual leaders of the three countries, making it more difficult for them to hold meetings. c) Ideological differences. Each of the three countries pursued different economies. Kenya followed capitalism and Tanzania socialism. Uganda had a mixed economy. d) Political instability in Uganda. The coup dtat, which overthrew Milton Obote, undermined the unity that was desired for the organization. Nyerere for example refused to recognize Amin as the president of Uganda. e) National pride and interests. National interests were given more priority than the regional interests were. E.g Tanzania favoured railway transport while Kenya favoured road transport. f) Boundary closures .Tanzania closed its common border with Kenya in 1977, thereby halting the community activities. There was also boundary closure between Tanzania and Uganda during the war between the two in 1978. g) Financial constraints resulting from failure by member states to remit funds to meet the organizations needs. h) The use of different currencies by the three nations made transaction difficult. **The Rebirth of the East African Community-2001** **Reasons that led to the rebirth of the East African Community in 1996.** a) There was need to maintain a common market for the member states in order to promote balanced economic cooperation. b) There was increasing need to provide common services to the three Member states especially in the areas of transport and communication as well as research. c) There was a strong desire to promote political cooperation between the three countries in a world that was becoming a global village. d) There was need to facilitate free movement of people in the region. e) A greater lesson had been learnt following the great losses and costs incurred by the East African countries following the collapse of the Community in 1977. **Milestones in the Formation of the East African Community-2001.** a) The full East African cooperation was started on March 14, 1996, when the Secretariat of the Permanent Tripartite Commission was launched at the headquarters of EAC in Arusha, Tanzania. Ambassador Francis Muthaura was appointed the first secretary general. b) On 19th November 1996, the agreement for the establishment of the East African Business Council was signed in Nairobi. f) On 29th April 1997, the second summit of heads of state was held in Arusha. It launched the first East African Cooperation development strategy (1997 -2000). g) On 30th April 1998, the ninth meeting of the Permanent Tripartite Commission in Arusha launched the treaty for the establishment of the East African Community. h) On 24th November 1998, the first East African Ministerial meeting on the Lake Victoria hyacinth was held in Arusha. A regional strategy was developed for control of the lake hyacinth. i) On 22nd January 1999, the third summit met in Arusha and directed the Permanent Tripartite Commission to complete the treaty making process by 30th July 1999. j) The treaty establishing the East African Community-2001 was signed on 30th November 1999 in Arusha by the three heads of state. **The structure of the New East African Community.** In the november30, 1999 treaty, the following organs were established to coordinate the activities and the direction of the community. 1. The Summit of Heads of State. It had the responsibility of giving direction towards realization of the goals and objectives of the community. It was the communitys supreme organ, consisting of the three heads of state with the chair being rotational. 2. The Council of Ministers. The main decision making organ of the heads of governments of the member states. It comprised the designated ministers from member states. 3. The Coordinating Committee. Made up of permanent secretaries. It reports to the council of ministers. It coordinates the activities of the sectoral committees. 4. The Sectoral Committees. These are committees created by the council on recommendation of the respective coordinating committee. 5. The East African Legislative Assembly. It provides a democratic forum for debate. It is also a watchdog of the activities of the community. It is a 30 -member assembly whose members are drawn from the member state. 6. The Secretariat. Based in Arusha, it carried out the day-to-day administrative duties of the community. 7. The Court of justice of East Africa. This was the highest appellate court in the region. **Other autonomous institutions established by the Council include;** ~ The East African Development Bank (EADB). ~ Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization (LVFO) ~ Inter-University Council for East Africa (IUCEA) **Challenges that have faced the EAC-2001.** a) Suspicion still exists over perceived dominance of Kenya in the community affairs. b) Despite signing the treaty in 1999, Tanzania customs are still taxing Kenyan products. c) Increased cross-border smuggling. The freedom of movement within the region sometimes results in smuggling of illegal arms and spread of crime and insecurity. E.g. the smuggling of a vehicle belonging to Kenyas Chief of Staff, General Joseph Kibwana to Tanzania in 2004. d) Cattle rustling across the borders. This is common on the Kenya Uganda border with the Pokot and Karamojong attacking each other e) Arrest of Kenyan fishermen on Lake Victoria by either Tanzania or Ugandan policemen/navy accusing them of fishing in their waters. f) Membership to other regional bodies e.g. COMESA, SADDC. This complicates the work of the EAC. g) The recent wrangles between Kenya and Uganda over ownership of Migingo Island. Although this problem was resolved by Uganda conceding Kenyas ownership of the Island, it raised tension between the two countries. h) The use of different currencies by the three nations has made transaction difficult. i) Political squabbles in the individual countries slow down the progress of the community j) Individual national interests have slowed down the implementation of the activities of the community the deep-seated differences between the member states over the proposed taxes on imports from countries outside the region. **Achievements of the East African Community-2001.** a) It has boosted movement of citizens within the three member states of East Africa. An East African passport has been introduced. b) It has provided a forum for the East African Leaders to discuss issues harmoniously. c) It has facilitated the improvement and expansion of transport and communication networks between the three East African countries. d) Tariffs for industrial goods produced in East Africa have been reduced. e) Investment procedures have been eased to enable all citizens to invest more easily within the community. f) It has enhanced cooperation of the civil society leading to formation of the Law Society of East Africa and the Business Council of East Africa. g) The community has promoted trade among member states by encouraging citizensto conduct trade in all the countries. **THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES.** **Formation of ECOWAS.** This is a regional group comprising of 15 West African countries.The treaty establishing ECOWAS was signed in Lagos, Nigeria on 28thmay 1975 by Gambia, Mali, Cape Verde, Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin, Togo, Cote dIvoire, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Senegal, Guinea Bissau, Nigeria and Guinea. **Objectives of ECOWAS.** a) To provide economic co-operation among West African states in specialized fields such as transport, communication, agriculture, trade industry etc. b) To liberalize trade between member states. c) To improve relations between the member states. d) To improve living standards of people in the member states. e) To create a customs union in the region. f) To promote industrial development among member states. g) To promote cultural interaction among the member states. **Organization of ECOWAS.** The following are organs that were established to coordinate the activities and the direction of ECOWAS. 1. The Authority of Heads of State and government. The authority meets once a year, with the chair being rotational. 2. The Council of Ministers. It comprises the designated ministers from member states. It meets twice a year. It manages the affairs of the community. 3. The Tribunal. Acting as the industrial court, it was established for settling disputes arising from the community. 4. The Executive Secretariat. Based in Lagos, Nigeria, it carries out the day-to-day administrative duties of the community. 5. Specialized commissions and Agencies. E.g the Committee on industry, natural resources and Agricultural Matters, the Committee on Trade, Customs and Immigrations Matters, the Committee on Transport and Communication, the Committee on Culture and Social Affairs. **Achievements of ECOWAS.** a) The defence Act adopted by ECOWAS in 1981 provided military support to any Member state attacked by outsiders. Their defence force known as ECOMOG was instrumental in quelling civil wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone. b) Economically, Member states benefit from ECOWAS. For example, Nigeria provides her oil to member states at a reduced price. c) The community has enabled regular meeting of the Heads of State to tackle problems facing the region. d) Socio-cultural exchanges within the West African region have promoted good relations among the people. e) Improvement has been realized in transport, trade, agriculture and communication. f) The organization has resolved political problems facing member states. g) ECOWAS has enabled citizens of member states to move freely from one country to another through waiver of visa requirements. h) There has been progress in education through the establishment of a Joint examination Syllabus for West African States. Challenges that ECOWAS has faced in its operation. a) Political instability in member states. Countries like Nigeria and Ghana have witnessed Military coups. Civil wars have been fought in Sierra Leone, Liberia and Ivory Coast. These have been a hindrance to cooperation. b) Nationalistic issues. Most member states give priority to their own domestic issues at the expense of the organization. c) Language barrier. Countries in West Africa inherited the languages of their former colonial masters. The problem in communication has hindered the efficient operation of the organization. d) Infrastructural problems. The state of roads, railway and communication linkages are poor. This has hampered economic progress of member states. e) Ideological differences. The leaders of the member states view each other with suspicion and mistrust due to differences in ideologies. f) Lack of uniform currency. Each country has its own currency. This creates a problem of rates of exchange thus hindering trade. g) Foreign interference. The presence of Israeli and French soldiers in Cote DIvoire was viewed suspiciously by guinea. h) Border closures. For example between Ghana and Togo and between Burkina Faso and Mali. **THE COMMON MARKETS FOR EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA** It is an economic organization comprising 19 states and which was established on 8th December 1994 to replace the Preferential Trade Area. **Aims and objectives of COMESA.** a) To attain sustainable growth and development of the member states by promoting a more balanced and harmonious development of its production and marketing. b) To promote cooperation in all fields of economic activity and joint adoption of macro-economic policies and programmes. c) To cooperate in the promotion of peace, security and stability among member states in order to enhance economic development in the region. d) To cooperate in the creation of an enabling environment for foreign, cross-border and domestic investment. e) To cooperate in strengthening the relations between the common market and the rest of the world. f) To contribute towards the establishment, progress and realization of the objectives of the African Economic Community. **Principles that govern the operation of COMESA.** a) Equality and interdependence of member states. b) Solidarity and collective self-reliance among member states. c) Inter-state cooperation, harmonization of policies and integration of programmes. d) Non-aggression. e) Recognition , promotion and protection of human and peoples rights in accordance with the provisions of the African Charter on human and peoples rights. f) Accountability, economic justice and popular participation in development. g) The recognition and observance of the rule of law. h) The promotion and sustenance of a democratic system of governance in each member state. i) The maintenance of regional peace and stability through the promotion and strengthening of good neighbourliness. j) The peaceful settlement of disputes among member states and active cooperation between neighbouring countries **Organization of COMESA.** COMESA is made up of the following organs; 1. The Authority of Heads of State and government. It is the supreme-policy making organ of COMESA. The authority meets once a year, but may hold an extra-ordinary meeting on request of any member of the authority. 2. The Council of Ministers. It comprises the designated ministers from member states. It meets once a year. It manages the affairs of the community. It monitors and ensures the proper functioning and development of COMESA. 3. The Court of Justice. It ensures proper interpretation and application of the provisions of the treaty. it was established for settling disputes arising from the community. E.g between Kenya and Egypt over export of cement in 2004 4. The committee of Governors of Central Banks. Governors of banks of member states form a committee to manage COMESA clearing house and ensure implementation of the monetary and financial co -operation programmes. 5. The Inter-Governmental Committee. A committee of permanent secretaries from member states which develops and manages programmes and action plans in all areas of cooperation except in the financial sector. 6. The Secretariat. Based in Lusaka, Zambia, it provides technical support and advisory services to the member states and coordinates the activities of COMESA. The current secretary general is Erastus Mwencha since 1997 7. The Technical Committees. E.g the Committee on natural resources and Environment, the Committee on Agricultural Matters, the Committee on Trade, Customs and Immigrations Matters, the Committee on Transport and Communication, the Committee on Labour, Culture and Social Affairs. 8. The consultative committee. This comprises the business community and other stakeholders. It provides a link between the business community and other COMESA stakeholders, monitors implementation of the necessary provisions of the treaty, consults and receives reports from other interested groups and Participates in the technical committees and makes recommendation. 9. Specialized independent institutions. The Eastern and Southern African Trade and Development Bank (PTA Bank) based in Nairobi, Kenya, the PTA reinsurance company, Nairobi, Kenya, The COMESA clearing house, Harare, Zimbabwe, COMESA association of Commercial Banks, Harare, Zimbabwe, COMESA leather institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. **Achievements of COMESA.** a) It provides its members a wide, harmonized and more competitive market for internal and external trading. b) It provides member states with a rational way of exploiting natural resources for their welfare. c) COMESA has established harmonized monetary, banking and financial policies in the region. d) It has improved the administration of transport and communicat ion to ease movement of goods, services and people. e) It has ensured cooperation in the promotion of peace, security and stability among member states in order to enhance economic development in the region. f) COMESA has strengthened relations between the Common Market and the rest of the world while ensuring that the members adopt a common position in international fora. g) Through the Authority of Heads of State and Government, COMESA directs and controls the affairs of the common market. h) Customs cooperation has been achieved through a unified computerized customs network that operates across the region. The harmonization of macro-economic and monetary policies throughout the region has been achieved. i) It has provided room for greater industrial productivity and competitiveness due to its large market. j) It has encouraged member states to practice good governance, accountability and respect for human rights. Burundi and Rwanda were subjected to these demands before they were admitted to COMESA. k) It has contributed to employment of many people in the region. l) COMESA has promoted increased agricultural production and exploitation of natural resources. m) The organization has ensured a more efficient and reliable transport and communication infrastructure. **Challenges that face COMESA in its operations.** a) Membership to other bodies. Members of COMESA are also members of EAC and SADC. This leads to divided loyalty. b) Personality differences. For example, presidents Museveni of Uganda and El Bashir of Sudan were involved in disagreements in 2004 over rebel activities. c) Boundary conflicts. This has been witnessed between Ethiopia and Eritrea. d) Civil wars. Wars have been witnessed in DRC, Uganda, Sudan, Rwanda and Burundi. Such inevitable wars undermine the operations of the common markets. e) Constant quarrels among member states over trading rights. For example Kenya and Egypt quarreled over duty-free cement dumped in Kenya by Egypt, on which Kenya wanted to charge duty. f) Poor transport between member states. This hampers movement of goods in the region. g) Pulling out of Tanzania and Namibia. The two founder members have opted for the South African Development Cooperation (SADC). This has undermined COMESA. h) Some members undermine their neighbours. For example Uganda and Rwanda have been accused of participating in the civil wars in the DRC. **Reasons why Africa has been unable to achieve full economic integration.** a) The problem of poor transport and communication has impeded flow of trade. This has affected all previous and existing economic groupings. b) There is uneven distribution of resources in Africa. Some countries are endowed with strategic natural resources like oil and fertile soils while others are impoverished with no resources. This hinders integration. c) All member states of economic co-operations suffer from budgetary deficit and balance of payment problems. They therefore lack adequate foreign exchange required for international trade. d) There is constant political interference by unenlightened leaders e) There has been rivalry among member states of trading co-operations. f) Africa has had a poor share from world trade as prices on world market are dictated by industrialized countries. g) The advent of multi-partism after the end of the cold war and the subsequent introduction of Structural Adjustment Programmes has crippled the performance of economic integration in Africa. h) Inability of member states to interfere in the internal affairs of other states even where there is need. i) Failure by member states to contribute fully to the organizations. j) The colonial legacy. Many member states still depend heavily on the West for manufactured goods, machinery, technology, donations and ideas. **NATIONAL PHILOSPHIES (KENYA)** **AFRICAN SOCIALISM** **Meaning and origin of African Socialism.** The Sessional paper No.10 of 1965 defines African socialism as an African political, economic system that is positively African, and capable of incorporating useful and compatible techniques from whatever source. African socialism was born out of the desire by our leaders to create a new society, different from the colonial society and which embraced equity devoid of racism, oppression and other social injustices. Main features that characterized African socialism in Kenya. a) Political Democracy where all people are politically free and equal b) Various forms of ownership of wealth. E.g. free enterprise allowing private ownership of property, nationalization policy for key industries, partnership with private sector c) Mutual social responsibility. That the spirit of service and not greed for personal gain motivate Kenyans. d) A range of control to ensure that property is used in mutual interests of society and its members. e) Progressive taxation to ensure an equitable distribution of wealth and income. f) Diffusion of ownership to avoid concentration of economic power on a few people in the society. **Achievements of African socialism as a National Philosophy.** a) It has led to promotion of democratic process in governance. Multi-partism has been established in Kenya due to African socialism policies. Kenya has also witnessed the growth of the civil society. b) Since the philosophy is built on African traditions, it has promoted African cultures Kenya pursued African values consistent with her traditions. c) The philosophy has promoted national unity and coexistence among Kenyan communities. d) There has been a greater effort to achieve fairness and justice through progressive taxation and a range of other controls. The government has tried to achieve fair distribution of resources through the activities of the District Focus for Rural Development. e) The philosophy led to establishment of cooperative societies in Kenya. This has promoted social and economic development in Kenya. f) African socialism has promoted agricultural development through the land tenure system that was undertaken to ensure settlement of the landless in settlement schemes like Bura. g) Social development in education and health has been achieved. Discrimination in schools, hospitals and residential areas stopped. Uniform systems were adopted. h) The philosophy gave Africans the right to participate in their economy. This was through the policy of Africanization in which industrial enterprises hitherto owned by Asians and Europeans, changed ownership. i) African socialism has encouraged rapid development in Kenya. The policy of mutual social responsibility through self-help promotes a sense of patriotism and service to the nation as Kenyans work together to build the nation. **Problems that faced African socialism.** a) Progressive taxation has put an additional burden of taxation on the poor thus discouraging development. b) Political interference in public projects and wrangles among leaders retards development. c) The spirit of unity and co-operation and self-help has been discouraged by misappropriation of funds. d) Corruption leads to negative attitude from people towards contributing to national development. **HARAMBEE PHILOSOPHY** Meaning and origin of Harambee philosophy. Harambee is a Kiswahili slogan, which means pulling together or working together. It was a development strategy in which, people supplemented government efforts through voluntary contribution.Mzee Jomo Kenyatta made it a national Motto in 1963 when he aptly advanced it as unity in all causes of national integrity and human progress. The Harambee spirit embodies ideals of assistance, joint effort, mutual social responsibility and community self-reliance. **Harambee projects are categorized as;** 1. Social Projects. Educational institutions and facilities, medical centres, recreational facilities and religious institutions. 2. Economic projects. Construction of rural access roads, bridges and culverts, agricultural and livestock activities. **Principles that guide the Harambee spirit.** a) It is a development strategy that is aimed at mobilizing the people at local level to participate in their development b) Participation is guided by the principles of collective good as opposed to individual gain. Harambee efforts should be directed towards community projects rather than individual projects. c) The choice of project is supposed to be guided by the felt needs of the majority. Participants should be involved in decision making. d) In the implementation of projects, there should be maximum utilization of the local resources such as labour, materials and money. **Contribution of Harambee movement to the development of Kenya.** a) Harambee movement has led to development of education in Kenya through Harambee fundraising to construct schools and colleges. b) Funds have been collected through Harambee to improve infrastructural facilities such as roads, rural electrification and provision of water. c) Collective participation in development programmes by people from different groups has promoted national unity. d) It has helped inculcate hard work in the people of Kenya. This has in turn encouraged various ethnic groups to develop their respective areas. e) Harambee projects especially in rural areas have attracted foreign donors especially the NGOS f) Has led to re-distribution of resources as people with more funds have participated in the development projects in the less developed areas. g) Funds have been raised through Harambee to help the less fortunate members of the society. For example, President Moi 8th April 1989 held a Mammoth Rally where KSH 70Million was raised to help the disabled. h) Harambee movement has promoted agricultural development e.g., through construction of cattle dips and purchase of farms through Harambee. i) Funds raised through Harambee have been used to purchase buses and Matatus to provide transport. Ways in which the Harambee philosophy has promoted the development of education in Kenya. a) Many education institutions have been constructed using funds raised through Harambee effort. Thus enabling many children to attend school. b) Many students have been assisted to pay school fees/thus it enables the needy to go on learning. c) Physical facilities have been constructed/improved through Harambee. This enables learning in a conducive environment. d) Teaching/learning materials have been purchased/ donated to schools to improve the quality of education. e) Additional staff/workers in schools have been paid through Harambee contributions by the parents to offset inadequacy. f) Through Harambee spirit, well-wishers, thus helping the learners to exploit their talents, have supported co-curricular activities. g) Scholl furniture has been bought through Harambee effort thus making learning /teaching comfortable. h) Parents have contributed funds to supplement the governments school feeding programmes thus improving enrolment. **problems that face Harambee movement in Kenya.** a) Misuse of Harambee funds/diverting its use and lack of commitment by leaders. b) It puts an additional burden of taxation on the poor. c) Embezzlement of public funds. d) Political interference and wrangles among leaders. e) The spirit of unity and co-operation and self-help may be killed by misappropriation of funds. f) Poor co-ordination and supervision of Harambee projects. g) Use of force or extortion of Harambee funds from the people/dictatorial tendencies. h) Corruption and negative attitude from people. i) Use of Harambee for political gains. **NYAYOISM**. **Meaning and origin of Nyayoism.** Nyayoism originally meant footsteps i.e. following the footsteps of Mzee Jomo Kenyatta. This was a phrase coined by the former president of Kenya Daniel Arap Moi, in reference to his Endeavour to follow the foot steps of his predecessor.Today, Nyayoism means peace, love and unity that form the pillars of the development philosophy.It stresses the concept of being mindful of other peoples welfare.It is closely related to the principal of mutual social responsibility as embodied in African socialism. **Sources of Nyayoism.** 1) Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 that articulated African socialism, which is based on collective responsibility and on being mindful of other peoples welfare. 2) The Biblical teaching of the Ten Commandments, summarized as Love for God, fellow man and oneself. 3) Mois long political career inspired him to develop the philosophy when he realized that national building required love. **Pillars of Nyayoism** ***1) Peace***: - the state of being free from war and disorder. Peace is the beginning of sustainable and cumulative progress. Peace promotes development. According to Nyayoism, peace discourages political stability. ***2) Love:***- Love brings about trust and readiness to cooperate by working together tofoster national development. Lack of love disturbs peace, creates disorder and destroys progress. Love encourages the African culture of sharing through the extended family (communalism). ***3) Unity***: - the state of being one, being in harmony or in agreement in objectives and feelings. The diversity of Kenyas culture, religion, races and language requires that there must be unity for nation-building. **Role played by Nyayoism in national development.** a) The philosophy formed the basis for solving national development problems. The philosophy perpetuated the Harambee spirit. b) The philosophy helped in unifying different communities. The philosophy enhanced cooperation and unity of all. c) Nyayoism was used as the rallying spirit for the collective contribution and approach to national development. d) Nyayoism discouraged societal evils since it preached love, unity and peace. Corruption was discouraged through the philosophy. e) It discouraged all forms of discrimination based on religion, tribe, race, and social status. f) The philosophy created respect for public property and functions. g) It enabled the creation of a welfare state since everyone became mindful of others welfare. h) It created a sense of nationalism and patriotism necessary for national development. **Impact of National Philosophies** **Social Impact of National Philosophies.** a) Education has been promoted through philosophies like the Harambee that have assisted in construction of schools, laboratories and libraries. b) Medical services have been improved c) Cooperation, understanding and unity have been encouraged since the philosophies emphasized togetherness for nation-building. d) The philosophies have promoted the spiritual and social welfare of people by raising their living standards. African socialism encourages people to assist others are share with others. e) Through the Harambee spirit, the plight of persons with disabilities and other disadvantaged groups has been looked into. f) The philosophies have promoted African cultures, since they are drawn from African traditions. **Economic impacts.** a) Self-reliance and The Africanization process through which the people of Kenya were able to take over from foreigners was made possible by the philosophies. b) Due to the policy of pooling together resources and the spirit of cooperation derived from African socialism, cooperative societies have been formed in agriculture and other sectors, thus contributing to the countrys development. c) Transport and communication has been improved through African socialism and Harambee spirit. Rural access roads have been constructed; Nyayo buses were bought though the scheme failed due to mismanagement. d) The agricultural sector has been boosted by the philosophies. Kenyans are encouraged to work hard to increase food production. e) The pillars of Nyayoism have created a conducive atmosphere for growth of tourism and foreign investment in the country. **Political impacts.** a) The philosophies have promoted nationalism and patriotism in the country. b) African socialism has encouraged the democratization process as it champions for political equality. c) It has promoted international cooperation and understanding **SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND** **CHALLENGES IN KENYA SINCE INDEPENDENCE POLITICAL** **DEVELOPMENT AND CHALLENGES** It must be noted that Kenya inherited a number of political problems from the colonial government. For example; a) Lack of African technocrats who could give political direction to the country. b) Suspicion and jealousy between different communities due to the divide-andrule tactic employed by the colonial administration for many years. c) An illiterate population, ignorant of its political obligations **Political developments in Kenya between 1963 and 1991** On 12th December 1963, Kenya became independent under KANU led by Jomo Kenyatta.In 1964, there was voluntary disbanding of KADU and APP making Kenya a de facto one party state. There was abolition of Federal Constitution in favour of a Unitary or Republican Constitution. The post of an executive president was created to replace the post of Prime Minister.In 1966, the Limuru conference presided over replacement of the Vice -President of KANU With seven Provincial Vice Presidents and one for Nairobi Area. On 14th April 1966, Oginga Odinga resigned from KANU and Government and formed Kenya Peoples Union (KPU) where Bildad Kaggia, Achieng Oneko and Tom Odongo joined him.In 1966, the bicameral legislature (the senate and the House of Representatives) was disbanded. A single chamber parliament was established. In 1966, Joseph Murumbi was appointed the countrys vice-president to replace Oginga. He resigned in 1967to pave way for Mois appointment.1969 witnessed the political assassination of the flamboyant Tom Mboya in the hands of one, Nahashon Njenga on 5th July on Nairobis Moi Avenue.1n 1969, KPU was banned following riots in Kisumu. In 1975, Josiah Mwangi Kariuki. MP for Kinangop was found brutally murdered in Ngong Forest.In October 1975 martin Shikuku and the deputy speaker, Jean Marie Seroney, were arrested and detained for making claims in the house that KANU and parliament were dead. In 1976, Chelagat Mutai, MP for Eldoret North was arrested and jailed for 2 years for inciting his constituents to violence. In 1977, George Anyona, MP for Kitutu was also arrested after he accused the government of corruption.In 1976, the change the constitution campaign was began by Kihika Kimani, Dr. Njoroge Mungai, Jackson Angaine, Paul Ngei and Njenga Karume with the objective of making sure that the then vice president, Daniel Arap Moi would not succeeded the president.On 22nd august 1978, Jomo Kenyatta died and Moi assumed presidency for 90 days and was finally elected as second president of Kenya.In July 1980, Moi banned all tribal organizations, the Kenya Civil Servants Union and the Nairobi University Staff Union. In June 1982, after an attempt by Anyona to form a political party, section 2A was introduced in the Kenyan constitution makin g it a de jure one party state.On 2nd august 982, Kenya experienced a coup detat by some air force servicemen. Charles Njonjo, the Constitutional Affairs Minister was accused of masterminding the coup. In 1988, KANU introduced the infamous Queue voting method (mlolongo) that was open to abuse.In February 1990, Dr, Robert Ouko, minister of foreign affairs and international cooperation was murdered. The better part of 1991 witnessed a series of tribal clashes involving Kalenjin and Kikuyu, Kalenjin and Luhyia and Luos. **Kenyas political developments from 1991 up to 2011.** In December 1991, a parliamentary act repealed the one-party system provisions of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system. The first political party to be formed under the repealed act was Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD) In august 1992, one of the leaders of FORD Masind e Muliro died mysteriously. The first multiparty elections were held in 1992 in December.KANU won against a disjointed opposition.In 1994, the official leader of the opposition and MP of Bondo, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga died.After 1997 elections, the Inter-Parliamentary Parties Group ((IPPG) passed the reforms that marked the genesis of the constitutional review process.In 2002, several opposition parties formed a coalition that overwhelmingly defeated KANU in the general elections. In January 2003, the National Rainbow Coalition formed the new government with Mwai Kibaki as the president.In august 2003, Wamalwa Kijana, the vice president of the coalition government died after a short illness. Mood Awori was appointed the next Vice president.In 2005, a new political movement, the Orange Democratic Movement (ODM) was formed as a campaign tool against the proposed new constitution. Raila Odinga was its leader.The general Elections of 2007 resulted in a political crisis that provoked an unprecedented wave of political violence and killing across Kenya.On 28th February 2008 the former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan succeeded in brokering a power sharing deal between the incumbent President, Mwai Kibaki, and the opposition leader, Raila Odinga thus bringing to end the political violence. On April 17, 2008, Raila Odinga, from Orange Democratic Movement, was sworn as Prime Minister of Kenya, after more than forty years of the abolition of office.On 28th august 2010 Kenya promulgated a new constitution thus making it the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitution.In 2011, the International Criminal Court seating at the Hague, begun criminal proceedings against Uhuru Kenyatta, William Ruto, former police Commissioner Hussein Ali, Henry Kosgei, the head of public service Francis Muthaura and a journalist Joshua Arap Sang over their involvement in the 2008 post-Election Violence.In June 2011, Dr. Willy Mutunga became the first Kenyas Chief Justice and Nancy Makokha Barasa, his deputy under the new constitution.The Electoral Commission of Kenya (ECK) was also replaced with the Independent Elections and Boundaries Commission (IEBC). The constitutional changes in Kenya in the period between 1963 and 1991.The first meeting in Lancaster in 1960 resulted in an interim constitution that failed to grant any substantial autonomy to Kenya. The second Lancaster conference in 1962 negotiated a framework for self government. The third and final conference in 1963 resulted in the drafting and adoption of Kenya's first independent Constitution by the British Parliament. The 1963 constitution marked the end of colonial rule and transformed the colony into a dominion.It established a parliamentary system with executive powers vested in a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister.The Constitution was changed in 1964 and Kenya became a republic and the executive becamepresidential. The senate and regions were also abolished.In 1966, the voting majority to change the Constitution was lowered to two -thirds of the MPs. The term region was replaced with province.In 1966, a constitutional amendment abolished the Bicameral Legislature and replaced it with a Unicameral Legislature, chosen directly by the electorate.On 28th April 1966, an amendment was passed to compel MPs who defected from sponsoring party, to resign from parliament and seek re-election.In May 1966, the Public Security Act was passed empowering the president to detain a citizen without trial on grounds of being a threat to state security.In 1968, the president was empowered to alter provincial and district boundaries.In 1968, the procedure for presidential elections and succession in the event of his death was laid down. The age qualification for presidential candidates was also lowered to 35 from 40 years.In 1974, an amendment of the constitution empowered the president to pardon any election offender at his own discretion. This was done to favour Paul Ngei. In 1975, Kiswahili was declared the national language of the national assembl y.In 1977, the Kenya court of appeal was established after the breakup of the East African Community. Voting age was lowered from 21 to 18. In 1979, both Kiswahili and English were declared languages of the national assembly.In 1982, Kenya became a de jure one party state. KANU became the only lawful party in Kenya.In 1987, the security of tenure of the Attorney General, Chief Secretary, The Comptroller and AuditorGeneral was removed. Office of chief secretary was abolished.In 1988, the security of tenure of Puisine Judges and Chairman of Public Service Commission was removed.A parliamentary act in December 1991 repealed the one-party system provisions of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system. Multiparty elections were held the following year in December. **Steps towards realization of a new constitution in Kenya since 1997**<br><br> In 1997, Parliament passed the Constitution of Kenya Review Act that set the <br><br>pace for comprehensive constitutional reforms. The Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC) was established to provide civic education, seek public input and prepare a constitution). In 2005, after many years of struggle, the constitution was ultimately rejected by Kenyans at the constitutional referendum because of disagreements amongst various stakeholders. <br><br> 28 February 2008The National Accord and Reconciliation Act (NARA) signed by <br><br>President Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga put in place arrangement for a new process to finalize the long awaited constitution of Kenya <br><br> In 2008 the Constitution of Kenya Review Act 2008 was passed and a Committee of Experts (CoE) was established as the main technical constitutional review organ to drive the process. The CoE was chaired by Nzamba Kitonga, the deputy chair was Ms Atsango Chesoni, other members were Ms Njoki Ndung'u, Mr Otiende Amolo,Mr Abdirashid Hussein Mr Bobby Mkangi Professor Christina Murray (South Africa) Dr Chaloka Beyani (Zambia) and Dr Frederick Ssempebwav (Uganda. <br><br> 23 February 2009 Members of the CoE were appointed by the President were <br><br>later on sworn in <br><br> On 17 November 2009 CoE released the to the public and invited views and comments on the constitution, <br><br> By 23rd February 2010. CoE had submitted the final of constitution to the <br><br>Parliamentary Select Committee. <br><br> On 4th august 2010 Kenya held a Constitutional Referendum where the new <br><br>constitution was overwhelmingly endorsed. <br><br> On 28th august 2010, the new constitution was promulgated and became operational making Kenya the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitution. **MULTI-PARTY DEMOCRACY IN KENYA SINCE 1991.** **Factors that led to the development of multi-party democracy in Kenya after 1991** a) International pressure from multilateral and bilateral donors. The western donors took advantage of the collapse of the Soviet Union to set the stringiest conditionalties for aid on the government, for democratic reforms. b) Disunity in KANU. There was pressure from individuals who had been expelled from KANU without political alternatives. c) Existence of people who were ready to push democratic agenda ahead. This included the civil society, the lawyers and intellectuals. E.g the Law Society of Kenya led by Paul Muite and Gitobu Imanyara put pressure on the government for reforms. d) Success of multi-party in other African countries. In Zambia for example, Chilubas Movement for Multiparty Democracy defeated Kaundas United National Independence Party. e) Pressure from the church. Several church leaders, among them Alexander Muge, Bishop Henry Okullu and Rev. Timothy Njoya called upon the government to create an en environment in which Kenyans could participate in governance. f) Massive rigging of the elections. The most notorious of all was the 1988 general elections, which were marred with widespread rigging. g) The developments in Eastern Europe. Due to Gorbachevs liberal reforms, one party dictatorship in Eastern Europe was replaced by regimes that were more liberal. h) Rampant corruption in particular, embezzlement and misappropriation of public funds and grabbing of public assets. Those who criticized were punished through detention, arbitrary arrests and other forms of intimidation. i) Repeal of section 2A of the constitution in December 1991 Role played by political parties in government and national building in Kenya. a) The party that gunners majority of seats and votes forms the government either alone or in coalition with other parties. b) Political parties influence government affairs and development through participation in legislation process. c) Political parties through the elected members of parliament decide on national development policies and development projects. d) Political parties provide exemplary leadership founded on freedom , justice, fair play and African socialism. e) Opposition parties provide a system of scrutinizing government expenditure through public accounts committee and public investment committee. f) Opposition parties make the government more accountable to the people through constant criticism. g) Opposition parties provide checks and balances to abuse and misuse of powers and privileges by those in the government. **Challenges of multi-party democracy in Kenya.** a) Since many politicians and senior government officials were not ready for Multipartism, they often incited their supporters to kick out opposition supporters from certain regions. This has been common in the Rift Valley region. b) The executive arm and the ruling party have many a times misused the members of the civil service to frustrate the opposition. In case of flawed elections, the provincial administration has always been used in rigging. c) Many of the parties formed failed to attain a national outlook. They mainly were tribal based. d) The multi party democracy has been hampered with defection of greedy politicians who become preys to bribes. This has weakened some parties. e) The former KANU for a long time retained control of the government machinery,,(the police force, the radio and television.) these were utilized for the advantage of KANU for al long time. f) There has been a problem of lack of funding from the government. Most of the political parties have been unable to sustain competition for political power due to inadequate funds. g) Interference by the international community in the running of the country. Some members of the diplomatic community openly side with certain political parties. h) Many political parties have been embroiled in wrangles. For example the Orange Democratic Movement has been bedevilled with a number of desertions due to wrangles between Ruto and his supporters and Raila Odinga. Ford Kenya has split into New Ford Kenya and Ford Kenya due to wrangles between Eugene Wamalwa and Moses Wetangula. **Identify the disadvantages of multiparty system.** a) Multipartism tends to divide the people on tribal, regional and sectarian line. b) It tends to sharpen the struggle for personality and group dominance rather than policy implementation. c) Multipartism is a foreign system, which does not conform to the aspirations of independent Africa. d) It encourages the politics of destabilization. e) Political statements deadlocks on debates and tensions become too common. f) Decisions take too long to be made and implemented. g) Encourages use of violence in a state since opposition party members will be regarded as traitors by the government. The government will be regarded as oppressors by the opposition. **ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS AND CHALLENGES** **Economic challenges that have faced Kenya since independence.** a) Stagnation of investment in the first years of independence due to massive transfer of capita from the country by the white settlers. The government faced the challenge of cultivating investor confidence. b) The problem of landlessness among many Africans whose arable land had been alienated. There was an urgent need for redistribution. c) Serious economic disparity in the country with the former white highlands having adequate provision of water, electricity and roads while the rest lacked enough of the same. d) Overpopulation in urban areas as result of rural-urban migration, putting facilities under pressure and creating unemployment. e) Problem of control of economy by the Europeans prior to independence and after independence. E.g. farm ownership and key industries. f) Lack of qualified manpower to run the technical sectors of the economy. These were issues that were addressed by session paper number 10 of 1965. **Types of landholding in Kenya.** Land tenure refers to the terms and conditions under which land is acquired, used or transferred At independence the type of landholding in Kenya was mainly communal, where land belonged to the whole community. Access to land was open every member of a social group. Community elders, clan heads or kings were empowered to control and give advice on land use.Land alienation during the colonial period transformed land into a commodity th at could be disinherited from an individual.***Such colonial land policies*** ***leading to alienation of African land resulted in the following;*** a) Widespread landlessness as Africans lost ancestral lands. b) Reduction in land available to Africans leading to land pressure as population increased. c) Deterioration of the quality of land due to fragmentation. d) Overstocking because of limited land, leading to soil erosion. e) Displacement of pastoral and agricultural communities, leading to problems such as famine and livestock diseases. f) Disintegration of social and cultural institutions in the reserves due to ethnic boundaries being fixed, thus separating African communities. The Mau Mau wars which were a consequent of the bitterness arising from land alienation resulted in a number of land reforms under the Swynnerton Plan of 1954. The plan put in place a programmee for land consolidation, adjudication and registration. This was whet the Kenya government inherited at independence. Land Adjudication: - verification of individual or group rights to land within a given area. Land consolidation: - merging of fragmented land into single economic units. Land registration: - recording of rights to land and the consequent issuance of a title deed.The post-colonial land holding system in Kenya.The land tenure system in Kenya after independence was categorized as private or modern, communal or customary, public or state and open accessPrivate land; comprised of 6% of the total land areaGovernment- owned; former crown land, comprised 20% of the land area. It included the national parks, government or public forests, alienated (land acquired from customary land owners by government for own use or private development) and unlalienated land (land that has not been leased or allocated by the government).Trust land comprised 64% of the total land area as at 1990. This comprised the former native areas and was awaiting small holder registration to transform it into private tenure system.Land ownership in Kenya has been a source of bitter conflict as manifested in the post election violence after the 2007 elections. The historical injustices in Kenya have always been related to land. In 2010, land ownership in Kenya was classified as follows under the new constitution. a) Public land b) Community land c) Private land a) Public land Public land is the land held by the central or local government. It consists of; ~ Land not set aside for any purpose (unlalienated land). ~ Land set aside for public utility use or land that is occupied by the State organ as lessee. ~ land transferred to the State by way of sale, reversion or surrender; ~ Land to which no individual or community ownership is traceable. ~ Land which no heir can be identified. ~ All minerals and mineral ores. ~ government forests, game reserves, water catchment areas, national parks, government animal sanctuaries, and specially protected areas; ~ All roads and thoroughfares. ~ All rivers, lakes and other water bodies. ~ The territorial sea, the exclusive economic zone and the sea bed. ~ The continental shelf. ~ All land between the high and low water marks. ~ Any other land declared to be public land by an Act of Parliament. **Community land** Community land is land which is implied as owned by a group of people on the basis of customary norms, not through formal registration. It consists of: ~ Land registered in the name of group representatives. ~ Land transferred to a specific community through a legal process. ~ Any other land declared to be community land by an Act of Parliament. ~ land that is held, managed or used by specific communities as community forests, grazing areas or shrines; ~ Ancestral lands and lands traditionally occupied by hunter gatherer communities; ~ Land held as trust land by the county governments, but not including any public land held in trust by the county government. **Private land** Private land is land (and houses and buildings) held under registered entitlement (freehold or leasehold). It consists of: ~ Registered land held by any person under freehold tenure. ~ Land held by any person under leasehold tenure. ~ Any other land declared private land under an Act of Parliament. Note: ~ Landholding by non-citizens is allowed only through lease for a period not exceeding ninety-nine years. ~ A corporate body, for the purpose of land ownership can only be recognized as a citizen if it is wholly owned by one or more citizens. ~ Property held in trust will only be recognized as being held by a citizen if all the beneficial interest of the trust is held by the persons who are citizens. **Land policies since independence.** **Two type of programme that characterized land reforms exercise that commenced** **in 1963 in Kenya were;** 1) Transfer of land from European large scale farmers to Africans. 2) Land consolidation and registration in which the government purchased several farms from the Europeans and sub-divided them among African holders. **In the former European farms, the government established settlement schemes as** **follows;** 1) The Million Acre Scheme which was began in 1963 and involved settling African families on 13.5 hectares each. 2) The Harambee Scheme started in 1969, involved settling families on 16.25 hectares each. 3) The Haraka Scheme where squatters were settled in small plots of land in Central, Coast, Eastern and Rift Valley Provinces. 4) Shirika Scheme started in 1971 to settle the landless and unemployed on the former European lands. Under this scheme, the individual farmers would own a small plot each while the rest of the farm would be managed by a cooperative. This scheme did not succeed since people wished to have their own pieces of land.However, these schemes failed to adequately solve the problems of landlessness in the country. A few politically- connected people acquired large tracts of land, most of which remained underutilized. Some of the schemes are located in areas of harsh climatic conditions and are unviable without irrigation.Several commissions have addressed land issues in Kenya. For example, in 2001, President Moi appointed the Njonjo Commission to investigate the main problems of land ownership and distribution in Kenya. In 2003, the NARC government set up the Ndungu Commission on land. Its Recommendations are yet to be implemented.By 1983, 29 districts in Kenya had benefitted from Land adjudication and registration, a process which began in the 1950s in Central Kenya then spread to other parts of the country after 1963. **Benefits of the land reforms in Kenya.** a) Farmers could use their land title deeds to get loans from banks in order to expand farming on their land. b) Land titles enabled people to purchase land with confidence. No one would alienate them from their land. c) The reforms enabled thousands of landless people to own land. d) Dairy and cash crop production increased. **Land ownership by non-citizens.** A non-citizen can only own land in the country on the basis of leasehold tenure not exceeding 99 years. **Principles that govern utilization of land in Kenya.** a) Equitable access to land. All members of the society must have equal access to land since it is an important resource. b) Transparent and cost effective administration of land. State institutions should be given powers and responsibilities of ensuring transparent and accountable administration of land. c) Elimination of gender discrimination. in line with protection of human rights, for all, discrimination against women on issues of land ownership and access to land need be eliminated. d) Sustainable and productive management of land resources. Since land is an economic resource, it should be managed well to ensure maximum productivity. e) Sound conservation and protection of ecologically sensitive areas. Conservation measures like prohibiting settlement and agricultural activities in water catchment areas and zoning of forest lands to protect them from further degradation. f) Encouragement of communities to settle land disputes. This should happen as long as they are consistent with the constitution. Ways in which the Kenya government has solved land related problems since independence. a) The problems related to Communal Land ownership have been solved through land demarcation and adjudication by the government. This saw the conversion from traditional system of land ownership to modern freeload tenure. b) Landlessness was solved through creation of resettlement schemes. Large-scale farms and former European farms were divided into smaller ones and given to the landless. E.g Mwea Tebere, Bura, Shirika etc. c) The government has put marginal lands to more productive use through establishment of irrigation schemes and drainage schemes. d) The government removed restriction of movements from the reserves that were created by the colonial government. This decongested the reserves and gave chance to arable farming. e) At independence, the t government embarked on land consolidation policy through which scattered plots were put into one holding. f) The government also embarked on land reclamation measure to bring previously unused land to productive use. g) The Government has established the National Land Commission which manages public land **The National Land Commission.** **Functions of the National Land Commission.** a) It manages public land on behalf of the national and county governments. b) It advises the national government on a comprehensive programme for land registration throughout the country. c) It investigates present and past historical injustices, as a result of a complaint or on its on initiative, and recommends appropriate action. d) It has a duty to encourage the use of traditional methods of dispute resolution in land conflicts. e) It recommends the national land policy to the national government. f) It assesses tax on land and premiums on immovable property in any area designated by law. g) It monitors land use planning throughout the country. **Development in agriculture since independence.** After independence, the government encouraged small scale farming of coffee and tea as opposed to large scale farming that existed during the colonial period. The Agricultural development corporation (ADC) was set up to manage large scale farms that were established by the government in western, Rift Valley and Coast provinces. Such farms specialize in production of seeds to be used by farmers for planting. They also specialize in production of high quality dairy and beef cattle in Kenya.The government also established the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) in Muguga near Kikuyu to assist in identifying good crop breeds for different types of soils. Irrigation Schemes were expanded in the marginal areas. For example. Mea (central), Bura (coast), Ahero (Nyanza) and Perkerra (central).The government created development authorities to effectively manage water catchment areas. For example, TARDA, KVDA and LBDA. **Challenges facing Kenyas agricultural sector.** a) The 1984 drought and famine in various parts of the country occasioning supply of relief food to the affected regions. b) Rapid increase in population which is not at pace with the rate of increase in agricultural production. c) From the late 1970s, the world market prices of agricultural commodities fell drastically yet the inputs remained expensive. d) Corruption and mismanagement of the cooperatives leading to meager earnings for key cash crops in Kenya. e) Grabbing of research land by corrupt government officials has affected the operations of the research institutes. f) The problem of poor infrastructure in the country sometimes discourages farmers especially during the rainy season. g) Ethnic clashes in Molo in 1991-1992, Likoni in 1997 and Mahi Mahiu in 2005 plus the post election violence in 2008 discouraged farmers from intense farming due to insecurity. h) Poor technology hassled to low yields. People in Kenya still rely on natural rains for agriculture instead of using irrigation. Others use primitive traditional tools in cultivation. i) The problem of pests that destroy the farm yields before reaching the factory. j) Competition from COMESA member states and from the more industrialized powers such as the European Union and USA often frustrate Kenyan farmers. **Industrial developments in Kenya since independence.** Kenyas industrial sector was shaped by the long period of colonization. At independence, industry was characterized by dominance of foreign capital and dominance of the agricultural sector. **Factors that facilitated industrial development in Kenya since the colonial era.** a) The existence of raw materials, such as trona (soda ash) at lake Magadi, fluorspar at Kerio Valley and lime in several parts of the country. b) Existence of fish resource from numerous water bodies has promoted the fishprocessing industry. c) Existence of expansive forests which provide timber needed in the furniture industry. d) The rich scenary, e.g Mt. Kenya, Mt. Elgon, the Aberdares and rich wildlife have promoted the tourism industry. e) Kenyas rivers have enough water for production of HEP. f) Increase in population since the colonial period ensured supply of labour and the market required for industries to flourish. g) The transport and communication infrastructure have provided the necessary link between the material producing zones , industries and markets.. h) Existence of rich agricultural lands producing raw materials such as coffee, tea, sugarcane, sisal and fruits **Measures taken by the Kenyan government to promote industrial development since** **independence.** a) The government engaged on decentralization programmes to spur development in new areas. Industries were established in rural areas. b) The government has embarked on the programmes of funding new markets for industrial products. c) Infrastructure was improved through establishment of more roads, railways and improvement of water transport, to-transport raw materials labour and goods. d) Power concerns were addressed through construction of the Seven Forks Dam to supplement power from neighboring Uganda. e) Favourable government policies have been put in place to attract investors. f) The government has put in place measures to reduce imports in order to protect local infant industries. E.g discriminative tariffs were introduced. g) The government encouraged and assisted in giving capital for industrial development through development of the co-operative movement, funding through Industrial and Commercial Development Corporation(ICDC) , the Development Finance Company of Kenya.(DFCK) and the Industrial Development Bank. h) The government has ensured political stability in the country, which is an important factor in industrial development. **Factors that have hindered industrial development in Kenya.** a) The problem of multi nationals whose interests do not favour Kenyas progress. Multi-national co-operation repatriate capital to their own home countries b) There is shortage of strategic raw materials e.g. petroleum, diamond. Cotton for textile industries. Many industrial companies use imported raw materials. c) Foreigners, who pass policies not friendly to the country, hold managerial positions in industries. d) Mismanagement of major industries and lack of transparency I parastatals. e) Over concentration of industries in few areas leading to negligence of other areas. It also has led to related problems of industrial concentration like the social ills. f) Competition from the industrialized nations who dominate the market and produce high quality goods. g) Poverty limits industrialization. A poor population means a small domestic market thus hindering industrial development. h) Products are produced with low technology hence small quantities. Further reading on industrial development should be done with reference to evolving world book 4 pages 162-164 **Social Development and challenges since independence.** **Education.** To solve the problems inherited at independence in the education sector (poor quality education and poor facilities available the Kenya children), the government undertook the following measures; a) Constitutional amendments were made in 1975 to give Kiswahili a respectable position in the country. b) Several educational Commissions were set up to streamline education. c) The Harambee strategy was employed to expand educational facilities. Education Commissions. a) The Kenya Education Commission (1964) (The Ominde commission) that recommended overhaul of curriculum to make it relevant. b) The National Committee on Education Objectives and policies- Gachathi commission(1976) that looked into he possibility of setting up a second university. c) Presidential Working Party on the Second University- The Mackey commission (1982) that established the 8-4-4 system and proposed emphasis of vocational subjects such as art and craft, music, agriculture and Home science. d) The Kamunge commission (1988) which recommended cost-sharing in education e) The Koech commission (1999) which recommended reintroduction of A-level system in form of Totally Integrated Quality Edu cation and Training. **Main developments in education in Kenya since independence.** In 1975, Kiswahili was made the official languages of parliament and learning in schools. The ministry of education established structures right from the district level to national level to help in fulfilling the national objectives of education.Several education commissions were set up to streamline education. The harambee strategy was employed to expand education facilities. Many schools were built.In 1980, the government took over the responsibility of providing pre-primary education.In the 1990s, the government in collaboration with UNICEF launched a programme to promote early childhood education.By 1998, the total number of students in the various universities was over 40,000.In 1969, the ministry of education took over the administration of primary education from local government, this witnessed increased enrolment.In 1978, the government introduced the school milk programme to encourage children especially in drought prone areas to go to school.The programme stalled in 1990 but had achieved higher enrolment in schools.The Ministry of education launched school feeding programme, targeting dry areas.In 2002, the NARC government introduced the Free Primary Education policy.Further reading be done from evolving world on Elementary education and Tertiary education in Kenya. **Health.** Measures taken to improve the health sector in postcolonial Kenya. a) The ministry of health was created to oversee health matters. b) Expansion of health facilities through harambee and donor funds e.g. Nyanza Provincial hospital (Russian Hospital) c) Many health training institutions were started e.g. Medical training colleges d) Improvement in hygiene through provision of piped water. e) Establishment of several research institutions on human diseases e.g. KEMRI f) Provision of more basic education in order to uplift hygiene standards in the society. g) Provision of free anti-retroviral and anti-malaria drugs. **Major challenges facing the Health sector in Kenya.** a) Increase in population has posed major challenges to the government in the provision of healthcare services to its citizens. There has been a challenge of inadequate doctors and medical facilities. b) The cost- sharing policy introduced in the 1980s to help buy medicine and other equipment has prevented the poor from going to the hospitals. c) The spread of HIV and AIDS and other diseases such as Diabetes and Heart diseases has worsened the situation. d) Cultural practices like Female mutilation have made provision of medical services more challenging. e) Pollution of the environment has increased allergy-related ailments, many of which have no cure. f) Poverty and malnutrition render many people vulnerable to diseases. g) Illegal abortion and early pregnancies endanger the lives of mothers. h) High rate of accidents and injuries , especially on roads. **ways through which the government has encouraged the preservation of African** **culture since independence.** a) Creation of the ministry of culture and social services. The ministry promotes cultural and social values. b) The syllabus has been tailored to include cultural studies. c) Inclusion of music as a subject in the national curriculum. d) The government has encouraged music/drama festivals on an annual basis as way of promoting cultural exchange. e) The government has encouraged intermarriage between different ethnic groups. f) The government has developed cultural heritage centre at the Bomas of Kenya, National Archives and Museums. g) Schools have been encouraged to admit people from different communities. h) Allowing the media houses to play traditional music/dance.. Students Read on sports, literature, theatre, music and dance from evolving world page 174. **SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT AND** **CHALLENGES IN** **AFRICA SINCE INDEPENDENCE.** **THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO.** Political developments in Democratic Republic of Congo since independence The Belgians relinquished their political dominion of Congo by granting them autonomy on 30th June 1960. Patrice Lumumba (Prime Minister) of Congolese National Movement Party and Joseph Kasavubu of Abako Party (Head of State) formed a fragile coalition government. The two leaders differed ideologically.The period between 1960 and 196 witnessed power struggle between Kasavubu and Lumumba on one side and Secessionist Moise Tsombe of Katanga and Albert Kalonji of Kasai on the other side. In 1961, Patrice Lumumba was assassinated. This led to withdrawal of his supporters from government. In 1961, the UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjld perished in a plane crash in the Congo while attempting to bring a peaceful political solution to the Congo crisis.In 1964, a new constitution was formulated as a way of solving the political problems that plagued Zaire soon after independence. Zaire became a federal state with a federal president and separate assemblies for each state.On 23rd November 1965, Joseph Desire Mobutu organized a bloodless military coup, which removed the civilian government of president Kasavubu and Prime Minister Sylvester Kimba.In November 1965, Mobutu took over power after a bloodless coup.In the same year, , Mobutu banned all political parties. He suspended the constitution and parliament. He abolished the federal system and local assemblies and reduced the number of provinces to eight.In 1967, He formed the Peoples Revolution Movement (MPR), which became theonly legal party in Congo. He in effect-replaced democracy with one-party dictatorship leaned to the west during the cold war.1n 1970, Mobutu declared himself the life president of Congo, after winning the presidential election.In 1971, he outlawed the use of European names for people, places and physical features as a way of removing colonial legacy. The country was renamed Zaire. His own name changed to Mobutu Sese Seko. Leopoldville was renamed Kinshasa.In 1973, Mobutu announced the nationalization of all foreign enterprises. In 1977-1978, the Shaba Rebellion broke out mainly after an attack by the Congolese National Liberation Front from their base in Angola. The Belgian troops were called to silence the rebels.In 1990 and 1991, multiparty activists stepped up pressure for change. In September 1991, dissatisfied soldiers and civilians held demonstrations, which led to death of 117 people. In 1997, Laurent Kabila successfully ousted Mobutu, assisted by Rwanda and Uganda. Mobutu fled to exile in Morocco where he died. In January 2001, Laurent Kabila was assassinated in mysterious circumstances. His son took over power.In April 2002, through a powersharing agreement presided over by Thabo Mbeki and a UN envoy, Mustapha Niasse, a government of national unity was formed. **Economic developments in DRC since independence.** The political chaos inn DRC up to 1965 did not favour any economic progress. During the reign of the Belgians in Congo, no viable economic development was initiated. Little development was done in infrastructure in order to facilitate transportation of raw materials to the ports of Matadi etc.At independence, the country was faced with the problems of shortage of manpower, skills and entrepreneurship.When Mobutu took over, there was some slight economic progress. Transport and communication improved as more roads and railway were constructed to link major towns of Matadi, Kinshasa, Lubumbashi and Kisangani. Navigation on the river Congo was improved, which led go expansion of mining and agricultural sectors.Mining of diamonds resumed after the turbulent years and resulted in reduced inflation.Mobutu encouraged foreign investment in the mining sector.However, the fall of world copper prices in 1970s again began to derail the economic growth in DRC.In the 70s, the government nationalized foreign firms employed inexperienced people to control them.In 197, Mobutu enacted a law that placed state finances and expenditure under him, thus reducing the flow of capital to the provinces.In 1976, he encouraged mutual cooperation between private firms and the government in the extraction of minerals such as copper, oil, diamond, cobalt and manganese in a bid to create employment opportunities.He also emphasized on diversification of the economy which greatly boosted food production.The entertainment industry has also grown to become an invisible export through repatriation of profits back home by the foreign based musicians. Energy supply has been increased through the construction of the Luga hydro-electric power station. **Social developments and challenges in DRC since independence.** Between 1961 and 1965, there was little improvement in the field of health and education in DRC due to constant power struggles and civil strife.When Mobutu took over in 1965, he strived to expand schools and universities. For example, by 1970, he had established three universities. He also improved on the provision of health facilities. He banned religious education in schools. In 1971, attempted to revive indigenous culture through the Authenticity programme that involved renaming places that had foreign names.In the 1970s, in an effort to improve the welfare of citizens, a national insurance programme was established. Mobutu also gave prominence to music as part of the Congolese curriculum.The independent government supported sporting activities through construction of stadium and other sporting facilities.However, living standards in Zaire continued to fall as health services, water and sanitation continued to be inadequate. The steady rise in population was without a commensurate growth of social services. In summary, the common challenges socially were illiteracy, extreme poverty, famine and diseases caused by civil strife, massive unemployment, refugee problem and religious persecutions by Mobutu. **Political challenges that the democratic republic of Congo has faced since** **independence.** a) There was general lack of preparedness of the people for independence. Foreigners controlled even the army and the police. b) The assassination of Patrice Lumumba in 1961, which plunged the country into the Congo crisis. c) Political instability/military coup dtat. In November 1965, Mobutu organized a military coup. In 1997, Kabila ousted Mobutu d) Ethnic differences/tribal clashes/civil wars, which split the country into two parts at independence. One controlled by Lumumba and another controlled by Kasavubu. e) The problem of Secession. Secessionist movement of the Katanga region (Shaba) led by Tsombe and Kasai under Kilonji seceded. f) Foreign interference/intrigues. Belgium constantly interfered and intervened in Zaires internal matters. France and Britain also began to interfere from 1977 during the cold war period. g) Mutinies in the army were common. **Economic challenges that Democratic Republic Of Congo (D.R.C) faced in 1970s.** a) Corruption and mismanagement of the economy. Mobutu was the richest president in the world while Zairians became the poorest people in the world. b) Inflation due to power struggle and corruption. By 1980, the countrys currency was not worthy the paper on which it was printed. c) There was also a problem of heavy foreign debt. The country was unable to service her debts. By 1980, Zaire had become the worlds third biggest debtor nation. d) There was a standstill in the economic activities and disruption of railway transport due to civil wars in the country and neighbouring Angola. e) The period also witnessed fall in world copper prices and increase in oil prices f) Lack of a sound economic policy **TANZANIA.** Political developments in Tanzania since independence.At the time of independence, Tanzania comprised of two countries. I.e. Tanganyika and Zanzibar. Tanzania became independent in 1961 under Julius Nyerere while Zanzibar became independent in 1963 under the Sultan Seyyid Abdullah.In 1962, Tanzania became a one-party state with a republican constitution and an executive president. Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) became the sole political party.On 22ndApril 1964, Julius Nyerere and Sheikh Abeid Karume signed a union document. Nyerere became the executive head of state and government while Karume as the first vice-president.In 1967, president Nyerere adopted the ideology of African Socialism through the Arusha Declaration In 1972, the first Vice- president, Sheikh Abeid Karume, was assassinated. Aboud Jumbe succeeded him as Zanzibars president and the vice-president of Tanzania.In 1973, the capital of Tanzania was transferred from Dar-es-Salam to Dodoma.In 1967, the ruling party in the Mainland Tanganyika-TANU and Afro-Shirazi Party in Zanzibar merged to form Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM). Nyerere became the party chairman.In 1978-1979, president Idi Amin invaded Tanzania to annex the Kagera Province, which he claimed, was a Ugandan territory. Nyerere swiftly repulsed Ugandan soldiers.In 1985, Nyerere retired as president and was replaced by Ali Hassan Mwinyi who had succeeded Jumbe as head of Zanzibar and Tanzanias first vice president.In May 1992, Tanzania adopted multi-partism after the 8th constitutional Amendment Act.In 1995, Tanzania conducted the first multi-party election, where Benjamin Mkapa was elected president. **Social developments in Tanzania since independence.** The major highlight in the social development of an independent Tanzania was an attempt to create a classless society with e reduced gap, between the rich and the poor. Through the Ujamaa policy, president Nyerere tried to turn Tanzania into a country that had political and economic policies based on African traditions and aspirations. Under the policy, communal farms were created.Primary education was made free in 1977 and became compulsory in 1978.At present, Tanzania boasts of the highest number of literate persons in eastern Africa.Upto late 1980s, government provided free health services, until the introduction of the Structural Adjustment Programmes by the Donor community.Kiswahili was adopted as a national language and a major medium of instruction in schools. **Economic developments in Tanzania since independence.** The main landmark in Tanzanias economic the launch of Ujamaa as a development policy in 1967 during the Arusha declaration..Ujamaa was meant to transform production in rural areas and to increase labour productivity and even allow specialization introduction.The government nationalized all the major means of production and essential services in order to empower people economically.The Tanzam railway was constructed with the help of china and was completed in 1975.In 1976, cooperative societies were abolished and replaced with centralized corporations owned by the government.The period between 1979 and 1985 witnessed economic stagnation in Tanzania as investors pulled out of the country.The collapse of the East African Community also affected the economy of the country.After 1985, Nyereres economic policies began to be challenged openly by scholars and economistsWhen president Mwinyi took over, he undertook to reform the economy of Tanzania. **Political challenges that Tanzania has faced since independence.** a) There was an Army mutiny in Tanzania 1964, which threatened her political stability. b) The socialism policy (The Arusha Declaration) received stiff opposition from many both internally and externally. People favoured capitalism. c) The assassination of Abeid Karume in 1972 and the resignation of Aboud Jumbe in 1984 appeared to threaten the unity of the two members of the Union Declaration. d) The invasion of Tanzania by Uganda in 1978.and the consequent war with Uganda was costly to the country. It also threatened her cooperation with neighbours. e) There was an escalation of corruption among leading members of Tanzanias political elite, including claims that President Hassan Mwinyi and his family capitalized on liberalization to amass a lot of wealth. f) the re-introduction of multiparty democracy tended to awaken tribalism and regionalism although this problem was contained. **Social problems, which Tanzania faced since independence.** a) Famine and shortage of health services as the government adopted the Structural Adjustment Policies of IMF. b) Poverty and a general drop in living standards as production dropped due to socialism. c) Lack of social amenities, like clean water in rural areas. d) High illiteracy level. e) Unemployment. In Tanzania, industries closed after the Arusha declaration. f) Population explosion which outstripped the countrys resources g) Terrorism. Tanzania was under terrorist attacks in 1997 targeting the American embassy. h) Environmental pollution. i) Over-crowding in urban areas. **Economic challenges.** a) In the early years of independence, the proliferation of African enterprises led to the widening of the gap between the rich and the poor. b) Under the ujamaa policy, the forced villagization programme did not satisfy communities in areas with favourable climate. They therefore strongly resisted it. c) There was rampant rural-urban migration affecting mainly able-bodied men who felt exploited by the new system of production. d) The abolition of cooperatives was met with stiff resistance with many farmers cutting down heir production. Other producers reverted to the black market. e) The Tanzanian shilling became unstable due to price fluctuations of some commodities. f) There was shortage of donor funds caused by the nationalization programme that was opposed by many donor countries. g) The collapse of the East African Community in 1977 denied Tanzania a large common market for her goods **SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL CHALLENGES IN AFRICA IN** **GENERAL.** **Political challenges that have faced African countries since independence** a) The political systems that were inherited from the colonial governments seemed to be unworkable in many independent African states. b) Sharp ideological difference arose among the pioneer leaders of African states. Such differences internally exploded into civil strife in countries like Mozambique, Angola and DRC. c) The cold war had diverstating effects on Africa. it left many African nations divided and locked in border conflicts that continue up to date. d) Political instability was quite common in African states. Coups dtat and military takeover was witnessed in Somalia, Zaire, Nigeria, Chad etc Human rights were violated with the rise of dictatorship. e) There were strained relations between African leaders caused by personal and ideological differences. Some ended in border closure, which greatly undermined international cooperation. f) Many national interests in Africa countries have been in conflict with global and continental interests. Nigeria and Zimbabwe, for example had to be expelled from the Commonwealth of Nations for alleged disregard of human rights and personal property. g) Neo-colonialism. Most countries retain the colonial structures of parliament although they have difficulties in sustaining them. Multinational peacekeeping forces are still common in Africa, many African leaders inherited the divide and rule colonial strategy that precipitates anarchy. h) The existence of different ethnic groups has contributed to ethnic wars as witnessed in Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan, Nigeria and Kenya. i) Most African government seemed ill prepared and in experienced in administration. This resulted in rise of rebel movements, as was the case of Mozambique and Angola. **economic challenges facing independent African states today.** a) Unemployment and socio-economic inequalities both among individuals and between regions are common in may African nations. b) Overdependence on primary exports. The African economy is an extractive one rather than a manufacturing economy. Many countries depend on agriculture and foreign nations for manufactured goods. c) World trade terms are not fair for African nations. Africa countries find themselves trading with former colonial powers that give low prices fort raw material from Africa and charge high process for the manufactured goods. d) There has been the problem of unfavourable climatic conditions. This has curtailed food production, particularly among agricultural communities. e) Population pressure has led to overstretching of social services. There is a high dependency ratio since the population is largely youthful and unemployed. f) Poor economic planning. Some economic policies have destabilized the economies. For the Ujamaa policy in Tanzania, the expelling of foreign investors in Uganda and the massive printing of money in Zaire. g) The tough conditions given by donor agencies have sometimes led to deterioration of social welfare. Retrenchment for example was a key prescription of the Structural Adjustment Programme. h) Corruption and embezzlement of public funds is common in African countries. There is also general lack of transparency among many leaders. Social challenges that have faced African states since independence. a) Inaccessibility to clean water by majority of the people. Most African peoples rely on water fetched from sometimes contaminated streams across long distances. b) The challenge of HIV/AIDS pandemic. This has had a toll on productive members of the society. c) Poor housing facilities.. in urban areas, majority of the population live in slums without sanitation facilities. d) The challenge of high population growth rate. This affects the quality of the services provided by governments. e) Language problem. Language development and use has been a challenge in Africa. In many countries, conflict tends to arise over the language to adopt- local or the inherited one. f) Religious differences. This challenge has been the main cause of the splitting of the once largest country in Africa-Sudan in 2011. The predominantly Christian southern Sudan has become the youngest African state thanks to religious differences. g) Absence of practical systems of education. Many countries rely on theoretical education with little emphasis in technical skills. **DEVOLVED GOVERNMENT.** Devolution This refers to the granting of power from the central government to a lower level such as a region or a local level.A Devolved Government is a system of government where there is a transfer or allocation of authority from a central government to a regional government. In a devolved government, power and resources are decentralized with part of the political and economic decision making transferred to the people through the locally established assemblies. **Origin of devolution in Kenya.** The Lancaster House Conference of 1962 forms the basis of devolution in Kenya. When the independent constitution was drawn during the conference, a federal system of government as proposed by the KADU delegates was adopted in Kenya. It made provisions for six regions. The legislature was to comprise two chambers (the Senate or upper House and the Lower House. However after independence in 1963, the Kenyatta Government began plans to scuttle the system of government. By December 1964, KANU and KADU merged to form a unitary government of the republic of Kenya. The enactment of the new constitution on 27th August 2010 reintroduced the concept of devolution in Kenya.Kenya is divided into 47 Counties each governed by A County Governor with theassistance of the County Executive Assembly. The National Government seats in Nairobi. To change County Boundaries, the Following must be considered; a) Population density and demographic trends. b) Physical and Human infrastructure. c) Historical and Cultural Ties. d) The cost of administration. e) The Views of the communities affected. f) The objectives of devolution of government. g) Geographical features. **Reasons why devolved governments were established in Kenya.** a) They were established as a means of promoting democratic and accountable exercise of power. b) To Foster national unity by recognizing diversity. c) To give powers of self-governance to the people and enhance the participation of the people in the exercise of the powers of the State and in making decisions affecting them. d) To recognize the right of communities to manage their own affairs and to further their development. e) To protect and promote the interests and rights of minorities and marginalized communities. f) To promote social and economic development and the provision of services throughout Kenya. g) To ensure equitable sharing of national and local resources throughout Kenya. h) To facilitate the decentralization of State organs, their functions and services, from the capital of Kenya; i) To enhance checks, balances and the separation of powers. **Principles of devolution of government in Kenya.** a) County governments shall be based on the democratic principles and separation of power. b) County governments shall have reliable sources of revenue to enable them to govern and deliver services effectively. c) No more than two-thirds of the members of representative bodies in each county government shall be of the same gender. **Structure and Functions of a county government in Kenya.** The county government is composed of County assemblies, county executive committees and county public service. **County Assembly in Kenya.** A county assembly consists of Members (one member per ward) elected by the registered voters of the wards in a general election.Members of special seats (no more than two-thirds of the membership of the assembly is of the same gender.)Members of marginalized groups, including persons with disabilities and the youth.The Speaker, who is an ex officio member. Nb-The members for special seats and marginalized communities are nominated by political parties in proportion to the seats received in the election in a particular county. **Conditions for seeking election to a County Assembly.** a) The person must be a registered as a voter in his/her county. b) The person must have been a Kenyan citizen for atleast ten years before the elections. c) The person must be able to read and write in English and Kiswahili. d) He or she must be of sound mind. e) The person must be of unquestionable morals and ethics f) If a public officer, he/she must relinquish his/her public work. g) The person must be nominated by a political party h) If he/she is an independent candidate, must b e supported by at least five hundred registered voters in the Ward concerned. i) The person must not have been declared bankrupt. j) The person must not have served a sentence of imprisonment of more than six months. k) Must not have been a member of IBEC within five years before the date of election. l) The person must not have misused or abused a State or public office. **Functions of a county assembly.** a) County assemblies make laws for the effective performance of the county government. b) It acts as a watch dog over the county executive committee. c) It receives and approves plans and policies for managing and exploiting the countys resources, d) It approves policies for developing and managing the infrastructure and institutions in the county. e) It enhances legislation that may set out the structure and framework for the better administration and management of county governments. f) It approves oversight budgets and development projects within the county. g) It approves investment decisions and loans. h) It supervises other units within the county through political authority, guidance and direction. i) Monitors the execution of projects under approved development plans, and assesses and evaluates their impact on development in the county. **The process of law making in a county government.** It is the duty of the County Executive committee, comprising of the governor, the deputy governor and ten other members to the details of the proposed legislation with no bias.The public servants in the county governors office participate in preparation of the proposed law.The county executive committee then presents the proposed legislation to the county assembly.The members of the county assembly are then free to make their contributions to the bill during the discussion and debate that follows. Amendments and improvements may be proposed to the bill at this stage.The recommendations are incorporatedIf the members are in favour of the bill, and if it is in conformity with the National Government legislation, then it is approved to become a by- law of the county government **The structure of The County Executive Committee.** The executive authority of the county is vested in the county executive committee. The committee consists of The county Governor and the Deputy County Governor. Not more than ten other Members appointed by the County Governor, with the approval of the assembly, who are not members of the assembly.If the assembly has less than thirty members, the members should be One-third of the number of members of the county assembly.The county governor and the deputy county governor are the chief executive and deputy chief executive of the county respectively.Members of a county executive committee are accountable to the county governor for the performance of their functions and exercise of their powers.The members of the county executive committee cease to hold office once the office of the county governor falls vacant. **Functions of a County Executive Committee.** a) It implements county legislation. b) It implements, within the county, national legislation. c) It manages and coordinates the functions of the county administration and its departments. d) It prepares proposed legislation for consideration by the county assembly. e) It provides the county assembly with full and regular reports on matters relating to the county. **Powers and functions of a governor in a county government.** a) The Governor is the chief executive officer of the county. The Executive Branch of government, headed by the Governor, includes executive departments and advisory boards. b) The Governor is the Chairman of county executive committee. c) he/ she is in charge of implementing , within the county, national legislation to the extent that the legislation so requires; d) He ensures, through the county executive committee, the implementation of county legislation. e) He manages and coordinates the functions of the county administration and its departments. f) He provides the county assembly with full and regular reports on matters relating to the county. g) He appoints with the approval of the assembly members, members to the county executive committee. h) He ensures that Members of a county executive committee perform their functions and exercise of their powers fully. i) He handles on behalf of the county, all external affairs with other counties in consultation with the central government. (Excluding any which have been delegated to cabinet secretaries.). j) The Governor prepares and submits a budget of the county for the following fiscal year. k) He sets the terms and conditions of service of persons holding or acting in public offices in the county. l) By virtue of his office, the Governor serves on certain boards and special commissions in the county. The Governor chairs the Board of Public Works. **Election of a county governor.** The county governor is directly elected by the voters registered in the county at a general election for a term of 5 years.To be eligible for election as county governor, a person must be eligible for election as a member of the county assembly.Each candidate for election as county governor nominates a person as his/her running mate to be the deputy governor.If re-elected, can serve for another final term of 5 years. Each candidate for election as county governor nominates a person as his/her running mate to be the deputy governor. A County Governor can be removed from office under the following circumstances. a) Gross violation of the Constitution or any other law. b) When the county governor commits a crime under national or international law. c) When the governor abuses office or is accused of gross misconduct. d) When he/she suffers from Physical or mental incapacity that hinders performance of the functions of office. **Functions of a deputy governor.** a) As the deputy chief executive of the county, he or she assists the governor in the management and coordination of the functions of the county administration. b) He or she acts as the governor of the county when the governor is absent. c) The deputy assists the governor in the supervision of work of the county executive committee. d) Since he/she is a member of the county executive committee, he participates in legislation by also preparing proposals for county legislation. e) He assumes governorship of the county incase the governor is incapacitated or is removed from authority for various reasons. **Functions and powers of a county government.** a) County governments have the duty to assist in promotion of agriculture by initiating development in specific areas like crop and animal husbandry, livestock sale yards, slaughterhouses control of plant and animal diseases and development of fisheries. b) It provides and supervises county health services, both public health and personal health of county members. c) It assists in control of environmental pollution by putting in place legislation to regulate and control air pollution, noise pollution and outdoor advertising. d) It promotes cultural activities, public entertainment and public amenities ion the county by putting in place structures such as libraries, museums, sporting facilities, casinos, beaches and county parks. e) It has a duty to promote and regulate education at the pre-primary, polytechnic, craft and childcare levels. f) It has a duty to develop transport facilities in the county through road construction, street lighting, developing ferries and harbours and parking areas. g) The county government regulates county planning and development through land survey and mapping, boundaries, housing, electricity, gas and energy regulation. h) It implements specific national government policies on natural resources and environmental conservation. i) It also puts in place measures to control drug abuse and access to pornography. Relationship between national and county government. a) Governments at either level must exercise their powers and functions in a manner that respects the functional and institutional integrity of government at the other level. b) Each of the two governments must assist, support, consult and implement the legislation of the other level of government. c) Either of the two governments must liaise with government at the other level for the purpose of exchanging information, coordinating policies and administration and enhancing capacity. d) Governments at each level or different level should co-operate in the performance of functions and exercise of powers. e) In any dispute between governments, reasonable efforts to settle dispute should be made. f) County governments rely on Procedures provided under national legislation in settling intergovernmental disputes between them. g) Parliament at national level has the role of ensuring that county governments have adequate support to enable them to perform their functions. h) County governments must operate financial management systems that comply with any requirements prescribed by national legislation. i) National government is permitted to take any measure on county government provided that Notice must be given to county government. j) Where a county government is unable to perform its functions, or does not operate a financial management system that complies with national legislation requirements, the national government may intervene. **Challenges facing county governments in Kenya.** a) County governments have inadequate funds. Some are located in areas of limited resources. This impedes provision of essential services. Some are too small to operate efficiently. b) Corruption and misappropriation of funds is common in most counties. This is because those vested with the management powers do not have experience since the appointment of governors is through popular vote. c) Rural urban migration is likely to generate population pressure in urban based counties like Nairobi city and Mombasa. urban problems like mushrooming of slums, poor garbage disposal and insufficient sanitary facilities arise. d) There is likely to be national government interference in the affairs and management of county legislation. This hinders free decision-making. e) Election of ward members to manage ward affairs may hamper operations of the counties especially in legislation. **Possible solutions to the challenges that may face county governments in Kenya.** a) The National governments through the Equalization Fund should be able to provide adequate financial support to County governments located in areas of limited resources. This will assist in provision of essential services. b) Those counties that are too small to operate efficiently should be merged with others in terms of social service delivery. c) There should be stricter vetting of candidates to vie for positions of county Governors and deputy county Governors in order the possible challenge of financial management and corruption. d) Urban-based counties should be given more funding by the National Government to enable them solve urban related problems. e) The National government should come up with means on how to curb Rural urban migration. This may be done through creation of employment generating opportunities in rural counties. f) The county governments, especially those that are in economically viable areas should be given financial autonomy and a free-hand in decision making, by the national government. **PUBLIC REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE IN KENYA.** **SOURCES OF PUBLIC REVENUE.** Public finance refers to revenue and expenditure of the national and county government. **Principles that govern the use of public finance in Kenya.** a) The principle of openness and accountability. There shall be public participation in financial matters. b) The public finance system should promote an equitable society, and in particular the burden of taxation should be shared fairly. c) Revenue raised nationally should be shared equitably among national and county governments. d) Expenditure of public finance should promote the equitable development of the country, including making special provision for marginalized groups and areas. e) The burdens and benefits of the use of resources and public borrowing should be shared equitably between present and future generations. f) Public money should be used in a prudent and responsible way. g) There should be responsible financial management accompanied by clear fiscal reporting to ensure effective use of public funds. **NATIONAL BUDGET.** The national budget is a comprehensive statement that gives an estimate of public revenue, expenditure and financial plans for a given financial year for a government. **Components of the national and county governments budgets in Kenya.** a) Estimates of revenue and expenditure, differentiating between recurrent and development expenditure. b) Proposals for financing any anticipated deficit for the period to which they apply. c) Proposals regarding borrowing and other forms of public liability that will increase public debt during the following year. **The process of Budget preparation and implementation in Kenya.** Three months before the end of each financial year, the head of each department or State organ submits estimates of revenues and expenditures for the following year to the secretary for finance. Two months before the end of each financial year, the Cabinet Secretary for finance submits to the National Assembly estimates of the revenue and expenditure of the national government for the following financial year.He also submits a detailed national fiscal, monetary and development plan for a period of three years prepared by him in collaboration with the Secretary responsible for planning and national development.The estimates include estimates for expenditure from the Equalization Fund.The National Assembly then considers the estimates submitted together with the estimates submitted by the Parliamentary Service Commission and the Chief Registrar of the Judiciary.Before the National Assembly considers the estimates of revenue and expenditure, a committee of the Assembly will discuss and review the estimates and make recommendations to the Assembly.Committee makes its recommendations to the National Assembly. When the estimates have been approved by the National Assembly, there will be an Appropriation Bill, introduced into the National Assembly to authorize the withdrawal from the Consolidated Fund of the money needed for the expenditure. The Appropriation Bill will not include expenditures that are charged on the Consolidated Fund.The process of Budget preparation and implementation in a county government.Further reading about this is encouraged. **Sources of public revenue for national government in Kenya.** **Domestic Revenue Sources.** These are the taxes levied on citizens, private and public organizations, foreign investors and business people. There are two main groups of taxes; 1. Direct taxes. 2. Indirect taxes. **1. Direct taxes. (Income tax)** These are taxes derived from peoples salaries in form of income tax. **2. Indirect taxes.** These are taxes levied on goods and services but with parliamentary approval. They include; a) Value-added tax; an indirect sales tax paid on specific goods such as sugar, bread, petroleum products, clothes, electronic equipment and motor vehicles. b) Customs duties:- there are duties on imported goods such as motor vehicles, machinery, fertilizer, sugar, wheat, electronics, luxury goods, etc. c) Excise tax; this is charged on locally produced goods that are sold within the country . d) Export Duty; the duty charged on locally produced goods such as textiles, coffee, tea, soda ash and pyrethrum which are exported. e) Trading Licenses; f) Sales Stamp Duty; on entertainment services, betting, casino and premium bonds. g) Traffic Revenue tax; levied on various categories of traffic services. E.g., the Road Maintenance Levy, the drivers licence, Airport tax by air passengers. h) Investment Revenue; earned from parastatal and other profit making bodies that remit profits through the treasury. i) Loan interest receipts. Collection of taxes from parastatals like AFC, KTDA, KPC, NCPB and KCB. j) Land Rates. k) House rates. l) Fees; paid in terms of timber levies, CO2 levies and mining fees. m) Court Fines n) Borrowing (under laid down law or procedure). o) Tourism fess External Revenue Sources **There are two main sources of external assistance;** ***1. Bilateral Aid;***where two friendly nations assist each other. E.g. Kenya and Japan ***2. Multilateral Aid***; many countries form trading blocs or global institutions like World Bank, IMF, European Union and commonwealth for this purpose. **Sources of finance for county governments.** a) The main source of funding for many counties is their equitable share from 15% of the national budget. b) Conditional and unconditional grants. Unconditional Grants are funds allocated by the national government without conditions regarding their use. Conditional grantsare the funds allocated by the national government for funding of specific projects and programmes. They include; ~ The Equalization Fund for provision of basic services like water, health services, electricity and roads in marginalized areas. ~ The Contingencies Fund to carter for urgent and unforeseen circumstances c) Counties own revenues. Counties have the power to collect property rates, impose taxes on entertainment, and impose fees and charges for services they render to people and any other tax that Parliament permits them to impose. d) Borrowing, where the national government guarantees the loan or with the approval of the county assembly. e) Grants and donations **Factors that determine equitable sharing of public finance.** a) The national interest. b) Any provision that must be made in respect of the public debt and other national obligations. c) The needs of the national government, determined by objective criteria. d) The need to ensure that county governments are able to perform the functions allocated to them. e) The fiscal capacity and efficiency of county governments. f) Developmental and other needs of counties. g) Economic disparities within and among counties and the need to remedy them. h) The need for affirmative action in respect of disadvantaged areas and groups. i) The need for economic optimization of each county and to provide incentives for each county to optimize its capacity to raise revenue. j) The desirability of stable and predictable allocations of revenue. k) The need for flexibility in responding to emergencies and other temporary needs. **Regulations that govern imposition of taxes and charges in Kenya.** a) Only the national government may impose Income tax, Value-added tax, Customs duties and other duties on import and export goods; and excise tax. b) An Act of Parliament may authorize the national government to impose any other tax or duty. c) A county may impose property rates, entertainment taxes, and any other tax that it is authorized to impose by an Act of Parliament. d) The national and county governments may impose charges for services. e) The taxation and other revenue-raising powers of a county should not be exercised in a way that prejudices national economic policies, economic activities across county boundaries or the national mobility of goods, services, capital or labour. f) No tax or licensing fee may be imposed, waived or varied except as provided by legislation. g) If permitted, a public record of each waiver shall be maintained together with the reason for the waiver; and each waiver, and the reason for it, should be reported to the Auditor-General. h) No law may exclude or authorize the exclusion of a State officer from payment of tax. **The revenue collected by the government is deposited into the following funds;** ***1. Equalization Fund;***This is a Fund specially established by the National government, to provide basic services including water, roads, health facilities and electricity to marginalized areas to the extent necessary to bring the quality of those services in those areas to the level generally enjoyed by the rest of the nation. ***2. Consolidated Fund;***this is the fund into which all the money raised or received by the national government is paid. Money set aside by parliament for specific purpose and money set aside by state organs to take care of their expenses is however not deposited in this fund. ***3. Contingencies Fund;***this is a fund from which advances will be made if the secretary for finance is convinced that there is an urgent matter that needs funding and for which there is no other provisions. ***4. Revenue Funds;***this is a fund for each county into which all the money raised or received by the county government is paid. **Expenditure of Public Revenue.** There are two ways in which the national government spends its revenue. ***1. Capital expenditure*.** The money set aside in the national budget for development projects. ***2. Recurrent expenditure.*** The money used by the government to sustain and maintain the existing facilities. **How the national government spends its money under recurrent expenditure.** a) The government remunerates its employees through regular payment of salaries and wages. b) The expenditure is also used to maintain public property throughout the country by allocating necessary funds to roads, airports, colleges, school text book provision and bridge maintenance. c) The money is also used to service debts from international donor agencies and local financial institutions. d) The money is also used to contribute to regional and international organizations like COMESA, AU, UN and Commonwealth. e) It is used to provide grants to counties and parastatals, and bursaries to schools and colleges. f) The money is also used to maintain Kenyan embassies abroad. **County government expenditure.** County governments spend their monies in the following ways; a) Provision of basic social services like water, health facilities, electricity and cemeteries. b) The money from its recurrent expenditure is used to pay wages and salaries to its employees. c) The counties spend their money to some extend to control air and noise pollution, and also on refuse removal and solid waste disposal. d) Money is used to finance development of roads, parking facilities, ferries and street lighting, develop entertainment, sporting, trading and cultural facilities. e) In repair maintenance and improvement of public facilities like roads, health facilities, markets, libraries, housing etc. f) Some money is set aside as emergency utility for fire fighting services and disaster management. g) The counties use their money to service the borrowed funds plus the interest accrued. h) They also use money to provide early childhood education through development of nursery schools. They also develop village polytechnics and home craft training centres. **Ways through which proper management of public finances by national** **government is ensured in Kenya.** a) Any national governments expenditure by state departments or state organs must be approved by parliament which acts as the public watchdog. b) The controller of budget oversees the implementation of the national budget by authorizing legal withdrawals from public funds such as the equalization fund, consolidated fund and contingencies fund c) The controller of budget submits to each house of parliament report on the implantation of the budget of the nationa l government. d) Where a state organ or any other public body fails to adhere to the laid down procedures of expenditure, the cabinet secretary for finance, with the approval of parliament, may stop the transfer of funds to the body. e) There is constant auditing of accounts and financial records of all government and other public bodies. f) Every public body has a n accounting officer who is accountable to the national assembly for the financial management of the public body. g) The auditor general audits all accounts of all government and state organs. h) The government has put up policies related to procurement which is supposed to be fair, transparent, competitive and cost effective. to regulate public procurement, various bodies have been set up. e.g the public procurement oversight authority (PPOA), the public procurement administrative review board (PPARB) i) The government has also imposed sanctions against contractors who fail to fulfil their contractual agreements either by failing to complete jobs or by doing sh oddy work. j) Sanctions are to be imposed against those persons who fail to pay their taxes, or engage in corrupt practices. k) All government contracts are publicly advertised for awarding of tenders and awards. l) The government established the Kenya Anti-Corruption Commission (KACC) in 2004 which has the function of investigating corrupt cases in a non-partisan manner. Management and expenditure of public finances in county governments. a) In every county, there is established a revenue fund where all funds, (includ ing the countys own revenues, transfers from national revenues, grants and borrowed funds) are consolidated. b) Money from this fund is only withdrawn following specific procedures authorized by parliament or by county laws. c) County governments must operate financial management systems that comply with all requirements of national legislation. d) The county assembly must vote on the budget and approve expenditure by various departments of the county. e) The county treasury must seek quarterly approvals from the controller of budget for withdrawal from the revenue fund based on the needs of the county. f) The accounting officer of a county organ or public body is accountable to the county assembly for the financial management of the public body. g) Each county has a county accountant general who maintains financial records of all the funds withdrawn from the revenue fund, and expenditure incurred. h) Apart from the internal audits in every county, the auditor general audits the accounts of the county governments and submits reports to the relevant county assembly. **The controller of Budget.** ***Role of the controller of budget.*** a) He or she oversees the implementation of the budgets of the national and county governments. b) He or she authorizes withdrawals from the public funds such as the Equalization, Consolidated and Revenue Funds. c) he or she submits to each house of parliament, every four months, a report on the implementation of the budgets of both national and county government **Auditor General.** Read on this **The Commission on Revenue Allocation.** The Commission consists of; a) A chairperson. b) One nominee of each regional assembly. c) Two persons to represent county governments. d) Two persons nominated by the National Assembly. e) The Principal Secretary in the Ministry responsible for finance. f) The Controller of Budget. Functions of the commission of Revenue Allocation. a) He is responsible for determining the basis for the equitable sharing of revenue from national resources between the national government and the various levels of devolved government. b) It makes recommendations on matters concerning the financing, and financial management by county governments c) It determines and regularly reviews a policy that set out the criteria by which to identify the marginalized areas. d) It defines and enhances the revenue sources of the national and county governments. e) It submits its recommendations to the senate, national assembly, the national executive, county assemblies and county executives. f) It mediates in and determines disputes relating to financial arrangem ents between the national government and devolved governments. **Functions of Central Bank.** a) Promote and maintain the stability of the value of the currency of the Republic. b) Issue notes and coins. c) Act as banker and financial adviser of the Government. d) Conduct the monetary policy of the Government in a manner consistent with the relevant provisions of the law in the interest of the balanced and sustainable economic growth of the Republic. e) Encourage and promote economic development and the efficient utilization of the resources of the Republic, through effective and efficient operation of a banking and credit system. **Why the Economic and Social Council established in Kenya.** a) To advise the national government and Parliament on matters of economic and social concern to the people of the Republic. b) To advise the national government on the formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of strategic economic and social policies. c) To consider and report to Parliament on the economic and social implications of all Bills and budgetary proposals introduced in Parliament. d) To monitor progress in the improvement of the living standards of the people of Kenya, particularly those of the poor and the disadvantaged. **THE ELECTORAL PROCESS, FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENTS IN OTHER** **PARTS OF THE WORLD.** **BRITAIN** Britain comprises England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. The country has evolved a parliamentary system of government over the years.The Saxon Kings who invaded Britain in the 5th Century AD had absolute powers- ruling without consulting the citizens, and there positions were hereditary.However, in the 12th century AD, they introduced the parliamentary system. They agreed that the kings/queens could only rule according to the laws of the land that should be made by the representatives of the people. This was what came to known as a constitutional monarchy. **The electoral process in Britain** The British government is based on the party system. Elections for party leaders are held separately before the general elections. The three main parties are the Conservative Party, **Liberal Party and Labour Party.** Unlike USA and other major democratic states outside commonwealth, there is no fixed date for British parliamentary elections. The date of a general election is decided upon by the prime Minister. The Choice of a date of elections is influenced by the following factors; 1. The economic situation that is the availability of funds. 2. The state of the governments legislative programme in the House of Commons. 3. The desire to increase government support in parliament. The electoral system for the House of Commons is based on the principal of one person, one vote There are two types of elections for the House of Commons. ~ General elections where members of the House of Commons are elected for a 5-year term. ~ By elections in the event of resignation, death or resignation of a member of parliament. There are also local elections in which representatives of local authorities (councillors) are voted for are held every 4 years. The local authorities include the District Councils, London Boroughs, Metropolitan districts and Regional and island councils. In Britain, there are also euro-elections, first introduced in 1979, in which representatives to the European Union parliament are chosen.81 MPs were elected in 1979. **Voter Registration.** It is the local authorities that hold the responsibility of registering voters. Since 1948, a postal vote is possible for citizens who are away from their constituencies during the voting period, either on business or other reasons. **The following categories of people qualify to vote in Britain;** a) British Citizens over the age of 18 years. b) Citizens from commonwealth countries who have resided in Britain for periods stipulated by law. c) Citizens of the republic of Ireland who have been residents for periods stipulated by law. **The following are ineligible to vote in Britain.** a) Persons of unsound mind. b) Convicts detained in a prison. c) Persons convicted of corrupt or illegal practices in connection with elections cannot vote for five years from the date of conviction. d) Adults whose names do not appear on the register of voters. e) Peers or members of the House of Lords A candidate who wishes to contest for a parliamentary seat in Britain must fulfil the following conditions; a) He/she must be a British citizen or a common subject or a citizen of the republic of Ireland. b) He/she must be of a minimum age of 21 years. c) He/ she must be nominated by a political party or be an independent candidate. **The following are disqualified from vying for a parliamentary seat in Britain.** a) English/Scottish peers who have the right to sit in the House of Lords. b) Clergy of the Church of England, or the Church of Ireland, Ministers of the church of Scotland, and Roman Catholic priests. c) Aliens. d) Certified Lunatics. e) Undisputed bankrupts. f) Convicted persons. g) Persons who have committed illegal practices during elections like corruption. h) Members of the armed forces. **Candidates vie for 650 parliamentary seats.** The candidates are either nominated by respective parties or stand as independent candidates and need not reside in the constituencies as long as they register as voters in that constituency. Once nomination of candidates has taken place, campaigns are allowed for two weeks before voting. Each candidate appoints an election agent to manage the finances and protect the interests of the candidate during he campaign. The agent also explains the candidates party policies and identifies party supporters within the constituency. He/she familiarizes the candidates name toprospective voters.Election officials work hand in hand with party agents during Election Day.Each candidate must deposit 500 sterling pounds with the registrar, which is returned in the event that the candidate garners over 5% of the total vote in the constituency.Elections in Britain are by plurality. Candidates who get the highest of votes win the elections.The party that secures most parliamentary seats is declared winner and is asked to form the next government. Emphasis is on number of seats not votes cast.The House of Lords members are drawn from people with high offices. E.g. bishops, distinguished scientists and artists, great sportsmen, retired judges etc **Functions of Government in Britain.** The British government operates around four basic institutions; a) The Monarchy. b) The Legislature. c) The Executive. d) The Judiciary. **The Monarchy.** In Britain, the Monarchy is represented by the queen. The Monarch assent to all legislations.The Monarch appoints the PM and approves the cabinet **Other Functions of the Monarchy.** a) The monarch as head of state advises government b) The monarch summons, prorogues and dissolve parliament in consultation with the Prime Minister. c) The Monarch gives royal assent to bills passed by parliament to become law. d) Management of the countrys foreign policy including enactment of treaties. e) It confers honours to persons who have rendered distinguished services. For example, the peerages to become Lords or knights and will be referred to as LADY OR Sir f) The Monarch approves appointment s to important state offices such as judges, senior members of the armed forces and civil service. g) The monarch pardons and gives reprieve to people who have been accused of committing various offences. h) The Monarch appoints Bishops and Archbishops of the Anglican Church. NB; At the beginning of each new session of parliament, the monarch addresses both Houses together in the House of Lords to mark the formal opening of parliament. In the address, the monarch outlines government proposed legislations for the coming session. **Importance of the monarchy to the British people.** a) The presence of the monarchy helps to give some continuity to executive policy. b) It inspires the head of government with a sense of responsibility and dignity. c) It acts as a useful counsellor to the head of government. d) It is the symbol of commonwealth unity. e) It sets standards for social life. The presence of members of the royalty at the inauguration of scientific, artistic and charitable works ensures nationwide support. f) The royal family pays state visits to foreign government and undertakes tours in other countries of the commonwealth, hence contributing to better understanding between Britain and other nations. **The Legislature/parliament.** It is made up of the monarchy, House of Lords and House of commons. The following are ways through which one can gain membership to parliament in Britain; a) Elections. b) Nominations c) Inheritance. d) By Virtue of office. E.g. members of the House of Lords maintain their parliamentary seat whenever a new parliament is constituted.Parliament is a supreme institution in Britain. It passes changes or repeals laws without being vetoed by the courts of law. How parliamentary supremacy is demonstrated in Britain. a) Parliament makes amends and abolishes laws. No other institution can do that. b) Branches of government operate under the laws passed by parliament. /parliament is the supreme institution in Britain and all other institutions derive their power from it. c) Parliament can pass a vote of no confidence in the executive. / has powers to remove any unpopular government from office. d) It approves government revenue and expenditure. / It is the only institution empowered to approve government budget. e) Decisions of parliament are binding to all. They cannot be overruled or nullified by a court of law. **The House of Lords.** Membership to The House of Lords is based on nomination by the monarch or by hereditary principle. Some membership is through holding senior positions within the Church of England Consists of 1200 members 800 of whom are heredity peers, 26 are Bishops and 21 are Lords of Appeal One can become a member of the House of Lords in the following ways; 1. Through nomination by the monarch. 2. When one holds hereditary parentage position. Normally the eldest male member of the family inherits the position. 3. Through holding some senior position in the society e.g. within the Church of England -Archbishop of Canterbury. Members of the House of Lords only receive sitting allowances. Only the Lords of Appeal receive annual salaries. **Role played by the House of Lords in the British parliamentary system.** a) The house of lords checks the powers of the House of Commons and therefore prevents nasty legislation. Bills from the House of Commons have to go to the House of Lords for debate and approval. b) It addresses non-controversial bills that the lower house has no time to address. c) The house of lords holds bills from the lower hose long enough to seek public approval d) The House of Lords questions ministers about the activities of government and stages debates on general issues of national policy. e) It seats as a court of appeal for criminal cases. on such occasions , the court is presided over by the lord chancellor (speaker of the house) f) It provides a forum for utilization of the talents of people who coul d not win a general election. These people are created peers by the queen and become members of the House of Lords. g) It enhances unity in the country as newcomers are created lords by the queen and then become members of the House of Lords. h) It provides continuity in operation of parliament. Old experienced peers retain their seats in the House of Lords until they die, so provide guidance to new and young politicians. **House of Commons.** It is the major legislative arm of the government. It comprises 650 elected members representing constituencies. The leader of the House is the P.M. The chief officer is the speaker who is elected at the start of a new parliamentary session. **Functions of the House of Commons.** a) Discusses makes and amends laws. However, the monarchy and the house of Lords have powers to veto such laws. b) Approves government revenue and expenditure. It controls finances. No taxes can be imposed without the consent of the House of Commons. c) It has powers to pass a vote of No confidence in the executive (Check the powers of the executive to ensure that the rule of law is maintained. d) Debates on matters of national interest. e) It directs government policy and keeps development programmes on track. f) It is a training ground for future leaders. **Factors which influence the activities of Parliament in Britain.** a) Members of the House of Commons must consider the moral values of the British society before making any decision. b) Parliamentarians are always sensitive to public opinion because any unpopular government or party risks not being re-elected. c) Local authorities are empowered to make by-laws even without consulting parliament. d) Interests of the institutions under the spotlight are always taken into account before legislation is done in parliament. E.g. the Church, Un iversities, Farmers, trade Unions etc. e) Legislation passed by one parliament can be changed by another future one. f) International law is also taken into account when laws are made. ***NB; these are the factors that limit the parliamentary supremacy in Britain.*** **The executive.** The executive is made up of the Prime Minister, the cabinet and the civil service. **The Prime Minister.** Appointed by the monarch, being the leader of the political party that controls an absolute majority, He/she is the Chief executive of the country. **He performs the following functions;** a) Appoints and dismisses Cabinet ministers with the consent of the monarch. b) He/she recommends to the sovereign the appointment of senior civil servants such as the chief Justice, High Commissioners. c) He/she represents Britain in international fora. d) He/she controls the cabinet secretariat and oversees the execution of cabinet decisions by various departments. e) He/she is the leader of the party that nominates him/her. f) He/she settles disputes between various departments. g) He/she is the leader of the House of Commons. h) He/she initiates both domestic and foreign policies. **The Cabinet.** The cabinet is made of the ministers appointed by the P.M with the approval of the monarch and nominated from the party with the majority of seats. The cabinet performs the following functions; a) The cabinet ministers institute policies that guide the operations in the various departments of the ministry. b) Cabinet determines the policy to present to parliament for consideration. c) Cabinet is responsible for the coordination of government activity. E.g. all ministers must implement cabinet decisions with regard to their department. **The following conventions provide guidance on the operation of the cabinet;** a) Once a government is defeated, on a major issue or on a vote of no confidence, it is expected to resign. A government whose party is defeated in General elections is expected to resign. b) The cabinet is drawn from the House of Commons and the House of Lords. c) The entire cabinet comes from the same political party of majority seats except during a crisis like war. Since 1945, Britain has never embraced a coalition. d) The advice offered by the cabinet must be accepted by the monarch, failure to which a crisis can occur. e) All members of the cabinet take the Oath of the Privy councillors and are bound to Secrecy by this oath and the official secrets Act. f) Members of the cabinet are collectively responsible for all decisions and actions as well as individually responsible of the departments they head. **The Civil Service** The British law stipulates the civil servants are servants of the crown. A civil servant is expected to non-partisan and to serve the government of the day without favour. Civil service staff does not change with change of government. Recruitment In the civil service is based on merit. **Functions of the civil Service in Britain.** a) It implements ministerial policies as agreed by parliament. b) It assists in formulation of policies and generation of policy proposals. c) It manages government administrative machinery. d) It carries out normal duties that public administration demands. **Principles that characterize the British civil service.** a) The tradition of anonymity. Civil servants are taken to be carrying out the instructions of minister. Ministers get all the credit for all good, as well as censure for all that is criticized. b) The principal of civil service impartiality. Those civil services are expected to serve whichever minister is in office without partiality. Senior civil servants are not permitted to take part in national politics except voting. c) Ministers make policies and civil servants execute the policies. d) The tradition of assumption that it is not the task of the civil service to initiate change or take responsibility for planning future lines of social an d economic development. **The Judiciary.** The judiciary in Britain is based on the supremacy of the law. To safeguard the rule of law, the British Judiciary has an independent court system. How judicial independence is ensured in Britain. a) The salaries of judges are not open to discussion by parliament. b) Since 1701, judges have always bee appointed on good behaviour until retirement. c) A Judge can only be dismissed by a resolution from both houses. **The structure of the British Court System.** (Further reading encouraged) **components of the British constitution.** e) Statutes or acts of parliament e.g. act of union with Scotland of 1707. f) Customs-the accepted traditions e.g. the first-born of the sovereign succeeds the king /queen. g) Law of precedence-judges applies accepted principles to new set of facts. h) Custom of parliament e.g. the procedures of the two houses. i) Historical documents e.g. the Magna Carta. **THE USA** The origin of USA dates back to 1776, when the thirteen British Colonies declared their independence from Britain. USA is a federal government, a form of representative democracy comprising a union of 50 states The adopted a new constitution in 1787 and has the following features. a) It is Federal in nature. b) A written constitution. c) Bill of rights is contained in it. d) The Supreme Court can only interpret it. e) Legislature is Bi-cameral i.e. the senate & the House of Representatives forming the congress/two houses. f) It caters for the separation of powers. g) Does not provide for secession of a member state. h) Federal government and individual states share power through their senators in congress i.e. in making laws. i) The president is the head of the federal government and governors are heads of state. j) It is the supreme law of the land. k) Amendment can only be done through a clearly laid down procedure. **The electoral process in USA.** **There are three types of election held in USA.** ***a) The election of the president.*** ***b) Congressional elections*** ***c) The state election involving election of state governors and state legislatures.*** All candidates vying for various seats must be American citizens and must be residents in the area they aspire to represent. Age limit is 25 years for the representatives and 35 years for the president.During the lection year party primaries are held between March and May to choose presidential candidates.Party conventions are held in July to confirm winners of the primary elections.Each presidential candidate picks a running mate who becomes the vice president if the presidential candidate wins.Presidential elections are held after every 4 years (on 2nd November).The election of the president is determined indirectly by the Electoral College that comprises electors appointed by each state. When a presidential candidate wins the popular vote in a state, he automatically wins all the states electors.Direct elections are done through popular vote of one man one vote. Senators and members of the House of Representatives are elected after every two years. Senators serve for a period of six years with a third of them elected after every 2 years. Members of the House of Representatives serve for four years and are elected on party basis.Each state elects 2 representatives to the senate making a total of 100 senators for the 50 states.Election of House of Representatives is on the basis of state population. For example, the largest state, California has 52 representatives while Wyoming, the smallest has only one representative.State governors and legislators are elected after every 4 years. **Features of the US system of government.** a) The federal government is made up of the legislature, executive and the judiciary. b) Each state within the federal government functions as a republic and enjoys equal status. c) The federal government and independent states share the power of formulating and enforcing laws. d) All states have their constitutions but they should not be contradicting to the Federal Constitution. e) The Supreme Court interprets the constitution. f) The congress (Senate and the House of Representatives) is the body entrusted with legislative powers. g) Senate membership is through popular vote of two members from each state for a period of six years. h) The House of Representatives members are elected for a period of two years based on the size of the population. However, each state has to have at least one representative. i) All treaties and appointments by the president have to be ratified by the senate. j) Presidential vote must be supported by two thirds of the votes of the house. k) The Supreme Court made up of the chief justice and eight associate judges heads federal judiciary. l) The president appoints federal judges with the approval of the senate. m) Courts in the judiciary include the court of appeal, the district courts and other special courts, all formed by the congress. n) All criminal cases are handled in the courts except the cases of impeachment, which are voted by the house with the approval of the senate. o) Foreign policy and Defence is the preserve of the Federal Government. features of the state governments of U.S.A. a) Each state has a governor. b) Each state has a law court those carters for internal affairs. c) Each state provides educational, health facilities and public amenities for the welfare of the residents. d) Each state is responsible for its own development. e) Each state generates its own revenue necessary for discharging its responsibility. f) Each state has a bicameral legislature. g) Each state has a state police that maintains law and order. **Limitations of state governments in USA.** a) No state is permitted to enter any treaty, alliance or confederation with other states or countries. b) No state may make her own currency. c) States are forbidden, unless congress approves, to levy duties on imports or exports. d) States are prohibited from maintaining armed forces. e) States are prohibited from entering into any agreement with foreign powers or engaging in war. **how the conduct of USA president is checked** a) The senate approves presidential appointees to executive positions. b) Congress can refuse to approve the use of government funds for a foreign policy it disagrees with. E.g. war. c) The congress can impeach a sitting president if his conduct while in office is wanting. d) The Supreme Court has powers to declare that the president has acted unconstitutionally, a verdict which can damage his status. e) Any president is limited by the constitution to two four-year terms in office. f) Opinion polls normally reflect the wishes and feelings of the American people, which the sitting president cannot ignore. g) The mass media monitors and reports to the general public every action or speech of the president. **functions of the political parties in USA** a) Make electoral policies coherent. b) The party level helps voters to sort out through the candidates as parties usually stand for different policies. c) Parties help to put the desire of the people on the government policy agenda. d) Parties provide outlets for citizens to express their sentiments about nominees. e) Political party system provides accountability when the policies of the party fails/ voters hold candidates accountable. differences existing between the House of Representatives and the senate in terms of membership. a) The house of representatives is larger with more than 436 members whereas the senate has only 100 members. b) The house of representatives has short period of office (2 years) but the senate is on for a long period of office (6 years) c) Members of the House of Representatives arte elected by constituencies whereas the senate is elected by the state. d) Easier qualification for candidates for membership to the House of Representatives. The senate demands stricter qualifications. e) The house of representatives is less prestigious than the senate. f) Rules of the House of Representatives are more rigid than the rules governing the senate. **functions of the USA president.** a) He is the head of state. b) He appoints cabinet ministers and senior civil servants with approval of the congress. c) He is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. d) He is the head of the federal government of USA and the defender of of its constitution. e) The president formulates the public policy. f) He can veto or override bills passed by the congress. g) As a head of the party in power, the president influences public opinion and thereby guides the course of the congress. h) He guides and controls foreign affairs and makes treaties. **India.** **Describe the Indian electoral process.** a) Indias parliament is composed of the Lower Chamber or House of The People (lok Sabha) and the Upper House or the Council of States (Rajya Sabha). b) The term of lok sabha is five years while that of rajya sabha is six years. c) Lok sabha consists of 545 elected members, 543 elected from each constituency created based on population size. The president nominates two. d) Political parties field candidates in each constituency. e) Indias universal adult suffrage is 18 years. Qualification age for vying is 25 years and above. f) The election commission, a constitution arm of the Indian electoral process oversees the elections. g) Candidates are required to declare their assets, age, educational qualifications and criminal history before being cleared to vie. h) Campaigning ends a day before the voting day. Government schools and colleges are chosen to be polling stations. Government servants are employed to man the polling stations. i) There is the use of electronic voting machines instead of ballot boxes. j) The candidate who gunners the most number of votes is declared the winner of the constituency. k) The party or coalition that has won the most number of seats is invited by the president to form the new government. The leader of the party becomes the prime minister. l) Rayja sabha consists of 250 members; the electoral college of India elects 248. The president nominates twelve members from among distinguished people. m) Every state is allotted a certain number of members. n) Candidate age limit is 30 years and above. **functions of a prime minister in India.** a) He is the head of the federal government b) He is the leader of the house to which he belongs. (he can be either a member of the rajya sabha (upper house) or lok sabha. c) As head of the council of ministers, the prime minister oversees the work o all the ministries. d) Chairs cabinet meetings, which are normally held in the cabinet room of the prime ministers office. e) Guides the president on appointment to the cabinet. f) Participates in the law-making process as a member of the lok sabha. g) The prime minister has traditionally been the minister-in-charge of the department of space, atomic energy and the ministry of personnel, public governance and pensions h) Recommends persons for presidential awards. **functions of the Electoral Commission of India.** a) Prepares electoral registers b) Setting dates for polling. c) Establishing and operating polling station. d) Allocation party symbols. e) Publishing electoral report. f) Accepting or rejecting nominations as per the law. g) Counting the votes. h) Drawing constituency boundary. What conditions must one fulfill to be elected president in India a) He/she must be a citizen of India. b) He/she must have attained the age of 35 and above. c) He/she should not hold any office. d) He/she should be qualified to be elected as a member of the house of the people. (the lok sabha) **functions of the cabinet in the government of India.** a) Formulation of policy issues affecting the management of the government of India. b) Defends the government policy. c) Ensures that the civil servants implement government policy. d) Advises the president. e) Gives approval to the budget and estimates of the expenditure. f) The cabinet exercises general direction and control of government departments. |
1 ### **FORM ONE HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT ** **INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT ** **THE MEANING OF HISTORY ** History is an account of events that took place in the past. History may also be defined as a branch of knowledge which deals with past events of human beings and their response to their environment over the years.R.G Collingwood, in his book The Idea of History (OUP 1994) defined history as a science concerned with the human actions in the past, pursued by interpretation of evidence for the sake of Human self knowledge. That history is a science because it involves finding out things about the past Humankind. For example, the origin of Man, why he was a toolmaker, why he domesticated animals and plants. These are questions that provoke scientific curiosity. The three definitions of History from the above are: History is the past of anything; of earth, man, disease or animals History is a branch of knowledge dealing with past events History is a science concerned with past Human actions Since History at secondary level is specifically concerned with the past as it relates to humankind and his response to his environment over the years, the working definition of history is therefore; History is the endless story of mankinds actions and events affecting him in the past. Closely related to the term history is the term PREHISTORY .Prehistory refers to the unrecorded history- those activities that humans engaged in before writing and drawing were invented as ways of storing information. Such information is gained from songs, myths, stories, artifacts, fossils and the language of a people. A historical event needs to have recorded evidence in order to be referred to as a historical fact Characteristics of historical events They must have evidence. Historical information must be written or unwritten. Historical events only concern man. Historical events dwell mainly on the past happenings. Historical events must contain elements of truth. The study of humankinds past can be classified systematically into three; Social history- dealing with the traditions, values and cultural practices of a people Economic history; dealing with the means of livelihood of a people, such as hunting, gathering, agriculture and trade. Political history; dealing with the control system in a society, for example maintenance of law and order, leadership and security. ----- 2 ### **THE MEANING OF GOVERNMENT ** Derived from the verb govern, government means to exercise authority over. To rule or control. Or having power to direct or conduct the policies and public affairs of a country or an institution. In our study, the term government refers to a group of people within a state or a country given authority to organize, direct and control the affairs of the state or country.In Kenya, the government has three arms. The legislature: - Commonly referred to as parliament, this is a law making arm of government. It includes the National assembly and the president. The executive: - this is the arm of government which implements laws. It includes the president, the cabinet and the civil service. The judiciary: - this is the arm of government responsible for seeing that the laws made are constitutional, that they are followed and that those who break them are punished. It is commonly referred to as the courts.Jean Jacques Rousseau, in his book, The Social Contract, describes government as an intermediate body set up by the subjects to ensure equity (fairness) and the execution of laws while maintaining social and political liberty In this sense, government is not dictatorial since its authority is derived from the people. People must however be free to choose their leaders, even remove those in power and replace them with others, in order to ensure the existence of the principal of fairness. **FORMS OF GOVERNMENT ** There are four forms of government: **Democratic government ** This is a type of government in which rulers regularly seek public mandate through popular vote. Such governments are based on the principles of free and fair elections. According to Abraham Lincoln, an American statesman, they are governments of the people, for the people and by the people.In such a government, freedoms and rights are provided for in the constitution that governs the law of the nation. **Aristocratic government ** Aristos best **Kratos** - powers An aristocracy is a form of government in which a group of people from the highest social class the royalty- in a society rule over others. Any member of the nobility can seek election or appointment to a government office while other citizens who are less privileged are there to be ruled.The King or Queen is the head of government while senior positions in the gover-nment are given to the privileged members from among the nobles. The nobles are considered superior to others human beings because of the wealthy family back-ground they are born into and their superior education. They are considered a rare breed of people. ----- 3 ### **Monarchical government ** This is a form of government where democracy is practiced but aristocratical power is respected. Parliament is the supreme organ but the monarchy- the royalty that are in power be it the king or queen is retained as a tradition, and respected as head of state. Monarchical governments are classified into two;Absolute monarchy: - which refers to the unrestricted power of the Head of State. The monarchy is dictatorial. Constitutional monarchy;- The monarchical power, which is restricted is determ-ined by what is spelt out in the constitution. Such a system of government is found in Lesotho and Britain. **Dictatorial government ** Dictatorship is a system of government where the ruler has total power over his subjects. Dictators are the sole authority where they rule. They make the law and execute justice and exercise their rule forcefully, suppressing their subjects at will. They curtail freedom of other subjects and impose their will over others.Examples of world dictators; Adolf Hitler of Germany who instigated the Germans into believing they were superior race and incited them against the Jews. Idi Amin of Uganda who ruled with a rod of iron NB; the most ideal form of government is where the subjects go to the ballot to elect the people to lead them. Governments play the important function of maintaining law and order. **Importance of studying history ** a) History enables us to appreciate peoples evolution, origin of cultures and development and hence further good relations and remove biases and prejudices about other people. b) When we study history, we appreciate peoples contribution to national develop- pment. E.g. freedom fighters hence the importance of mutual and social responsi-bility. c) It helps us to know the origin of mankind, his development and the progress he has made to this day. d) We are able to understand our culture and appreciate the culture of other people. e) it instills a sense of patriotism and nationalism among citizens as they learn of the past political developments of their country. Its study inspires strong feelings of ones heritage and the sense of belonging to a particular country. f) It helps us understand the interdependence of mankind and hence the need for cooperation. g) It influences career choice. The study of history leads to various professions. E.g. law, diplomacy, church, politics, teaching, and administration. h) The study of history helps us comprehend the social, economic and political developments of our societies i) It gives time and space to past events. Through the study of history, we learn about the time and place where an event took place. E.g. we know when Mau Mau uprising broke out (1948) and know when Kenya gained independence. ----- 4 ### j) It helps us develop a critical mind as we try to explain historical events. Historians will ask why, when and how. k) It provides intellectual fulfillment to the learner. Through an in -depth study of history, ones mind is enriched. **Importance of studying government ** a) It helps us to appreciate the importance of government. b) Helps us understand how laws are made and enforced c) Helps us understand the organs of the state and the powers vested in them d) Helps us understand how government raises and spends revenue. e) Helps us compare our government system with other systems of government in other countries. f) Understand how development policies are formulated and implemented. g) It makes us know our roles as citizens and the roles of the leaders who govern us. This makes better law-abiding citizens. h) Its study helps us understand our responsibilities as well as the limitations within which e must operate for the well-being of every member of the society. i) It helps us appreciate the constitution and the process of making and reviewing laws and statutes. j) It influences career choices. For example, those who choose to specialize in public administration will find the study of government very useful. **SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT ** There three main sources of information on history and government; a) Unwritten sources. b) Written sources. c) Electronic sources ** Unwritten sources ** This refers to historical information which is not recorded in writing.Unwritten sources of historical information include oral traditions, linguistics (languages), Anthropology (culture) archaeology, paleontology and genetics. **Oral traditions ** This refers to the practice of handing down historical information by word of mouth from one Generation to the next. This forms a very important source of historical information especially where exists a non-literate society who might not be able to read. Oral traditions include folk tales, proverbs, songs and stories. Songs, proverbs folktales and stories told to a younger generation have been very instrumental in the passing of information from one generation to the other. For example, a song about our struggle for independence in Kenya passes very important information to the younger generation, who not yet had born at that time. ----- 5 ### **Advantages of oral traditions as a source of information ** a. Oral traditions hands over historical facts from one generation to another in the absence of written records. b. It is the best source of historical information since even the illiterate can learn their h history using oral traditions c. It is also a form of entertainment. For example through songs, folktales stories and proverbs, people get entertained. d. It complements other sources of information. e. The source of information is captivating especially if it is narrated by a person who participated in the event himself. For example, an Ex- World War II veteran narrating about the war. **Disadvantages of oral traditions as a source of information ** a. The truth and correctness of oral traditions become unreliable especially when the narrator deliberately conceals some information or lies. People tend to conceal their failures while talking so much about their success. b. Information can b exaggerated as they are transmitted by elders to successive generations. At times it is difficult to differentiate between what is real and what is imagined. c. Some information or facts may be forgotten or omitted since oral traditions depend heavily on human memory. This makes the information passed unreliable. d. Dates of information may be lacking. The source may not give correct chronology of events because it depends on human memory. It is common that people forget important dates and information about a particular past event. e. It is an expensive method. One has to pay for the informants transportation, lunch and accommodation. A historian may also need to travel to far places to find information. f. It is time consuming. One requires a lot of time to interview one individual. Where many people are to be interviewed, it may take a long time. **Linguistics ** This refers to the scientific study of languages. Historical linguistics is the study of language as it changes n the course of time. It seeks to trace the principles of language change and establish the current genealogical classification of a particular language. Such a study helps in discovering language form, content, vocabulary and historical experiences of the people who speak the language. Distribution of language and relationship between languages is important to a historian. People who speak related languages may be assumed to have a common origin, be connected, or had been in close contact at sometime in the past.Variations between languages of the same family can show how long ago the break in contact occurred. ----- 6 ### **Advantages of linguistics as a source of information ** a. Through linguistics, Facts can be obtained about the movement of people and their relationship. Such information helps experts to correctly group languages according to language families. b. It helps us understand communities better as people with a common language may have common origin. It is good for establishing facts on origin, migration and settlement. c. Linguistics complements other sources of historical information. For example, language as a medium of communication helps those using oral tradition to gather information from various sources. d. Language has enabled historical linguists to discover links between different people which were previously unknown. E.g. it is now known that the Bantus had a common origin and possibly spoke one language. However due to long periods of separation between various Bantu groups, through migrations, these groups may not understand each others language today. e. Linguistics helps in the dating of migration of people. Language drawn from a parent language will change in a certain way and rate through time. When comparing parent language with derived language, it is possible to know how long the derived language has independently from the parent language. E.g. Sheng language and Kiswahili (parent language). **Limitations in the use of linguistics as a source of information ** a. It is time consuming/learning a language takes a long time therefore delaying acquisition of information. b. There is a danger of omitting a word when translating a language. In the process, vital information about a peoples history may be lost. c. Inaccurate information can be passed on where wrong words are borrowed from other languages. d. Some words may just be difficult to understand. e. Some languages have become archaic and irrelevant hence difficult to translate. f. Misinterpretation of words may make them difficult to understand. g. Linguistic analysis for classification purposes may fail to take into account languages with time. h. One word may have different meanings in different languages. This can easily confuse a researcher. For example, Nyoro in Kikuyu means smooth, while the same word in Luo means yesterday. i. Lack of original speakers in the language under study limits research findings. **Anthropology ** This is the study of human beings, their origin, development, customs, beliefs, and social attributes like music, dance, drama, and religious beliefs and practices. ----- 7 ### Anthropologists have to live among the people under study in order to experience their way of life in order to understand and explain structures of societies, forms of social organization, institutions, descent, marriage, forms of government, systems of inheritance, religious customs and cultural values.The anthropological description of the beliefs and customs of a people will help the historian to determine the cultural past of the people **Advantages of anthropology as a source of information ** a. By living among the people, anthropologists help to discover, understand and explain structures of societies, forms of social organization, cultures, etc. b. Anthropologists assist historians to determine the cultural past of the people. c. It also gives a deeper understanding of a particular aspect of a peoples culture. Limitations in the use of anthropology as a source of information a. It is an expensive method as it involves living among the people. b. It is a time-consuming method of acquiring information. c. It is difficult for a researcher to adapt to the environment since the people they are studying may be of a totally different culture. Where they succeed in adapting, they face the risk of losing their own culture. d. People under study may try to behave differently when the researcher is around. A researcher may therefore miss important details. **Genetic studies ** Genetics is the scientific study of the ways in which characteristics are passed from parents to their offspring. (The study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics.) It deals with the ay human beings adapted to the circumstances in their environment and utilized available plants and animals to meet their needs.When used in relation to pants genetic studies helps us trace the origin of various species by identifying them with the region where large numbers of them are found today. After this, interpretation of their movement is made. The appearance of new cultivated varieties can be identified with the people whose economy they form a part. Also, common genes or characteristics among a group of people may indicate some relationships. **Archaeology and paleontology ** Archaeology is the study of mans past through scientific analysis of the remains of material remains of his culture, e.g. weapons, tools, houses, clothing, utensils, paintings sculpture, pottery, coins, jewellery, cutlery, beads and work o arts.The archaeologist reconstructs the activities and way of life of people who lived in prehistoric times from various evidence remains of the material culture.Other items that can be used in archaeology include remains of charcoal and carbo-nized seeds, remains of cloth or garments, remains of dwelling laces.After studying the available artifacts, the archaeologist formulates his concept of a peoples civilization at the time the artifacts were used. The existence of artifacts in an area can enable the historian to deduce the material culture of the people who lived n the past. ----- 8 ### Palaeontology is the scientific study of the evolution and structure of extinct plants and animals (fossils) through scientific examination of fossil remains.Historians and archaeologists work with natural scientists like paleontologists, geologists and ecologists and chemistry in discovering fossils, getting information about soil structure, interpreting mans relationship to his environment and dating of fossils. **Methods used by archaeologists and paleontologists in discovering a historical site. ** a) By looking at areas where tectonic forces (faulting) or erosion have occurred. In such areas, surfaces which may give important clues to the point of finding fossils and artefacts are exposed. b) Use of vision. Sometimes vision may help them find on the surface a small part of an early settlement such as a few stones in a regular pattern. c) Use of historical research. A place that may be mentioned in a historical document or in an oral narrative may give a clue to the geography of the area and open up further inquiries into the past civilization of such a clue.e.g Omo River Valley, Olduvai Gorge, Ur and Babylon. d) Use of experience. An archaeologist may also use his long experience and skill to identify a potential site for archaeological excavation. e) During cultivation and building construction, farmers and builders may accidentally expose ancient objects that could arouse the curiosity of researchers. For example Nyayo ya Mungu in Tanzania was a single footprint on a rock surface that was found in 1995 and became evidence of the existence of early human beings. **Advantages of using archaeology ** a) Archaeology gives us detailed information on material culture that other sources may not have. b) Archaeology gives a sense of time, as the artifacts are dated. c) It complements other sources of information and thus ensures authenticity of the information. d) It provides information of varied nature depending on the materials found on the site. For example, if tools, weapons, coins, bones, rock paintings and other items are located, at a site, a lot of information maybe deduced. **Limitations of using archaeology ** a) It is an expensive source of information. This is because one has to hire labourers to excavate the site and get artefacts and take them to laboratories for analysis. b) It is a time-consuming method. The researcher needs a lot of time to prepare for an excavation and take material for analysis in laboratories. c) It is sometime difficult for archaeologists to locate an archaeological site. d) Some artefacts and fossils are fragile and can therefore break or disintegrate during excavation. This may result in distortion of the analysis of the artefacts. e) Archaeology is only limited to the study of the ancient period and therefore cannot be used to study recent history. ----- 9 ### f) Archaeological information may sometimes be inaccurate since it is often bases on inferences (conclusions) and reconstructions. g) With archaeology, it may not be easy to accurately determine the date when events took place. It is only estimated through the method of dating fossils. h) There are very few archaeological experts and facilities for interpreting archaeological evidence in Kenya. Quite often, artefacts excavated from Kenya are taken to European countries for dating and analysis. What things do archaeologists use to construct the activities of people who lived in pre- history times? a) Looking for regions of tectonism (faulting) associated with fossils and artifacts. b) They look for unique features e.g. stone patterns. c) Remains of fossils and artifacts dug out by farmers and constructors. d) They dig, excavate for artifacts and fossils. e) They study artifacts and fossils found. f) They make research in regions associated with evolution of man e.g. rift valley. g) They classify the artifacts and fossils. h) They use chemical and scientific methods to find ages of their findings e.g. carbon 14- dating method **What problems face archaeologists in their work of re writing history using ** **unwritten sources? ** a) The exercise is too expensive. b) It is dangerous and tedious. Animals like wild dogs can attack scientists. c) Identification of the site is not easy because some artifacts are buried. d) Some artifacts can be destroyed in the process of digging. e) Dating of fossils is difficult. f) Personnel are few hence more work. g) Poor infrastructure in rural areas where their researches are mainly based h) Archaeologists may suffer from diseases caused by changes in climate. i) Sometimes the climate of their residence differs from that of the place they are taking **METHODS OF DATING FOSSILS ** There are six methods through which scientists may use to arrive at the age of fossils. **1. Geological periods ** These are periods that have been given names by paleontologists and geologists for the past ages. They are characterized by the successive type of pants and animals found, and the climatic changes.The recent period is the Holocene period which began 10,000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene. **2. Chemical dating ** They exist in two types: **(a) Radio- carbon dating ** ----- 10 ### This method involves a measure of the rate of decay of carbon -14 in fossils and organic substances. Carbon -14 is a naturally existing radioactive element (isotope) of carbon of relative atomic mass fourteen and is found in the Carbon Dioxide which is present in the atmosphere.It is absorbed by plants and consequently by all living organisms during their lifetime. When plant or animal dies, absorption stops. Carbon -14 already absorbed begins to disintegrate at a fixed rate from the time of death. If the amount of carbon -14 still remaining in an organic sample can be measured and related to the content of the isotope in the modern plant or animal, the rate of decay will be known. The date at which the sample was buried will e known. The measurement tells us how long it is since the organism died.The unit of measuring is known as half-life- the number of years it takes for half the carbon -14 to decay.However the accuracy of radio-carbon dating is limited to up to 40,000 years ago. **(b) Potassium argon method ** This is the method used to date volcanic ash. During volcanic eruptions, potassium is emitted. As soon as the potassium is deposited, the radio-active potassium-40 immediately begins to decay into the gas argon. It is assumed that the argon is retained in the mineral or rock unless there is earth movement.Given that the rate of decay of potassium is known, the amount of argon-40 compared with the amount of potassium, gives a direct measure of age.Because of the slower rate of decay of potassium than the decay of carbon-14, the potassium argon method is used for dates ranging from hundreds of millions of years to 30,000 years.Recently methods have been developed for measuring the potassium and argon simultaneously on the same sample using nuclear. **3. Stratigraphy ** This is the study and interpretation of the layers of rock successively deposited at one place. It is useful in determining dates for areas affected by sedimentation. Through Stratigraphy, a geological time-chart is obtained showing which rock was formed earlier or later. **4. Fission-track dating ** This is a method developed for dating Pleistocene samples. The ages of glass and other mineral objects estimated by observing the tracks made in them by the fission fragments of uranium nuclei they contain. It requires that Uranium must be present. The age obtained dates from the time the object solidified. This method has been proved reliable by being able to provide same reading from a sample of glass with a lump of pumice from Olduvai Gorge corresponding with the potassium argon dates from the same layer. **5. Lexico-statistics dating ** Lexico-statistics is the statistical study of the vocabulary of languages with the intentions of determining their ages and their historical links with other languages.The study is based on the assumption that all languages have a basic vocabulary which will change slowly at a common rate for all languages at all times. The existence of reconstructed vocabulary of the parent language in derivative languages shows the ----- 11 ### **Relationship between the two ** Glottochronology, a subdivision of Lexico-statistics, attempts to establish that languages are historically related .by this method, there is an effort to express rates of language development by formulae precise enough to enable dates when change occurred to be calculated **6. Statistical dating ** Through a system of averaging, the length of a generation can be determined for a Particular society and dates estimated for events associated with certain generations. If the number and names of successive age-sets are remembered, the same system of averaging can be used. **Advantages of using unwritten sources of information on history and government** a) Information about peoples movement and relationship is given. b) It is very efficient where there still existed illiteracy and people could not write or read. c) It informs us of events in the absence of written materials. d) Data received is primary/ firsthand so accuracy is enhanced. e) Materials collected or excavated can be stored in museums for future reference. f) They create employment in museums where they are stored. g) Information not captured by written sources can be obtained from oral traditions. h) There is a sense of reality as it involves things that are seen and touched. i) Unwritten sources especially linguistics help in discovering the links between different people, which were previously unknown. j) Detailed information on material culture may be obtained. k) Dating of the migration of people is more accurate in unwritten sources e.g. In linguistics. **Written sources ** These are sources in which letters or any other symbols have been put on the surface for the purpose of communication. They include books, archives, constitutions, journals, novels, plays, newspapers, magazines, documentaries, dairies, annual reports, periodical and paintings. **Written sources are classified into two; ** **a) Archives and early manuscripts ** Archives are a collection of historical documents or records, especially those carrying classified information of a government or an organization, which after a period of time are accessible to the public. They are also places where government, public and other historical records are kept.-they are resource centres for information.A manuscript is an authors handwritten or typed text that has not yet been published. Early manuscripts include stone tablets and scrolls. The bible and Quran are based on these two. ----- 12 ### **b) Printed sources ** They include books, journals, novels, plays, newspapers, magazines, documentaries, dairies and annual reports. Photographs employ both electronic and printing processes but basically fall under printed sourcesWorks of fiction such as films plays and novels are important source of historical information. (Fiction is literature in form of prose, especially novels that describe imaginary events and people).Since work of fiction involves feelings and emotions, they can give more information about history. Also reading good historical novels arouses interest in history and gives the reader intellectual fulfillment. Newspapers convey new or fresh events, which with the passing of time becomes history. **Advantages of written records ** a) Written records preserve history since events are recorded for future reference. They are a store of information. b) Written information can reach or be distributed to all literate people all over the world. c) Written sources are less costly compared to those of anthropology or archaeology. d) Unlike oral tradition sources which are largely dependent on human memory, written sources are more accurate as information is preserved exactly as it was recorded. e) Written records may be written or translated into different languages thus reaching different people all over the world. f) Written records are in most cases reliable as biases and prejudices coming from authors can be limited. This can be done by comparing written material with statistical data from other sources. **Limitations ** a) Where an author omits essential information for one reason or another, a written source may be rendered quite unreliable. b) Written information may be misunderstood or misinterpreted by readers either with the intention of discrediting others or to suit ones needs. c) Writers at times are biased since the write from their particular point of view. For example, the writings of early explorers and missionaries. d) Written records are only limited to literate people within the society. are not useful to illiterate people in the absence of literate members of the society. e) At times, depending on the society involved, acquiring written records may be very costly. f) Reading written records is often time-consuming. **Electronic sources ** These include microfilms, films, videos, radio, and television **Microfilms ** These are films on which extremely small photographs (microphotography) of documents and printed matter are stored. They are tinny but when magnified can be clearly read. ----- 13 ### The importance of converting documents into microfilms is for preservation purposes and saving storage spaces. **Radio ** This is an authoritative source of historical information that captures words and emotions of an event as I was. For example radio news on the presidents speeches gives listeners the actual information on national matters. However, radio lacks the vividness found in television and films. **Audio- visual sources ** These include television, films and videos. Films carry indisputable historical facts as action is recorded live. They also give better understanding of some aspects of the social history of a given people with regard to their music, dress and leisure activities. Videos and films make the past come alive. However, since films are acted, they can sometimes be unrealistic as they may not present facts but an exaggerated version of an event.Television on its part gives good historical information as it depicts the situation as it was. **Databanks and databases ** Databanks are large stores of organized information which can be accessed in number of ways. E.g. if it is a book, information can be accessed through an index, a table of content or by browsing.Electronic databases are stored in computer and facilitate easy and faster retrieval of information. One can search for information by use of a number of search terms.Information in a database can be printed when required but can also be accessed instantly on computer. **Limitations of using electronics as a source of information in history and** **government** a) They are Subject to bias since most audio visuals contain foreign materials carrying the bias of the producer. b) Some are limited to the literate only e.g. information in data bases and microfilms can only be accessed by literate people and even computer literate people only. c) The information may be inaccurate only giving what is appealing to the public. TV crew depict only what they want to. Censorship may leave out vital information. d) Electronic sources of information are too expensive; most people cannot afford e.g. TV, Radios. e) Some acted films are unrealistic and therefore contain exaggerated information. **EARLY MAN ** In the study of early man, we will seek to answer questions that human beings have always sought to answer about how they appeared on earth, whether they were created and where the universe came from. **The origin of Human Beings ** A number of theories have been put forward to explain the origin of human beings. a. The creation theory. ----- 14 ### b. The mythical/ traditional theory c. The evolution theory **The Creation theory ** The Jews, Christians and Muslims recognize the creation story as narrated in the first book of bible and in Quran. That the whole universe was created by god. That God also created man, woman and all living things and all non-living creatures. Man was created in Gods own image and woman created to provide man with companionship. **The Mythical Theory ** Among African communities, there are myths about their origin all of them pointing to the fact that the first man was created by God. Examples: Among the Agikuyu, their God (Ngai) created the first man, Gikuyu. He the provided him with a wife, Mumbi. He gave him land at Mugurwe wa Gathanga. One of the myths among the Nandi state that the first two people, male and female came from the knees of a giant man, when the knees began swelling and later burs for the two to come out from each of the either knees. **The Evolution Theory ** Charles Darwin, an English man living between 1809 and 1882 questioned the acceptance of the creation theory. Through scientific expedition to South America and the pacific islands in 1831, he developed interest in fossils (remains of plants and animals found beneath the earths surface.) in 1859; he published his ideas in a book titled The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. The ideas enlisted instant battles from the Christian fraternity save for one supporter, Huxley. Clearly the theory of evolution was not accepted but it helped to make people aware of the new ideas concerning the origin of man. **What is evolution? ** Evolution can be defined as the process of change in living organisms over a number of years, frequently involving the beginning of new species from earlier species. According to Charles Darwin, man transformed from simple life slowly over millions of years through environmental mutation, natural selection, isolation and adaptation. Mutation was a stage of abrupt change. Natural selection is an instinct by which the stronger species out compete the weaker for resources. Adaptation is where the surviving species isolate themselves from others as they adapt to new environment through body changes and technological changes e.g. ability to grow crops and make shelter. Darwins theory of natural selection comprises the following points. All organisms or creatures are uniquely different and this uniqueness is based on heredity factors which an organism has from birth. Although many young organisms are produced, few manage to develop to maturity. ----- 15 ### The organisms that manage to grow to maturity and reproduce are those that are able to constantly adapt to the existing environment.In view of the limited resources, even after mutation, Darwin argued that only the fittest organisms survive as the weak species become extinct. This theory is popularly known as survival for the fittest.According to Darwin, isolation and adaptation is the final stage in the evolution process. Having survived through mutation and natural selection, the merging species increase in number. This leads to search for basic needs and in the process a species may be isolated from the rest and then finally adapt to the new environment.The theory of evolution holds that Humans belong to the animal kingdom and that man has evolved over the years. Man is a primate just as apes like gorillas, chimpanzees and monkeys. However, man belongs to the family of hominidae, while apes belong to the family of pongidae. Man according to Darwin developed over the years from his ape-like ancestors. **Evolution and adaptation of man ** The earliest Mammals lived on trees for two reasons; a) There was more supply of food o trees such as insects, leaves and birds eggs b) Security. Animals were more secure from their enemies while up on trees Man evolved from this kind of animals Archaeological evidence points at East Africa as the cradle of mankind. Reasons why East Africa is regarded as the place where man first evolved a) Evidence from archaeologists show that the earliest apes first evolved around lake and rift valley areas. And if man evolved from apes, then the first man must have appeared in east Africa. b) The savanna landscapes found in east Africa favored evolution while the conditions elsewhere (forests and deserts) Were unfavourable. c) The bones and weapons and tools which archaeologists are finding are proofs to this. These findings are widespread in Olduvai Gorge, Olorgesaillie, and Ngorongoro and around lakes of east Africa. d) The discovery of remains of early hominids and their material culture which form a pattern of human evolution prove this. E.g. we can trace the evolutionary process from Dryopithecus to Ramapithecus to Australopithecus to Homo habilis to Homo erectus to Homo sapiens. **Important archaeological sites found in East Africa ** In Kenya; - Rusinga Island, Fort Ternan near Kericho, Kariandusi near Elementaita, Gambles cave, Olorgesaillie, Kobi For a near Lake Turkana, Hyrax Hill and Njoro River cave. In Tanzania; - Olduvai Gorge, Eyasi Simila, Apis Rock and Garusi In Uganda; - Nsongezi, Napak, Magosi, Paraa, Ishanga, Mweya and Nyabusora In Ethiopia; - Omo River Valley and Hadar. ----- 16 ### Over a long period of time, mans ancestors lived in thick forests. Later about 15 million years ago, the forests transformed into savanna grasslands causing mans ancestors to change both physically and mentally so as to cope with the new environment. **The changes ** a) The tail which no longer had any value in the savanna disappeared. b) Man became more upright as there were no more impeding vegetation as was the case of too much foliage and intertwining vegetation in the forests and also to reduce surface area onto which solar insolation had effect. These also enabled quicker movement. c) The leg and foot formation changed to enable the weight of the body to be supported and balance to be achieved while moving or at a standstill. d) Gradual use of front limbs (hands for holding objects) enabled man to make tools which made work easier. The limbs also found another role of protection from other predators. As the forests disappeared, competition for food intensified and humans had to change their earlier eating habits. Some fossil evidence clearly give distinctive evidence of the break-off point between apes and hominids (mans ancestors.)The changes which Homo sapiens underwent as a break-off from apes to modern man. a) The skull size of the early human beings became larger indicating bigger brains. For example, Australopithecus, who lived between 5 and 1 million years ago, had a brain capacity of 530cm3. Homo erectus who lived later on had an improved brain capacity of between 775 and 1225cm3. b) Their jaws and teeth became more powerful compared to earlier forms indicating their use in tearing and cutting tough fibres and even the need for defence as a weapon. The size of the jaws and teeth became smaller. c) They developed a refined speech as compared to earlier forms. d) They were taller with less hair on their body. e) The forearms and hands underwent some changes. They developed a thumb for grasping objects. Their arms and hands became shorter, more appropriate for an upright posture. f) Their leg and foot formation also changed. Their feet and toes were smaller than earlier hominids in order to support the weight of the rest of the body while motionless or mobile. The toes were no longer in need for holding onto branches. **From apes to homo sapien sapiens ** Between 40 and 25 million years ago, the first apes appeared on earth. The first man (Austropithecus) appeared around 4.5 million years ago. The following are the stages through which the evolution of man passed. **1) Aegyptopithecus - An Early African Monkey ** ~ Aegyptopithecus was reconstructed from a monkey like skull found at Fayum Depression in Egypt. He forms earliest evidence of probable man's ancestors. ----- 17 ### ~ Its Teeth were those of a herbivore ~ It had a Small, about 4kg and was named Egyptian ape. ~ It was highly adapted to forest life. Had stereoscopic vision. It could jump skillfully from one tree to other using hands. It Dated 33 million years 2) Dryopithecus Africanus (proconsul ) ~ Its Remains were found at Rusinga Island within Lake Victoria by Mary and Louis Leakey in 1948. Its Skull appearance was more close to modern man than to Aegyptopithecus. ~ He had a quadrupedal movement like a chimpanzee. He had a Smooth forehead. ~ He had long teeth like other animals. The shape of his teeth and jaws indicated that He ate fruits. It is his remains that strengthen the belief that east Africa was the first homeland of mankind. **3) Kenyapithecus (Ramapithecus) ** ~ He is believed to have appeared between 15 and 12 million years ago ~ First remains found Fort Ternan in Kericho District, Kenya, in 1961 by Dr. Louis Leakey and Mary. Other fossils found at Samburu Hills, near Lake Baringo as well as in the Lake Turkana basin. ~ The equivalent species found in the Siwalikis Hills in northern India near New Delhi was named Ramapithecus ~ He had small canines and could occasionally walk on twos without falling. ~ The creature was small and weighed 36kg with bigger brains than earlier hominids. **4) Australopithecus (southern ape) ** ~ By 4-2m years ago a series of species known as australopithecines begin to appear. Perhaps it was the earliest homid closer to modern man. ~ The pelvis and leg were similar to that of modern humans. ~ They were bipedal and this was important in defence, grasp of objects and vision of an impending danger from a distance. ~ His Brain size was smaller than that of a human but larger than gorillas. ~ He was one of the most hairy hominid that ever existed. ~ He was Short but strong with a low forehead. Had large teeth and skulls ~ His remains were first discovered at Taung in Botswana by Raymond Dart in 1924. ~ The broken up skull found in East Africa at Olduvai Gorge in 1959 by Mary Leakey, was called Zinjanthropus- Nut-Cracker man since it had big jaws that suggest it kept on chewing. ~ Other fossils found in South Africa, Omo River Valley, Laetoli in Tanzania, near lakes Turkana and Baringo in kenya and L Natron Four types of Australopithecines that have been identified a) Australopithecus Afarensis b) Australopithecus Anamensis c) Australopithecus africanus. ----- 18 ### d) Australopithecus Robustus e) Australopithecus Anamensis ~ He is aged between 4.2 and 3.9 million years ago and is believed to be one of the oldest **a) Australopithecines ** ~ Evidence of his existence is obtained from the Reconstruction of Material consisting of 9 fossils from Kanapoi in Kenya and 12 fossils from Allia Bay in Kenya found by Dr. Meave Leakey, Dr. Allan Walker and the four fossil hunters (Kamoya Kimeu, Wambua Mangao, Nzube Mutiwa and Samuel Ngui.) ~ The fossil remains (comprising a lower jaw) were named A. Anamensis in August 1995 in a leading British Scientific journal. ~ He had relatively large canines. ~ The homid was aged between 3.9 and 3.0 million years ago. Its Name is derived from Afar Depression in Ethiopia. ~ He Had Apelike face and human-like teeth. He was small in stature and Bipedal, but Walked bent over, not fully upright. ~ They had very small brains -Brain capacity from 375 to 500 cc (Its Brain was the size of an orange.) ~ They had a bony ridge over the eyes, a low forehead, a flat nose, and also they had no chin. ~ Remains found at Laetoli in Tanzania and Tugen Hills in Baringo District. **c) Australopithecus Africanus (A. Gracilis) ** ~ A. africanus existed between 3 and 2.5 million years ago. A. africanus was slenderly built, or Gracile (Gracile means slender) with a height of 1.5m. ~ Was significantly more like modern humans than A. Afarensis, with a larger brain and more humanoid facial features. ~ Had large teeth, jaws and skull ~ A. africanus has been found at only four sites in southern Africa Taung (1924), Sterkfontein (1935), Makapansgat (1948) and Gladysvale (1992). d) Australopithecus Robustus ~ He Lived between 1 - 2mya in South Africa. ~ He is the biggest and most recent Australopithecine. - weight 68kg. He had more robust skull, jaws, and teeth. ~ He ate fruits, nuts and raw tubers- was apparently a vegetarian. ~ His Remains were found primarily in cave deposits at Swartkrans and Kromdraai in South Africa. ~ His Average brain size was about 530 cc ~ The East African A.Robustus was named A. Boisei 5) Homo habilis (Handy Man) - man with ability. ----- 19 ### ~ He is the earliest known species of the genus Homo; that is, the first human species. He lived 2.5 -1.5 million years ago ~ He was the First Homo specie to create and use stone tools for hunting and daily life. Homo habilis depicted the ability to make better tools than his predecessors. That is why he was referred to as man with ability. ~ His Brain size was -500 -800 cc;-the Brain shape is more humanlike. ~ He was capable of rudimentary speech. ~ He was about 127 cm (5'0") tall, and about 45 kg (100 lb) in weight, although females may have been smaller ~ His fossils were found in the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania in 1964 by Dr. J. Leakey. ~ His Remains were also found at Hadar and Omo River Valley in Ethiopia and kobi fora along L. Turkana by Benerd Ngeneo in 1972. 6) Homo erectus (Upright Man) ~ He was BIPEDAL- standing about 4-5 feet tall with a larger brain (700-1250cc). He lived between 2 million and 200,000 years ago. ~ He was clever as illustrated by his ability to make Acheulian tools such as the hand axe which was used as an axe, knife or even as a scraper. He was the First hominid to invent and use fire. ~ Their skeletons were larger and showed that they were quite heavily muscled ~ They were omnivorous like many other early hominids. ~ Only had hair on their head and back like are men that we have today ~ Remains found in Hardar, Ethiopia where the skeleton of a female Lucy were found. ~ Other fossils were found near Nariokotone River on the north western shores of LakeTurkana by Kamoya Kimeu in 1984. ~ Also at Olorgesaillie near Magadi, Isimila near Iringa in TZ and Tenerife in Algeria. ~ The most famous Homo Erectus fossil was found in a cave in Zhoukoudian, China and became known as Peking Man/Java man **7) Homo sapiens (Wise Man thinking man) ** ~ Their Main difference with their hominid ancestors is their extreme intelligencethey were the smartest hominid that ever lived with a Brain capacity of 1000-1800cc ~ They lived between 200,000 and 150,000 years ago ~ They improved their way of life by making a variety of flint, bone, wood and stone tools **(Microliths) ** ~ They hunted, gathered and fished. Later on, they domesticated plants and animals ~ Their Remains were found at Eliye Springs, Kanjera and Kanam in Kenya, Bodo and Omo River Valley in Ethiopia and Ngaloba in Tanzania. Three sub-species of Homo sapiens existed; **a) Rhodesian man ** ~ The sub-species Was discovered in Zambia, hence the name Rhodesian man ----- 20 ### ~ He had straight legs and walked with long strides. ~ Rhodesian mans Brains and skull were very similar to those of modern man. **b) Neanderthals ** ~ His Remains were found in Neander valley, Germany (1856). They Lived in caves and valleys ~ He was 5 feet and 5 inches tall-much stronger, heavily built and more aggressive too. ~ He Had very thick eyebrow ridges like the other hominids ~ He Made clothes from animal skins. They would scrape animal fat so they can use the skin as clothing. ~ They were probably the First humans to bury their dead. He was most likely the most intelligent hominid other than modern humans. ~ He was a nomad, gathering and hunting deer, wild pigs and wild sheep. Their weapons were used to impale animals; therefore, to kill them, they had to approach the animal and get very close. This was dangerous and probably caused injuries and even fatalities. ~ Communication was key in hunting because they had to work as a team. They had the ability to use complex speech; however, their sentences were probably basic. Instead of painting on cave walls they painted their faces. ~ Other remains were found in Asia in France, Belgium, Gibraltar, Italy and former Yugoslavia. ~ They became extinct about 30,000 years ago. c) Homo sapiens Cro-Magnon ~ He was almost identical to modern humans although quite muscular and taller. Had long, low skull and a wide face, a sharp, rising forehead, bushy eyebrows and prominent chins ~ They had a big brain capacity and had very complex thinking ~ He was hunter-gatherer, painter and lived in caves ~ He knew how to make clothes ~ His Fossil remains were found in Western Europe. Their skeletons still remain in France today ~ They became extinct around 10,000years ago 8) Homo sapiens sapiens ~ Homo sapiens sapiens are modern day humans. They evolved about 50,000 years ago. ~ They have big brains and a more advanced faculty for curiosity and intelligence ~ They have a large brain capacity. They do not just think, they plan ahead, make accurate forecasts, and study the star and the galaxies ~ They have made inventions that have made life more comfortable. ~ They are Around 5 feet 6 inches tall and Walk fully upright ~ They have Minimal hair on our bodies (replaced by clothing)-We have clothes that are made from brands, factories, we also sew or knit our own clothing. ----- 21 ### The growing knowledge of genetic structure and functions has enabled human beings to clone animals using genes obtained from existing animals, thereby producing offsprings that looks exactly like the original e.g. the work of Dr. Wilmut Ian at the Roslin Institute of Edinburgh, Scotland that led to the first cloned sheep named dolly. Scientists are making attempts to even clone humans.More recent discoveries of early man include the Toumai found in Chad in 2002 dating about 6 to 7 myaIn 2000, another discovery was made in Baringo, Kenya (millennium man) and is believed todate 6mya. The discovery was made by Martin Pickford and Eustace Gitonga o the National Museums of Kenya. **Appearance of races ** It has been hypothesized modern humans, using superior technology and more efficient adaption, out competed other hominid species to quickly emerge as the only surviving hominid species on the planet.Though we feature much diversity in appearance, these differences are minor compared to our biological similarities/all human beings are quite closely related.Many of our physical differences (skin, color, hair color, etc.) are relatively recent adaptations to local environment conditions. Evolutionary forces such as genetic drift have also played a role in our creating such variation as well. Biologists and anthropologists classified humans into three different groups based on physical characteristics. Negroids, found in Africa. Caucasians found in Europe Mongoloids found in Asia, Modern genetics has revealed that these categories make very little sense biologically since modern races are derived from a common stock and the different races are able to interbreed. There are also no differences in intelligence among all races of mankind. The term race has traditionally been used by scientists as the equivalent of the subspecies concept when classifying humans.The Cultural and economic practices of early man **What is culture? ** Culture is the way of life of a people-Customs, language and social institutions The things that early humans made and used formed their material culture. Early mans culture can be understood through study of Stone Age or Paleolithic periods **What is Stone Age? ** This refers to the early period of human history when mans tools and weapons were mainly made of stone and to some extend wood and bone There are three Stone Age periods 1) Old stone age- Paleolithic period- 4,500,000 to 50,000years 2) Middle stone age- Mesolithic period-50,000-15,000 years. 3) New Stone Age Neolithic period- 15,000- 1,500 years **The Paleolithic Age ** Paleolithic -> Old Stone Age- 4,500,000 50,000 years ago ----- 22 ### The Paleolithic is the longest of all stone ages, covering roughly 2 million years. The hominid species who lived side by side were Australopithecus, Homo habilis and Homoerectus. **EARLY STONE AGE TOOLS ** The hominids Made tools from stone The Tool Traditions was called Oldowan tools / pebble tools. The tools were named after Olduvai Gorge where they were found. They were made by Australopithecus and Homo erectus. They were also known as pebble tools because they were made of stones. Among the finds at Olduvai were the chopper, fist hatchet (core tools) and several flake tools.Such tools were also found at Kobi For a near Lake Turkana, Omo River Valley in Ethiopia, and Kafu Valley in Uganda, Shaba province in Zaire and in Algeria, Tunisia and morocco.In Kenya, the tools were found at sites in kariandusi, Olorgesaillie, Kilombe, Chesowanja, Mtongwe, Isenya and Lewa DownsAustralopithecus Southern Ape They didnt have the intelligence to make sophisticated tools, so they may have made tools out of bones that they foundAustralopithecus afarensis mostly used tools that they found or that nature had created, example was a stick, which they stuck into a termite mound, then the termites clung to it letting the ape pull out the stick covered in food. He is however also credited for making Oldowan tools. **Homo habilis and the Oldowan Tradition** They made stone tools for chopping, scraping, and cutting. Making of Choppers (lower left) involved knapping a few flakes off the core. Both cores and flakes were used. The Knapper could strike a spherical piece of stone until Flake falls off opposite side. The Tool would then be flipped over and procedure repeated. Several blows would create a cutting edgeRequirements reflect Intelligence, Planning, foreknowledge of design and Knowledge of breakage pattern of rock. There must also be Hand-eye coordination The second phase of the Old Stone Age was marked by tools called Acheulian tools, named after the site of St Acheul in France. Others found in Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. In Kenya, the tools were found at Kariandusi, Olorgesaillie, Kilombe, Chesowanja, Mtongwe, Isenya and Lewa DownsThey were made by Homoerectus. Homo erectus and the Acheulian tool technology. Signature tool: a well- designed hand axe and cleavers The Hand axe had multiple uses, from cutting, skinning, scraping animal skins, digging and sharpening bone and wood. **Characteristics of Acheulian hand axe ** ~ It was Bifacial: both sides were knapped ~ Symmetrical in breadth ~ Shaped to a point on one end ~ The edge is thin and sharp ~ Broad end is curved, but edge is still sharp. **Process of Manufacturing Acheulian Hand axes ** ----- 23 ### Dozens of flakes were removed from the core, from 25 to 75. Each flake blow must be precisely positioned. The Core must be turned over again and again to maintain symmetry and to keep edge straight. All the exterior rind (cortex) was removed. It was a demanding task-The hand axe was Symmetrical and finely shaped. **OLD STONE AGE-HUNTING AND GATHERING ** The early Stone Age people lived in small groups and were able to hunt for food using sharpened rocks and sticks. They used simple hunting methods of chasing wild animals and throwing stones at them. They also made traps by digging large pits on the paths used by animals. They ate raw meat from small animals like lizards and rodents Women gathered edible fruits, eggs and roots- had a balanced diet. **THE OLD STONE AGE-SHELTER AND CLOTHING ** Humans during this period found shelter in caves and tree-tops. Their bodies were hairy enough to keep them warm- lack of clothing was therefore bearable during this period. Moreover, the savannahs were also warm enough. They also preferred the grasslands because they provided them with the much needed water and foodThe Australopithecus had a very small brain and that limited the actions they could do. The Australopithecus were very hairy so they didnt need any clothes. Australopithecus diet was mostly made up of fruits and vegetables they found. If Australopithecus found a dead animal it would scavenge of it but the Australopithecus afarensis couldnt cook the meat and kill the germs. **Mesolithic age ** Mesolithicmiddle Stone Age- 200,000 10,000 years ago. They period was characterized by superior brains and ability of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens. Great improvements were witnessed. **TOOLS ** Signature tool; Sangoan tool made using Lavallois method The tool was named after Sango Bay site on L. Victoria-Tz **The Lavallois technology ** It involved using cores of smaller stones to hit bigger ones. The tool maker would draw outline of flake on stone module and Strike out flakes and blades of desired shape. The rock would be prepared beforehand to control how rock breaks when struck. The flakes and blades were then trimmed into a variety of knives, scrapers, spear points, choppers and daggers.Also Mousterian tools (specialized stone tools and weapons) were made. Tang- the first tool with a handle was invented in this period- 40,000 years ago in northern Africa.Fire was also another important tool invented by Homo erectus and he used it as follows ~ For warmth at night, lighting, to cook roots and roast meat, for hunting (bushfires), tool-making to harden tips, means of communication, food preservation ~ It also enabled hominids to migrate out of savannah **MESOLITHIC FOOD AND CLOTHES ** ----- 24 ### Homo erectus was considered the first true hunters. Because of better tools (Hand axe), fire and axes, they could hunt larger game such as deer, rhinos, pigs, elephants; buffaloes etc. and cook their food.People learnt to wear animal skins and make waist-belts and necklaces. They also painted themselves with red ochre and oil. **MESOLITHIC SHELTER. ** Man used identifiable shelter. An example was found at Orangia in South Africa. Man also used rock shelter (rocks scooped out to make hollows). Later man lived in caves with entrance covered with animal skins to keep wind and rain away (e.g. Matupi Cave in Zaire and Gambles cave near Nakuru. **MESOLITHIC LANGUAGE AND ROCK ART ** Families lived in small groups for security reasons. There were distinct languages to enhance communications.Rock paintings-Pictures of animals were painted on walls and rocks. Examples of Cave paintings were left behind at Kondoa and singida areas in north Tanzania and at Apollo II cave in S.A. This pictures signified mans believe in magic (arrows piercing animals he hoped to kill) **SOCIAL ORGANIZATION ** There was efficient group organization as evidenced by the ability to carry out large-scale hunting. Language invention further strengthened the social bonds and cultures of early man **The Neolithic age ** Neolithic New Stone Age- 15,000 4,000 years ago This period was marked with the Emergence of Homo sapiens and homo sapien sapiens. **THE NEOLITHIC TOOLS ** Man became a Very skilled toolmaker-they made tools known as microliths- (small piece of sharp stone tool). For example, a crescent or a lunate which had a straight sharp cutting edge and a curved blunted back.Their weapons include stone axes, knives, spears, harpoons, wooden bows, and sharp, stone tipped arrows, hooks, needles, and bone fish hooks.NEANDERTHALS were the first to create the pointed tip on hunting spears and harpoons **THE NEOLITHIC SHELTER ** Earlier sapiens used caves as their homes instead of building one. Later, they made permanent homes that looked like tents or tepees, out of tree branches, grass, mammoth bones, and animal skins. They used or made some sort of paint to use on their cave paintings. **FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ** Man domesticated plants and animals though he continued to hunt and gather. Man changed as from Nomadic lifestyle to settled stationary lifestyle; a.k.a.sedentary Population also increased due to balanced diet and adequate food ----- 25 ### **THE NEOLITHIC GOVERNMENT ** Due to settled life and improved settlement, rules and laws were set up as a basis of government. Some people also specialized in leadership, religious activities as well as making of crafts. **THE NEOLITHIC RELIGION ** Mans language and religious beliefs developed as a result of depending on natural forces like rain. They began to ponder over issues like life and death.Evidence is found at Hyrax Hill and Njoro river Cave where human fossil remains were found buried with items such as tools and seeds or foodThe practice of burying someone with his possessions implied a belief in life after death.Neanderthals were the first to bury their dead. They also seemed to have a conception of an afterlife as shown by the actual burial site at La Ferrassie, France, with seven tombs including a man, a woman and several childrens graves lying side by side. **THE NEOLITHIC ART AND CRAFT ** Humans specialized in crafts such as basketry, pottery and later smelting Evidenced by this horse head carving to the right. **DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE ** **Definition of agriculture ** It is the cultivation of crops. The modern definition of agriculture includes animal husbandry, fish farming and bee-keeping. **The beginning of Agriculture ** The domestication of plants and animals began over 10,000 years ago during the Neolithic period **Why man domesticated plants and animals ** a. The increase of human population needed regular food supply -natural environment could no longer provide sufficient food. b. Climatic changes-increased drought, threatened plant life and animal life making natural food scarce. c. Competition for existing food in the natural resulted in inadequate wild food/over hunting of animals. d. Hunting and gathering was increasingly becoming tiresome. e. Calamities such as forest fires or floods sometimes destroyed vegetation or drove wild animals away. f. Development of settled life. Man had to stop a life of movement in search of food and water. g. Development of tools (microliths) e.g. sickles wooden plough, etc. h. Availability of varieties of indigenous crops e.g. wheat and barley. There are two theories that explain how agriculture started; 1. The Independent theory. Agriculture developed independently in different parts of the world especially along river valleys. ----- 26 ### 2. One Place Theory/Diffusion Theory-Crop growing and animal keeping developed among people of south East Asia. Then the idea spread to the rest of the world; Middle East, India, Central America, China, Southeast Asia 8,000 BC 7,000 BC 6,500 BC 6,000 BC 5,000 BC **CROP GROWING ** The transformation from hunting and gathering to growing of food crops was a gradual development. The first crops were grown by man in areas where they existed naturally. Crop growing first developed in the Fertile Crescent which is in the Middle East. Neolithic women noticed new grain plants grew when they accidentally spilled grain seeds. They tried scattering seeds on purpose it worked! ~ Animals often find plants in places with water / good soil - Hunters saw pattern ~ People stayed at sites, animals became tamer ~ People started weeding / irrigating so plants would grow better ~ Started saving seeds of better plants to plant ~ One season, nomads liked a site so much they stuck around ~ Stayed so long they harvested a crop and then saw it grow to harvest stage again ~ Groups learned to grow a crop from seed to harvest and then move on ~ Since men did the hunting and females were responsible for the food gathering, women learned how to plant seeds, as well as process and prepare the food. The above facts point out that the beginning of crop farming was accidental and mainly through trial and errorEarliest crops to be domesticated were barley, wheat, sorghum, millet, rice, maize, yams, cassava, potatoes, bananas and grapes. Since they grew in different environments, there were many centres of agricultural revolution. For example; ~ Middle East. ~ Indus valley in India. ~ Nile valley ~ The yellow river valley in china ~ The Danube Valley in Europe. **WHEAT ** Originally grown in south-west Asia Initial type was brittle wheat-then replaced by a non-brittle type in 7500BC called emmer Wheat then spread Mesopotamian plains by 6000 BC to Egypt by 3000BC, then to Mediterranean region, central Asia, India and southern Europe. **BARLEY ** The first cereal to be domesticated.Initially grew wildly at Mureybat on the Euphrates in Syria between 7000 - 6000 BC Another evidence of growth found at Ali kosh (Iran) and Jericho (Jordan)Then spread to Egypt at Fayum in 4500 BC. Then spread to India and china by about 2000 BC. **SORGHUM AND MILLET ** Originated from Africa at Hoggat in southern Algeria as early as 6000 BC ----- 27 ### Spread to West Africa to around Sudan area between Nile and Chad, by 1500 BC Finger millet originated in East Africa. Later the two spread to Asia and China. **RICE ** Originated in Asia where currently is a stable food- in Thailand at about 3500 BC Then spread to India, Europe and Japan The African variety was grown along the upper Niger around 1500 BC **MAIZE ** Origin- Central America at about 5000 BC at Tehuacan in Mexico. In Africa, was introduced by the Portuguese in 15thc. **YAMS ** The first root and tuber crop to be domesticated- 9000 BC in south East Asia. The African variety, the white guinea yam was grown in Ivory Coast. **DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS ** The Dog was the first animal to be domesticated. The next animals were the sheep, Goats, cattle and camels. Animal domestication Began through establishment of ties between man and animals during hunting or when fetching water. **Dog ** Assisted humans in hunting, driving away dangerous animals and herding livestock **Goats ** The Goat was first domesticated in south west Asia in5000 BC.Evidence of this is found at Tell Abu Hureyra, Tepe Ali Kosh, and Deh Luren Khuzestan in south -west Iran. Also in Iraq, upper Tigris valley, turkey and south Jordan. Goat domestication was in Egypt in 5000 BC Sheep.Sheep was domesticated after the dog. Fossil evidence of sheep keeping has been found at Zawi Chemi Shanid in Iraq and dating to about 9000 BC. Sheep were also kept in Syria, Egypt and Saharan region then to West Africa. Sheep was also kept in Indus valley and yellow river valleys. **Cattle ** Cattle was first domesticated in south-west Asia as early as 5800BC in turkey and then in Iran and Iraq. It then spread to Ethiopia and North Africa from Asia. The short-horned cattle originated in Mesopotamia then spread to Africa and Europe. **Camel ** Though camels are associated with North Africa today, the original home has been traced to North America from where t spread to South America and Asia. The Asian and s. American species became the ancestors of the Alpaca and Illama.Two types of camels exist today- the one-humped (found in Middle East, northern china and Africa), and the two-humped camel (found in central Asia.) Camels were domesticated about 3000 BC to 2500 BC ----- 28 ### **Importance of the domestication of animals ** a) Some of them like cattle, sheep and goats provided man with regular food i.e. Milk, b) Animal Hides or skin were used as clothing and beddings c) The horns were used for communication. d) Hooves and bones of animals were used as containers and as drinking vessels. e) Some of the domesticated animals like the camel, donkey and horses were used for transport. f) Domestic animals like the oxen and the donkey were used to plough land for farming. g) The dog protected man against dangerous animals. h) Some of the domesticated animals produced manure which greatly improved agricultural produce. **EARLY AGRICULTURE IN MESOPOTAMIA** Mesopotamia was the land between the two rivers Tigris and Euphrates and lay in the present day irag. It was one of the centres of early civilization as early as 3000 BC. Food production in this region began as early as 8000 BC. **Reasons why early agriculture developed in Mesopotamia ** a) Availability of indigenous crops and animals in the region e.g. Wheat, barley, dates and goats, sheep and cattle. b) Existence of fertile land along river valleys of Tigris and Euphrates-consisting of deposited silt. c) Availability of water from rivers Tigris and Euphrates which was used for irrigation. Heavy rains experienced in the Zaggroes Mountains contributed to floods on the river valleys. d) Invention of farming tools e.g. Hoes, ploughs, sickles and seed drill which promoted agricultural activities. e) Existence of transport system in form of donkeys, canoes, river transport etc; which was instrumental in transportation of inputs and outputs. f) Political instability that enabled people to practice agriculture. The Sumerians are credited as the first people to use irrigation in growing crops. When the river water overflowed the banks during flooding, the Sumerians had the skill of controlling it through canals into the dry lands. (Canal or bucket irrigation). They also used farm implements to improve crop growing. For example the use of ox-drawn ploughs and seed drills pulled by oxen to replace stone hoes.Most of the people during the summer civilization earned their livelihood as farmers, craftsmen, fishermen and cattle breeders.Most of the land was in form of large estates owned by the rulers or the wealthy classes. The peasants were given small plots along with seeds, farm implements and animals in exchange for labour. ----- 29 ### The Crops grown included barley, wheat, vines, date, palms, grapes, olives, onions, figs, melons and cucumbers. Milk animals kept included goats and cow. Also ducks, pigs, geese and horses were kept. **Impact of early agriculture in Mesopotamia ** a) It led to settled life as people now needed to concentrate on farming. b) Food production increased. c) There was an increase in population along the river valleys due to plenty and regular food supply. d) There was emergence of city-states and urban centres. For example Ur, Uruk, Eridu, Nippur, Kish and Babylon. e) Surplus agricultural production led to development of trade between communities. f) There was increased specialization as all could not engage in farming. Some became craftsmen. g) Agriculture influenced writing and arithmetic. Management of estates required knowledge in accounts. The form of writing that was developed was known as cuneiform involving the use of stone tablets. h) The invention of the wheel by around 3000 BC. it was used in carts to transport farm produce, for making war chariots to transport soldiers and also in pottery (the potters wheel) i) The plough was also invented. The first ox-plough consisted of simply a tree trunk with one small branch protruding upwards with the other one upwards. The invention meant that only a few people were needed to cultivate land. j) There was the development of science and mathematics with the development of the first formulas for measuring time, distance and area. There was also development in the field of Astronomy. k) Religious practices also developed with the connection of most of the gods to agriculture in one way or another. For example, Ninurta was a god of floods. l) Development of law. A code of laws was compiled as a means of minimizing conflict in society- the Hammurabis code. **EARLY AGRICULTURE IN EGYPT ** As early as 7000 BC, people had already settled in the Nile valley. By around 5000 BC, the Egyptians had gradually adopted agriculture, departing from a hunter-gatherer society. **Reasons that enhanced development of early Agriculture in Egypt ** a) Availability of Water for irrigation and for domestic use from river Nile. b) Existence of fertile silt deposits and mud originating from the flooding of the Nile betweenJuly and October annually, which provided fertile soil for crop farming. c) Another advantage was that Egypt had a suitable warm climate for crop growing and ripening. ----- 30 ### d) The Use of shadoof Irrigation technology ensured production of food during drought seasons e) Presence of indigenous crops and animals from which domestication was made. Wheat and barley had already become indigenous to Egypt as were animals like sheep and goats. f) Foreign influence from South West Asia where farming was first practiced. The proximity of Egypt to Mesopotamia, the first centre of agricultural development ensured that she borrowed heavily from there. g) The Natural protection of the region from foreign attacks, since the Nile valley was protected by the Libyan Desert to the West, the Nubian Desert and Nile cataracts to the South and the Nile coast delta on the North. h) Political stability. i) High population created need for more food and provided farm labour. j) Availability of slave labour made crop farming a success. k) The invention and use of implements that included wooden sticks, knives and wooden hoes enabled the farmers to increase their yields. l) The existence of writing in Egypt helped the Egyptians to keep accurate records of seasons and volume of food. **The shadoof irrigation ** This was the method of irrigation used in Egypt during the drought season when the river was not flooding. A shadoof is a wooden device for lifting water from a river into the canals. It consisted of a long pole swinging up and down between two supporting wooden posts One end has a weight hanging on the pole while the other end has a skin bucket. The bucket is pulled down and dipped into the water by a person. It is caused to rise by the weight, once water has been filled. The other person empties the water into the canal to be drained into the fields.The Egyptians used farm implements like sticks, knives, axes, sickles and hoesAmong the crops planted in Egypt included wheat, barley, fruits, flax, beans, vegetables, cucumbers, onions, lentils, dates, figs and grapes. They used the broadcasting method. Shifting cultivation was also practiced before human population increased.They kept animals like sheep, goat, pigs, donkey, cattle and poultry. The state directed production. It controlled distribution of harvests as well as handicrafts. Government owned huge granaries and godowns which were used to store food. The king was regarded as the guardian who presided over food supply for all. The master of largesse was responsible for all the livestock in the country. In the year when agricultural production was poor, the head of the exchequer would take care of the distribution of seeds and livestock. **Effects of early agriculture in Egypt ** a) Due to improved farming, there was increased food production thus ensuring regular food supplies. b) There was Growth in population as food supply increased and became regular. ----- 31 ### c) Agriculture led to permanent settlement of people. As a result, their living standards improved dramatically as they reaped from farming. d) Agriculture promoted trade among the Egyptians. It led to production of surplus food that in turn was used to increase trading activities. e) Agriculture Led to rise of urban centres or towns in Egypt such as Memphiss akhetan, Aswan and Thebes along the Nile valley. f) Agriculture enabled some society members to specialize in other activities since a few could now produce enough food for all. Some engaged in hand crafts, geometry etc. g) Agriculture Led to emergence of government and related governing laws. h) Like the case of Mesopotamia, it led to the discovery of arithmetic, geometry, writing and calendar. These were used by the priests to keep records and make accurate prediction of annual foods. The Egyptian calendar is believed to be the earliest calendar in the world. i) It promoted social stratification or classes in Egyptian society. **Effects of early agriculture ** Summarize from the effects in Egypt and Mesopotamia. **THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN ** The agrarian revolution refers to rapid changes and improvements in the field of agriculture. Between 1750 and 1850 European countries underwent changes in agriculture. The changes were marked by A new system of land ownership Use of machines and new farming methods. The revolution took place first in Britain. **CHARACTERISTICS OF AGRICULTURE IN BRITAIN BEFORE THE ** **AGRARIAN REVOLUTION ** 1. Feudalism was practiced. **What is Feudalism? ** Loosely organized system of government in which local lords governed their own lands but owed military service and other support to a greater lord (nobility) The feudal kings had plenty of land; but they could not control it all. So they gave land to lords (nobility) in exchange for protection, loyalty and $.Nobility then gave Part of their land to the serfs (peasants) who would work on it and give part of their crops to the local (land) lord, for letting them farm the land. 2. Farmers practiced open-field system. In this system land was divided into three portions; I. Portion one- growing corn and wheat II. Portion two- for beans, barley and oats III. Portion three- left fallow to regain fertility. Such a system did not allow effective farming since land was not fully utilized. ----- 32 ### It also discouraged livestock farming since it allowed easy spread of livestock diseases. There was uncontrolled breeding in livestock instead of selective breeding since livestock grazed together. Fallow land and existence of Cattle and footpaths that crisscrossed the farms wasted a lot of land. 3. Stripping as a method of farming was used. The existence of strips meant that Land portions were small and discouraged the use of machines. 4. Use of simple tools and implements that included sticks, hoes and later ploughs. Cultivation was therefore on small scale with crop rotation being used as a method of improving fertility. It was however not effective. 5. Use of broadcasting method. Broadcasting method of planting led to wastage of seeds as it would be eaten by birds and rodents 6. Intercropping was practiced. The growing of two or more crops on the same piece of land. 7. Mixed farming. Livestock was allowed to graze on fallow land 8. Mono-cropping-planting the same type of crop year after on the same piece of land. NB; this was an inefficient system leading to low yields **CHANGES THAT MARKED THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN ** 1. Fallows were abolished and available lands used effectively. This was influenced by population that occasioned demand for more food. The farmers could no longer afford to leave land to regain fertility. 2. Application of new methods of farming. **Introduction and use of fertilizers in farms ** Lord Viscount Townsend discovered that clover added nitrogen to the soil and turnips could survive in winter and be used to feed cattle. Townsend introduced a new four- course crop rotation called the Norfolk system consisting of barley, clover, turnips and wheat on same plot for a four-year period. In 1843, John Bennet Lawes discovered the use of fertilizers and opened a superphosphate factory in London. 3. Use of farm machineries like the horse drawn drilling machine invented by Jethro Tull in 1701 which replaced the broadcasting method. Iron hoes were used instead of sticks, to prepare the ground. In 1925, the wooden plough was replaced with an iron plough. Patrick Bells invention of the mechanical reaper replaced the sickle in harvesting corn. Andrew Meikles invented a mechanical thresher in 1876 which could cut and bind corn at the same time. The use of machines changed agriculture from a small scale to a large-scale business. 4. Intercropping to retain land fertility. E.g. of maize and beans. This practice enabled farmers to realize more yields. 5. Application of scientific principles to farming. For example, Selective breeding of livestock invented by Robert Bakewell (1725-1795). He was able to develop the short ----- 33 ### horn, Devon, the Hereford, Aberdeen Angus and Ayrshire. He also improved sheep breeds such as the Leicester, Shropshire, Suffolk and the oxford. Pig varieties- the Yorkshire, Berkshire and Tamworth breeds 6. Fencing of farms/land enclosure system; the introduction of land enclosures put to an end to strip farming. This was a demand of the rich landlords that land should be enclosed by fencing. The enclosure act enabled rich people to acquire more land. As a result more land was put under production and more land could be ploughed by one farmer **Positive effects of the land enclosure system introduced in Britain ** a) It created large farms which allowed use of horse drill and crop -rotation. b) The farms were easily managed and Farmers could specialize in crop or animal production. c) Farmers could use their title deeds to borrow money from financial firms for the improvement of their farms. **Effects of the land enclosure movement on the peasant farmers in Britain ** a. The creation of large farms led to landlessness among the peasant farmers, b. Peasant farmers sold off their land to the rich farmers because they could not afford to cultivate the land. c. The land enclosure movement led to displacement of peasant farmers from their land and hence they migrated to towns/ caused rural -urban migration. d. The rural-urban migration of peasant farmers led to overcrowding in urban centres/ congestion in urban centres. e. The land enclosure movement caused emigrations of the peasants to other countries such as USA, Canada, Australia, new Zealand and south Africa f. The poor farmers were exploited, as they had to sell their labour to farmers and to the factories / exploitation of the poor peasants labour force. 7. The royal agricultural society. It was established in 1838. Through the journals of the society, new ideas and techniques of farming were publicized all over the country. As a result, many farmers began to adopt the modern methods of farming. **CAUSES OF AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN ** 1. Land consolidation; the introduction of land enclosures which put to an end to strip farming. As a result more land was under production and more land could be ploughed by one farmer. 2. Development of new methods of livestock breeding; more scientific methods of breeding livestock were developed. They involved selective breeding in which animals with suitable characteristics were maintained in the herds. 3. Development of new tools for farming which helped to increase agricultural productivity .e.g. use of seed drill, Rotterdam plough, threshing machine and tractors. ----- 34 ### 4. Development of new methods of maintaining soil fertility e.g. the new crop rotation system allowed the continued use of land without exhausting its fertility. Chemical fertilizers were also produced. 5. Development of agricultural research in universities and research institutes assisted in improvement of soils and crop yields. Newspapers and agricultural journals helped to spread the results of this research to farmers. 6. Impact of industrial revolution which provided the agricultural sector with inputs and market. 7. Population increase led to high demand for food. **EFFECTS OF THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN ** 1. Food security for the population of Britain due to improved farming methods. 2. There was Growth of population in Britain due to food security lowered mortality rates and increased life expectancy. 3. There was Growth of capital/plantation farming to replace subsistence farming. Due to the enclosure act, ownership of large farms was encouraged and subsequently mechanization/plantations were set up. 4. Poor farmers who could not afford fencing lost their land. Capital farming therefore led to emergence of landless peasants as large tracts of land were consolidated in enclosures. The poor peasants were compelled to migrate to urban areas where they were subjected to poor living conditions. 5. Trade expanded locally and internationally. When farming was commercialized, Britain expanded trade thus boosting her economy. 6. Growth of a working class. The landless peasants sought wage employment on farms or in towns in the emerging new industries. Thus a class of workers began to emerge. 7. Transport systems like roads and railways improved. They were used to transport agricultural products to the market and raw materials to industries. 8. Industries benefited from agricultural raw materials/ develop ment of industries. A number of machines produced by industries were also used in agriculture to boost production. 9. Emigration of British national to other parts of the world. Some of the landless peasants migrated to USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. 10. Intensification of scientific research by the royal agricultural society to carter for the expanding agricultural sector. **THE SPREAD OF AGRARIAN REVOLUTION ** From Britain the revolution spread to other parts of Europe and Americas and then the rest of the world. Ideas like crop rotation, use of machines, selective breeding of livestock and use of fertilizers spread into continental Europe from Britain. The governments encouraged agricultural science and research. ----- 35 ### The work of Louis Pasteur (1890-1960) a Frenchman discovered that disease are caused by bacteria and sterilization of food such as milk through boiling keeps it bacteria-free for long time **THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN THE USA ** The Americas was the origin of many crops in the world the American Indians were subsistence farmers growing crops like yams, potatoes, maize (corn), cocoa, tomatoes, cotton, tobacco, beans and cassava.Political and religious differences in Europe in the 17 [th] c forced many Europeans to settle in America as was also the enclosure system in Britain. Craftsmen and labouerers also moved in search of better life. The immigrant settlers came with horses, sheep, cattle, pigs, fowls, seeds and plants from Europe. Some of them participated in improving the machines that were already in use in Europe. For example: a. 1837- John Deere a young blacksmith from Illinois invented a steel plough b. 1837- Cyrus McCormick established a factory in Chicago to produce reapers c. 1837- Daniel Massey produced a similar machine in Canada. d. 1792- Elly Whitney invented the cotton gin and cotton picker American scientists also developed the refrigerator. For example, John Perkins (1766- 1849) an American inventor patented the first prototype refrigerator in England in 1834. The first American patent for a refrigerator was awarded to John Gorrie (1803-1855) in 1851.1859- Ferdinand Carre, a Frenchman invented the absorption system in a refrigerator. This was a major milestone in preservation of meat and other foods in America.Several agricultural zones emerged in America due to differences in soil fertility and climate: a. North-Eastern parts- Ranching and dairying b. The south- cotton zone. c. Central region-maize. d. North-west wheat There was large scale mechanized agriculture especially after the abolition of slave trade. Most cash crops were grown to provide raw materials to European industries. Tobacco was grown in Virginia and Maryland. Rice and indigo were grown in Georgia and South Carolina. Cattles rearing was done in Texas.Transport development also enhanced agricultural development. For example, water transport using the great lakes, railway and road transport.Alexander graham bell invented the telegraph to enhance communication. USA also invested in the field of science and research which boosted agriculture with better hybrid seeds and different strains of livestock. **FACTORS THAT FACILITATED THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICUL-TURE ** **IN AMERICA BEFORE 1800 ** a. The enclosure system in Britain led to the Settlement of enterprising European emigrants who wished to make a living through agriculture/Determination of European immigrants to succeed as farmers as there was no other source of livelihood. European ----- 36 ### immigration into the region also led to population increase and demand for more food. The immigrants also introduced new crops and new methods of farming leading to agricultural development b. Scientific research made it possible to improve strains of crops to resist diseases, to develop superior animal breeds and to develop new food crops e.g. Soya beans into artificial meat, etc. c. Mechanization; there was extensive use of machines to improve production e.g. steel plough, use of reapers, cotton gin etc. d. The presence of cheap means of transport e.g. Erie Canal, roads, railway, etc speeded up the transportation of goods and raw materials. e. The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 led to increased cotton acreage. f. Environmental influence on the farmers through experience leading to agricultural zoning e.g. maize in the centre, wheat in the south and beef rearing in the west/Presence of suitable soils for different types of crops such as tobacco, cotton and wheat. g. Government recognition of individual land ownership (the Homestead Act 1760) encouraged settlers to farm. **EFFECTS OF THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN USA ** Fuelled by peasants who emigrated after they were driven out of Europe by the land enclosure movement, USA became the worlds leading producer of agricultural products. The effects of the revolution were as follows: a) It led to diversification of agriculture through the introduction of new farm animals and crops. b) The new inventions in farm machinery enabled American farmers to bring more land under cultivation. For example the steel plough invented by John Deere and reaping machine by Cyrus McCormick. c) Food production especially of wheat and maize, increased due to the use of new farming methods like use of fertilizers and hybrid seeds. d) The agrarian revolution led to expansion of agricultural related industries. e) Mechanization of agriculture replaced slaves and other labourers at the farms. Many people went to search for employment in urban areas. f) The expansion of food production led to increase in trade between USA and Western Europe thus boosting USA economy. g) The transport system was improved to enable transportation of farm inputs to farms and agricultural produce to market. h) The revolution contributed to the enhancement of research and scientific inventions especially on the field of agriculture. **FOOD SITUATION IN AFRICA AND THE REST OF THE THIRD WORLD ** Third world refers to the less developed countries in Africa, Asia and South America. Many of these third world countries have food shortages and even continue to have weak economies upto date. ----- 37 ### **Causes to food shortage in Africa ** a. Rapid population growth which has put a lot of pressure on the available food resources leading to shortages b. Poor land use and agricultural practices. Many farmers still depend on traditional farming methods, for example, not applying fertilizers, pesticides or mechanization, thus producing low yields. c. Some developing countries experience adverse weather conditions such as floods and long periods of drought. Since these countries practice rain-fed agriculture, food production has been affected d. Overemphasis on cash crops at the expense of food crops has contributed to low food production. In Kenya for example, large farms concentrate on growth of flowers, tea and coffee with food crop farming being largely for subsistence. e. Rural-urban migration, especially among the young people has deprived the rural areas of the badly needed labour force for food production f. Lack of adequate capital for agricultural development. Low income/poverty. The farmers lack enough funds to purchase farm inputs. g. Political instability in some African countries undermines food production. For example in Ethiopia, Sudan, DRC, Burundi and Rwanda. This has prevented people from concentrating on food production. h. Decline in growing drought resistant crops. Crops like cassava and millet have been abandoned due to attitude thus causing artificial shortage of specific food. i. Poor and inadequate storage facilities have led to food wastage. In Kenya by 2001, the country was losing up to nine million bags of grain per year as a result of poor storage methods. j. Poor transport network leads to uneven distribution of food. It also discourages farmers from producing more. k. Over reliance on food aid and forms of aid has created a dependence attitude in many African countries. Some communities have become complacent about looking for a permanent solution to their food problems. l. Poor economic planning on the part of the government with many countries putting a lot of emphasis on other development projects at the expense of agricultural and food production. m. Poor land tenure systems resulting in low productivity. For example where a few European farmers own large tracts of land but only exploiting a small portion of the expansive farms. n. The HIV/AIDS pandemic contributed to food shortages since the scourge leads to death of many of the work force in their prime years. **Effects of food shortages ** a. Loss of life. Many people have lost their lives. For example the Ethiopian famine in 1984 led to the deaths of thousands of people. ----- 38 ### b. Increased suffering among millions of people in Africa due to deficiency diseases like kwashiorkor and marasmus. c. Food shortage has created social problems in societies. For example cattle raids by the karamojong and Maasai during the periods of famine. Even other anti-social problems like stealing food in rural areas can be attributed to inadequate food supply. d. Sometimes famine and drought has forced people to flee their home countries thus causing refugee problems in the receiving countries. e. Lack of food hampers efforts towards economic development. It Affects education since famine stricken children cannot concentrate on learning. There is Use of scarce foreign exchange to import food. f. It has created dependence on food aid from rich countries. Even some of the genetically created foods are tested in third world countries. Such foods have unknown side-effects. g. It has adversely affected agricultural-based industries.e.g sugar industries.-inevitably thisleads to unemployment. h. It has led to Political instability as people lose confidence in the governments that cannot feed them. **Solutions to food shortage in Africa ** a. Land reclamation thus increasing land under agriculture. This may increase food production. b. Re-formulation of agricultural policies so that there is a shift from a concentration on cash crops to paying more attention on food crops. c. Provision of extension services to farmers e.g. information on storage, preservation of farm produce and other forms of advice. d. Revision of the land tenure system- redistribution of land / land reforms as case is in china. e. Development of agro-based industries which will become market to agricultural raw materials like coffee, tea, etc. f. Creation of political stability to enable mobilization of people to self-sufficiency in food production. g. Relentless campaign against killer disease such as AIDS. h. Infrastructural development/ in transport, communication, storage and marketing. i. Environmental conservation measures which may help curb drought spread and ensure sufficient rains./ protection of catchments areas j. Family planning so that people only have children they can be able to feed, cloth and shelter. k. Demand for food to feed the growing population. **STEPS KENYA HAS TAKEN TO SOLVE FOOD SHORTAGES ** a) Extensive research has been carried out in research institutions such as the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) producing hybrid maize such as Katumani that ----- 39 ### grows in drier areas. ICIPE and ILRI researches in pests and disease that affect both livestock and crops in the country. b) Introduction of genetically engineered crops and animal s into the agricultural sector. These crops, developed mainly at JKUAT and KARI are resistant to diseases and pests. c) Agricultural training institutions have been established to train experts such as agricultural officers, veterinary doctors and horticultural experts. Agriculture is also taught in schools- to equip learners with new and better techniques of farming that could boost production. d) People are being educated about the need for family planning so that families have only number of children whom they can feed and provide for. e) The government has formulated a food security policy to enhance production of food in the country. For example a minimum amount of cereals in the government silos has been set up with urgent measures to top up outlined. **THE PEOPLE OF KENYA UP TO THE 19THCENTURY ** **INTRODUCTION ** There is immense evidence to confirm that east Africa was the cradle of humankind. Archaeological evidence (for example, the tools found at kobi for a, Olorgesaillie, kariandusi, Mtongwe, around Lake Victoria, lukenya hills, near lake Naivasha) show that Kenya was inhabited by Stone Age people. There is also evidence of use of iron in Kenya dating back as AD270 e.g. at Urewe near Ngiya in Siaya and in Kwale. **THE KHOISAN ** According to oral traditions, the earliest people to occupy Kenya were of the Khoisan stock. They had similar features like the Khoi khoi and the san of South Africa, the Sandawe and Hadza of Tanzania. They all spoke a language with a clicking sound. **Cultural aspects of the Khoisan ** a) They Spoke a language with a clicking sound like the khoi-khoi of south Africa b) They were nomadic people c) They gathered the wild fruit in the wild and dug up tubers and roots for their foods d) They used stone tools in addition to bows and arrows. e) They fished in rivers and lakes using harpoons f) They made use of rock shelters and caves. g) They buried the dead. h) Made and used pottery. NB- such evidence of the culture of the Khoisan has been found in Gambles and Njoro river caves near Nakuru.These pioneering inhabitants of Kenya disappeared maybe after being subdued and overcome by the powerful incoming Bantus and nilotes.However, there exist some remnants of these hunter-gatherer communities in the western highlands of rift valley. They speak the language of the group near them like kalenjin (okiek), Maasai (Dorobo), Onguye and Okuro in western Kenya. ----- 40 ### **THE CUSHITES ** They existed in two groups: a) The southern Cushites b) The eastern Cushites. **The southern Cushites ** They might have entered present day Kenya through northern Kenya and seem to have originated from the Ethiopian highlands. Since they were pastoralists, they must have been looking for better pasture for their livestock.Around 2500 and 3000 years ago, they were already occupying the grasslands of the Kenya highlands cultivating food crops like sorghum, millet and rearing long horned humpless cattle. They even extended upto Tanzania. They included the Iraqi, Boni and Burungi of Tanzania, The Dahallo or Sanye of the lower Tana (the remaining southern Cushites in Kenya). Some were later absorbed by the incoming groups. **The Eastern Cushites ** They include the Borana, Somali, Oromo, Gabra, Rendille and Burji. They originated either from Ethiopia or Somalia moving and settling into Kenya around 2000 and 1000 years ago due to the following reasons; a) Escaping from clan or family feuds. b) There was population pressure in their area of origin. c) They were in search of better grazing lands. d) They were fleeing the outbreak of disease that affected both people and animals. e) They were escaping famine and drought. f) They fled constant attacks from their neighbours such as the Somali. g) The migrated to satisfy their spirit of adventure. **THE OROMO ** They came in the 16thcentury from Ethiopia. Initially they settled on the eastern shores of Lake Turkana. They later moved south pushing the Mijikenda and the Pokomo out of the Shungwaya to occupy Malindi and Kilifi. Today they occupy the southern part of Tana River and are neighbours to the Pokomo. **Effects of migration and settlement of the Oromo in Kenya** a) They inter-married with the people they came into contact with e.g. Somali, Pokomo and Borana. b) Their settlement in Kenya led to expansion of trade. c) Their settlement led to increased conflict between communities over resources e.g. pasture and water. d) Displacement and redistribution of people in the area where they settled e.g. the Oromo pushed the Bantu from the Shungwaya region. e) Assimilation of some communities they came into contact with e.g. the Oromo vs. Somali. f) Cultural exchange e.g. neighbouring communities adopted Islam. ----- 41 ### g) Settlement in high agricultural potential areas e.g. river valleys encouraged some of them to practice crop farming. h) Expansion of agriculture due to demand of agricultural produce. **THE BORANA ** They are also Oromo speaking people whose origin is southern Ethiopia. Their migration into Kenya was due to escaping the Menelik Wars of Conquest in 1897 and who had imposed heavy taxes on them. They represent some of the most recent migrations into Kenya end as late as 1900 when more Borana groups fled into Kenya from Somali running away from the war between the Somali Nationalists and the British. Today the Borana occupy the area north of the Tana River. **THE SOMALI ** They originated from Mogadishu where they were living by 10th century A.D. They begun moving southwards into Kenya around that time maybe due to the Oromo threat or they were looking for pasture for their livestock.The Somali represent the largest single group of eastern Cushites in Kenya. **Results of Cushitic migration into Kenya ** a) There was massive warfare during the migrations leading to killing of many people in the process. For example, there was constant warfare between the Somali and the Oromo. i) They displaced some of the communities which they came into contact with e.g. the Oromo pushed the Mijikenda from the Shungwaya region in AD 1500 AND 1600. b) They intermarried with those people they interacted with e.g. the some of the Pokomo intermarried with the Borana. c) Their settlement led to expansion / development of trade between them and their neighbours e.g. they traded with the Samburu and the Maasai. d) There was cultural exchange between them and the Bantu and Nilotic neighbours. E.g. the Taboo against eating Fish among the Bantu, the age set system and circumcision has origin from the Cushites. e) The migrations led to population pressure in the region. f) Adoption of some agricultural practices from the Bantu. g) There was redistribution of population in Kenya. The Mijikenda for example were scattered at Shungwaya. **THE BANTU SPEAKERS ** Introduction The term Bantu refers to group of people who speak the same or similar language with common word NTU which means a person. The Bantu-speaking groups include the Luhyia, Kisii, Kuria, Kikuyu, Akamba, Meru, Aembu, Taita, Agiryama, Digo in Kenya and Pokomo, as well as many other smaller groupsTheir original homeland was somewhere between eastern Nigeria and the Cameroon (Congo Basin). ----- 42 ### They then moved southwards towards present day Democratic Republic of Congo (around 500 BC the Bantu were living in the Congo forest). This became a major dispersal point from where the Bantus moved in four major waves. Of these waves, the two waves that account for settle of the Bantu in Kenya are the ones moving south- eastwards through the area west of LakeVictoria (a 2nddispersal point for Bantus). From here they dispersed in two groups; A. some group passed through present-day Uganda, some settling there (Baganda, Banyoro, Batoro), proceeding into kenya to form the western Bantu(Luhyia, Kisii, Kuria and abasuba) B. From the west Victoria dispersal point a group moved and entered east Africa at appoint south of Lake Victoria and then proceeded eastwards across northern Tanzania to a dispersal point between Taita hills and mt. Kilimanjaro. Some settled in Tanzania (Chagga, nyamwezi, sukuma, Kuria, haya, Yao, Segeju, Zaramo).the rest of the groupproceeded northwards to the coast upto Shungwaya (another dispersal point). These were the eastern Bantus. **REASONS FOR THE BANTU MIGRATION ** The reasons for the migration of the Bantu are not known but they most likely included the following; a) Drought and famine: This broke out because the climate in their cradle land had become unreliable/unpredictable. b) Population increase which resulted into population pressure, e.g. they became overpopulated in their cradle land. c) The constant attacks (external pressure) from stronger tribes in West Africa and the Nile valley; also due to the migration of the Arabs, who were believed to be more hostile, into West Africa. d) Internal conflicts from the Bantu tribes: These conflicts concerned the ownership of agriculture area, the shortage of grazing lands and watering areas. e) Epidemics and diseases/natural calamities, e.g. earthquakes, over flooding of rivers like river Niger, sickness, diseases such as Nagana caused by Tsetse flies, sleeping sickness e.t.c. f) Search for fertile land: Since they were predominantly farmers, the Bantu migrated in order to find more land which could be more fertile than the cradle land, which could no longer support them. g) Love for adventure: They moved due to their desire for adventure, i.e. they wanted to find out what was happening in other areas. h) Group influence: Some moved because they had seen their relatives and friends move. i) Need for water and pasture for their animals forced them to move. j) The Bantu migrated in order to export their iron-working culture. They had discovered the knowledge of iron working and had invented iron tools. These iron tools had ----- 43 ### transformed the agricultural sector by making the clearing of land for cultivation faster and more efficient. **The western Bantu ** They include Luhyia, Kisii, Kuria and abasuba and settled in western part of kenya thus their name. **Abaluhyia ** ~ The Abaluhyia community is made up of eighteen sub-groups. The sub-groups which constitute the community have a common background, common customs and speak closely related dialects of the same language. ~ According to Abaluhyia tradition, communities used to hold criminal tribunals at the junctions of footpaths. The area at the junction of footpaths was known as Uluyia or a meeting point and it is claimed that the name Abaluhyia is derived from this. Another version states that in a polygamous home the courtyard outside the main fathers house is called Luhyia. All the children are referred as children of one Luhyia and hence the name Abaluhyia. ~ Most of the Luhyia sub-groups point to mt. elgon dispersal point as their origin. The settlement of the Abaluhyia into Kenya dates back to 300 AD. By 1750 AD, many groups had settled in present day Bukhayo, Marama, Tiriki, Bunyore, Wanga and Maragoli. ~ They absorbed some groups they found in the area. Also, their interaction with the Maasai led to establishment of clans like the Abashimuli among the Idakho. The Marachi, Kisa and Samia interacted with the Luo. Abagusii ~ Abagusii traditions acknowledge a close relationship with the following people: the Abakuria, Abalogoli, Ababukusu, Abasuba, Agikuyu, Ameru, Aembu, Ambeere and the Akamba. Their tradition has it that on their way from the country which they call Msiri they were accompanied by the Baganda and the Basoga besides the above groups. ~ The Abagusii and the Abalogoli migrated southwards following the River Nzoia valley and arrived near Lake Victoria between 1490 and 1520. Following an easterly course along the lake shore, they settled at the head of Goye Bay in Yimbo location of Nyanza with their homeland spreading across present day Ulowa, Sare and Unyejra at the foot of Ramogi hill. Luo migrants in 1550 AD found them settled in this general area and pushed them from alego to Kisumu where they lived upto 1600AD. ~ Their migration from Kisumu to Kano was motivated by drought in the area.. However, their eastward migration was checked by the Maasai and the Kipsigis ~ By the 18thcentury, they had settled in the Kisii highlands positively interacting with the neighboring Luo, Maasai and Kipsigis in terms of trade. Why the Abagusii remained in the Kano plains for too long before settling in the Kisii highlands. a) They were obstructed by the Kipsigis who were migrating westwards. b) The Maasai were also quite wild/hostile. ----- 44 ### c) The plains favored their activity of livestock grazing. d) Lack of a strong warrior group to fight their expansionist wars against the warring neighbors. **Abakuria ** ~ The origin of the name Kuria is a thorny point in the Abakuria history. The major Abakuria sub-tribes such as Abanyabasi, Abatimbaru, Abanyamongo, Abakira, Abairegi and Abagumbe have traditions to the effect that their ancestor was Mokuria (or Mukuria) that lived in Msiri. His descendants migrated from Msiri and after many years of wandering on the other side of Lake Victoria; they eventually reached and settled in the present Bukuria By 1800AD,) in south Nyanza.) ~ According to this tradition, the Abakuria have been divided from time immemorial into two families: the Abasai of the elder wife of Mokuria and the Abachuma of the younger wife. ~ The Abakuria are related to Abalogoli of Abaluhyia and Abagusii and trace same origin at mt. elgon dispersal point. ~ The Abakuria people appear to have sprung from too many directions to have a common historical origin, although a number of clans claim to have come from Msiri. ~ Among the Abakuria today are found people who were originally from Kalenjin, Maasai, Bantu and Luo speaking communities. The Abakuria adopted the practice of age set organization and circumcision from the southern Cushites **Abasuba ** ~ The name Suba means the people who are always wandering. ~ The Suba migrated into their current locations beginning in the mid-1700s. They came from the region just west of Lake Victoria and settled on the islands. ~ The Suba migrated from Uganda and settled on the two Lake Victoria islands of Rusinga and Mfangano, and are believed to be the last tribe to have settled in Kenya. Other subgroups migrated and settled on the shores of Lake Victoria in the early 18th century. ~ The Suba are descendants of one wave of the Bantu migration from Central Africa over the last 1500 to 1800 years. In the 16th century, it appears, small family groups related to the Ganda people on the western side of the lake migrated across Lake Victoria on boats to settle on Rusinga Island and other islands near what is now Kenya and Tanzania. ~ The Suba are descendants of one wave of the Bantu migration from Central Africa over the last 1500 to 1800 years. In the 16th century, it appears, small family groups related to the Ganda people on the western side of the lake migrated across Lake Victoria on boats to settle on Rusinga Island and other islands near what is now Kenya and Tanzania. ~ Linguistically, the Suba are highly influenced by the neighbouring Luo, to the point of a language shift having taken place among large portions of the mainland Suba. ----- 45 ### ~ The remaining speakers of the Suba language are mostly elderly residents on the island of Mfangano. **The eastern Bantu ** They are divided into Highland or Mt. Kenya Bantu and Coastal Bantu. **Coastal Bantu ** They include the Taita, Pokomo and Mijikenda.From the west Victoria dispersal point their first movement was upto Taita hills, where the Taita remained. The Mijikenda and Pokomo proceeded northwards to the coast upto Shungwaya (another dispersal point). The main reason for the Shungwaya dispersal was the Oromo attack In AD 1600. **Pokomo ** They moved from Shungwaya following river Tana interacting with the Cushites like the Oromoand Somali. **Mijikenda ** The name means Nine Clans comprising of the Kauma, Giriama, Duruma, Chonyi, Jibana, Kambe, Ribe, Rabai and Digo.From the Shungwaya dispersal point,(forced out by the Oromo/Somali southwards expansionist attacks), they settled in fortified villages mainly due to security concerns. Each of the nine groups settled in their own separate ridge referred to as Kaya fortified with thorny trees.By the 19th, the Mijikenda were established as middlemen during the long distance trade between the Akamba and the coastal Waswahili. **The highland Bantu ** Examples of highland Bantus include Agikuyu, Ameru, Aembu, Ambeere and the **Akamba** They are also products of the Shungwaya dispersion. **Agikuyu** ~ The largest single group of the eastern group. ~ While the Kikuyu can be found throughout Kenya, the heaviest concentration being in Central Province, known as the traditional Kikuyu homeland. The Kikuyu traditionally believe that a man, Gikuyu, was the founder of the tribe. He had a wife named Mumbi, who gave birth to nine (plus one) daughters. The daughters married and had their own families, retaining a domineering role in Kikuyu society. ~ It was in Mukurwe wa Gathanga division of Nyeri district where an identifiable beginning for the modern Kikuyu people is defined. ~ Ancestors of the Kikuyu arrived in Kenya during the Bantu migrations of 1200-1600 AD. The Agikuyu seem to have moved southwest from the coast at around 1400AD also running away from hostile Oromo. They followed Tana River with some groups falling off and settling in different places. For example the Tharaka settled in the east and the Ambeere settled in the southwest. The main group proceeded upto the confluence of rivers Tana and Thika (Mukurwe wa Gathanga. They spread and settled in Kiambu and Nyandarua from Muranga. ----- 46 ### ~ The key event in their migration and settlement was military conflict with and defeat of the Gumbapeople by the Mathira and Tetu people, allied with the Athi and the Maasai in the early 1800's. ~ They displaced or absorbed the original inhabitants-the Dorobo (Athi) and Gumba who were a hunter- gatherer community. ~ Settlement of the Nyeri plains took place after the British moved the Maasai from the area. The Kikuyu were in Kabete by around 1850, Ruiru about 1900. ~ They heavily interacted with the Maasai and Cushites in the area. **Describe the relationship between Athi and the Agikuyu ** a) The Athi were the original inhabitants of the land where the Agikuyu live presently. b) The Agikuyu claim they bought the land from the Athi. c) The Agikuyu also acquired some cultural practices from the Athi e.g. circumcision, clitoridectomy and age set system. d) The Athi acted as middlemen in the trade between the Agikuyu, Maasai and the coastal people. **Akamba ** ~ They point to the area around mt Kilimanjaro as their original homeland. ~ From here they moved to Taita Hills before reaching Tsavo West. They followed the Banks of Athi River in the 15thcentury one group crossing Athi into Ulu. Another group moved south to the Galana River and settled in the region around chyulu hills north of mt. Kilimanjaro ~ By around mid 16thcentury a group of the Akamba had settled in the Mbooni hills near Machakos. ~ Due to environmental influence, the Akamba near Mbooni began to practice agriculture before migrating to iveti, kilungu and masaku. Those that moved to drier Chyulu hills became hunters. The Kitui group adopted pastoralism and hunting and participated in long distance trade. **The Ameru ** ~ Their original homeland is claimed to Mbwa, located somewhere at the coast on manda island. The Shungwaya dispersal might have led to the pushing of the Ameru to tigania and igembe regions at around 1400AD. They crossed the Tana River with the Tharaka sections of Agikuyu and settled to the east of tana. The Chuka section settled in the west of river tana. The mwimbi, imenti, tigania and igembe also settled west of the Tana River. ~ According to tradition, the Meru and Agikuyu were initially migrating as one group and separated at around 15thc and 16thc. **Effects of the Bantu Migration ** The results of the Bantu migration were both positive and negative. ----- 47 ### **Positive results ** 1. Introduction of iron working the use of iron tools in the interior of East Africa where peoplewere at first using stone tools. There was an increase in food production. 2. Introduction of new crops e.g. yams, bananas: the Bantu introduced and increased the knowledge of food and extensive crop cultivation. Earlier on, the inhabitants of East Africa were food gatherers, but with iron smelting and its results, food production seriously started. 3. The absorbed other tribes e.g. the gathers: This led to widespread Bantu languages of NTUprefix in East Africa. 4. They introduced centralized administration: They introduced a centralized system of government whereby the king acted as the overall ruler, under who were the other chiefs, down to the lay person. This was done in western Kenya by the Wanga. 5. Introduced a system of building permanent homes: They opened new land to settlement in families, clans and villages. 6. The knowledge of iron smelting which the Bantu introduced led to the making of hoes and pangas for tilling and clearing land, the bows, arrows and spears for defense and protection. 7. They introduced subsistence agriculture, whereby they grew enough food for home consumption, and the rest could be kept in case of shortages, or be exchanged in barter trade. Negative effects 1. The Bantu migration led to depopulation: This was caused by the frequent attacks made on the Bantu by Somali and Oromo, or by the Bantu against the people East Africa for land, through wars. 2. There was loss of culture due to cultural absorption: This was brought about due to Bantu intermarrying with the non- Bantu peoples, whom they came across. 3. There was transformation of languages into new ones: This led to the dying down of some of the Bantu languages, while others remained. **The Nilotic speakers ** Nilotes is a term originating from the word Nile. The origin of these groups is associated with the Nile River. These are the second largest group after the Bantu. They are divided into three groups; a) River-lake nilotes- the Luo. b) Plains nilotes- the Maasai, Tunkana and Samburu. c) Highlands nilotes- kalenjin groups of the Marakwet, Tugen, Nandi, Kipsigis, Elgeyo, Pokot and Sabaot **River-lake nilotes ** They are sometimes referred to as the southern Luos to differentiate them from other riverlake nilotes in Uganda and Sudan like the Dinka, Shilluk, Bor, Anwak, Alur, Acholi, Jopaluo, Padhola, Nuer and Luo of Uganda. ----- 48 ### They are believed to have originated from Bahr-el-Ghazal region of southern Sudan. They then migrated to Pubungu Pakwach in Uganda where they settled by 1450 AD. They later moved into Kenya. Their arrival caused the displacement of many Bantu- speaking peoples, notably the Gusii, Kuria and Luhya, who were forced into the highlands east and north of the lake. **Why did they leave Bahr-el-Ghazal region? ** a) They might have been Escaping from clan or family feuds. b) There was population pressure in their area of origin. c) They were nomadic pastoralists in search of better grazing lands and water for their livestock d) They were fleeing the outbreak of disease that affected both people and animals. e) They were escaping famine and drought. f) They fled constant attacks from their neighbours. g) They were also looking for better fishing grounds. h) The migrated to satisfy their spirit of adventure. Their migration into Kenya began in the 15thc. they moved in four distinct groups; a) Joka-jok- people of jok. Was the first group to enter into kenya from Uganda. They first settled at Ramogi hills in Kadimo Siaya district displacing the earlier Gusii settlers. Two of Joks sons fled to south Nyanza to form the Karachuonyo and Wanjare clans. Thisgroup spread to Sakwa, Alego, Asembo and other parts of Nyanza. b) Joka-Owiny. Owiny moved from Uganda to settle in Sogoma in Alego with his group in the 17thc. he was both a great fighter and leader (Ruoth). He came to be known as Owiny Sigoma and his people Joka Ruoth. This group settled in Kisumu, Nyakach and South Nyanza. c) Joka-Omolo. They came from northern Banyoro and settled temporarily in Ibanda and Bukoli before moving to Ugenya and Gem. They displaced the Abagusii and Abalogoli out of Yimbo. They spread to Alego and then across winam gulf into south nyanza. d) The abasuba. They are Bantu in origin but are associated with the Luo. They are a mixture of Bantu refugees from Uganda who intermarried with the Luo. They settled in the Lake Victoria islands of Mfangano and Rusinga and also in gwasi area. They adopted Luo culture. **Effects of Luo Migration ** a) The settlement of the Luo in Kenya led to increase in population in the area. b) Their arrival intensified conflicts between them and other communities in the area over limited resources. For example they displaced the western Bantu like the Abaluhyia, **Abakuria and Abagusii ** c) There were intermarriages between the Luo and the Luyia and Maasai groups in the area. d) The Luo assimilated some Luhyia communities living in the area. ----- 49 ### e) Their settlement enhanced trade with different communities; they exchanged livestock products for grains with the Luyia. f) The Luo adopted agriculture as a result of interacting with the Bantus who were farmers. **Plain Nilotes ** They include the Maasai and Samburu (Maa speakers), Iteso, Turkana and Njemps. The Plain Nilotes entered Kenya at around AD 1000 from an area north of Lake Turkana. **Why they moved into Kenya: ** a) Drought and famine that broke out in their cradleland. b) Population increase which resulted into population pressure in their cradle land. c) The external pressure from stronger neighbours. d) Internal conflicts from among other Nilotic groups concerning the ownership of grazing lands and watering areas. e) Epidemics and diseases like sleeping sickness affecting both humans and animals. f) They moved due to their desire for adventure, i.e. they wanted to find out what was happening in other areas. g) Need for water and pasture for their animals forced them to move. Their first point of settlement was near Mount Moroto in eastern Uganda by AD 1000. From here, several groups like the Jie, Iteso, Turkana and karamojong emerged, with the Iteso settling in Uganda in 17thc before expanding into western Kenya by 19thc. The Turkana extended northwards to their present area. **The effects of the migration and settlement of the iteso ** a) The settlement of the iteso in their present region led to increase in population in the area. b) It intensified conflicts between them and other commu nities in the area over limited resources. c) There were intermarriages between the iteso and the Luyia groups in the area. d) Cultural interaction giving rise to enriched cultures. e) Some people were displaced from the area with the arrival of the iteso. E.g. the Maasai and some kalenjin communities. f) The iteso assimilated some communities living in the area. g) Their settlement enhanced trade with different communities; they exchanged livestock products for grains with the Luyia. h) The iteso adopted agriculture as a result of interacting with the Bantus who were farmers **The Maasai ** ~ Their movement from north of lake Turkana is closely associated with the original Kalenjin speakers. By AD 1500, the Maasai begun to move separately southwards between Mt,. Kenya and Mt. Elgon. By 19thc, they had settled in Uasin Gishu and even spread into Tanzania along the Rift Valley. ----- 50 ### ~ As they moved, they assimilated the Sirikwa peoples. They also waged war against the neighbouring Kalenjin, Akamba and Abagusii. ~ In the 1850s the Maasai experienced many natural disasters like drought, famine and cattle diseases leading to decline of their power. They also experienced civil wars between the Kwavi (iloikop) and the Purko (Ilmaasai) sections. When Oloibon Mbatian died, his two sons Sendeyo and Lenana became involved in a protracted succession dispute. They were also weakened by wars with the Agikuyu. Their power came to an end with the coming of British rule. **Effects of the migration and settlement of the plain nilotes into Kenya ** a) The migration and settlement of the Maasai in their present region led to increase in population in the area. b) As they migrated, into Kenya, the Maasai pushed and displaced the communities they came across. For example, they subdued the Nandi in the 18thc. c) The Maasai influenced the fighting tactics of other groups in Kenya. d) The Maasai absorbed the southern Cushites such as the Dorobo. e) There were intermarriages between the Maasai and the Akamba, Agikuyu and even the kalenjin groups in the area. f) There was Cultural interaction giving rise to enriched cultures. They adopted some cultural practices from the southern Cushites for example, the age-set systems circumcision and clitoridectomy. They also adopted some Kalenjin vocabulary. g) Their settlement enhanced trade with different communities; they exchanged livestock products for grains with the Luyia. h) A section of the Maasai adopted agriculture as a result of interacting with their agricultural neighbours in the Rift Valley. The Kwavi Maasai became mixed farmers. i) They influenced Communities like the Nandi who adopted the institution of Prophet or diviner from the institution of Laibon among the Maasai. **The Highland Nilotes ** They comprise the kalenjin speakers namely the Tugen, Nandi, Kipsigis, Marakwet, Keiyo, Pokot and Sabaot. They are believed to be the earliest Nilotic speakers in Kenya. This evidenced from the narratives of their neighbours like the Luo. Their traditions point their original homeland to be a place to the north-western part of Kenya, between Sudan and Ethiopia. **Why they migrated:** a) They might have been Escaping from internal enemies causing clan or family feuds. b) There was population pressure in their area of origin forcing them to look for new land for settlement. c) They were fleeing the outbreak of diseases and epidemics that affected both people and animals. d) They were escaping famine and drought. e) They fled constant attacks from their neighbours. ----- 51 ### f) They were also looking for better lands for cultivation. g) The migrated to satisfy their spirit of adventure. Key notes for the teacher and students- @Helot 2012-2013 49 They began migrating from their cradleland in around 600AD. By 700AD, some kalenjin groups like the Sirikwa were already occupying the rift valley. Some were later pushed out of the Mt. elgon region by the incoming Bantu and plain nilotes. Those that remained include the Bok, Bongomek and Kony. The Terik later migrated to western Kenya and greatly borrowed from the Bantu, adopting a new name, Tiriki. **The Nandi. ** They were pushed out of the Mt. Elgon region between 1700 and 1800 by the incoming **Maasai. ** The decline of the Maasai in the 19thc made them rise to become a formidable group that conducted raids against their neighbours like the Abaluhyia and Luo. Their power only declined due to colonization. **The Kipsigis ** They are believed to have separated together with the Nandi from other kalenjin groups at around Mt. Elgon region around AD1600. They moved south east to Teo, near Lake Baringo. Due to the Maasai attacks, they moved westwards to Tambach where they stayed for a long period. They later moved southwards to Rongai near Nakuru. They only separated from the Nandi due to drought and the Maasai Raids on the Nandi. The Kipsigis moved further south to Kericho while the Nandi moved to Aldai during the 2nd half of 18thc. The Kipsigis settled at Kipsigis Hills forming a strong community that assimilated thelegendary Sirikwa and some Maasai and Abagusii groups. They were for a long time allies of the Nandi. **What factors contributed to the Nandi and Kipsigis split during the mid 18 [th]** **century. ** a) Maasai attacks on the two communities forcing each group to find its own means of Defence. b) Drought which caused scattering in search of food and pasture. c) Constant conflicts over the limited resources in the region leading to warfare and final split. **Results of the Highland nilotes migration ** a) It increased intercommunity conflicts in the region. b) Some of the Kalenjin groups assimilated Bantu cultures while their culture was also assimilated by other groups. The Terik for example borrowed many Bantu vocabularies and customs. c) They intermarried with other groups in the region, such as the Abagusii and the Luo. d) Their migration increased trading activities in the region. e) They displaced the people they came across e.g. the Abagusii and the Kwavi Maasai ----- 52 ### Explain the results of the interactions between the various Kenyan communities during the pre-colonial period. a) Through the inter-tribal wars, there was loss of lives and destruction of property hence economic decline. b) Many communities were displaced as new ones arrived. E.g when the Luos arrived, Abagusii and sections of the Abaluhyia were displaced. Etc. c) The constant raids as a means of interaction led to some communities seeking for refugee in secure places. E.g the Abagusii too refugee in the present Kisii highland due to the Kipsigis, Nandi and Maasai raids in 1800AD. d) A sense of unity developed among some communities e.g. among the Luo, as a means of Defence against attacks by the Maasai, Nandi and Abaluhyia. e) Tension between various communities was reduced as they interacted through intermarriages e.g. between the Agikuyu and the Maasai. f) Some new customs found their way into various communities. E.g the Bantu and the nilotes learned of circumcision and age set system from the southern Cushites. g) New technology infused into various communities. E.g. the Bantu and the nilotes learned the art of cattle milking and bleeding, irrigation and manuring from the southern Cushites. h) Specialization emerged mainly due to inter-community trade in the region. i) There was also increased wealth in some communities. For example through the trade between the Agikuyu and the Akamba, some Agikuyu gained wealth. j) New economic activities sprung up in some communities. E.g. the Maasai adopted crop cultivation from the Agikuyu. k) The Bantu language was enriched through the borrowing of some vocabulary from the southern Cushites. l) The Abakuria were able to develop into a distinct ethnic group as a result of constant raids from the Maasai and the Luo. **SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF KENYAN ** **COMMUNITIES IN THE 19THCENTURY ** **THE BANTU ** **Social organization ** ~ Almost all the Bantu communities were organized in clans made up of people with common descent. ~ All the Bantu communities practiced circumcision. In some communities like the Akamba, Abaluhyia, only boys circumcised. Among the Abagusii and Agikuyu, both boys and girls were circumcised. The initiates were taught the values and customs of their community ~ Circumcision marked an entry into an age set whose functions included defending the community from external attacks, building huts and advising junior age-sets on how to raid. ----- 53 ### ~ All the Bantu communities believed in the existence of a supernatural power that controlled their destiny. The Abaluhyia, for example called their God Were or Nyasaye, the AgikuyuNgai etc. ~ The Bantu communities had diviners and medicineman. Among the Agikuyu community, a medicine person was called mundu mugo. ~ The Bantu celebrated life both in song and dance. There were songs for initiations, childbirth, marriage, harvest and funeral. The mood and style of their song and dances varied depending on the occasion. **Political organization of the Bantu** ~ All the Bantu communities in Kenya, except the Wanga sub-group of the Luhyia, had decentralized forms of government. ~ The clan formed the basic political unit for all the Bantu communities. Each clan was made up of related families. Leadership of the clan was in the hands of a council of elders who played a pivoted role in solving disputes, decided on inter-tribal marriages, maintaining law and order and making executive decisions affecting the community like declaring war. ~ Among the Agikuyu and Ameru, the council was known as Kiama, Kambi among Mijikenda, Njama among Ataveta and Abagata ba gesaku among the Gusii. ~ The Bantu had an age-set system that had some political significance. For example among the Agikuyu, the boys joined the age-set after initiation to provide warriors who defended the community from external attacks and raid other communities for cattle. ~ Among the centralized Wanga government, the king was known as Nabongo. His office was hereditary. He was assisted by a chief minister and other officials with a council of elders. **Economic organization of the Bantu ** ~ The Bantu kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats for milk, meat and skin. Dowry was paid inform of livestock. Some communities used livestock as a form of currency in barter trade. ~ They traded among themselves and also with their neighbours such as the Luo, kalenjin and Maasai. They sold grains in exchange for baskets and fish from the Luo. ~ They practiced iron-smelting, making implements such as knives, hoes arrow heads and spearheads. This sometimes also became trading items. ~ The Bantu practiced crop growing. They grew grains like millet, sorghum and cassava among other crops mainly for food while the excess were sold to neighbours. ~ They practiced craft making pots and weaving baskets. ~ For the Bantu communities who lived along rivers and Lake Victoria, e.g. the Luhyia, they practiced fishing. ~ Hunting and gathering was also done by some communities to supplement their food. E.g. the Akamba. ~ Raiding other communities for cattle. ----- 54 ### **The Agikuyu. ** By 19thcentury, the Agikuyu had a complex social, economic and political organization some of which were products of their interrraction with other communities. **Social organization ** ~ The family was the smallest social unit among the Agikuyu. It was headed by a father. Several families that shared a common ancestry comprised a clan. ~ The Agikuyu had rites of passage which included initiation of both boys and girls through circumcision/clitoridectomy. ~ The initiated boys joined the age-set (riikaor mariika) after being educated on the values and customs of the society. It was only after initiation that boys and girls were considered mature enough to get married. ~ The Agikuyu believed in the existence of one God who controlled their destiny. They called their God Ngai. He was all powerful and as believed to dwell o mt. kirinyaga where they claim he created them. ~ They also had diviners whose main work was to interpret Gods message to the people. ~ The Agikuyu had medicineman. A medicine person was called mundu mugo. Their main work was to cure diseases. They learned their skills through apparent-iceship. ~ The Agikuyu had designated sacred places for prayers, worship and offerings (an example was the mugumo tree for offering sacrifices). ~ Marriage was an important institution among the Agikuyu. **The political organization of the Agikuyu ** ~ The Agikuyu had a decentralized system of government. The basic political system was based on the family headed by a father. ~ Several families made up a clan (Mbari). Each clan was ruled by a council of elders. (kiama). A senior elder (Muramati) coordinated the activities of the clan. ~ Several elders(aramati)formed a higher council of elders (kiama kia athamaki) ~ The functions of the higher council of elders included settling disputes, deliberating on day to day activities, administering justice and handled disputes, inheritance disputes and acted as a final court of appeal. ~ They had warriors drawn from the age-set system, who defended the community from external aggression. **Economic organization of the Agikuyu** The Agikuyu engaged in various economic activities; ~ The Agikuyu kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats for milk, meat and skin. Dowry was paid inform of livestock. ~ They traded among themselves and with their neighbours such as the Akamba and Maasai. They sold grains and iron implements in exchange for livestock products like skins and beads (Maasai) and imported goods like clothes(Akamba). ----- 55 ### ~ They practiced iron-smelting, making implements such as knives, hoes which enhanced their farming activities and trade. They borrowed this art from the Gumba. ~ They practiced crop growing. They grew grains like millet, yams, sweet potatoes, arrowroots, sorghum and cassava among other crops mainly for food while the excess were sold to neighbours. ~ They practiced craft making pots and weaving baskets. ~ Hunting and gathering was also done by Agikuyu to supplement their food. **The Ameru ** The Ameru had a system of government which ensured high standards of morality and stability. This system evolved as they migrated and interacted with other communities. **Social organization of the Ameru ** The Ameru was a system characterized by the existence of various councils from the council of children to the supreme council of Njuri Ncheke. This was meant to ensure the highest moral standards in the community.The Njuri Ncheke acted as parliament and had the following functions; ~ It presided over religious ceremonies. ~ It solved disputes in the community. It also mediated in disputes involving the Meru and their neighbors ~ It ensured the custody of the communitys history, traditions and values/heritage ~ It sanctioned wars ~ Acted as ritual leaders. They provided Guidance and counseling community members. ~ It set the moral code to be adhered to by all members of the community. If one went against the moral code, he/she would be punished. A member of the Njuri Ncheke who offended another was fined a bundle of miraa. A warrior who violated the code was fined a bull, an elder who violated the code was fined a bull or a goat, a woman who broke the code was fined a big pot of cowpeas.Marriage was regarded highly among the Ameru and a married woman would be assigned to an elderly woman (midwife) whom she must give gifts like millet, peas and black beans in exchange for midwifery. Any spouse who involved in adultery or any girl who was not a virgin at the time of marriage was stoned to death by a stoning council made up of male initiates. Marriage was exogamous (no one was allowed to marry from their clan)Before a male child was considered mature, he underwent several stages including circumcision. Before circumcision of both boys and girls, two ceremonies were performed after which they became full members of the community. ~ The time of making spots where the ear-hole perforation would be done. ~ The time of actual perforation of the ears. The Ameru believed in the existence of a supreme being called Baaba Weetu who was a loving father and took care of all. He was omnipresent. The Ameru also believed in the existence of spirits which either brought happiness or tears depending on how one lived on earth. ----- 56 ### They believed in life after death with good people going where rains come from when they die.Libations were offered to ancestors to quench their thirst and relieve their hunger Building houses in the Ameru community was the work of women while men defended the community. **Economic organization of the Ameru ** ~ The Ameru cultivated grain crops like millet, peas, black beans, cowpeas and miraa among other crops mainly for food while the excess were sold to neighbours. ~ The Ameru kept Livestock like sheep. Goats and cattle for dowry payment and rituals and also for milk, meat and skin. ~ They traded among themselves and with their neighbours. When the coastal traders penetrated the interior, they exchanged goods with them ~ They practiced iron-smelting, making implements such as knives, spears and hoes which enhanced their farming activities and trade. ~ They practiced craft making pots and weaving baskets. ~ Hunting and gathering was also done by Ameru to supplement their food. **Political organization of the Ameru ** ~ The basic political system was based on the family headed by a father. ~ The basic political unit was the clan. Several families made up a clan headed by a clan elder. ~ The Ameru had a system of councils and age groups which oversaw the administration of the community. Every Meru belonged to the relevant council. E.g. the childrens council, council of elders council of warriors. The supreme council was known as Njuri Ncheke. ~ The functions of the supreme council of elders included settling disputes, deliberating on day to day activities, administering justice and handled disputes, inheritance disputes and acted as a final court of appeal. It also officiated over religious ceremonies ~ The age set system provided the community with warriors who defended the community from external aggression. ~ Religions leaders like prophets influenced the political administration for the Ameru. ~ Their system of government alternated between two organizations namely, Kiruga and Ntiba every fourteen years and each had its own army regiment. **The Akamba ** The Akamba are of the eastern Bantus who settled in Chyulu hills, Mbooni, Kitui and Machakos. **Social organization ** ~ Like other Bantus, the Akamba were organized into clans whose members claimed commondescent. ~ The Akamba practiced exogamous marriages. However their tradition allowed the adoption of an outsider into a clan ----- 57 ### ~ Wrongdoers among the Akamba were banished from the community if they refused to compensate for the wrong did. ~ There existed no institutional age sets among the Akamba though boys and girls were circumcised before reaching puberty. The initiates were then taught community secrets after two years from circumcision (at 14 years) ~ At puberty, both men and women were allowed to marry and bear children with the father of a young family automatically becoming a junior elder until his children were ready to be circumcised. ~ He then moved to the next grade only after paying a bullock and several goats. ~ The top two grades formed the administrative council of the community mainly dealing with the ritual ceremonies. ~ The Akamba believed in the existence of a creator called Ngai or Mulungu whom they prayed to through ancestral spirits. ~ The Akamba had ritual experts who included medicine people that guided them in their rituals. ~ Shrines also existed where offerings and sacrifices were made by the elders called Atumia ma ithembo. (Mostly found at a place with two large fig trees.) ~ The Akamba had many social ceremonies which were accompanied with festivity dance and music. For example, during harvest, weddings, deaths and birth. **Political organization ** ~ The smallest political unit among the Akamba was the homestead, (Musyi) comprising three to four generations of extended family with a stockade round the home of each married man. Outside the entrance of the homestead, there was an open space (thome), where men would sit and discuss political and other important matters. ~ Several related families formed a wider territorial grouping or clan with its own recreational ground, elders council (made of all the male elders), war leader and palace for worship ~ The clan was the main political unit for the Akamba. ~ There was also a larger territorial grouping above the clan called Kivalo that constituted a fighting unit. There was however no single central authority that united the Akamba the Kivalo was always disbanded after war. ~ Age grades and age sets were common to all in the community and acted as a unifying factor. ~ The elders in the community were ranked according to seniority. ~ Junior elders defended their community. Medium elders (Nthele) assisted in the administration of the community. The full elders (Atumia ma Kivalo) participated in delivering judgements. The senior most elders (Atumia ma Ithembo) were involved in religious activities. ----- 58 ### ~ By 19 [th] century, due to participation and gaining from trade, a number of people had gained prestige and followers to be regarded as Akamba chiefs or leaders. For example, chief Kivoi. **Economic organization ** ~ Due to variation in the environment, the Akamba participated in varied economic activities. ~ Those who lived around the fertile Mbooni, ulu and Iveti hills practiced farming. They planted sorghum, millet, yams, potatoes, sugarcane and beans. ~ Those who lived in the drier areas like Kitui practiced livestock farming and mainly transhumance during the drier period. ~ The Akamba were also hunters hunting for elephants, leopards, antelopes and Rhinos. They were gatherers who Collected fruits, roots etc. ~ They practiced trading activities e.g. they sold Ivory, feathers, shells hides, arrows, spearheads, to neighbours and the Arabs, Swahili traders. ~ The Akamba were skilled Iron workers produced spears, arrow heads, hoes, knives. ~ The Akamba Practiced woodcarving making tools and shields. ~ They engaged in pottery, making pots, mats etc. ~ They were bee-keepers for honey which they sold. ~ The Akamba acted as middlemen during the long distance trade. **The Abagusii ** They originated in the Congo Forest like other Bantus and settled in the fertile highlands of Kisii, Gucha and Nyamira Districts of Nyanza Province. **Political Organization ** The clan formed the basic political unit for Gusii communities. Each clan was made up of related families. Leadership of the clan was in the hands of a council of elders who played a pivoted role in solving disputes, decided on inter-tribal marriages, maintaining law and order and making executive decisions affecting the community like declaring war. The council was known Abagata ba gesaku.The Abagusii also had chiefdoms made up of several clans, which United to counter-attacks from their neighbours. Each chiefdom was headed by a chief (Omugambi), assisted by a councilof clan elders. The elders acted as middlemen through whom people could communicate their wishes and grievances to the chief. The position of the chief was hereditary.The Omogambi presided over religious ceremonies. He led clan members in communal sacrifices and social activities such as the planting and harvesting of crops. He also performed political functions.After circumcision, the boys joined the age-set which acted as a military wing responsible for the defence of the community.The Kisii still practice most of the political features discussed above. ----- 59 ### **Social organization ** The Abagusii lived in family unit, headed by a family member, called the family head. Several related families formed a clan, headed by clan elders who formed a council. The role of the council of elders was to settle disputes between families.A number of clans formed sub-communities headed by clan elders. Circumcision of boys and girls formed part of the initiation rites for the Abagusii. The initiates were taught the values and customs of the society after which they were considered adults.The initiated boys were organized into age groups and age-grades. An age-grade was made up of people who were circumcised together. Members of the same age-grade treated one another as real brothers and helped each other in times of need.They believed in the existence of a supreme god, engoro who was the creator of everything. They offered sacrifices to him during special occasions like initiation ceremonies and religions festivals and when there were problems like illness and draught. They worshipped him through their ancestral spirits.Diviners and seers among the Kisii were special people and were called Omoragori. **Economic organization ** ~ The Abagusii practiced crop farming. They grew many food crops including maize, sorghum, yams, peas, beans, millet, cassava, bananas and sweet potatoes. ~ They also kept livestock, cattle, goats and sheep were kept for meat and milk. They also kept poultry. ~ Trading was also a main economic activity among the Abagusii. They traded with their neighbours especially the Luo and the Abaluhyia. The Luo supplied them with livestock, cattle, salt, hides, fish, drums, and poison for arrows, spears and potatoes. In return, the Abagusii supplied the Luo with grain, hoes, axes, spears, arrowheads, razors, soapstone, soapstone dust, baboon skins, pipes, bowls and carvings of animals and birds. ~ The Abagusii were also involved in iron-working, which they kept secret to avoid competition from their neighbours. They made iron implements such as hoes, spears, axes and arrow heads. They also made ornaments. ~ They mined soapstone on the hilltops. They used is dust to decorate their faces during ceremonies. Some was sold to the Luos who used to decorate faces of their heroes. It was used for making pots, pipes, bowls and carvings. ~ They also depended on hunting and gathering to supplement the other economies. They hunted wild game for meat and skins. They also collected wild fruit roots and vegetables. ~ The Abagusii raided their neighbours for livestock. To date, they still raid the Maasai and Kipsigis for livestock. **The Mijikenda ** The Mijikenda comprise of nine groups that had similar social, economic and political structures. They are believed to have arrived in their current settlement from Shungwaya. ----- 60 ### **Social organization of the Mijikenda** The Mijikenda were organized in clans comprising of related families. ~ The Mijikenda practiced circumcision. Only boys circumcised. Circumcision marked an entry into an age set whose functions included building huts and advising junior age - sets on how to raid. ~ They believed in the existence of a supernatural power that controlled their destiny. They called their God Mulungu. ~ The Mijikenda worshipped ancestral spirits. Prophets among the Mijikenda were called wafisi. ~ Marriage among the Mijikenda was exogamous (no one was allowed to marry from their clan). They practiced polygamy ~ There was division of labour among the Mijikenda. Children looked after livestock, young men built houses, cattle sheds, hunted and cleared bushes for cultivation.. ~ The Mijikenda celebrated social ceremonies in song and dance. There were songs for initiations, childbirth, marriage, harvest and funeral.. **Political organization ** ~ The Mijikenda had a strong clan system. Administration was based on a strong clan system. 4-6 clans lived in a fortified village known as kaya. ~ The existence of a council of elders(Kambi) at clan level to settle disputes and the general administration of the clan ~ An age set (riika) system formed by young men after circumcision and which provided the base from which warriors were obtained. ~ Social and political unity was strengthened through intermarriage between different clans. ~ Judicial matters were handled by the elders council which was final court of appeal. ~ The council of elders declared war on warring neighbors. **Economic organization ** ~ The Mijikenda kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats for milk, meat and skin. Hunting and gathering was also done to supplement their food ~ They traded in the coastal trade with the Arabs and with the Akamba from interior. ~ The Mijikenda practiced salt mining which the used as a trading item. ~ The Mijikenda engaged in fishing along the coast as well as on rivers. ~ They practiced crop growing. They grew grains like millet, yams, sweet potatoes, arrowroots, sorghum, coconut and cassava among other crops mainly for food while the excess were sold to neighbours. ~ They practiced craft making pots and weaving baskets using coconut leaves. **NILOTES ** **. ** The second largest group in Kenya ----- 61 ### **Social organization ** ~ There were slight variations in the social organizations of the various Nilotic groups in Kenya. However they shared institutions such as the clan-based organization, belief in one God, veneration of ancestral spirits, age-set system, social ceremonies and existence of religious leaders. ~ The family was the basic social unit in many communities. Several related families grouped together to form clans among the Luo, Maasai and Nandi. ~ They believed in one supernatural being. The Maasai referred to him as Engai while the Luo called Him Nyasaye. ~ The communities believed in the existence of ancestral spirits, to whom sacrifices and libations were made to ensure they remained happy. ~ There was the existence of religious leaders whose work was to lead the communitiesduring religious functions and rituals. Some of the religious leaders had assumed political power by 19 [th] c. For example the Orkoiyot among the Nandi and Oloibon among the Maasai. ~ The Maasai and other Nilotic groups had rain makers and diviners. ~ The age-set system was another common social institution. The age sets were formed by those who were initiated at the same time. The institution created a bond among the initiates that cut across the families and clans thus uniting the whole community. ~ There were social ceremonies that accompanied the rites of passage like circumcision, marriage and death. ~ The Luo as their form of initiation extracted six lower teeth. The other groups practiced circumcision. In all the groups, the initiates were taught the community values. **The economic organization ** ~ The nilotes were nomadic pastoralists who kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats for milk, meat and blood. ~ They traded among themselves and also with their neighbours. The kalenjin traded with the Maasai and with the Luo and neighbouring Bantu communities like the Abaluhyia. They sold animal products and red ochre in exchange for grains from the Bantu. ~ They practiced iron-smelting, making implements such as arrow heads and spearheads. This skilled was borrowed from the Bantu. ~ The Maasai also practiced mining e.g. mined iron, salt and red ochre which they used for decoration and as a commodity for trade. ~ There existed variation in the economic activities within a single community like the Maasai. Some sections of the Maasai e.g. the Kwavi practiced crop growing i.e. growing grains and vegetables. The Purko were purely pastoralists ~ They practiced craft e.g. made pots, weaved baskets and leather belts. ~ Raiding other communities for cattle was also a common economic practice. ----- 62 ### ~ The Luo who lived near Lake Victoria practiced fishing. The Turkana also engaged in fishing on Lake Turkana. **Political organization** ~ The Nilotic communities had a decentralized system of administration with all the communities organized on clan basis. ~ There existed councils of elders that administered and ensured maintenance of law and order, settled disputes between clans and other communities. ~ The nilotes had a warlike tradition. Each community had Warriors who defended the community and raided other communities. The Luo reffered to the warriors as Thuondi. The Maasai called them Moran. ~ The age-set system determined political leadership since all those initiated together formed one age-set for life. ~ The institution of religion influenced most of the political affairs of the Nilotic speakers. For example, the Orkoiyot among the Nandi and the Oloibon among the Maasai were primarily religious leaders who wielded political authority in the19th century. **The Nandi** By 1900 AD, the Nandi had already established their social, economic and political institutions. **Social organization ** ~ The family was the basic social unit. Several related families grouped together to form clans among Nandi. The family institution was very important in the community. It played an important role in the Kokwet (council of elders) and in the clan activities. ~ The age-set system was an important social institution among the Nandi. Nandi boys and girls were initiated at puberty through circumcision. Circumcision marked entry into adulthood. The initiates were taught the deepest community values during the period. ~ Age sets were formed by those who were initiated at the same time irrespective of the clans they belonged to. In total, there were eight age-sets among the Nandi namely Sawe, Maina, Chuma, Korongoro, Kipkoimet, Kaplelach, Kimnyinge and Nyongi. ~ The Nandi boys became junior warriors after circumcision. They only promoted to senior warriors after the Saket apeito ceremony (slaughter of bullock) that was done after every fifteen years. ~ Marriage within the same clan was prohibited among the Nandi. This was meant to create unity by encouraging intermarriages between different clans. ~ They believed in one supernatural being whom they referred to him as Asis, who was believed to be the protector of the community. ~ The Nandi believed in the existence of ancestral spirits, to whom sacrifices and libations were made to ensure they remained happy. ~ The community also had important religious leaders whose work was to lead the ----- 63 ### community during religious functions and rituals, diviners and rain makers.The institution of Orkoiyot among the Nandi was borrowed from that of Oloibon among the Maasai. **Religious functions did the Orkoiyot of the Nandi. ** ~ He Mediated between God and the people/acting as a priest. ~ He presided over Offering of sacrifices to God on behalf of the people. ~ He advised and blessed the warriors before they went to war. ~ Blessing people before they undertook special activities like planting and harvesting. ~ He foretold what was going to happen in the future. e.g. success or misfortune in the community. **Economic organization ** ~ The Nandi were pastoralists who kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats for milk, meat, manure and blood. Cattle were a symbol of status among the Nandi and also a form of dowry settlement. ~ The Nandi cultivated crops such as Millet and sorghum due the fertile soils and favourable climate in areas like Aldai. ~ They also practiced hunting and gathering to supplement their food production. ~ The Nandi raided other communities for cattle. They acquired large herds of cattle through raiding neighbouring communities such as the Maasai. Abaluhyia and Luo. ~ They traded among themselves and also with their neighbours. The Nandi traded with the Maasai and with the Luo and neighbouring Bantu communities like the Abaluhyia. They sold animal products and red ochre in exchange for grains from the Bantu. The Nandi however were self sufficient in food. ~ They practiced craft e.g. made pots, weaved baskets and leather belts. **Political organization ** The family was the basic political unit. It was headed by a father who dealt with internal matters such as discipline, allocation of crops, land and cattle. In matters affecting the neighbourhood, he was assisted by the Kokwet (council of elders) which was made up of neighbourhood heads.Above the Kokwet was the clan organization whose council of elders tackled matters to do with grazing rights.Above the clan, there was a larger socio- political unit comprising different war groups located in the same geographical zone called a pororiet. This formed the highest political unit among the Nandi. The pororiet council of elders comprised representatives from different clansIts functions included negotiating for peace and declaring war .The Nandi boys became junior warriors after circumcision. They only promoted to senior warriors after the Saket apeito ceremony (slaughter of bullock) that was done after every fifteen years. ----- 64 ### **The Maasai ** **Social organization ** ~ The Maasai were divided into two groups; the pastoral Maasai(Purko) and the Agricultural Maasai(Kwavi or Iloikop). ~ The Maasai were organized on clan basis with each clan associated with a particular type of cattle. In total, the Maasai had five clans spread over large areas and not necessarily staying together. ~ Maasai boys and girls were initiated at puberty through circumcision. Circumcision marked entry into adulthood. The initiates were taught the deepest community values during the period. ~ After circumcision, the boys entered an age set to which they belonged the rest of their life. ~ The age set institution created a bond among the initiates that cut across the families and clans thus uniting the whole community. ~ All the boys initiated together also formed a warrior class called Morans and lived in special homesteads called Manyattas away from the rest of the community. For about ten years. ~ They were not allowed to take milk from their mothers house and were required to adhere to ritual and dietary restrictions. ~ They believed in one supernatural being. The Maasai referred to him as Engai. Prayers and sacrifices were offered to him at the shrines. ~ There was the existence of religious leaders whose work was to lead the communities during religious functions and rituals. They called their religious leader Oloibon. **Functions of Oloibon ** ~ He presided over religious ceremonies. / He was consulted on all religious matters. ~ He blessed warriors before they went to war. ~ He advised the council of elders. ~ He foretold the future events. The Maasai and other Nilotic groups had rain makers and diviners. There were several social ceremonies that accompanied the rites of passage like circumcision, marriage and death. The Eunoto ceremony marked the graduation of the Morans into junior elders. This ceremony is still practiced upto date. **Economic organization of the Maasai ** ~ The Maasai were nomadic pastoralists who kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats formilk, meat and blood.. ~ They traded among themselves and also with their neighbours such as the Agikuyu, kalenjin and Taita. They sold animal products and red ochre in exchange for grains from the Agikuyu. ~ They practiced iron-smelting, making implements such as arrow heads and spearheads.. ----- 65 ### ~ They also practiced mining e.g. mined iron, salt and red ochre which ~ They also practiced mining e.g. mined iron, salt and red ochre which they used for decoration and as a commodity for trade. ~ Some sections of the Maasai e.g. the Kwavi practiced crop growing i.e. growing grains and vegetables. ~ They practiced craft e.g. made pots, weaved baskets and leather belts. ~ Raiding other communities for cattle. **Political organization of the Maasai ** The largest political unit amongst Maasai was the tribal section, which was a geographically distinct entity which operated as a nation, especially during ceremonies. Affairs involving inter-clan cooperation were dealt within ad hoc meetings comprising age set spokesmen Before a Maasai young man became an adult, he underwent the following four stages. **Boyhood (ilaiyak) ** The youths at this stage looked after family and clan livestock until they reached circumcision stage at about 15 years. Warrior hood (Ilmuran ) The stage was joined by young men circumcised together and comprised of ages between 18 and 25 years. They defended the community and conducted raids to boost the clan and tribal flocks. They had a military leader known as Olaiguani. The stayed in isolation in manyattas undergoing military training in order to graduate into senior warriors. After that they were permitted to marry. **Junior elders ** This was the political authority that evaluated the day to day issues of the community. It comprised heads of households,, aim responsibility was to maintain peace and instruct warriors on how to handle issues in the community. They were permitted to own livestock. **The senior elders ** They comprise the senior most age-set. Membership was determined by age and experience. The group performed religious functions and also was responsible for and dealt with difficult judicial and political decisions.The Maasai adopted the institution of Oloibon or prophet that combined socio-religious functions and later own assumed political authority. There were several social ceremonies that accompanied the rites of passage like circumcision, marriage and death. The Eunoto ceremony marked the graduation of the Morans into junior elders. This ceremony is still practiced upto date. **The Luo ** **Social organization ** The family was the basic social unit among the Luo. The Luo community valued large families and therefore practiced polygamy.Marriage among the Luo was exogamous (no one was allowed to marry from their clan). ----- 66 ### Several related families grouped together to form clans among the Luo. They believed in one supernatural being whom they called Nyasaye. They prayed to Nyasaye.The communities believed in the existence of ancestral spirits, to whom sacrifices and libations were made to ensure they remained happy. Sacred shrines and trees existed. He rocks, high hills and even the lake were associated with supernatural power.There was the existence of religious leaders whose work was to lead the communities during religious functions and perform rituals. These included priests, medicine people, rain makers and diviners. For one to be a medicine person, a benevolent spirit called Juogi must possess him or her.The Luo youths as their form of initiation extracted six lower teeth. After that they were allowed to marry.The Luo had several social ceremonies that accompanied the rites of passage like marriage and death. **Economic organization** ~ The Luo were originally a pastoral and fishing community. They Practiced livestock keeping for prestige and cultural purposes e.g. dowry and for meat and milk. ~ The carried out Fishing along water courses due to their proximity to the lake. Both men and women conducted fishing, which was a source of food as well as a trade commodity. ~ The Luo Traded with their neighbors. They sold pots, baskets, cattle, fish and livestock for grains, spears, arrows and canoes from the Abaluhyia, Abagusii, Kipsigis and Nandi. ~ They also Cultivated plants like millet, sorghum, etc ~ Most of them practiced hunting and gathering to get additional meat and hides and to supplement the food they produced. ~ They practiced craft. Women specialized in production of pottery products, baskets and clothes **Political organization of the Luo ** The Luo were a decentralized community. The family was the basic political unit among the Luo. The head of the family was referred to as Jaduong. Several related families made up a clan headed by a council of elders called Doho whose main responsibility was to settle inter-family disputes. Below the Doho were lineage councils called Buch Dhoot that tackled domestic issues Above the Doho was a grouping of clans called Oganda headed by a council of elders reffered to as Buch piny and headed by a chief elder called Ruoth. The Buch piny comprised representatives from each clan. It was responsible for settling inter -clan conflicts, declaring war and punishing criminals such as murderers.Religious leaders among the Luo also influenced politics. E.g rainmakers and diviners.One of the members of the council of elders was given a responsibility of advising the council on military matters and was therefore a war leader (osumba Mrwayi). Under them was a special group of warriors reffered to as Thuondi (bulls). Their work was to raided neighbouring communities like the Maasai, Nandi and Abagusii and other perceived enemies. ----- 67 ### **The Cushites** These were the smallest linguistic group in Kenya inhabiting the northern part of Kenya. They are a nomadic Sam speaking group. They comprise the Borana, Gabra, Galla (Oromo), Rendille and Burji.The communities developed complex social, economic and political institutions that were interrupted by the coming of the Muslims and Europeans. **Social organization of the Cushites ** The Cushites had a patrilineal society, which means they traced their origins through the fatherThe Cushites believed in a common ancestor which makes their kinship system strong.All the Cushitic communities practiced circumcision of boys and clitoridectomy for girls as a form of initiation. This was a rite of passage into adulthood.After circumcision, the initiates were taught about their adult roles and their rights as members of the community.Circumcision marked an entry into an age set whose functions included defending the community from external attacks, building huts and advising junior age- sets on how to raid.Each age set had a leader with specific duties. They believed in the existence of a supreme god, who was the creator of everything. He was given different names. The Oromo referred to him as wak(waq).They also believed in spirits which inhabited natural objects like rocks and trees. The Cushites had shrines from which they prayed to their God. Later on, through interaction with their neighbours, all the Cushites became Muslims by the 16thc.The Cushitic speakers were polygamous and their marriage was exogamous in nature.Inheritance was from father to son among the Cushites. The elder son inherited the fathers property and shared it with his younger brothers. Girls had no right to inheritance.The Cushitic life was full of ceremonies. They celebrated life both in song and dance. There were songs for initiations, childbirth, marriage, harvest and funeral. **Economic organization** They had a diversified economic system that catered for their livelihood and supported their lifestyle.They basically practiced Pastoralism/livestock keeping in their semi-arid region They kept cattle, goats, camel and donkeys. Camels and cattle provided milk and blood and were assigning of prestige. Goats and sheep provided meat. Some Cushites who lived along river valleys practiced substance agriculture where they grew grain crops, vegetables, dates, peas, pepper, tubers and bananas.They also practiced iron smelting and made iron tools e.g. swords, knives, bangles and arrow heads.They hunted wild game for food, ivory, skins (hides) for clothing, bedding and gathered fruits and roots and vegetables. They engaged in craft industry e.g. production of leather items such as handbags, belts etc.Some of them who lived near rivers and along the Indian Ocean practiced fishing.They traded with their neighbours e.g. the Pokomo and the Samburu. **Political organization of the Cushites ** All the Cushitic communities like other groups in Kenya, had decentralized forms of government. The clan formed the basic political unit for all the Bantu communities. Each clan was made up of related families. ----- 68 ### The social and political system of the Cushites was interwoven that the social divisions, age set system were also important aspects of the political system.Leadership of the clan was in the hands of a council of elders who played a pivoted role in solving disputes, acting as ritual experts, presiding over religious ceremonies, maintaining law and order and making executive decisions affecting the community like declaring war.Among the Cushites a clan was independent of others except when the wider community faced a common enemy or problem.The Cushites developed an age-set system that had some political significance. After circumcision, the boys joined the age-set after initiation to provide warriors who defended the community from external attacks and raid other communities for cattle.The age set system was based on about ten groups each with its own leader. At the end of an age cycle, a ceremony was performed and the senior age sets retired from public life and settled in different territories. **The Somali ** The social organization of the Somali.Like Somali were organized into clans each comprising of families whose members claimed common descent. They also had an age set system. Circumcision marked an entry into an age set whose functions included defending the community from external attacks, building huts and advising junior agesets on how to raid. Each age set had a leader with specific duties. They believed in the existence of a supreme god, whom they referred to as wak (waq). He was the creator of everything. They had religious leaders who mediated between God and the people Later on, through interaction with their neighbours, all the Somali became Muslims by the 16thc.The Somali valued marriage as an important institution. They were polygamous and their marriage was exogamous in nature. **Political organization of the Somali ** The Somali had a decentralized political system of administration. The basic political unit was the clan made up of related families. The clan was headed by a council of elders in charge of day to day affairs of the clan e.g. making major decisions and settling disputes and presiding over religious ceremonies.The Somali had an age set system and all male members of the society belonged to an age set. Each age set performed specific roles/duties. From the age set system, there evolved a military organization for community defence. Initiates joined the age set system after circumcision. With the advent of Islamic religion political organization changed. They now had community leaders called sheikhs whose role was mainly advisory.The political system was now based on the Islamic sharia. **Economic organization** a) The Somali were hunters and gathers. They hunted wild game for food and gathered fruits and roots and vegetables. b) They basically practiced nomadic Pastoralism. They kept cattle, goats, camel and sheep.Their diet was mainly milk, meat and blood. ----- 69 ### c) They traded with their neighbours to get what they could not produce e.g. the Pokomo and the Mijikenda from whom they acquired grains. d) A section of the Somali practiced iron smelting and made iron tools e.g. swords, knives, bangles and arrow heads. They also engaged in craft industry e.g. production of leather items such as handbags, belts etc. e) Such craft activities were despised among the Somali and were associated with a group whom they referred to as Sab (outcasts). **The Borana ** They are a branch of the Oromo or Galla people who came from Ethiopia. **Social organization ** The Borana had a complex social organization.The society was divided into clans led by elders whose responsibility was to settle disputes and maintaining law and order. Each clan was made up of related families. The borana had a strong belief in the extended family.The Borana were nomadic. But they had a residential section called the camp that consisted of a few huts of related families. .In the camps, it was the most senior married and competent man who became the head of the camp (abba olla). He would have his wifes hut built on the extreme left.The Borana had a complex age-set structure called Gada. Each Gada was headed by the most powerful individual among the group members (Abba boku). His duty would be to preside over village meetings, proclaim laws and preside over religious ceremonies.The community had two kinship groups that practiced exogamous marriage.. A man from the Gona kinship would only marry from the Sabbo kinship. Polygamy was allowed.The family among the borana was headed by a man referred to as Abba warra with the wife as the female head of the household (Hatimana) There was division of labour in the society. The men defended the camps, wells, herds and shrines. They dug wells and organized raiding parties. The men also elected leaders of camps, age sets and Gada class. The women performed household duties, wove baskets for carrying children, prepared leather and built houses. Boys herded sheep, goats and cattle. Elders presided over the court cases.The borana worshipped a powerful God, the creator whom they called Wak (waq). He was worshipped through religious leaders They had a patrilineal society where inheritance was from the father to the son, and specifically the first son, angafa, who would then redistribute the inherited cattle to the younger brothers.Their culture was full of ceremonies. For example, there were ceremonies when a Gada class entered or left a Gada grade, there was war ceremony (butta) and a muda ceremony in honor of the kinship leader, kallu. **Economic organization ** a) The borana were basically practiced nomadic Pastoralists who kept cattle, goats and sheep. Cattle was slaughtered as part of their religious rituals and also provided raw materials for houses and other local industries. b) They traded with their neighbours to get what they could not produce e.g. they exchanged their animals with the Mijikenda from whom they acquired grains. ----- 70 ### c) The Borana were hunters and gathers. They hunted wild game for food and gathered fruits and roots and vegetables. d) Those who settled in the fertile region along the tana valley grew crops like beans and pepper. e) The Borana women engaged in craft industry e.g. production of leather items such as handbags, belts etc. men also made wooden tools, weapons and utensils. f) The Borana also practiced fishing as they settled along river tana. **Political organization of the borana** Their political system was based on the kinship system where the society was divided into clans comprising related families. There were two moieties (kinships) that were further divided into sub-moieties. The sub-moieties were further divided into clans. Each moiety was headed by a hereditary leader known as kallu. The kallu of the Sabbo for example came from the dyallu clan of the karrayyu sub-moiety.The kallus camp was the spiritual and political centre of the group. His duties included leading in ritual ceremonies, providing judgment in major conflicts between clans.He was elected together with the council of the Gada leaders of each gad class when it prepared to enter a new grade.The kallu were not authorized to bear arms or defend themselves but were to move in company of other members of the society.The borana society was divided into clans led by a council of elders whose responsibility was tosettle disputes and maintaining law and order. Each clan was made up of related families who lived in a residential section called the camp that consisted of a few huts of related families. .Powers were distributed equally between the two moieties at all levels such as in the Gada class, age-set and camp councils as well as in tribal ceremonies.The complex age set system mainly provided a military base for the society. The age sets, Hariyya, were recruited from boys of the same age. Gada class (Luba) was recruited genealogically. There were eleven grades through which the Gada classes passed from birth to death, with each grade lasting eight years. While age set members were of the same age, Gada members were of varied ages. The age sets formed the age set council that recruited the warriors.Members of the Gada classes formed the Gada council (lallaba) which the responsibility of making decisions for their classes. They also resolved conflicts between non-relatives and mobilized economic activities such as digging wells, organizing societal rituals and ceremonies and directing relatives with their neighbours such as the Oromo and Somali.The councils contributed to the development of an effective political organization.The complexity of the borana institutions strengthened unity among them. However, the coming of the colonialists in the 20 [th] century heavily impacted on these nomadic pastoral community. **CONTACTS BETWEEN EAST AFRICA AND THE OUTSIDE WORLD UP TO ** **THE 19 [TH] C. ** The early contacts were initially at the coast but later spread inland. The early visitors included the Arabs, Greeks, Chinese, Persians, Portuguese, British, French and the Dutch. ----- 71 ### **The East African coast ** The existing documentaries and archaeological evidence about the historical information on the east African coast include; ~ The Graeco- Roman Documentary which only makes indirect references to the east African coast. ~ The Swahili chronicles written by the people of the coast. E.g the Kilwa chronicle gives account of achievements of coastal rulers before the arrival of the Portuguese. ~ The writings of Pliny, a Roman Geographer who wrote about the high cost of trade with India in his book, The Natural History. ~ Periplus of the Erythrean Sea; by a Greek merchant in 1 [st] C AD describes the people and places along the coast and the Indian Ocean Trade. (Erythrean Sea Trade). ~ Geopgraphia by Claudius Ptolemy makes reference to east African coast and the trade along Somalia and Kenyan coasts. ~ Christian Topography of Cosmos Indico of the 6 [TH] C describes the trading activities on the coast of East Africa. ~ Renowned travelers like Al-Mosudi, Al Idrisi and Ibn Battuta wrote firsthand accounts about the places they visited and the people they met at the coast in the 10 [th] C AD. ~ The existing archaeological evidence in east Africa include the remains of pottery, iron tools, beads and coins which prove the presence of international trade. **Early visitors to the east African coast upto 1500. ** Due to the great accessibility of the east African coast, there was widespread interaction between it and the people from the outside world. This was also aided by the monsoon winds that blew vessels / ships to the coast between November and April and took them away between may and October. The earliest visitors were the Egyptians, Phoenicians and Indonesians.Others who came later on included the Greeks, Persians, Romans, Chinese, Arabs, Syrians, Indians and the Portuguese. **The Greeks ** Their coming to east Africa is accounted for by the quarrels between the Seleucid rulers in Greece and the Ptolemaic Greeks in Egypt over control of the land route to the east through the Mediterranean lands.The rising demand for ivory made the ptolemies venture into the red sea and finally into the east African coast. Evidence of Greek existence on the coast is the Ptolemic Gold Coin found near Dar es Salam. **Romans ** In AD 45, Hippalus, a Roman sailor using monsoon wind knowledge reached the red sea and entered the Indian Ocean. The Romans were keen on breaking the Arab monopoly over trade.Evidence of trade between the Romans and the coast is in the writing of a Roman Historian Pliny (23-79AD) who points out the high coast of trade between India, Arabia and china.The fall of the Roman Empire in the 5 [th] c AD affected international trading network in the Roman Empire. ----- 72 ### **Persians ** They were mainly immigrants from Shirazi on the eastern shore of the Persian Gulf. Their adventure into the east African coast happened during the reign of the Sassanid Dynasty(224-636AD), which was determined to rebuild the Persian Empire that had been destroyed by the Macedonian Greeks, through wealth amassed from international trade. By the 6 [th] c, the Persians were trading in India and later china, controlling the red sea and parts of Egypt and Arabia.They got involved in the east African trade and even established ruling dynasties9 e.g. the (Shirazi Dynasty) at the coast. They intermarried with the locals and introduced Islamic religion.They were later overthrown by the Arabs. The succeeded in introducing Bowls of glass, swords, beakers and pots to the coast. **Chinese ** They visited the coast in the middle ages. This is evidenced in the work of the Chinese authors during the Sung Dynasty (960- 1279 AD) and Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), who referred to the east African coast as Tseng- Pat or Pseng- Po.There has also been evidence of Chinese coins dating to 700 AD at the coast.The last Chinese fleet must have reached Mogadishu in 1430AD. The Chinese brought in Silk cloth, porcelain bowls and plates in exchange for Gold\, leopard skin, Rhino Horns and tortoise shells. Porcelain remains have been found at the coast. **Arabs ** The earliest Arab settlers to arrive were the Daybui from Daybul In north western India. They arrived along the east African coast by AD 650 for trade. The earliest Arab settlement was Qanbalu (Pemba). They later settled in manda, Kilwa. Lamu and Mombasa.The Arabs reffered to the Africans as the Zenj (Blacks) **Factors that facilitated the coming of Arabs to the east African coast. ** ~ The Indian ocean provided the highway through which the traders traveled ~ The traders had the skills of harnessing the monsoon winds (trade winds) they knew what times of the year to come to the coast and what times to go back. ~ The traders had marine technology e.g. they had ship-building technology and knew how to use the compass for navigation of the ocean ~ They ensured the control of the red sea was in their hands to bar the enemy from attacking them ~ The ports of southern Arabia were good calling places on their journey between the east and the west. ~ The deep harbours at the coast were ideal for their ships to anchor, refuel and get supplies. **Reasons for the coming of the Arabs ** ~ They wanted to trade and control the commercial activities along the east African coast. ~ Some Arabs came as refugees, fleeing from religious and political persecutions in Arabia. ----- 73 ### ~ They came to spread their religion, Islam. ~ Some came as explorers to explore the east African coast. ~ Some came to establish settlements along the east African coast. **Trade between the East African coast and the outside world ** There is sufficient evidence of the existence of regular trading contacts between east African coast and the countries in the Middle East and Far East. **Development and organization of the trade ** ~ The earliest foreign traders must have been the Romans who traded with the Indians in the Far East. They made stopovers at the east African coast for ivory whose demand had grown tremendously. ~ Muslim Arabs acted as intermediaries in the Indian Ocean trade between the Indians and the Romans. They also exported frankincense and myrrh among other things. ~ Traders from Persia, Arabia and Syria brought glass beakers and bowls, swords, pots, grains, sugar, cloth and beads in exchange for palm oil, tortoise shells, ivory and slaves. ~ The Greek, roman and Chinese traders brought porcelain bowls, daggers, swords, pottery, cowrie shells, glassware, beads and silk in exchange for ivory, rhinoceros horns, bee wax, tortoise shells, coconut oil and mangrove poles. Cowrie shells were obtained from Maldives islands while spices came from Spice Island. ~ East Africa also exported leopard skins, gold, ostrich feathers, copal, copper and iron. Ivory was used in Asia to make bangles, bracelets, piano keys and for decorations ~ The traders relied on the monsoon winds to blow their ships to and from the east African coast. ~ The Indian Ocean trade was conducted through the barter system but later coins were used as a medium of exchange. During barter, the foreigners bartered their goods with gold, ivory and slaves. Seyyid said later introduced copper and silver coins. ~ The middlemen in the trade included the Arabs and Swahili who organized caravans to the interior to acquire local goods which they sold to traders at the coast. ~ As there was no common language spoken, trading was conducted silently, hence the name silent trade ~ Capital for the trade was provided by the Arabs. Later the Indian banyans started giving credit facilities to the traders which increased the volume of trade. ~ The sultan of Zanzibar provided security to the Arab traders, enabling them to penetrate the interior to acquire goods. ~ The trade stimulated development of towns along the coastline. E.g Rhapta (probably located between pangani and Dar es Salam), Essina and Sarapion were the earliest towns to grow. Lamu Malindi Mombasa, pate and Brava also developed. ~ The merchants settled at various places on the coast and on the islands and interacted with the locals leading to development of the Swahili culture. Factors which promoted the Indian Ocean trade. ----- 74 ### (a) Availability of items of trade from the east African coast and foreigner countries. For example, ivory, slaves, cotton and porcelain. (b) The high demand for trade items from the coast by consumers from the outside world was also a promoting factor. This was caused by the uneven distribution of resources. Foreign items were also on demand at the coat. (c) The existence of enterprising merchants in both the foreign lands and the east African coast led to promotion of trade links. The Akamba, Mijikenda, nyamwezi and Swahili middlemen for example played a pivoted role in the trade. (d) The existence of local trade among Africans which acted as a base upon which the Indian Ocean trade was developed. (e) The accessibility of the east African coast by sea. This enabled the foreigner traders to reach the region across the Indian Ocean. (f) The existence of the monsoon winds facilitated the movement of the vessels which made it possible for the traders to travel to and from the coasty. (g) The existence of peace and political stability at the east African coast created a conducive atmosphere for business transactions. Where there was need, the traders were given security by the sultan of Zanzibar. (h) The existence of natural harbours along the coast ensured safe docking of the trade vessels for fueling and off-loading. (i) The advancement in the ship building technology in Europe gave great advantage to the traders. This made water transport reliable and regular. (j) The existence o the Indian Banyans (money lenders) who gave credit facilities enabled many more people to join the trade. **Impacts of the trade on the peoples of east Africa ** (a) The trade led to intermarriage between Muslim traders with the local Bantu communities giving rise to the Swahili people with a distinct culture. (b) There was emergence of Kiswahili as a new language of the coastal people. The language is a mixture of Bantu and Arabic languages. (c) The trade led to the spread of the Islamic culture along the coastal region. Stone buildings were constructed, new dressing styles arose (women began to wear buibui while men wore kanzus), new eating habits also evolved. (d) The Islamic law, sharia was also introduced. (e) Many Africans were converted to Islam. However the religion did not spread beyond c. the coastal region prior to the 19 [th] (f) New crops were introduced along the coast. For example, rice, wheat, millet, cloves, vegetables and fruits such as bananas and oranges. Cloth, cowrie shells and spices were also introduced. (g) Profits derived from the trade were used to develop towns like Pemba, Mombasa, Lamu, Zanzibar and Kilwa. ----- 75 ### (h) The trade led to the rise of a class of rich merchants exhibiting a high standard of living. African merchants who rose to prominence included chief Kivoi among the Akamba, Ngonyo of the Giriama, Mwakikonga of the Digo, Nyungu ya mawe, Mirambo and Msiri of the Nyamwezi. (i) There was decline of the local industries like weaving and iron working which were affected by the influx of foreign goods like cloth fro India and iron tools from Asia and Europe. (j) There was destruction of wildlife, especially elephant and rhinoceros due to the increased demand for ivory. (k) The increased demand for slaves promoted warfare among the communities as many people were captured during slave raids. It also created fear while others lost their life during the warfare. (l) Slave trade also disrupted African economies as able bodied men were captured leaving behind the aged, weak, and children who made little contribution. Many even died of starvation since they could not participate in food production. (m) African population in the hinterland greatly reduced as many were sold into slavery. (n) Money (currency) was introduced as a means of exchange to replace the barter system of trade. (o) East African coast was exposed to the outside world through trade. This paved way for European imperialism later on. (p) Trade routes led to the establishment of trade caravan routes which later were upgraded to by the colonialists. **The coming of the Portuguese ** Since the 10th century Arabian influence along the coast had been strong. Most of the port towns along the East African coast had been built by Arab Sultans, who brought the Muslim religion to the coastal people.The Portuguese explorer and soldier, Vasco da Gama, was the first European to make contact with the people of the East African Coast. He had been paid by the King of Portugal to find a sea route to India. **The Portuguese at the East African coast 1500 1700 A.D ** The Portuguese were the first Europeans to have contacts with the people of the East African Coast. They invaded the east African coast in 1498 at a time when the Ottoman Empire occupied most of the Middle East thus blocking the overland route to India from Europe.They were adventurous and in search for the sea route to India. This led them to the East African Coast where they stayed for 200 years. Reasons for the coming of the Portuguese at the East African coast a) The need to establish a commercial empire in order to get the products of East Africa e.g. ivory, gold, silks and spices that were mainly controlled by the Arabs merchants. b) They wanted to obtain control of the main trading towns, e.g. Kilwa, Mombasa etc. c) They wanted to defeat the Muslim traders and rulers who had monopolized the Indian Ocean trade. ----- 76 ### d) They wanted to prevent other European rivals from gaining access to the Indian Ocean Trade e.g. the French, Dutch, and British e) Desire to get revenue for the development of their country. f) The Portuguese wished to share in the profits of the Indian Ocean Trade by imposing taxes and forcing wealthy coastal towns to pay tribute to the king of Portugal. g) The coast had natural harbors where ships could anchor on their way to and from the East for fresh food and water. The Portuguese therefore wanted to establish a calling station for resting, refresh, treating the sick, repairing wrecked ships e.t.c h) The coast was strategically located and this made it easy to control sea pirates and other rival powers. i) They wanted to revenge on the Muslim Arabs who had conquered Portugal in 711 AD by converting them to Christianity and stop the spread of Islam i.e. the Arabs had ever run the Iberian Peninsula and forced the Christians to accept Islam. j) They hoped to get assistance of King Prester John thought to be in the interior of north east Africa. They hoped the king would help them in their crusade against the Muslims. k) They had hope of stopping Egyptians and Turks from sending military aid to their fellow Moslems on the coast. l) They were interested in exploration and adventure; this was a period of Renaissance (means to be born again/change) in Europe. Hence hoped to search for the unknown, new knowledge and sailing across un mapped seas. m) Desire to acquire revenue for the development of their country. Portuguese conquest of the coast 1500-1510 (Stages of conquest) Steps taken by the Portuguese to occupy the East African coast. ~ In 1497 King John 11 sent Padro da Covillha on a land journey to India to gather information about the Eastern trades and the sea routes. ~ In 1498 Bathromew Diaz sailed around the Cape of Good Hope, thus proving that there was a way round South Africa to the Indian Ocean. ~ Between 1497- 1499 Vasco da Gama at the command of King Emmanuel the fortunate of Portugal visited Mozambique, Mombasa and Malindi on his way to India. He arrived in Malindi in March 1498 to a warm welcome by the locals. ~ He returned to Portugal in 1499 and gave a report of the flourishing Sofala trade, the Deep Harbour in Mombasa and the existing disunity of coastal people. ~ In response to Vasco da Gamas expeditions, the king of Portugal sent fleets of ships to conquer the important trading towns of the East African coast. ~ In 1500 Pedro Alvares Cabral attempted to capture Sofala with its Gold trade but he failed. ~ In 1502 Vasco da Gama came back with 19 ships aiming at capturing Kilwa because it was the most important and prosperous. He captured the palace, imprisoned the Su ltan and only released him when he accepted to pay tribute to Portugal. ----- 77 ### ~ From Kilwa he invaded Mombasa, which tried to get assistance from Malindi but since they were great rivals Malindi refused to give assistance, this disunity made the work of conquest easy. ~ In 1503 Ruy Laurence Ravasco was sent with a number of ships and forced the islands of Mafia and Zanzibar and other towns to pay tribute to Portugal. ~ In 1504, Lopez destroyed gold trade at Kilwa. Attacks were too much on the harbour that trade came to a standstill. But again the Arabs failed to unite to fight the Portuguese. ~ In 1505 Francisco DAlmeida arrived at the coast on his way to Gao where he had been appointed the first Portuguese viceroy (governor) of the Eastern Empire. With 1500 men and 20 ships, he attacked Sofala which surrendered without struggle because she was tired of Kilwas rule and therefore preferred the Portuguese to fellow Arabs. His forces continued northwards and attacked Kilwa. The Sultan and his followers took off to the bush while the Portuguese looted and burnt down the town before he departed to India. He also conquered Mombasa. ~ In 1506 1507 Tristao Da Cunha took on the Northern towns of Socotra, Oja, Brava and Lamu. Towns that submitted without struggles were only asked to pay tribute to Portugal. Malindi was even excused from paying tribute due to her friendship with the Portuguese. ~ In 1509 Alba quiqui captured the remaining towns i.e. the work of conquest was completed with taking the islands of Pemba, Mafia, and Zanzibar. Mombasa was burnt down. ~ By 1515 the Portuguese had succeeded in conquering most of the coastal towns, bring them under Portuguese rule. However towns like Gedi, Kilifi, Pate, Manda, Mombasa and Lamu continued with resistance. Mombasa was heavily attacked in 1528. ~ In 1585, a Turkish captain, Amir Ali Bey, arrived at the coast as an envoy of the sultan of turkey to free the coastal towns from the Portuguese. Rebellion then broke out between 1585 and 1588 between Ali Bey, the Portuguese, and the people of Mombasa and Zimba warriors. The towns of pate, Siyu and Pemba were attacked and forced to pay heavy fines while manda was completely destroyed. ~ Portugal finally brought all the coastal towns under her control establishing her headquarters in Mombasa that had been subdued in 1589. in 1593, the Portuguese built fort Jesus **Why the Portuguese build Fort Jesus ** a) They used it as a watch tower b) To hide against attacks by the enemies c) As military base d) To offer food security and protection. e) To act as an armament. f) To act as a prison for the captives. ----- 78 ### ~ Portuguese control of the east African coast as greatly supported by the conquest of Hormuz, which made it easier for them to control sea traffic in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Eden and Arabian Sea. **Why the Portuguese defeated the East African Coastal towns/Why the Portuguese ** **were successful ** a) They had superior weapons e.g. cannon guns which made terrible noise and threw people in panic as compared to the poor musket guns of the coastal Arabs. b) They had well trained soldiers with superior skills of fighting compared to the coastal people who had no permanent organized army e.g. Vasco da Gama, Francisco DAlmeida were ruthless army commanders which helped them to defeat the coastal dwellers. c) They had better and faster ships (carracks) well equipped for naval warfare. The Portuguese soldiers wore Armour on their bodies and helmets on their heads, which protected them from the weapons of the coastal people. d) The coastal towns were disunited which gave chance to the Portuguese to fight isolated enemies e.g. Malindi refused to unite with Mombasa due to local conflicts. Some cooperated with the invaders giving them food and bases e.g. Malindi and Sofala. e) Some coastal towns like Kilwa were caught unaware. The Portuguese employed cruel methods of fighting like burning down towns and surprise attacks. f) The ships acted as stages against the hostile weapons of the coastal people. g) The coast had natural harbours and was not open to attacks. h) The constant attacks on the coastal towns by the Galla, Zimba and Turkish e.t.c had weakened their defence. i) The Portuguese were financially equipped and therefore supported their soldiers because they wanted to control the East African trade. j) The coastal states had very weak economies that could not sustain prolonged fights especially against the economically strong Portuguese. **Portuguese Administration at the coast ** By 1510, the conquest of the East African coast was over and administration fell into the hands of the Portuguese. For easy administration, the coast was divided into two zones; a. The area North of Cape Delgado was ruled by the Captain at Malindi. b. The area South of Cape Delgado was ruled by Captain at Mozambique. Both captains were answerable to the Portuguese viceroy at Goa on Indian coast at the General headquarters. Cape Delgado was made the midpoint of the East Africa possession. Sofala was made the regional headquarters but still under the charge of the captain who took his orders from the viceroy at Goa. Later, the Captain in the North was stationed at Mombasa after the construction of Fort Jesus in 1593 because they were rebellious. Other forts and garrisons were established at Sofala and Kilwa. The Portuguese captains were responsible for the collections of tributes from coastal rulers. ----- 79 ### They imposed the customs dues on all imports and exports. They were also responsible for the suppression of rebellions on the coast. The Portuguese had problems with administration because they could not provide enough troops to all garrisons their strongholds.The Portuguese were more interested in gold trade in Sofala. Unfortunately, they failed to develop this trade because of the following; ~ There were wars in the mining areas between the Portuguese and Coastal people. ~ As a result the Portuguese were so cruel that any sign of disobedience was punished with maximum brutality to serve as a warning to others who might choose to rebel. This partly explains the unpopularity of the Portuguese on the coast. The Portuguese also applied the policy of divide and rule by setting one town against the other. For example Malindi against Mombasa.The relationship with the subjects was not good. They lived in isolation of each other by race and religion. The Portuguese established their own settlements, built their own churches and had their own priest. This could be the reason why their religion was rejected and hatred increased.In addition, the few Portuguese officials were corrupt, plundered and ordered destruction on the coastal town. All this earned them hatred and opposition from the people and it was not a surprise that they were nicknamed "AFRITI" meaning Devil.The Portuguese did not mix freely with Africans because they considered themselves to be a special race.During the Portuguese reign, the glory of the coastal states was no more. The high standards of living the coastal people had enjoyed were no more. The trade that had made them rich was declining. Many buildings were in ruins and there was widespread poverty and misery. **Reasons that led to the decline of the Portuguese at the East African Coast ** **(Problems/challenges they faced) ** a) Portugal was a small country that could not provide enough administrators and officials for such a large coastline that extended from Sofala in the south to Mogadishu in the north.The territory was too big and long for effective control and administration. b) It had few soldiers and could not keep fortified garrison along the coast. c) Authority was left in hands of incompetent and corrupt officials who were after enriching themselves. d) The Africans hated the Portuguese due to differences in religion, that is to say, Muslims against Christians (Portuguese). e) The Portuguese were cruel, harsh and brutal, they always punished the coastal people whenever they attempted to rebel and made them to be hated. f) The Portuguese also used divide and rule policy for example, they allied with Malindi against Mombasa. g) There was decline of trade due high taxes on imports and other restrictions hence smuggling of goods, which affected the Portuguese economy. Due to decline in trade, the people became poor and dissatisfied and they continuously rebelled. h) The Portuguese failed to support their own allies at the coast, some even betrayed them. ----- 80 ### i) Portugal had been forced into a union with Spain between15801640 which weakened her control of the trading colonies as she was no longer interested in the overseas empire. j) Portugal was challenged by other European powers, which began competing with the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean Trade e.g. Dutch, English, French, Turks and others. k) The coastal people found useful allies against the Portuguese due to their bad rule e.g. Turks, Oman, and Arabs l) They were faced with constant rebellions along the coast. This greatly disrupted life at the coast e.g. Pate, Mombasa m) Tropical diseases which claimed their life like smallpox, malaria making it difficult for them to administer the coast effectively. n) The Portuguese were greatly weakened by a group of cannibals the Zimba, who attacked the East African coast. o) The unhealthy climate made the area unattractive for them to work for instance, some places where too humid and hot while others were too cold. p) The distance between Portugal and the East African coast was too far hence reinforcement delayed. q) There was a problem of communication barrier, the Portuguese refused to learn the African languages and these made their administration difficult. r) The income obtained from the gold trade was not enough to pay for administration i.e. soldiers and officials. s) The Capture of Fort Jesus their stronghold in 1698 by the Omani greatly contributed to their decline. **The collapse of Portuguese rule ** ~ In 1585, a Turkish captain, Amir Ali Bey, arrived at the coast as an envoy of the sultan of turkey to free the coastal towns from the Portuguese. Rebellion then broke out between 1585 and 1588 between Ali Bey, the Portuguese, and the people of Mombasa and Zimba warriors. The towns of pate, Siyu and Pemba were attacked and forced to pay heavy fines while manda was completely destroyed ~ As a result of their ruthlessness, the coastal people became hostile to the Portuguese. ~ Mombasa for example resisted the humiliation they got from the Portuguese appointedsultan ~ The sultans heir Yusuf was treated as a servant who resented the people of Mombasa ~ On 15thaugust 1631, during the Christian feast of Assumption in Mombasa, Sultan Yusuf stabbed the captain with a knife, killing him instantly. This sparked off a rebellion where many Portuguese were killed. ~ Yusuf posed a threat to the Portuguese rule until his death in 1637. ~ The people of pate also revolted in 1666. However, their ruler was arrested and exiled to Goa where he was executed ~ In 1622, the Persians drove the Portuguese from Hormuz. In 1650, the Portuguese were expelled from their bases in Muscat by the Omani Arabs under sultan Saif ----- 81 ### ~ Britain, France and Holland also began to compete the Portuguese in trade. ~ The final blow to Portuguese rule was attack by the Omani Arabs and the seizure of fort Jesus. The coastal Arab towns had appealed to their brothers in Oman for assistance against the Portuguese brutality. ~ In 1652, an Oman fleet sailed to pate and Zanzib ar, overpowered and killed the Portuguese. ~ In 1696, Imam Saif Ibn Sultan of Oman sailed to Mombasa with a large fleet and army. The Portuguese took refuge in Fort Jesus as battle raged on (about 2500 Portuguese men, women and children) the Portuguese were unfortunate as they could not get supplies to sustain the war with 3000 plus Arab soldiers with full packing of the coastal people. ~ In 1697, the Omani forces got access to the Fort and found most Portuguese afflicted with disease. By December 1698, the Omanis penetrated the Fort only to find all except twelve Portuguese dead. This marked the end of Portuguese rule though they made a temporaryseizure of the fort in 1728 but were overpowered. ~ For the coastal people, it was however a mere change of guard from the Portuguese to the Arabs. **Results of Portuguese stay at the coast of East Africa ** **Positive: ** a) The Portuguese built Fort Jesus at the coast in Mombasa in1592/3 which became a fortress and later a tourist attraction for centuries. b) They enriched the Swahili language with an addition of 60 words e.g. emeza meaning table and pesa meaning money. c) They introduced new crops from South Africa of which many have become staple diet for many East Africans e.g. cassava, pawpaws, maize, oranges, sweet potatoes, guavas, pineapples and mangoes d) They made an improvement in ship building. During their stay on the coast, many architects came in from India and Europe. e) There was establishment of closer trading links between the coast and India. f) They introduced new farming methods for example they encouraged the use of cow dung as manure. g) They led to the coming of more European and Asian traders and craftsmen especially those who helped in the building of Fort Jesus. h) They broke the Muslim- Arab monopoly of the Indian Ocean Trade. **Negative: ** a) Trade declined due to the constant wars and rebellions and heavy taxes imposed. b) There was decline of the coastal towns because many were burnt down and left in ruins for example Kilwa and Mombasa. c) There was widespread poverty and misery among the coastal people due to decline in trade. ----- 82 ### d) There was heavy loss of lives during the attacks. There was depopulation due to the many wars in the areas e) There was destruction of property like buildings and crops, which led to famine and starvation. f) The coastal people suffered oppression and brutality under harsh rule of the Portuguese. g) Their religion, Christianity, made no impact at the coast because they lived far from their subjects and stagnation of the Islamic faith because discouraged preaching. h) Smuggling developed because the Portuguese had failed to establish proper trading links with the Interior. i) Some towns were prevented from trading with their initial partners which led to their decay e.g. Gedi j) They led to the European interest at the coast hence leading to the colonization in the 19th Century. **THE ESTABLISHMENT AND IMPACT OF OMANI RULE AT THE EAST ** **AFRICAN COAST ** The Omani Arabs (Imams of Omani) replaced the Portuguese as the rulers of the East African coast after the capture of fort Jesus in 1698.The new rulers initially administered the region through some Arab families; ~ The Mazrui (Mazaria) family which ruled Mombasa ~ The Nabahan Family which ruled Lamu. The civil wars back home made it hard for the Omani Arabs to control the coast immediately. There were also threats of Persian invasion. Constant rebellion from coastal towns against Omani governors posed a serious challenge to Omani rule. Pate for example refused to pay tax and even murdered the imams messengers. Towns they were loyal to Oman were attacked.The Mazrui established themselves as independent rulers of Mombasa and ordered towns like pate, Pemba and Malindi to pay allegiance to them. Their greatest allies were the Mijikenda who promised them support in case of Omani attack.The struggle between the Mazrui and the Imams of Oman (1741-1840) The coastal towns led by Mombasa resisted Omans conquest due to the following reasons. a) The Omani wanted the revenue from the taxes levied on trade. b) The towns also wished to maintain their independence as they were during the Portuguese rule. c) The towns were also encouraged by the prevailing weaknesses in Oman due to civil wars and the Persian threat. d) The harsh and ruthless rule and manner in which the Oman rulers collected taxes. e) Mombasa had fought against the Portuguese and did not wish to be under control of another foreign power. ----- 83 ### **The struggle ** The appointment of Mohammed Ibn Azthman al Mazrui as the new governor of Mombasa coincided with the death of the Oman Imam Saif Ibn- Sultan of the Yorubi and his replacement with Ahmed Bin Said al-Busaidi.The new Mombasa governor refused to recognize the new imam and declared the independence of Mombasa from Oman. The sultan had him murdered and fort Jesus seized. A year later, the brother of the murdered governor recaptured the town and the fort. This became the century long struggle between the al-busaidi and al-Mazrui families.Taking advantage of the problems in Oman, Mombasa expanded her power and control over the coastal towns (she took over pate in 1807 and attacked Lamu in 1810). Lamu appealed to Oman for assistance. **Seyyid Said and the struggle ** Further political changes happened in Oman. Seyyid said rose to power as the imam (Seyyid) of Oman. His father, the ruler of Oman had died in a sea battle in 1804 when he was only 13 years. His cousin Badr Ibn saif took over. In 1806, Said stabbed Badr to death fearing domination. With the assistance of the British he had entrenched his position as the Seyyid of Oman at the age of 15 years. The British even promised him support in claiming the east African coast.He then sent a governor to build a fortress in Mombasa and to order all towns to recognize the power of Oman. Mombasas new governor Abdullah Ibn Ahmed defied the order and even continued to attack Brava. By 1817, Seyyid said had succeeded in freeing Pate from Mazrui rule. In 1822, with the help of Zanzibar, an Oman ally, he liberated Pemba and Brava from Mombasa. In 1823, he gained control of the Bajun Islands. He ordered that no town should trade with Mombasa.In 1824, the sultan of Mombasa offered Mombasa to become a British protectorate to protect him from the Oman rule. The new powerful position of Mombasa was however short-lived upto 1826 due to the terms of the Moresby anti-slavery treaty between Seyyid said and the British.The animosity between Mombasa and Oman continued. In 1837, there was a dispute in Mombasa over the succession to the vacant office of the Liwali. This became an opportune chance for Seyyid said to lure the members of the Mazrui family into fort Jesus where he killed them. **Seyyid Said; Sultan of Zanzibar 91840-1856) ** After that Seyyid said consolidated his power and control over the coast as well as the interior of east Africa. He then transferred his capital from Muscat to Oman. The transfer of the capital to Zanzibar from Muscat was due to the following reasons: a) Seyyid said desired to effectively control the coastal towns through the centrally located Zanzibar. b) Zanzibar had a pleasant climate compared to Muscat which was hot and dry. It also had fresh water, adequate rainfall and fertile soils that favoured clove growing. c) Zanzibar was easily defensible as an island. It was easy to sea the enemy from far and launch an attack from the island. ----- 84 ### d) The good deep harbours of Zanzibar I which ships could anchor were attractive. Zanzibars central position also favoured development of long distance trade. e) The town had a long history of loyalty to Oman throughout the Mazrui- busaidi struggles. Seyyid said appointed Liwalis to rule important towns. They were give the responsibility of collecting custom dues levied at each port. The Arabs in the local towns were allowed to rule themselves. Seyyid said was keener on the commercial empire than p olitical leadership. He stated I am nothing but just a merchant. Seyyid said developed an economic programme based on agriculture and international trade. **The development of plantation Agriculture ** Seyyid sad encouraged settlers from Oman and Zanzibar to take advantage of the fertile sols and good climate at the coast to settle in Mombasa. Malindi, Lamu and Pemba venture into agriculture.Plantation agriculture largely depended on slave labour.The people of Mombasa extended plantation agriculture into the mainland, acquiring land from the Mijikenda in exchange for gifts. They planted rice, maize, millet, beans, sesame and sorghum. Along the island, large plantations of coconut mango trees, cashew nuts and citrus fruits were developed. Grain plantations were developed around Malindi and Takaungu whose land was largely unoccupied and the orma were no longer a threat. By 1870, about 1400 to 1500 slaves worked on plantation farms in Malindi which had become the granary of Africa producing all kinds of grains, mangoes, coconut, mangoes and oranges.Seyyid said also established a clove plantation in Zanzibar. He also encouraged people to grow coconut trees by putting in place a policy that for eve coconut tree cut, three were to be planted. Plantation agriculture intensified slave trade. **The Slave Trade in East Africa ** Slave trade: The buying and selling of human beings Slavery: The state of being enslaved: Its a system where by some people are owned by others and are forced to work for others without being paid for the work they have done. It involves capturing, transporting of human beings who become the property of the buyer. The slave trade was one of the worst crimes against humanity. The trade was started by Arabs who wanted labour for domestic use and for their plantations. However, they were later joined by Europeans.. **Reasons for the rise of slave trade ** ~ During the second half of the 18th century, France opened up larger sugar plantations on the islands of Reunion, Mauritius and in the Indian Ocean. African slaves were thus recruited from East Africa to go and work in those plantations. ~ Africans were considered physically fit to work in harsh climatic conditions compared to the native red Indians and Europeans. This greatly increased the demand for the indigenous people (slaves). ----- 85 ### ~ The increased demand for sugar and cotton in Europe led to their increase in price and therefore more labour (slaves) was needed in the British colonies of West Indies and America. ~ Strong desire for European goods by African chiefs like Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe forced them to acquire slaves in exchange for manufactured goods such as brass, metal ware, cotton cloth, beads, spirits such as whisky, guns and gun powder. ~ The existence and recognition of slavery in East Africa societies. Domestic and child slavery already existed therefore Africans were willing to exchange slaves for European goods. ~ The huge profits enjoyed by middlemen like Arab Swahili traders encouraged the traders to get deeply involved in the trade. ~ The suitable winds and currents (monsoon winds) which eased transportation for slave traders greatly contributed to the rise of slave trade. ~ The Legalization of slave trade in 1802 by Napoleon 1 of France increased the demand for slaves in all French Colonies. ~ The increased number of criminals, war captives, destitute forced African chiefs to sell them off as slaves. ~ The Oman Arabs contributed to the rise in the demand for slaves. This is because they acted as middlemen between the African Swahili people, the Portuguese and French traders. They therefore worked very hard to get slaves in order to obtain revenue from them. ~ The invention of Spanish mines in West indices increased slave demands to work in the mines. ~ The exodus of slaves from East Africa to Northeast Africa, Arabia and Persia contributed to the increase in the demand for slaves. It led to an enormous number of slaves obtained from East Africa being transported to other countries. ~ The movement of Seyyid Saids capital to Zanzibar led to an increase in slave trade. This is because when Seyyid said settled in Zanzibar in 1840, he embarked on strong plans to open up slave trade routes to the interior of East Africa. This boosted slave trade, whereby the number of slaves being sold at the slave market in Zanzibar annually by that time, reached between 40000 and 45000 thousand slaves. ~ The outbreak of diseases like Nagana led to an increase in slave trade. This is because the beasts of burden (i.e. camels, donkeys, etc) could not be taken on many of the caravan routes. It therefore necessitated people themselves to be involved in the transportation of the trade goods and ivory. Such people included porters who were regarded as slaves, or free Africans who could sell their services in return for cloth and other trade goods. ~ Development of long distance trade that needed slaves to transport goods from the interior of East Africa. ~ Plantation farming increased in some areas, especially the clove plantations were slaves worked. ----- 86 ### **Organization of slave trade in E. Africa ** The middlemen involved were; Arab Swahili traders African chiefs. **Ways of obtaining slaves ** Selling of domestic slaves in exchange for goods like beads, guns, glass etc Selling of criminals, debtors and social misfits in society by the local chiefs to the Arab slave traders. Prisoners of war could be sold off. Porters were sometimes kidnapped, transported and sold off to the Arab traders. Raiding villages, this would begin at night with gun shoots and people would scatter consequently leading to their capture. ### Through inter tribal wars many Africans become destitutes and these would be captured by the slave traders. Tax offenders were sold off by the African chiefs. They were also captured through ambushes during hunting, travelling and gardening. Slaves would be acquired from the main slave trade market in Zanzibar. Other Africans are also said to have gone voluntarily in anticipation of great wonders and benefits from the Arab Swahili traders. Slave journey: - Slaves journey was a difficult one. They moved long distances on foot. Chained, whipped and sometimes killed on the way. Had little food and water and experienced extreme suffering. This is illustrated by a Quotation from Dr. David Livingstones Last Journal. London 1878:We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and dead we saw others tied up in a similar manner, and one lying in the path shot or stabbed for she was in a pool of blood. The explanation we got invariably was that the Arab who owned these victims was enraged at losing the money by the slaves becoming unable to march. ~ The main slave market where slaves were auctioned was at Zanzibar. ~ The journey across the India Ocean was horrible. ~ Crowded in ships with hardly any space to breath. Ships carried anything from 250 to 600 slaves. They were very overcrowded and packed like spoons with no room even to turn. ~ Whenever they saw anti-slave trade people, slaves would be thrown in the ocean ~ As a result many died in the process. **Effects/Impact of slave trade on people of E. Africa ** **Positive effects ** a) New foods were introduced through trade routes like maize, pawpaws, rice, groundnuts both at the coast and in the interior. b) Plantation farming increased in some areas, especially the clove plantations were slaves worked. ----- 87 ### c) The interior was opened to the outside world this later encouraged the coming of European missionaries. Many European Christian missionaries came to East Africa to preach against slave trade and to campaign for its abolition. d) The trade routes became permanent routes and inland roads which led to growth of communication networks. e) Swahili was introduced in land and is now being widely spoken in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and Eastern Congo. f) Islam as a religion was introduced by Arabs and it spread, especially in Yao land and in Buganda land. g) A new race called Swahili was formed through intermarriages between Arabs and some Africans. h) There was growth of Arab towns such as Tabora and Ujiji inland. i) There was emergence of dynamic leaders such as Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe in the latter half of the nineteenth century. j) Slave trade strengthened the large and powerful states, which could easily get access to guns at the expense of small ones. k) Slave trade led to a situation whereby power became centralized and no longer with the small, local authority (segimentary societies) mainly to enable African chiefs directly control slave trade. l) Slave trade encouraged large-scale trade whereby contact was established between the trade masters and indigenous/local population. m) Africans were dispersed to other parts of the world e.g Arabia, America and West Indies. In Africa, Sierra-Leone and Liberia were founded to accommodate former slaves from Europe and America. **Negative effects ** a) African population was reduced; people who would have been great leaders and empire builders were killed. It is estimated that over 15 to 30 million people were sold in to slavery while other millions died in the process being transported. b) Slave trade brought misery, suffering and lowered the quality of people in East Africa this is because they were reduced to commodities which could be bought and sold on land. c) Villages and families were destroyed and broken up by slave raiders and never to be reunited this later resulted in to loss of identity. d) Diseases broke out among the overcrowded slaves for example the Spaniards introduced Syphilis and soon it spread to other traders. e) Slave trade led to displacement of people and many became homeless and destitute many and stayed in Europe with no identity. f) Economic activities such as farming were disrupted. This is because the young and able craftsmen, traders and farmers were carried off, causing economic stagnation as the economic workforce depleted. ----- 88 ### g) Progress slowed down, which resulted in famine, poverty and destitution and helplessness. h) There was a decline in production of traditional goods such as coffee, beans, bark cloth and iron which greatly hindered the cash economy. i) There was a decline in African industries which also faced a lot of competition from imported manufactured goods for example the Bark cloth and iron working industries. j) Guns were introduced into the interior which caused a lot of insecurity and increased incidences of wars for territorial expansion. k) Clans and tribal units, languages were broken and inter-tribal peace was disturbed for example Swahili language replaced the traditional languages in the interior. **Abolition of slave trade ** **Reasons why it was difficult to stop slave trade ** ~ Slavery existed before in Africa societies that is to say, domestic slavery and internal slave trade, which provided a favourable situation for continuation of the lucrative slave trade. ~ The Abolition movement which had begun in Britain and her overseas territory first took effect in West Africa. The decline in West African trade encouraged the expansion of trade in East Africa especially with America and West Indies. ~ Slave trade was difficult to stop because of division of African tribes against each other .This meant that African tribes would find it difficult to unite together and resist the slave traders, who raided their societies using organized bands of men. ~ Disregard of human life, many African rulers tended to put less value for the lives of their subjects whom they ruled for example quite often, a ruler of a tribe would easily order his warriors to attack the villages of his subjects and seize their property, kill some of them. ~ Active participation and willing cooperation of African chiefs and coastal traders who were making a lot of profits made the slave trade last for so long. ~ Many European countries depended on the products of slave labour in West Indies and America for example, British industries depended on raw sugar, raw cotton and unprocessed minerals from America which she was not willing to lose. ~ European slave merchants and Africans involved in the trade were blinded by the huge profits made from the trade. ~ There was smuggling of slaves outside the forbidden areas. Slave traders would pretend to sail northwards when sighted by British patrol ships but would change course after British navy ships had disappeared. ~ Other European countries refused to co-operate with Britain to end slave trade because they had not yet become industrialized, and therefore they still benefited from it for example Portugal and Spain. ----- 89 ### ~ The only economic alternative of slave trade was Agriculture which was not reliable compared to the booming slave trade. ~ The anti slavery campaign was too expensive for Britain alone to compensate slave owners. ~ Stopping slave trade in the interior was difficult because Arabs were in control of large areas. ~ The East African coastline was long which delayed the anti-slavery group penetration in the interior. ~ Due to the tropical climate, most British personnel were affected by malaria which hindered the stopping of Slave trade. ~ Seyyid Said and Barghash were always unwilling to end slave trade at once due to fear of losing revenue and risk of rebellion by Arabs who found it profitable. ~ The anti-slavery group was small compared to the East African Coast. ~ European powers continued with slave trade, they shipped the slave cargos in to ships bearing American Flags. **Factors that led to the abolition of slave trade ** It was the British government that began the abolition of the slave trade during the years,1822 - 1826 . This was because of the pressure by various groups based on different factors; a) Rise of humanitarians in Europe such as Christians and scholars condemned it on moral grounds. The missionaries wanted it to be stopped because they wanted good conditions for the spread of Christianity. The formation of the humanitarian movements in England aimed at stopping all kinds of cruelty including slave trade, flogging of soldiers and child labour. b) Industrialization in Britain was one of the main forces behind the abolition .E.g. Britain industrialists urged its abolition because they wanted Afr icans to be left in Africa so that Africa can be a source of raw materials for their industries, market for European manufactured goods and a place for new investment of surplus capital. c) Formation of Anti-slavery movement and the abolitionist movement in 1787. Its chairman was Granville Sharp and others like Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce who gathered facts and stories about the brutality of slave trade and slavery to arouse public opinion in Britain. d) Religious revival in Europe, Anglicans preached and condemned slave trade as being opposed to laws of God and humanity. Catholic popes also protested against the trade and prohibited it. In 1774, many religious leaders served as examples when they liberated their slaves in England. e) The French revolution of 1789 and the American revolution of 1776 emphasized liberty, equality and fraternity (brotherhood) of all human beings. As a result, people began to question whether anyone had a right to deprive fellow man of his liberty when he had done wrong. ----- 90 ### f) The British desire to protect their national interests, British planters wanted slave trade stopped to avoid competition with other European planters .This is because other planters were producing cheaper sugar, British sugar accumulated hence the need to stop over production. g) The rise of men with new ideas e.g. Prof. Adam Smith(challenged the economic arguments which were the basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labour is cheaper and more productive than slave labour, Rou sseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all men. h) Slaves had become less profitable and yet had led to over population in Europe. i) Influential abolitionists like William Wilberforce ( a British member of parliament ) urged the British government to legislate against the slave trade in her colonies. j) The ship owners stopped transporting slaves from Africa and began transporting raw materials directly from Africa and America to Europe, which led to a decline in slave trade. **Steps in the abolition of slave trade ** The movement to abolish slave trade started in Britain with the formation of Antislavery movement. The British government abolished the slave trade through anti slave laws (Legislation), treaties and use of force. The Anti slavery movement was led by Granville sharp, other members were Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce and others. ~ The first step was taken in 1772 when slavery was declared illegal and abolished in Britain. The humanitarians secured judgment against slavery from the British court. ~ In 1807, British parliament outlawed slave trade for British subjects. ~ 1817 British negotiated the reciprocal search treaties with Spain and Portugal. ~ Equipment treaties signed with Spain 1835 Portugal 1842 and America 1862. ~ In E. Africa in 1822 Moresby treaty was signed between Captain Moresby and Sultan Seyyid Said it forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultans territories. British ships were authorized to stop and search suspected Arab slave-carrying dhows. ~ In 1845, Hamerton treaty was signed between Colonel Hamerton and Sultan Seyyid Said. It forbade the shipping of slaves outside the Sultans East African possessions, i.e., beyond Brava to the north. ~ In 1871 the British set up a parliamentary commission of inquiry to investigate and report on slave trade in E. Africa. ~ In 1872 Sir Bartle Frere persuaded Sultan Barghash to stop slave trade but not much was achieved. On 5th March 1873, the Sultan passed a decree prohibiting the export of slaves from main land and closing of slave market at Zanzibar. Zanzibar slave market was to be closed within 24 hours. ~ 1876 the Sultan decreed that no slaves were to be transported overland. ~ 1897 decree left slaves to claim their freedom themselves ~ 1907, slavery was abolished entirely in Zanzibar and Pemba. ----- 91 ### ~ In 1927, slavery ended in Tanganyika when Britain took over from Germany after the 2nd world war. **Effects of abolition of slave trade ** a) The suppression of slave trade led to loss of independence that is to say, it confirmed among the Arabs and Swahilis that the Sultan had lost independence over the East African coast, and that he was now a British puppet . b) The suppression of slave trade led to development and growth of legitimate trade which provided equally profitable business to both Europeans and African traders. Many ship owners diverted their ships from transporting slaves to transporting raw cotton and raw sugar from Brazil and America. c) It accelerated the coming of European missionaries to East Af rica who emphasized peace and obedience thus the later European colonization of East Africa. d) Disintegration of the sultan Empire. This is because it loosened the economic and political control which the sultan had over the East African nations .His empire in E.A. therefore began to crumble .This gave opportunity to other ambitious leaders like Tippu- Tip to create an independent state in Manyema,where he began selling his ivory and slaves to the Belgians in Zaire. e) The abolition of slave trade was a catalyst to the partition of East Africa where by Britain took over Kenya, Zanzibar and Uganda and Germany took over Tanganyika. f) Slave trade markets were also closed for example Zanzibar in 1873 following the frre treaty signed between Sultan Barghash and Bantle Frere. g) Islam became unpopular as many converted to Christianity. h) African societies regained their respect and strength as they were no longer sold off as commodities. **Development and organization of long distance trade** Local trade refers to the exchange of goods among members of a community. Regional trade involves exchange of goods between a community and her neigbouring communities.Long distance trade was the exchange of trade goods between communities over long distance, for example between the east African interior and the east African coast. **The organization of long distance trade ** ~ The communities that participated in the long distance trade were the Akamba, Swahili, Arabs, Yao, nyamwezi, Mijikenda and Baganda. ~ The trade developed because of the demand for ivory in Europe and the United States of America, slaves for plantation agriculture at the coast and in Mauritius and reunion sugar plantations ~ Ivory and slaves from the interior were exchanged for cloth. Utensils, ironware, zinc and beads at the coast.The system of trade were barter. ----- 92 ### ~ The middlemen included the Mijikenda and the Akamba who obtained slaves and ivory from the interior. The Akamba adopted the long distance trade after the outbreak of famine in 1836 and due to the central location of their country. ~ The Akamba organized caravans that left for the coast on weekly basis to sell ivory, gum copra, honey, bees wax, rhinoceros horns and skins. They had prosperous traders like chief Kivoi who is remembered for organizing the trade. ~ They set up markets and routes in the interior. ~ The source of slaves and ivory extended as far as Mt. Kenya region, Baringo and the shores of Lake Victoria. ~ The trade led to the development of Mombasa and Lamu as important market points. ~ The Waswahili and Mijikenda traders were also used in the trading caravans to the interior. ~ By 1860s, Arabs and Swahili traders started penetrating to the interior of Kenya as far as Uganda. ~ In Kenya, the main trading centres were taveta, Mbooni hills, elureko in Wanga and Miazini near Ngong and along Lake Baringo. ~ By 1870, the Akamba dominance in the trade declined as a result of competition from the Arab and Waswahili traders who began penetrating into the interior to get goods from the source. ~ Movement between the interior and the coast was carried out in caravans along well defined routes. ~ The trade routes became insecure due to the Oromo and Maasai raids. ~ The abolition of slave trade also affected the long distance trade. ~ In Tanganyika, the Yao, nyamwezi, Arabs and Waswahili were great traders. The Yaoexchanged tobacco, hoes, and animal skins at Kilwa with imported goods like cloth and beads. They were also the principal suppliers of ivory and slaves to Kilwa. The Yao were the most active long distance traders in east Africa. ~ The Arabs and Waswahili traders organized caravans into the interior and set up markets and trade routes. They were given security by Seyyid said who signed treaties with Chief Fundikira of the Nyamwezi to allow the Arab traders to pass through his territory. ~ They established interior Arab settlements at Tabora which became the centre of Arab culture. ~ The nyamwezi organized trading expeditions under their chiefs upto the coast with ivory, copper, slaves, wax hoes, salt and copra. They returned with cloths, beads and mirrors. They established trade routes such as the route from Ujiji via Tabora to Bagamoyo. They travelled to Katanga in DRC for iron, salt and copper. By 1850 nyamwezi merchants such as Msiri, and leaders like Nyungu ya Mawe and Mirambo played a key role in the trade development. ----- 93 ### ~ When the Arab and Waswahili traders arrived in Buganda, the kabaka welcomed them because he needed their goods such as beads, cloths, guns etc. He also wanted assistance in aiding his neighbours. E.g the invasion of Busoga in 1848 was assisted by the Arab traders. From the raids to Bunyoro, Toro, and ankole and Buvuma and Ukerewe islands, the Baganda acquired cattle, ivory, slaves and grains which the sold to the Arabs. ~ The Khartoumers also practiced long distance trade. They raided the northern part of Uganda for ivory and slaves. ~ Arab and Waswahili traders ventured into the Bunyoro kingdom by 1877 for ivory. ~ There were three main trade routes that linked east African coast and the interior; a) From Mombasa through the Mijikenda area onto Taita-taveta then branching into two. One leading to Kilimanjaro onto the Lake Victoria region the diversion was to evade the hostile Maasai. . The other branch proceeded northwards from taveta across Galan River into Ukambani then to mt Kenya region and further west. Taveta became an important point on these routes. b) The route from Kilwa to Yao then branching southwards to Cewa in Zimbabwe. c) From Bagamoyo to Tabora where it branched northwards to Buganda and another branch to Ujiji then to Zaire. **MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING TRADE ROUTES ** **Effects of the Long distance trade on the people of East Africa** a) The trade led to Development of towns e.g. Mombasa, Lamu, Kilwa, Pemba and Zanzibar. b) It increased the volume of local and regional trade as varieties of new goods were introduced. c) There was the Emergence of a class of wealthy Africans along the coast and the interior as Arab, African and Waswahili merchants acquired a lot of wealth. E.g. Kivoi of Ukambani, Ngonyo of Mijikenda, Tippu tip, Msiri, Nyungu ya mawe of nyamwezi, Mwakikonga of the Digo etc. d) There was Introduction of foreign goods such as beads, cloth and plates to the peoples of East Africa. e) The trade led to Introduction of new crops to the coast e.g. bananas, rice sugarcane and mangoes. f) Arab and Waswahili traders introduced Islam to the East African Coast. They also introduced Islamic culture along the coast. g) Development of plantation agriculture in Malindi and Mombasa due increased slave trade. h) It led to the development of trade routes and market centres in the region. Such routes later became important highways during the colonial rule and upto today. i) Traders gave reports about the coast, its strategic and commercial stability leading to the colonization of East Africa. j) It led to the development of a money economy that replaced barter trade ----- 94 ### k) The trade facilitated the colonization of east Africa as the interior was exposed to the outside world. **Development and organization of international trade** The east African coast also participated in international trade during the 19 Th century with traders from different countries such as USA, Britain and France. **Factors that facilitated the development of international trade** a) The existing earlier trade links between east Africa and the Far East before this period. b) The existence of regional trade which became a means through which goods such as ivory were acquired from the interior to be used in the international trade. c) The role played by Seyyid said through encouraging the foreign traders to come to the coast. He even signed treaties with them. He also gave letters of introduction to the Arab caravans leading into the interior. d) The improvement of the monetary system by Seyyid said facilitated the trade. He introduced the small copper coins from India to supplement the silver currency (Maria Theresa dollars and the Spanish Crown). He also employed the services of the Indian Banyans or Baluchis (Money Lenders) who organized credit facilities for the caravans going into the interior. e) There was a high demand for goods from the coast and the international community. Trade goods on demand were also readily available. E.g Gold ivory slaves cloths, beads, and guns. f) The existence of deep natural harbours and the attractive beaches lured many foreigners to the region. g) The existence of a class of wealthy merchants facilitated the trade. h) The establishment of specific trade routes and markets such as Zanzibar, Kilwa and Mombasa facilitated the movement and exchange of goods. i) The sultans identification of Britain as the sole trading agents in the interior overcame any rivalries which could have led to competition and decline of regional trade which would have in turn affected the international trade. j) The development of a sound trading policy by Seyyid said to ensure international market for his grains, coconuts and ivory. He developed trade links with Europe and America by signing treaties with USA in 1833 that opened a consulate in Zanzibar in 1837. He signed a similar treaty with Britain in 1839 that opened a consulate in Zanzibar in 1941. With France in 1844 and Germany in 1871.The arrival of IBEACo with William McKinnon further strengthened international trade links and increased the volume trade. **Consequences of international trade ** a) Through the trade, the east African coast was exposed to the outside world. b) Some of the European traders later spread their faith thus leading o the spread of Christianity in east Africa. c) The international trade fostered good relations between the east African coast and European nations and USA. ----- 95 ### d) The contacts between the coast and European powers later contributed to the colonization o east Africa by Britain and Germany. e) New trade goods and crops were introduced to the coast. f) Participants in the trade grew richer and exhibited high standards of living. g) The slave trade led to sufferings, killings and increased warfare. **CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES IN EAST AFRICA ** **Introduction ** Christian missions were organized efforts to spread the Christian faith for the purpose of extending religious teaching at home or abroad. Their coming of Christian missionaries to East Africa and Africa in general was based on a number of motives which were humanitarian, economic, political and social in nature. The Portuguese were the first to introduce Christianity to the east African coast in the 15 [th] c.This attempt however had little success. By the 19th century, a number of missionary groups worked in East Africa and these included; 1. The Church Missionary Society 2. The Holy Ghost Fathers 3. The University Missionary Society to Central Africa 4. The White Fathers 5. The Methodist Fathers 6. The Mill Hill Fathers 7. The London Missionary Society Reasons for the coming of Christian missionaries in East Africa a) The missionaries had the ambition to spread Christianity to the people of East Africa. This would be through preaching and teaching the holy gospel so that many would get converted to Christianity. b) They wanted to fight against slave trade in East Africa. Earlier travelers like John Speke and James Grant, H.M. Stanley, Dr. David Livingstone and others had reported about the evils of slave trade in East Africa. c) They wanted to check on the spread of Islam in East Africa from the coast with intentions of converting many to Christianity. d) Some missionaries came because they had been invited by certain African chiefs, For example, Mutesa I of Buganda wrote a letter through H.M Stanley inviting missionaries to Buganda. e) They came to establish legitimate trade in East Africa. They, for instance wanted to trade in items like glass, cloths, etc. as Dr. Livingstone told Cambridge University students, I go back to Africa to make an open pass for commerce and Christianity.. Similarly, his speech in 1857 emphasized the unity between Christianity and Commerce. f) The missionaries also loved to adventure and explore the interior of East Africa. For example Dr. John Ludwig Kraft of CMS is said to have been the first European to see Mt. Kenya while Johann Redman was the first to see Mt. Kilimanjaro. ----- 96 ### g) They had a mission to clear the way for the colonization of East Africa. The missionaries were tasked by their home governments to preach ideas of love, respect, brotherhood, forgiveness, tolerance and non violence so that when the colonialists come, they would meet less resistance from the East Africans. h) Its also argued that missionaries wanted to civilize East Africans. They argued that they came to stop some of the barbaric acts and customs e.g. Female Genital Mutilation among the Kikuyu in Kenya, human sacrifices and the practice of killing twins. i) The information they gave about important places like the source of the Nile, fertile soils, river falls and the climate all attracted the missionaries into East Africa. Early contacts by travelers like Stanley, Speke and Grant, among others encouraged missionaries to come. j) The expulsion of some of the missionaries from other parts of Africa led them into East Africa. For example Johann Ludwig Kraft and Johann Redman are said to have been expelled from Ethiopia around 1842 before they chose to relocate to East Africa. **Missionary Activities in East Africa ** The pioneer missionaries in East Africa were the Church Missionary Society led by the Germans John Krapt and Johann Rebmann who arrived in East Africa around 1844 and 1846 respectively. Krapt arrived and established a mission station at Rabai. When they realized they were not making any great impact at the coast, the two moved into the interior visiting the Akamba and Taita. The CMS set up stations in Taita and taveta.They were the first Europeans to see Mount Kilimanjaro in 1847. Krapt discovered the source of River Tana and was the first European to see Mount Kenya in 1849. In 1949, Jacob Erhardt, a Germany explorer joined them and became the first European to draw a crude map of east Africa fro then stories he heard from traders. In 1862, the united Methodist Church led by Thomas Wakefield arrived from Britain and settled at the coast. They established a station at Rabai. They also set up mission stations at Jomvu and Lamu. They were able to convert some people among the Mijikenda. In 1863, the University Mission Society to Central Africa moved to Zanzibar where a mission was started from Re-union and later to Bagamoyo. Cardinal Lavigeries formation of the White Fathers Mission in Algeria (1863) extended to other parts of Africa. In 1875, Freetown Mission a centre for freed slaves was established. By 1889, about 1400 slaves had settled in Freetown. In 1877, the Church Missionary Society mission arrived in Buganda while the white fathers arrived in 1879. In 1891, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland arrived in Kenya and began their work at Kibwezi in Machakos. In 1898, the Church of Scotland Mission arrived at Kikuyu and set up a mission station at Thogoto. Members of the African Inland Church from the United States of America established their station at Nzaui in Machakos. They then spread to Kijabe, Nandi, Kabarnet and Nyakach in Nyanza. The catholic missionary societies, like the Holy Ghost Fathers and the Consolata Fathers arrived in Zanzibar but later moved to Mombasa in 1890 . They advanced interior and founded stations among the Akamba and ----- 97 ### among the Agikuyu towards the end of the Century. The Holy Ghost fathers established a station at St Austins near Nairobi in 1899 while the Consolata fathers from Italy opened a station in Nyeri in 1907The Mill Hill Fathers reached Kenya from Uganda.In 1902, the Friends Missions arrived at Kaimosi. By 1914 there were many missionary societies working in western Kenya. For example, the Seventh Day Adventists, the Quakers (Friends Mission) and the Church of God Mission. The roles of these missionaries varied enormously depending on the colonial context and their relations with the colonial authorities. **Missionaries in Tanganyika ** The missionaries here enjoyed the support of the sultan of Zanzibar, Seyyid Said. At Zanzibar, the Roman Catholic missionaries began to follow the lead of CMS in taking interest in East Africa. The CMS began a freed slave centre at Freetown in 1875 where the freed slaves were taught Christianity and formal education. The slave villages later became Christian outposts. The CMS finally reached Uganda in 1879 where they were later joined by the White Fathers from Tabora and Ujiji.In 1863, a group of missionaries from the Holy Ghost Fathers arrived from Reunion where they had been working among freed slaves and began their work in Zanzibar. They also began a freed slave settlement at Bagamoyo. By 1885, they had set up five villages that were to act as Christian outposts Missionary work in Tanganyika was motivated by the reports given by Dr, David Livingstone on the horrors of slave trade.In 1863, the University Mission Society to Central Africa under Bishop Tozer moved to Zanzibar where a mission was started from Re-union and later to Bagamoyo. Dr.Livingstone of UMCA also worked I Ujiji in 1871 where he met with Henry Morton Stanley, a journalist who had been sent to look for him. In 1875, the London Missionary Society set up a mission post around Lake Tanganyika. **Missionaries in Uganda ** The pioneer missionaries were the members of the CMS based in Tabora, Tanganyika. The first protestant missionaries were sent from England in 1876 after a letter that was sent by Henry Morton Stanley confirming Kabaka Mutesa Is invitation. They came in through Tabora and Usukuma and reached Rubaga, mutesas capital in 1877 where they set up a church. In 1879, the Roman Catholic Missionaries and White Fathers followed also from Tabora and Kibanga.The Protestants and Catholics were supported by Kabaka Mwanga though he did not want them to work outside the capital and beyond the royal family. This arrangement did not favour Missionary work in Uganda.Soon there ensued rivalry between the Catholics and protestants. The kabaka had also embraced Muslims and African traditionalists to the level of generating the infamous religious and political conflicts that rocked the kingdom eventually leading to its colonization.Missionary work expanded upto lake Nyasa. For example the Scottish Mission of the Livingstone Mission and the church of Scotland Mission set upstatations around lake Nyasa in 1876. **Activities of Christian missionaries in East Africa ** The following were the activities carried out by the Christian missionaries in East Africa. ----- 98 ### a) Missionaries carried out evangelization. They tried to convert and baptize many people into Christianity from their paganism and Islam. b) Christian missionaries carried out linguistic research and came up with new developments in language. Dr Kraft for example translated the Bible into Swahili and wrote a Swahili dictionary and grammar hence making it easy for people to understand the Bible more. c) The Christian missionaries built many churches in East Africa many of which are still in existence. They for example set up a church at Zanzibar, Rubaga and Rabai missionary station near Mombasa. This enhanced evangelization into the local population. d) They carried out exploration work into the discovery of various East African physical features. For example, Kraft was the first European to see Mt. Kenya in 1849 while Rebmann was the first to European see Kilimanjaro in 1848. e) Christian missionaries set up stations for free rehabilitation services for example in 1868 the Holy Ghost Fathers set up a home for the free slaves at Zanzibar. f) Christian missionaries participated in skill development in East Africa. They for example participated in modernizing Agriculture and carpentry by setting up agricultural institutionsand carpentry workshops for training. g) Christian missionaries were also influential in establishing educational institutions and training efficient class of African clergy (catechists) who were close and more understandable to the local communities. This helped and enhanced the propagation of faith. h) Christian missionaries were at times involved in political processes that were beyond spiritual jurisdiction. They for example participated in the overthrow of Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda. They also acted as front runners in the colonization process. **Reasons for the success of missionary work in East Africa ** a) The missionaries faced no strong opposition from any religion. Islam was only greatly dominant at the coast. b) The evils of slave trade made East Africans welcome missionaries as liberators. Their campaign against slave trade won them much support from different tribes in East Africa. c) The support they got from some of the local chiefs and kings led to their success. For instance, the sultan of Zanzibar gave them immense support. Mutesa I of Buganda and Mirambo of Nyamwezi all gave them protection as well as rights to do their work in their territories. d) The earlier explores helped to map out potential areas of East Africa for smooth missionary work. For instance, H.M Stanley had identified Buganda as a hospitable community for the missionaries and they were later welcomed by the Kabaka of Buganda in 1877. e) The support missionaries got from their home governments led them to success. This was inform of finance and physical manpower for instance colonial governments gave protection to the missionaries whenever they were challenged by local chiefs or other ----- 99 ### threats. For instance Captain Lugard supported the Prot estants in the religious wars in Buganda. f) Some missionary groups sought for alliances with African chiefs. Such treaties of friendship made their work easy since the chiefs would call on their subjects to take on the missionary teachings. g) The missionaries efforts to translate the bible into several local languages helped them succeed for example Kraft translated the New Testament of the Bible into Swahili and wrote a Swahili dictionary and a Grammar book. h) The missionaries also received the support of African converts in spreading the Gospel. Converts could now teach in their mother tongue and therefore overcame the language barrier. i) The industrial revolution had provided such technology like the printing press which made printing of bibles and other academic work easy. j) Their efforts in life saving services like medical care (Quinine) won them great admiration among the people of East Africa that few were ready to oppose them. The discovery of quinine also facilitated their work as it cured tropical diseases. k) The missionaries practical skills enabled them to survive even when their supplies from home delayed. They for instance adopted agriculture as soon as they settled anywhere. This ensured steady supply of food. l) The building of the Kenya Uganda railway greatly encouraged missionary work in the interior. The missionaries could now travel between the coast and the interior. m) Political stability in East Africa favoured missionary work because missionaries could settle. n) The emergence of the African independent church movement boosted the spread of Christianity. African initiatives to Africanize Christianity encouraged its growth in East Africa.. o) The death of Dr. David Livingstone in 1873 and other earlier missionaries increased the determination by many groups to see missionary work succeed in Africa, and East Africa in particular. E.g. the London news paper wrote after his death, the work for Africa must hence forth begin in earnest where Livingstone left it off. p) Establishment of resettlement centers for freed slaves e.g. at Bagamoyo and Frere town near Mombasa where skills like carpentry, and agriculture were taught. Such communities thus looked at missionary work as a life- saving mission **Problems faced by missionaries in East Africa ** Christian missionaries in East Africa were faced with various problems which clipped their activities at times. These include: ----- 100 ### a) They faced the problem of language barrier. This was because East Africa had a multiplicity of languages hence rendering communication between the missionaries and the local people very difficult. b) There was a problem of the influence of Islam. Arabs being the first group of people to arrive at the coast and interior had deep rooted Islam into the people thus making it difficult for the people to easily adopt Christianity. For example, by the time Sir Edward Frere arrived in East Africa (1873) Rebmann had only 6 converts. c) Existence of tropical diseases was yet another problem faced by the Christian missionaries. Tropical diseases like malaria, small pox, claimed many missionary lives thus making progress in their activities very difficult since they could be left very few in numbers. d) Another hardship was caused by geographical barriers. These included hilly areas, rivers, lakes and forests. These hindered their free movement to various places thus a threat to their activities. e) Divisions and quarrels between various missionary groups for example Catholics versus Protestants was a hindrance to their activities. This could create divisions and biases among the believers thus weakening their capacity to convert more converts. f) Poor transport was a hindrance to the missionary activities in East Africa. This was due to undeveloped roads at the time to help in the movement of missionaries from one place to another. g) Presence of hostile tribes in East Africa was also a problem that faced Christian missionaries. The Nandi and Maasai who believed that strangers were not supposed to pass via their land could attack and kill many missionaries thereby reducing their numbers compared to the increasing number of converts. h) The presence of wild animals was also a threat to the missionary activities in East Africa. Man enters in Tsavo National Park consumed and threatened many whites. This clipped their activities at times. i) The missionaries faced the problem of lack of supplies. They for example lacked enough money, accommodation and drugs. This was because they originated from very far (Europe) thus making it difficult for them to have full time and constant supplies. Such put their lives at risk and could sometimes lead to death. j) The Christian missionaries faced the problem of stiff contradiction and rivals between European missionaries and traditional Africans. Customs like polygamy, satanic worship, etc were deep rooted into African communities which proved a threat for the missionaries to successfully uproot them. k) The missionaries made their work difficult by involving in politics and judicial systems which were beyond spiritual jurisdiction. Local leaders could misinterpret them as political rivals and organize their masses for resistance against missionary activities. ----- 101 ### **Effects of missionaries in East Africa ** (a) They spread Christianity and baptized many converts. Catechists were also trained who helped in the spread of Christianity for example, in Kenya by 1911 many people had been converted and many cathedrals and churches were built like the Kikuyu churches (Charismatic Arathi or spirit churches.) (b) African religious beliefs, culture and traditions were despised and demoralized for example the birth and murder of twins, human sacrifice. (c) They established hospitals and clinics which offered modern medicine plus research in tropical diseases like malaria, small pox, yellow fever and sleeping sickness which had claimed many lives. For example, the Mission Hospitals at Rabai, Thogoto, Kaimosi e.t.c. Dr Albert Cook built Mengo hospital. (d) They introduced the European system of management and styles of dress and architecture which have been adopted by many people in East Africa today. (e) They put to an end the inter-tribal or inter-village wars and established a stable and peaceful society under one faithful leader (centralization). (f) They studied African languages and translated the Bible into various languages. For example Kraft translated the New Testament of the Bible into Swahili, Bishop Edward Steere based inZanzibar learnt and studied Swahili and translated books from English to Swahili, published the New Testament and the entire Bible in 1891. (g) They established printing presses like Marianum press and published newspapers. (h) They opened up primary and secondary schools as well as training collages for teachers and trade schools for craftsmen e.g. Alliance High School, Kisubi Vocational School. In the technical schools, carpentry and brick laying skills were obtained. (i) A new class of elite emerged. Africans educated mainly in English and French emerged, these later served as doctors, lawyers, clerks, teachers, catechists, agriculturalists and priests who played a great role of spreading Christianity. For example, in 1890, Africans were ordained as priests of the University Mission to Central Africa in Tanganyika. (j) They paved way for the improvement of agriculture through establishing experimental farms and plantations where new crops, better methods of farming and equipment were introduced for example cotton was introduced by Kenneth Boroup in 1903 and Africans were taught how to use a plough and how to grow coffee. (k) Missionaries improved communication and transport which in turn led to the opening up of the hinterland of Africa. The building of strong boats and ships gave Europeans courage to travel far from home. (l) Missionaries destroyed local industries like craft industry e.g. blacksmiths, pottery work were all destroyed and replaced with European products e.g. manufactured items like cups, saucepans, etc. ----- 102 ### (m) They contributed to the rise of nationalism. This was made possible through education where the African elite emerged and started demanding for independence e.g. Tom Mboya, Obote, Nyerere, and Kenyatta. (n) They fought slave trade which was later abolished and equality and liberty for all was encouraged in East Africa. (o) Mission stations were developed in towns like Rabai missionary station near Mombasa. **Role of Christian missionaries in the colonization of East Africa ** a) Missionaries signed treaties which were later used by colonialists to take over colonies e.g. Tucker, a British Missionary interpreted the 1900 Buganda Agreement to the regents of Kabaka Daudi Chwa II. This led to loss of political, economic and social powers to the British protectorate government. Sir Harry John stone who signed on behalf of the British government confessed that; b) Missionaries supplied information to the colonialists which they utilized to plan how to effectively impose their colonial rule on how to crash the African resistance. In the religious wars in Buganda, the British fought behind the Protestants. c) In fact there was a reciprocal relationship between missionaries and the colonialists that is why missionaries laid the ground work before the partitioners offered missionaries protection for the success of their evangelization mission. d) The Church missionary society managed to raise enough funds for Imperial British East African Company for its staying in Uganda for at least 2 or more years. The church missionary society and Captain Lugard viewed that the companys withdraw would live theBritish and the protestant party in a dangerous position versus Moslems. e) Missionaries enhanced the growth of tropical raw materials like coffee, cotton to satisfy the British industrialists urge but disguising everything in Christianity. Bishop K. Boroup for example introduced cotton in Uganda. f) They appealed to their home governments for protection in case of attack. It is in this light that Britain came to Uganda during the religious wars of 1884-1892 and later occupied Uganda. g) They created a collaborating class by luring it religiously and materially. This class helped colonialists to fight resistors despite the fact that they were all Africans. h) In their evangelization role, they brain washed Africans with biblical teachings as love your neighbor as you love yourself, blessed are the humble for the kingdom of God is theirs, etc. With these preachings they made potential resistance important. i) Religion was a mechanism of divide and rule. The converts and the non-converts hated each other which caused division to the advantage of the Europeans. j) Collaboration with chattered companies, European Christian missionaries and their converts worked hand in hand with the Imperial British East African Company to defeat Kabalegas resistance. k) Missionary stations served as military bases from where the European colonial forces ----- 103 ### launched attacks on the resisting Africans. African Lugard used old Kampala hill as a military base against Kabalega. l) Mission stations served as colonial government headquarters. The established mission infrastructure was used to help in the establishment and sustenance of European colonial m) Colonialists lacked skilled manpower, so the missionaries by design or accident were very faithful servants of the colonial government i.e. they were Colonial government servants. n) They created a peaceful atmosphere for the germination of colonialism in areas of hostility. This is because they emphasized the centralized leadership where peace and obedience were expected. o) Missionaries also trained manpower through introduction of education which was used by colonialists. This was done through teaching those academic subjects and manual skills like use of a plough and how to grow coffee. p) They acted as interpreters e.g. Tucker in the 1900 Buganda agreement. q) Through conversion of the Buganda chiefs and pages before Buganda commoners it meant that each party i.e. the Church Missionary Society and France had gained converts. This was a political security of sympathy to the Christian missionaries as against the Kabaka in Bugandas leadership. This indirectly undermined the Kabakas authority and respect i.e. his traditional power base was being eroded. **CITIZENSHIP ** **What is citizenship? ** This refers to the legal right of a person to belong to a particular country. A Kenyan citizen is a person who has the legal right to belong, live and do freely all that has to do with their life in Kenya. **BECOMING A KENYAN CITIZEN ** Ways in which Kenyan citizenship can be acquired. a) By birth. b) By registration. **Citizenship by birth** The following are the Ways through which citizenship by birth is acquired in Kenya. a) A person is a citizen by birth if on the day of the persons birth, whether or not the person is born in Kenya, either the mother or father of the person is a citizen. b) A child found in Kenya who is, or appears to be, less than eight years of age, and whose nationality and parents are not known, is presumed to be a citizen by birth. c) A person who is a Kenyan citizen by birth and who has ceased to be a Kenyan citizen because the person acquired citizenship of another country, is entitled on application to regain Kenyan citizenship. **Citizenship by registration ** Conditions for qualification to apply for Citizenship by registration are as follows: ----- 104 ### a) If a person has been married to a Kenyan citizen for a period of at least seven years. b) If A person who has been lawfully resident in Kenya for a continuous period of at least seven years applies to be registered. c) If a child who is not a citizen, is adopted by a citizen and applies to be registered. d) Citizenship may be granted to individuals who are citizens of other countries that allow Kenyans citizenship in their countries. **Revocation of citizenship ** The revocation of citizenship by registration may happen under the following circumstances. a) If a person acquired citizenship by fraud, false representation or concealment of any material fact. b) If the person has, during any war in which Kenya was engaged, unlawfully traded or communicated with an enemy or been engaged in or associated with any business that was knowingly carried on in such a manner as to assist an enemy in that war. c) If the person has, within five years after registration, been convicted of an offence and sentenced to imprisonment for a term of three years or longer. d) If a person has, at any time after registration, been convicted of treason, or of an offence for which a penalty of at least seven years imprisonment may be imposed. Citizenship by birth may be revoked under the following circumstance a) If the citizenship was acquired by fraud, false representation or concealment of any material fact by any person. b) If the nationality or parentage of the person becomes known, and reveals that the person was a citizen of another country. c) If the age of the person becomes known, and reveals that the person was older than eight years when found in Kenya.The concept of Dual citizenship. a citizen by birth does not lose citizenship by acquiring the citizenship of another country. **Rights and responsibilities of a Kenyan citizen** **Human rights ** Human rights refers to the accepted principles of fairness and justice- or the universal moral rights that belong equally to all people in their capacity as human beings. **Components of human rights** Every human right must fulfill these three fundamental conditions; a) Condition of life, which is necessary for development of human personality b) A Social character (since it presupposes existence of other members of the society) c) It must be enjoyed equally by all members of the society. The constitution of Kenya contains the rights of the individuals and special groups such as children, the youth and people with disabilities. It gives the state the responsibility of guaranteeing these rights. The rights are contained in chapter 4 of the current constitution under the bill of rights. This chapter is not merely an integral part of the constitution of ----- 105 ### Kenya; it is the fundamental basis for the establishment of the state.Human rights and fundamental freedoms are recognized and protected in the constitution because they preserve the dignity of individuals and communities, and promote social justice **The rights and freedoms protected in the Bill of Rights ** **1. Right to life ** Life begins at conception and no child should be deprived of life deliberately. Abortion is not therefore permitted unless occasioned by the need for emergency treatment or life of the mother is in danger. People who attempt to commit suicide are also punishable on the strength of their right **Limitations of the right to life ** A court of law can sentence one to death if found guilty of an offence punishable by death **Instances when the right to life may be taken away: ** When one is defending ones life or country as is the case during war. When defending ones property against violent attack. When a law enforcement officers life is endangered, for example when apprehending armed criminals. **2. Equality and freedom from discrimination ** Every person is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law. This means that both men and women are equal before the law. Any form of discrimination is illegal and is prohibited in the constitution. **3. Human dignity ** Every persons dignity should be respected and protected. One must not ridicule or embarrass other members of society. **4. Freedom and security of a person ** This right protects a person from being detained without a good reason and without trial. No person will be subjected to physical or psychological torture, corporal punishment or cruel and inhuman treatment. Each citizen must also protect the freedom and security of others. It is unlawful for one to subject his or her spouse to either psychological or physical abuse. **5. Freedom from slavery, servitude and forced labour ** No one should be held in servitude or slavery or perform forced labour. Every employer should treat his or her employees with dignity and not to force them to work. **6. Right to privacy ** Every person has a right NOT to have him or herself, his or her property searched, or his or her possessions seized. Not revealing a persons family or private affairs unnecessarily or private communications interfered with. ----- 106 ### **Exceptions to this right: ** The law allows police officers, tax inspectors and other government agents to search private homes or business premises for purpose of health inspection, tax collection or any other officially sanctioned reason. **7. Right to assembly, demonstration, picketing and petition ** Every citizen has a right to assemble and participate in peaceful demonstrations and even present petitions to public authorities **Responsibility: ** Those demonstrating must not interfere with peace of others for example through harassment of motorists and property destruction. **8. Political rights ** Every citizen is free to make political choices, which includes the right to form, or participate in forming, a political party and to participate in the activities of, a political party.Every citizen has the right to free, fair and regular elections based on universal suffrage and the free` expression of the will of the electors for any elective public body or office. Every adult citizen has the right, without unreasonable restrictions, to be registered as a voter; to vote by secret ballot in any election or referendum and to be a candidate for public office, or office within a political party and, if elected, to hold officer responsibility.It is illegal to prevent other people from participating in elections, buy votes etc. **9. Freedom of movement and residence ** Citizens have a right to free movement and ownership of property in any part of the country. **Responsibility: ** Citizens should not obstruct efforts of any citizen to move freely and reside and own property in any part of the country. **10. Economic and social rights ** Every person has the right to the highest attainable standard of health, which includes the right to health care services, including reproductive health care. Every person has the right to accessible and adequate housing, and to reasonable standards of sanitation.Every person has the right to be free from hunger, and to have adequate food of acceptable quality.Every person has the right to clean and safe water in adequate quantities.Every person has the right to social securityEvery person has the right to education.A person shall not be denied emergency medical treatment.The State must provide appropriate social security to persons who are unable to support themselves and their dependants.Nb-it is on the strength of this right that the government is providing free primary education. **Responsibility ** Every citizen must pay tax. **11. Consumer rights ** ----- 107 ### Consumers have the right to goods and services of reasonable quality. Consumers have the right to the information necessary for them to gain full benefit from goods and services.Consumers have the right to the protection of their health, safety, and economic interests.Consumers have the right to compensation for loss or injury arising from defects in goods or services. **Responsibility ** It is ones responsibility to question the quality of goods and services being offered, to enable one get value for money. The traders and other service providers have a responsibility to provide quality goods and services to fellow citizens. They should give truthful information when advertising their products. **12. Right to fair labour practices ** Every worker has a right to fair labour practices like fair remuneration, reasonable working conditions, the right to join or practice in trade union activities and the right to go on strike .Every employer has a right to join an employers association and participate in its programmes and activities **Responsibility ** One must respect the right to fair labour practices of ones employees. Employees on the other hand must conduct themselves responsibly, even during strikes, to avoid causing physical injury to innocent people, or destroying property. **13. Right to clean and healthy environment ** Every person has the right to a clean and healthy environment. It is our duty to ensure that the environment is protected for the benefit of present and future generations. The following are the obligations set by the government in order to achieve a clean and healthy environment: a) Ensure sustainable exploitation, utilization, management and conservation of the environment b) Work to achieve and maintain a tree cover of at least ten percent of the land area of Kenya. c) Encourage public participation in management, protection and conservation of the environment. d) Establish systems of environmental impact assessment, environmental audit and monitoring of the environment. e) Eliminate processes and activities that are likely to endanger the environment. f) Utilize the environment and natural resources for the benefit of the people of Kenya. g) Protect and enhance intellectual property and indigenous knowledge of biodiversity and the genetic resources of the communities. **Responsibility ** Every person has a responsibility to protect and conserve the environment and ensure ecologically sustainable development, and use of natural resources. ----- 108 ### **14. Freedom of conscience, religion, belief and opinion ** Every person, whether individually or as a group, has freedom to manifest any religion or belief through worship, practice, teaching or observance, including observance of day of worship.One cannot be denied employment or educational opportunity because of belonging to a particular religion or because of ones belief or religion.A person cannot be forced to engage in any act that goes against his or her belief or religion. **Responsibility ** Every citizen must be careful not to infringe upon this freedom **15. Freedom of expression ** This guarantees all Kenyans the freedom to seek, receive or impart ideas or information. It also guarantees freedom of artistic creativity, academic freedom, and freedom to conduct scientific research **Responsibility ** In the exercise of this freedom, everyone is called upon to respect the rights and reputation of others. He/she should not spread propaganda with the intention t provoke others to war or to violence. It is unlawful to engage in hate speech. **16. Freedom of media ** The freedom and independence of the media is guaranteed. The state should not interfere with the media. **Responsibility ** The media industry should report impartially and avoid inciting members of the public. The media should provide fair opportunity for the presentation of divergent views and dissenting opinions **17. Access to information ** Every person has a right to access information held by the state, or by others, which may be required for the protection of any right or fundamental freedom. The state is expected to make public any important information affecting the nation.Every person has a right to the correction or deletion of untrue or misleading information that affects the person. **Responsibility ** A person should not misrepresent the information accessed, or misuse it for selfish gain. It is also illegal to sell public information for monetary gain. **18. Freedom of association ** Every person has the right to form, join and participate in the activities of an association of any kind, provided that the association is not engaged in illegal activities, such as stealing or killing. ----- 109 ### **19. Protection of the right to property ** Every person is entitled to own property either individually or as a group, in any part of the country. However the property has to be legally acquired. This right provides all Kenyans a fair opportunity to invest in property and thus, prosper. **Responsibility ** All citizens must respect this right. It is unlawful for one to deprive a person of his or her property without good reason.The state, in acquiring privately owned property must ensure adequate compensation granted promptly and in full The state has an obligation to respect the intellectual property rights of the people of Kenya. **20. Right to language and cultur ** Every person has the right to use a language, and embrace the culture of the persons choice.Every person has the right to form or join cultural groups. Every person is also protected from being forced to join any such group.Each linguistic group is free to use their language, practice their culture, and form associations and other organs of the civil society.It is unacceptable to force another person to perform, observe or undergo any cultural practice or rite. **Responsibility** This right should not be used to undermine national unity. Other citizens should be allowed the freedom to enjoy diverse culture, including members of ones own family. **21. Right to family ** An adult has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex, based on the free consent of the parties. Parties to such a union enjoy equal rights. Both parties have a responsibility to respect the rights of their spouses during marriage and even in the event of its dissolution.It is wrong to deny ones spouse access to marital property after separation or divorce.The constitution also recognizes marriages conducted under traditional, religious, personal or family law. Marrying of underage persons and forced marriages are outlawed in the constitution. **22. Fair administrative action ** Every person should be subjected to an efficient, lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair administrative action. This promotes efficient administration in public offices **Responsibility ** The officers of the state have a responsibility to accord every person fair administrative action.The right requires that a person be given written reasons for any administrative action that will adversely affect a right or freedom of the person. **23. Access to justice ** Everybody should access justice and a reasonable fee will be charged to enhance this, if required. If this is not free, many people will not access justice which will continue to be a preserve of the rich people. ----- 110 ### **Responsibility ** Everybody has a responsibility to facilitate fair play and access to justice for all. Any action aimed at blocking justice is unlawful and invites punishment. For example, shielding criminals or attempting to bribe law enforcement officers to prevent them from arresting a criminal. Aiding a criminal to evade arrest, concealing criminal acts; and lying to help culprits evade punishment. **24. Right of arrested persons ** An arrested person has; a) The right to be informed promptly in a language that the person understands of the reason for arrest, the right to remain silent and he consequences of not remaining silent. b) The right to remain silent. The right of a person to choose to talk or to remain silent. c) The right to communicate with an advocate and other persons whose assistance is necessary (freedom of speech with all those who will assist him or her in the case.) d) The right of not being compelled to make any confession or admission that could be used in evidence against the person. e) The right t be held separately from persons serving a sentence ( should not be held in prisons alongside those already convicted) f) To be brought to court as soon as reasonably possible, as but not later than twenty four hours after being arrested. g) To be charged or be informed of the reason for the extension of detention or release, at the first court appearance. h) To be released on bond or bail, on reasonable conditions, pending a charge or trial, unless there are compelling reasons as to why one cannot be released. **25. Fair hearing ** Every person has the right to have any dispute that can be resolved through a court hearing be resolved in such a manner that will accord him or her fair and public hearing. An accused person has the following rights; a) To be presumed innocent until proven otherwise. b) To be informed of the charges. c) To have adequate time and facilities to prepare a defence. d) To a public trial before a court. e) To have the trial begin and be concluded with few delays. f) To be present when being tried. g) To be represented by an advocate and be informed of this right immediately. Depending on the circumstances, the accused may be assigned an advocate by the state and at the states expense. h) To remain silent and not testify during the proceedings. i) To be informed in advance, of the evidence the prosecution intends to present, and to have reasonable access to that evidence. j) To challenge the evidence. ----- 111 ### k) To refuse to give self-incriminating evidence. l) To have the assistance of an interpreter if the accused person cannot understand the language used in the trial. m) If convicted, to appeal, or apply for review by a higher court. **Responsibility ** a. The accused person has the responsibility of obeying instructions of the court. b. They must behave well in court and outside the court c. They should respect the rights of the accusers as well as their advocates. d. Accused persons should behave as the law spells out while awaiting the verdict of the court. Whatever the verdict, they should abide by the law. 26. Rights of persons detained, held in custody or imprisoned. A person, who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned under the law, retains all rights and fundamental freedoms in the bill of rights. Except those that are impractical and inapplicable under the circumstances.A person who is detained or held in custody is entitled for an order Habeas Corpus- This is a law that states that a person who has been arrested should not be kept in prison longer than a particular period of time unless a judge in a court has decided that it is right. It is the right of the person who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned to be treated in a humane manner. **Responsibility ** All citizens have a responsibility to ensure that the rights of those detained, held in custody or imprisoned are respected. For example the judicial staff, prison staff and the police should respect the constitutional rights of all persons without discrimination. **Fundamental rights that might not be limited: ** a. Freedom from torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. b. Freedom from slavery or servitude. c. The right to a fair trial. d. The right to an order of habeas corpus **Rights enjoyed by Children in Kenya ** a) Every child has the right to a name and nationality from birth b) Every child has the right to free and compulsory basic education. c) Every child has the right to basic nutrition, shelter and health care. d) Every child has the right to be protected from abuse, neglect, harmful cultural practices, all forms of violence, inhuman treatment and punishment, and hazardous or exploitative labour. e) Every child has the right to parental care and protection, which includes equal responsibility of the mother and father to provide for the child, whether they are married to each other or not. f) Every child has the right not to be detained, except as a measure of last resort, and when detained, to be held for the shortest appropriate period of time. ----- 112 ### g) Every child has the right to separate from adults and in conditions that take account of the childs sex and age. h) Every child has the right to a childs best interests are of paramount importance in every matter concerning the child. **Rights enjoyed by Persons with disabilities in Kenya ** (a) A person with any disability is entitled to be treated with dignity and respect and to be addressed and referred to in a manner that is not demeaning. A person with any disability is entitled (b) A person with any disability is entitled to access educational institutions and facilities for persons with disabilities that are integrated into society to the extent compatible with the interests of the person. (c) A person with any disability is entitled to reasonable access to all places, public transport and information. (d) A person with any disability is entitled to use Sign language, Braille or other appropriate means of communication. (e) A person with any disability is entitled to access materials and devices to overcome constraints arising from the persons disability. **Rights of the Youth in Kenya** (a) Right to access relevant education and training. (b) Right to have opportunities to associate, be represented and participate in political, social, economic and other spheres of life. (c) Right to access employment. (d) Youths are protected from harmful cultural practices and exploitation. **Rights of Minorities and marginalized groups in Kenya** a) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to participate and are represented in governance and other spheres of life. b) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to be provided special opportunities in educational and economic fields. c) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to be provided special opportunities for access to employment. d) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to develop their cultural values, languages and practices. e) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to reasonable access to water, health services and infrastructure. **Rights of older members of society in Kenya** a) Right to fully participate in the affairs of society. b) Right to pursue their personal development. c) Right to live in dignity and respect and be free from abuse. d) Right to receive reasonable care and assistance from their family and the State. ----- 113 ### Circumstances, which may force the Kenya government to limit the freedoms and rights of an individual. a) Conviction of murder by a court of law limits the right to life b) When planning for a criminal activity one loses the freedom of movement/liberty c) When government develops a place one loses the freedom to own property d) Freedom of worship is denied if one uses it to undermine the government /create disunity e) Freedom of assembly can be limited if internal security is threatened f) Personal liberty can be denied if one has an infectious disease e.g. rift valley fever **Other responsibilities of a citizen ** a) Every person has a responsibility to contribute to positive development in the country by working hard and honestly, irrespective of the type of work or profession one is in. b) Every citizen is expected to participate in the democratic process. One has the moral responsibility to vote and even present him/herself to be voted for provided he/she fulfils all the requirements of the position. c) A responsible citizen should actively contribute views on matters affecting the community. This includes taking Part in national debates. d) A responsible citizen must be mindful of other peoples welfare. For example guiding visitors, assisting the disabled, the aged, children, as well as the less fortunate members of the society in ways in which they need the assistance. e) A good citizen should report law breakers, and even those suspected of having intentions to break the law to the relevant authorities. f) A responsible citizen should ensure proper utilization of public and private facilities including toilets, water points, post offices, public telephone Booths etc. g) A responsible citizen must maintain high moral and ethical standards. One must refrain from telling lies. **Values of good citizenship ** **Values and principles of governance in Kenya** a) Patriotism, national unity, sharing and devolution of power, the rule of law, democracy and participation of the people. b) Human dignity, equity, social justice, inclusiveness, equality, human rights, nondiscrimination and protection of the marginalized. c) Good governance, integrity, transparency and accountability. d) Sustainable development. **Values of good citizenship ** a) A good citizen has a duty to be patriotic to the country. He/she should be ready to place the interests of the country above ones own selfish interests. One sh ould volunteer for a national cause, for example engaging in freedom from hunger walk, helping victims of disasters, volunteering to help the country in times of war and using talents such a sports and music achieve personal goals and to promote the country. ----- 114 ### b) A good citizen must take part in activities that foster national unity including economic activities such as agriculture and trade which boost the economy. c) A good citizen participates in democratic process either by volunteering themselves to be elected, or by taking part in electing of leaders at national or county levels. d) A good citizen maintains and protects human dignity. He/she has an obligation to dissuade people from engaging in acts that deprive others of their human dignity such as mob justice. e) A good citizen observes equity by respecting the interests of every citizen, regardless of race, ethnicity or age) A good citizen respects social justice. A person who protests against the grabbing of public land and destruction of the environment such as Wangari Maathai demonstrates good citizenship. g) A good citizen respects inclusiveness in society. He/she does not ignore any member of society in making of decisions on matters affecting all citizens h) A good citizen respects equality of all citizens i) A good citizen respects human rights. He/she not only respects his /her right but also the rights of others in society j) A good citizen is expected to ensure that there is no discrimination against any member or section of the population to ensure the protection of the marginalized in the society. k) Good citizenship entails support for good governance. He/she has a duty to pay taxes to the government so that it can generate the revenue required to finance activities for the benefit of all. l) A good citizen has an obligation to maintain a high level of integrity in society. H/she should desist from corrupt practices and even report such acts to relevant authorities. m) A good citizen has a duty to maintain transparency and accountability. Public servants should be accountable for their actions and maintain high level of transparency. n) A good citizen supports government by taking part in projects that ensure sustainable development in the country- through participation in environment friendly projects. **Importance of being a good citizen ** a) Being a good citizen promotes peace and stability hence development. b) A good citizen promotes law and order hence enjoyment of rights and freedoms. c) Good citizenship promotes cordial relationship and social peace. d) It reduces government expenditure on security organs necessary for maintaining law and order. e) It promotes the good name of a country hence encourages tourism which is important for our development. f) It curbs against social vises like corruption, nepotism or tribalism since a good citizen can not indulge in such activities. g) It promotes good relationship with neighbors. ----- 115 ### **NATIONAL INTEGRATION ** **What is National Integration? ** Integration means unification into a whole. - The act of combining or bring together various parts in a way that makes them one.National integration refers to the process by which various components of a nation are brought together into a whole leading to national unity. **Importance of National Integration ** Why is National Integration a priority in Kenya? (a) National integration Helps in social and economic development through enhanced national unity. (b) It develops a sense of national direction, facilitating unified goals and co-operation. (c) It enhances political stability and security by eliminating suspicion. (d) Promotes peaceful c-existence of different tribes and races hence leading to peace and harmony. (e) Promotes collective responsibility due to easier, more efficient and accurate communication. (f) It enables a country to develop a sense of direction as national goals are communicated to the people in the spirit of national integration. (g) It leads to achievement of easier, more accurate communication as the nation increases efforts of national integration. **Factors that promote national unity in Kenya ** a) The constitution. This is a set of rules agreed upon by a group of people who have chosen to live together. It provides for equality of all Kenyans before the law. It Guarantees equal opportunities to all Kenyans. It Provides protection to individuals against any form of discrimination/bill of rights. It provides for a unitary government b) Education. The curriculum aims at ensuring that pupils and students focus on issues that unite them. The integrated education system encourages the children to accept one another as Kenyans. Teaching of history in schools encourages unity. Religious studies taught in schools promote respect for the Supreme Being and fellow human beings. Music and drama festivals in schools promote unity among students. c) One government. Our one government, with the three arms is recognized by each Kenyans a body that runs the affairs of the nation. d) The presidency. Kenya has one president despite the diversity in parties and tribes. The presidency unites Kenyans. e) National language. The use of Kiswahili as the official language enables Kenyans to interact freely. Kiswahili became a national language in 1975. It helps overcome communication barriers and gives Kenyans a sense of belonging and identity f) Economic growth. The government attempts to provide social amenities to Kenyans without bias. It has tried to achieve equitable distribution of economic resources. Urbanization promotes socialization and co-existence among Kenyans. ----- 116 ### There also the use of a common currency giving Kenyans a sense of nationhood. The policy of offering equal employment opportunities to all Kenyans has enabled Kenyans to work in various parts of the country where they interact freely. g) National activities. National holidays remind Kenyans of their history. Agricultural shows enables different economic sectors display and advertize their goods. Games and sports promote unity as they bring together people of different communities for a common cause. h) Mass media. The mass media in Kenya is instrumental in ensuring that information is disseminated to all at the same time. It enables Kenyans from all pats to contribute to national debates. i) Symbols of National unity. National anthem promotes a sense of belonging among Kenyans and gives them an identity. Existence of the national flag symbolizes national unity. j) The government encourages social, economic interaction among Kenyans e.g. through marriages, worship etc. **Factors that undermine national unity in Kenya ** a) Tribalism this is the practice of favouring people who are from ones own ethnic group in employment, admission to schools and allocation of resources. Others end up being discriminated against thus leading to hatred and enmity. b) Nepotism this is the practice of people favouring their relatives. This vice is similar to tribalism c) The unequal distribution of resources causes animosity between those who are favoured and those who are not. d) Political wrangles / Ethnic conflicts / clashes discourage co-operation among the citizens. e) Corruption asking for and offering of bribes to obtain and give services violates peoples rights to equal treatment. Corruption creates suspicion and hatred among people since those who cannot afford to bribe feel cheated and frustrated. f) Discrimination on the basis of gender denies people the right to participate equally in national development. g) Racism. This is discrimination on the basis of colour/ race. This creates hatred and suspicious among people. This was a common cause of disunity during the colonial days. h) Religious conflicts. In Kenya, conflicts between the Muslims and Catholics in 2000 led to destruction of a catholic church in Nairobi. Intolerance of other peoples religions creates disunity. i) Party membership. Multipartism in Kenya has to some extend become a cause of disunity. The country regularly becomes polarized on party lines especially when we near general elections. Sometimes members of parties such as TNA, ODM, UDF, URP etc dont see ----- 117 ### eye to eye during campaigns. There has also been discrimination on the basis of party membership. j) Poverty. When people lack basic needs such as food, education, health, shelter and clothing, anti-social behaviour arise. For example, stealing and violence. Criminal activities create fear and suspicion and therefore discourage national unity. k) Ignorance. Lack of knowledge creates intolerance of other peoples views and lack of appreciation of the development taking place around. This may create unnecessary division. Steps have been taken by the Kenyan government to promote national integration since independence. a) The government has developed national symbols like the flag, anthem, and the court of arms. These symbols have helped to identify us as one nation. b) Immediately after independence the then only major opposition party, KADU was disbanded to have a single party system. However this did not work for long as Multipartism was inevitably reintroduced. c) The government also set up a national curriculum in our educational institutions. This creates a sense of oneness despite the diversity. d) Declaring Kiswahili a national language. In 1975, Kiswahili was made a national language of communication as a step towards curbing rampant tribalism. This has greatly assisted as Kenyans of different diversity can communicate. e) Promotion and fostering Harambee spirit. This has led to Collective participation in development programmes by people from different groups which have promoted national unity. f) During the reign of president Moi the Nyayo philosophy of peace love and unity was introduced. It stressed the concept of being mindful of other peoples welfare. It is closely related to the principal of mutual social responsibility as embodied in African socialism. g) A new constitution in Kenya was promulgated in august 2010. This constitution promises a lot of hope in terms of unity as it may be an important tool of fighting all vices that have discouraged unity. It also stresses equal rights for all. h) The government has tried to bridge the gap between the rich and the poor through the creation of an equalization fund under the new constitution. Through this fund, development easily trickles down to reach the disadvantaged. i) Abolition of racial schools hence enrolling students of different backgrounds in the same schools. /Ethnic balance in public institutions. j) The teaching of history in schools has helped to create a sense of oneness as Kenyans realize that they share a common history. k) Promotion of games, sports, drama and cultural activities. National games at school and college level have been a source of interaction. This is a way of developing a common culture in the country l) The government has made use of media to propagate unity. ----- 118 ### m) Abolition of ethnic organizations and groupings. n) Promotion of national public service i.e. civil servants can serve anywhere in the country.. **Conflict resolution ** Conflict refers to a situation in which people or groups are involved in serious disagreements, or disputes.Conflict resolution refers to the process of settling a dispute when it occurs **Levels of conflicts found in Kenya** a) Individual versus individual. This is where two people disagree for political, economic or social reasons. b) Group versus group. This type of conflict involves one group against another also due to political, social and economic reasons. c) Individual versus state. Such a conflict of an individual against the state may be political especially one feels his/her rights are being violated by the state. d) State versus state. This is a case where a state is in disagreement with another state maybe over boundary like was the case between Kenya and Uganda during the reign if Idi Amin dada e) Group versus state. This may be caused by for example a trade union demanding the improvement of the terms and conditions of service of its members. For example the standoff between KNUT and KUPPET on one hand and the government over harmonization of the salaries of teachers with those of civil servants in 2012 leading to a countrywide strike in September 2012. **The factors that cause conflict** (h) Difference in views arising from background beliefs, social and political standing and values. (i) Economic differences. E.g. when consumers feel exploited by businessmen, when employees feel exploited by employers. Etc. (j) Political differences based on ideological orientation i.e. capitalism versus socialism. (k) Social differences, for example tribal clashes, religious conflicts, racial discrimination, age/sex differences. (l) Limited land/economic resources-unfair distribution of land, mineral resources, water resources, etc. **Peaceful methods of conflict resolution** a) Diplomacy/negotiation. This is a dialogue between two warring parties in order to reach an agreement over a dispute. The following steps are followed in negotiation; a. Fact finding- negotiation starts with finding out all the facts about the conflict that is to be solved. At this stage, the laws or guidelines to be followed are also looked at. b. Discussion. During this stage, a friendly environment is cultivated to enable discussion of workable solutions. This is usually a give and take situation. ----- 119 ### c. Reaching an agreement. The points of agreement reached should be fair to both parties with both feeling they have benefited. Each party should be willing to comprise for negotiation to succeed. b) Arbitration this is like an informal court where a neutral person (arbitrator) is chosen to resolve the dispute by listening to both sides and help them reach an acceptable decision. **Arbitration procedure: ** a. Both sides involved in conflict presents their case as they know it to the arbitrator. b. After listening to the complainants story, the arbitrator makes questions to clarify some aspects of the story. The other group may also seek clarification. c. The second group then responds to the story by the first group by a representative. The arbitrator again asks questions for clarification. d. On grounds of applicable rules, the arbitrator should consider the facts and then make a decision. c) Mediation a person who is not involved in the conflict tries to help the warring parties reach an amicable agreement. The parties involved must be willing to listen and come up with good ideas that can help them solve the disagreement. **Steps followed in mediation: ** ~ Step 1. The mediator explains the rules as a means of helping the two parties reach an agreement and not imposing a decision on them. ~ Step 2. Giving the two parties involved in the conflict chance to explain in their own words what the problem is. The Complainant explains first and then the defendant. ~ Step 3. The mediator, after listening, summarizes the stories from each party and also identifies the facts. ~ Step 4. The Mediator suggests the solutions and invites the two parties to give their opinions of the solutions proposed. ~ Step 5. Depending on the two parties reaction, the solution is looked at afresh and then an acceptable solution identified. ~ Step 6. The acceptable agreement reached is then written down and each party has to be committed to it. d) Litigation. This is where one party takes the other to court and the court makes judgments that are bidding on both sides. e) Legislation where the parliament passes laws to control conflict. f) Workshops this is where conflicting parties talk in the presence of facilitators and tries to work out a resolution to the problem. g) Arms inspection the government in order to build confidence and prevent misunderstanding between warring parties carries it out. **Negative methods of conflict resolution** a. Subjugation (use of war) b. Avoiding responsibility and refusing to accept defeat ----- 120 ### c. Appeasement/compromise. Under what circumstances violent method may be used in resolving conflict ? a. When law and order is broken and the alternative is the use of force b. In case of serious social unrest c. Striking students or workers, street mobs and bandits ## **HISTORY FORM TWO NOTES ** ### **TRADE ** **Definition of trade ** Trade refers to the exchange of goods and services between people or countries. Man must have started trading soon after the evolution of the homo sapien sapiens. Trade was occasioned by the existence of varying environmental and climatic conditions. Trade arises from the basic human needs such as satisfying food requirements **Methods of trade** There are two main methods of trade; 1. Barter trade 2. Currency trade. a) Barter trade This is the exchange of gods for gods. It is one of the earliest forms of trade that was even taking place during the reign of King Solomon of the Bible.Barter trade emerged from the natural needs of the people. For example, among the Kenyan pre-colonial communities such as the Maasai who kept livestock but did not have grains which the neighbouring kikuyu possessed. Barter trade sometimes even took place within the same community where some people had some special talents that others did not possess. E.g ironsmiths.A form of barter trade known as silent trade was practiced in some areas where the two involved communities could not speak the same language. For example, it existed between Morocco and Carthage in 400 BC.Barter trade can still be witnessed in the modern society. For example, Kenya exchanges tea and coffee with petroleum, chemicals and machinery from other countries. Barter trade however has the following disadvantages; a) It may involve bulky goods in the transaction. b) There may lack double coincidence. It is difficult always to get the goods one wants. c) Lack of standards of deferred payment; if a good was borrowed, it would be difficult to decide whether the same value was returned later or not. d) Some goods cannot be sub-divided into smaller units. If one wanted cloth equal to a half a sheep, then he could not divide the sheep into two parts. e) Lack of store of value for some goods which cannot be stored for a long time since they are perishable. E.g. milk, vegetables. ----- 121 ### f) Lack of measures of value; a specific quantity of goods cannot be measured vis--vis other goods. **Advantages of barter system ** a) Poor countries without adequate foreign currencies benefit from it by being able to exchange goods they have for what they do not have. b) It benefits where money is non-existent. c) It avoids wastage as demand and supply tend to equate. d) It promotes interaction hence good relationship, peace and stability especially among traditional African societies. **b) Currency trade** This is a type of trade that involves the use of money. Money is an item that is mutually recognized as a medium of exchange or a measure of value. In the pre-colonial times items like Gold dust, cloth, copper rods, and iron and cowrie shells were used as a form of currency. **Advantages of the use of money in trade** a) Money is a medium of exchange- it is needed to obtain goods or services. b) Money as a measure of value enables units of goods to be bought. A specific quantity of goods can be measured Visa- Vis other goods. c) Money is a standard of deferred (future) payments which allows borrowing and lending to take place. d) It is a store of value- one is able to defer satisfaction of a want to future times or make provision for ones want at a future date. e) It is a means through which immovable property can be transferred. For example when one sells a house in one city to go and dwell in another. f) Money as a unit of account is used as a calculating medium and assigning prices of goods and services. g) Money is easily divisible into smaller units. For example, if a product is valued at a lower price, the buyer only pays the agreed cost. h) The qualities of money and its functions overcome the difficulties of barter. Money however becomes valuable only when those using it have confidence that it will continue to retain its value during the period it is in possession.Technology today has made the use of currency easier. There is the use of Visa Card and Mobile money services like Mpesa and Airtel Money to carry out transactions.Difference between barter trade and trade in which currency is used as a medium of exchange. a) In barter trade goods are exchanged for goods/in currency trade, there is use of money as a measure of value. b) In barter trade depends on the existence of a double coincidence of needs but in currency method one meets his needs by the use of money. c) Items used for barter trade are bulky (some) and inconvenient to handle -and others perishable. Money is not bulky. ----- 122 ### **Local trade ** This refers to the exchange of goods between people within the same geographical area such as a village or town. **Origin of local trade ** This form of trade took place between groups of people who produced different goods mainly because of varying ecological conditions. It was motivated by the following factors; a) Existence of surplus production e.g. where some communitys harvest was excess; they could sell the excess commodity to carter for shortages elsewhere and to avoid wastage. b) Differences in climate and environmental conditions which affected the type of natural resources available in various places/ not all needs of a particular community can be satisfied by the resources available hence trade. The kikuyu of Nyeri had to go to Mathira for their foodstuff requirements during drought periods. c) Specialization and improved technology which always creates a need to exchange skills and goods with those who do not have. E.g trade between Mathira kikuyu cultivators and the Mukurwe-ini kikuyu ironmongers and weavers. Some even exchanged skills for money. d) Population increase making man to begin to supplement his needs by trading with his neighbors.Sometimes, this trade extended even beyond the local community to the neighbouring community. The Abagusii, for example, acquired hides, milk, snake poison, and pottery items from their Luo Neighbours. Some seasonal markets emerged which enabled traders to meet and exchange goods on particular days of the week. **Factors that facilitated development of local trade** a) Availability of capital for investments in trade to generate more wealth. b) Specialization and improved technology, e.g. specialization in production, in technology and in marketing. Sometimes people even exchanged their skills for money. c) Demand and supply; the growing demand for goods and services was met by increase in supply. d) Enterprise; many people began to take greater risk and invested more in trade. e) Peace and stability. This enabled people to interact more and hence the growth and expansion of trade. **Impact of local trade ** a) There was development of market places which specialized in certain items like pottery, iron tools and baskets. Others specialized in livestock b) Local trade helped to strengthen bonds between people in the same locality. It even enhanced intermarriages and other social functions. c) Local trade satisfied the requirements of the communities in terms of tools, foodstuff s, medicinal herbs etc. ----- 123 ### d) Local trade enhanced acquisition of new products that a particular community did not produce. e) There was an improvement of transport routes. Some markets were strategically located along transport routes. f) In centralized governments like Buganda, Bunyoro-Kitara, Mali, Ghana and Wanga, the local markets that developed due to the trade became important sources of revenue for the kingdoms. In Bunyoro-Kitara for example, the Omukama had officers whose duty was to collect taxes from the market places. g) Many people were brought together through trade. In BunyoroKitara, communities like the Alur, Acholi, Langi, Basoga, Baganda, Kumani, Iteso and Banyankole interacted through trade. NB; the greatest danger to the local traders was that they risked being attacked by hostile communities and wild animals. **Regional trade** This refers to a type of trade between two distinct geographical regions **Characteristics of regional trade** ~ It Takes place within a bigger geographical area. ~ It Involves intermediaries or middlemen between producers and the buyers. ~ The trade often covers long distances to and from the market. ~ It involves people who specialize mainly in trade as their means of livelihood. ~ Larger Varieties of goods are involved. In regional trade there existed established markets but goods did not have to be sold on a particular market days like the case of local trade. It also involved large volumes of trade as compared to local trade Examples of regional trade included : a) The Trans-Saharan trade b) The long-distance trade. **The trans-Saharan trade ** Trans means across. This was therefore the exchange of goods across the Sahara between the peoples of North Africa (Berbers and Tuaregs) and the people of western Sudan (the darkskinned people who occupy the region south of the Sahara) The West African kingdoms of Mali, Ghana and Songhai were involved in this trade.Development of the trans-Saharan trade. (8th-16thc AD) **Factors that led to the development of the trans-Saharan trade ** a) Demand for West African good such as gold, slaves and kola nuts by the North Africans and for North African goods like horses, cotton cloth and weapons by the west Sudan people. b) Existence of rich merchants in the region, such as the Berbers and Tuaregs, who provided capital for investment in the trade/ availability of capital. ----- 124 ### c) Existence of Local trade in the western Sudan belt and among the barbers and Tuaregs provided a base for the regional trade. d) Existence of the Tuaregs, who provided security to traders, guided them through the deserts and maintained some water points like the oases where the Berber merchants watered their camels and rested before continuing with their journey to and from western Sudan. e) Availability of well established trade routes across the desert which made it easy for the traders to travel. f) Existence of Kings in western Sudan like Mansa Musa of Mali and Askia Muhamed of Songhai who provided protection to traders, ensured peace and political stability. g) Availability of pack animals like the camel and the horse which enabled easy movement through the desert. The camel could carry heavy loads and travel long distances without water. h) Existence of oases which became a source of water during the travels, for the camels and the traders. i) Invasion of North Africa by the Arabs and their eventual settlement led to increase in the volume of trade. j) There were also vast trade goods like gold, palm oil and ivory. This stimulated the development of trans-Saharan trade. **The trade goods in the trans-Saharan trade** **From western Sudan; ** a) Gold- this was by far the most important commodity that originated from the wangara region, Bornu, Upper Senegal and upper Niger. b) Slaves- they were forcefully captured and later used as soldiers and labourers in the Arab world. c) Kola nuts and feathers. Monopoly of the Hausa traders from Kano region. d) Hides and skins- from Hausa land for making leather clothing and shoes. e) Ivory- originated from western belt mainly from cote divore. f) Gum- from Mauritania and Senegal g) Dyed cloth and pepper **From the north** a) Salt- from Taghaza, Taodeni, Bilma and Ghadames. b) Horses- from Tripoli were on demand among the political leaders and their soldiers. c) Glassware, beads, mirrors, perfumes, spices, dried fruits, needles, firearms, daggers and cowrie shells. **Organization of the trans-Saharan trade** Beginning of Trans-Saharan Trade was due to the fact that North Africa was rich in the salt that West Africa lacked while West Africa was rich in gold. The Trans-Saharan trade led to an exchange of salt for gold.The trade was between people of the western Sudan and Arabs from North Africa.Because of the long distance involved, the traders had to ----- 125 ### organize themselves very well. Traders travelled in large caravans of camels and traders to enhance their security.The rich traders from North Africa initiated the trade. They provided trade goods, camels and horses to middlemen who coordinated the trade. The middlemen would contact desert guides known as takshifs who also acted as desert guards.They protected the traders and guarded the oases in the Sahara .The Tuaregs also provided the traders with security and acted as interpreters.The caravans usually departed from the north after the rainy season when sandstorms would subside for smooth travel. The traders made stops at the oases to refresh themselves and let their camels drink water. They carried gifts for leaders of the communities along the route to appease them and as reciprocation for security while traveling through their kingdoms. Rulers of western Sudan offered service to the traders while they were in the territory.The trade was conducted in barter/ exchanging one good for another/ silent trade. Some of the caravan traders used agents who sold goods on their behalf in the interim period between their departure back to the north until the time they came back to western Sudan. The rulers of western Sudan controlled trade/regulated amount of gold to be sold . The traders paid taxes to the kings of western Sudan.The main items of trade were gold and salt i.e. from the west came gold, ivory, slaves, ostrich feathers, leather, kola nuts and pepper. From the north came salt, horses, weapons, iron implements, clothes, silk and beads. Arabs and Berbers financed the trade.The traders followed fairly defined route. The most important routes were as follows; a) A route Starting at Sijilmasa (an oasis) in Morocco through Taghaza (a desert town with a lot of salt) and ended at Andaghost in western Sudan. b) A route starting in Tunis and passing through Ghadames, Ghat, Agades and Gao. Then it passed through Hausaland, Gonja and eventually ended at Yorubaland in modern Nigeria. c) A route beginning at Sijilmasa and passing through Timbuktu before proceeding to Gao. d) A route beginning at Tripoli passing through Fezzan and eventually ending at Bornu in the Sudan Belt. **Challenges faced by the trans-Saharan traders ** a) There was Communication barrier due to lack of a common language for transactions. This was a challenge during the pioneer years. b) Traveling long distances for many months, usually up to three months, across the desert was tedious and stressful. c) Traveling under extreme weather conditions; too hot during the day and too cold at night. d) Scarcity of water and food during the journeys. The traders suffered serious sickness due to such extreme weather variations. e) There were constant Attacks by hostile communities who sometimes robbed them of their merchandize. ----- 126 ### f) Traders were sometimes attacked by insects like scorpions and wild animals. g) The traders sometimes suffered from Loss of direction due to the vastness of the desert. h) Exposure to frequent sandstorms which killed many traders. i) Sometimes wars between kingdoms disrupted trade. **Impact of the trans-Saharan trade ** **Positive impact; ** a) The trade stimulated the emergence of urban centres along the trade routes. Towns like Taghaza and Timbuktu developed due to the production of trade commodities like salt and gold respectively. b) Profits from the trade stimulated the growth of strong empires as the kings levied taxes on the caravan traders. Examples of such empires include Mali, Ghana and Songhai. c) Introduction of horses in the western Sudan belt led to strengthening of the state armies as horses were used by the armies to boost security in the region. d) A class of wealthy traders emerged in western Sudan. These were mainly the local merchants who interacted with the merchants from North Africa. e) The trade stimulated the emergence and growth of smithing technology and industry. f) The trade led to the introduction of iron tools in wider areas of western Sudan. This boosted agricultural production in western Sudan and ensured food security in the area. g) There was population increase in western Sudan due to increased food production as a result of better farming tools. h) It also enhanced contacts between North Africa and the Suda n belt. This facilitated the spread of European goods and ideas between the peoples of the two regions. i) The trade facilitated the spread of Islamic religion in the Sudan belt. For example, the Hausa traders were converted to Islam. j) There was introduction of the Islamic system of education in the Sudan belt. The University of Timbuktu for example, teaching mainly Islamic syllabus, was one of the institutions that emerged as a result of the trade. k) Sharia law was introduced in the states that accepted Islam in western Sudan. l) The trade led to the introduction of the Arabic architectural designs in West Africa. m) The Islamic and Arabic culture-language, mode of dressing and eating mannerisms also spread to western Sudan. n) The mode of transport in the region was remarkably revolutionized by theintroduction of camels and horses making transport efficient. **Negative impacts: ** a) The trade increased warfare in the region as communities gained access to firearms and horses. Thousands of people lost their lives. b) Many people in the western Sudan belt were captured and taken into slavery to meet the demands of the trans-Saharan traders. ----- 127 ### c) The demand for ivory also led to the destruction of wildlife in western Sudan. Decline of the trans-Saharan trade. The trade reached its climax at around AD 8 [th] c. by 15 [th] c, the trade had declined due to the following reasons; a) Exhaustion of the salt and gold minefields as well as other like ivory. This discouraged traders from coming to West Africa. b) Increased political instability in the region due to so many wars of conquest created insecurity to the traders. c) The desert conditions e.g. harsh weather, dangerous insects, snakes and robbers discouraged many traders from the activity. d) Invasion of the region by the almorarids and the Tuaregs increased insecurity even more along the trade routes. Hence traders discontinued their involvement. e) Moroccan invasion of western Sudan in the 16 [th] century undermined the trade. f) The growth of the trans-Atlantic trade attracted some of the trans-Saharan traders thus reducing the volume of commodities that were sold. g) Colonization of west and North Africa by Europeans who took over the resources hence African activities were undermined. h) Invasion of North Africa by the ottoman Turks created insecurity along the caravan routes leading to decline of the trade. i) Anti-slave trade pressure from the British and eventual abolition of slave trade reduced trade profits. j) The establishment of commercial ports on the western African coast and the use of navigable rivers by the 16 [th] century AD rendered caravan trade unpopular as it was slow, cumbersome and risky. **International trade ** This is a type of trade that involves the exchange of goods between different countries in one continent or beyond the continent. **Examples of international trade include ** a) The Indian Ocean trade b) The trans-Atlantic trade. **The trans-Atlantic trade ** The trans-Atlantic trade involved Europe, Africa and the Americas thus earning it the name Triangular trade. It was also called the trans-Atlantic slave trade because it involved crossing the Atlantic and the main commodity was slaves.The trade was fueled by the technological innovations especially in Spain and Portugal which facilitated sea transport.The trade happened at a time when the Europeans were keen on expanding overseas (15 [th] and 16 [th] c AD) for the following reasons; a. They were searching for the sea route to India and Far East to get the spices and other commodities. The Turks had blocked the land route. b. The Europeans wanted to acquire gold and other precious items that believed to be in ----- 128 ### existence in Africa. c. The Europeans wanted to revenge against the Muslims who had colonized the Iberian Peninsula between 8 [th] c and 1491 AD. d. They were motivated by the desire to spread their civilization to the backward areas of the world. e. European countries such as Portugal and Spain also wanted to increase their geographical knowledge. **Origin of the trans-Atlantic trade ** The exact date when the first slave was captured and sold was 1441 AD. Young Portuguese sailor named Ahtam Goncalvez captured a man and a woman on the Western Sahara coast whom he presented to Prince Henry the Navigator, the Portuguese king, thus setting off a chain of reaction in the trade. The Portuguese built a fort on the Arguin Island on the coast of Mauritania in 1445 which was used as a base for buying slaves and Gold. The suppliers of the slaves at the fort were the Moors.The Portuguese ventured into the gold coast in search of gold in 1471. They built a fort at Elmina in 1482.The Portuguese then established trading contacts with the king of Congo who even accepted Christianity and Portuguese culture. (He baptized his son Afonso Bemba Nzinga) By 1500AD, the Portuguese established sugar plantations in the island of Sao Tome near modern Gambia. They relied on slave labour from Gambia. **Development and organization of trans-Atlantic slaves. ** The demand for labor in the western hemisphere stimulated a profitable three-legged trading pattern. European manufactured goods, namely cloth and metal wares, especially firearms, went to Africa where they were exchanged for slaves. The slaves were then shipped to the Caribbean and Americas from 1532 AD, where they were sold for cash or sometimes bartered for sugar or molasses. Then the ships returned to Europe loaded with American products.European ports of Bristol, Liverpool and Glasgow in Britain, Bordeaux and Nantes in France, and Amsterdam in Holland were crucial in this trade. The forts that developed in West Africa due to this trade were Elmina, Lagos, Whydah, Accra, Badagri, Sekondi, Winneba, Goree and Dakar. In the 16 [th] c, the Portuguese emerged as the main suppliers of slaves to Spanish colonies, having been granted special licenses, asientos, by the Spanish monarchy.African slaves were more preferred by Europeans because; a. They were available in large numbers. b. They were found to be cheaper to use than European labouerers and American Indians. c. They were thought to be immune to both European and tropical diseases. d. They appeared stronger and therefore suitable for manual labour. The Dutch were among the first European nations to compete the Portuguese in slave trade. ----- 129 ### For example in 1630, they wrestled the Elmina Fort from the Portuguese and captured Luanda in 1641. They were supplying slaves to new sugar plantations in the British Colony of Barbados and the French Caribbean colonies of Martinique of Guadalupe. The British and the French used merchant companies to conduct the slave trade having been motivated by the fortunes the Dutch were making. e.g, the Royal African Company was granted charter in 1672 and began taking colonies to the British colony in Jamaica. The original capture of slaves was almost always violent. As European demand grew, African chieftains organized raiding parties to seize individuals from neighboring societies. Others launched wars specifically for the purpose of capturing slaves **Factors that facilitated the acquisition of slaves** a. Existence of the institution of slavery in West Africa where the war captives, adulters, witches, the weak, debtors and murderers were enslaved b. Availability of firearms to precipitate warfare and capture of the conquered as slaves. c. Existence of well defined trade routes easily used by the slave merchants to access the interior slave markets. d. The great demand for slaves in the New World (Latin America) and North America. **Ways of obtaining slaves ** a) Selling of domestic slaves in exchange for goods like beads, guns, glass etc b) Selling of criminals, debtors and social misfits in society by the local chiefs to the Arab slave traders. c) Prisoners of war could be sold off. d) Porters were sometimes kidnapped, transported and sold off to the Arab traders. e) Raiding villages, this would begin at night with gun shots and people would scatter consequently leading to their capture. f) Through inter tribal wars many Africans become destitutes and these would be captured by the slave traders. g) Tax offenders were sold off by the African chiefs. h) They were also captured through ambushes during hunting, travelling and gardening. i) Slaves would be acquired from the main slave trade market in Zanzibar. j) Other Africans are also said to have gone voluntarily in anticipation of great wonders and benefits from the new world.Following capture, slaves were force- marched to the coast to holding pens where they were oiled and fed ready for inspection, before being loaded on ships. Prices of slaves depended on sex, age and size.The slaves were bartered for guns, alcohol, gun-powder, cloth and different metals. **Two trading systems were used: ** a) Factory system where political authorities allowed Europeans to establish permanent coastal baracoons or fortresses where slaves were kept in bulk as they awaited shipment. This method was only used by chartered companies as t was expensive. It was also only viable in Dahomey where slaves were in large numbers. ----- 130 ### b) Private trading. Sailing with vessels down the coast, and then stopping at different points to purchase slaves until there was enough cargo.The slaves were branded before loading them into the ships ready for the trans-Atlantic journey which was called the Middle Passage. The ships were filthy, hot, and crowded. By 1654, some 8,000-10,000 Africans each year were undergoing the Middle Passage. The moment of sailing is described as the most traumatic. Many Africans revolted during the middle passage in a bid to escape. For some jumping overboard was more preferable than their blood being turned into red wine, bones into gunpowder, skins, into black leather shoes and flesh -the Whitemans meat as they believed. **Factors which led to the development of the trans-Atlantic slave trade** a) Increased demand for slave labour by European countries led them to West Africa where they were available in large numbers. **Dangers of Middle Passage ** Suicide Disease The mortality rate averaged between 13 and 33 percent of the slaves and the crew. If the Atlantic were to dry up it would reveal a scattered pathway of human bones marking the various routes of the Middle Passage.. b) Greater preference for African slaves by the slave traders since they were thought to be more strong and resistant to tropical disease and could cope with stress easily. c) West Africa had well defined interior routes which enabled establishment of earlier strong trade links by the Europeans. There were also vast trade goods like gold, palm oil and ivory. This stimulated the development of trans-Atlantic trade. d) African chiefs had developed a taste for European goods like cloths, firearms and glass enabling exchange for slaves, gold ivory and palm oil. There was also existence of the institution of slavery in West African communities. e) The introduction of firearms facilitated the capture of slaves and hence their increased supply. f) The exploitation of minerals and establishment of plantations in the Americas pushed demand for slaves to higher levels hence trade with the region expanded. g) The increased demand for raw materials to feed the growing industries in Europe led to increased demand for slaves in cotton farms in the Americas. h) The rivalry between the Portuguese and the Spaniards and with the Britons over the control of slave trade pushed the trade to a higher new level. i) The fact the trade was very lucrative led to its further expansion. j) Improved technology which meant ability to construct greater capacity ships. Th is enhanced transportation of more slaves from West Africa and thus development of the trade . ----- 131 ### **Impact of trans-Atlantic trade on the people of West Africa ** a) It caused immense suffering to many people. b) It led to forced emigration of about 10 million people to the Americas between 1500 and 1888. c) Many slaves died between capture and arrival to their destinations. d) Depopulation occurred in areas where slaves were taken from. This led to underdevelopment since the young and productive people were taken away. e) African traditional industries were destroyed by the sale of cheap manufactured goods from Europe. f) There was increased conflict between communities especially where the gun was used. This led to destruction of property during the inter-community wars. g) Many African communities were weakened and were left unprepared for the scramble and partition of Africa which soon followed. h) It led to rise and growth of states e.g. Asante, Dahomey. i) It led to founding of Liberia and Sierra Leone as settlements for slaves who were freed. j) It led to changes to social roles; women became the heads of their families due to the enslavement of men. k) Some African cultures spread to the Americas e.g Jazz Music and samba dancing styles of Brazil and even witchcraft. l) The trade led to the rise of the mullato population. E.g in Senegal, where they are mainly found in Goree and Dakar, as a result of the intermingling between the European traders and the African women. m) It contributed to the decline of the trans-Saharan trade and the colonization of West Africa. **Economic impacts of slave trade** a) It led to introduction of new (manufactured) goods in West Africa which undermined many indigenous technologies like smithing and medicine. b) Africa was depleted of her vital manpower that was greatly needed in agriculture and defence. This led to economic retardation. c) Destruction of African property during the slave raids. d) Led to the eventual decline of the Trans Atlantic trade at its abolition. e) Stimulated development of ports in West Africa and in Europe. f) African leaders accumulated a lot of wealth e.g Dahomey, jaja, Asantehene. g) It led to development of European economies. A number of large cities grew along the coastal ports. For example Glasgow, Bordeaux Liverpool and Nantes. h) Growth of industrialization in Europe as the slave labour ensured constant flow of raw materials into the industries. i) Some of the slave dealers accumulated enormous wealth. For example, the merchants like Barclays Brothers and sailing companies like Lloyds. ----- 132 ### j) The trade led to the expansion of plantation farming in USA (cotton and sugar plantations) which relied on slave labour. **Decline of the trans-Atlantic slave trade** In 1807, the British government made a decision to abolish slave trade. Factors that led to the abolition of slave trade; a) Rise of humanitarians in Europe such as Christians and scholars condemned it on moral grounds. The missionaries wanted it to be stopped because they wanted good conditions for the spread of Christianity. The formation of the humanitarian movements in Engl and aimed at stopping all kinds of cruelty including slave trade, flogging of soldiers and child labour. b) Industrialization in Britain was one of the main forces behind the abolition .E.g. Britain industrialists urged its abolition because they wanted Afri cans to be left in Africa so that Africa can be a source of raw materials for their industries, market for European manufactured goods and a place for new investment of surplus capital. c) Formation of Anti-slavery movement and the abolitionist movement in 1787. Its chairman was Granville Sharp and others like Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce who gathered facts and stories about the brutality of slave trade and slavery to arouse public opinion in Britain. d) The attainment of independence by USA in 1776 left Britain in a dilemma since she had no colonies where she would take the slaves to work. e) The French revolution of 1789 and the American revolution of 1776 emphasized liberty, equality and fraternity (brotherhood) of all human beings. As a result, people began to question whether anyone had a right to deprive fellow man of his liberty when he had done wrong. f) The British desire to protect their national interests, British planters wanted slave trade stopped to avoid competition with other European planters .This is because other planters were producing cheaper sugar, British sugar accumulated hence the need to stop over production. g) The closure of the American slave market after the defeat of the South American states in the American civil war of 1865 left the slave dealers with no market for their slaves. h) The rise of leading London economists with new ideas e.g. Prof. Adam Smith(challenged the economic arguments which were the basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labour is cheaper and more productive than slave labour, Rousseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all men. i) Influential abolitionists like William Wilberforce (a British member of parliament) urged the British government to legislate against the slave trade in her colonies. They in turn influenced public opinion against slave trade. ----- 133 ### j) The ship owners stopped transporting slaves from Africa and began transporting raw materials directly from Africa and America to Europe, which led to a decline in slave **TRANSPORT ** **Definition of Transport ** Transport is the movement of people and from one place to another.Transportation is usually classified by the medium in which the movement occurs. For example, land, air and water transport.Transport can be categorized into traditional and modern means. a) Traditional means of transport. The means of transport at this category were land and water evolved. **Land transport** People move on land either by walking or by using other human powered transport. People also use domestic animals as a means of transportation **Human transport** Human powered transportation included carrying goods on their backs, heads and shoulders. Africans were used as porters during the slave trade. Human porterage still goes on in the modern society. Limitation of human porterage Human porterage was cumbersome, slow and tiresome. Humans Carry limited amount of goods at particular time. It is not convenient over long distances. **Animal transport** Early human beings used the domesticated animals to carry loads on their backs or pull carts. Such animals are referred to as pack animals.In 500 AD a paddled collar was devised that rested on the animals shoulders. In 200 AD saddles were introduced in Egypt. Horse shoes were introduced in 700 AD ***Donkey\Ass*** The first animals to be used as pack animals; they were used in Egypt as early as 3400bc to carry weight upto 80kg. They were commonly used in the trade between Nubia and South Sudan. In Ukambani today, donkeys are used to fetch water. ***Oxen*** Referred to as draught animals used for ploughing and pulling carts and also transportation of goods and people. ***Horses*** They were first rode but were later trained to pull wagons, chariots and passenger coaches. In the Roman Empire, they carried soldiers during war. (Soldiers on horseback are referred to as cavalry. **Disadvantages of horses** a) It is highly susceptible to diseases. b) It cannot survive in tsetse fly infected areas. ----- 134 ### c) The weight limit of the load it can carry is 120kg d) They are not suitable in arid and semi-arid areas because they need a lot of water. NB; - horses are mainly reared by the rich as a symbol of high social status. Mules.A crossbreed of a horse and a donkey, they are sterile and carry loads upto 110kg.they are mostly used in mountainous areas in central and southern Europe and in Mexico. **Camels ** It is referred to as the ship of the desert. What makes a camel ideal in desert transport? a) It has a unique ability to survive for long without food and water. b) They have an incredible water storage capacity, they do not sweat lose much moisture. c) They have broad padded, two toed feet ideal for walking on desert sand. d) The nostrils have flaps which keep away sand during sandstorms. e) Its fur is thick enough to protect it from the sweltering desert heat by day and ext reme cold conditions at night. f) The hump contains a lot of fat which the camel uses when it goes without eating Camels were commonly used during the trans-Saharan trade. They are in use in Kenya today among the Galla and Somali carrying weight upto 200kg. Llamas and alpaca. Members of the camel family found in central and south America. They carry load upto 40 kg. **Elephants ** They are used in Asia to carry people and heavy loads upto 250kg. In India, they were used to transport people and goods during war in 2500BC. In Africa they were used in warfare in 270BC. Water Buffalo . A member of the cattle family and the only type of buffalo that has been domesticated. The cape buffalo of Africa and the Pygmy buffalo of Philippines have not been domesticated. It isused to pull ploughs and do other heavy work in India and south East Asia. **Reindeer ** A long-horned deer family breed used in the cold parts of Canada, Sweden and Norway for riding and transportation. It also provides milk, meat, hides and horns. ***Dogs*** Dog types like Bouriers were used to pull small carts and sledges, especially in the Arctic thus making transportation of gods and people easy. Dogs are also used in guiding blind people in sports and as pets at home. ----- 135 ### **Advantages of animal transport** a) Pack animals can be used in largely inaccessible areas. The Llama, for example is used in the mountainous areas with narrow and meandering paths and steep cliffs. The camel is well adapted for deserts. b) Animals are cheap to maintain. They attract very little maintenance costs, since only feeding costs are incurred. c) Pack animals are safe as accidents are rare probably because they do not speed.. d) Animals help to maintain the ecological balance since they do not interfere with the environment. e) Pack animals are capable of sensing danger. For example, horses and dogs can sniff out an enemy from a distance. This enhances security as dangerous confrontations with an enemy can easily be avoided. **Disadvantages of animal transport** a) Animal transport is slow and tedious. The animals need to feed and drink along the way. b) Pack animals may be attacked by wild animals, disease- causing insects such as tsetse- flies and disease. a. Their movement is limited to the day only and cannot travel at night. b. They can only carry small loads as compared to vehicles. c. Some pack animals such as donkey are stubborn when tired and heavily loaded. The camel is only suited for the desert. d. Pack animals use is limited to short distances as they fatigue when they travel for long. **The wheel ** The wheel was invented in sumeria at about 3000bc. By 2500BC, they had invented the spoked wheel used on horse drawn chariots. The chariot was used in Mesopotamia at around 2000BC and later spread to Egypt, Persia, Rome, china, Africa and Europe. The cart or wagon pulled by humans or animals was the first wheeled vehicle. The wheeled wagons and carts created the need for roads Today many types of wheels are in use. For example, the steering wheel for cars, turbines for jet engines and gyroscopes used in the automobile pilot technology. Ways in which invention of the wheel impacted on road transport a) More roads were constructed to use wheel vehicles for transport b) Road transport became faster and efficient c) Bigger loads could be carried hence was cost effective profitable d) It made the use of motor engine driven vehicles possible e) It enabled man to move over long distance to disseminated ideas and interact. **Water transport ** Water transport has progressed from early rafts and canoes to the modern large passenger and freight ships. ----- 136 ### A raft is a simple floating structure, usually made by tying together floating material like animal skin, papyrus stalks or logs. The earliest people to make rafts were the Australians. They made rafts called catamaran by tying logs together. Long poles were then used to drive the raft.Rafts however sank easily and required a lot of manpower upstream. A canoe was a narrow boat that was propelled by one or more paddles. The oldest canoe was made by stripping the bark from trees (bark canoes). Later a new canoe was made from a hollow on a log (dug-out canoe).In Kenya, canoes are used for transporting people and goods and for fishing in inland lakes and rivers. **Oar-driven boats ** Boats are small vessels for travelling on water and are powered by oars, sails or motor. The Egyptians pioneered in the building of boats that used oars (a short wooden pole with a flat end) instead of paddles in 3000BC. The Phoenicians, Greeks and the Romans developed oardriven trading vessels and warships. **Sailing ships. ** Humankind learned that the wind could move a boat more easily than human beings if the ship had a piece of cloth fixed on poles (sail). The Egyptians used the sailing ships by 3000BC on the Mediterranean and Red seas. The Greeks made sailing ships known as galleys which were used for trade and war. They used war galley known as triremes to defeat the Persians and Phoenicians.Sailing ships were depending on monsoon winds discovered by Hippalus. The Arabs and Persians relied on the monsoon winds to reach the east African coast.The Portuguese invented a three-masted ship called a caravel as the one used by Christopher Columbus and other explorers to sail to America and the Far East. The Carrack used by Vasco da Gama was five-masted to sail to east Africa. Ferdinand Magellan became the first person to sail around the world using a Sailing ship Fast sailing ships called clippers were made in 1840s in America. It was a long and narrow ship with sharp bows and almost straight sides.However, sailing ships could not sail on windy days and seasons. Some communities however still use sailing ships upto today for sports, fishing and leisure.By the 12 [th] c AD, the magnetic compass was being used in navigation aid **Factors that led to the development of various forms of transport ** a) Technological development during the scientific age which enabled man to invent machines which could be used to manufacture various parts of cars, rails, airplanes, ships and motor boats. b) Expansion of geographical knowledge encouraged the development of transport so as to enable man to search new places faster and more safely. c) Introduction of specialization as a means of production which necessitated exchange o goods and services which could only be made possible through development of transport and communication. ----- 137 ### d) Population increase hence demands for more food and goods hence the need for essential transport system. e) In order to satisfy the desires of man there was need to develop a system of transport that would enable man to get the goods and services he needed so much. **Modern means of transport** **Road transport** The invention of the wheel stimulated the construction of roads. The Roman soldiers built hard and straight roads all over Europe and North Africa by around 300 BC. The roads were built by digging a trench, 1.5metres deep which then would be packed with heavy stones or rocks. Rough and fine concrete was added to the foundation, then layers of gravel, chalk and cement. The road surface was slightly convex with deep trenches on the sides. Roman roads declined with the fall of the Roman Empire.Attempts to built better roads in Europe in the 18 [th] c were made by George Wade (1673- 1748) built 400km of roads and John Metcalfe (17171-1810) built 290km of roads.However modern road construction is attributed to John McAdam (1756-1836). McAdam laid three layers of small broken stones packed tightly together. He then placed a layer of gravel which was bound together by the weight of a vehicle. These roads were called the flexible road or macadamized road. These roads were straight and had a smooth surface. They were widelyused all over the world. They have curved surfaces and had a Good drainage system. They are cheap and durable.The roads were later improved by adding tar to produce a water proof surface called tarmac. By 1820, Britain had built 200,000km of road. **Advantages of macadamized roads** a) They were durable with three layers of small broken stores b) They were cheap to construct using stones as the basic material for construction c) They had a smooth motoring surface since the gravel layer was bound together by the weight of vehicles d) They were straight hence reduced occurrence of accidents e) They were easily drained due to their smooth surface and being raised. **The bicycle ** In 1790, a Frenchman, de Divrac made the first bicycle which was pushed with the feet thus called a walkalong. A german named Baron Karl Drais invented a walkalong called draisine which had a steering bar connected to the front wheel.In 1860, Ernes Michaux, a French locksmith, invented a bicycle with two wheels and pedals attached to the front wheel.In 1866, Piere Allement a Frenchman, was given the first patent on a bicycle, boneshaker. It had iron wheels fixed to wooden spokes. In 1873, a bicycle named a high- wheeler was introduced in England. The firs bicycle in England was made by Kirk Patrick Macmillan of Scotland.James Starley is referred to as the father of the cycle industry. In 1870, he invented the tension spoked wheel in which the rim and the hub were connected by wire spokes.John Dunlop invented the tyre filled with compressed air ----- 138 ### in 1888 which replaced the iron tyres and solid rubber tyres.In 1893, a bicycle with a diamond shaped frame with a roller-chain-drive and a compressed air wheel was invented.The bicycle is today used all over the world not only for transport, but also for sporting and leisure activities. The advantage of a bicycle is that it easily used on narrow paths and on a fairly level surface. It is also cheap and convenient. **Motor vehicles** These are self-propelled power-driven land transportation devices used to transport people or goods, especially on land. The device converts fuel into energy to provide the power for the vehicle to move.The first attempt to power drive devices was the suggestion by a Swiss clergyman J.H Genevoisin 1760 that wind springs be used to move wheels on roads.However the making of an engine that could drive a vehicle is attributed to a French engineer, Nicholas Joseph Cugnot (1725- 1804). He built a three wheeled steam-driven vehicle in 1769, though he abandoned his experiment prematurely. In 1883, a German, Gottlieb Daimler (1834-1900) produced a high speed petrol engine which he fitted on a wooden cycle in 1885. Karl Benz (1844-1929) fitted the same engine on a w tricycle in the same year.In 1886, Daimler made the first petrol driven car with four wheels. Benz built the first four wheeled Benz car in 1893. In the same year, an American, Charles Duryea (1862-1938) built the first gasoline powered automobile. The tyres made by Dunlop were fitted on these cars to make them more comfortable.The first car in the motor industry, Panhard-Hevassor, was made by a French company which had bought the rights to use Daimlers engine.In 1903 in USA Henry Ford founded the Ford Motor Company in Detroit leading to mass production of cars in the world. For example the model TFord was developed in 1909.Students read more on the motor vehicle inventions. **Impact of road transport ** a) Roads have promoted trade within and between countries since goods are transported by road to various markets. This case is true in east Africa. b) Road transport has stimulated industrial development as raw materials to factories and manufactured goods to the market are easily transported. c) Development of towns and urban centres along roads has been as a result of improved road transport. d) Many countries earn a lot of foreign exchange from the sale of motor vehicles. For example Japan, Germany and USA. e) Employment opportunities are created as many people work in the motor vehicle industry while others are employed to construct and maintain roads. **Advantages of road transport ** a) Since it is the commonest mode of transport, it reduces the cost of movement of goods and people as well as promoting social interaction. b) It is cheaper compared to other forms of transport. Roads are easier to construct and maintain when compared to railway transport. ----- 139 ### c) It is faster when compared to water and railway transport unless in the case of electric trains. d) Roads are flexible and link with other forms of transport such as water, railway and **Disadvantages of road transport ** a) The high number of accidents on roads leads to loss of lives. b) Road transport is responsible for pollution which causes environmental degradation. Key notes for the teacher and students- @Cheloti 2012-2013 20 c) Due to an increased number of vehicles on roads, traffic congestion is a major concern in most urban cities and towns. d) Roads may sometimes inconvenience the users when they become impassable. e) The quantity of goods carried is limited as roads cannot carry bulky goods compared to the railway. f) The use of roads is limited to specific areas. It cannot go beyond land e.g across the sea or lake. g) Construction of all-weather roads is expensive. Developing countries find themselves constrained by limited resources that are needed to construct all-weather roads. **Rail transport** Railway lines are paths of parallel metal rails that allow a wheeled vehicle to move easily by reducing friction. Initially, they were used in 1800s to guide horse drawn wagons. Later the steam engine replaced horses as the means of transport.The development of modern railway was a gradual process that started in Britain and Germany with the use of wooden rails.A British engineer, Richard Trevithick (1771-1833) designed a steam engine that was small enough to be put on a truck. This he fitted on a railway locomotive which he had bought in 1804 to pull a cargo and passenger train in south Wales. Fenton, Murray and Wood of Leeds built the John Blenkinsopp locomotive in 1812. William Hedley built the puffing Billy in 1813.George Stephenson (1781-1845) a coal miner in Newcastle, England invented a locomotive engine called the Blucher which pulled eight laden wagons in 1814. He also built the worlds first public railway between Stockton and Darlington near Durham in 1825. In 1829, Stephenson and his son, Robert, built the most improved engine, the rocket, which had a speed of 48 km per hour. In 1830, he built the Northumbrian and the planet.In 1825, in the United States, Colonel John Stevens built a tiny experimental locomotive. In 1929, a major railway was built by the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company to serve a coal mine.Germany and Belgium had railroads by 1835, Russia by 1837, Spain by 1848 and Sweden by 1856.In 1892, a Germany Rudolf Diesel designed a heavy oil-driven-engine which replaced the steam engine. It was cheaper and efficient.The first diesel railcar was used in 1913 in Sweden. Later diesel engines were replaced with electric engines which was an invention of the Siemens Brothers and John Hopkinson in Britain in 1883. The electric train from Paris to Lyon covers a distance of 212 km in one hour.Railway transport has remained a major ----- 140 ### mode of passenger travel. In Europe and Japan, major cities are connected by high speed passenger trains such as the French TGV (Train a Grange Vitesse) and the Japanese Shinkansen trains travelling at a speed of 300km/h. **Results of railway transport. ** a) It has promoted the movement of people thus leading to increased social and cultural interaction. People can migrate easily in Europe thanks to the faster electric trains. b) It has promoted trade as goods, light, heavy or bulky, are transported efficiently to the markets. It also supplements the use of other forms of transport. Key notes for the teacher and students- @Cheloti 2012-2013 21 c) It has stimulated industrial development since in dustrial products and raw materials can now be transported faster and in large quantities. d) Railway transport has stimulated the growth of urban centers. In Kenya for example, urban centres like Nairobi, Kisumu, Mombasa and voi either developed along the railway line or at the terminus. e) It has facilitated the spread of religious faiths and political ideas. This was the case in Kenya during the period of missionary work and colonization. In a way railway transport therefore facilitated European occupation of overseas colonies. f) There has been a significant improvement in agriculture since agricultural goods are transported more easily and faster using the railway. g) It has been a source of employment for many people I maintenance, engine driving etc. h) It has facilitated the exploitation of natural resources like mining, fisheries and forestry. The raw materials from these resources are transported faster using the railway. i) Railway transport has stimulated economic growth since it is a source of revenue for many governments. **Disadvantages of railway transport ** a) It is expensive to construct. The wagons are also expensive to buy and maintain. b) Railway transport lacks in flexibility. It can only pass through certain landscapes. c) Smoke emitted from the trains lead to environmental pollution. d) Railway accidents might be rare but when they happen, they are fatal. This was the case in Kenya in 1998 when 200 people lost their lives. e) Railway transport is not self sufficient. T has to be supplemented with road transport. **Water transport** **Canal vessels** A canal is an artificial river that is used to transport people and goods. It may be built to link a ricer and a lake, sea or a sea with a sea. Apart from transportation, their water may be used in irrigation like in the case of River Nile.Canals have been used for centuries for transportation. The earliest canal was built by the Europeans nearly 4000 years ago to link the river Nile and the Red sea.The longest canal, the Grand Canal in china is bout 1900km long and it links the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers.Canal building in Europe was ----- 141 ### pioneered by the Romans who built them for transportation, irrigation and drainage. The Dutch, British and the French also constructed elaborate canals.Canal building in the US began in 1817 and ended in 1825 with the construction of the Erie Canal which is 845 km long connecting Hudson River with Lake Erie. It is now known as the New York State Barge. Up to 1840, 4,800 km of canals had been constructed in USA.Another type of canals is the ship canals, for example the Suez Canal, Panama Canal and Kiel Canal, which are deeper. The Suez Canal in Egypt is 195 km long and links the Mediterranean Sea with the red sea. It was constructed between 1859 and 1869 by a French company under. Ferdinand Lesseps. The Kiel Canal links the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. The Panama Canal was built by the USA Government between 1904 and 1914 linking the pacific and Atlantic oceans. It is the most important canal as it shortened the long and dangerous trip around the southern tip of south Africa. The St. Lawrence Seaway is the longest and most important inland waterway system in North America. It is 3,800 km long and was completed in 1855 in USA and 1895 in Canada. **Steamships** Steamships were made after the invention of the steam driven engine. The first attempt to make a steamship was made by Dr. Denis Papin of France when he fitted a steam engine to a boat and sailed along river Fulda in Hanover. In 1736, Jonathan Holls of Gloucestershire patented a steam tugboat but it was nev er tried.In 1774, Comte J B dAuxiron of France experimented with a steamboat but also failed like Papin as it broke down.In 1775, C Perier became the first person to move a small boat powered by steam engine o river Seine in Paris.The first successful steamboat was built and tried out in1783 by a Frenchman called Marquis de Jouffrey on River Saone near Lyons in France. In America, John Fitch built a steamboat in 1787. It was used on river Delaware between Philadelphia and Trenton. In 1809, William Symington and Miller Pat succeeded in constructing a wooden steamship that was used on the Forh-Clyde Canal in southern Scotland.In 1807, in America, Robert Fulton had invented a double paddle-wheeled steamboat known as Clermont which began operating on the Hudson River. In1807, the phoenix became the first steamship that made regular voyage from Philadelphia to New York.In 1819, the savannah became the first ship equipped with a steam engine to cross the Atlantic Ocean.In 1853, the peninsular and oriental Line built the iron-screw steamer, Himalaya, the biggest vessel as at that time.John Elder invented a compound engine with two cylinders which reduced fuel consumption in steamships. In 1838, Sirius sailed from London to New York, the Great Western, without using sails crossed the Atlantic in 15 days from Bristol.In 1839, the Archimedes and the Robert F Stockton were built using Smiths and Ericcsons patent.The most important ship to cross the Atlantic was the Great Britain built by the Islamabad Kingdom of Brunei in 1843. The first USA trans-Atlantic steamers were the Herman and Washington.The first merchant ship to be all-welded without any rivets in its hull was the MS Fullagar in 1920. ----- 142 ### **Importance of the discovery and use of the steamship** a) Man could no longer depend on nature wind for power. This made travel by sea easier and more comfortable. b) It led to expansion of international trade since transportation became cheap. c) Bigger volumes and varieties of goods could be carried including those that required special handling like petrol. d) It formed the basis for colonization as colonizers could move to other continents easily. e) It increased international migrations and spread of races, cultures, diseases, intermarriages, languages and religion f) It led to greater expansion of geographical knowledge. It gave access to countries bordered by sea. g) It led to expansion of world economies, industries, trade and commerce. h) Spread of plants and animals internationally. **Motor- Driven ships** With the invention of the internal combustion engine, oil replaced coal. The Caspian Steamer Wanal was built in 1903 was the first sizeable ship with an internal combustion engine.In the 20 [th] c, the use of atomic energy (nuclear power) was developed. The first ship to use atomic power was the Nautilus in 1956. In 1961, an American merchant ship, MV Savannah, propelled by nuclear power was launched.There are two types of ships based on the service offered; a) The Liners operate regular scheduled services on defined trade routes charging advertised rates. b) The Tramp ships carry any suitable cargo between any two points based on a negotiated contract. They have no regular route or timetable. **Modern passenger Liners** The cruise ship, the most important passenger liner, is a specially designed vessel providing luxurious surroundings and entertainment to passengers. It is about 270 m and carries 2000 passengers. New passenger Liners were developed after World War II for example the American United States of 1952 and the British Queen Elizabeth 2 of 1969. The liners were overtaken by the development of the aeroplane and airline transport and only a few remain today. **Freight Vessels ** These are Special Ocean going ships designed for carrying large amounts of cargo. Containerships transport large metal containers that have been pre-loaded with cargo. Some container ships carry over 6,800 containers. **Military Vessels ** In 1859, the French launched Gloire, the first iron-plated ship. During the American civil war (1861-1865), two iron-plated ships were used. ----- 143 ### In world war II, battleships, Aircraft carriers (can carry 85 aircrafts), cruisers, destroyers, destroyer escorts(frigates), minesweepers, torpedo boats, landing craft and other support vessels were developed. **Hydrofoils and hovercraft ** These are specialized water vessels (a hydrofoil has small wing-like surfaces called foils attached to the bottom of its hull that lifts the hull out of water when the hydrofoil accelerates. A hovercraft is lifted entirely off the water surface by a cushion of air and are propelled by giant air propellers or by water jets) **Ferries ** These are vessels used to transport people, animals and vehicles over water in places where bridges would be inconvenient or impossible to build. **Motorboats and personal craft ** These are small boats that are used for recreational purposes with either out boat motors or in boat motors. **Pipeline transport ** This is a form of transport used to move liquids, gases or solid liquid mixtures over long distances. The most common liquid that is transported by pipeline in many countries is water. Others are oil and gas. Pipelines are also used to transport solids suspended in liquids such as coal slurry which consists of powdered coal suspended in water. **Air Transport ** This is the fastest form of transport over long distances and continents. Different types of Aircraft exist. **Aeroplane** An airplane is an aircraft heavier than air that uses wings to obtain lift in order to fly thus transporting people, mail and cargo from place to place. They are also use in warfare. The development of an aeroplane started in 1783 when a successful manned flight was made in France by two brothers, Jacques and Joseph Montgolfier using a hot air balloon. Sir George Cayley, an English scholar and inventor, built model Gliders that could sail in the air in the 19 [th] c. Later, Pilcher added wheels to the gliders in order for them to be towed into the air. By 1850, power driven planes were built. An English engineer, John String built and designed power-driven planes. In December 1903, An American astronomer, Samuel Langleys almost won the honour of perfecting the power driven airplanes, by making a full size airplane called the aerodrome. The plane unfortunately crashed in Potomac River before being launched. On 17 [th] December 1903, two weeks after Langleys failure, the Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur Wright, produced the first manned power driven aeroplane at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina USA. Their machine was a wooden glider fitted with a petrol engine and two propellers. In 1906, a Brazilian- born aviation pioneer made the first officially observed European flight in a powered bi- plane.In 1909, Louis Bleriot of France became the first person to fly a plane across the English Channel in 35.5 minutes. ----- 144 ### In 1915, the Germans used the first mono-plane during the First World War. In 1919, John N. Alcock and Arthur W Brown flew non-stop across the Atlantic from New Foundland to Ireland.Later improvements in the plane were replacement of wood and cloth with aluminum and stainless steel, invention of a retractable gear that improved streamlining in planesBy 1920, plane speed had gone up to 303 km /h. in 1940; it was 755 km/h.The best known aviator in 1920s was Charles Linburgh who accompanied a non-stop flight from New York to Paris in 1927 in his single monoplane called the spirit of Saint Louis in 33 hours.In 1920, the first scheduled passenger service was made between Amsterdam and England by KLM Dutch Airlines.In 1930, the first pressurized plane was launched. The most popular passenger plane at that time was the DC-3 built by Douglas Aircraft Company. It had a capacity of 30 people and moved at a speed of 320 km. **The jet engine ** The jet engine was invented by German engineers in 1939.the first jet powered airplane was the german Heinkel HE -178. The first practical jet fighter was the Lockheed P-8 developed in 1944.During the post war period, the jet engines were put to commercial use.. For example, the Boeing 707 flight which was launched in 1958 in USA. The Boeing 747 Jumbo Jet which entered the market in 1970 can carry 375 passengers, 20 tonnes of freight and move at a speed of 900 km/h.The Supersonic Loans Port (SST) is designed to fly at speeds of over 1180 km/h. the Russian TU-144 and the French British Concorde are both SSTs and entered passenger market in 1972. **Helicopters ** It is a type of airplane which obtains its lift from a set of rotor blades rather than fixed wings. The first successful helicopter was made in 1907 when a French helicopter left the ground for a few seconds.Germany made the first practical helicopter in 1936 while the United States Army unveiled its wartime helicopter in 1942. **Uses of helicopters ** **Lighter- than-air-vehicles ** These include balloons relying on hot air and lighter than air gases like helium and hydrogen for lift.Airships that combine lighter than air gas bags with propellers navigation were initially used for passenger traffic but their usage declined due to several fatal accidents. For example the disaster that befell the German airship, Hindenburg, in New Jersey in 1937. **The rocket engine** Rocket engines use fuel. They carry chemicals which enable them to burn their fuel without air supply. The first rocket engine to be used was by a German manufacturer, Fritz von Opel in 1930. An American, R H Goddard also developed a modern rocket in Massachusetts in the USA. Factors which encouraged the development of air transport. a) The effect of the First World War- it increased demand of war planes-jet fighters and fighter planes flying over 600kph were manufactured. ----- 145 ### b) The arms race and the cold war which also made many countries to acquire many planes.-fear, jealousy and competition based on ideological differences. c) Desire for comfort among passengers and the need to transport perishables quickly. d) Expansion of international trade and desire for more wealth. e) Colonization and international migrations. f) The expansion of the tourist industry. g) Vast improvement in science and technology and growth of industries. **Results of air transport ** 1) Air transport is a major global employer. The air transport industry directly generates 5.5 million jobs globally and contributes USD 408 billion to global GDP. It directly contributed USD 1,830 billion to world GDP in 2007 and generated 79 million direct jobs globally 2.8% of total employment. 2) Air transport is an important facilitator of international trade, thereby promoting economic growth and development. Forecasts suggest that the global economy will become even more dependent on trade over the next decade. World trade is expected to nearly double, rising at more than twice the rate of global GDP growth, with China, India and emerging markets leading the way. 3) Air transport stimulates Tourism which makes a major contribution to the global economy.The air transport industry plays a major role in supporting tourism. Over 40% of international tourists now travel by air, up from 35% in 1990. At the same time, the WTTC estimates that foreign visitors account for just fewer than 25% of overall tourism spending around the world. This includes spending by business travelers, as well as those on leisure trips or visiting friends and relatives. 4) Air transport is a significant tax payer. Unlike other transport modes, the air transport industry directly pays for its own infrastructure costs. The user charges collected by airport operators pay both for the day-to-day services they provide to airlines and their customers, and also for the massive investment in runways, terminals and other infrastructure required for a modern, efficient air transport service. In addition, companies in the air transport industry make significant tax payments to national treasuries. 5) Air transport expands the range of consumer choices and opportunities to visit other countries and to experience new cultures. 6) Air transport delivers humanitarian aid. Air services play an essential role in humanitarian assistance to countries facing natural disasters, famine and war through cargo deliveries, refugee transfers or the evacuation of people trapped by natural disasters. They are particularly important in situations where access is a problem for example, air drops are among the first response of aid agencies to stem a humanitarian crisis. 7) Air transport also plays a vital role in the rapid delivery of Medical supplies and organs for transplantation worldwide. ----- 146 ### 8) Air transport provides access to remote areas. Air transport provides access to remote areas where other transport modes are limited. Many essential services, such as food deliveries, hospitals, education and post, would not be available for people in such locations without air services. And residents would be isolated from family, friends and business contacts. 9) Air transport has improved security as soldiers can be flown to troubled areas. Aeroplanes are also used in espionage 10) Air transport has led to improvement f space exploration. Satellites are used to study objects in space such as stars and planets. 11) Air transport has promoted international cooperation and understanding. People from different countries can exchange ideas.. 12) It has provides the fastest means of transport for passengers and goods thus increasing cultural and social exchange. 13) Aeroplanes are used to break hail in order to cause rain. 14) Plans and other aircraft have added to variety to sporting and entertainment. E.g the staging of fighter plane shows in public holiday celebration. 15) Aircraft has revolutionized warfare especially during the Second World War when countries began using panes in warfare. 16) International terrorism has been facilitated in the recent past by aeroplanes. Incidents of planes being hijacked are becoming common in the world today. 17) Air transport contributes to environmental pollution due to waste discharged by the burning fuel. Jets cause noise pollution. 18) Air transport has enhanced agriculture as planes are used to spray and dust insecticides on crops in the case of large scale farming. They are also used in quick delivery of perishable farm produce from horticultural farms. 19) Planes assist in fire fighting, inspecting fence lines and power cables and border patrol. 20) Aeroplanes are used in making aerial survey in cartography thus improving map making. 21) Air transport enhances wildlife management and conservation. Counting of animals by wildlife officers is one used planes. 22) In meteorology, air transport has enhanced weather survey. 23) Air transport sometimes leads to deaths of many people when fatal accidents occur. For example, the mid-air blow-up of the trans World Airline plane over the Atlantic ocean in July 1996, the 5 [th] may 2007 crashing of a Nairobi bound KQ 507 moments after leaving Duala international Airport in Cameroon killing 114 passengers. **Space exploration ** This is the attempt by scientists to reach the heavenly bodies namely the stars and moon to learn more about them and their importance to man as a whole. ----- 147 ### Space age refers to the period in which the exploration of space became possible. It began with the launch of the first artificial satellite in October 1957 by the soviet union - Sputnik.The first human to go to space was a Russian Major Yuri Gagarin using Vostok I in April 1961. Inthe same year an American, John Glenn also went to space.Neil Armstrong, an American Became the first man to land on the moon in July 1969 in his space craft, Apollo II. He was accompanied by Edwin E Aldrin Jr and Michael Collins. Many other have toured the moon since then.Later on a space shuttle was built. The first space shuttle, Columbia, launched in 1981, carried two American astronauts, John W. Young and Robert L Crpens. In 1983, the space shuttle, challenger released a satellite into space. One of the crew members, Sally K Ride became the first woman astronaut to go to space.In 1984, Kathryn D Sullivan became the first American woman to walk in space .By 1988, there were 300 operating satellites in space while 1200 were not functioning. **Challenges facing space exploration** a) Deadly hazards like cosmetics and solar radiation and micro meteorites dangerous to spacecraft. b) Hostile natural environment which is unsuitable for human life making it very expensive. c) Extreme temperatures and light intensities. Extreme darkness and brightness. Such difficulties have been overcome through development of new tools and techniques for space navigation. **Importance of space exploration to man ** a) Spacecrafts continue to provide information about conditions in space in particular about the weather. b) Reports derived from weather satellite can act as warning systems about impending storm. c) It helps us to gain more knowledge about our planet earth. e.g. a scientific satellite known as Vanguard 1 sent back pictures, which showed that the earth was slightly pear- shaped. d) Communication satellites like the Telstra and Relay have made it possible to send television programmes and telephone calls over much longer distances. e) In 1965, the US achieved another momentous feat in space communication. The mariner4 in a deep space probe sent back pictures of mars that were taken as it passed the planet. f) Some space exploration offers possibilities without limit. Planets themselves may have metals and other resources that men on earth need. g) Information about outer space may make it possible to make rain and make long- range weather forecast more accurately than before. h) Some scientists are optimistic that space research might make it possible for human beings to settle on some planets; so far, we are not very definite about this. ----- 148 ### i) Humankind can benefit from medicine prepared under ideal conditions on the planet namely dust free and germ free medicine. j) Space exploration enhances technological development. k) It facilitates own understanding of the universe. l) It leads to improved manufacture of aircrafts, telescope and related machines. m) Contributed to development of advanced air force weapons. **Advances in transportation ** Africas first high speed train system, the Gautrain, was officially lanced in Johannesburg on 8 [th] June 2010 to connect the cities of Johannesburg and Pretoria with a 160 km/h rail service. **Effects of modern forms of transport** a) It has made local and international trade more efficient. Trade in perishable goods such as flowers and vegetables have been expanded thanks to air transport. b) Population migration and settlement all over the world has been encouraged using the means of transport. c) It has facilitated the quick transfer of technology and ideas as people interact d) It has made industries more efficient. Raw materials, industrial workers, and manufacturedgoods are transported to their destinations cheaply and quickly. e) It has promoted tourist industry which is a major foreign exchange earner in many countries. Accessibility to tourist attraction sites has greatly improved. f) It has generated employment opportunities to many as road constructers, drivers, pilots and mechanics. g) It contributes additional revenue to the government. Countries charge toll fee, license fee and fuel levy. h) Air transport enhances space exploration. i) Has contributed to the growth of the service sector like banking and insurance. j) Transport has promoted humanitarian assistance particularly in disaster situations, e.g distribution of relief food, medical services and evacuations during catastrophes and wars. k) It has led to growth of schools and hospitals and social amenities. In Kenya most schools and hospitals are located along transport routes. l) It has led to agricultural development. Farmers have been able to increase food production since they can transport farm produce and inputs more efficiently and effectively. m) It has stimulated the growth of urban centres. Towns such as London, Nairobi and Harare started off due to their location along transport rous. The towns have also grown due to their transport function. n) Transport has enhanced political control in countries. National security has been enhanced due to accessibility of many areas of a nation. ----- 149 ### o) Transport facilitated colonization of Africa and Asian countries. Railway systems helped them to conquer and suppress local resistances to facilitate easy administration. **Negative effects of transport. ** a) Transport systems are responsible for many accidents in world leading to loss of lives. The Mtongwe ferry accident in Kenya claimed 257 lives in 1994; a plane crash in Ngong in 2012 killed the minister for internal security professor George Saitoti and six others. b) Transport is responsible for environmental pollution. Different forms of transport emit poisonous gases to the atmosphere. Oil tankers cause oil spills in the sea s leading to marine pollution. c) Unless they complement each other, different forms of transport are unreliable. For example, water and railway transport have to be complemented by road transport. d) The growth of international terrorism has been attributed to transport network. Communication **Definition ** This is a Two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange information but also create and share ideas and messages.Communication includes writing, talking and Non-verbal communication (facial expressions, body posture, or gestures. **Traditional forms of communication. ** The methods of communication that were used in the traditional society included; **Gestures ** These are signals or body movements intended to pass a message. The person to whom the gesture is directed must know the meaning of the gesture. It is sometimes referred to as sign language.(a combination of gestures that simulate actions or a sound) **Body language** Sometimes gestures are used to enhance and emphasize speech. They are used where silence is required yet communication is vital like in operating theatres, and in traffic control. **Verbal communication-language** This is the commonest form of communication among human beings involving the use of sound (spoken language) in combination with some gestures or alone, to express messages.There are over 6000 distinct languages world today. **Signals ** The use plants on the roadsides, the shaving of hair, physical marks on ones body or property are means through which communication is passed to others. **Fire and smoke signals** Fire and smoke signals were used to send quick and urgent messages. Fire and smoke signals were coded such that strangers could not interpret the message correctly. They were commonly used in warning people of an impending danger.The Jews used fire ----- 150 ### signals (torch light) to proclaim their feast days on mount Olives.Fire and smoke signals were always sent at night. **Advantages of using fire and smoke signals ** a) Fire and smoke signals Conveyed messages faster than a messenger. b) Confidentiality of messages was upheld since the messages were coded and could not be interpreted by strangers. c) It was a cheap method of passing a message. **Disadvantages of fire and smoke signals ** a) Messages could not be sent over long distances. b) Ranges of messages passed were limited. c) It was restricted by weather conditions/smoke is useless in cloudy and misty days. It is difficult to set fire in wet conditions. Smoke could be blown by wind. d) It was of little use if no one was on the look out to see and interpret. **Drumbeats ** In drumbeating as a means of communication, each beat was coded for relaying different messages. For example there were different beats for ceremonies, announcing funerals, meetings, declaration of war, arrival of strangers and impending attack.Once the initial beat was heard, the other drummers could pick up the beat in different areas thus spreading the message very quickly. **Advantages of drumbeating ** a) Drumbeats could relay a wide range of messages-different beats could convey different messages. E.g. death, danger, festivities. b) In most cases drum beating could be used at any time both day and night whereas smoke signals could only be used during the day. c) Drum beats relayed specific messages whereas smoke relayed general messages. d) Drum beats could be used all seasons whereas smoke signals could not be used during certain seasons e.g. when it is raining.`` e) Drumbeats could convey messages over wide areas. f) Messages by drumbeat were conveyed faster compared to smoke signals. The major disadvantage of drumbeats was that at times it was difficult to differentiate the beats and therefore, the message could not be clearly interpreted thus leading to confusion. **Horn blowing ** They were used to make public announcements, summon warriors or invite people to an important meeting. This was done by specialists with different tones that passed different messages thus passing a wide range of massages. **Screams and cries ** Screaming was effective mostly on hill or mountain tops because of echoing. There were different ways of screaming in different situations.. Ululations signified feasting or good news like child birth. ----- 151 ### **Running messengers** Sometimes there was use of trust worthy runners for very personal and urgent messages. However the accuracy of the message delivered depended on the memory of the messenger. An Athenian soldier, Phidippides, is remembered in history as a great messenger for covering great distance from Marathon to Athens. Unfortunately, he dropped dead shortly after arrival. The Marathon race is named in his honour. Messengers are still used to deliver messages today although there has been tremendous improvement after invention of writing. **Disadvantages of using messengers ** a) Messages could not reach recipients on time since the messengers walked on foot to their destinations. b) Messengers sometimes forgot the message they were to deliver thus leading to inaccurate messages being passed. c) Information could be distorted in the process. Sometimes wrong messages were delivered. d) Messengers could be attacked on the way by wild animals. e) The distance to be covered by messengers was limited since they walked on foot. However this problem was overcome with improvements in forms of transport. **Written messages** The oldest record of writing date back to about 5000years. Different communities use different symbols and alphabets to write messages. The messages were recorded on scrolls, stone tablets parchment (dried animal skin) or paper.The earliest forms of wring were pictographic and ideographic. Examples of these were the cuneiform of Sumerians and Hieroglyphics of the Egyptians. **Cuneiform Writing ** Wedge-Shaped Writing **Scrolls ** Scrolls are rolls of paper which were rolled around rods of wood or ivory for writing on. They were commonly used among the Egyptians, Romans, Asians, Jews, Greek, Hebrews, Chinese and Japanese. Papyrus Reeds along the Nile were used for making writing material. Pens and brushes were also made from the reeds and the hard part of a feather.The Hebrews used scrolls for their sacred writings. **Stone Tablets. ** The Sumerians wrote on clay tablets. Writing was done on wet clay which, after drying, hardened like a stone and left a permanent impression.. for example, Hammurabi the law giver wrote his laws on stone pillars for all to read and obey. The Ten Commandments were also written on stone tablets.On the left is a stela, which has all 282 of Hammurabis laws engraved on it. This stela is located in the Louvre Museum in Paris, France. These tablets have been discovered by archaeologists and looked at by historians. ----- 152 ### **Advantages of written messages** a) They provided reliable information that was not easily forgotten. b) Information was stored in that form for future reference. c) Information could be interpreted into different languages so that it could be accessible to many. d) The message in most cases was accurate. **Limitations ** a) They were only limited to literate people. b) At times the information could be biased depending on the writers orientation. c) Written messages were open to misinterpretation. **Modern means of communication** Numerous modes of communication have been evolved over time since the time primitive speech was the main means of communication. The modern means of communication include telephone, radio, television, video, cinema, telegraph, telex, electronic mail. Pager etc.The methods are categorized into telecommunications and print media. **Telecommunications ** This is a term that describes the technology of receiving and sending messages by telephone, radio, television, telegraph, telex, facsimile or e-mail. The message can be verbal, written or pictorial.There are a wide range of devices in telecommunication through which messages can be sent in a variety of ways. For example, Telephone. This a communication device which is used to relay sound waves by converting them into electrical signals and then reconverting them into sound waves. Telephones carry sound over a distance using electric current. The history of the invention of telephones starts with the success of a Scottish-born American inventor, teaching speech to deaf children in Boston Massachusetts, Alexander Graham Bell, who built an experimental telegraph which broke down after one day. Bell constructed a transmitter and a receiver for which he received a patent on March 7, 1876. Assisted by Thomas Watson, he discovered that voice can be sent using wires.Later, Almon Brown Strowger of Kansas City, Missouri, invented the first automatic telephone exchange using electromagnetic switchboard (Strowger Switches) in 1897. By 1900, long distance service was possible through the use of repeaters (electromagnetic devices placed along the route of the call) which amplified and repeated conversations into the long distance instrument. Radio transmission later replaced underground and submarine cables for long distance transmission.In 1877, Graham Bell opened the Bell Telephone Company. In 1900, it was sold t o the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) In Kenya, telephone communication was introduced in 1908 and has grown tremendously **Cell phones ** A cellular telephony is a type of wireless communication which uses many base stations to divide a service area into multiple cells.The concept of cellular phones began in 1947 ----- 153 ### when researchers looked at the crude mobile car phones and realized that by using small cells with frequency reuse, they could increase the traffic capacity of mobile phones Dr Martin Cooper, a former general manager of the systems division at Motorola is considered the inventor of the first modern portable handset. Which he used for the first time in April 1973.The development of mobile telephony technology was slow in the earlier periods due to the hindrance by the strict federal regulations in USA and Europe. In 1921, the USA mobile Radio began to operate.In June 1946, the first American Commercial mobile radio telephone service was introduced in Saint Louis, Missouri.By 1950s, the first telephone equipped cars took to the roads in Stockholm.In 1964, the Bell system introduced the mobile telephone service. By 1982, commercial cellular phones were being used in the USA and Tokyo in Japan. By 1987, USA had over 1million cellular telephone subscribers.Currently, there are many mobile manufacturing companies are now in operation. For example, Nokia, Motorola Inc., Sony, Alcatel, Samsung, Sagem, Siemens, AG, and Sony Ericsson.There are also a number of mobile phone service providers. In Kenya, the main ones are Safaricom, Airtel, Orange and Yu **Standard Features of cellphones ** a) They are used for making and receiving calls. b) All have a personal phone book. c) They all have the ability to send and receive SMS. d) They have the ability to store messages and display and record the telephone number of a caller. The following features are not standard and vary from phone to phone. a) Calculator, clock and calendar. b) Access to the internet c) Digital camera capability d) A variety of ringtones **Limitations of cell phones** a) They may be prone to poor reception especially where they are reliant on internal antennas. b) Their use is dependent on the availability of electricity. The phone must be recharged after a number of days. In areas where accessibility to electricity is a problem, mobile phones may not be so much in use. c) The continuous use of mobile phones has raised fears of possible side effects of radioactive rays on human beings. d) Handsets are easily stolen due to their small size. **Television ** The a public broadcasting medium that uses a point to multipoint technology to broadcast to any use within the range of the transmitter. In 1855, the idea of a television was perceived but only came into use in 1922 when a Scot, Loggie Baird, showed how moving images could be transmitted by electromagnetic waves.In 1931, the cathode ray ----- 154 ### tube (CRT) was invented in USA. The CRT transforms beams of electrons into visible images on the screen. This led to development of modern television.The first television broadcasting service was launched in 1936 by BBC.I 1942, Baird invented the colour transmission.In Kenya, broadcast television began after a television station was opened in 1970. This was the Voice of Kenya. Kenya was connected to worldwide television via Longonont Satellite Station in1972. In 1990, KTN, the second channel was introduced in Kenya **Cable Television ** Cable television, a commercial service that links televisions to a source of many different types of video programming using Coaxial cables, was introduced in Kenya in 1994. The television users with personal satellite dishes can access satellite programming directly without a cable installation.Recently, the digital television (DTV) was invented. This is the transmission of audio and video of digital signals, in contrast to analog signals Television is an important means of communication since it is an audio-visual device. **Its importance can be summarized as follows; ** a) It conveys news and information from all over the world more vividly than other means of communication such as radio. b) It is a source of entertainment as it shows music and drama programmes. c) It is a device that may be used in educational broadcasting. Some educational programmes are broadcast on television. For example, programmes that sensitize people on HIV and AIDS pandemic. d) It is used in commercial advertisement by manufacturers and companies thus enabling them to sell their products. e) It is the best means of transmitting ideas since it commands attention. f) It is a source of employment in the television stations. g) Television has enabled humankind to bridge the gap of real-time communication between different time zones in the world. **Disadvantages. ** a) TV can only be viewed where there is electricity. It is expensive to install solar panels in areas where there is no electricity. The car batteries that may be used require constant charging. b) Pornographic programmes have eroded cultural values, especially among the youth. Such programmes originate in the west and the youth want to imitate what they see. c) Watching violent programmes has created the culture of violence among the youth. For example, watching of wrestling and violent movies. d) Some advertisements encourage deviant behavior. For example, advertisements of alcohol and cigarettes. e) Watching television can sometimes become addictive in some homes thus limiting the time to participate in other activities. ----- 155 ### **Radio. ** The invention of the radio was a significant development in the electronics industry. In 1864, an English mathematical physicist, clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) suggested that there was the existence of waves.In 1888, a German, Heinrich Rudolph Hertz, (1857-94) demonstrated the existence of electromagnetic waves (vibrations) that travel through space, which were named after him. These waves could be used in wireless communications. In 1901, an Italian, Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) invented the radio and sent a radio transmission across the Atlantic from poldhu in Cornwall to Saint John, Newfoundland, Canada.The radio gained prominence during the World War I as it was used to communicate.The Marconi Company made the first radio broadcast in Britain in 1920.The British Broadcasting Company (BBC) was set up in London in 1922.Kenyas Radio Broadcasts before independence depended on the BBC. The VOK began to air programmes after independence. In 1990, VOK changed its name o KBC. In 1995, the FM meter Band was launched thus leading to an increase in radio stations **Importance of radio** a) Radio is easy to access since people can afford to buy the device. b) News and information from the radio is quickly received throughout the country c) It can also be accessed by the illiterate people who can listen and understand the radio news if broadcast in the language they can understand. d) Radio is used to enhance communication in transport systems like motor vehicles, railway, ships and airplanes. e) Radios are sometimes used to broadcast educational programmes and important government communications on issues like health, agriculture and family planning. f) The radio is a source of entertainment. E.g through Music and drama programmes. g) Radio can be used by manufacturers and companies to advertise their products thus stimulating business. h) Radio communication has enhanced space exploration. Radio signals are used to communicate with space vehicles. **Telegraph ** This is a device or process by which messages are passed over a distance, especially using radio signals or coded electrical signals.Telegraph messages are sent by a code in which numbers, letters and punctuation marks are represented by a combination of dashes and dots.The earliest code to be used was the Morse code which evolved into the international Morsecode.A message sent by a telegraph was called a telegram. Radio invention made it possible for wireless telegraphy.Samuel Morse (1791-1892) is credited for the invention of the electric telegraph. In 1837, Morse made the first crude telegraph and by 1844, he successfully sent a telegraph over line.By 1845, the first public telegraph was operating between Washington and Baltimore.In 1851, the first telegraph cable was laid under the English Channel between London and Paris.In 1866, the Trans- Atlantic cable was established.In 1872, most cities in the world were linked by telegraph. ----- 156 ### **Disadvantage. ** ~ Communication through the telegraph could be rendered unreliable where accidents and poor weather could cut telegraph cables. **Internet. ** This is a computer-based global communication network system that links thousands of computers using telephone lines. Currently Mobile phones are also used in internet communication.Internet forms one of the inexpensive and fastest communication means in the world today which has gained popularity..Internet was introduced in the 1970s. Currently there are over 4000 million users of internet in the world today with its popularity being manifested in the social media networks like facebook, Twitter. **Results of internet. ** a) Education has been developed since research can be done on the internet. b) E-commerce can be done on the internet hence enhancing the sale of goods and services. c) The running of government operations can be done on the internet since the government may use it for internal communication, distribution of information and automated tax processing. d) Internet has led to expansion of Business as people use it to interact with other business people. e) Individuals use the internet to communicate through e-mail or other social network platforms such as facebook, Twitter, Skype, etc.Electronic Mail. (E-mail)This kind of communication is also reliant on internet. The communication is done using either computer or mobile phones with the help of a modem. E-mails first came into widespread use in 1990s and has today become a major contributor to business development. It has taken the lead ahead of telephone, fax, radio and television in communication. **Facsimile transreceiver (fax) ** This is a method of transmitting text over telephone network. A written, printed or pictorial document is scanned then sent and reproduced photographically at the destination. The message /picture is transmitted within 30 seconds. The Fax machine was developed by a german named Arthur Korn in 1902 and was commercialized in 1926. **Telex ** This is system of direct dial teleprinter which uses a keyboard to transmit typed text over telephone lines to similar terminals **Satellites** A Satellite is a spacecraft or an artificial device orbiting the earth, moon or another planet, transmitting back to earth scientific information. It is launched at a velocity of at least 28,960 km per hour (escape velocity) to enable it overcome gravitational pull of the earth and thus remain in space.In 1680, a British Scientist, Isaac Newton, introduced the idea of artificial satellites.The first message to be transmitted by satellite was the ----- 157 ### Christmas greeting by President Dwight D Eisenhower of the USA in 1958.In 1969, the first television pictures were relayed around the earth by satellites from Apollo II astronauts. In October 1957, USSR sent sputnik I, the first satellite into the orbit. In the same year, the first living passenger, a little dog called Laika, was carried into space by a satellite.In 1961, a Russian Yuri Gagarin went into space on board of a satellite.In 1969, an American, Neil Armstrong, in his spacecraft Apollo I, landed on the moon.In 1981, the US released the first space shuttle which is manned, airplane like craft which orbits the earth.In 1983, Challenger, the space shuttle, released a satellite into space. In 1986, an accident occurred on the space shuttle, Challenger, killing seven Astronauts **Pagers/beepers ** These are portable communication message devices. In using it, the person sending the message uses a phone and calls a pager number. The impact of telecommunications today. a) Telecommunication has revolutionized communication through enabling faster and easier communication between individuals. This has increased interaction and therefore international understanding. b) Telecommunication has enhanced information management e.g the use of computers for information storage and processing and the internet in communication. c) Telecommunication devices are also sources of entertainment. Radios and television broadcast music and movies to entertain people. d) Telecommunication systems like television bring reality to the viewers by transmitting live pictures. e) Telecommunication devices enhance cultural exchange and understanding through showing programmes from other countries. This helps people to appreciate other peoples culture and even enrich their own. f) Telecommunication systems have promoted water and air transport. Ships at sea and airplanes use these devices to send signals to guide captains and pilots. g) Telecommunication systems have made world trade and businesses more effective and efficient. People can quickly place orders for goods and get news of world markets and commodity prices. h) Telecommunications has enabled organizations, government institutions and individuals to access information and programmes at their convenience. This has led to effective management and good governance. i) Countries have also improved their security systems by using radio and radio calls and mobile tracking systems to combat crimes. j) Modern war fare has been revolutionized. Modern weapons depend on telecommunication services that provide accurate and reliable information. For example, satellites are used to guide missiles. k) Remote areas are no longer inaccessible thanks to telecommunications. People can communicate using cell phones even from the most remote areas of a country. ----- 158 ### l) Telecommunication systems have promoted space exploration. Man has been able to send spacecraft to the moon, mars and Venus using communication satellites. m) Telecommunication is a source of employment in many countries. Many people offer services, operate systems and maintain them. n) Governments earn revenue from telecommunication systems. This revenue promotes economic development. For example taxes collected from licensing of service operators, manufacturers of telecommunication systems etc. Negative attributes to telecommunication . a) Telecommunication has promoted international social crimes such as fraud, drug trafficking and terrorism. b) Some forms of telecommunication promote immorality among children and the youth in the world through watching of pornographic materials. c) Some telecommunication devices cannot be accessed by many people due to the expense of acquisition and installation. d) Telecommunication devices have an addictive effect for many users. This affects speed of development in developing countries AS people sit for long hours watching television instead of engaging in productive activities. e) Mobile phone users risk suffering from effects of the constant exposure to radioactive rays which may cause certain types of cancer. **Print media ** This refers to all that is printed or written down and published. For example, journals, books, newspapers, magazines etc. **Newspapers** It is an unbound publication produced at regular intervals and devoted primarily to current events and advertisements. Before printing was invented, the oldest newspaper, The Siloam Inscription,(a stone on which news were recorded) was in circulation among the people of Mesopotamia at around 700 BC.The Chinese court journal, Tsing Pao, published in Peking in AD 500 was another early form of newspaper.The Roman Bulletin, Acta Diurna, used by Emperor Julius Ceaser from 60BC to post government daily announcements was also an early form of newspaper.Printing was invented by a german, Johannes Gutenberg, in the 15 [th] century. The first publication, Strasbourg Relations, was published in 1609The London Daily Post also known as the Public c. Advertiser was published by Henry Woodfall and his son Sampson Woodfall in 18 [th] The London Times was first published as the Daily Universal Register by John Walter in 1785. It changed its name to Times in 1788.In 1900, C Arthur founded the Daily Express. The first newspaper in Kenya was the African Standard founded by Alibhai Mullas Jeevanjee, in Mombasa in 1902. It later changed its name to the east African standard in 1905. And moved its operations from Mombasa to Nairobi in 1910.in 1928, Jomo Kenyatta published a local newspaper in Kikuyu, Muigwithania aimed at spreading the views of the Kikuyu central Association and promote kikuyu culture.The Daily Nation ----- 159 ### was established by the Aga Khan in 1960In 1983, the Kenya Times was founded by Hilary Ngweno and later bought by KANU and owned jointly with a Briton Robert Maxwel Types of Newspapers . ***Daily Newspapers *** These print atleast one edition every weekday. Some print morning and evening edition when necessary. Examples of daily newspapers include the Daily Nation, The standard, the Toronto Star and The Los Angeles Times. ***Weekly Newspapers*** These are published once a week. They contain news of interest to people in a smaller area, maybe a city or a neighborhood. For example the east African in Kenya and the weekly Telegraph in Britain. ***Special interest Newspapers*** They concentrate on news of special interest to a particular group for example an ethnic community, a corporation or a trade organization. They can be daily, weekly or monthly. ***Periodicals*** These are publications released at regular intervals and containing news, feature articles, poems, fictional stories etc. they also contain photographs and drawings. Periodicals aimed at general audience are called magazines.Periodicals differ from newspapers in that whereas newspapers deal with sometimes daily news and are unbound, periodicals like magazines and journals focus on more specialized material and deal with news in form of summaries or commentaries. They are printer on finer paper with smaller bound pages and issued at a longer interval than a day when compared to newspapers. ***Magazines *** These are periodical publications with specialized information on particular issues. They are published fortnightly, weekly or monthly.The oldest magazine is Eileens Oxford Gazette published in 1665, later became the London Gazette.The first periodical to use the word magazine in its Title was the Gentleman Magazine published in 1731 in Britain. The oldest magazine in Kenya is the Kenya Official Gazette (1900-1963), renamed the Kenya Gazette after independence. Other were the Leader of the British East African Company, Wathiomo Mukinyu by Consolata Catholic Missionaries in Nyeri, Tangaza by Harry Thuku, the East African Chronicles and the Colonial times by the Asian Journals These are periodicals with a narrower target audience such as scholarly publication. They specialize in particular themes or professions. For example the Review of Political Economy, Canadian Journal of African Affairs, the East African Journal of Social Sciences and the East African Medical Journal. **DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIES ** Industry is defined as the skill of making other products from raw materials. It involves extraction and processing into finished products of raw materials ----- 160 ### **Early Sources of Energy. ** Energy is the ability to do work. The following are the early sources of energy that can be identified. **Wood. ** Wood developed as a source of energy after the discovery of fire. It was used as follows; a) Making fire which provides heat to warm people during cold seasons lighting, to cook roots and roast meat, for hunting(bushfires), tool-making to harden tips, means of communication, food preservation b) Charcoal made from wood fuel provided heat that was used for steaming water to provide steam power for steam engines during the industrial revolution. This is a form of energy still in use today since it is cheaper and easily available. Wind . Wind was used to drive sailing ships during the trade between East African Coast and the Far East.Windmills were used in China to grind grain and process foods They were also used to pump water from polders in Netherlands.Windmills are also used to generate electricity. Windmills are mainly used in areas with fewer trees like in Isiolo, Garissa, Wajir and Mandera.However the use of wind as a source of energy is disadvantaged by its being irregular and inconsistent in direction and strength. **Water. ** Water has been harnessed to produce HEP. Water was used to turn wooden propellers (water wheels) which in turn turned grindstones to grind grains into flour.In England, it was used in the Textile and paper industry to turn spinning machines.In Italy water- powered machines were used to make copper pots, weapons of war, to spin silk and to sharpen various tools. Water also is not reliable as a source of energy since the levels may be too low during dry weather for HEP production. **Uses of metals in Africa ** The age of metals in Africa is divided into the Bronze and Iron Age. Man moved from the Stone Age to the age of metals because metals had the following advantages; a) Metallic tools were more durable. They could not break easily. b) Cutting edges of metals could be sharpened. c) Malleable Metals could be heated and reworked into deferent usable designs when need arose d) Metals are not prone to waste. Broken pieces can be smelted and reworked into useful items. For example a broken spear into an arrow. The following are examples of metals that were used in Africa. **Gold** This was the first metal to be used by humankind. It was used in Meroe, Egypt, Wangara in Ghana and in Central Africa. ----- 161 ### Gold is malleable and therefore it could be easily moulded into the desired shape without smelting it. Its softness however implied that tools made from gold could bend easily. It was also heavy and could not be found everywhere. **Uses of Gold** a) It was used to make ornaments and decorations. In Egypt, it was used to make jewellery like rings, bangles and bracelets. b) It was used to make utensils, such as plates, vases and drinking vessels. c) It was used to make swords and flint knife handles among the rich in Egypt. d) It was used to make coins in Egypt. e) It was used as a trade item in East, central and West Africa f) It was used to make weapons such as sword and knife blades. g) Gold was also a measure of wealth in Egypt. **Copper** Though quite soft, copper as harder than Gold and could make better tools. The Egyptians were the earliest people to use copper by 3000 BC.The metal could further be hardened by mixing it with other metals to form alloys during smelting. **Uses of copper** a) Making utensils and containers such as pots and pans. b) The Egyptians used copper to make axes, tools, Chisels, Pins and fish hooks. c) It was used to make ornamental bangles, rings, helmets, needles, wire chains and statues. d) It was used as a medium of exchange in the form of copper bars. e) It was used to make daggers (weapons). f) It was used as a trade commodity. Those with copper exchanged it with other goods that they did not have. g) It was used to make alloys like Bronze and Brass. ***Bronze. *** Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin which makes it harder than copper. It was used during the Bronze Age. In Africa Bronze was used among the Yoruba, Dahomey and Asante in Nigeria and in Benin. And also in Egypt. Benin was the centre of Bronze. **Uses of Bronze. ** a) Making stronger weapons such as shields, spears, arrowheads, swords and daggers. b) Making sculptures and decorations. For example, in Benin it was used to make objects for religious ceremonies, masks and decorating the kings palace. It decorated temples, palaces and pyramids in Egypt. c) Making knives, containers, pans and vases. d) It was a store of wealth. e) It was used to make tools, shields and chariots. ----- 162 ### **Disadvantages of Bronze. ** a) The tools lost their sharpness and became blunt quickly since the metal was relatively They required constant sharpening. b) Bronze was not cheap. The mixture of copper and yin had to be acquired through trade thus making bronze expensive. c) It was difficult to get an appropriate proportion of each of the two metals. Iron. Two theories that explain the origin and spread of iron working in Africa are ; 1) It was first introduced in North Africa from the Middle East by the Phoenicians and the Assyrians, and then spread to west, East Central and South Africa. 2) The art of iron working probably developed independently in Africa as evidenced by the Archaeological evidence in Buhaya (the oldest Iron Age site that existed between 5 [th] and 6 [th] C AD ), North West of Tanzania. The Buhaya iron is associated with the pottery style known as Urewe-ware. The Hittites were the first people to smelt and use iron in around 1500BC. The skill then spread to the Assyrians. The idea then spread to Africa between 400 and 500 BC and became widespread in the Nile Valley.By 5 [th] c it had spread upto Meroe (the Birmingham of Africa) then to Ethiopia. From Carthage and Tunisia, it spread to West Africa, at Taruga in Nigerias Jos plateau at around 580BC, then to Lake Chad by 500 AD Ways in which the iron culture spread in Africa . 1) Through wars of conquest e.g. Egypt versus Assyrians where the Assyrians forced the Egyptians to learn to use iron from Meroe to make strong weapons. 2) Trade e.g. the Mesopotamians traded with Africans. The North African then traded with the West Africans, thus spreading the iron smelting technology across the Sahara. 3) Intermarriages e.g. Arabs and Africans intermarried and hence a new iron culture and technology developed. 4) Through learning and acquiring the technology from neighbors. 5) Increased demand for iron tools for agriculture, weapons and iron products increased trade in iron. 6) Migrations. E.g in east Africa where the Bantus and nilotes arrived from West African region with the iron culture which they introduced to east Africa. 7) Travelers and messengers who gave out and received the gifts of iron **Uses of Iron ** a) It was used as medium of exchange. Iron bars were used as currency. b) To make agricultural tools such as hoes and pangas this increased food production. c) Weapons such as spears and arrows were made of iron, which strengthened some communities while others who lacked the same were easily defeated. d) Iron was used as a trade item where those who did not have it acquired it through barter trade. ----- 163 ### e) It was used for storing wealth. Smithers used iron bars as a measure of value. **Effects of iron working** a) It promoted empire building. Many kingdoms and empires relied on strong iron, weapons to fight expansionist wars e.g. Egypt, Benin and Mwene Mutapa empires. b) It led to migrations especially of the Bantus who war able to protect themselves during the journeys using iron weapons. c) It promoted agriculture since large tracts of land could now be used to produce more food using stronger tools. d) Adequate food resulted in population increase and later migration to areas with sparse population. e) It resulted in specialization and division of labour as some people became iron smelters while others engaged in other activities like trade. f) It stimulated construction and building works using stronger metals like iron. Better houses, temples and bridges were built. g) Metal technology also had an impact on religion in that metals began to be used when performing religious rites and in royal palaces e.g. the golden stool among the Asante. h) Trading and industrial towns developed within and around the major mining centres like Meroe Axum, in Ghana, in Zimbabwe and in Benin. i) Trade was promoted in that sometimes iron was used as currency and others became important items of long distance and regional trade. INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN EUROPE . The Industrial Revolution was a period from 1750 to 1850 where changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural conditions of the times. It began in the United Kingdom, and then subsequently spread throughout Western Europe, Northern America, Japan, and eventually the rest of the world.The industrial revolution in Europe occurred in two phases;The old phase was from 175-1850 and began in Britain and spread to other European countries like France (1825), Germany (1840), Belgium (1870) and Russia (1890). In USA, it began after the American civil war of 1861 to 1865. In Japan it began in 1900. In Kenya, it is hoped to be done by 2030. **Characteristics of industrial revolution in Europe ** a) The use of machines to replace human and animal labour. b) The use of steam power as a new source of energy to replace water, wind and animal power. c) Increased exploitation and use of coal, iron and steel. d) The rise of the factory system in owns instead of the cottage industries in homes. e) The development of better forms of transport including the use of railways, roads and water. ----- 164 ### f) Improved living standards and an increase in the human population who required more manufactured goods. g) The production of goods on large scale. Machines worked faster than human labour. h) The development of science and the application of scientific knowledge in production. i) There was development of trade as manufactured goods were sold locally and abroad. j) The rise of modern capitalism that provided enough wealth which was then invested back into industry. k) The growth of trade Union Movements to carter for the rights of industrial workers. **Uses of Various Sources of Energy** **Coal ** This is a compact black or dark brown, carbonaceous rock which is a fuel and source of coke, coal gas and coal tar.Abraham Darby invented the process by which coal was turned into coke in 1709 thus discovered that coal produced immense heat. Coke was used to smelt iron. **Uses of coal** a) To heat water to high temperatures so as to produce steam. b) To provide lighting. c) To drive steam engines in factories. Some generators depended on coal heat to produce steam. d) To drive locomotives. This promoted transport. e) It was a raw material in the manufacturing of dye and pharmaceutical products. **Disadvantages of Coal** a) It is bulky and transporting it is difficult. b) It produced too much smoke when used in locomotives. Also gases released during the burning of coal e.g sulphur dioxide polluted the air and caused acid rain. c) Coal was expensive to mine and to transport to the required destination. d) Coal mining was risky to miners who often lost their lives when mines collapsed and buried them. **Petroleum.(often referred to as oil) ** Before 1850, oil was known to American farmers as a substance that affected food production in farms. It was an American Don, Bissel who carried out an analysis of oil samples at a university lab and established that oil was both a fuel and lubricant. The use of oil became widespread with the invention of the internal combustion engine by Gotlieb Daimler. **Uses of oil. ** a) To power vehicles, aeroplanes and ships b) To generate electricity used in lighting and cooking. c) To run engines in industries d) Tar (Bitumen), a by-product of petroleum is used to tarmac roads. ----- 165 ### e) Greasing of metals in industries was also done by petroleum by-products such as grease. f) Certain petroleum chemicals are used in making of drugs, fertilizers, synthetic fibre and plastics. **Disadvantages of oil ** a) For countries importing oil, it is expensive to transport. b) Prospecting for oil is quite expensive. c) Oil may also affect the environment, since extracting large quantities of petroleum may cause land to sink. **Steam. ** Steam is boiling water turned into gas. It was used for first time around 100 AD in a steampowered engine developed by a Greek scientist called Hero.In the 16 [th] century, Thomas Savery, a Briton, built a steam engine which could pump water out of a coal mine.In 1712, Thomas Newcomen improved Saverys design, though he design was still ineffective.In 1764, James Watt improved on Newcomens engine to make it more effective and by 1800, 320 of Watts engines were in use in Britain.In 1801, Richard Trevithick installed one of Watts engines in a road vehicle. Three years later, he produced a steam-driven locomotive that ran on rails.In 1830, George Stephenson improved on Trevithicks work and invented the first steam locomotive, the rocket. In all these engines, coal was used to produce steam. **Uses of steam** a) It was used to drive heavy machinery in factories and to turn turbines that generated power for industrial use, e.g driving, spinning and weaving machines. b) It was used for pumping water out of coal mines. c) It was used in steam powered locomotives and ships. d) The massive temple doors in Egypt were only opened using steam. **Electricity ** Electricity was discovered by an English Scientist called Michael Faraday (1791-1861) in 1831 when he invented the electric Dynamo.His principal of electromagnetic induction was the beginning of both the dynamo and the electric Motor. The energy used energy from coal, oil, steam or water to produce electricity. The use of electricity became widespread from 1900. **Uses of electricity** a) Lighting. b) Heating and cooking. c) Powering machines in factories. d) Communication. Electric signals are used in communication gadgets. e) Powering transport vehicles such as electric trains and electric cars. **Disadvantages of electricity ** a) It can be dangerous if not properly installed or used. ----- 166 ### b) The generation and distribution of electricity is very expensive thus making its use limited to fewer people in developing countries. **Other sources of energy ** **Atomic energy ** In 1896, A French physicist, Antoine Henri Beckquerel (1852 -1903), discovered that uranium produces radiation or energy in waves. (Radioactivity). This was the birth of the development of Atomic energy.In 1938, Hahn and Stressman discovered the process of Atomic fusion which leads to production of Atomic energy.In 1942, a group of scientists led by Enrico-Fermi at the university of Chicago, USA, built the first Nuclear research Station which resulted in the invention of the nuclear reactor and later the discovery of an Atomic Bomb like one which was used Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.In Belgium and France, 60% of the electricity is produced from atomic power. However, atomic energy when used in war can be very fatal.Radioactivity also endangers both animal and plant life.Polluted air, where radioactivity has taken place causes fever, diarrhea and death. For example the radioaction accident in 1985 at Three Mile Island in the USA and at Chernobyl near Kiev in Ukraine in 1986 had fatal consequences. **Solar Energy. ** It is obtained directly from the sun and is used to dry firewood, clothes and to cook food. In 1714, Antoine Lavoisier made a solar furnace which could melt metals.An engine using solar power was used to run a printing press in Paris in 1880.The use of solar water heaters was widespread in USA by 1900.In 1954, the first solar cell which turned sunlight into electricity was made. The energy was then used to heat water and generate electricity. **Uses of Solar energy. ** a) Drying agricultural products. b) Distilling of salty water to get salt crystals. c) Heating water in homes and industry d) Heating and lighting buildings e) Cooking using solar cookers f) Irrigating using solar water pumps, g) Powering satellites in space. **Advantages of solar energy** a) It is clean and is available in places where sunlight is readily available. b) It is natural and therefore free, non-pollutant and inexhaustible source of energy. **Iron and steel ** Iron was not really a source of energy but the industrial revolution was dependant on the availability of iron **Uses of iron** a) Production of machines for textile industry. Water pipes and ploughs were made of iron. ----- 167 ### b) Production of steam engines. c) Building of trains, railway lines ships, wheels, bridges and coach frames.In an attempt to overcome the disadvantages of iron (it was too heavy and could rust easily), in 1856, an Englishman, Henry Bessemer produced steel out of Iron and Carbon. (Steel is an alloy of iron and Carbon and is lighter, flexible, stronger and harder than iron).Stainless steel, commonly used in cutlery is an alloy of Steel and Chromium. **Uses of steel** a) The construction of rail lines, bridges, cars and ships. b) The manufacturing of machinery especially in the agricultural and industrial sector. c) Reinforcement of concrete in buildings and roofing houses. d) Making of containers and utensils. **INDUSTRIALIZATION IN BRITAIN** This change, which occurred between 1750 and 1830, happened because conditions were perfect in Britain for the Industrial Revolution. The transformation was facilitated by the following factors; a) Availability of coal and iron ore which served as a basis for heavy industries. Coal was a source of energy for use in the industries. Iron was used in the manufacture of machinery. b) The agrarian revolution ensured that important raw materials were available for the industries and also made food more available for the many factory centres c) Existence of a large population which provided steady internal market for the manufactured goods/domestic local markets. There was also Availability of external markets in her colonies for the industrial produce. d) Existence of cottage industries which acted as a base for industrial take-off in Britain. It was easier to turn to mass production of goods on the basis of the small scale production in cottage industries. e) Due to the enclosure act, many peasants became available to offer unskilled labour especially following their displacement from the rural areas. f) Political stability and strong leadership that existed at the time created a condusive environment for investments when compared to other European countries. g) Well developed transport and communication network e.g railway, canals, bridges, harbours and roads which promoted industrialization. h) Existence of good banking and insurance systems which gave financial help and security to the industries. i) Britain had a strong navy that guarded her trade routes thus protecting her merchants from foreign competition. j) Policy of free trade encouraged industrialization/ existence of the merchant and middle class who formed pressure groups that forced the government to adopt measures favoring their industries.britain had no internal customs barrier to hurt her industrial growth. ----- 168 ### k) Availability of wealth/capital that stimulated industrial revolution. Britain had accumulated a lot of wealth from her trade with other countries and her colonies in America and Africa.e.g. The steam engine was made in Britain by a wealth Briton. l) Availability of industrial raw materials in her vast colonies. **INDUSTRIALIZATION IN CONTINENTAL EUROPE. ** The Industrial Revolution on Continental Europe came a little later than in Great Britain. **Reasons why other European countries delayed in the industrialization process. ** a) The political upheavals in France, Germany and Italy were responsible for the delay in the take- off of industrialization. b) The existence of a feudal economy in which the peasant farmers could not afford to buy industrial goods nor raise capital to invest in industry. c) The system of farming implied that inadequate raw materials came from the farms thus making it difficult for industrial development. d) Their system of transport was not developed. e) Unlike Britain, these countries did not have an enterprising class of people and scientists ready to take up the task of industrial investment and invention. **Factors that led to industrial development in continental Europe ** a) Political stability and strong leadership that followed the unification of Italy and Germany and end of Napoleonic rule in France created a contusive environment for investments when compared to other European countries. Feudalism was also abolished. b) The agrarian revolution that had taken place in continental Europe ensured that the countries had raw materials for their industries. Other strategic raw materials like coal and iron were readily available. c) There was adequate capital from the rich traders who willingly invested in industry. Britain also gave loans to the European countries to industrialize. d) Existence of good banking and insurance systems which gave financial help and security to the industries. e) Existence of a large population which provided both skilled and unskilled labour required by the industries. f) The European governments supported the industrial ventures that were aimed at enhancing economic development. French and Germany governments gave tax concessions and subsidies to encourage industrialization. g) Existence of a steady internal and external market for the manufactured goods/there was a high European population that consumed most goods locally. h) Well developed transport and communication network e.g. better roads, railway and water transport which meant that industrial workers, raw materials and finished goods could be transported easily. i) Countries in continental Europe had vast sources of energy such as coal, steam power and electricity which enhanced industrial development. ----- 169 ### j) The development of new skills in science and technology facilitated industrial growth. Some European countries like France and Germany sent their people to Britain to acquire skills and ideas in science and also invited English technicians to their countries. **Effects of the industrial revolution in Europe ** a) Creation of employment opportunities. Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in the new mills and factories. b) Emergence of Factories and urbanization. Industrialization led to the creation of the factory system was largely responsible for the rise of the modern city, as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of employment in the factories. c) Improved Standards of living. Living conditions and health care improved during the 19 [th] century. The famines that troubled rural areas did not happen in industrial areas. d) Population increase. As living conditions and health care improved during the 19th century, Europes population doubled every 50 years. Infant mortality reduced. e) Local and international trade developed. Manufactured goods were sold locally while others were exported to America. The industries also created market for raw materials from Africa and Asia. f) European economies became diversified as a result of industrial growth. This led to specialization e.g. traders, bankers, mechanics and agriculturalists. g) Development and use of machinery in agriculture led to increased production h) Improvement in Transportation and technology. The expansion of business and factories expanded Canals, highways and railways were expanded. i) Large scale production of a wide range of goods. new methods of farming, such as the use of fertilizers and new crop breeds were developed j) The industrial revolution promoted development of science and technology. There was increased utilization of knowledge in production of goods as well as scientific inventions such as invention of electricity. k) The emergence of trade union movement. The Industrial Revolution concentrated labour into mills, factories and mines, thus facilitating the organization of combinations or trade unions to help advance the interests of working people. l) Eventually effective political organization for working people was achieved through the trades unions who began to support socialist political parties that later merged to become the British Labour Party. m) It led to Political corruption - the amount of money generated by the Industrial Revolution created a class of super rich who could buy any politician or process. n) Environmental damage - there were few if any rules regarding how resources could be removed and used. The air was horribly polluted from factories, as was the soil and rivers. o) There was increased exploitation of natural resources in Europe during the revolution. Iron, coal and steel production increased. ----- 170 ### p) Industrial revolution was accompanied with economic Exploitation of people. While jobs were created, sometimes the jobs were dangerous and people died. Harsh working conditions, Child labour, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were prevalent. q) Rise of unemployment. The rapid industrialization cost many craft workers their jobs. Many weavers found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines to produce cloth. r) The industrial revolution was responsible for the scramble and partition of Africa. The colonies produced raw materials for industries in Europe and also acted as markets for goods processed in Europe. For this reason, many European nations sought to have as many colonies as possible. **The scientific Revolution ** Science is the systematic study of the nature and behaviour of the material and physical universe based on observation. The scientific revolution refers to the history of science in the early modern period, where sudden development in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, medicine and chemistry transformed views of society and nature. **Causes of scientific revolution ** a) Discovery of the New World. Exploration/conquest leading to discovery of new plant/animal life. Traditional link between navigation and astronomy + great advances made by Portuguese navigators fueled an interest in learning more about the stars b) Invention of the Printing Press, allowed for rapid dissemination of scientific knowledge. Numerous books and newsletters were in circulation keeping people informed of science c) Rivalry among Nation-States. Constant warfare among nation-states pushed for scientific development by placing an importance on technology, or applied science. Powerful leaders of nation-states funded scientific development. d) Renaissance / birth of knowledge. During this period, Human interest in the classical world increased. Renaissance time made people to develop interest in research/ learning. e) The need to solve their daily life problems like shortages, disease etc. necessity is the mother of all inventions. f) Financial support for governments and individuals. Governments and individuals financed scientific research. g) Religion failed to answer all questions. This sometimes betrayed mans belief in supernatural power thus emphasizing research. Scientific inventions . Scientific inventions have roots in the ancient civilization in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, China and India. Early inventions were witnessed in the field of medicine, astronomy, agriculture, medicine and mathematics as follows; a) The Egyptians discovered geometry which they used on farms. They discovered dead body preservation method (mummification). Build pyramids for their pharaohs using knowledge in mathematics. ----- 171 ### b) Greeks like Pythagoras contributed to mathematics, especially the right angled triangle as early as 200BC, Euclid did some work in geometry. Archimedes discovered how the lever works. Ptolemy is remembered for geographical work especially production of the Atlas. c) The Chinese made cloth from silk and developed acupuncture skills. They invented paper making in 70 AD. They made gunpowder and the calendar. d) The Indians invented the decimal system in mathematics. e) The Muslim Arabs developed the art of architecture as evidenced by the construction of unique mosques. **Period Inventor and invention ** 1473-1543 Nicolas Copernicus a polish astronomer. He discovered that Celestial bodies possess uniform, circular motion around a central point. 1564 - 1642 Galileo Galilei. In 1609 the Italian mathematician invented the telescope and observed the universe. He accepted Copernican astronomy and the implicit necessity of a 'new' physics to replace Aristotelian mechanics. 1571 - 1630 Johannes Kepler. Used Brahe's data to confirm that the sun was the center of the universe and the earth and other planets revolved around it.1642 - 1727 Sir Isaac Newton). He explained theories of motion and inertia with the force of gravity. Newton also described the composition of light. 1743-1794 Antoine Lavoisier, a Frenchman. He showed that air was made of hydrogen and oxygen elements. He stated that chemical substances comprised different elements. 1766-1844 John Dalton, an English Teacher was the founder of modern chemistry and is famous for the atomic theory all matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms. 1706-1790 Benjamin Franklin (USA) he stated that lightning was a form of electricity. He came up with the theory of electricity and invented the lightning rod. 1791 - 1867 Michael Faraday creates the electric motor, and develops an understanding of electromagnetic induction, which provides evidence that electricity and magnetism are related. In 1831, he invented the electric dynamo, a machine which produced electricity from a magnet. 1799 - 1878 Joseph Henry's research on electromagnetic induction is performed at the same time as Faraday's. He constructs the first motor; his work with electromagnets leads directly to the development of the telegraph. **Impact of scientific inventions ** **Impact of scientific inventions on agriculture ** a) Food production has been increased thanks to the use of farm machinery, fertilizers, pest 1831-1979 James Clerk Maxwell pointed out that acceleration of electric charges emitted electromagnetic radiation. The ideas underlying Maxwells theories of electromagnetism describe the propagation of light waves in a vacuum. ----- 172 ### 1787-1854 . In 1827, George Simon Ohm determined that the current that flows through a wire is proportional to its cross sectional area and inversely proportional to its length or Ohm's law. 1876 Nicolaus Otto, A German traveling salesman named constructed the first practical internal combustion engine; it used a four stroke cycle of a piston to draw a fuel-air mixture into a cylinder, compress it, mechanically capture energy after ignition, and expel the exhaust before beginning the cycle anew. 1847-1869 Alexander Graham Bell, In 1876, at the age of 29, invented his telephone. 1701 Tull, Jethro invented a horse-drawn seed drill. 1764 Water frame invented by Richard Arkwright - the first powered textile machine. 1888-1946 John Logie Baird is remembered as the inventor of mechanical television (an earlier version of television). Baird also patented inventions related to radar and fiber optics. 1755 Robert Bakewell produces Leicester sheep through selective breeding methods. In 1769, Bakewell breeds Longhorn cattle through selective breeding 1786 Andrew Meikle, a Scottish engineer, develops threshing machine 1831 Cyrus McCormick invents the first commercially successful horse-drawn reaper for harvesting wheat 1837 John Deere develops and manufactures the first commercially successful cast -steel plough 1831 1860s John Fowler pioneers the use of engines for ploughing and drainage channels 1879 Anna Baldwin patents a milking machinea vacuum device connected to a hand pumpto replace hand milking. Invention receives a patent but not commercially successful. 1842 The first grain elevator is built by Joseph Dart in the U.S. 1850 Edward Quincy invents the corn picker 1764 Spinning jenny invented by James Hargreaves - the first machine to improve upon the spinning wheel. 1733 Flying shuttle invented by John Kay - an improvement to looms that enabled weavers to weave faster. 1779 Crompton invented the spinning mule that allowed for greater control over the weaving process. 1785 Cartwright patented the power loom. It was improved upon by William Horrocks, known for his invention of the variable speed batton in 1813. 1847 -1931 Thomas Alva Edison is Most famous for his invention of the electric incandescent light bulb. ----- 173 ### 1853 - 1937 Elihu Thomson. His experiments eventually led to the adoption of alternating current technology. 1913 Robert Adler. He is Most famous for his invention of the wireless TV remote control. 1856 -1943 Nikola Tesla is Recognized as one of the outstanding pioneers in the electric power field 1765-1825 Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1794. The cotton gin is a machine that separates seeds, hulls and other unwanted materials from cotton after it has been picked. 1895 Wilhelm Rntgen discovers x rays. 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie separate radioactive elements. 1898 Joseph Thompson measures the electron, and puts forth his "plum-pudding" model of the atom -- that the atom is a slightly positive sphere with small, raisin -like negative electrons inside. and control methods and scientific breeding. Hybrid seeds have been developed together with new animal breeds. b) Scientific inventions have stimulated scientific research in the field of agriculture. This is done in schools, agricultural institutes and colleges. c) Farming of perishable foods has been made possible due to invention of preservation methods for foods like canning and refrigeration. d) Increased food production has led to increase in population. There is increased food security. There is also increased trade. e) Biotechnology has contributed to diversification of agriculture leading to greater crop and animal production. f) Farming has been revolutionized from small-scale subsistence farming to large scale economic activity due to mechanization on farms Negative impacts of scientific inventions on agriculture . a) The consumption of chemically treated and stored food has raised concern for food related disease such as cancer and heart diseases b) Use of pesticides and fertilizers sometimes poses the challenges of cost. Some pesticides are toxic and therefore harmful to humans and animals. c) Consistence use of fertilizers impoverishes the soil fertility. The more the fertilizer is used the more the soil becomes infertile. d) Traditional crops are being threatened by biotechnology and development of hybrids. Impact of scientific inventions on industry . a) Large quantities of goods can be produced due to scientific inventions. This has led to enjoyment of economies of scale. b) Efficient sources of energy necessary for industrial production have been developed. New forms of energy such as nuclear, solar and electricity have been invented. c) Improvements in transport and communication have stimulated industrial development. ----- 174 ### Movement of labour, raw materials and manufactured goods is efficient. d) There has been increased exploitation of resources like factories, fisheries, minerals etc as factories yearn for raw materials due to increased production. e) The large scale manufacture of goods has led to growth of trade. This in turn has created wealth for industrialized nations. f) Space exploration has been enhanced through science. Satellites are used in photographing of the earths surface and in weather research. g) Science has revolutionized military technology. Dangerous weapons have been manufactured. h) There is faster dissemination and spread of ideas or knowledge and skills due to development of printing press, and internet development. i) Industries have created job opportunities. Exploitation of mineral deposits has created employment. **Negative impact of scientific inventions on industry** a) Scientific inventions in industry have led to industrial wastes and pollutants that contribute to environmental pollution. Smoke pollutes the air, machines cause noise pollution etc. b) Human life has suffered unnecessarily due to development of war weapons and accidents on roads and aeroplanes. c) Many people have been rendered unemployed due to development of machines. Impact of scientific inventions on medicine a) Discovery of various medicines to treat both animals and human diseases has boosted both curative and preventive measures in promoting health. b) Improved nutrition has reduced the number of disease that kills man. Population has there increased as a result of reduced death rate. c) Proper diagnosis of disease is now possible with the use of x-rays and other modern scientific methods. With accurate diagnosis, proper treatment can be given. d) The manufacture of various drugs has been facilitated by scientific discoveries. Many companies produce drugs that prevent and cure diseases. **Factors undermining scientific revolution in third world countries ** a) Lack of enough funds for scientific research. b) High level of ignorance and illiteracy. c) The educational systems do not allow for development of inquisitive mind and development of interest in science. The system is not science oriented. d) The brain drain; the few specialized scientists have migrated to areas with greener pastures like Europe and America. e) There is too much dependence on developed countries for nearly everything manufactured or scientifically produced. f) Lack of adequate support from the government. This is clear in the type of budgetary allocations to scientific research. ----- 175 ### **Measures that can be undertaken to promote scientific research in third world ** **countries. ** a) Putting emphasis on the teaching of sciences in schools. b) Making available financial resources for scientific research. c) Emphasizing on competitions and congresses in schools and colleges. d) The government of Kenya has set up research institutions and centres of science and technology. e) Scientists have been trained locally and abroad on new knowledge in science and technology. f) International cooperation conferences in science, which bring scientists together, are organized and attended by Kenyan scientists. **Emergence of selected world industrial powers ** **United States of America. ** This is the third largest nation in the world after Canada and China Industrialization of the USA began in the mid 19 [th] c and she had emerged as a major industrial power by mid 20 [th] c. USA remains the only superpower in the world after collapse of USSR in 1990. Factors influencing the industrialization of USA . a) Abundance of natural resources like iron ore, oil from the oilfields of Texas, copper and coal. There were also agricultural raw materials like cotton, corn, wheat and Tobacco plus forest resources which boosted industrial development. b) Good transport and communication. The USA government developed transport systems in the country. For example railway (opened in 1869), roads, and water transport. Electronic communication was also developed. c) Availability of both skilled and unskilled labour some of which came from the immigrant population. The American system of education gave room for acquisition of necessary skills. d) There were scientific and technological advances to support the industrial process especially by the Europeans who moved to USA. The education system also promoted research which further boosted industrialization. e) Foreign investments in the 19 [th] c from countries like Britain led to industrial development. f) The high American population was a source of domestic market for her industrial products. Her high quality products were also on high demand outside America. g) Enterprising citizens. The Americans were ready to venture into business. Some had good managerial skills. For example John Rockfeller ventured in the petroleum sector, Andrew Carnegie and James Hill in the steel and iron industry. Henry Ford in the mass production of cars. ----- 176 ### h) Long periods of political stability since her independence assured investors of security and thus paving way for industrialization. i) Availability of sources of energy like coal, petroleum, gas and HEP and later Atomic energy. j) The capitalism policy encouraged both local and external investors since it allowed private ownership of property. k) Government support. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1933-1945) and Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) provided capital to develop transport systems. l) The 1 [st] and 2 [nd] World wars. During the war period, European nations were unable to produce goods since they were busy fighting. This enabled USA to expand her market as she initially kept away from the war. **Germany ** The unification of Germany took place in 1871 after which she began to emerge as an industrial power. **Emergence of Germany as an industrial power was aided as by the following ** **factors. ** a) Establishment of the customs union, Zollverein. This linked the german states and removed trade barriers hence leading to free trade and economic growth in Germany. Transportation of goods and communication was eased by the customs union. b) Germany was rich in coal which was an important source of energy for the industries. HEP and Atomic energy was also produced o boost industrialization. c) Abundance of natural resources like water and minerals like iron ore from Alsace and Lorraine, coal, oil and copper which were vital industrial raw materials. d) The large Germany population was a source of both skilled and unskilled labour. The system of education also ensured availability of skilled labourers. e) There was also a large domestic market from the large population. Her products were also on high demand from the rest of Europe. For example, her vehicles (Volkswagen, BMW and Mercedes Benz) f) Existence of good transport and communication networks of roads, railway and waterways. This ensured easy transportation of raw materials to factories and finished goods from industries to the market. g) Existence of long periods of political instability in Germany after unification in 1871 under the leadership of Otto Von Bismarck which ensured investor security. h) The availability of finance for industrial growth from the rich german citizens and from loans granted by USA in 1924. The Marshal Plan after 1945 was another source of finance. i) The existence of a hard working and enterprising people in Germany. For example, Krupp Meyer Thyssen who promoted the development of industries in steel. Egells and Harkoft Borsig made great contributions in the field of machinery. ----- 177 ### Germans industrialization was however interrupted during the two world war periods. At the end of world war Germany was able to recover and progress in industrial development. **Factors which enabled Germany to recover after world war two. ** a) West Germany still had a high population which was an important resource in terms of labour. There were also a high number of immigrants from European countries like Turkey and Italy. b) The USA marshal Plan ensured that the required finance was available to assist her industries. c) Germany industries were not totally destroyed by the two wars. d) Industrial \unrests was not very common in Germany, and therefore, industrialization was not interrupted. e) Good leadership accelerated the industrialization process. Between 1949 and 1955, Germany chancellor Konrad Adenaur proved to be an able leader who encouraged industrial growth. **Japan. ** Japan is a nation that has achieved a great deal in industrialization. In the 18c, Japan was faced with civil wars. Later she made contacts with the west, through which her leaders realized that industrialization could strengthen Japan as a nation. Great strides towards industrialization were made during the reign of Emperor Meiji from 1896. **Factors that enabled Japan to emerge as an industrial power** 1. She had enterprising citizens who were hard working and determined. They are always ready to undertake risks in business. The national motto just in time confirms their efficiency. 2. The Long period of political stability especially after World War II has promoted industrialization. 3. The role played by America in financing the industrialization process in Japan as a means of preventing her from falling under the influence of communists after world war II. This enabled Japan to build many industries in the post war period. 4. Japan is a country whose industrial growth has never been slowed down by industrial disputes. The Japanese work for life. When one is employed in Japan, they put the interest of the employer first. This therefore reduces industrial disputes. 5. The Japanese goods are always of high quality and affordable. For example the vehicles, thus ensuring a steady market both local and international. 6. The Japanese education system is technically oriented ensuring production of skilled. Unskilled manpower has been made availability thanks to the abolition of the policy of feudalism that enabled labourers to move from the farms to the industries. 7. Japan has a well developed transport and communication network of railway, roads, water transport, large airports and electric trains. This has enabled improved transportation of raw materials to factories and manufactured goods to markets ----- 178 ### 8. Existence of an industrial base. Before World War II, Japan had already attained a certain level of industrial development. Many industries were not completely destroyed during the war period. The industries were repaired after the war. 9. Japan has a highly developed renewable hydro-electric power given the existence of large and fast flowing rivers. 10. The government invited expatriates and deployed them to local industries. In 1870, a group of 100 Japanese were sent out to western European factories to learn. 11. Geographical factors. The countrys terrain did not favour agriculture thus making industrialization the best option to improve her economy. 12. The open investment policy encouraged the west to invest in her industrialization. The government encouraged foreign industrialists to plough back their capital and resources into the Japanese economy. **Industrialization in the third world countries. ** The term Third world refers to developing nations of Africa, Asia and South America. Most of them are former colonies of European powers and there resources were used to develop the mother countries during the colonial period. Reasons why many developing countries have lagged behind in industrialization . a) Long periods of colonization relegated them to the role of suppliers of raw materials and as markets for industrial goods from developed nations at the expense of their own industries. b) Poor transport and communication systems has undermined industrialization since raw materials and manufactured goods cannot be transported to their various destinations. c) Inadequate capital. Most of the third world countries have poor agricultural-based economies which cannot support meaningful industrialization. d) Poor technology. The use of appropriate technology in third world countries is lagging behind and this hampers exploitation of natural resources and manufacturing of goods. e) Many developing countries face stiff completion from the industrialized nations that produce high quality products and have an advanced marketing system for their goods. f) High levels of illiteracy among majority of the population in developing countries leads to lack of technical and scientific skills necessary for industrial take off. g) The protectionist policies adopted by developing countries have discouraged private enterprises and foreign investment. Policies like nationalization and imposition of import duties discourage investors in many countries. h) High levels of poverty in third world countries mean low domestic market. Governments also spent most of their resources to provide for the basic needs of their citizens at the expense of industrialization. i) Many third world countries have been faced with political instability problem. This has hampered industrialization. There are numerous civil wars or cross-border conflicts in many countries. ----- 179 ### j) Third world countries often poor disaster management strategies. The devastating effects of natural disasters affect industrialization. k) Lack of skilled personnel. Many well trained people migrate to the developed nations in search of well paying jobs. Since independence however, some have made tremendous effort to industrialize. For example, South Africa, Brazil and India. **Brazil** The fourth largest nation in the world after Canada, China and USA, she was colonized by Portugal and attained her independence in 1882. In the last 25 years, she has been able to expand and diversify production of manufactured goods. **Her industrialization has been in four main sectors namely; ** 1. Petroleum and petrochemical industries . She has petrochemical complexes based in the states of Balica, Rio Grande, Dosul and Sao Paulo. 2. Motor vehicle industry . The country has earned a lot of forex through the massive manufacture and sale of motor vehicles since 1997. 3. Aircraft and aerospace industry . The Brazilian Space Agency (AEB) and the National Institute of Space Research (NPE) have been involved in the Brazilian space programme which comprises the construction of satellites and launching of space craft. 4. Electricity generation industry . The main source of Brazilian electric energy is water. In 1996, 92 % of all her electricity power generation was HEP. **Factors that have facilitated industrialization in Brazil** a) Availability of Cheap and both skilled and unskilled labour from the countrys large population especially after the abolition of slave trade. b) Plentiful natural resources. For example mineral supplies like gold, coal, iron ore, uranium, and manganese etc, agricultural raw materials like coffee, sugarcane, cocoa and maize and forest resources are a great boost to industrialization c) Availability of hydro-electricity as early as 1905 to boost industrialization. Coal is also available. d) Foreign capital. There was heavy influx of foreign capital from countries such as the USA,Canada, Britain, Portugal and France which led to establishment of industries in the country. e) Improved transport and communication. Railway lines were constructed in most parts of Brazil thus opening the interior areas for the exploitation of natural resources and transportation of manufactured goods. f) Good economic policies adopted by President Getulio Vargas (1930-1945) have contributed to industrialization in Brazil. He encouraged the development of transport and communication. He encouraged the harnessing of HEP. He Provided loans and subsidies to certain industries. Adopted protectionist policies of imposing heavy duties on imports. He encouraged exploitation of oil. ----- 180 ### g) Development of banking in major Brazilian cities such as Manaus, Salvador, Brasilia and Sao Paulo facilitated provision of loans to individuals who wanted to venture in business. h) Large Internal and external markets. Increased Trade between Brazil and other countries has led to growth of external market to supplement the available market locally. i) The World War II which made it hard for her to import goods from Europe thus compelling her to manufacture her own goods. **Obstacles to industrialization in Brazil. ** a) High levels of poverty (more than 40% of the population is poor) meaning low purchasing power. Governments also spent most of their resources to subsidize the basic needs of their citizens at the expense of industrialization. b) Inability to fully exploit her natural resources especially those found in low population zones like the south where labour for exploitation is lacking. c) Huge foreign debt. A lot of money is being used to service these debts at the expense of industrialization. d) Poor technology. The use of appropriate technology for exploitation of natural resources and manufacturing of goods is still lagging behind in Brazil. e) Stiff completion from the industrialized nations like USA and Western Europe that produce high quality products and have an advanced marketing system for their goods. f) The resources of Brazil are monopolized by the multinational companies that are based there. The government therefore has no freedom to exploit them for use in industries. **SOUTH AFRICA ** She attained majority rule in 1994 after a long struggle against the apartheid regime. The country has achieved great strides in industrialization with many industries including iron and steel industries, engineering, locomotive, chemical, textile, cement, light industries and tourism **Factors influencing industrialization in South Africa ** a) The country is endowed with mineral resources such as gold, diamonds, Iron etc. b) Availability of Cheap and both skilled and unskilled labour from the countrys large population. c) Availability of natural resources. For example mineral supplies like gold, lead, iron ore, uranium, manganese, Zinc, Bauxite, Tin, Chromium, Tungsten, Phosphate etc. some of these resources are in plenty and are exported to earn forex. d) Development of hydro-electricity has boosted industrialization. Coal is also available from the Witwatersrand. e) Development of transport and communication. Railway lines, water and road network have been improved thus opening the resources for the exploitation and for transportation of manufactured goods. Air transport is also well developed thus enhancing business operations. ----- 181 ### f) Availability of capital from her trade in other materials. g) Government support. The government has adopted sound economic policies that promote industrialization. For example imposing heavy tariffs on the imported commodities as a means of protecting local industries, encouraging foreign entrepreneurs to invest in the country and encouraging local investors. h) South Africa is endowed with a variety of tourist attractions like wildlife which boost the tourism industry. i) Large Internal and external markets. Increased Trade between South Africa and other countries especially after end of the apartheid rule has led to growth of external market to supplement the available market locally. **Challenges facing industrialization in South Africa. ** a) Long periods of apartheid rule was accompanied with sometimes violent resistance and struggle for majority rule which created an atmosphere not conducive for investment b) The country suffered long periods of economic sanctions imposed by the United Nations between 1948 and 1994 which affected her manufactured goods that could not access external markets. c) There were rampant industrial strikes in the country, during the apartheid regime which affected industrialization. d) The HIV and AIDS scourge has ravaged the countrys labour force thus seriously undermining the industrial efforts. e) There is stiff completion from the industrialized nations in Western Europe that produce high quality products and have an advanced marketing system for their goods. f) High levels of insecurity which, at times, discourages would-be foreign investors. g) High levels of poverty in South Africa mean low purchasing power. Manufactured goods perform poorly locally. **India. ** Since Indias independence from Britain in 1947, the country has continued to experience extensive industrialization Factors that facilitated Indias industrialization . a) Existence of good industrial base from the textile and leather industries. The British governor Lord Dalhousie also laid a good foundation for industrialization by promoting road construction and cotton growing. b) Also cottage industries like smithing and textiles existed in India long before colonialism. This formed the basis for modern industries c) Availability of Cheap and both skilled and unskilled labour from the countrys large population which is almost at a billion mark d) Existence of raw materials. For example mineral supplies like iron ore, manganese and coal allowed development of heavy industries. Cotton was also available as a textile industry raw material ----- 182 ### e) Development of energy sources like coal and hydro-electricity has boosted industrialization. Other sources of energy include oil, natural gas and nuclear energy.. f) Development of transport and communication. The great trunk road from Calcutta to Punjab and sea transport development has led to resource exploitation and transportation of manufactured goods. Communication services have also been greatly improved. g) Good technical and scientific education available in India has produced experts who are in great demand in industry and agriculture. h) Availability of capital from her trading contacts with European countries like Portugal, Britain, France and Holland. i) Good national development plans. In the first five-year development plan of 1951, the government adopted sound economic policies that prioritized agriculture especially modern farming. The second phase emphasized industrialization, especially decentralization if industries to high population areas where labour and market existed. j) The government has imposed protective tariffs on the imported commodities as a means of protecting local industries. k) Political stability. India has enjoyed a long period of political stability since her independence thus giving investors confidence. l) Development of banking in India has enabled farmers and industrialists to access credit facilities. **Challenges facing industrialization in India** a) Competition from goods manufactured in the developed countries; the developed nations produce goods of high quality than those manufactured by the Indian industries. b) High population in India requires that the government spare enough capital to feed the people. The government spends a lot of revenue in developing agriculture to feed her people. c) High poverty levels i.e. majority of the Indian population is poor and do not have adequate purchasing power for her manufactured goods/ the local market is therefore limited. d) Lack of efficient communication and transportation infrastructure hence poor movement of goods and labour. e) Natural calamities e.g. drought and floods that destroy raw materials for industries. f) Political conflicts e.g. with neighboring Pakistan, and the civil unrest hinders industrial development. **URBANIZATION ** This is the process by which people are attracted to live in towns or large settlements. An urban centre is any area with a human population of 20,000 people or more. **Early Urbanization. ** Some of the early urban centres in Africa included Cairo, Meroe/Merowe and Kilwa. Factors that influenced development of urban centres in Africa. ----- 183 ### a) Existence of transport routes-Meroe/Merowe located at an intersection of transport routes. b) Availability of water for irrigation which increased food production and influenced growth of towns e.g. Cairo. c) Industrial development areas of industries grew up as towns since they attracted laborers e.g. Cairo. d) Commercial activities like trade-location along trade routes. e) Strategic location which ensured security and thus ample growth e.g. Kilwa. f) Growth of religion some grew rapidly because they were religious centres. g) Mining led to development of towns e.g. Meroe, Johannesburg. **Cairo. ** This is the capital city of Egypt. The city was founded in 969 AD when the conquerors from Tunisia, The Fatimid Dynasty invaded and conquered Egypt **Factors for the growth of Cairo** a) The Nile River provided water for domestic use and was also a means of transport. This enabled Cairo to grow. b) Availability of water for irrigation which increased food production and influenced growth of Cairo. c) Industrial development various industries developed in Cairo. Food processing industries and construction works. The industries attracted migrants from rural areas. d) Fertile Nile Valley. the Valley had adequate rainfall and the river always carried silt which it deposited downstream to provide e) The Suez Canal which was opened in 1869 opened a new trade route which encouraged the arrival of thousands of Europeans. Commercial, administrative and public buildings were constructed during this time. f) Commercial activities like trade-location along trade routes. The Strategic location along the Nile attracted caravans which would pass through Cairo from North, west and Central Africa g) The opening of the Aswan High Dam in 1902 enhanced food production through irrigation thus influencing Cairos growth. h) The effects of the two world wars which disrupted Egypts trade with other countries thus compelling her to find ways of substituting imports. This boosted industrialization i) Cairo is a cultural centre being home to treasures preserved from the early Egyptian civilization and Islamic culture in their museums. The city of a thousand Minarets. j) Cairo also grew as a centre of education and medicine. Several institutions of higher learning such as the University of Cairo, American University and Azar University contributed to this. **Functions of Cairo ** a) It was a national capital and a political centre of the Arab world. b) It serves as the transport and commercial centre of North Africa and the Middle East. ----- 184 ### c) It is a recreational centre housing many recreational facilities like stadiums and entertainment halls d) Cairo has been a historical centre being the house to the Egyptian civilization for over 5000 years e) Cairo serves as an industrial centre. Many of these developed during the industrialization process. For example, textile, vehicle and communication equipment assembly plants. Cairo faces the following problems today; a) High population. Cairo is the largest city in Africa and the Middle East. One fifth of Egypts population stays in Cairo. In 1988, her population was 11 million. b) Scarcity of food. The high population in the city has caused food shortage. c) Unemployment. The number of unemployed people in Cairo is increasing every year mainly due to the high rate of migration to the city and the natural population increase. d) Housing problems. Between the Nile and the main airport, between 250,000 to 900,000 poor people have put up shanties. This area is commonly reffered to as the city of Death. e) Traffic jams. f) Pollution from the industries, vehicle exhaust, desert storms and garbage burning. g) High crime rate. This is mostly due to the high unemployment level Solutions to the problems facing Cairo. a) The food shortage problem is being tackled through reclaiming land for agriculture. The Aswan high Dam provides water for irrigation. b) The housing problem is being addressed by constructing industries in the suburbs to reduce the population in the city. c) Traffic jams have been eased through the launching of the Cairo Metro in 1987, which was Africas first subway system, which serves the Ramses station to the north and Helwan area to the south. It conveys 60,000 passengers per hour. **Meroe/Merowe. ** This was the second capital of the kingdom of Kush and emerged as a city in 650 BC. It rose to become an important industrial centre and specifically iron working producing weapons, hunting and farming tools. **Factors for growth of Meroe. ** a) Existence of transport routes-Meroe/Merowe was located at an intersection of transport routes (from east via the red sea and from north via Egypt). This promoted trade with other parts of the world. b) Abundance of wood fuel, from the heavily forested Blue Nile / white Nile intersection area, which was a key to the prosperity of the iron-working industry. c) Mining Merowe was located in a region endowed with a lot of iron. **Social effects of the growth of Merowe** ----- 185 ### a) The Merotic language developed to replace the Egyptian language previously used by the Nubian founders of Merowe. b) New architectural developments took place in the region. These were characterized by tombs where rulers were buried after death, ruins of temples, palaces and homes. c) Other industries developed besides the iron working industry. For example, weaving of cotton, cloth and pottery **Functions of Meroe during the colonial period ** a) Meroe was a centre of iron working hence an early industrial centre. b) A mining centre since Meroe had iron ore, which it mined. c) A religious function since it had many temples where people worshipped their gods. The priests who headed the Meroe church had their headquarters in Meroe. d) It was a centre of trade. e) It was an administrative and political centre. f) Transport centre-major trade routes converged and radiated from Meroe. **Factors that led to decline of Merowe ** a) The rise of Axum kingdom of Ethiopia which denied her access to the red sea. b) The increasing desertification of the region, perhaps due to the rapid deforestation. The city began declining in 350 BC. **Kilwa ** The town is among the city states that developed along the east African coast. Her greatness was due to the Persian influence. One of its Shirazi rulers from Banadir Coast in Persia, Ali Ibn Hassan, transformed the town into a large city.The sultan erected a stone citadel to protect the island from external enemies. He also forced other conquered city-states to pay tribute to Kilwa.Later on Sultan al-Hassan Ibn Sulaiman I built the Great mosque of Kilwa in 1270 AD and a luxurious palace referred to by historians as Husuni Kubwa. **Factors influencing the growth of Kilwa ** a) Exemplary leadership provided by the Shirazi Leaders who kept enemies off and forced the neighbouring city-states to pay tribute to Kilwa. b) The strategic location of Kilwa enabled her to attract merchants as it was a convenient stopping place. c) Monopoly of the sofala Gold Trade. The control of the Sofala Gold trade had fallen in the hands of Kilwa by 1300 AD d) The gleaming buildings of Kilwa such as the great Mosque and palace made her the Jewel of the Zenj Coast, minting her own coins to add to her prosperity.. the mosque became a tourist attraction later own **Functions of Kilwa. ** a) It was a major trading centre flourishing mainly due to the gold trade. b) It was a major defence centre since it was heavily fortified against external aggression by a stone citadel. ----- 186 ### c) It was a religious centre. Mosques for Islamic worship were located at Kilwa e.g the great mosque. d) It was an administrative centre which housed palaces for the rulers and other rich people.However 14 [th] C AD, Kilwas prosperity began to decline due to the following reasons. **Factors that led to the decline of Kilwa. ** a) Disruption of the Gold trade/ civil wars among communities. b) Dynastic rivalries/ family feuds. c) Series of rebellions among some of the towns. d) Conquest by the Portuguese who even burnt the towns. **Factors that led to the collapse of early urban centres in pre-colonial Africa ** a) Collapse of state system and kingdoms for example Kush collapse and the coastal city states. b) Collapse of trade and their economic systems e.g. the trans-Saharan trade and long distance trade. c) Collapse of Arab influence I east Africa and east Africa. d) Impact of Portuguese conquest leading to destruction of towns like manda and decline of others. e) Introduction of new types of trade e.g. legitimate trade which replaced slave trade. f) European colonization brought in a new social political and economic order. g) Exhaustion of mineral resources e.g. gold as in case of sofala and Kilwa as well as Meroe. Some minerals lost value. h) Changes in transport routes as new roads by-passed some towns thus diverting trade to other centres e.g. Timbuktu i) As a result of stiff competition, some towns dwindled as others expanded. **Early urban centres in Europe ** **Athens** This is one of the early states in ancient Greece that flourished after the Persian wars of between 490-480 BC.Athens developed from a farming settlement situated in a defensive site. It had many beautiful buildings such as the Parthenon (a large temple built between 460 and 430 BC in honour of Athena, the goddess of Athens). The acropolis was the highest part of the town.Athens had narrow streets and some of its houses were made of unbaked bricks or mud and thatched roofs.There were frequent outbreaks of diseases due to poor sanitation.The concept of democracy first developed in Athens. At the centre of the city was a market, Agora, which was used as an assembly hall for debates.Athenians were divided into four classes. a) First class the richest that were the most heavily taxed. b) Second class- provided the cavalry for the army. c) Third class- provided the soldiers for the infantry. d) The fourth class- the poorest and who paid no taxes. ----- 187 ### Athens began to decline due to the Peloponnesian wars (431-404 BC). It was finally crushed in 338 BC by Phillip of Macedonia.Currently Athens is the capital of Greece with a population of 4 million. **Factors that led to growth of Athens. ** a) Trade and commerce. Their soils of the surrounding areas were infertile and, therefore could not support agriculture. The Athenians therefore resorted to trade to obtain foods in exchange for wine, wool and olive oil. b) Security. Athens was located in an easily defensible place. The town was surrounded by water, valleys and highlands making it difficult for an external enemy to attack. c) Religious activities. The area was a worship centre. People coming to the Parthenon temple contributed to the growth of the town. d) Accessibility and communication network. The port of Athens was located about six kilometres from the city thus making Athens a transport centre. e) Availability of water. **Functions of Athens. ** a) It was a cultural centre. The Greeks loved to watch play. In Athens, there was the great theatre of Epidaurus. b) An educational centre. In Athens, every person was taught how to read and write. Athens became a centre of scholarly work producing great thinkers like Socrates, Plato, Pythagoras, Archimedes and Aristotle. c) Athens was a sports centre. There were Gymnasiums where boys were taught games which were developed into what came to be known as Olympics. d) Religious centre. The Parthenon temple was a great manifestation of this function. People coming to the Parthenon temple contributed to the growth of the town. **London. ** The capital city of England, it is situated on the estuary of the river Thames. Its name is derived from the name Llyn Dun which means Celtic Lake Fort. The town developed during the Roman rule in Britain in A.D 43.By 314 AD London had become an early centre of Christianity.In 1381, the city was adversely affected by a serious peasant, revolt that led to massive destruction of property.By 18 [th] c, London had emerged as an elegant city though however also with numerous urban related problems. In 1890, it hosted the worlds first electric train. **Factors influencing growth of London** a) Trade-money obtained from trading was used to build the city. b) Industrialization-industry such as textile, ship building, metal works, etc led to the growth of London. c) Improved transport London is well served by a network of railway and roads. This facilitated the movement of goods and people. d) Shipping activities-there are many harbours in London enabling expanded loading and unloading activities ----- 188 ### e) Population growth. f) London was the seat of government for a very long time. **Functions of London** a) It was a transport and communication centre. The city was inter-connected with roads which served various parts of Britain. The city houses the main international airports on UK. E.g. Heathrow- the busiest airport in the world. b) It is a political and administrative capital with offices for the Prime Minister and cabinet. The Monarchical offices are also located here. c) It is a commercial centre. Many financial institutions such as banks and other commercial and trading activities attract a lot of traders. d) An industrial centre. London was an early centre of the textile industry. There are light service industries in the city. e) It is an educational centre, housing institutions like the oxford university, the University of London, founded in 1836, etc. f) London is a historical centre. The city has theatres for the performance of cultural activities and museums which display artefacts of Historical importance. **Problems of London** Like many large cities worldwide, London has its share of problems: a) Overcrowding, b) Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population. In 1988, for example, nearly 1 in 8 people were unemployed throughout London and the situation in the inner city was worst c) Poor housing and homelessness. This has led to development of slums. d) Transportation is another problem. However, an excellent public system has helped to alleviate this. e) Air pollution continues to be a major challenge. f) Rural-urban migration by the job seekers causing overcrowding in the city. g) Poverty. This was a greater problem in London in the initial stages. **Modern cities in Africa. ** **Nairobi. ** Nairobi developed as a depot and camp for the railway workers during the construction of the kenya-Uganda railway **Factors influencing the growth of Nairobi ** a) Excellent location in an area almost midway between Mombasa and Lake Victoria. b) There was adequate supply of water. c) The land was suitable for construction of workshops as it was flat. d) The climate was suitable for Europeans. Cool temperatures at an altitude of 1700m. e) It was surrounded by a fertile countryside producing adequate foods. f) Transfer of the seat of the colonial government in 1907. **Functions of Nairobi. ** ----- 189 ### g) It was a transport and communication centre. The city is inter-connected with roads which served various parts of the country. The city houses the main international airport- JKIA. h) It is an administrative capital with offices for the head of state, cabinet, parliament and department of defence. i) It is a regional headquarter of various international bodies like UN, ILO etc. j) It is a commercial and financial centre. Many financial institutions such as banks and other commercial and trading activities attract a lot of traders. k) An industrial centre. Nairobis industrial area hosts many key industries in Kenya and east Africa. l) It is an educational centre, housing institutions like the University of Nairobi, kenya polytechnic and other key institutions m) It is a tourist centre. The town boasts of various tourist attractions such as the Nairobi National Park, National Museums etc. **Problems facing Nairobi ** a) Rural-urban migration by the job seekers causing overcrowding in the city. b) Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population. c) Poor housing. The population growth in Nairobi to 3 million has not corresponded to the development of housing. d) Inadequate social services including health services and educational facilities. e) Congestion on roads caused by an increase in the number of vehicles on the roads while the road network is not expanding. f) Poor town planning has led to poor drainage, especially during heavy rains when a lot of flooding occurs g) Pollution continues to be a major challenge in Nairobi. The factories located in the city are a cause of air and noise pollution. h) Water shortage caused by the high rate of expansion in the town and the depletion odf water reservoirs. i) The rate of HIV/AIDS infection is very high. **Solutions to these problems** a) New housing projects are being developed. For example the Mathare slums upgrading project. b) The education and other social services are being provided through a cost-sharing scheme between the government and the town dwellers. c) The government is addressing the transport/congestion problem through the upgrading of the Thika superhighway to an eight lane highway; the Nairobi Syokimau Railway service was commissioned by president Kibaki I November 2012 to de-congest jogoo road. Etc. d) The government is encouraging the expansion of the informal sector as an alternative source of employment. ----- 190 ### e) The government is rehabilitating street families by taking them to school s to acquire relevant skills to make them useful to the nation. f) New water projects have been put in place. For example, the third Nairobi water Project from River Chania. g) The government is sensitizing, through NGOs and GOs, civilians about responsible sex as a measure to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS. **Johannesburg. ** The city started as a mining camp in 1886 after the discovery of gold in the Witwate- rsrand. This attracted thousands of people coming to prospect for minerals and seek for employment. By the end of 19thc, the population of Johannesburg had risen to 166,000 people. **Factors which contributed to the growth of Johannesburg ** a) Existence of minerals/discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand which resulted in a rush of people to the area. b) Availability of energy i.e. coal which was an important source of energy to the mines, industries and homes. c) Excellent location in the veldt/plain making construction work easy. d) Its proximity to Vaal River which supplied plenty of water to industries and domestic use. e) Area around Johannesburg is fertile and therefore agriculturally productive ensuring steady supply of food. f) The organization of the city council which has ensured that financial control and revenue collection is effectively and the city able to manage its growth problems. g) Government policy of supporting industrial development. This has favored its growth. Functions of Johannesburg . a) It was a transport and communication centre. The city has a highly develope d network of transport lines since it served the mining industry. In June 2010, it became the first city in Africa to house an electric train service. b) An industrial centre. Its manufacturing functions include mining, metalwork, engineering, diamond cutting, jewellery manufacturing and food processing. c) It is a commercial and financial centre. Many financial institutions such as banks and other commercial and trading activities attract a lot of traders. It is also a major shopping centre in South Africa. d) It is an educational centre, housing institutions like the University of Witwatersrand, teacher training colleges and other key institutions. **Problems facing Johannesburg** a) The problem of racial segregation. The black Africans who work around Johannesburg were often treated almost as slaves though they were the majority in the country. ----- 191 ### b) Poor housing. Most of the workers who work in and around Johannesburg live in shanties, mainly because of underpayment c) Unemployment has continued to increase with the growing population. Though the city is an industrial town, her industries have failed to provide sufficient employment for all people in the town. d) Rural-urban migration by the job seekers causing overcrowding in the city. e) A large gap between the affluent class, especially the Europeans and the poor people who majorly are African f) Congestion on roads caused by an increase in the number of vehicles on the roads while the road network is not expanding. g) The city has the highest crime rate in the world. h) Inadequate social services including health services and educational facilities. i) Water shortage caused by the high rate of expansion in the town and the depletion ofwater reservoirs. j) The rate of HIV/AIDS infection is very high. **Solutions to the problems ** a) The apartheid regime was ended in 1994 thus ending the problem of racial segregation. b) The new government of South Africa is trying to come up with better housing estates. c) Crime has been contained by creating more job opportunities. d) The government is sensitizing, through NGOs and GOs, civilians about responsible sex as a measure to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS **Impact of agrarian development on urbanization in Africa** a) The practice of agriculture forced people to adopt a sedentary lifestyle. Such settlement formed the basis of the earliest urban centres. b) Early agriculture led to specialization. The areas where the potters, iron smelters weavers and fishermen did their work grew up into urban centres c) From the agrarian revolution, there was adequate food for town dwellers. **On urbanization in Europe ** a) The revolution in Europe led to a landless society who moved to urban centres seeking employment. This promoted urban growth. b) Increased agricultural production ensured steady supply of raw materials to the new industries hence further growth of the industries. c) Agricultural expansion meant the big farmers had to borrow loans hence the expansion of banking facilities in towns leading to further growth. d) Agricultural produce entering and leaving countries had to be handled in ports hence towns near coasts grew. Impacts of industrial revolution on urbanization in the world. ----- 192 ### a) The establishment of many factories drew many people to towns in search of employment, the mining industry attracted many people to work in the mines. The mining camps soon grew up into towns. b) Industrial revolution stimulated innovations in transport and communication ensuring faster movement of people to further expansion of trading towns. c) The growth of industry has led to expansion of port towns to handle increased manufactured goods for export and raw material for factories e.g. growth of London, Budapest, Marseilles, Lagos and Cairo. d) The use of machines replaced human labour and caused layoffs. Those who lost their jabs sometimes became a security risk hence an increase in crime. e) The many inefficient factories that came up after the revolution have caused massive air and water pollution. f) Rural urban migration has exerted pressure on the limited resources and services the towns can offer. **Consequences of urbanization on European communities during the 19 [th] c. ** a) Rural urban migration by Africans looking for better opportunities led to increased crime levels and insecurity for the Europeans. b) Air pollution which also affected them. c) Creation of employment for the Europeans in the developing industries. d) Creation of markets for agricultural produce due to increased urban population. e) Europeans were deprived of cheap African labour as most of them moved to urban areas. **ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN SOCIETIES ** Despite the high amount of decentralization of African communities in the 19 [th] c, there existed a few who were centralized. For example, Buganda, Ethiopia, Buganda, Asante, Mandinka, Ndebele and shona among others. **The Baganda** These were a Bantu speaking people of the Buganda kingdom in Uganda. The Buganda Chiefdom had emerged as early as 140 AD as a subject state of Bunyoro- Kitara Kingdom **Origin of Buganda kingdom ** The kingdom was crystallized around the counties of busiro, kyadondo and mawakota. Traditions also state that the first king and creator of Buganda kingdom was Kintu who came from the east around Mount Elgon region. It is believed he entered Buganda with 13 clans. Other theories attribute Bugandas origin to the Luo. That Kimera Kato, a brother of Isingoma Rukidi Mpunga the founder of the luo-babito dynasty in Bunyoro was the founder of Buganda.It is also probable that Buganda might have been one of the many kingdoms founded by the bachwezi- the demi-gods.Other clans of Buganda are believed to have come from the ssese islands. **Factors that led to the growth of a strong Buganda Kingdom ** ----- 193 ### a) Good strong and able leaders like Kkyabagu, junju and Suna etc. who propelled it to prosperity by uniting the people and restructuring the existing administration system. b) Buganda Was small and a compact kingdom and therefore easy to manage. Other kingdoms like Bunyoro-Kitara were too large with a class system. c) Its strategic location in a defensible position in the lake region was of great advantage over her rivals Toro and Bunyoro. She lay next to Lake Victoria giving her defence, communication and transport advantage. On the east were small states of Toro and Ankole who posed no threat. d) Good climate and fertile soils in the region. This enabled successful growing of Bananas, their staple crop. e) The contacts with the Waswahili enabled her to gain riches and weapons/guns. f) The kingdom had a strong loyal army to defend it from her warring neighbors. The Kabaka even possessed a royal navy that kept guard over Lake Victoria. g) Existence of a centralized government making the kingdom cohesive. h) The ganda traditions allowing the kabaka to marry from every clan as means of ensuring unity. i) System of labour organization. The tradition demanded that farming be done by women while the men were involved in other activities such as politics, carpentry, war, bark cloth making and smithing j) The wars of conquest which finally led to her expansion. How Buganda kingdom was governed . Buganda kingdom had a highly centralized monarchy under the kabaka who enjoyed absolute powers. His position was hereditary. The Kabakas Court was the nerve centre of the Baganda community. All symbols of Royal authority were kept in the court. E.g. the throne (Namulondo), royal Drums, spears and stools. The kabaka was the political leader of the Baganda kingdom. He was the Head of the traditional religion lubale/ he was the chief priest. He was the judicial head and the final court of appeal/he was the supreme judge. The was the commander-in- -chief of the armed forces.He appointed senior government officials and dismissed them when need arose. He controlled trade. The capital of the kingdom was at Mengo, where the palace, Lubiri, was situated. The kabaka appointed senior government officials and dismissed them when need arose. Forexample, he appointed the katikiro, omulamuzi and omuwanika i.e. prime minister, chief justice and treasurer respectively who assisted him in administration. He also appointed mugema (the senior most chief among the Bataka), Musenero (the chief Butler) and Mfumbiro (the chief baker).The katikiro was in charge of organizing tax collecting and public works. He planned wars in the Kabakas name. He had to protect the kabaka during war. He was responsible of informing the kabaka of the decisions he made on court issues. Below him were omulamuzi (chief justice) and omuwanika (treasurer) who were directly responsible to the kabaka.The Bataka were minor chiefs in charge of clans, guarded land, collected taxes, carried out conscription to the army and ----- 194 ### presented the page boys to the kabaka.Peasants served under chief and were to fight in wars. Slaves (badus) served the king chiefs in their homesteads. Pages and bagalagala (sons of chiefs and other nobles) served the kabaka too.To ensure unity the kabaka married from principal clans.There was a Lukiko which advised the kabaka and was the final court. It comprised 69 members who were nominated by the kabaka (positions were not hereditary). It made laws and debated issues concerning the kingdom. It also directed tax collection and planned expenditure, it acted as the final court of appeal, and it represented the needs of the people to the kabaka. It helped the kabaka in general administration. It checked the activities of government. **Political organization ** The kingdom was divided into counties (Ssaza) and sub-counties. Each county was under Ssaza chiefs whose position was hereditary initially before the kabaka began to appoint them as a means of making them accountable. Each Ssaza was divided into a gombolola headed by a gombolola chief, who maintained law and order and collected taxes. The gombololas were further divided into smaller sub-divisions called miluka each under a miluka chief. The miluka was divided into kisoko. The smallest administrative unit among the Baganda was the village council. The Abatongole appointed by the kabaka, governed the vassal states **Social organization of the Baganda** The kingdom was divided in social classes with the royal family occupying the top of the hierarchy, then ruling class, the chiefs who ruled over the peasants or commoners known as bakopi.At the bottom of the social class were the slaves (Badu) who were acquired mainly through raids on neighbouring communities such as Busoga, Toro and Bunyoro. The Baganda believed in the existence of many gods some of whom included; a) Katonda, God the creator whose home was in heaven. The prayers to him were done every morning and were conducted by the head of the homestead. b) Kibuuka, God of war and thunder. c) Mukasa, goddess of fertility who was worshipped in order to bless the nation with more children, livestock and a bumper harvest. d) Kiwanuka, god of lightning. e) Nawagenyi, goddess of Drought. The community also believed in the existence of ancestral spirits whose main responsibilitywas to maintain discipline in the clans since the spirits were believed to restrict their influence to close relatives. Balubaale were the spirits of people who had supernatural powers and were consulted through prophets or mediums. The Baganda had religious leaders, led by the kabaka, then the mediums, prophets, and medicine people.There also existed sorcerers called Balopo who were feared since they could cause harm to people.The Baganda religion however was greatly undermined by c. the influx of the Waswahili and ArabMuslims into the community in the 19 [th] ----- 195 ### The Baganda society was polygamous. For example, the kabaka was required to marry from all clans to maintain links in the society.There was division of labour according to sex. Women tilled the land while men engaged in warfare, built houses, and made clothes from bark-cloth.As a form of rite of passage, the Baganda went through formal education that trained them in their rites. **Economic organization. ** a) Bugandas economy was based on agriculture and the production of the staple food bananas (matoke). b) The baganda also kept large herds of livestock. The bahima herded Kabakas herds. From the livestock, they obtained milk and meat to supplement their diet. c) The baganda conducted raids on their neighbours like the Buddu, Busoga and Kyaggwe through which they acquired slaves, livestock and ivory. d) There was division of labour, women worked in fields while men were involved in construction of roads, bark cloth making, smithing and war. e) The kingdom was deeply involved in local, regional and international trade. They exchanged bark cloth and beans for cattle from their neighbours. She exchanged slaves and hides for guns, glassware and cotton cloth from coastal traders. f) The baganda practiced iron working, producing hoes for cultivation and weapons for defence. Some of these items formed their trade items. Rich iron deposits were also acquired by waging wars against their neighbours. g) Handcraft was an important activity and included basketry and pottery. h) The textile industry consisted of bark cloth manufacture. i) Salt mining was an important activity. j) Fishing on Lake Victoria k) The baganda also engaged in some hunting activities to acquire ivory. **SHONA ** The Shona were a Bantu-speaking people who comprised the Rozwi, Kore kore, Zezuru and Manyika sub-groups. The first stone buildings in Zimbabwe are believed to have been the work of the Shona. Their capital was at Mapungubwe, south of the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashi rivers.About 1450 AD, the Rozwi Groups gained dominance and established a centralized political system. They established the Mwene Mutapa Empire which ruled until the time of the Ngoni invasion in the 1830s. **Political organization of the Mwene Mutapa Empire ** The emperor was the head of the state and government. Succession of authority was hereditary. Important emperors included Chikura, Nyatsimba, Mutota and Matope. Religion played a role in government and united people. The emperor was a semi- divinereligious leader, a military leader and the chief priest. He was the only one who could communicate with the spirits of the ancestors. It was believed that when Mwene Mutapa died, he became a Mudzimu and automatically qualified to be worshipped as a national ancestral spirit.The ancestral spirits (Vadzimu) communicated peoples problems ----- 196 ### to god.Religion also influenced laws.The priests were used as spies and link between the emperor and the people. Another unifying factor in the kingdom was the royal fire. It was from the continuous fire that each vassal chief carried a flame to his chiefdom that he kept burning as a symbol of national unity.The empire was divided into provinces namely Guruhaswa, Mbire, Utere, Banua, and Manyika each headed by a lesser chief. The most important chiefs in the empire sent their sons, with tribute in form of cattle, gold, slaves and ivory, each year to pay homage to the Mwene Mutapa as goodwill ambassadors.There was a standing army of warriors which was used for defence and expansion of the kingdom. Revenue from trade was used to run the army and sustain the empire.The position of importance held by Mwene Mutapa led to the creation of a complex Style of administration around him. The government officials included the court steward, treasurer, commander-in-chief of the army and Mbokurumme (kings sister-in-law). Others were the queen mother, the emperors sister and nine principal wives, the doorkeeper and the chief cook and head drummer. At the lower level were the lesser chiefs who paid tribute to the king by providing cattle, labour and agricultural produce. Economic organization of the Shona . The Shona country enjoyed ample rainfall with fertile soils thus enabling them to engage in the following economic activities; a) The Shona were mixed farmers who cultivated crops and reared animals. Among the agricultural produce were corn, millet, ground nuts, beans, watermelons, tomatoes, fruits and cabbages. b) The Shona practiced trade, specifically long distance trade between them and the Arabs and Waswahili at sofala. They gave Gold and ivory for cotton cloths, glassware, copper items, guns, daggers and knives. c) They were skillful hunters. They hunted elephants for their ivory which was in great demand. They also gathered wild honey and wild fruits to supplement their diet. d) The shona were skilled craftsmen who made articles like spears, hoes and knives. Others were goldsmiths who used gold to decorate. They also practiced cloth making from wild cotton and bark fibres. **Social organization of the Shona ** Among the shona, Mwene Mutapa was regarded as a divine king and was therefore venerated. When he was well, the nation was also well.The shona religion was based on the Mwari cult. They believed in the all powerful God, Mwari/Murungu. His worship was done through several priests who were mainly produced by the Rozwi clan. The priests presided over religious functions in sacred places of worship, shrines where sacrifices were offered.The shona believed in ancestral spirits. They had two kinds of spirits, Vadzimu or family spirits and Mhondoro or clan spirits. The spirits communicated though an intermediary, Svikiro, a departed family or clan spirit.The shona had a national spirit Chamiruka who settled clan disputes and also protected the people against injustice ----- 197 ### in the government.The shona had a kinship system which was patrilineal (inheritance through the father). The shona were divided into clans whose names were coined from animals like leopard, monkey, elephant etc. it was a taboo to consume meat from such animals.They were a polygamous community which was viewed as a means to enable the family to have enough members to provide labour.The shona lived in stone buildings. Their skill in masonry is associated with the ruins of Mapungubwe found in Zimbabwe. **The Asante ** The Asante are one of the Akan-speaking peoples who occupy the southern part of Ghana, west Africa. By the middle 18 [th] c, the Asante/Ashanti had established the most dominant state in modern Ghana. **Origin of the Asante Kingdom ** The empire Developed in the 1670s. It was formed as a result of competition for gold fields in the Akan forestland. In the 1500s: Akan peoples came into contact with Portuguese traders. Wealthy owners of the Akan gold mines begin to trade gold for Benin slaves with the Portuguese. In the 1670s, Osei Tutu was a military leader and head of the Oyoko clan of the Akan peoplesTook control over a trade center near Kumasi and established this as his capital city. This happened after his maternal uncle Obiri Yeboa, the leader of the Oyoko clan was killed during war.A company of Akwamu troops are believed to have been instrumental in facilitating Osei Tutus rise to power. He conquered the neighboring chiefdoms and took control of their trade. He took the title of ASANTEHENE. He Collected taxes from the chiefdoms on profits from the gold mines. He built a standing army by demanding that chiefdoms provide soldiers. He sought the support of religious leaders throughout the region. For example, a priest of the shrine of the war god (Otutu0 called Anokye in Akwapim played a role in ensuring that Osei Tutu became the Asantehene.). He established the GOLDEN STOOL as a symbol of his rightful rule. **The Golden Stool ** Akan peoples become Asante (Ashanti) By 1700, Osei Tutu controlled most of the gold fields of the Akan forestland.Osei Tutu was succeeded by Opoku Ware (1717-1750). During his rule, he will extend the Asante kingdom to include most of what is today present-day Ghana. The new city-states now included Kumasi, Juaben, Bekmai, Mampon, Kokofu and Nsula.Opuku Ware will participate in the slave trade with the Europeans, selling war captives and growing very wealthy. Asante were one of the last great kingdoms to fall to the Europeans in the late 19 [th] century. **Factors that led to the rise and growth of the Asante Empire ** a) The Asante had a strong economy based on agriculture. Both food and cash crops like Kola nuts were cultivated. This helped to increase the population. ----- 198 ### b) The Asante had capable political leaders they included Obiri Yeboa (1670-1678), Osei Tutu (1680-1717) who unified the people through the Golden stool that he created and Opuku Ware (1720- 1750). c) The several city-states that emerged around Kumasi supported each other. Most of them were related by the fact that they originated from the same Oyoko clan. d) The growth of the Trans- Atlantic slave trade brought a lot of wealth to the Asante people. The wealth was instrumental in the prosperity of the Kingdom. e) The centralized political system under the Asantehene provided stability. f) The Odwira festival that was held annually helped to make the state more cohesive. g) The Asante were brave and proud people, and the need to free themselves from the oppressive rule of Denkyira, their former masters, motivated them to create a strong state. **Political organization ** The Asante had a centralized political system. The Nucleus of the Asante Empire was five citystates of Kumasi, Dwaben, Bekwai, Kokofu and Nsula.The empire comprised of three parts, namely Kumasi (Metropolitan Asante), Amatoo states and Provincial Asante. Each part had its own system of administration though the three cooperated in some areas. Kumasi was directly ruled by the Asantehene and was recognized as Kumasihene. **Metropolitan Asante ** These were the five states that lay 35 miles around Kumasi and which recognized the Asantehene as the supreme authority. The government of the metropolitan Asante consisted the confederacy council made of the Kings (Omanhene) of the various states and presided over by the Asantehene. The Asante Union provides a good example of a federal system of government. All the states within the metropolitan Asante paid tax to the Asantehene which was used to pay for the administration and form an army.Each of the five states had its own state council that made important decisions. Each also had its own Black stool that symbolized their power over the state .The omanhenes were expected to give the right of declaring war on another Omanhene, attended the annual Odwira festival (to pay allegiance to Asantehene, settle disputes and honor the dead), grant own subjects the right to appeal to the high court set up for the union of the capital and recognize the right of Asantehene to impose national levies.Neither the Asantehene nor the Omanhene enjoyed dictatorial powers.The kingdom had an army that was divided into several wings. Though overall leadership of the army was provided by the Asantehene, each Omanhene command his own forces. The Asantehene was deputized by Mamphohene who automatically take over army leadership whenever the Asantehene was unavailable.Among the Asante, there was compulsory military service for all able- bodied men in the empire (a system borrowed from the Akwamu).The Asantehene established a national festival called the Odwira festival during which all The Omanhene assembled in Kumasi to show their loyalty to the Asantehene, to honor the deadand to solve disputes amongst themselves. It also enhanced unity amongst the Asante states. ----- 199 ### The golden stool, an idea invented by a priest called Okomfo Anokye (he claimed it came from the sky in 1695) during the reign of Osei Tutu, made the office of the Asantehene acceptable. It was a source of unity as it bound together the Asante states since they all recognized its sacredness. **Provincial Asante ** It comprised all the states conquered by the Asante in the 18 [th] century (subject states). Such people were represented in the army and paid taxes to the Asantehene. Osei Tutu appointed two consuls who resided in each subject state to supervise their affairs. An efficient bureaucracy was established in each o the provincial Asante states with the Asantehene appointing senior officials directly himself **Social organization ** The Kingdom was composed of many communities who spoke the Akan language. The clans that made up the Akan speakers included the Akyem, Kwahu, the Fante, the Wassa, the Assin and the Akwapem. All these communities shared the same social institutions like the forty-day calendar, same marriage and naming rites. The basic social unit was the clan.They had a matrilineal system of inheritance. The birthright of each family passed through the mother from one generation to the other. The practiced polygamy marriage due to wealth and comfort in society and prohibited inter clan (paternal and maternal clans) marriages. The Odwira festival helped unite the society besides the golden stool. The Asante was socially stratified into social classes e.g. the rulers, rich, peasant farmers and slaves. The Asantehene and his family comprised the royal family together with the Omanhene. The saves among the Asante were majorly war captives. Some of the female slaves could be elevated to concubines and later become entitled to some rights.They believed in magic and superstition and also worshipped gods and goddesses i.e. they were polytheists. Their supreme creator was Nyame (Nyambe).They believed in their ancestors as mediators between the people and God (gods). The Odwira festival was held annually to honour ancestors and solves my disputes. They offered sacrifices to their gods/ancestors including human sacrifices.The Asante hence was considered semi-divine being and highly regarded. Creative arts like dancing music, sculpture were highly respected in society. **Economic organization of the Asante ** Being located in an area rich in terms of land fertility forest resources, mineral resources and rainfall, the Asante Empire thrived economically in the following ways. a) Being located at the point of convergence of the trans-Atlantic trade routes, the Asante people participated in the trade providing gold, slaves and ivory in exchange for cotton, cloth, guns and gunpowder. They also provided middlemen and porters during the trade. b) The Asante practiced agriculture, growing crops like yams, vegetables and fruits. They also kept livestock like cattle. c) The community practiced gathering of Kola nuts and hunting for game meat from the forestto supplement their diet. ----- 200 ### d) They practiced iron working and made crafts such as baskets and pots The Asante community however became a victim of the same economic wars it waged against her neighbours especially the Fante and Denkyira. In 1873, the British came to the aid of the Fante thus greatly weakening the Asante power. **Reasons for the collapse of the Asante Empire. ** a) The type of political organization in the kingdom did not encourage cohesion. Some states in the provincial Asante had no attachment to the golden stool/were semi - independent/ condition of a state within a state. b) Leadership struggle between the Asante and dwaben; a neighboring rival of Asantes state. c) Civil wars /Constant rebellions from the conquered states /wars with other tribes e.g. war with the afante. d) British interference in the Asante affairs through the 19 [th] c. they had a burning desire to destroy the Asante empire and colonize the region.. they even supported dwaben in her war against Asantehene e) Periodic interference with trade and trade routes as a result of wars weakened the financial position of the empire i.e. Abolition of slave trade as a major source of income. f) The Anglo-Asante wars which the British won led to final destruction of the empire. **CONSTITUTIONS AND CONSTITUTION MAKING ** The term constitution refers to a set of agreed principles and rules which state the structure and powers of a government.The constitution of Kenya is a supreme law that binds all people and all state organs at national and county level. It outlines the structure of government, defines the powers and prerogatives of the head of state, states the compositions, functions and powers of parliament, states the compositions of the executives and outlines the duties and rights of the citizens. Constitutions vary in various countries depending on different experiences and their form is determined by the following. a) The historical background of a country b) Geographical factors. For example the numerous islands of Japan must be catered for in their constitution c) Religious beliefs of the people. Some countries have the Islamic Sharia law in their constitution e.g Libya and Somali d) Race composition of a country. For example, in South Africa the apartheid racial policy had been included in their constitution. **Functions of a constitution ** a) The constitution provides the legal ground from which the laws of the country are made. b) It spells out the powers of government and its relationship to the gove rned. c) It spells out the rights and duties of all citizens. It also provides the options a citizen has, legally, if those rights and freedoms are violated. ----- 201 ### **Types of constitutions ** 1. Written constitution . This is a constitution in which the basic principles concerning the organization of government, powers of its various agencies and rights of the subjects are consciously written down in one document.The first country to adopt a written constitution was USA after she attained political independence from Britain on 4 [th] July 1776. France adopted it in 1791following the French revolution of 1789. The primary objective of these adoptions was to include the rights of the citizens to avoid abuse by those in power. Other countries with written constitutions include many European, African, Latin American and Asian countries. Kenya also has a written constitution. **Characteristics of a written constitution ** a) It acts as a standard of reference to which the acts of the government of the day may always be compared. b) It is a rigid document that cannot be altered easily. c) It is only amended through a clearly spelt out procedure which is followed to the letter. d) There must be a special body entrusted by the legislature with the work of drafting the constitution. e) Once drafted the constitution must get the approval of the legislature. **Advantages of a written constitution** a) Since the procedures of amending a constitution are clearly spelled out, it is not easy for politicians or other interest groups in the society to alter it. b) In case of a crisis, the constitution provides very clear guidelines on the procedures to be followed, thus restoring stability in the country. c) Since a written constitution is rigid, it therefore recognizes that there are fundamentals in a state, e.g rights of citizens, powers and duties of the president, which should never be easily changed. Change can only be done after adequate consideration. d) It is fundamental to a newly formed nation so as to take off in an orderly and organized manner. e) A written constitution is important to ensure that the identity of the various groups are preserved and maintained in a country with diverse racial groupings, religion and ethnic composition. f) Since it is arrived at after thorough and careful consideration by all, it therefore unites the people in the nation as it would have acquired recognition and acceptance from the majority of the citizens. **Disadvantages of a written constitution. ** a) Due to its rigidity, it can fail to respond to changing circumstances and can therefore easily become obsolete. ----- 202 ### b) A written constitution tends to make the judiciary too powerful as it I the only body that interprets the document. Where the executive and the legislature control the judiciary, the constitution can easily be manipulated. c) Some written constitutions are too detailed and rarely understood by the ordinary citizens. d) The procedure for amending the constitution is slow and costly. This causes delays which could lead to civil disorder in a society. **2. Unwritten constitution ** This is a constitution where the fundamental principles of the organization and powers of the government are not contained in one document but rather in several scattered documents to add to the customs of a country. For example, the British constitution. **Sources of British constitution ** a) Statutes. This refers to an Act of Parliament. Examples of statutes that comprise the British constitution are; ~ Act of Union with Scotland of 1707 that determined the territorial boundaries within which the United Kingdoms constitution operates. ~ Parliament Act of 1911 that governs the relationship between the House of Commons and the House of Representatives ~ The Reform Acts of 1832 and 1834 which determine succession to the throne. b) Customs. This refers to ancient or traditional practices or the common law. For example, the first born inheriting the throne. c) Laws of precedents. Past accepted principles may be applied to a new set of facts in a judgment and this may eventually become part of the law of the land. d) Customs of parliament. House procedures including standing orders and other regulations are part of the British constitution. Key notes for the teacher and students- @Cheloti 2012-2013 82 e) Historical documents. The following two Important documents form part of the British constitution; ~ The Magna Carta (1215AD) that contained the promises by the England King that he would not levy taxes outside the three legal feudal taxes without the consent of the legal counsel. ~ The Petition of Right (1628) in which King Charles I agreed not to levy taxes unless through the Act of Parliament. f) The Conventions and Practices that have become respected over the years are also part of the British constitution. **Advantages of unwritten constitution ** a) It is flexible and adaptable to changing circumstances in the society. This is especially valuable during periods of rapid socio-economic and political changes. b) It is indigenous and therefore suited for a state. c) It can be changed by ordinary legislative process. ----- 203 ### d) It provides continuity with the nations traditions and is therefore accepted and respected by the people. **Disadvantages of an unwritten constitution** a) It gives the courts too much work in handling matters as they search for constitutional principles not only in judicial decisions but in different statutes and customs. b) Because of the nature of the unwritten constitution, it is not easy to protect the rights of people effectively as the fundamentals of the state are not recorded in a few or a single document. c) An unwritten constitution tends to be vague and indefinite as compared to the written constitution. d) An unwritten constitution presupposes that the people are politically conscious and alert and will ensure that their rights and liberties are respected. **Features/qualities of a good constitution. ** a) Definiteness; it must depict clear intelligence and one which facilitates thinking. It must define its content clearly. b) It should be comprehensive/ it must be short but inclusive of all the issues involved in government operation. c) Should be durable and elastic/ it should neither be too rigid to amend or change nor so flexible as to encourage interference of its basic principle. d) Should be able to protect fundamental rights and freedom of citizen/a bill of rights must be provided for in the constitution, showing the extent to which the government can interfere with individual rights. e) Amendment procedure must be stated clearly. f) The constitution must be representative of the diverse social and political spectrum of the people. g) It must exhibit supremacy of the people/ it must make the will of the people as the basis of government. h) It must stipulate the choice of government through free and fair elections i) Statement of national wealth. /It must have a clear statement on how resources are to be managed and how wealth created is to be distributed.Constitution making process in Kenya in pre-colonial, colonial and post colonial eras. **Pre- colonial era** The rules and regulation that formed the constitutional basis of pre-colonial communities in Kenya were mainly formulated by the councils of elders and then handed down from generation to generation.The constitution was unwritten constitution guiding only the political, economic and socio cultural activities **Colonial Era (1885- 1960) ** Kenya was under the British colonial rule after the Berlin Conference upto 1963. The constitutional developments in the country were greatly influenced by the settlement of immigrant communities like the white settlers, the Asians and Christian missionaries. ----- 204 ### These communities competed with the Africans for control of economic resources and political power.The turning point in Kenyas pre-colonial constitutional developments was the outbreak of Mau Mau war and subsequent declaration of a State Of Emergency on 20 [th] October 1952 by Sir Evelyn Barring. When the colonial secretary Oliver Lyttelton visited Kenya in 1954, he proposed the following constitutional reforms. ~ Establishment of a multi-racial council of ministers representing the three races setting ground for two Indian and one African minister (B. A Ohanga became the first African Minister) ~ It Proposed direct representation of Africans in the LEGCO ~ Lifting the ban on African political parties/district associations. In 1958, a new constitution was proposed by Lennox Boyd. The constitution led to increased number of elected Africans in the legislative council (from 8 to 14). It led to introduction of multi-racial representation in the legislative council. It led to the increase of the number of African ministers to two. The African elected members demanded for a constitutional conference culminating into the independence constitution. The independence constitution (1960-1962) The first Lancaster House Conference (1960) Attended by all members of Legco and two nominated members, the conference received the following demands; a) Africans demanded for true democracy, where one man would have one vote. b) The Arabs wanted to retain the ten-mile coastal strip, while Somalis wanted reunification with Somalia. c) Michael Blundell, representing a section of Europeans demanded for a multi-racial government while Captain Briggs representing the white extremists demanded for creation of provinces along racial lines. All these proposal were moderated by the British government The period after the first Lancaster House conference witnessed a lot of differences among Africans and among other races. Among the Africans, the differences culminated into the formation of KANU in March 1960 at Kiambu with James Gichuru as president and KADU in Ngong Town with Ronald Ngala as the president.The main difference between KADU and KANU was that while KANU was advocating gor a unitary government, KADU wanted a federal system.The second Lancaster House conference (1962).When KANU refused to form government despite winning the elections, demanding for the release of Jomo Kenyatta, KADU formed a rather minority government that was heavily dominated by the colonial officials. Such a government was rejected by most people thus creating instability that led to the British Authorities calling for the second Lancaster House Conference. The following important issues were discussed ; a) The future of the coastal strip that belonged to the sultan prior to colonialism. ----- 205 ### b) The future of North Eastern Province(North Frontier District) c) Security of the minority. The participants in the formulation of the independence constitution were representatives of various political parties: - Paul Ngei (APP), KADU and KANU. Others were representatives of the Asian and European communities.The 1962 conference settled for a federal structure with a strong central government.A coalition government was formed briefly but when the 1962 constitution was promulgated, it was followed by a general election in May 1963.The third and final conference in 1963 resulted in the drafting and adoption of Kenya's first independent Constitution by the British Parliament The 1963 constitution established a parliamentary system with executive powers vested in a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister, The Queen of England remained Head of State. **Independence (1963) ** Kanu won the May elections and Kenya Attained internal self-government with Jomo Kenyatta as the first Prime Minister on 1 [st] June 1963. Kenya attained full independence on 12 [th] December 1963 when the Queen ceased to be the head of state.Kenya has been using the Independence Constitution upto August 2010 though with so many amendments. **Main provisions of the independence constitution of Kenya ** a) The independence constitution provided for a regional/majimbo government with each of the seven regions having a regional assembly and president. The boundaries of the regions were given protection in the constitution. b) It also provided for a bicameral parliament consisting of the senate and the house of representatives/upper house and lower house. The lower house comprised 117 elected members and 12 special members. The senate comprised 41 members representing the 41 administrative districts and one representing Nairobi city.Though the senate was subordinate to the House of Representatives, it had powers to authorize declaration of a state of emergence, 65% of the senators were required to approve the amendment of constitution. Also all Bills required approval of both houses. c) The constitution stipulated that the Prime Minister (appointed by the governor) was to be head of Government and Queen the Head of State, represented by the Governor General. The powers of the governor were defence of the country, foreign affairs, internal security and approval of legislation. d) The constitution recommended a multiparty system of government and the party with the majority of seats forming the government. e) It contained the Bill of Rights, which protected the individuals rights. The Bill of rights was modeled on the European convention on Human Rights and Fundamental freedoms. f) The constitution provided for an elaborate scheme to protect the minority rights. The minorities in this case were the Europeans, Asians and some indigenous communities. ----- 206 ### g) Independent Electoral commission was set up consisting of the speakers of the two houses and a nominee of the Prime Minister. Also it comprised nominees representing the regions. This was to ensure impartiality and honesty in elections. h) The constitution provided for an independent and impartial judiciary to ensure justice and prevent corruption. Judges were accorded security of tenure which was extended to the Attorney General, the governments principal legal advisor. i) It provided for public service commission. The aim was insulate the civil service recruitment and promotions from abuse and corruption. j) An independent land board. **Post colonial Era (1963-2010). ** From independence to Mult-party democracy period (1963-1991) Like many former British colonies, Kenya started off with a west Minister system of government.The first Constitutional amendment in independent Kenya was in 1964. Kenya became a republic and the executive became presidential. The senate and regions were also abolished.A Constitutional review in June 1982 officially transformed Kenya into a one-party state.A parliamentary act in December 1991 repealed the one-party system provisions of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system. The period after 1992 was influenced by Global issues like the decline of the cold war, collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 and the intensified struggle for democracy all over the world.In 1997, the Inter Party Parliamentary Group (IPPG) was formed with membership from the Opposition and KANU mps. The aim was to come up with minimal constitutional reforms to level the ground before the 1997 general elections The following reforms were approved ; a) The KBC shall observe fairness in providing balanced all-inclusive political views in the news coverage. b) Membership of the Electoral Commission to be reviewed to accommodate the interest of the opposition. c) Registration of Parties would be done without unnecessary delay. d) The powers of the chiefs that would likely interfere with political activity at local level be contained. e) The police Act be amended to provide for politically impartial police force f) To repeal a number of laws restricting civil and political rights, ad abolition of the offence of sedition In 1997, a constitutional review commission, called the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC), was established to provide civic education, seek public input and prepare a constitution. In October 2000, parliament passed a Bill entrenching the CKRC into the independence constitution. It was now headed by Professor Yash Pal Ghai and comprised 15 commissioners. In June 2001, the CKRC was expanded to include other groups like the Peoples commission following the amendment of the 1997 Constitution of Kenya Review Act.The CKRC act specified a 2 year time frame for ----- 207 ### completion of the review process.However, its activities were marred by controversy in 2002 and the ultimate dissolving of parliament in October 2002 by president Moi. He even attempted to dissolve the commission, thanks to its being entrenched in the independence constitution.When the NARC government took over power in 2003, the review exercise was reviewed. The National Constitutional Conference was convened at Bomas of Kenya and came up with what came to known as the Bomas constitution. However the political elite did not support the Bomas .In 2005, Parliament amended the constitution of Kenya Review Act to allow the Attorney General to come up with the Proposed New Constitution, popularly known as the Wako . The constitution was ultimately rejected by Kenyans at the constitutional referendum in 2005 because of disagreements amongst various stakeholders.In December 2007, Kenyans participated in the general elections that were followed by Post Election Violence caused by the controversy that surrounded the results of the elections. Steps towards realization of a new constitution in Kenya from 2008 . a) On 28 February 2008 The National Accord and Reconciliation Act (NARA) was signed by President Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga .Agenda No 4 of this arrangement was a new process to finalize the long awaited constitution of Kenya The main provisions of the National Accord were: ~ Establishment of a grand coalition government with two parties; PNU and ODM sharing power. ~ Raila Odinga was to become Kenyas second Prime minister after the position was created in the accord arrangement ~ Two deputy Prime Minister Positions would be filled by the PNU and ODM parties respectively. ~ Provision for An expanded cabinet with the two parties being accorded slots as per their proportion in the house. b) In 2008 the Constitution of Kenya Review Act 2008 was passed and a Committee of Experts (CoE) was established as the main technical constitutional review organ to drive the process. c) The CoE was chaired by Nzamba Kitonga, the deputy chair was Ms Atsango Chesoni, other members were Ms Njoki Ndung'u, Mr Otiende Amolo,Mr Abdirashid Hussein, Mr Bobby Mkangi, Professor Christina Murray (South Africa), Dr Chaloka Beyani (Zambia) and Dr Frederick Ssempebwav (Uganda). d) 23 February 2009 Members of the CoE were appointed by the President were later on sworn in, e) On 17 November 2009 CoE released the to the public and invited views and comments on the constitution, ----- 208 ### f) By 23rdFebruary 2010. CoE had submitted the final of constitution to the Parliamentary Select Committee. g) On 4thaugust 2010 Kenya held a Constitutional Referendum where the new constitution was overwhelmingly endorsed. h) On 28 [th] august 2010, the new constitution was promulgated and became operational making Kenya the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitutions. **Stages in the constitution making process in Kenya since independence ** 1) Debate over contentious issues. Issues like the entrenchment of section 2A in the independence constitution in 1981 raised concerns among various stake holders and groups. The issue of whether to include the position of Prime Minister or not has also been debated for many years. 2) Collection of public views. The Saitoti commission (the Constitution review commission established by Moi in 1990) had the objective of collecting views of Kenyans concerning how KANU was to operate in the best way possible. In June 2001, the CKRC, chaired by Yash Pal Ghai was mandated to collect views as part of the constitution review process. 3) Civic education. In 2001, the Ghai Commission was mandated and funded to provide civic education. 4) Convening of constitutional conferences. For example, The 2002 National Constitution Conference at Bomas of Kenya and other similar conferences. 5) Drafting of the constitution. This involved both local and international experts who drafted the constitution between 2000 and 2010. This was mainly the work of the Ghai led CKRC and the Committee of experts led by Nzamba Gitonga. 6) The referendum. During the 2005 referendum, the Wako constitution was rejected. In August 2010, another referendum was held and the 2010 proposed New Constitution was approved. 7) Promulgation of the constitution. On 27 [th] of August 2010, President Mwai Kibaki presided over the promulgation of the new constitution of Kenya. **Constitutional Changes in Kenya since independence upto 2010 ** 1) The 1963 independence constitution marked the end of colonial rule and transformed the colony into a dominion. It established a parliamentary system with executive powers vested in a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the Queen of England from the majority party in Parliament. The Queen of England remained Head of State as represented by the Governor General who was also the Commander-in-Chief 2) By the 1stamendment Act 28 of 1964, published in November 1964, Kenya became a republic and the executive became presidential. The amendment outlined the criteria to be met by a presidential candidate. It made provision of a Vice President who would be appointed by the president from among the members of parliament. Jaramogi Oginga Odinga became the first occupant of that office. ----- 209 ### 3) By The 2 [nd] amendment Act 38 of 1964 published on 17 [th] December 1964, the senate and regions were also abolished. 4) 3 [rd] amendment Act 14 of 1965, published on 8 [th] June 1965, altered parliamentary Majorityrequired for approval of a state of emergency to only a simple majority from the previous 65%. The term region was replaced with province. The amendment altered the title of Supreme Court. 5) By the 4 [th] amendment Act 16 of 1966, published on 12 [th] April 1966, commonwealth citizens became eligible for Kenyan citizenship. Also any legislator jailed for six months or more or missed to attend eight consecutive parliamentary seatings without the speakers permission had to forfeit his/her parliamentary seat. 6) On 28 [th] April 1966, an amendment was passed, published on 30 [th] April, to compel MPs who defected from sponsoring party, to resign from parliament and seek re-election. This amendment targeted Kenya Peoples Union (KPU) of Jaramogi Odinga that had been formed that year. The amendment was published, tabled, debated, passed and received presidential assent within 48 hours. (it was nicknamed the KPU amendment). 7) In May 1966, the Public Security Act was passed, published on 7thJune 1966, empowering the president to detain a citizen without trial on grounds of being a threat to state security. The president also acquired power to control freedom of the press. 8) In 1966, a constitutional amendment abolished the Bicameral Legislature and replaced it with a Unicameral Legislature, chosen directly by the electorate. The Act was published on 4 [th] January 1967. The voting majority to change the Constitution was lowered to two-thirds of the MPs. 9) In 1968, by the 9 [th] amendment, published on 12 [th] April 1968, the president was empowered to alter provincial and district boundaries. The act abolished the provincial councils and all representatives to the provincial and district boundaries. This marked the end of regionalism. 10) In 1968, by the 10 [th] amendment, Act 45 published on 12 [th] July 1968, the procedure for presidential elections and succession in the event of his death was laid down. Also, that all candidates for a general election should be nominated by a political party. The act also gave the president power to nominate 13 MPs to replace the 12 specially elected members of the House of Representatives. 11) In 1974, the age qualification for presidential candidates was also lowered to 35 from 40 years. The minimum voting age was altered from 21 to 18 years. 12) In 1975, an amendment of the constitution empowered the president to pardon any election offender at his own discretion. This was done to favour Paul Ngei who been found guilty of an election offence. It was named the Ngei Amendment. The bill went through all the stages in one afternoon and received presidential assent the following day. 13) In 1975, Kiswahili was declared the national language of the national assembly. ----- 210 ### 14) In 1977, the Kenya court of appeal was established after the breakup of the East African Community. 15) The 18 [th] amendment Act passed in 1979 was the first one under president Moi. It provided that public officers had to resign six months in advance in order to qualify as candidates for parliamentary elections. 16) In 1979, both Kiswahili and English were declared languages of the national assemb ly. 17) By The 19 [th] amendment Act of 1981 published in 1982, Kenya became a de jure one party state. KANU became the only lawful party in Kenya. The infamous section 2A was introduced in the constitution. (Kenya had been a de facto one party state between 1969and 1982). The post of Chief Secretary was created to head the public service. The first occupant being Jeremiah Kiereini. 18) By the 1985 20 [th] amendment Act, the High Court began acting as a Court of Appeal. 19) The 21 [st] amendment Act passed in 1985 repealed Section 89 of the constitution which provided for the acquisition of Citizenship for anyone born in Kenya after December 11 [th] 1963. 20) In 1987, the security of tenure of the Attorney General, Chief Secretary, The Comptroller and AuditorGeneral was removed. The president could now dismiss them at will. Office of chief secretary was abolished. 21) In 1988, the security of tenure of Puisine Judges and Chairman of Public Service Commission was removed. The removal of security of tenure of the above officers sparked a lot of condemnation from LSK and main stream churches. 22) In 1988, an amendment was pass that provided the police with powers to hold a suspect in custody for upto fourteen days before taking him/ her to court if the crime constituted a capital offence. This is what led to detaining of persons suspected of opposing the government in the dingy basement of Nyayo House where some were tortured to death. 23) 1990- Security of tenure of the offices of AG and Controller and Auditor General was reinstated. 24) A parliamentary act in December 1991 repealed the one-party system provisions (section 2A) of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system. Multiparty elections were held the following year in December. 25) In 1991, an amendment that was passed limited the tenure of the president to a maximum of two-five year terms. 26) After 1997 elections, Parliament, on the initiative of the government, passed the Constitution of Kenya Review Act that set the pace for comprehensive constitutional reforms. ----- 211 ### 27) A constitutional review commission, called the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC), was established to provide civic education, seek public input and prepare a constitution. 28) In October 2000, parliament passed a Bill entrenching the Constitution of Ken ya Review Commission (CKRC) headed by Professor Yash Pal Ghai into the independence constitution. 29) In 2005, Parliament amended the constitution of Kenya Review Act to allow the Attorney General to come up with the Proposed New Constitution, popularly known as the Wako 30) The constitution was ultimately rejected by Kenyans at the constitutional referendum in 2005 because of disagreements amongst various stakeholders . 31) The rejection of the constitution by Kenyans in the referendum of 2005 meant that the 1963 constitution (as amended) remained the basic law of Kenya. . 32) 28 February 2008The National Accord and Reconciliation Act (NARA) was signed by President Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga to end violence that erupted after the December 2007 presidential elections. Agenda No 4 of this arrangement calls for a new process to finalize the long awaited constitution of Kenya 33) In 2008 the Constitution of Kenya Review Act 2008 was passed and a Committee of Experts (CoE) was established as the main technical constitutional review organ to drive the process. The CoE was chaired by Nzamba Kitonga; the deputy chair was Ms Atsango Chesoni, other members were Ms Njoki Ndung'u, Mr Otiende Amolo,Mr Abdirashid Hussein Mr Bobby Mkangi Professor Christina Murray (South Africa) Dr Chaloka Beyani (Zambia) and Dr Frederick Ssempebwav (Uganda.) 34) On 28thaugust 2010, the new constitution was promulgated and became operational making Kenya the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitution. **Key changes in the New Constitution. ** a) Reduction of presidents executive powers. b) Devolution of power to regions (creation of county and national governments.) c) Creation of the senate and national assembly to constitute parliament. d) On Citizenship, Birth and registration are the only recognize ways of attaining Kenyan citizenship. Dual citizenship is now recognized by the constitution. e) Recognition of the Kadhis courts as subordinate courts in the judicial court system. f) Expansion of the citizens Bill of Rights to guarantee equal representation for either gender in all governance structures. **FEATURES OF THE NEW CONSTITUTION. ** Why there was need to have a new constitution in Kenya. The need to meet the changing needs of the Kenyan society, e.g. due to population growth. ----- 212 ### The rise of gender sensitivity in Kenya/The need to address the rights of women which had not been adequately addressed in the outgoing constitution. ### The constant misuse of executive authority by the Moi and Kenyatta regime/ the need to give less or more power to the executive. The need to depart from the colonial policies that found their way into the outgoing constitution. The need to safeguard against social vices like corruption and land grabbing. The need to enhance unity and realize a liberal society due to political maturity. **Problems that Kenya faced in realization of a new constitutional dispensation. ** a) Party differences have been transferred to the constitution making process e.g. the NARC fallout, the ODM wrangles between Raila and Ruto. Etc. b) Sectarian interests based on tribe, religion, age, sex which is hard to satisfy. E.g in relation to creation of counties, Kadhis court and land laws. c) Attempts to project personality, individual or group interests rather than national interest into the process. d) Direct misinformation of the public and propaganda by politicians and other groups with selfish interests. e) Illiteracy and ignorance of the electorate and therefore easily misled. f) Tension and sometimes violence marred the whole review process. g) Limited financial resources and personnel h) Lack of unity of purpose and co-operation among existing political parties hence difficulty in hammering out compromise.. i) Inadequate civic education/wrong civic education. j) Lack of consultation with all the interested stake holders. k) An attempt to tie the constitutional review process with election time-table, political programmes and interests. **Why Kenyas new constitution is regarded as supreme. ** a) The Constitution is the supreme law of the Republic and binds all persons and all State organs at both levels of government. b) No person may claim or exercise State authority except as authorized under the Constitution. c) The validity or legality of the Constitution is not subject to challenge by or before any court or other State organ. d) Any law, including customary law that is inconsistent with the Constitution is void to the extent of the inconsistency, and any act or omission in contravention of the Constitution is invalid. e) The general rules of international law shall form part of the law of Kenya. f) Any treaty or convention ratified by Kenya shall form part of the law of Kenya under this Constitution. **Functions of the Kenyan constitution ** ----- 213 ### a) It is the fundamental law of Kenya. b) It has helped in establishing the philosophy, character and structure of the Kenyan government. c) It has laid down principles which determine government power and duties. d) It r regulates, distributes and limits the functions of different institutions of the state. e) It spells out the basis of relationship between the Ke nyans and the government and what rights should be in that relationship. **Role played by the Kenyan constitution in governing the country** a) It protects the interests of the weak in the society from those who would want to dominate them. b) It checks the powers of the dictatorial rulers. c) It defines how to rise to power hence preventing unnecessary power struggles. d) It provides for the separation of powers between the three arms of government. e) It defines the powers of those in authority hence preventing misuse of power. f) It defines relations with other countries g) It specifies on how a government is to be formed. **DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS ** **What is democracy? ** The is derived from the Greek word Democratia (Demos meaning people and Kratas meaning rule or power). It is a form of government where political decisions are directly in the hands of the citizens. **Key aspects of a real democracy. ** a) Political aspect. The consent of the governed (expressed directly or indirectly through their elected representatives) must be sought when making political decisions. Public opinion must be given priority in governance. b) Social aspect. Human dignity must be valued at all times. Every individual should be free to organize his own lifestyle, hold and express opinions, enjoy company of others and join associations. c) Economic aspect. All citizens must be provided with equal opportunities. Exploitation of humans by fellow humans should be eliminated. Means of production should be nationalized to reduce inequalities between the rich and the poor. **Types of democracy ** 1) Pure or direct democracy. This is where the people are directly involved and participate in decision-making. Such a democracy has an advantage in that the laws made are easily accepted by all the people since they feel they own the laws. This is common form of democracy in smaller organizations and was also used in ancient Greece. 2) Indirect democracy. This is a type of democracy where citizens exercise their right in decision making not directly as individuals, but through their agreed representatives, elected by the citizens. Parliament acts as the basic institution in this type of democracy. ----- 214 ### The elected may make Appointments of persons to fill other positions like the Cabinet or carry out Nomination (hand-picking of additional representatives to join the elected ones. 3) Constitutional Democracy. This is where democracy is exercised but within the limits of the constitution. The minority rights are guaranteed (freedom of expression, association and worship).It is also referred to as Liberal democracy and is a form of representative democracy. **Merits of democracy ** a) It is founded on the concept of the people and therefore leaders cannot ignore the people from whom they get authority to rule. It is most popular form of government. b) It recognizes equality among all the people without discrimination. It advocates equality before the law and anyone can rise to power regardless of ones background or environment. c) It promotes patriotism or national pride as it urges people to participate in their governance. This reduces chances of a revolution d) It promotes liberty and peace as it advocates for peaceful coexistence. People develop a sense of cooperation. It can also promote international cooperation when extended beyond the borders. e) Since it is based on moral and educative values, democracy helps individuals to develop their personality. It develops initiative of the people and their sense of responsibility. f) Democracy balances the liberty of the individual with the power of the state. Demerits **of democracy** a) Democracy promotes dictatorship by the majority. The majority government by fulfilling the election pledges to please the supporting electorate ends up neglecting the political, social and economic interests of the minority who did not vote for it. b) Democracy encourages class struggle and corruption as only those that possess money can engage in intensive campaigns and get elected due to their influence. Then once elected, they pass laws that protect their interests. c) A democratic government is usually slow and wasteful since consultations have to be made when making a decision. Time and public resources are used in the process of seeking the views of the majority. d) The ethical value of democracy is questionable. It is not easy to find an honest, sincere man of good moral character being elected. e) Democracy may perpetuate incompetence since it is numbers which matter when choosing a leader not the leadership qualities. Where a majority of the electorate is ignorant, they may make poor decision during elections thus promoting incompetence. f) Although democracy is regarded as the rule of the majority, in essence, it is the elected minority who rule. Democracy is therefore as a form of dictatorship by the informed or elected minority. ----- 215 ### **Principles of democracy. ** Principle-basic truth or general law . a) Freedom of speech, debate and enquiry. The basic healthy political culture among a group of people is based on open debate among citizens where they can express their views without fear. b) Peoples participation as a whole in government. Through free, fair and regular elections, the government should remain a servant of the people and not master. Democracy is based on consent which can be withdrawn if the government fails to satisfy peoples expectations. c) Open and accountable media. The media must be open in their agenda and be held accountable to the public. Media monopolies should not be allowed to develop. d) Economic democracy. This implies the decentralization of economic power so that individuals and communities can be economically empowered to create and control their own wealth. e) Equality before the law. Judgment should be made in accordance with a written law, rather than in an arbitrary manner. Each citizen also has an equal ability to seek and receive justice. ***Human rights *** Human rights refers to the accepted principles of fairness and justice- or the universal moral rights that belong equally to all people in their capacity as human beings regardless of sex, race, and tribe, and language, place of origin, age or political beliefs. Why human rights are important. a) Rights are necessary for human beings to achieve a dignified life, fulfill their potential and to satisfy both their physical and spiritual needs. b) Rights are inherent to human beings. One has rights purely because they are human. They are not granted by the state. c) Rights empower citizens and residents by giving them control in decision making organs of the state. d) Rights justify special treatment of minorities and other special or disadvantaged groups or communities. e) Rights provide guidance to organs of state regarding the exercise of state power. f) Rights such as the right to vote, freedom of expression and of the press ensure the public access the necessary information necessary for the protection of democracy and ensure accountability of public authorities. g) Respect for human rights limits internal and external conflicts and strengthens national unity. **Classification of Human rights** a) Social economic and cultural rights. On the basis of these rights, the state is expected to pursue policies that enable individual, families or groups to earn a living and provide basic needs including education and medical care for themselves. ----- 216 ### b) Solidarity rights. These are rights that focus on the whole community. They require that the state to pursue policies which do not destroy natural resource or waste financial resources but instead create conditions for peaceful co-existence. These rights include the right to clean, healthy and sustainable environment, peace, and development. c) Civil and political rights. The rights include the right o vote, right to think and to have access to information. These rights ensure a secure space for the individual to pursue their values and interests. **Groups that monitor human rights in Kenya ** a) Lawyers and Judges and other professionals including teachers. b) Religious groups c) Journalists (The media-print and electronic). d) The police force e) Association and special commissions, e.g business associations, women groups, the Kenya National Human Rights and Equality Commission (KNHREC), among others. f) pressure groups Characteristics of human rights . a) They are universal. Human rights apply equally to everyone by virtue of being a human being. b) They are indivisible. One right cannot be applied if the other does not exist. They are inherent. c) Incase circumstance demand they can be suspended. For example during war, or during disease outbreak like Ebola or other contagious diseases, one may be denied the right to freedom of movement. d) Human rights have limitations. As people enjoy their rights, they should respect the rights of others. **United Nations Charter on human rights. ** This is a document that contains the basic human rights to which every person by virtue of being a human being is entitled to. It also reaffirms the equality of the rights of all men and women. The Universal Declaration if Human Rights was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 [th] December 1948.. Member states that signed the document are supposed to publicize the declaration in their countries The basic human rights contained in the Charter include; 1. All human beings are born free and equal. 2. Everyone is entitled to all rights and freedoms set forth in the declaration without discrimination on basis of sex, race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, racial origin birth or any other status. 3. Everyone has a right to life, liberty and security. 4. No one should be held in servitude or slavery or perform forced labour. 5. Everyone has a right to recognition as a person before the law. ----- 217 ### 6. Every person is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law. 7. Every persons dignity should be respected and protected. 8. Everyone has a right to nationality. One is free to change nationality. 9. No person will be subjected to physical or psychological torture, corporal punishment or cruel and inhuman treatment. 10. Everyone has a right to free movement and residence within the borders of each state. 11. Everyone has a right to ownership of property alone as well as in association with others. State cannot take away ones property without proper compensation. 12. Every citizen has a right to peaceful assembly and association. 13. Every citizen is free to make political choices, which includes the right to form, or participate in forming, a political party and to participate in the governing process of the country. 14. Every person has the right to the highest attainable standard of health, which includes the right to health care services, including reproductive health care. 15. Every person has the right to accessible and adequate housing, and to reasonable standards of sanitation. 16. Every person has the right to be free from hunger, and to have adequate food of acceptable quality. 17. Every person has the right to clean and safe water in adequate quantities. 18. Every person has the right to social security 19. Every person has the right to education. Elementary education shall be compulsory while technical and professional education should be made generally available. 20. Every person has the right to a clean and healthy environment. It is our duty to ensure that the environment is protected for the benefit of present and future generations. 21. Every person, whether individually or as a group, has freedom to manifest any religion or belief through worship. 22. An adult has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex, based on the free consent of the parties. Parties to such a union enjoy equal rights. 23. Every person should be subjected to an efficient, lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair administrative action. 24. Everyone has freedom of opinion and expression. 25. Everyone has a right to seek and enjoy, in other countries, asylum from persecution. The right is however enjoyed only for political reasons. 26. Everyone has a right to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal in the determination of ones rights and obligations. 27. Everyone has a right to protection of the law against interference or attacks against ones property, home or correspondence. ----- 218 ### 28. Everyone has a right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and protection against unemployment. 29. Everyone has a right to leisure, which includes reasonable working hours and periodic holidays with pay.ght to freely participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts e.g drama, music, dance etc. 30. However every person has various duties to the community in which they live. 31. Freedom from torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. **Importance of the UN Charter on human rights. ** a) Protection of human rights, which is the core thing in the UN Charter, is important for the Establishment and maintenance of peace and security. Where there is violation of human rights, it becomes difficult to prevent conflict and maintain peace. b) Respect for human rights is an important requirement for efficiency and effectiveness in governance. The principle of non-discrimination, principle of international human rights law, enables one to strive for more equitable societies even within the level of resources available. c) Respect for human rights promotes development. National development strategies can only lead to tangible improvement in the lives of people if they have as their key objectives realization of economic, social and political rights. d) The UN Declaration provides a guideline for collective action towards eradication of poverty. e) The UN human rights mechanisms have given utmost attention to countering of terrorism as a way of protecting human rights. f) A SOCIETY that observes respect for human rights reduces the chance of conflict outbreak. g) The UN Charter on human rights is the foundation on which peace-making (peace- building and peace-keeping) is built. Any strategy to achieve peace anywhere is accompanied by strategies to uphold human rights like was the case in Yugoslavia. h) In recognition of human rights, the UN has played a key role in giving humanitarian assistance to the people of different countries suffering from effects of natural disasters and other emergencies. i) The UN Charter on Human rights promotes the rights of women and their empowerment by affirming the equal rights for women and fighting discrimination based on gender j) The UN Charter champions the rights of vulnerable groups like the minority migrant workers, abused children, indigenous people and persons with disabilities. **The Kenyan Bill of Rights ** This is a statement of human or civil rights in the constitution of Kenya. The Bill of Rights is covered in chapter four of the constitution of Kenya (2010). ----- 219 ### **Importance of the Kenyan Bill Of Rights** a) States that every individual has the right to life b) It guarantees liberty to all citizens by forbidding enslavement, detention without trial c) It protects the individual from all forms of torture and inhuman treatment d) It guarantees the protection of private property and allows Kenyans to own property anywhere in the country. e) It protects individuals freedom of conscience and religion. f) It guarantees the protection of the freedom of speech and expression g) It gives Kenyans the right to move freely throughout the country and to reside in any part of the country. h) It guarantees individuals against any form of discrimination on the basis of colour, creed, and gender. i) It protects individual against arbitrary search, arrest and entry into ones property without his/her consent **Rights and fundamental freedoms contained in the Kenyan Bill of Rights. ** ***1. Right to life. *** Life begins at conception and no child should be deprived of life deliberately. Abortion is not therefore permitted unless occasioned by the need for emergency treatment or life of the mother is in danger. People who attempt to commit suicide are also punishable on the strength of their right ***2. Equality and freedom from discrimination *** Every person is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law. This means that both men and women are equal before the law. Any form of discrimination is illegal and is prohibited in the constitution. ***3. Human dignity *** Every persons dignity should be respected and protected. One must not ridicule or embarrass other members of society. ***4. Freedom and security of a person. *** This right protects a person from being detained without a good reason and without trial. No person will be subjected to physical or psychological torture, corporal punishment or cruel and inhuman treatment. ***5. Freedom from slavery, servitude and forced labour. *** No one should be held in servitude or slavery or perform forced labour. Every employer should treat his or her employees with dignity and not to force them to work. ***6. Right to privacy. *** Every person has a right NOT to have him or herself, his or her property searched, or his or her possessions seized. Not revealing a persons family or private affairs unnecessarily or private communications interfered with. ***7. Right to assembly, demonstration, picketing and petition. *** ----- 220 ### Every citizen has a right to assemble and participate in peaceful demonstrations and even present petitions to public authorities. **8. Political rights ** Every citizen is free to make political choices, which includes the right to form, or participate in forming, a political party and to participate in the activities of, a political party.Every citizen has the right to free, fair and regular elections based on universal suffrage and the free` expression of the will of the electors for any elective public body or office Every adult citizen has the right, without unreasonable restrictions, to be registered as a voter; to vote by secret ballot in any election or referendum and to be a candidate for public office, or office within a political party and, if elected, to hold office. ***9. Freedom of movement and residence *** Citizens have a right to free movement and ownership of property in any part of the country. Anyone is also free to leave the country or enter and remain in the country ***10. Economic and social rights *** Every person has the right to the highest attainable standard of health, which includes the right to health care services, including reproductive health care.Every person has the right to accessible and adequate housing, and to reasonable standards of sanitation.Every person has the right to be free from hunger, and to have adequate food of acceptable quality.Every person has the right to clean and safe water in adequate quantities.Every person has the right to social security. Every person has the right to education.A person shall not be denied emergency medical treatment.The State must provide appropriate social security to persons who are unable to support themselves and their dependants. ***11. Consumer rights *** Consumers have the right to goods and services of reasonable quality.Consumers have the right to the information necessary for them to gain full benefit from goods and services.Consumers have the right to the protection of their health, safety, and economic interests.Consumers have the right to compensation for loss or injury arising from defects in goods or services. ***12. Right to fair labour practices*** Every worker has a right to fair labour practices like fair remuneration, reasonable working conditions, the right to join or practice in trade union activities and the right to go on strike .Every employer has a right to join an employers association and participate in its programmes and activities **Responsibility. ** One must respect the right to fair labour practices of ones employees. Employees on the other hand must conduct themselves responsibly, even during strikes, to avoid causing physical injury to innocent people, or destroying property. ----- 221 ### ***13. Right to clean and healthy environment. *** Every person has the right to a clean and healthy environment. It is our duty to ensure that the environment is protected for the benefit of present and future generations. ***14. Freedom of conscience, religion, belief and opinion. *** Every person, whether individually or as a group, has freedom to manifest any religion or belief through worship, practice, teaching or observance, including observance of day of worship.One cannot be denied employment or educational opportunity because of belonging to a particular religion or because of ones belief or religion.A person cannot be forced to engage in any act that goes against his or her belief or religion. ***15. Freedom of expression. *** This guarantees all Kenyans the freedom to seek, receive or impart ideas or information. It also guarantees freedom of artistic creativity, academic freedom, and freedom to conduct scientific research. ***16. Freedom of media. *** The freedom and independence of the media is guaranteed. The state should not interfere with the media. ***17. Access to information *** Every person has a right to access information held by the state, or by others, which may be required for the protection of any right or fundamental freedom. The state is expected to make public any important information affecting the nation.Every person has a right to the correction or deletion of untrue or misleading information that affects the person. ***18. Freedom of association *** Every person has the right to form, join and participate in the activities of an association of any kind, provided that the association is not engaged in illegal activities, such as stealing or killing. ***19. Protection of the right to property*** Every person is entitled to own property either individually or as a group, in any part of the country. However the property has to be legally acquired.This right provides all Kenyans a fair opportunity to invest in property and thus, prosper. ***20. Right to language and culture *** Every person has the right to use a language, and embrace the culture of the persons choice.Every person has the right to form or join cultural groups. Every person is also protected from being forced to join any such group.Each linguistic group is free to use their language, practice their culture, and form associations and other organs of the civil society.It is unacceptable to force another person to perform, observe or undergo any cultural practice or rite. ***21. Right to family *** An adult has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex, based on the free consent of the parties. Parties to such a union enjoy equal rights. Both parties have a responsibility ----- 222 ### to respect the rights of their spouses during marriage and even in the event of its dissolution.It is wrong to deny ones spouse access to marital property after separation or divorce. The constitution also recognizes marriages conducted under traditional, religious, personal or family law. Marrying of underage persons and forced marriages are outlawed in the constitution. ***22. Fair administrative action*** Every person should be subjected to an efficient, lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair administrative action. This promotes efficient administration in public offices. ***23. Access to justice. *** Everybody should access justice and a reasonable fee will be charged to enhance this, if required. If this is not free, many people will not access justice which will continue to be a preserve of the rich people. ***24. Right of arrested persons. *** An arrested person has; a) The right to be informed promptly in a language that the person understands of the reason for arrest, the right to remain silent and he consequences of not remaining si lent. b) The right to remain silent. The right of a person to choose to talk or to remain silent. c) The right to communicate with an advocate and other persons whose assistance is necessary (freedom of speech with all those who will assist him or her in the case.) d) The right of not being compelled to make any confession or admission that could be used in evidence against the person. e) The right t be held separately from persons serving a sentence ( should not be held in prisons alongside those already convicted) f) To be brought to court as soon as reasonably possible, as but not later than twenty four hours after being arrested. g) To be charged or be informed of the reason for the extension of detention or release, at the first court appearance. h) To be released on bond or bail, on reasonable conditions, pending a charge or trial, unless there are compelling reasons as to why one cannot be released. ***25. Fair hearing. *** Every person has the right to have any dispute that can be resolved through a court hearing be resolved in such a manner that will accord him or her fair and public hearing. An accused person has the following rights; a) To be presumed innocent until proven otherwise. b) To be informed of the charges. c) To have adequate time and facilities to prepare a defence. d) To a public trial before a court. e) To have the trial begin and be concluded with few delays. f) To be present when being tried. ----- 223 ### g) To be represented by an advocate and be informed of this right immediately. Depending on the circumstances, the accused may be assigned an advocate by the state and at the states expense. h) To remain silent and not testify during the proceedings. i) To be informed in advance, of the evidence the prosecution intends to present, and to have reasonable access to that evidence. j) To challenge the evidence. k) To refuse to give self-incriminating evidence. l) To have the assistance of an interpreter if the accused person cannot understand the language used in the trial. m) If convicted, to appeal, or apply for review by a higher court. ***26. Rights of persons detained, held in custody or imprisoned. *** A person, who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned under the law, retains all rights and fundamental freedoms in the bill of rights. Except those that are impractical and inapplicable under the circumstances.A person who is detained or held in custody is entitled for an order Habeas Corpus- This is a law that states that a person who has been arrested should not be kept in prison longer than a particular period of time unless a judge in a court has decided that it is right. It is the right of the person who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned to be treated in a humane manner. **Application of the Kenyan bill of rights to specific groups of people in Kenya** **Rights enjoyed by Children in Kenya ** A child refers to a young person from birth to full physical development. The term also refers to a person who has not attained the age of eighteen. The rights of children are contained in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, and International Agreement on the Rights of the Child put in place in 1990. The rights include; **a) Survival rights ** ~ Every child has the right to a name and nationality from birth. ~ Every child has the right to basic nutrition, shelter and health care. **b) Development rights ** ~ Every child has the right to free and compulsory basic education. ~ Every child has the right to parental care and protection, which includes equal responsibility of the mother and father to provide for the child, whether they are married to each other or not. c) Right of protection ~ Every child has the right to be protected from abuse, neglect, harmful cultural practices, all forms of violence, inhuman treatment and punishment, and hazardous or exploitative labour. ~ Every child has the right not to be detained, except as a measure of last resort, and when detained, to be held for the shortest appropriate period of time. ----- 224 ### ~ Every child has the right to separate from adults and in conditions that take account of the childs sex and age. ~ Every child has the right to a childs best interests are of paramount importance in every matter concerning the child. ~ Children should be protected from exploitation such as child labour. Rights enjoyed by Persons with disabilities in Kenya. (a) A person with any disability is entitled to be treated with dignity and respect and to beaddressed and referred to in a manner that is not demeaning. A person with any disability is entitled (b) A person with any disability is entitled to access educational institutions and facilities forpersons with disabilities that are integrated into society to the extent compatible with the interests of the person. (c) A person with any disability is entitled to reasonable access to all places, public transport and information. (d) A person with any disability is entitled to use Sign language, Braille or other appropriate means of communication. (e) A person with any disability is entitled to access materials and devices to overcome constraints arising from the persons disability. **Rights of the Youth in Kenya. ** (a) Right to access relevant education and training. (b) Right to have opportunities to associate, be represented and participate in political, social, economic and other spheres of life. (c) Right to access employment. (d) Youths are protected from harmful cultural practices and exploitation. **Rights of Minorities and marginalized groups in Kenya** The constitution specifies a marginalized community as; ~ A community that because of its relatively small population has been unable to fully participate in the integrated social and economic life of Kenya as a whole. ~ A traditional community that, out of need or desire to preserve its unique culture and identity from assimilation, has remained outside the integrated social and economic life of Kenya. ~ An indigenous community that has retained maintained a traditional lifestyle and livelihood based on a hunter or gatherer economy. ~ Pastoral persons and communities, whether nomadic or settled and because of their relative geographical location, have experienced only marginal participation in the integrated social and economic life of kenya as a whole. **Rights of Minorities and marginalized groups ** a) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to participate and are represented in governance and other spheres of life. ----- 225 ### b) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to be provided special opportunities in educational and economic fields. c) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to be provided special opportunities for access to employment. d) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to develop their cultural values, languages and practices. e) Minorities and marginalized groups have the right to reasonable access to water, health services and infrastructure. **Rights of older members of society in Kenya** a) Right to fully participate in the affairs of society. b) Right to pursue their personal development. c) Right to live in dignity and respect and be free from abuse. d) Right to receive reasonable care and assistance from their family and the State. **The Kenya National Human Rights and Equality Commission** This commission was entrenched in the Constitution of Kenya (2010) to replace the KNHRC. The commission constitutes atleast three but not more than nine members appointed by the president with the approval of the national assembly. ***Objectives; *** a) To protect the sovereignty of the people. b) To ensure secure observance by all state organs of democratic values and principles c) To promote constitutionalism **Functions of the Kenya National Human Rights and Equality Commission. ** a) It has a duty to promote respect for human rights an d develop a culture of human rights in the republic. b) A duty to promote protection and observance of human rights in public and private institutions. c) It monitors, investigates and reports on the observance of human rights in all spheres of life in the republic, including observance by the national security organs. d) It receives and investigates complaints about alleged abuses of human rights and takes steps to secure appropriate redress where human rights have been violated. e) It acts as the principal organ of the state in ensuring compliance with obligations under treaties and conventions relating o human rights. f) It investigates any conduct in state affairs, or any act or omission in pu blic administration in any sphere of government, which is alleged or suspected to be prejudicial or improper, or to result in any impropriety, or prejudice. g) It investigates complaints about abuse of power, unfair treatment, manifest injustice or unlawful, oppressive, unfair or unresponsive official conduct. ----- 226 # **HISTORY FORM THREE NOTES ** ### 1 . EUROPEAN INVASION AND THE PROCESS OF COLONIZATION OF **AFRICA ** ***Introduction *** In the last Quarter of the 19 [th] century, Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Belgium and Portugal were in Africa, competing for colonies to boost their social, economic and political standing.They convened the Berlin conference of 1884-1885 (convened by Otto Von Bismarck, the Germany Chancellor) where they shared Africa in Europe without regard to the inhabitants. This is what is termed the invasion of Africa.By 1914, apart from Liberia and Ethiopia, the rest of Africa had been colonized **The scramble and partition of Africa** **Scramble ** It refers to the rushing for something.In the African situation, it meant the rush for and struggle by European powers to acquire various parts of Africa during the 19th century. **Partition ** It refers to the sharing of something. In the African situation, it referred to the actual division of Africa by European powers during the Berlin conference of 1884 - 1885Methods used by Europeans to acquire colonies in Africa. 1) Signing of treaties ; a) Treaty signing with African leaders. ~ The British signed the Maasai Agreements (1904 and 1911), Buganda Agreement of 1900 and the Lewanika-Lochner treaty with Lozi. The royal Niger Company had by 1884, signed 37 treaties through George Goldie, with African leaders in Niger delta, Yorubaland and Gambia. ~ Carl peters signed treaties on behalf of Germany with the chiefs of Uzigua, Ukami, Usagara and ungulu. These treaties facilitated the acquisition of those areas for colonization. b) Treaties signed amongst European powers. These were known as Partition Agreements. For example; ~ The Anglo-Germany Agreements of 1886 and 1890 and Heligoland between the British and the Germans over the sharing of East Africa. ~ The Anglo Italian treaty signed in 1891 between the Italians and the British over possession of Eritrea and the Somali coast. ~ The treaty between the British and Portugal and France in 1890 on the sharing of Madagascar (France) Mozambique and Angola (Portugal). 2) Military conquest/ Use of force . Europeans employed outright war against those societies that resisted their invasion. E.g ----- 227 ### a) The French war against the Mandinka of Samori Toure (1870-1899) and their conquest of western Sudan from Senegal to Chad specifically in the Tukolor Empire, Segu and Masina by 1898. Tunisia, morocco and Algeria were acquired forcefully. b) The British used military force in the Nandi resistance from 1895-1905, the Chimurenga wars involving the Shona/Ndebele against the British, forced acquisition of Egypt and Sudan c) The Germans fought the Maji Maji wars from 1905- 1907. d) The Italians were defeated during their Ethiopian campaign, by Menelik II in the battle of Adowa in 1896. e) The Portuguese forcefully established their rule over Angola, Guinea Bissau and Mozambique. 3) Use of missionaries as frontrunners. The Europeans used missionaries, carrying a bible in one hand and a gun in the other, who tried to convince the Africans to support the European goals. ~ Missionaries manipulated local quarrels and took sides in a view to promote European occupation. For example, in the case of Buganda where we had religious conflicts between Protestants, Muslims, Catholics and Traditionalists. ~ Sometimes the missionaries went to war against each other and against Africans. E.g the Franza-Ingeleza war of 1892 that pitted the Protestants (British) against the Catholics (French). Fredrick Lugards intervention on the side of Protestants set stage for the acquisition of Uganda by the British. ~ In Bulozi, Father Francois Coillard convinced Lewanika of the benefits of British protection. ~ In Nyasaland (Malawi) which was depicted as Livingstones country, missionaries (read role of Scottish missionaries) shaped public opinion in favour of imperial control. **4) Treachery and Divide and rule policy ** ~ The Europeans instigated inter-tribal wars causing some Africans to support them against warring communities. E.g. use of the Wanga against the Luo and the Luhya in Kenya, the Ndebele/shona against the Lozi in Rhodesia. ~ The Italians lied to Menelik II by signing a treaty of friendship but which was published in Italian version indicating that Ethiopia had agreed becoming an Italian protectorate. ~ The Maasai agreement was written in a language that the Lenana never understood. 5) Use of company rule. The British and the Germans used chartered companies to acquire and rule their colonies. For example, the role played by the British South African Company of Cecil Rhodes, Imperial British East African Company of Sir William Mackinnon and the German East Africa Company of Carl Peters. 6) Luring/enticements. The Europeans gave gifts like cloth, weapons tools, drinks etc to African chiefs like Lewanika of the Lozi and Mwanga of Buganda thus luring them into collaboration. ----- 228 ### 7) Diplomatic skills. This involved building relations with African leaders, which were later, used to acquire the areas. The British employed this method in Maasailand and Yorubaland. 8) A blend of diplomacy and force. The British for example initially signed treaties with the Ndebele (Moffat and Rudd treaties), but they fought them during the Ndebele war of 1897. **FACTORS THAT LED TO THE SCRAMBLE FOR COLONIES IN AFRICA** **Economic factors ** ***1. The industrial revolution in Europe. *** a) The revolution led to search for markets for European manufactured goods in Africa resulting in scramble for and partition. b) The need for raw materials. The machines invented processed goods faster than use of hand. The Europeans came to Africa in search of raw materials like cotton, palm oil, copper and iron ore. c) Cheap labour was also readily available in Africa after the abolition of slave trade. d) There was desire by the entrepreneurs to invest excess capital gained from accumulation of profits from industrial investment. Africa provided an avenue for investment. e) Industrial revolution led to improved transport system, which was necessary for effective colonization. f) The military hardware manufactured during the revolution enabled Europeans to conquer African territories. g) The discovery of medicine enabled the Europeans to survive the African conditions and protect themselves from diseases such as malaria, yellow fever etc. h) Those who were rendered unemployed in Europe due to invention of machines had to move to Africa to assist in harnessing raw materials. i) Industrial revolution led to intense rivalry in trade, which was projected, into Africa. 2. Speculation about the availability of deep pockets of minerals in Africa . Gold and Bronze had been items of trade in Africa for centuries. The discovery of Diamond at Kimberly in the 1860s and Gold in the 1870s precipitated their appetite for Africa more. Political reasons . ***1. Unification of Germany after under Otto Von Bismarck after the Franco-*** Prussian war of 1870-71. The rise of Germany upset the balance of power in Europe and there was need to rebalance out through acquisition of colonies in Africa. France for example had to redeem her lost glory (especially after the loss of mineral rich Alsace and Lorraine provinces) by acquiring eight colonies in Africa. 2. The rise of Public opinion in Europe . There was growth of public support towards the acquisition of colonies. With the rise of democracy in European states in the 19 [th] c, it was fatal for any government to ignore public opinion. ----- 229 ### a) For example in 1882, due to public demand, the French assembly was compelled to ratify De Brazzas treaty with Chief Makoko thus creating a French colony in Congo. b) German took over South-West Africa (Namibia), Togo and Cameroon due to what Bismarck termed as public demand. c) In Britain, the public demanded that Britain must maintain her position as the leading colonizing power by taking her share in Africa. 3. Militarism . Army officers in Europe favoured colonial expansionist wars to give them greater opportunities for glory or promotion. a) For example, in Sudan, it was the military offers, in search of glory, and not the French government who directed the extent of French colonization. b) British soldiers like Wolseley Kitchener supported the expansion of the British Empire in Africa. 4. The rise of Nationalism . In Europe, there was the rise of a general feeling of civilians that their nations should acquire overseas colonies for national prestige. The Germans began feeling they belonged to a superior race that must be shown by acquiring colonies in Africa. **Strategic reasons ** 1. Construction of the Suez Canal . (The Egyptian question). ~ The construction of the Suez Canal, opened in 1869, promoted a link between Europe and Asia/ shortened the routes to Far East. It also promoted international trade. It also made Egypt gain some strategic importance to Europeans. ~ The inability of Khedive Ishmael (1863-1879) to pay for the cost of the construction of the canal (due to his extravagancy) led to British full occupation of Egypt in 1882, being a major shareholder in the Anglo-Suez Company that owned the canal. ~ The dismayed French planned diversions of the Nile waters, and make Egypt a desert, after occupying territories to the south of Egypt. ~ It was against the backdrop that Britain claimed Uganda (source of the Nile) in 1894, Kenya (the gateway to Uganda) in 1895 and Sudan (where the Nile passes) in 1898. ***2. French activities in West Africa and the Congo *** The activities of France in Congo and West Africa, after loss of Egypt, through their Italian agent Savorgnan de Brazza in connection to acquisition of colonies alarmed other powers. This encouraged powers like Germany to join in the scramble and acquire Togo, Cameroon, Namibia and Tanganyika. ***3. The personal activities of King Leopold II of Belgium. *** ~ He endeavored to create a personal empire. In 1876, Leopold convened the Brussels Geographical Conference where he formed a business company, the International African Association comprising explorers and traders with a mission to civilize Africa, abolish slave trade and establish free trade. ~ As a result of the activities of his agent, Henry Morton Stanley who created the Congo Free State, Leopold had established a personal empire in 1884 . ----- 230 ### ~ It was the activities of king Leopold leading to intense rivalry amongst European nations over Congo that led to the convening of the Berlin Conference in 1884. **Social reasons ** ***1. The work of Christian missionaries *** ~ They created an atmosphere of friendship with Africans by giving those gifts like cloths and beer, introducing economic activities like farming, carpentry, clerical work, among Africans, that were important virtues in the process of colonization. ~ Where they were in danger, they pressurized their home governments to protect them. ~ The missionaries had direct contact with the people of the interior of Africa and they were front-runners who paved way for the colonialists through their works. ~ They preached peace, love and hard work and hence calmed down the emotions of Africans towards the Europeans. ~ Some of them wrote exaggerated reports about Africa to convince Europeans to take interest in Africa. 2. The growth of European population. The growth of European population steadily to about 420 million in the 19th century led to the quest for new outlets to resettle the population.E.g Britain settled some of her people in Australia, New Zealand, USA, Canada and South Africa. German, Portugal and Dutch also had to find places in Africa to settle some of their people. 3. Anti-slave trade campaigns- Humanitarian factor . The humanitarians in Europe like William Wilberforce and Granville Sharp, and the missionaries who led the crusade against slave trade advocated for colonization of Africa in order to stop it and introduce Legitimate Trade.When slave trade was abolished, many European nations used it as an excuse to remain in some parts of Africa, control the region, enforce the anti-slavery treaties, and promote legitimate trade. **The pull factors ** a) Existence of Vast natural resources in Africa. There were pockets of minerals in various parts of Africa and ivory awaiting exploitation. This attracted the Europeans. b) Well developed trade/trade routes in the interior. Imperialists used these routes as transport routes to penetrate the interior. c) Existence of Navigable Rivers. For example, rivers like Congo and Niger made transportation easy d) Existence of weak Decentralized local communities. Most African communities were decentralized with no military structures therefore offering little resistance to European invasion. e) Frequent wars / inter community wars. These wars weakened African communities and were left ill prepared for any resistance. Some readily collaborated with the Europeans. ----- 231 ### **THE PROCESS OF PARTITION ** The fore runners to the process of partitioning Africa were the early explorers, missionaries and traders. Their activities were succeeded by the making of treaties and agreements in various parts of Africa between trading companies and the locals. . For example, the Buganda Agreement, the Heligoland Treaty and the Berlin act of 1884- 1885.In places where the Europeans employed diplomacy, they won the support of many Africans who collaborated with the intruders. The Europeans sometimes blended diplomacy with wars of conquest or use of force especially against the resisting communities.The partitioning boundaries were drawn along physical features like rivers, mountains, etc.The Berlin conference On 15 [th] November 1884, Britain, Germany, France, Belgium, the USA, Portugal and Italy convened in Berlin to lay down the rules for the partition and eliminate conflicts amongst European nations. Africans, whose continent was being shared, were not represented in the conference The Berlin Conference of 1884-85, partitioned Africa into different spheres of influence without recourse to war. **Terms of the Berlin act of 1884-1885. ** a) That all signatories must declare their sphere of influence an area under each nations occupation b) That once an area is declared a sphere of influence, effective occupation must be established in the area through establishment of firm colonial infrastructures to be followed by colonial administration. c) That any state, laying claim to any part of Africa must inform other interested parties in order to avoid future rivalry. d) That any power acquiring territory in Africa must undertake to stamp out slave trade in favour of legitimate trade and safeguard African interests. e) That if a European power claims a certain part of the African coast, the land in the interior next to the coast became hers. f) That the Congo River and the Niger River basins were to be left free for any interested power to navigate. g) The European powers vowed to protect and safeguard European interests in Africa irrespective of their nationality. **Impacts of the Partition** **Political effects ** a) Introduction of European administration minimized intertribal wars and civil strife. b) It led to development of strong African leadership and beginning of state formation. c) Colonial government structures inherited by most independent African states have continued to be models of governments in African countries. d) Rise of African nationalism to fight colonialism led to the development of African political awareness. ----- 232 ### e) The Europeans gained fame, prestige and national glory by having colonial possessions. f) Negatively, it led to collapse of African traditional political systems and leadership. g) Use of divide and rule promoted ethnic disunity that continues to trouble Africa many years after independence. h) Boundary creation split apart many African communities. For example, the Somali are found both in Kenya and in Somalia, the Maasai in Kenya and Tanzania and the Ewe in Ghana and Togo. i) In some cases some communities whose cultures were incompatible found themselves bunched together. **Social impacts ** a) Through the protection offered to missionaries, it stimulated the spread of Christianity to various parts of Africa. b) It led to development of urban centres. Some towns grew as centres of administration e.g. Nairobi and Machakos. Others grew as railway terminus e.g. Kisumu. c) African welfare was boosted. Some African benefited from western education and health facilities introduced by the Europeans. d) European languages were introduced in Africa. e) Negatively, it created landlessness as European settlers appropriated African land. f) The Africans adopted some negative aspects of western culture. g) Many Africans lost their lives through resistance. **Economic effects ** a) There was construction of roads, railway and other forms of infrastructure, which helped to open up the interior. b) Imperialization helped to widen market for African produce especially with the establishment of local industries. c) Africans were exposed to European manufactured goods/ increase in essential commodities. d) Partition speeded up the economic growth of European nations. e) Negatively, forced labour and exploitation of African resources left many parts of Africa impoverished and underdeveloped. f) Africans were exposed to heavy taxation and denial to participate in economic activities like farming, trade etc. **AFRICAN REACTION TO EUROPEAN COLONIZATION. ** **RESISTANCE ** Some communities were keen on defending their age-old and ancient political, social and economic institutions and viewed the arrival of the Whiteman with suspicion. Their leaders did not want to lose their power, wealth and sources of prestige. Others were militarily prepared for the Europeans. E.g the Mandinka, Nandi, Ndebele and Ethiopia. ----- 233 ### Some resisters were centralized states enjoying immense unity making it easy to mobilize people for a war. **The Maji Maji Rebellion (1905- 1907). ** The Maji Maji Uprising in Tanganyika was the most significant African challenge to German colonial rule in its African colonies. The Uprising lasted two years c over 10,000 square miles. Tanzania had been acquired largely by Dr. Karl Peters, who signed treaties with the Chiefs of Usagara, Ungula, Uzigua and Ukami, in 1885. The Rebellion involved the Zaramo, Matumbi, Bena, Ngindo, Pogoro, Bunga, Ngoni, Luguru, Wamwera and Ndendeule **Causes of the maji maji rebellion. ** 1. When Germany established its control over Tanganyika by 1898, it imposed a violent regime in order to control the population. Kings who resisted German occupation were killed. Africans resented the cruel, brutal, harsh and ruthless rule of the Germans. 2. Africans resented the Creation of new system of administration using Akidas and Jumbeswho terrorized the people and misused their positions. 3. The African population was also subjected to high taxation by the Germany East Africa Company to raise revenue for administration. The Matumbi on their part felt that the Germans should instead have paid the Africans for using their land. 4. The Africans resented a system of forced labour, whereby they were required to grow cotton and build roads for their European occupiers. The Africans were treated inhumanely while at work by the Akidas. 5. The Germans had no respect for African culture in that they misbehaved with Ngindo women. Crimes like rape, fornication and adultery, committed by the Germans were punishable by death among the Ngindo. 6. Christian missionaries discredited traditional belief and practices e.g. condemning sacred places as places of witchcraft. This greatly offended the Africans. 7. Germans had alienated land from Africans as a way of making the railway pay for the cost of its construction. The arrival of German settlers in U sambara area in 1898, Meru in 1905 and Kilimanjaro area in 1907 led to massive loss of African land. 8. Africans were forced to grow cotton in the communal cotton growing scheme, where they got very little payments. In 1902, Peters also ordered villages to grow cotton as a cash crop (for export) with each village, charged with producing a quota of cotton. This policy annoyed Africans who could no longer effectively work on their on farms to produce food. 9. The Ngoni were seeking revenge for the Boma Massacre of 1897 during which their soldiers were killed in large numbers. 10. The role of Kinjeketile Ngwale in instilling confidence in the Africans to unite and rise up against the Germans 11. The 1905, a drought that threatened the region making Africans incur heavy losses on a crop that was not even edible, combined with opposition to the government's ----- 234 ### agricultural and labor policies, became the immediate cause of the rebellion against the Germans in July, 1905. **Course of the maji maji war. ** The oppressive regime bred discontent among the Africans, and resentment reached a fever pitch in 1905 when drought hit the region. A Ngarambe prophet, Kinjikitile Ngwale emerged, who claimed to know the secret to a sacred liquid which could repel German bullets called "Maji Maji," which means "sacred water." Ngwale claimed to be possessed by a snake spirit called Hongo.Thus, armed with arrows, spears, and doused with Maji Maji water, the first warriors of the rebellion began what would become known as the Maji Maji Rebellion. The rebellion was led by Kinjeketile Ngwale, Abdalla Mpanda and Ngamea. On July 31, 1905, Matumbi tribesmen marched on to Samanga and destroyed the cotton crop as well as a trading post. Kinjikitile was arrested and hanged for treason. However, Kinjekitiles ideas were spread widely through a whispering campaign called Njwiywia or Jujila by the Matumbi. Matumbi warriors uprooted cotton from an Akidas farm at Nandete to provoke the chiefs to fight. On August 14, 1905, Ngindo tribesmen attacked a small party of missionaries on a safari; all five, including Bishop Spiss (the Roman Catholic Bishop of Dar es Salaam) were speared to death. The Ngindo drove their hated Akidas from their area. They boycotted cotton picking.By August 1905, Germans were restricted to four military stations i.e. Wahenga, Kilosa, Iringa and Songea. The apex of the rebellion came at Mahenge in August 1905 where several thousand Maji Maji warriors attacked but failed to overrun a German stronghold. On October 21, 1905 the Germans retaliated with an attack on the camp of the unsuspecting Ngoni people who had joined the rebellion killing hundreds of men, women, and children. This attack marked the beginning of a brutal counteroffensive that left an estimated 75,000 Maji Maji warriors dead by 1907. Forces from Iringa under Captain Migmann assisted in the recapture of Kabata by Major Johannes.Reinforcement arrived from Germany and in 1907 warriors were defeated by Governor Graf Von Gotzen. The Germans employed the scorched earth policy which destroyed all property on sight. The Africans lost faith in the magic water. Some surrendered while others fled to Mozambique. **Consequences of the maji maji uprising** a) There was massive loss of lives. In its wake, the Maji-Maji rebellion left 15 Europeans and 389 African soldiers and between 75,000 and 100,000 insurgents dead. b) There was massive destruction of property, as villages and crops were burnt when Germans applied the scorched earth policy. c) Southern Tanganyika experienced severe famine as farms and granaries were destroyed. This disrupted economic activities such as agriculture and trade. d) Thousands of families were displaced during the war. This was because of the fear that gripped the land, forcing people to flee in different direction. ----- 235 ### e) The war undermined the German economy in Tanganyika, as numerous economic activities came to a standstill. f) There was loss of leadership in African communities which created disorganization and demoralized the African people. Most captured leaders were hanged or imprisoned. A total of 47 Ngoni chiefs were hanged. g) Africans resigned to colonial authority. The revolt broke the spirit of the people to resist and the colony remained calm, realizing they did not have better weapons to fight with. h) The uprising undermined the Africans confidence in their traditional religion. The magic water failed to protect them against the German bullets. i) The uprising laid the foundation to Tanganyikas Nationalism. The uprising would become an inspiration for later 20th Century freedom fighters who called for similar interethnic unity as they struggled against European colonial rule. j) Although the Maji Maji Uprising was ultimately unsuccessful, it forced Kaiser Wilhelm's government in Berlin to institute reforms in their Tanganyika administration as they realized the potential cost of their brutality. **Reforms introduced by the German administration after the maji maji uprising. ** a) Corporal punishment was abolished by the German administration. Those settlers who mistreated their workers were punished. b) Forced labour for settler farms was abolished. c) Communal cotton growing was stopped and Africans were to plant their own cotton and get profit from it. d) Better educational and medical services for the Africans were introduced. e) Africans were involved in administration of the region as Akidas and Jumbes. f) Newspapers that incited settlers against Africans were censured. g) Kiswahili became an official language. h) A colonial department of the German government was set up in 1907 to investigate and monitor the affairs of the German East Africa. i) The new governor rejected extra taxation of Africans. j) Colonial administration in Tanganyika was now tailored to suit the Africans. **Role of religion in the Maji Maji rebellion. ** a) It gave people courage, loyalty and confidence to fight the Germans. b) It gave spiritual strength to fight a superior force. c) Through religion, suspicions among communities were wiped out. d) Religion stood above tribal loyalty/all followed it regardless of tribe. e) Religious cults like bolero/kolelo promised people the destruction of the white man. f) It provided the ideology, which guided the war efforts. g) It sustained the morale of the warriors. h) It provided a common plan of action based on mass action i) It provided leadership during the war e.g. the prophetic leaders. ----- 236 ### j) It was used, to address the so many African grievances emanating from the harsh German rule. **The Mandinka Resistance. ** **Samori Toure (c. 1830-1900) ** One of the great kings and fighters of African freedom was the great Samori Toure. Born about 1830 in Sanankaro, SE of Kankan in present-day Guinea, Samori Toure chose the path of confrontation, using warfare and diplomacy, to deal with the French colonial incursion. His father was a Dyula trader, leading Toure to follow his familys occupation. In the 1850s, he enrolled in the military forces at Madina (present-day Mali) to liberate his mother, captured during a slave raid by king Sori Birama of Bisandugu. Displaying extraordinary military skill and prowess, he and his mother were subsequently released in 1858. Coupled with his experience as a Dyula trader, he built his army. Samori employed the triple thrust of persuasion, threat and war, in the same way as Sundiata did in Mali, to organized Malink chiefdoms and expand the Mandinka state. Between 1852 and 1882, Samori Toure had created the Mandinka Empire with the capital at Bisandugu, in present day Gambia.Samoris army was powerful, disciplined, professional, and trained in modern day warfare. They were equipped with European guns. The army was divided into two flanks, the infantry or sofa, with 30,000 to 35,000 men, and the cavalry or sere of 3,000 men. There was a third wing of 500 men forming specially trained bodyguards. In 1881, Samori extended the empire to the east as far as Sikasso (in Mali) to the west, up to the Futa Djallon Empire. Meanwhile, the French were extending eastwards from Futa Djalon while the Mandinka were extending westwards towards Kenyeran trading centre, Next to the rich Bure Gold fields.In 1882, at the height of the Mandinka empire, the Frenc h accused Samori Tour of refusing to withdraw from an important market center, Kenyeran (his army had blockaded the market). They thus started war on him. His bid to obtain assistance from the British to deal with the French failed as the later were not willing to enter into conflict with the French. From 1882 to 1885, Samori fought the French and had to sign infamous Bisandugu treaty on 28 [th] march 1886 and then 1887. Significance of the Bisandugu treaties (1886-1887 ) a) To Toure, these were acts of delay the real confrontation that with the French that would come at an opportune time. b) He hoped that by this treaty, he would reach out at the British for a friendship treaty to enable him secure trade routes from the north under Tieba of Sikasso. c) The French on their part hoped to use the treaty to enable them to arrange the conquest of the Tukolor Empire. d) The treaties put the Mandinka under brief French protection. In 1888, he took up arms again when the French reneged on the treaty by attempting to foster rebellion within his empire. ----- 237 ### In 1890, he reorganized the army and concluded a treaty with the British in Sierra Leone, where he obtained modern weapons. He now stressed defense and employed guerilla tactics. **The Franco- Mandinka war (1891-1898) ** **Causes of the Franco-Mandinka war (1891-1898) ** a) Samori wanted to safeguard the independence and religion of his empire. Being a staunch Muslim, he could not tolerate non-Muslims on his land. b) He was not ready willing to lose the rich Bure Mines to the French whether through diplomacy or warfare. c) His empire was at that time enjoying military and economic superiority. The French incursion was merely a threat to his territorial expansion that was to be fought at all costs. d) His participation in trade had enabled him to acquire modern arms thus enabling him to build an equipped and well trained army which did not fear the encounter French. He even had facilities for arms repair. e) His scheme to play off the British against the French, between 1882 and 1889, had failed. This upset him and therefore left him only with the fighting option. f) The activities of the French of selling arms to his enemies such as Tieba of Sikasso were viewed by Samori as an act to weaken the Mandinka dominance. **Course of the franco-mandinka war. ** Samori waged a seven year war against France whose army was led by Major Archinard. In 1891, with his improved weaponry and reorganized army, he defeated the French. In 1892, French forces overran the major centers of the Mandinka Empire, leaving death and destruction in their wake. In 1894, the French assembled all their troops in western Sudan (Senegal, Mali, Niger, etc) to fight Samori.Between 1893 and 1898, Samoris army retreated eastward, toward the Bandama and Como, resorted to the scorched earth tactic, destroying every piece of land he evacuated. He moved his capital east from Bisandugu to Dabakala, thus creating a second empire in 1893. This enabled him to delay the French. He formed a second empire, and moved his capital to Kong, in upper Cote dIvoire. **Disadvantages of Samoris second empire** a) He was cut off from Freetown where he used to buy firearms. b) He was at war with the communities, which he had attacked in his expansionist wars. c) His southern frontier was open to French attacks from the Ivory Coast. d) At his new empire, Samore was cut off from his gold mines at Bure thus; he had no wealth to keep his army running. e) The occupation of the Asante Empire by the British in 1896 meant that enemies from all corners surrounded Samori Toure. In 1898, Samori, forced to fight a total war against innumerable odds like famine and desertion that weakened his forces, was captured on September 29, 1898, in his camp in ----- 238 ### Gu (l) mou at the town of Sikasso in present-day Cte dIvoire and exiled to Ndjol, Gabon, where he died of pneumonia on June 2, 1900. **Factors that aided Samori Toure in offering a protracted resistance to the ** **Europeans ** a) He had established military workshops with a trained cadre of artisans whom he used to repair and manufacture his own weapons. This guaranteed regular supply of weapons during the resistance. b) He himself was a courageous fighter, a greater organizer and a military tactician and he personally commanded his army on the battlefield. c) His adoption of the Scorched Earth Policy as he mobilized the entire population to retreat left the French to starve and delay their advance. d) The success witnessed in trade enabled him to acquire guns and horses from the north, which were important in the resistance. e) Through trade and subsequent tribute collection, he obtained adequate wealth, which he used to maintain a large army. f) He had a large strong and well-organized army of 35,000 men, which was a formidable force for the French. g) He used diplomacy in dealing with the French to buy time to reorganize and strengthen his army, and to negotiate with the British in Sierra Leone to guarantee regular supply of guns. h) French soldiers were ignorant of the strange land they were fighting in and were faced with further problem of tropical disease. i) Some of his soldiers had served in the French colonial army and were thus familiar with the French tactics. j) He used Mandinka nationalism and Islam to unify the army. Many of Samoris soldiers believed that they were fighting a Jihad (holy war) and therefore fought with determination. **Why samori was finally defeated. ** a) Since his army and community were constantly on the move, they could not engage in any gainful economic activity to replenish their supplies. b) The abandoning of the rich Bure Gold reserves as Samori retreated meant he had lost an important source of revenue that was initially used to sustain the army. c) When he moved to his second empire, He was cut off from Freetown where he used to buy firearms. d) Samori failed to get any support from other African societies due to lack of unity. Ahmed Seku of Tukolor and Tieba of Sikasso chose to rather assist the French than support Samori. ----- 239 ### e) His second empire was open to attack from all sides by either the British or the French, making it difficult to defend. f) The French had superior weapons and better means to re-equip their stores. They were also determined to defeat samori to set up an overseas colonial empire. g) The use of the scorched earth policy was resented by the civilians since it left them with nothing after destruction. It thus starred up local resistance. h) Even within his own empire, there was no total unity. The non-Mandinka communities and non-Muslims in the empire who had felt mistreated during his reign supported the French. i) The refusal by the British to assist Samori dented his hopes of getting a European ally against the French. j) Samoris retreat to Liberia was blocked and his capital besieged. He had to surrender to the French. **The Ndebele Resistance ** **Background** The Ndebele were descendants of Nguni conquerors from South Africa (fleeing from the mfecane wars) who occupied what is now Matabeleland. Mzilikazi (Ndebele King) opened the door for the London Missionary Society led by Robert Moffat, who settled in Matabeleland in 1859. They assisted him in repairing his guns, inoculating cattle, writing and interpreting letters and providing medical care to the sick. Hehowever had little interest in Foreigners and even had those whose who accepted missionary influence killed. Mzilikazi died in 1868 and his son Lobengula took over.Lobengula was the Ndebele king at the outbreak of the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893. He went to great lengths to appease the increasingly aggressive British imperialists from the South, Portuguese invasion from Angola and Mozambique and Germans from the south west. He used his diplomatic skills to buy time before engaging in war with the British. He even tried to pit one European nation against the other (the Boers and the British). He in 1870 had granted a mining concession to Thomas Baines of Durban Gold Mining Co. in order to diffuse white intervention. In 1888, Lobengula signed the Moffat treat y which stated that he was not to sign any other treaty with other European groups without British permission. Rhodes sent his partner and agent Charles Rudd to compel Lobengula to acquiesce to the Rudd (mining) Concession- a verbal agreement between Lobengula and BSA Co granting the company a mining monopoly in Matabeleland. In return, he was to get a gunboat on River Zambezi or 500 sterling ponds, a monthly salary of 100 sterling pounds, 1000 rifles and 100,000 cartridges. Lobengulas conditions for concession were not incorporated in the final text. When the terms of the treaty were interpreted to him, he learned that he had been tricked into surrendering his kingdom to Europeans.In 1889, he repudiated the treaty and sent a fruitless delegation of Indunas (Motshede and Babiyance) to London to meet Queen Victoria. Despite the Ndebele king's repeal of the concession, Rhodes, supported by the British crown, enacted a charter of the newly created British South Africa ----- 240 ### Company investing it with an array of rights: the right to ma.ke treaties, to pass laws and to subject the natives to its police force, as well as to make grants of minerals and land to white settlers. Lobengula was thus pushed into reluctant resistance by white greedy rapacity. **Causes of the 1893 Ndebele war. ** 1. The Ndebele detested the treachery used by the British in compelling Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession 2. British occupation of Matabeleland had ended Ndebele powers over the shona whom they always raided for cattle and women. 3. The British acts of provocation (inciting the Shona to raid the Ndebele for cattle). When the Ndebele chose to attack the shona, the British would then fight them under the pretext of protecting their interests in Mashonaland. 4. The attempt by the Ndebele indunas to punish some shona who disobeyed King Lobengula became the immediate cause. **Course of the war. ** The war broke out in October 1893. The British army was led by Dr.Starr Jameson and comprised the shona police and other mercenaries from South Africa. At that time, the Ndebele had been weakened by smallpox and inferior weapons leading to little confrontation between them and the British. Lobengula chose to evacuate his people towards Northern Rhodesia. Atthe two battles of Shangani River and Mbembezi. The Ndebele were defeated by superior European gun-fire. Lobengula finally fled to Bulawayo where he died in 1894. The conquerors took advantage of the natives' inner divisions, with people of the low castes remaining passive and even some traitors helping the invaders. The aftermath of the British conquest in Zimbabwe was that cattle were seized from the natives and their land taken. Even the for the small plots that were left to them, Africans were often forcibly prevented from ploughing and sowing, since they were subjected to tax-collection and coerced labour in whiteowned farms. The Ndebele were pushed to the reserves of Gwaai and Shangani. **Second Matabele War (the Chimurenga war 1896-1897) ** The war of liberation which was dubbed Chimurenga, or the Second Matabele War was a fulfillment of prophesy of a great Shona spirit, Mbuya Nehanda, sister of the great Shona prophet Chaminuka. Mlimo, the Ndebele spiritual leader is in fact credited with fomenting the Second Ndebele War. He convinced the Ndebele that the White settlers were responsible for the drought, locust plagues and the cattle disease rinderpest ravaging the country at the time. **Causes of the Chimurenga war** a) The war broke out because the Shona and the Ndebele feared disruption of their age- old and valued trade and trade routes. ----- 241 ### b) They fought for economic and trade independence. The company had stopped shona Gold and ivory trade with the Portuguese and forced them to trade only with the company only and at low exchange rates. c) They were fighting against land alienation. The BSA Company had alienated the Ndebele land and pushed them to the Gwaai and Shangani reserves that had no water and were infested with tsetseflies. d) The war eroded the Ndebele traditional authority. When Lobengulas sons were sent to South Africa by Rhodes for education, they were denied chance of succeeding their father. e) They detested the removal of the rights of chiefs to allocate land. The British ruined the regimental system and refused to recognize the power of the indunas and Ndebele laws. f) The British began to assume the rights to punish the subjects on behalf of the chiefs. Sometimes even the chiefs were also punished. E.g, Chief Moghabis village was burnt. g) They revolted against taxation which was an interference with their economic independence. The hut tax, introduced in 1894 was collected with much brutality. h) The Ndebele were not pleased with the recruitment of the shona in the police force. They felt humiliated as the shona took the chance to revenge for the many years of oppression. i) They resented the general brutality of the whites when dealing with the Africans, like threatening the black people with punishment just before pay, to cause them to run away. j) They wanted the removal of the policy of forced labour on European mines and farmswhere workers operated under deplorable conditions, often whipped with syambok (whip) and worked for long hours without chance to engage in activities of their choice. k) The company disregarded the Ndebele customs especially the class system. They treated everybody equally, including the Holi who were traditionally slaves to the Ndebele aristocrats. The traditional leaders were sometimes flogged before their subjects. l) The confiscation, by the company, of 250,000 head of cattle in 1893 from the Ndebele. Leaving them with only 50,000 affected by cattle disease. The rights to raid the shona for cattle was also denied. m) The people were resented more by the Natural calamities that continued to afflict them and which religious mediums like Mlimo blamed on the presence of the whites. n) The influence of the Mwari cult leaders who urged people to resist with an assurance of victory against the British and immunity against the European bullets. Course of the war . Mlimo's call to battle happened at a time when the BSA Co's Administrator General Matabeleland, Leander Starr Jameson, had sent most of his troops to fight the Transvaal Republic in the ill-fated Jameson Raid in Dec. 1995 leaving the country's defenses in disarray. ----- 242 ### War in Matabeleland.On 29 [th] March 1896, the Ndebele High Priest Umlugulu, with senior indunas, organized a ceremony to install Umfezela as Lobengulas successor. On that day, The Ndebele rebels killed the whites on their farms as they found them by surprise. They also killed African policemen in the British force. The European settlers took refuge in fortified camps in Bulawayo, Gwelo, Belingwe and Mangwe.The British immediately sent troops to suppress the Ndebele and the Shona, but it cost the lives of many settlers, Ndebele, and Shona alike. The Matabele military defiance ended only when Burnham found and assassinated Mlimo, thanks to a Zulu informant. The Ndebele finally agreed to peace talks with Rhodes during which Rhodes agreed to disband the shona police and give the Ndebele headmen some powers as indunas. **The War in Mashonaland ** On 17 June 1896, the Hwata dynasty at Mazowe attacked the Alice Mine. They succeeded in driving away the British settlers from their lands on 20 June 1896. In the same month, Mashaykuma, working with the local spiritual leader Kagubi, the Zezuru Shona people in killing a British farmer Norton and his wife at Porta Farm in Norton. With the war in Matabeleland ending in October 1897, Gen. Carrington was able to concentrate his forces on Mashonaland. Nehanda Nyakasikana and Kagubi Gumbo- reshumba were captured and executed in 1898, but Mkwati, a priest of the Mwari shrine, was never captured and died in Mutoko. Traditional leaders played a major role in the rebellion, notably Chief Mashayamombe, who led resistance in Mhondoro, Gwabayana, Makoni, Mapondera, Mangwende and Seke. **Role of religion in the organization of the S hona Ndebele resistance ** a) Religion united the Shona and Ndebele who had hitherto been bitter rivals. / The two communities entered a common plan of action. b) It boosted and sustained the morale of the masses and gave them spiritual strength to fight a might force. c) Religion was used as a base of mass action. It provided the resistance with a common ideology. Much of the ideology used was derived from Umlugulu, the chief priest of the Ndebele Nyamanda, Lobengulas eldest son and Mlimo, the medium of Mwari Cult d) Religious leaders provided leadership to the war against white aggressors who were considered immoral and brutal. e) The Mwari Cult provided an important organization link between the Ndebele and shona since it was widespread. f) The most important representatives of the Mwari Cult were Mkwati and Singinyamatse who were the backbone of the spiritual unity of the Ndebele. **Why the Ndebele and shona were defeated ** a) Disunity among Africans and between Shona and Ndebele. They fought on different fronts. Even some African communities supported the British against the shona and Ndebele. ----- 243 ### b) The Ndebele social class lacked unity of purpose. The former aristocrats fought on their own while the former slave classes chose to even cooperate with the British. c) British soldiers were well trained as compared to African soldiers. They also got reinforcement from Botswana and South Africa. d) The arrest and execution of African leaders like Nehanda, Kagubi and Singinyamatse demoralized the people. e) The British had superior weapons as compared to African inferior weapons. f) The magic failed to protect them against the enemy bullets. Many people were killed by the British including the leaders of the Mwari cult. g) The determination of Cecil Rhodes, who negotiated for peace with Ndebele thus ending the war. This made the suppression of the Shona by the British easy. **Results of the war. ** a) The Africans lost their independence as the British established their authority over them. b) There was an enormous loss of life and property. c) The African land was alienated and they confined to reserves d) Africans in reserves were be subjected to forced labour. e) The war led to rapid spread of Christianity as the local people lost faith in their religion. f) The Ndebele indunas gained recognition as headmen. g) The Africans were exposed to severe famine, as the war hindered farming. h) The colonial office in London lost confidence in company rule due to its poor administration. **COLLABORATION ** ***What is collaboration? *** This was a style in which Africans responded to European intrusion through diplomacy, adaptation or allying with the Europeans for military support and for material gains **Reasons for collaboration by some African communities. ** a) Some African kings needed to safe guard themselves against internal and external enemies. e.g. Lewanika of Lozi who was facing threat from the Ndebele and the Ngoni. b) Others wanted to promote trade with the imperialists so that they can gain material wealth. For example, the Wanga and the Shona. c) Influence of the missionaries who convinced some African leaders to collaborate in order to get western education and civilization. E.g, Franois Coillard encouraged Lewanika to collaborate with the British. d) In some communities, there was need for protection against other European powers e.g. the Lozi against the Portuguese. e) Others were merely in need for assistance to gain regional supremacy. E.g the Maasai who were on downward trend as the Nandi were raising. ----- 244 ### f) To some it was a means of showing courtesy visitors assuming that they would leave soon and being ignorant of European intentions. For example, Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda. g) Other African leaders influenced some communities. For example, Chief Khama influenced Lewanika of the Lozi to resist. h) Having witnessed the European military might against the resisting neighbours some communities saw it futile to resist stronger force **The Lozi Collaboration** **Factors, which influenced Lewanika of the Lozi to collaborate with the British ** a) Lewanika was encouraged to collaborate with the British by King Khama of Botswana who had already benefited from British protection against the Dutch in South Africa. b) The European missionaries who had visited him earlier influenced Lewanika. For example, Franois Coillard who convinced Lewanika to ally with the British to gain western education. c) Lewanika needed support against Portuguese and Germans who were approaching his territory. d) Lewanika wanted the British to protect his kingdom from attacks by other African communities such as the Ndebele and Shona-protection against African enemies. e) Lewanika also wanted the British to protect him against internal enemies e.g. in 1884, Lewanika faced an internal rebellion-to safeguard his position. f) Lewanika desired western education especially for his sons and civilization in his country. g) Desire for promotion of trade between Britain and his people. He was keen on acquiring European goods such as firearms for territorial defence. h) He was fearful and considered it futile to resist a strong military force like Britain. **How Lewanika collaborated with the British. ** Signing of treaties e.g. he first signed a treaty with Harry Ware in 1889 before signing the Lochner Treaty of 1890 and the Corydon Treaty of 1898. These treaties put Bulozi under British protectorate.Lewanika became friendly to British agents like Frank Lochner and the missionary, Franois Coillard, whom he allowed to establish a permanent mission station within his territory. He sent his sons to the Coillard mission school as a show of acceptance of westernization. **Lochner Treaty of 1890. ** It was British missionary Francois Coillard who negotiated for the meeting between Frank Lochner, acting on behalf of Rhodes, and Lewanika in 1890. The treaty put Lewanikas Kingdom under the protection of the British South African Company. **Terms of the treaty. ** a) Lewanika gave the BSA Company mining rights in Bulozi except in certain farming and iron mining areas. b) The company promised to protect the kingdom from outside attacks. ----- 245 ### c) The British company promised to pay the king 2000 sterling pounds a year and 4% royalties of all minerals mined in the area. d) A promise was made to develop trade, build schools and develop telegraphy in the kingdom. e) Lewanika would still be a king but just a constitutional monarch, not an absolute ruler as before. f) That a British resident would be posted in Lealui, the capital of the Kingdom, to monitor company activities and advise Lewanika on foreign affairs. The treaty consequently implied that Lewanika had given up his kingdom to the British company.In 1897, Robert T. Coryndon a former police officer was sent as a British resident in Bulozi. Upon his arrival, he made arrangements for the signing of the Lawley treaty of 1898 which further reduced the size of the area governed by Lewanika. In October 1900, he signed another treaty, the Coryndon Treaty with Lewanika. The Coryndon Treaty (1900) ***It had the following terms; *** a) The British government would be responsible for administration of Bulozi. The company administrator would answer to the High Commissioner at the cape. b) The company would appoint officials and pay for the administration of the area. c) The company would provide schools, industries, postal services, transport and telegraphic facilities. d) Lewanika would receive only 850 sterling pounds a year as his stipend. e) The company was allowed to acquire land on the Batoka plateau. f) The company maintained its rights to prospect for mineral in Bulozi. g) Lewanika was to stop slavery and witchcraft in his area. h) Lewanika was made paramount chief of Barotse. His powers were reduced more when more white settlers arrived in 1905 ready to participate in government. NB; the Coryndon treaty made Lewanika a mere employee of the company, receiving only a stipend. He lost control of the former vassal states that no longer would pay tribute to him since they were now under the British.In the final run, Lewanika lost his independence just like any other collaborator or resistor. **Results of Lewanika collaboration** a) Schools and health centres were put up in his kingdom. b) He got British protection from Ndebele attacks. c) It marked the beginning of the erosion of the independence and traditional authority of his empire. Lewanika lost his authority as the administration was taken over by the British South Africa Company d) The British recognized Lewanika as a paramount chief of Barotse and gave him necessary protection. e) Lewanika received payment of 2000 yearly f) The British South Africa Company took over the control of the minerals ----- 246 ### g) The Lozi land was alienated and given to British settlers h) The Lozi were later forced to pay taxes in order to maintain the administration. i) The Lozi were forced to work as labourers on settlers farms j) The Lozi were employed in the civil service k) The British South Africa Company developed infrastructure in Barotseland l) The British used Barotseland as a base to conquer the neighbouring communities. **The Buganda collaboration. ** By the mid 19 [th] century, Buganda had become the most powerful state in the interior of East Africa. However despite this might, the Kabakas (Mutesa I and Mwanga) chose the path of collaboration instead of resisting the European intrusion. **Why kabaka Mutesa I (1856-1884) collaborated with the Europeans. ** a) His kingdom was under threat form Khedive Ishmael of Egypt. He therefore wanted British assistance against the Egyptian threat. b) There was threat from his traditional enemy, Omukama Kabalega of Bunyoro Kingdom. c) Mutesa wanted to establish a centralized religious authority over Buganda to counter there power wielded by the traditional priest of the Lubaale Cult and the Muslim power and influence. d) He wanted modernization and to gain Prestige from association with the Europeans. For example, western education, medicine and other material benefits. e) He had the desire to trade with Europeans to get their goods especially firearms. **Kabaka Mwanga (1884-1898) ** Mwangas main problem when he took over power was religious indecision which eventually generated political instability. In January 1885, he executed three C.M.S converts. In October 1885, he had Bishop Hannington killed. In May 1886, 30 young converts were burnt to death at Namugongo for refusing to denounce their Christian faith. In 1888, under the urge of the traditionalists, he unsuccessfully attempted to expel all foreigners whom he blamed for causing chaos in his kingdom. He instead was disposed by a combined force of Muslims, Catholics and Protestants and replaced by his brother Kiwewa, sharing authority with foreigners.In 1890, Mwanga recaptured the throne assisted by the Christians and Kabalega of Bunyoro kingdom. He signed a protectorate treaty with Carl peters for the Germans and rejected a treaty offer by Fredrick Jackson of IBEACO. IN 1891, Mwanga signed a treaty of collaboration with Fredrick Lugard, the First British administrator sent to Uganda. This was after the Heligoland Treaty of 1890 had put Uganda a British sphere of influence. **Why Mwanga collaborated** a) He wanted to acquire protection from internal and external enemies e.g religious groups and Banyoro. b) He wanted to secure his position and safeguard the Baganda from interference. ----- 247 ### c) He wanted the British to help him Gain regional supremacy over the surrounding kingdoms of Bunyoro, Ankole and Toro.However, throughout all the religious conflicts that continued in Uganda between the Protestants and the Catholics, Kabaka Mwanga always supported the Catholics to the Chagrin of the British administrators. He was disposed by Lugard in 1894 after the capture of his palace at Mengo.Under Kabaka Mwanga II, Buganda became a protectorate in 1894. This did not last and the Kabaka declared war on Britain in on July 6, 1897. He was defeated at the battle of Buddu on July 20 of the same year. He fled to German East Africa where he was arrested and interned at Bukoba. The Kabaka later escaped and led a rebel army to retake the kingdom before being defeated once again in 1898 and being exiled to the Seychelles.While in exile, Mwanga II was received into the Anglican Church, was baptized with the name of Danieri (Daniel). He spent the rest of his life in exile. He died in 1903, aged 35 years. In 1910 his remains were repatriated and buried at Kasubi.The war against Kabaka Mwanga II had been expensive, and the new commissioner of Uganda in 1900, Sir Harry H. Johnston, had orders to establish an efficient administration and to levy taxes as quickly as possible. This he did through the Buganda Agreement of 1900 **The Buganda agreement** The Buganda agreement was signed in 1900 between Sir Harry Johnstone, British Official, and Apollo Kagwa, representing the Baganda **Reasons for signing of the Buganda agreement** a) The treaty was to define the position of Buganda in the country. b) To introduce law and order in the country. c) To reduce the cost of British administration since Buganda was to meet the cost of administration. d) To define the relationship between Buganda and the British government. **Terms of the Buganda agreement ** a) The Buganda laws were to remain in effect as much as they did not interfere with protectorate laws that were to be applicable to Buganda Kingdom as well. Bugandakingdom was to be ruled by the Kabaka with the assistance of Katikiro. The Lukiko was to be the legitimate body making laws of Buganda and it was to compose 89 members. b) Buganda people were to pay poll and hut tax. However, No tax was to be levied on Buganda unless approved by the Lukiko (parliament). Revenue from Buganda was to be merged with all the revenue from other provinces. c) The kabaka, ministers and Chiefs to be paid since they were now employees of the British government. d) Buganda boundaries were defined to include parts of Bunyoro (the ten sazas she had acquired from Bunyoro). The kingdom was therefore expanded to twenty counties. To ease administration, each county was placed under a Saza Chief. ----- 248 ### e) Land tenure system was changed to include land on freehold basis (Mailo land) and crown land. The crown land was for protectorate government while the Mailo land was particularly for the kabaka, his ministers and his chiefs. f) Though Buganda became a province within the protectorate, Ganda system of government was recognized and modified. It was to have three ministers (katikiro, treasurer and chief justice.). The Lukiko had fixed number- 20-saza chiefs, 60 notables and 6 Kabakasappointees. **Results of the Buganda agreement. ** a) British overlord ship was confirmed over Buganda. b) Buganda was reduced to a status of a mere province. c) The position of the king was reduced he lost his power to give or withhold land as well as the power to appoint or transfer chiefs. d) The 1900 Agreement led to the birth of early nationalistic movements. For example, the Bataka Opposition Movement in the 1920s by the landless class people rising up against the land-owning group. e) Modern economy and western education were introduced with Buganda taking the lead. f) Buganda formed the basis for the British administration as baganda were appointed as British administrators. g) It strengthened the special position of Buganda in relation to other communities in Uganda. h) Sazas were increased from 10 to 20 and saza chiefs got land and right to impose land rent. i) It led expansion of Christianity and decline of Islamic influence. j) Bunyoro kingdom became aggrieved as results of loss of part their territory that was transferred to Buganda by the British. This caused friction later. **Results of African collaboration** a) Just like resistors, the collaborating communities also lost their independence and were eventually colonized. Bulozi and Buganda finally became British Protectorates. b) The collaborating community leaders gained some recognition, though with reduced powers. Lewanika foe example became the paramount Chief of Barotseland while Kabaka gained the title, His Highness. c) The collaborators were able to secure some amount of protection from their traditional enemies. The Lozi were protected from the Ndebele while the Baganda were protected from the Banyoro. d) The collaborators were used by the Europeans to exert their authority over other African societies. The baganda on their part were used to administer Busoga. e) The collaborating Africans gained from missionary work. Lewanikas sons for example gained western education. Hospitals and schools were also built in the kingdoms. ----- 249 ### f) There was increased trade between the collaborating communities and the Europeans. The communities gained European goods such as glassware, clothes, guns and ammunition. g) The collaborators just like resistors were later subjected to economic exploitation such as land alienation, mining, taxation and forced labour. **ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN KENYA ** **CAUSES OF THE SCRAMBLE FOR EAST AFRICA ** **Factors that contributed to the scramble and partition of East Africa ** 1. The rise of Nationalism in Europe. The Unification of Germany, after the Franco- Prussian war (1870-71) upset the balance of power in Europe and there was need to rebalance out through acquisition of colonies in Africa including east Africa. The Germans also felt that the only way their nation could gain recognition among other European powers was through securing colonial possession. ***2. Strategic location of East Africa in relation to Egypt. Europeans were concerned*** with the source of the river Nile in East Africa and control of the Suez Canal. Therefore, the ownership of East Africa was crucial to the Egyptian affairs. East Africa, had, from the days of the Portuguese conquest in the 15 [th] century, proved to be a strategic location for fresh supplies. That is why the Germans and the British competed for possessions in the region. ***3. The need to speed up economic development of the European countries. The*** industrializednations were rushing for colonies to tap raw materials to keep their factories running. There was also a popular believe that East Africa contained pockets of precious metals awaiting exploitation. They were also driven by the search for market for European produced goods. The Europeans were also looking for places to invest their capital. 4. The rise of Public opinion in Europe. There was growth of public support towards the acquisition of colonies. E.g., the Daily Press in London spoke well about acquiring colonies. ***5. Social factors. *** ~ East Africa was to be occupied as a means of stamping out slave trade and replacing it with legitimate trade. ~ The Europeans were keen on spreading their culture to east Africa. ~ They wanted to protect their missionaries who were already operating in east Africa **The process of Partition** The Berlin conference failed to fully resolve the rivalry between the Germans and the British in East Africa. The activities of Karl Peters and Harry Johnstone for the Germans and the British respectively in the Mount Kilimanjaro region depicted intense rivalry which almost led to war.The two signed treaties with local chiefs as a way of legalizing their arbitrary declaration of their spheres of influence. Karl peters even declared german protectorate over Ungulu, Uzigua, Usagara and Ukami.These activities together with ----- 250 ### those of Sir William Mackinnon of the Imperial British East Africa Company became the immediate cause of the partition of east Africa.The partition of East Africa was sealed through the following two treaties. **The Anglo-German Agreement of 1886** The agreement facilitated peaceful settlement of the german and British claims on east Africa as follows; a) The Sultan was given the 16 KM (10mile) coastal strip from Vanga to Lamu. He also acquired islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, mafia, Lamu, pate and Towns like Lamu, Kisimayu, Mogadishu, Merca, and Brava. b) Germany acquired the coastline of Witu the region between river Umba in the North and river Ruvuma in the south. c) The British got the territory north of river Umba up to river Juba in the north. However, the treaty failed to determine the western boundary, thus leaving Uganda up for grab to any power that got there first. Uganda therefore became a theatre of intense rivalry between Karl Peters who even secured a treaty with Kabaka Mwanga in 1890 and Fredrick Lugard who tried in vain to sign a treaty with Kabaka Mwanga. This tension is what led to the Heligoland Treaty of 1890. **Terms of the Heligoland Treaty of 1890** a) Germany officially recognized Uganda as a British sphere of influence/protectorate. b) Germany abandoned her claim over the territory of Witu for British in exchange for Heligoland island in the North sea c) Germany accepted British protectorate over Zanzibar and Pemba. d) Germany acquired a strip of land on Lake Tanganyika from Britain and the Coastal region of Tanganyika from the Sultan of Zanzibar. e) The Sultan of Zanzibar retained a 16km (10 miles) Coastal strip. This treaty thus ended the scramble for and partition of East Africa. **BRITISH OCCUPATION OF KENYA ** **Methods used by the British to occupy Kenya. ** a) Signing of treaties. The following treaties were signed either by the British or on behalf of the British to facilitate their occupation of Kenya; ~ A treaty by Sir William Mackinnon and the Sultan of Zanzibar Barghash in 1887 which effectively put Zanzibar under the British for 50 years. ~ The Maasai Agreements of 1904 and 1911 between Oloibon Lenana and the British ~ The Anglo-Germany Treaties of 1886 and 1890. b) Collaboration. The British collaborated with communities like the Wanga and Maasai who were later used as bases to extend British Authority over other areas. c) Establishing operational bases. The British built Forts like Fort Smith (Kabete) and Fort Hall (Muranga) to enhance their political control. d) Use of company Rule. In the initial stages, due to the fear of the enormous costs of effective occupation and administration, the British mandated the IBEA. Company to ----- 251 ### administer the Kenyan protectorate.The Imperial British East Africa Company of Sir William Mackinnon was given the royal charter in 1888 and thus had the following new powers; a) Levying and collecting taxes and institute custom duties in the area. b) Establishing political authority and Maintain of law and order in the British East Africa. c) Promoting legitimate trade and Eradicate slave trade d) Developing and civilizing the indigenous peoples with the assistance of the imperial consul based in Zanzibar. **Achievements of the IBEAC. ** a) The company succeeded in quelling local aggression in the British spheres of influence from communities such as the Nandi, Maasai and Akamba. b) The company established a series of Forts at Kibwezi, Machakos, Smith and Dagoretti, which laid the basis for colonial administration in Kenya. c) The company improved transport and communication in the protectorate by pioneering road construction in Kenya. For example the Sclaters Road between Kibwezi and Busia in 1894 which assisted in transportation of railway building materials. d) The company succeeded in eradicating slavery to some extend and securing freedom for many slaves. e) The company also developed a rubber industry along the coast and the interior. **Reasons why Britain used the IBEA Company to administer her possession ** a) Absence of a clear policy on the administration of colonial possessions. This gave room to the use of the company to administer the colony. b) The company could provide cheap administrative capital that Britain had failed to raise for colonial governance. The colonies were not yet economically viable c) There was a problem of inadequate personnel to be used in the administration of the colonies. d) I.B.E.A.Cos long experience in the region. The company had invested heavily in east Africa, hence making its participation in the administration of the colony inevitable. **Why company rule had failed by 1895. ** a) The region lacked strategic natural resources for export thus making the IBEACO, a trading company, to operate at a loss and narrow its revenue base. Minerals like Gold, copper and Diamond were not existent. b) The company lacked sufficient capital to carry out the day- to- day administrative operations. The company had spent the little funds available in the construction of fortified trading stations, with little reward. c) Transportation of goods in the region proved expensive and slow as the region did not have any navigable rivers ----- 252 ### d) The company faced the problem of poor coordination of its activities caused by lack of proper channels of communication between the head office in Europe and the offices in the colony. e) Some of the company officials were corrupt and therefore misappropriated funds. f) The company faced numerous resistances especially in the Nandi country thus disrupting their operation. At one time, Fort Smith was set on fire by African resisters. g) Some of the company officials lacked experience in administrative matters since most of them came merely as traders. h) The company officials also were affected by the harsh tropical climate and diseases like malaria and sleeping sickness that killed many. The company thus surrendered the Charter in 1895 to the British government for a compensation of 250,000 dollars **Factors facilitated the establishment of the British control over Kenya during the ** **19th century? ** a) The Christian missionary factor. They created an atmosphere of friendship with Africans, which was important for colonization. They also occasionally called home for protection against hostile communities. b) Presence of trading company (IBEACO. The companies through their agents signed treaties with African rulers and among themselves as a means of initiating effective occupation of Kenya. c) Superior military power/good army. The European armies were more efficient than he African ones. This was witnessed in the ability to quell the numerous wars of resistance like the Nandi resistance. d) Disunity among African communities. By the time the British came to East Africa, the Wanga were up against the neighboring communities in western Kenya, the Nandi and the Maasaiwere at war and the Mijikenda against the coastal Arabs over land. This was of advantage to the British. e) Signing of treaties. There was Collaboration of some communities with the British. The Maasai signed the Maasai Agreement of 1900. The Wanga also signed various treaties with the British. f) The British policy of indirect rule was readily acceptable, thus reducing the chances of resistance. g) Financial support from the home government. **KENYA PEOPLES RESPONSES BRITISH INVASION OF KENYA ** Africans in Kenya offered varied responses to the British intrusion into their country. Some resisted while other collaborated.The communities that resisted actively included the Nandi, Agiryama, Bukusu, Somali and sections of the Agikuyu ----- 253 ### **The Nandi Resistance (1895-1906) ** **Reasons why the Nandi resisted British occupation of their land** a) The Nandi had gained a lot of pride, having subdued their neighbours E.g the Luo, Maasai, Abagusii and Abaluhyia. At that time, they were enjoying a sense of superiority that gave them confidence to take the British Intruders head-on. b) The Nandi military superiority made them feel equal if not superior to the whites. Their warriors were well- trained and equipped and had gained a lot of experience through the numerous cattle raids the conducted against their neighbours. c) The Nandi detested the physical appearance of the white people which they considered as evil and must be expelled from their community. d) The Nandi were opposed to Land alienation by the British. They disliked the grabbing of their land for railway construction/white settlement. e) Kimnyoles prophecy that foreigners would dominate the Nandi motivated them to fight against the Europeans. f) The Nandi had a long history of resisting and fighting intruders. They had successfully warded off the Arab and Swahili traders in the 1850s. g) The Nandi resisted as a means of safeguarding their independence which they had enjoyed for a long time. h) The Nandi also enjoyed unity under the leadership of Koitalel Arap Samoei between 1895 and 1905. This had helped them to register numerous victories against neighbouring communities. They therefore felt strong enough to resist the British. **Course of the Nandi rebellion** The Nandi wars of resistance began in 1895. The Nandi mainly employed guerilla warfare ambushing the caravan traders and mail carriers who passed in their territory. When two Nandi warriors strayed into the Guasa Mesa administrative camp headed by Andrew Dick in 1895, he murdered them as a response to the attacks by the Nandi on foreigners passing in their territory.The Nandi retaliated through the murder of a British trader, Peter West and thirty of his workers. This sparked off British punitive expeditions against the Nandi with the first in 1897 which however failed to stop the Nandi raids. When the railway reached the Nandi territory, they refused to cooperate with the railway builders and even kept stealing building materials to make weapons and ornaments. They even ambushed and murdered railway builders.In 1900, the British sent three punitive expeditions under Colonel Evatt, the commander of the Uganda Rifles reinforced by the Maasai, Baganda, Swahili and Indian mercenaries.The Nandi were supported by the Kipsigis enabling them to resist for so long causing high death toll on the British and the Nandi as well.The year 1901 witnessed a temporary truce worked out by the British administrator, Walter Mayes (1901-1905), after realizing the heavy causalities both sides were experiencing. ----- 254 ### The war was re-ignited when the Nandi realized that the British had started settling and farming on their land. They destroyed the railway in protest. The British reacted by destroying crops and villages and stealing cattle for the next three years. The Nandi war of resistance only ended when the British officer in Nandi, Captain Meinertzhagen, hatched a plan to have Koitalel, the chief coordinator of the rsistance, killed. He and his advisers were killed in October 1905, during a peace meeting convened by Meinertzhagen. The Nandi finally sought for peace in December 1905 ending the ten year long resistance. **Why the Nandi offered the longest and strongest ever resistance to the British ** **intrusion in Kenya. ** a) The British intrusion into their territory happened when the Nandi were at the best of their power and superiority. b) Existence of a superior military organization based on the age set system. The Nandi army was strong and could match any foreign force. The regimental age-set system supplied the Nandi with young men who were experienced in battle, disciplined, organized and were effective. c) The Nandi also possessed knowledge of weapon manufacture and repair through their local ironsmiths and using stolen railway material. d) The Nandi enjoyed regular supply of food and war equipment which sustained the fighters for a long period. This was mainly aided by the Nandi mixed economy enabling them to turn livestock for food when the British destroyed crops. e) The Nandi had good knowledge of the terrain in which they were fighting the intruders thus having an advantage over the British who were not familiar with the terrain. The difficulties faced by the British as posed by the terrain disadvantaged them durin g the resistance f) The Nandi knowledge of Guerilla tactics. This enabled them to organize many surprise attacks while vandalizing key British installations like the telegraph lines. g) The existence of strong leadership. The Nandi leadership was religiously inspired and therefore very strong. The Orkoiyot was their symbol of unity and strength and was believed to possess some supernatural powers that gave courage to the fighters. h) Their enemies, the British troops, were slowed down in their advance by problems like respiratory disease due to the wet and cold climate. The Nandi were accustomed to these conditions i) The Nandi received assistance from the Kipsigis fighters the Elgeyo, Lembus and Nyangori which enabled them to hold off the British for Six weeks in 1900. **Why the Nandi were defeated in the hands of the British** a) The British obtained support, against the Nandi, from the collaborating communities like the Somali and the Maasai. b) The British military strength remained superior to that of the Nandi especially in terms of the weapons. Their guns were superior to the Nandi spears. ----- 255 ### c) There was an outbreak of smallpox in the Nandi country 1890. This weakened them by killing many and rendering others unable to fight on. d) They Nandi failed to get support from the neighboring Kenyan communities like the Luo and the Abaluhyia who were not friendly to them. e) The treachery employed by Captain Meinertzhagen, the British commander who lured Nandi Orkoiyot Koitalel Arap Samoei to a meeting where he was killed. f) The death of Koitalel Arap Samoei demoralized the Nandi into even signing for peace. g) The British used Scorched Earth Policy, which seemed more punitive to the Nandi since their houses were burnt and livestock confiscated. **Results of the Nandi resistance. ** a) The Nandi country was colonized by the British after 1906. The Nandi lost their independence. b) There was massive loss of life. Koitalel Arap Samoei, his entire council of elders and over 1000 warriors were killed. The British also experienced casualties on the part of their forces. c) There was destruction of property through burning and looting. E.g the British confiscated at least 5000 herds of cattle and burnt more than 5000 huts and grain stores. d) There was massive land alienation. The Nandi were pushed into reserves where they experienced impoverishment due to drought and cattle diseases. The Nandi lot their territory and traditional salt licks at Kapchekendi and Kamelilo that were now inhabited by the whites. e) The Nandi military organization disintegrated thus making them lose their dignity and authority in the region. f) The Nandi were separated from their close cousins and allies the Kipsigis through the creation of the Nandi Reserves where they were confined. Their economic lifestyle of grazing animals freely was also disrupted. g) Many Nandi warriors were recruited into the colonial police. **Agiriama resistance. ** A Bantu speaking group inhabiting the coastal region, their reaction to the British invasion was motivated by the reaction of the Mazrui Arabs and the Swahili who rose up against the British in 1895.The Agiriama reaction began as an offer of support to the Mazrui Arabs, with whom they had long trading links, during their conflict with the British over succession to the TakaunguSheikhdom. The Agiriama was also hitting back against the Busaidi Arabs who were encroaching on their territory. The British had supported the Al Busaidi collaborators throughout succession conflict.The British reacted by bombarding Rashids Headquarters at Mweli forcing the Agiriama and the Mazrui to resort to guerilla warfare. While the Mazrui Arabs later surrendered, the Agiriama now resorted to full scale rsistance against the British encroachment in 1914. ----- 256 ### **Causes of the Agiriama resistance** a) They did not want to pay taxes, especially hut tax that was hurting to traditionally polygamous group, to the British. The British also were forcing them to pay it in terms of labour instead of allowing them to sell their grains and livestock to pay. b) They had lost their independence/the British replaced the Agiriama traditional rulers with their own appointees c) They were opposed to forced labour on British plantations for little or no pay especially on land that had been snatched from them. d) The British did not respect their culture. The British policemen at Kitengani insulted the Agiriama culture by raping their women. e) The Agiriama were reacting against forced conscription into the Kings African Rifles. They were forced to produce 1000 able-bodied men within a month, join the British army f) They lost their land to the British due to the massive land alienation for settler farming. They were forced to offer paid labour on their own former land to the chagrin of the elders. g) The British, who were seeking to take over the Agiriama role as middlemen, disrupted their trade in ivory and food stuffs h) They disliked the British-appointed headmen whose duties included collection of taxes and recruitment of labour. **Course of the resistance** The Agiriama resistance was inspired by a Giriama prophetess, Mekatilili WA Menza. She was joined by an Elder, Wanje wa Madorika in mobilizing people to a mass resistance against the British rule.The immediate course of their reaction was the forced military recruitment into the KAR. To provoke the British to war, they barred their young men from moving outside their villages to work.Mekatilili and Wanje called on the people to return to their ancestral shrine at Kaya Fungo and offer sacrifices and denounced all appointed puppet rulers in favour of the traditional council of elders. The two administered traditional oaths to unite and inspire the people to war. I.e. the Mukushekushe oath for women and the Fisi oat for men.When a state of emergency was declared by the British over the Agiriama, they resorted to Hitand-run warfare. They attacked the homes of loyalists, Europeans and collaborators forcing the missionaries to seeker refuge at Rabai. The British countered the hit-and-run warfare with burning villages and crops and driving away livestockThe resistance only subsided when Mekatilili and Wanje were arrested and deported to Kisii.The Arabs, under Fadhili bin Omari, mediated between the Agiriama and the British, marking the end of the war under the following terms; a) The Agiriama to offer a specific number of labourers for European settlers and public works. ----- 257 ### b) They would also offer a certain number of able-bodied men to serve in the Kings African Rifles. c) The British would occupy all the land to the north of River Sabaki. Role of Mekatilili in the Agiriama resistance . a) She encouraged the Agiriama to face the British by administering the Mukushekushe and Fisi oaths to unite the people to war. b) She presented the grievances of the Agiriama, some of which the British later addressed. c) She rallied the people together against a common enemy thus laying the basis for nationalistic struggles for independence. **Results of the Agiriama resistance to the British ** a) Many people lost their lives some as fighters while others were caught in the crossfire. b) The Agiriama lost their independence to the British c) There was Rampant destruction of property i.e. food stores at home, food crops in the fields and cattle. Some property was lost through confiscation. d) The communitys economic activities were disrupted, especially the lucrative trade at Takaungu, where they had been acting as middlemen. e) The Agiriama were prohibited from brewing traditional liquor. f) The British withdrew their order demanding Agiriama to move out of their homes. g) For the first time women took up the leadership of the rebellion e.g. Mekatilili **Bukusu resistance** **Reasons why the Bukusu resisted the British rule** a) They wanted to safeguard their independence and culture i.e. circumcision. b) They were being compelled to recognize Nabongo Mumia as the overall leader of Abaluhyia. c) The Bukusu did not like the idea of paying taxes to the British through force. d) They resented the British demand in 1894, that the Bukusu warriors surrender guns they possessed. e) The British invasion had happened when the Bukusu were enjoying immense military power. **Course of the resistance** The Bukusu resistance began with the ambush of a trade caravan heading to Ravine through bukusuland. The Bukusu stole all the rifles. When they were commanded to surrender all the guns in 1894 and declined, the British sent a punitive expedition which however was defeated. The British administrator at Elureko, Charles Hobley sought for reinforcement from Major William Grant of the Ugandan protectorate. In 1895, at the battles of Lumboka and Chetambe, the Bukusu were summarily defeated. **Methods used by the Bukusu to resist the British. ** a) Use of Warfare. They directly fought the British troops led by Major William Grant, at Lumboka and Chetambe hills. ----- 258 ### b) Ambushes. The Bukusu ambushed a caravan of traders, sent by the commanding officer at Kavirondo to the Ravine Station. c) Revolting against rule by Wanga agents. The Bukusu Murdered a Wanga agent, Hamisi, who had been sent, to administer the area. ` **Effects of the Bukusu resistance** a) The Bukusu lost most of their land through massive land alienation b) They lost their independence as bukusuland was declared part of the British East Africa **Protectorate** c) There was massive loss of life within the Bukusu and the British forces. d) There was loss f property and disruption of Bukusu economy. The Bukusu lost their cattle and sheep. e) Bukusu women and children were taken prisoners by the British. **The Somali resistance. ** The Somali resistance was a reaction to the British declaration that Jubaland was a British protectorate. They were led by their leader Ahmad bin Murgan. **causes of Somali resistance. ** a) The Somali were opposed to the division of Somaliland into the British and Italian spheres of influence, which separated the clans. b) They were opposed to punitive expedition sent against them by the British. c) The Somali people being Muslims were opposed to being controlled by the British who were Christians. d) The British attempted to stop the Somali raiding activities against their neighbors. e) The Somali were against British control of their pastureland and watering points. f) The British wanted the Somali to drop their nomadic way of life. **Course of the resistance. ** The British initially reacted minimally to the Somali aggression on their Kisimayu neighbourhood in 1898 due to the following reasons; a) They viewed such an undertaking as to expensive in terms of the arms and military personnel that would have been involved. b) The Somali were a nomadic group therefore it was very hard and time consuming to suppress them. c) There was no economic justification for waging such a war on a highly unproductive territory. However, when the Somali murdered the British sub-commissioner for Jubaland, Mr Jenner, in 1900, the British dispatched a punitive expedition of Indian regiments against them.The Somali rose up again in 1905 against the British after they had procured Firearms. The Somali skirmishes continued into 1914 with the change of boundaries and finally ended in 1925 when Jubaland was put under the Italian Somaliland. ----- 259 ### **Results of the Somali resistance** a) There was massive loss of life, as many Somalis were killed. Sub-commissioner Jenner was also killed. b) The British divide the Darod and Hawiye clans through the boundary changes of c) The Somali cattle were confiscated. d) Somali lost their independence through the declaration of the protectorate status. e) The process of colonization by Europeans was delayed considerably. f) There was favorable boundary change that saw Ogaden being placed under Italian Somaliland. **Collaboration ** In Kenya, the Maasai, Wanga and a section of the Agikuyu, Akamba, and Luo collabo rated. **The Maasai collaboration** In the 19 [th] century, the Maasai community changed from a once feared community to one marred by succession disputes and natural calamities. The Disputes between Lenana and Sendeyo over succession of Mbatian after he died weakened the Maasai community to the level of merely collaborating with the British intruders. Sendeyo moved with his followers to northern Tanzania leaving behind Lenanas group who chose the path of collaboration. **Reasons for the Maasai collaboration with the British** a) Losses of the Maasai military supremacy. At the time the British came to Kenya, the Nandi had overtaken the Maasai in terms of military superiority. They therefore sought for foreignsupport against their aggressors. b) Internal feuds. There were a series of succession disputes in the period between 1850 and 1890 caused by differences in economic activities. In one of the disputes, when Lenana seemed to be losing to Sendeyo, he appealed to the British for support. c) Natural calamities/disasters. The Maasai country witnessed severe hunger, livestock and human diseases in the 1850s. These weakened them more making them unable to resist. d) Threat and wars from the Agikuyu. When the Maasai went to reclaim their women and children at the end of the hunger period, they were met with outright threat of attacks from the Agikuyu. They therefore sought British support. e) Prophecy of Mbatian. He prophesized the coming of a white man who was more powerful and that the Maasai should not bother to resist him. f) Lenana personally chose the path of collaboration because he wanted to consolidate his position and that of his kingdom. He was looking for the much needed military support to overcome his sibling, Sendeyo of the Loita Maasai. ----- 260 ### **The process of Maasai collaboration. ** The attempt by Lenana to secure assistance against Sendeyo was the beginning of his collaboration with the British.The Kedong massacre incident (Maasai warriors attacked a caravan of Swahili and Agikuyu traders travelling from Ravine) and the resultant death of 100 Maasai at the hands of three white men (Andrew Dick and two French companions) made the Maasai the immediately seek for collaboration with the British.They cooperated with the British in establishment of colonial administration. The provided mercenaries in the British punitive expedition against the Nandi, Kipsigis and Kikuyu. Maasai were rewarded with cattle acquired from uncooperative peoples e.g. The Nandi and Agikuyu They exchanged gifts and used British manufactured goods. Lenana was made a paramount chief. Between 1904 and 1923, a fair proportion of the Maasai agreed to be moved from one grazing land to another to pave way for British settlement.They signed the first Maasai agreement in 1904 by which they moved into two reserves, one to the south of Ngong and the railway and the other up on the Laikipia plateau. A corridor of five kilometres was set aside in Kinangop for the Eunoto ceremony that accompanied circumcision. The second Maasai agreement of 1911 implied the Maasai abandon the Laikipia plateau to rejoin others in the enlarged southern reserve. **Results of the Maasai collaboration** a) Lenana was made a paramount chief of the Maasai in 1901. b) The collaboration led to the separation of the Maasai related clans. The Purko Maasai were divided into the Loita and Ngong Maasai. c) There was massive land alienation with the Maasai being moved to the Ngong and Laikipia reserves and later the southern reserve. d) Maasai freedom in conducting rituals was curtailed with their confinement to a five square-mile reserve for initiation rites. e) The Maasai lost their independence. Just like any other part of kenya, Maasailand became part of the British protectorate. f) There was total disruption of their territorial integrity. Even their cattle economy was disrupted as the number of livestock was reduced. There was an attempt to cause them to abandon their nomadic habit. g) The Maasai gained material reward in form of cattle and grains looted from resisting communities like the Nandi and Luo of Ugenya. h) Their age old custom of livestock cross- breeding with their Samburu neighbours was disrupted with the curtailing of their migratory behaviour. Their stock was therefore weakened. i) Some Maasai were hired as mercenaries against the resisting communities such as the Nandi and Agikuyu. ----- 261 ### **Wanga Collaboration** Nabongo Mumia, the Wanga leader from 1880, was an ambitious and shrewd leader who had the desire to expand his Kingdom through collaboration with British intruders and soliciting their military assistance. **Reasons for Wanga Collaboration** a) Nabongo Mumia hoped that by collaborating, he would be made a paramount Chief of the entire western region. b) There was family rivalry over leadership. This compelled Mumia to seek help against his brother Sakwa. He wanted to safeguard his position at home. Key notes for the teacher and students- @Cheloti 2013 c) He wanted British protection against the Nandi, who were by then enjoying military superiority, the Bukusu and the Luo of Ugenya d) He wanted to revive a disintegrating kingdom. e) He wanted to take advantage of the British western civilization particularly education and religion. He also wanted material gains from the British. f) He aimed at achieving territorial expansion. Mumia aimed at ruling up to Kabras, Kimilili, Marama, Butsotso, Ugenya and Samia. g) He realized that his community was very small and it was futile to resist the militarily superior Europeans. h) Having realized that the British declaration of western Kenya as their sphere of influence was inevitable, he chose to become their ally at the earliest opportunity ever. **Process of Wanga Collaboration. ** Mumias contact with the outside world began when he befriended the Swahili and Arabcaravan traders and later the IBEA Company merchants when they visited wangaland.They built a fort and a trading station at Elureko, his capital, which was to remain the headquarters of the British administration in western Kenya until 1920. **Ways in which Nabongo of Wanga collaborate with the British. ** a) He offered his seat-elureko to become an operational base of the British expeditions. b) He offered his men to fight alongside the British in their expeditions against other communities. c) He provided Wanga agents to aid the British in administering the conquered areas. d) The Wanga provided food, water and shelter to the British invading forces. e) They gave the British free passage through their territory and offered them hiding places during the battles. f) Mumia signed treaties of friendship with the British. **Results of the Wanga collaboration with the British. ** a) Wanga kingdom was strengthened using military support from the British. Wanga kingdom was expanded. Nabongo gained more territories e.g. Samia, Bunyala and Busoko ----- 262 ### b) Their king Mumia was declared a paramount Chief thus raising his prestige. He ruled as a British paramount chief ruling as far as Bunyala, Gem, Ugenya and Alego, upto 1926, when he officially retired c) Mumia warriors became agents of the British colonialism. The warriors were used to subdue the Luo, Bukusu and Nandi. d) The Wanga Princes became agents of British rule over western Kenya. For example, Mumias half-brother Murunga was appointed chief of the Isukha and Idakho. e) Mumias headquarters at Elureko became the seat of British administration in western Kenya upto 1920 when it was moved to Kakamega. f) Mumia and his people gained material benefits from the British through trade, western education and religion. g) Nabongo Mumia became an important ally of the British administration in western ken\ya, providing them with vital information over the appointment of chiefs and Headmen in western Kenya. h) Due to the Wanga Collaboration, there was intensified enmity and hostility between the Wanga people and other Abaluhyia subsections who viewed the Wanga as traitors. i) However, The Wanga, just like any other collaborator or resister lost their independence when Kenya was declared a British Colony in 1920. **Mixed reactions ** The communities that exhibited mixed reaction were the Akamba, Agikuyu and Luo. **The Akamba Reaction** The arrival of the British traders threatened to destabilize the prominence enjoyed by the Akamba as middlemen during the long distance trade. The British even tried to stop the Akamba from organizing raids on their Oromo, Agikuyu and Maasai neighbours. Why did the Akamba decide to resist British administration ? a) The British failed to respect Akamba traditions and customs. For example, the cutting down of the ithembo (shrine) tree for a flag post at Mutituni in 1891. b) When the Akamba attacked the Agikuyu, The British intervened against them. This was not taken kindly. c) The Akamba were protesting the misconduct of Company officials based at Machakos who stole from the local people and raped Akamba women. d) The establishment of colonial administration disrupted the long distance trade, which was the Akamba lifeline. e) The establishment of British rule meant loss of independence for the Akamba. f) The establishment of military posts in Ukambani without their consent. The British built a fort at Masaku in 1890. g) The British kept on disrupting their peace by sending military expeditions that resulted in death and massive destruction of property. h) The Akamba were also resisting forced labour. ----- 263 ### **Course of the Akamba resistance. ** In 1890, Nzibu Mweu led he Akamba in boycotting to sell goods to the company agents. Prophetess Syonguu also ordered the Iveti Warriors to attack the Masaku fort in the same year as a reaction to the cutting down of the ithembo tree for a flagpole.The British agents were defeated during this surprise attack.When the British tried to stop the Akamba raids on their neighbours in 1894, a Warrior, Mwatu wa Ngoma ordered the Akamba warriors, who had been inspired by medicinemen, to attack the British. The British responded with devastating consequences on the side of the Akamba forcing them into collaboration with the British District Commissioner, John Ainsworth. Mwatu wa Ngoma became a collaborator.Later, another gallant fighter, Mwanamuka, led the Kangundo people to attack the colonial police at Mukuyuni and Mwala, killing six. With the assistance of Maasai mercenaries, the British sent a punitive expedition against the Akamba and even confiscated their livestock.When Mwanamuka tried to blockade the Lukenya area to cut off communication between Fort Smith and Masaku, he was met with devastating consequences that forced him to also petition for peace. Why a section of the Akamba collaborated with the British . a) They had lost heavily during the Akamba-British war of 1894 causing them to fear the British. b) The ruthlessness with which the British attacked the Akamba scared many warriors into collaborating. For example, the Machakos station superintendent, Leith dispatched troops to deal with Syonguus forces in 1891, causing merciless killings and looting of property. c) Some especially the trades collaborated expecting material gains. d) Collaborators wanted to gain prestige. e) They wanted to get guns to be used in robbing for wealth. f) The Akamba had been weakened by the 1899 famine and were therefore unable to effectively tackle the British. **Reasons for the Akamba defeat** a) Some of the Akamba were not patriotic to the resistance course. Some self-serving opportunists allied with the colonial agents with the aim of enriching themselves thereby resulting in the Akamba defeat. b) Internally, the Akamba lacked territorial cohesion. It was therefore very difficult to coordinate a strong resistance to British rule among a highly segmented society lacking in a centralized system of government. c) Sections of The Akamba community experienced severe famine in 1899. They were weakened to the level of being unable to stage a gainful resistance to the British. d) The role of missionaries who pacified some sections to the level of collaborating with the intruders. The missionaries actively undermined their religious practices and traditional beliefs. ----- 264 ### e) When the Akamba caravan trade and raiding activities were disrupted, they had lost a significant source of livelihood and thus became weakened more. **Consequences of the Akamba reaction** a) The Akamba lost their independence as their territory was declared a British protectorate. b) There was massive alienation of Kamba land to pave way for white settlement. c) Many people, especially the Akamba warriors lost their lives during the confrontations with the British soldiers. d) The British interfered with the Akamba culture by cutting down the Ithembo tree and raping their women. e) The Akamba were subjected to heavy taxation in order to raise revenue for the colonial administration. f) Many of the Akamba men were forcefully conscripted into the Kings African Rifles to fight in World War I. **The Agikuyu reaction** The Agikuyu was also a highly segmented nature lacking in territorial unity. This explains why they had mixed reaction against the British. Explain the causes of Agikuyu resistance. a) The British failed to respect Agikuyu traditions and customs. The missionaries campaignedagainst female circumcision and Kikuyu forms of worship. b) Misconduct of company officials. They stole from the local people, killing some of them, and raped Agikuyu women. c) The Agikuyu were revolting against the forced supply of grains and water, by their women, to the British soldiers. d) There was massive land alienation, which had left many landless or pushed to unproductive land. e) Harassment of the Agikuyu, by British punitive expeditions. To enforce their policies, the British usually applied excessive force. f) The British had begun meddling in the Agikuyu internal affairs making them suspicious of their intentions. g) Fear of Loss of independence by some leaders like Waiyaki wa Hinga. h) The Agikuyu were reacting against the punishment meted on them by the British for raiding Fort Smith in 1892. Reasons why some Agikuyu collaborated . a) Agikuyu leaders like Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu and Karuri wa Gakure wanted to derive personal wealth and prestige through collaboration. b) Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu and Karuri wa Gakure hoped that by collaborating, they would be made paramount Chiefs among the Agikuyu. c) The collaborators wanted British protection against their enemies amongst the Agikuyu and other neighbouring communities. ----- 265 ### d) They wanted to take advantage of the British western civilization particularly education and religion. e) They also wanted material gains from the British through trading with them. f) The Agikuyu of Nyeri realized that it was futile to resist the militarily superior Europeans.They therefore chose to collaborate. **Organization of the Agikuyu reaction ** When captain Lugard established a fort at Dagoretti in 1890, he began relating with Waiyaki WA Hinga who was in charge of the area. Wayakis people supplied Lugards men with food.However, when Wilson took over from Lugard who had left for Uganda, his soldiers began looting food and livestock from the Agikuyu. The Agikuyu reacted by setting the Dagoretti fort on fire. Waiyaki was arrested by the forces sent by Sub- commissioner Ainsworth, and died enroute to Mombasa. It is alleged that he was buried alive at Kibwezi after provoking his captors.Kinyanjui WA Gathirimu, a collaborator, succeeded Waiyaki at Dagoretti. In 1899, Fort Dagoretti was closed down due to a series of raids. Francis Hall opened another Fort at Muranga (renamed Fort Hall after his death in 1901) after the locals were subdued and forced to accept the British Colonial rule. British trader John Boyes forged an alliance with Karuri WA Gakure, the Agikuyu leader at Fort Hall, which enabled him to subdue the resisting Agikuyu groups. He also made contacts with Wangombe of Gaki (Nyeri) who together with Gakure supplied the British with mercenaries in exchange for confiscated loots from resisting groups.Meinertzhagen, who succeeded Francis Hall in 1902, subdued the Muruku and Tetu section (led by Chief Gakere) of the Agikuyu. Chief Gakere was murdered and his associates deported to the coast after they wiped out the entire Asian caravan on the slopes of the Aberdares.The Agikuyu of Iriani (Nyeri) were defeated in 1904 and their Aembu and Ameru allies sought for peace in 1906, having seen the effects of resisting.By 1910, British rule had been established in the entire Mount Kenya region. With the Agikuyu settling peacefully in the reserves upto 1920s when they began to agitate again. **Results of the Agikuyu mixed reaction. ** a) The reactions fuelled mistrust, hatred and animosity in most of Kikuyuland. Such feelings of mistrust continue among the Agikuyu of Muranga, Kiambu and Nyeri up-to- date. b) There was massive alienation of Agikuyu land by the British with the help of the collaborators like Wangombe WA Ihura and Gathirimu who gave land to the British for construction. c) Some Agikuyu leaders amassed a lot of wealth and rose to prominence. For example, Karuri wa Gakure and Wangombe of Nyeri, d) The collaborators like Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu and his people received western education and were converted to Christianity. e) There was massive loss of lives for the resisters. For example Waiyaki wa Hinga and many Agikuyu fighters were killed. ----- 266 ### f) The Agikuyu, both collaborators and Resisters lost their independence when their territory was declared a British protectorate. g) The Agikuyu wars of resistance forced the British to shift their administrative base from Fort Dagoretti to Fort Hall. h) There was massive destruction of property. The Agikuyu razed down Fort Dagoretti. The Agikuyu villages were burnt by the British. **The Luo reaction. ** The resisters were the Luo of Sakwa, seme, Uyoma, Ugenya and Kisumu. The collaborators were the Luo of Gem and Asembo, led by Chief (Ruoth) Odera Akango. **Reasons for the resistance against the British by the Luo of Ugenya. ** a) To protect their land and national heritage. b) To protect their freedom and independence c) Protect their livestock, grains and fish from being taken by the British soldiers who were undisciplined d) The Luo had become a formidable nation in the area and did not entertain any intruder. e) They were also provoked by the punitive expedition sent against them by Mumia and the British. **Why the Gem and Asembo Luos collaborated. ** a) Their chief, Odera Akango had been influenced by the Wanga Neighbours who had gained materially from their collaboration. b) Odera also needed British assistance to subdue the Luo of Seme, Uyoma, Sakwa and Ugenya, and the Nandi, who were a threat to his people. c) He realized the futility of resisting the British through the experience of his neighbours. **Course of the Luo resistance. ** The Luo of Ugenya set off the resistance by attacking the Wanga in an attempt to expand. They vandalized British key installations like the telegraph wires and administrative stations.In 1896, the British sent an expedition against them and 200 people were killed. When the British attacked the Seme Luo for cattle and Grains, they were provoked into revolting. They attacked the Asembo Luo who had collaborated with the British. The British invaded them in 1898 with devastating effects in terms of property and life loss. The Luo of Kisumu rose up in 1898 attacking a British Canoe party on Winam Gulf for taking their fish without paying. They were however overcome.The Gem and Asembo Luos led by Ruoth Odera Akango supported the British throughout all these confrontations. **Results of the Luo reaction** a) Both collaborators and resisters lost their independence to the British. b) The Luo lost their property through burning and looting. c) There was massive loss of lives, especially among the Ugenya Luo. ----- 267 ### d) It Bred hatred between the collaborators and resisters e) The collaborating communities were able to gain western education and religion as the British established schools and missions in their areas. f) The African leadership was replaced with the British administration, thereby undermining traditional political systems. g) The Luo were alienated from their land to pave way for the British occupation and settlement. **Colonial system of administration in Kenya** In their administration of Kenya, the British employed both central government and local government as the basic administrative framework. **Central Government** The protectorate was divided into provinces headed by Provincial commissioners, who acted as representatives of the Governor. The governor was answerable to the colonial s ecretary in Britain. **Hierarchy of colonial administration in Kenya** 1. Colonial secretary. Based in London, he was the political head of the British colonial administration and overall coordinator of the colonial policies as passed by the British parliament. 2. Governor. Reporting to the colonial secretary, he was the representative of the British government in the Kenyan colony. He headed the executive council which effected colonial policies and programmee he gave assent to laws from the LEGCO before they were implemented. 3. Provincial Commissioners. They represented the governor at provincial level and implemented the policies and laws that were enacted by the legislative council that was established in 1907. They supervised the work of DCs, Dos and the entire provincial administration on behalf of the governor. 4. District commissioners. They implemented policies and maintained law and order and security in their districts. They headed the District Advisory Committees. They coordinated the work of Dos and Chiefs. 5. District Officers. They implemented orders from the DCs and coordinated the work of the chiefs. They maintained law and order in their divisions. 6. Chiefs. They acted as a link between the people and the Governor at local levels. They maintained law and order at the locations and coordinated the work of headmen. 7. Headmen. They were a link between the government and the people at the grassroots level. They mobilized people for development within their villages. *NB. The principal function of Chiefs and Headmen under the Headmans Ordinance and * *Chiefs Authority Act was tax Collection and labour recruitment for public works and * *European settlers. Their duties were confined in the African reserves. * The advisory and Executive Councils guide the governor and effected the colonial policies. ----- 268 ### Local Government . The British introduced the Local Government in colonial Kenya because; a) They wanted to involve the local communities in administration of the region. This would reduce the costs of administration. b) They wanted to mobilize local people in resources exploitation in order to stir up development c) Local Government was a means of providing a legal forum for the local people to make decisions about their day to day affairs d) The Local Government would provide an important link between the Central government and the locals. e) The Local Government would provide a means through which the government would understand Africans better. f) It also originated from the desire by European settlers to safeguard a number of privileges for themselves by getting directly involved in local administrative units **Local Native Councils ** They were established in 1922 after the passing of the Native Authority Ordinance. In 1924, the District Advisory Councils (DACs) were renamed Local Native Councils (LNCs) **Objectives of the LNCs** a) To encourage and develop a sense of responsibility and duty among the Africans. b) To provide a mechanism through which educated Africans could articulate their grievances at District level. c) To ensure proper restriction of the Africans in their reserves. d) To provide a means through which the government would understand the Africans better so that to contain them. **Achievements of the Local Native councils ** a) The councils succeeded in restriction African political Agitations and other activities to their reserves. b) The LNCs provided basic social needs like water, cattle Dips, Public Health, Education and Markets. c) They succeeded in maintaining basic infrastructure in their areas of jurisdiction. d) They succeeded in collecting taxes to finance their operations. NB; in 1948, the LNCs were renamed African Native Councils. Pascal Nabwane became the first African chairmen of the ADCs in 1958. The ADCs operated as local authorities for Africans until 1963. **Impact of Local government ** a) It exploited local resources and initiated development. b) It created a link between the central government and the local people. c) It helped maintain law and order using the small police force set up in 1896. ----- 269 ### d) It promoted infrastructural development and general welfare of Africans. It used the levied taxes to improve social services such as schools and hospitals. e) It helped in the arbitration of African disputes through the District African Courts. E.g, Land disputes were settled by the LNCs. **Factors that undermined the local Government ** a) Shortage of trained personnel to work in the LNCs and ADCs. b) Poor transport and communication leading to poor coordination of their activities. c) Lack of adequate revenue to finance their operations as the colony lacked strategic mineral resources. d) There was a lot of rivalry between the settlers and the locals, later becoming the freedom struggles. This hampered the operations of the councils. e) Racial discrimination was so pronounced that basic services were absent in African areas. Many Africans survived through self-help schemes. **COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION ** The methods mainly used by the British to administer their colonies were ***1. Direct rule. *** 2. Indirect rile . **Difference between direct rule and indirect rule. ** Indirect rule was a system under which the British recognized the existing African political system and used it to rule over the colonies.Direct rule was a system where the Europeans/the British entrenched themselves in the direct administration of their colonies. Indigenous political and administrative institutions and leaders are replaced with European systems. **Indirect rule ** This was a policy advanced by Fredrick Lugard, the British High Commissioner in the protectorate of Northern Nigeria from 1900 to 1906.To Lugard, as summed up in his book, The Dual Mandate in the Tropical Africa (1922),the resident acts as a sympathetic adviser to the native chief, on matters of general policy. But the native ruler issues his instructions to the subordinate chiefs and district heads, not as orders of the resident but as his own.Such a system was applied in Kenya and in West Africa. **Why Britain used indirect rule in Kenya and Nigeria** a) Britain lacked enough manpower to handle all the administrative responsibilities in the colonies. For example, in the Nigerian protectorate, there were only 42 British officials by 1900. b) Lack of adequate funds for colonial administration from the parent government made her use the existing traditional political system as a means of cutting down the administrative costs. c) The use of indirect rule was a means of diffusing the expected stiff resistance from the Africans. The traditional rulers were to be made to feel that they had lost no power. ----- 270 ### d) The policy of administration had succeeded in India and Uganda, thus motivating them to apply it in Kenya and Nigeria. **British rule in Kenya** In Kenya, the British lacked both funds and experienced personnel to facilitate their administration. Kenya also did not have a reference model of an administrative system like that in Buganda Kingdom. It was only among the Wanga section of the Abaluhyia and the Maasai where traditional chiefs that were recognized by the British existed. Where the institution of chieftainship did not exist as the case of the Agikuyu, the British appointed chiefs (men with ability to communicate in Kiswahili and organize porters) like Kinyanjui WA Gathirimu in Kiambu, Karuri wa Gakure in Muranga and Wangombe wa Ihura in Nyeri. The passing of the Village Headman Act in 1902 gave the chiefs the responsibilities of maintaining public order, hearing of petty cases and clearing of roads and footpaths.The 1912 0rdinance increased the powers of the chiefs and their assistants (headmen); they were now allowed to employ other persons to assist them, such as messengers and retainers. They were to assist the District officers in Tax collection and control brewing of illegal liquor and cultivation of poisonous plants like Cannabis sativa. They were to control carrying of weapons and mobilize African labour for public works. ***The selected colonial chiefs however faced two problems; *** a) Most of them lacked legitimacy and were therefore rejected not only by the African elders who regarded them as nonentities, but also by the young generation who saw them as tools of colonial oppression and exploitation. b) Many of the colonial chiefs were young and inexperienced. c) Many of the chiefs also became unpopular since they used their positions to amass riches in terms of large tracts of land, livestock and wives. E.g Chief Musau wa Mwanza and Nthiwa wa Tama acquired 8000 herds of cattle and 15 wives respectively in kambaland.The structure of administration was as discussed earlier with governor being answerable to the colonial secretary in London. Below him were provincial commissioners, district commissioners, district Officers and Chiefs.All the administrative positions above that of the chief were occupied by European personnel. **The British in Nigeria. ** Nigeria comprised the Lagos colony and protectorate, the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and the Northern Nigeria Protectorate. These regions were later amalgamated into the Nigerian protectorate in 1914.In Northern Nigeria, Fredrick Lugard employed indirect rule. **Reasons for the use of indirect rule by the British in northern Nigeria. ** a) The system was cost-effective. There was need to reduce the administrative cost by using the local chiefs in administration while employing very few British officials. ----- 271 ### b) Northern Nigeria had communities with a well-organized centralized system of government complete with Islamic sharia whose use provided a base to govern the protectorate. i.e. The Sokoto Caliphate c) The vastness of the region coupled with the inadequate British administrative work force and Poor transport and communication network made it difficult for the British officials to effectively administer some parts of the region. d) The system would help dilute African resistances since governance was by local rulers. TheBritish were keen on guarding against the local resistance to their administration. e) The method ensured smooth transition from African to British dominion. It was a way of deliberately preparing Africans for self-government. f) Indirect rule had been tried successfully in Uganda and India. **Indirect administration as applied in northern Nigeria** In Northern Nigeria, the existing emirates with centralized system of administration formed thebasis of local governance. The Emirs were retained and were to rule under supervision of the British resident officials.The British administration was based on the local customs and laws. Chiefs chosen by the British were to be acceptable by the local people. Local chiefs collected taxes and a portion of it was given to the Central Government.Local Native Courts operated as per the laws of the land. The Emirs were allowed to try cases in their own Muslim courts.The Emirs were mandated to maintain law and order. They possessed firearms.In 1914, Northern and Southern Nigeria were Brought under one syatem of administration. However Lugard found it hard to apply indirect rule in Southern Nigeria. **Why indirect rule was not successful applied in southern Nigeria** a) Southern Nigeria lacked a centralized indigenous system of administration, which would have been vital in the application of indirect rule. b) The south had many ethnic groups, many languages and many disparities in customs, whichdenied it the homogeneity necessary for the application of indirect rule. c) The southern people were infuriated by the British introduction of new concepts like forced labour and direct taxes. d) The British did not give themselves time to understand the operation of the social, political and economic systems of the people of southern Nigeria. e) The educated elites in the south felt left out of the administration of their own country in favour of the illiterate appointees of the British. f) There existed communication barrier between the British supervisors, the warrant chiefs and the people, which sometimes led to misinterpretation and misunderstanding. g) The warrant chiefs sometimes misused their powers in tax collection and molesting women sexually. h) The brutish had used excessive force in dealing with any form of resistance and this made them unpopular ----- 272 ### **Problems associated with indirect rule as a system of government. ** a) Indirect rule could only e applied where centralized government was present. Its application in stateless societies often faced difficulties. b) Where chiefs were imposed, especially in the stateless societies, their authority lacked legitimacy and only resulted in suspicion and lack of confidence. This would lead to constant riots when they tried to exert their authority. c) Local people even in the highly centralized states looked at indirect rule as curtailing the authority of their local rulers and hence resented it. E.g the Yoruba state in Nigeria. d) Some inexperienced British officials tended to interfere too much with the vital African customs and practices e.g. among the Asante thus bringing further problems. e) Different administrations had different views on the degree of indirect rule to be applied hence confusion was created. It was difficult to draw a boundary between the advisory and supervisory roles of colonial powers. f) Language was a problem and there was need for interpreters. Communication was poor and made adaptation difficult. g) Education of chiefs was necessary but even this took a long time and needed patience and skillful knowledge which the British did not have. **Effects of indirect rule. ** a) The system led to transformation of the role of traditional African chiefs. they now began to recruit fellow Africans to provide labour to the colonial government and even fight in world war I. the chiefs thus became unpopular. b) The indigenous system of administration was modernized by the British especially in northern Nigeria. c) Many African chiefs used their positions to accumulate a lot of wealth at the expense of their people. Chiefs like Wangombe and Gakure in central Kenya acquired large tracts of land. d) Indirect rule created suspicion and mistrust between the educated elites and the traditional chiefs who were given power ib southern Nigeria. The elite reacted by forming political movements thus leading to growth of nationalism in Nigeria. e) Indirect rule helped preserve African cultures, unlike assimilation which sought to replace them. **DIRECT RULE ** This system was mainly used in regions with large white settler population such as Algeria, south Nigeria and Zimbabwe. **Direct rule in Zimbabwe ** Zimbabwe was colonized by the British South African Company under John Cecil Rhodes. Rhodes used his resources to sponsor a group of South African Europeans who set out to establish in Southern Rhodesia, a satellite of South African System. They began off by engaging the Ndebele in a series of wars from 1893 before finally occupying the fertile land in Mashonaland and Matabeleland. ----- 273 ### **Characteristics of direct rule in Zimbabwe** a) Zimbabwe had a large number of European settlers with their population rising to 50,000 by 1931. The whites therefore maintained an advantaged position throughout their administration of Zimbabwe. b) Many of the British settlers developed the attitude and consequently the belief that the territory was pre-ordained to be a white settler colony. c) The territory was administered by a commercial company (B.S.A.C) for a long period (1890-1923) d) An administrator below who was a long chain of European civil servants performing simple administrative duties headed BSAC. e) Direct method of administration was applied to the Africans who had initially resisted the intrusion. New chiefs were appointed to dethrone the traditional leaders. f) The Legislative Council that was begun in 1898 gave the European settlers political Rights to the extent that by 1923, they had attained some self-governance. g) The system was characterized by massive alienation of African Land compelling Africans to provide labour to the new European settlers. h) There was racial segregation which was effected through the Legislative Council. African communities suffered greatly in the hands of the settler regime. **Reasons for use of direct rule by the British in Zimbabwe** a) The British desired to fully control the economy of Zimbabwe and maximize on profit generation through direct involvement in administration. b) The Shona and Ndebele resistance against British intrusion made the them not to trust the Matabele chiefs nor use them as British agents c) There was lack of reliable political system to be used in indirect administration of the region. The local political institutions based on the Induna system had been destroyed when the British conquered and occupied Zimbabwe. d) Existence of enough B.S.A Co personnel on the spot who were familiar with the area as well as the British system of government. e) Favourable climatic conditions and the expected rich mineral deposits attracted many settlers who later provided the necessary personnel. f) There was a strong desire by the Europeans to be able to direct their own affairs and destiny without interference from within or without/The spirit nationalism **The BSAC administrative structure in Southern Rhodesia (1905-1923) ** The government was headed by a resident Commissioner who was appointed by the Company stationed at Salisbury. Below him were various commissioners in charge of the Districts (all Europeans). Below them were African Chiefs whose duty included collecting tax, recruiting labour and maintaining law and order.In 1898, a LEGCO was established heavily dominated by the European settlers. An Executive Council, consisting of the Resident Commissioner and 4 nominees of BSA.Co was also established. In 1902, a Native Affairs Department, headed by a European Native ----- 274 ### Commissioner was created thus entrenching the dominance of Europeans in Zimbabwe. The duty of the commissioner was to allocate land to Africans, collect taxes and recruit labour.For lack of enough valuable minerals in Zimbabwe as expected, the Europeans compensated by acquiring large tracts of land from African communities with some having grants of upto 3000 acre pieces of land.( Europeans occupied 21 million acres while Africans despite their majority were confined to 24 million acre reserves.) The Company relinquished control in 1923 to for Zimbabwe to become a crown colony. **Crown colony Rule (1923-1953) ** Why the settlers favoured crown colony over merger with South Africa. a) The merger would have led to domination by Afrikaners in their political matters. b) Their economic interests would have been neglected in favour of those of Afrikaners. As a crown colony, a Governor was appointed in 1923 to represent the Queen of England. British government was empowered by the constitution to veto any legislation that would discriminate against Africans. This however never happened practically. For example, the government formulated the Two-Pyramids Policy or parallel development policy characterized by discrimination against Africans. At the base of the pyramid was the majority Africans relegated to offering cheap labour for the white settlers. At the apex were the minority whites who took the highest positions in the economic and political system.To legitimize the two pyramids policy were two Acts that were passed in 1930 and 1934. **a) Land Apportionment Act of 1930** The Act introduced rigid territorial segregation with land being divided into whites and Africans portions. No African was allowed to acquire land outside their segregated portion.The minority whites acquired over half of the best arable land. Africans were given the semi arid areas infested by mosquitoes. Land was categorized into four; 1) Native Reserve Area- for Africans population. The Land was characterized with congestion since it was inadequate. 2) Native Purchase Area- for Africans to buy. Such areas had harsh climatic conditions. 3) European Area- For Whites only. 4) Unassigned Area- For government expansion of buildings and other uses. **Effects of the Land Apportionment Act on Africans** a) Many Africans became migrant labourers, moving to mines, towns and European farms to provide cheap labour since their land was unproductive. b) Large tracts of African land were alienated and they were confined to only 29 million acres while only 50,000 whites occupied 49 million acres of land. c) This exposed Africans to problems like overgrazing that further deteriorated their land. d) There was widespread poverty among Africans. For those on the reserves, they faced starvation, those in towns faced slum life. ----- 275 ### e) Africans suffered racial segregation in provision of social services in urban areas. f) There was disruption of social roles as African men moved to towns and settler farms. Women took over mens jobs in the reserves. g) Land apportionment became the seedbed for the rise of African nationalism in Zimbabwe. h) Africans were exposed to over taxation to compel them to provide labour to the Europeans. **b) The Industrial Conciliation Act of 1934. ** The prime objective of the Act was to protect white workers from African competition. The government through the act prohibited Africans from setting up a trade union. Africans from beyond southern Rhodesia were imported to provide labour to the whites at low wages.The act resulted in relegation of Africans to the lowest level while skilled jobs were set aside for the Europeans. The two acts resulted in the humiliating conditions for the Africans which resulted in the rise of African Nationalism that continued more after the Second World War.As an answer to African agitation, the government invited more white settlers giving them more large tracts of land. The settlers also began to agitate for the formation of a federation of the three central African territories (southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland).In 1953, the British government gave approval for the formation of the federation of central African countries. **The Central African Federation. ** The federation was organized as follows; 1) Each territory had its own government responsible for local administration. 2) Each territorial government was responsible for all aspects of native affairs within its boundaries. 3) The British government was directly involved in the administration of the two northern protectorates. 4) An African Board was established to ensure that no racist legislation against the Africans was passed in the federation parliament. 5) The Federal Parliament was given powers to deal with all matters involving more than one territory and foreign affairs.The first Prime Minister of the Federation, Garfield Todd, being sympathetic to African protests over formation of the federation, legalized the formation of trade Unions and funded African education and Agriculture. Unfortunately when Todd was replaced in 1958, all his programmees were abandoned. In 1963, the federation was dissolved and shortly afterwards Malawi and Zambia became independent as southern Rhodesia remained a self -governing colony. **The reign of Ian Smith** Ian Smiths Rhodesian Front Party, controlled by the white extremists with no regards for Africans, won the 1962 elections.On 15 [th] October 1965, Smith led the settlers to announce a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI), from Britain implying that political leadership was now fully in the hands of the white rebel settlers. ----- 276 ### This declaration provoked instant protest not only within Africa but also from the international community. UN declared sanctions against South Rhodesia though countries like South Africa and Portugal unfortunately continued to trade with her making the sanctions ineffective.In 1970, UDI declared itself a republic under a new constitution that entrenched whites position in Zimbabwe by spelling the following; a) Voting qualifications for Africans were revised and were now based on income. This automatically disenfranchised the majority of Africans. b) The land tenure system was revised to enable the Europeans to purchase land from the government.Meanwhile the war of independence had began in 1966, provoked by the 1965 UDI declaration, with a patriotic front formed by Zimbabwe African National Union(ZANU) of Mugabe Robert and Zimbabwe African Peoples Union(ZAPU) of Joshua Nkomo waging a guerilla warfare.Zimbabwe became independent in 1980, with Robert Mugabe as the fits Prime Minister. **Effects of British rule in Zimbabwe. ** a) It led to African land alienation by white settlers/ Africans were displaced from their ancestral lands. b) The establishment of white settlement subjected Africans to abject poverty and suffering.Africans were subjected to intense economic exploitation through taxation and forced labour. c) African traditional economy was undermined as many of the Africans were forced to work for the Europeans. d) African interests were ignored in the day-to-day running of the colony. e) African traditional rulers lost their autonomy and became mere puppets of British administration. f) African cultures were undermined, for example through the separation of families as people sought alternative livelihood. g) The white settlers were to enhance the production of cash crops as transport, trade and industry were developed. h) Africans were denied freedom of movement and confined I reserves. i) Positively, it led to development of transport network the region. j) It led to introduction of new crops in the region k) It led to rise of nationalism as many Africans could no longer bear the burden of suffering in the hands of the whites. **ASSIMILATION ** **Definition. ** This was a system of administration in which French colonies were given a culture and civilization similar to that of France. This system was influenced by the French revolution of 1789, which emphasized the equality of all men.In Africa, it was perfected by Lewis Faidherbe in Senegal when he was governor from 1854 to 1865.To many historians Assimilation was a deliberate French policy to help them destroy African ----- 277 ### Chieftaincies and Kingdoms that were thriving at the time of their arrival. Under the system, Africans had to; ~ Learn the French language. ~ Practice the French legal system. ~ Apply the French civil and political system. ~ Convert to Christianity and learn French mannerism including eating and dressing habits.Later on assimilation evolved into association which had been first applied in Africa in central Africa by Savorgnan de Brazza.Association involved letting the subjects develop independently due to the belief that nonwesterners were racially inferior and would therefore never be accepted as equal to Europeans even when assimilated. **French administration in West Africa** The French system of administration was highly centralized.The eight French colonies were grouped into the confederation of French West Africa. They were governed from one capital, Dakar, Senegal.The federation was headed by a Governor-General answerable to the French Minister for colonies in Paris. Each colony was headed by a lieutenant- Governor answerable to the Governor-General in Dakar.Each colony was divided into cercles (provinces), each headed by a commandant de cercle. Each cercle was further divided into small districts each headed by a chef de sub-division below whom were African chiefs (chefs de cantons in charge of locations). At the base were chefs de village in charge of the sub-locations.All the French overseas colonies were seen as overseas provinces and each elected a deputy to the French Chamber of Deputies in Paris (lower House). However the French administrators appointed lacked high standards of education and some were military officers simply rewarded with senior administrative positions. This led to inefficiency. **French administration in Senegal** In Senegal, the policy of assimilation was only applied in the four communes of St.Louis, Goree, Rufisque and Dakar. In the rest of the country, African chiefs who ruled were put I three grades namely; a) Chefs de province: - equivalent of the paramount chiefs, they were usually successors of the pre-colonial chiefs. b) Chefs de Canton: - these were ordinary people appointed by the French officials due to their ability, to be charge of locations. They kept register of taxpayers the location, helped the government in conscription of Africans into the army and assisted in mobilizing forced labour for road construction and other public works. c) Chefs de village:- these were usually traditional heads of the community(village) who were given the responsibility of collecting taxes, maintenance of law and order, organizing relief during floods and locust invasion and maintaining roads I their areas. The privileges which were enjoyed by assimilated Africans in the four communes of Senegal included; ----- 278 ### ***Economic privileges *** ~ They were exempted from forced labour. ~ They were allowed to work in France. ~ They were exempted from paying taxes. ~ They were allowed trading rights like the French people. ***Political privileges *** ~ They were allowed to send representatives to the French Chamber of Deputies. ~ They were enfranchised like the French people in France (right to vote) ~ They enjoyed the rights of the French Judicial System like the French. ~ They were allowed to operate Local Authority structures which were similar to those in France. ~ They were allowed to retain Muslim law. ~ They were exempted from arbitrary arrest/through the Indigenization policy. **Characteristics of assimilation. ** a) Administrative assimilation. There was an administrative relationship between the French colonies and their mother country. Colonies were regarded as overseas provinces. b) Political assimilation. The colonies were represented in the French chamber of deputies thus maintaining a close political identity. c) Economic assimilation. The French currency was used in the colonies to enhance the economic relationship. d) Personal assimilation. Africans in the Quatre communes were given French citizenship and other privileges enjoyed by French citizens. **Reasons why assimilation was successful in the four communes** a) There was a high percentage of Mullato population within the communes, who readily accepted the French culture making it easy for the French to apply assimilation. b) Africans were familiar with Europeans and their culture due to long interaction with them through trade. c) Many people had converted to Christianity and this made it possible for the French to apply their policy. **Factors that undermined the application of the French policy of assimilation in West ** **Africa ** a) There was opposition by local people who did not want the French to interfere with their culture. b) The Traditional African rulers resisted the policy since they did not want to lose their authority and influence over the assimilated people. c) The French traders in West Africa also opposed the system they viewed assimilated Africans as a potential threat to their commercial monopoly in the region. d) The policy of assimilation ran the risk of undermining the very foundation of French colonialism, as it was not possible to exploit Africans who had attained the assimile status. ----- 279 ### e) Missionary school system of education undermined the French policy of assimilation since there was segregation in provision of mission education. f) Nationalism conflicted with the policy of assimilation. g) Assimilation was becoming too expensive to the French government especially because West African colonies were not self-supporting yet. h) The vastness of the French colonies made it difficult to supervise the implementation of the policy. i) Muslims resisted fiercely the French attempt to convert them to Christianity. j) Racial discrimination against the indigenous people also contributed to the failure of the system. This is because many Frenchmen never accepted assimilated Africans as their equals. k) The French citizens in the motherland opposed the policy as they feared being outnumbered in the chamber of deputies. **Ways in which Nationalism undermined the policy of Assimilation in French West ** **Africa. ** a) It emphasized loyalty or devotion to ones country and national independence or separatism, which were against the policy of assimilation. b) Nationalists agitated for boycott of anything of French origin. c) The nationalists created awareness on the value of African culture and systems; this encouraged Africans to condemn assimilation. d) The nationalists created awareness on the importance of African unity which exposed the hypocrisy of assimilation **Consequences of assimilation in Senegal. ** a) The policy of assimilation undermined African cultures, as many Africans embraced the French culture. For instance, the French language became the official language in the colony. b) The authority of traditional African leaders was eroded and even many were replaced by the assimilated Africans. c) The colony was incorporated into the French republic and regarded as an overseas province of France. d) Africans from Senegal were allowed to participate in the political matters of France. Some Senegalese like Blaise Diagne were elected as deputies in the French parliament. e) The spread of Islam was greatly frustrated, especially in the four communes where Africanswere converted to Christianity. f) A great rift emerged between the assimilated Africans, who were regarded as French citizens and the rest of African communities, who were subjected to taxation and forced labour ----- 280 ### **The policy of association. ** Under this system, the French colonial government was to respect the cultures of her colonial peoples and allow them to develop independently rather than force them to adopt French civilization and culture.Unlike the assimilated Africans, subjects retained their cultural practices e.g polygamy and Islam. The subject came under a system of law known as indigenat where the subject could suffer arbitrary arrest or be forced to serve a longer period in the army than assimilated citizens **Why the French government replaced the policy of assimilation with that of ** **association in 1945 ** a) The French had realized that assimilation would lead to equality between them and the colonized people. b) Assimilation was too expensive especially because West African colonies were not selfsupporting yet. c) The method clashed with the commercial interests. The French businesspersons and their friends in the colonial administration saw Africans as source of cheap labour. They therefore disapproved the idea of uplifting them. d) The French had realized that not all the colonial people could be assimilated. Only the elite ones among them could. Association aimed at transforming the Native elites into Frenchmen while allowing the other masses to learn enough French for communication purposes. e) They had realized that there was need to allow the colonies to enjoy the freedom of developing according to existing traditional political and social structure. / respect for the culture of her colonies. **The similarities between the French and the British colonial administrations ** a) Both methods emphasized the superiority of the colonial master and his overlord ship in Africa. The Europeans were in charge and took all senior positions. b) The administrative systems applied in both were meant to assist the colonial masters in controlling their territories in Africa. c) Both systems led to massive economic exploitation of resources in Africa. E.g. minerals, labour, and market land etc. d) In both Africans reacted to the systems in a hostile manner. e) Both methods led to loss of independence and freedom for the African. f) In both, every power trained a local army to maintain law and order. g) In both, Africans were oppressed through taxation and forced labour. h) In both, the position of chief was created where there was none. I.e. in Kenya, Southern Nigeria, and Somali. **Main differences** a) The British were keen to appoint traditional rulers as chiefs. The French on the other hand were not keen to appoint traditional rulers but simply handpicked individuals who met their qualifications (those who embraced French culture and civilization). ----- 281 ### b) The British gave the traditional rulers a lot of power, unlike the French who undermined African chieftaincies. c) The British colonies were administered separately by a governor accountable to Britain, unlike the French colonies which were governed as federations equated to provinces of France. d) Most of the French administrators were military officers. The British used a mixture of amateurs and professionals. e) Whereas the British applied mainly the policy of indirect rule, the French applied the policy of assimilation and later, association. f) The French colonies elected their representatives to the Chamber of Deputies in France, while British colonies had legislative councils where policies were debated in the colonies. g) Laws applied in the French colonies were legislated in France while in British colonies laws were enacted by the respective legislative assemblies. h) In French colonies, assimilated Africans became French citizens with full rights, while the elite in the British colonies remained colonial subjects. i) Indirect rule preserved African cultures while assimilation undermined them. **SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS DURING THE COLONIAL ** **PERIOD IN KENYA. ** **The Uganda Railway ** The railway was built between 1896 and 1901 with George Whitehouse as the Engineer. Work was mainly done by 32,000 Indian coolies and 5,000 clerks and craftsmen. The locals could not provide skilled labour. It costed the British taxpayers about 6 million sterling pounds. Reasons for the construction of the Uganda railway line. a) To promote trade with the outside world by encouraging the exploitation of available resources and enable the colony sustain itself b) To link Uganda with the Coast so that the British can achieve their strategic interests. c) To enable missionaries to go the interior to spread Christianity. d) To help stop slave trade since slaves would no longer be needed to ferry goods to and from the coast. e) To provide quick, safe and convenient means of transport for government administrators/troops f) Open up Kenya for economic development/to stop slave trade/promote legitimate trade g) To maintain law and order so that economic development could be achieved. h) To make Africans more productive and able to generate revenue in form of tax to the colonial government. i) To activate interior trade to enable transportation of imported goods to the interior of the colony. ----- 282 ### **The construction** The railway construction works commenced in Mombasa in 1896. By 1901, the railway had reached Kisumu (then Port Florence) passing through Nairobi in 1899. Numerous feeder lines were later laid down as follows; The Nairobi Thika Branch(1914), Konza Magadi (1915), Voi- Moshi(1918), Rongai- Solai (1925), Eldoret-Kitale(1926), Eldoret- Jinja (1927), Gilgil-Nyahururu(1929), Thika- Nanyuki(1930)and Kisumu Butere(1930) In 1948, the Kenya Uganda Railway had been linked with the Tanganyika network to become the East African Railways. **Problems experienced during the construction of the Uganda railway. ** a) There was insufficient labour since African labour force was not forthcoming. In the case of the Akamba and the Maasai, they were forcefully recruited. b) The climate of the interior was not suitable for the European labour force. The Europeans constantly fell ill, thus interfering with construction progress. c) The Arab rebellion under Mbaruk Rashid between 1895 96 at the coast delayed the railway construction. d) There was an additional expense of constructing special jetties since Mombasa port was not large enough. e) The Man-eaters of Tsavo created danger and havoc to the construction works. f) The rift valley terrain was difficult. It was rugged with many hills and escarpments thus causing difficulties in construction. g) Hostility of some Kenyan communities to intruders e.g. the Nandi who vandalized the railway and telegraph lines. h) Insufficient building material since most of them came from Europe and their delivery often delayed, **The effects of railway construction. ** a) It led to development of European settler farming in order to make the railway pay for its construction. b) There was rampant land alienation. The colonial government alienated African land for railway construction forcing communities like the Maasai and Nandi to move into reserves. c) There was rise of wage labour for the railway and later for the settler farmers. d) It led to growth of urban centres along the railway line e.g. Nairobi. e) Railway construction promoted economic growth of the East African region. This is because farm produce and other commercial products could easily reach market. f) It led to rise of large Asian settlement since many Indians were employed as railway workers. This Asians boosted trade in east Africa. g) It led to development of other forms of infrastructure like the roads and telecommunication lines. This stimulated trade development. h) It led to transfer of the administrative capital from Mombasa in 1905 to Nairobi. ----- 283 ### i) When the railway reached Kisumu in 1902, it led to major changes to the ad ministrative boundaries within East African region. Initially, the western region up to Naivasha was part of Uganda. j) The railway became a major revenue source for the colonial authorities. k) It facilitated the establishment of colonial rule in Kenya since it was possible for rapid movement of troops. l) It facilitated the cultural and social interaction among the different races. m) The railway made rural-urban migration and the resultant enterprises such as hawking and charcoal selling possible. n) Other forms of transport and communication developed and expanded along the ralwayline. For example: roads and telecommunications. o) Christian missionaries were able to move into the interior, where they established missionschools. **SETTLER FARMING AND COLONIAL LAND POLICIES** As a means of raising revenue to meet the cost of administering the Kenya colony and maintain the Uganda railway, the colonial government encouraged the influx of white settlers to the white Highlands. The administration did this by; a) Providing efficient railway transport connecting the coast and the interior b) Alienating of the white highlands for European settlement. c) Advertising the availability of free land in foreign newspapers d) Giving loan incentives e) Providing security The settlers however faced the initial challenges of crop and animal diseases, labour shortage, lack of inputs and African aggression. **Why the colonial government encouraged white settlement in Kenya. ** ***The reasons why the colonial administration led by Sir Charles Eliot (1900- 1904) and *** ***later Sir Edward Northey encouraged settler farming in the white highlands were; *** a) They hoped that settler farming would meet the cost of administration and railway maintenance. b) The British industries were also in need of cheaper raw Materials in an increasingly competitive European Market. These raw materials would be cheaply produced by the settlers. c) The settlers would also help control the prevailing Asian immigration and influence in Kenya. d) The colonial government wanted to make Kenya a white mans country by encouraging white settlers to form the backbone of the economy. e) Kenya Highlands had cool wet climate and fertile volcanic soils suitable for Europeansettlement and agriculture. ----- 284 ### f) There was need to get rid of social misfits in Europe and the landless who would be offered avenues in the Kenya colony. g) Existence of already willing entrepreneurs lake Lord Delamere and Captain Grogan who were ready to come to Kenya and engage in profitable agriculture. **Factors which promoted settler farming** a) The land policies availed cheap African labour to settler farmers. The alienation of African land and Creation of African reserves forced Africans to work in the settler farms. b) Africans in Kenya were not allowed to grow some cash crops in order to enable Europeans continue getting cheap African labour for their farms. c) The government built and maintained various forms of transport. For example the railway, Bridges and roads which facilitated faster movement of produce and inputs. d) The government Reduced freight charges in the importation and exportation of agricultural inputs and products. e) The government encouraged formation of cooperatives to help in the processing and marketing of produce. f) The establishment of financial institutions such as Agricultural Finance Corporation and Banks provided the settlers with credit facilities. g) The government availed extension services for crops and animal farming through the establishment of the Department of Agriculture and research stations to improve the quality of crops and animals. h) Trade tariffs were also removed and settlers were granted concessions. **Problems experienced by settlers. ** a) Inadequate labour as Africans refused to work. Bush clearance and preparation of land for cultivation was therefore a problem. b) Constant raids by the local inhabitants such as the Nandi, Maasai and Agikuyu threatened their peace and security. Some communities even raided their dairy farms for cattle. c) Some of the settlers lacked faring experience. Some of the settlers had not engaged in farming before and therefore lacked basic agricultural knowledge. d) Inadequate capital often hindered procurement of farm inputs. Machinery, labour. Some settlers became bankrupt and could not meet the day to day operational costs on the farms. e) Lack of proper knowledge on farming seasons hence crop failure. The climate and soils in the colony were alien to the settlers. f) There was the problem of poor transport and communication as it had become difficult for the government to network all areas occupied by settlers with roads and communication lines. g) Inadequate and unreliable market for their produce. They mainly relied on foreign market which could not serve in the case of perishable commodities. ----- 285 ### h) Pests and diseases were prevalent in the white highlands. The settlers were assailed by various human, animal and crop disease. **Settler Crop cultivation ** The main crops cultivated were coffee, wheat, tea and sisal. 1) Coffee . Coffee was first introduced by the Roman Catholic Fathers of St. Austins Mission near Nairobi in 1889. It required plenty of farm inputs in terms of chemicals and labour. Therefore was a preserve of wealthy European settlers.Coffee Planters Corporation was founded in 1908 by Lord Delameres Efforts, and led to the spread in the growing of coffee. By 1913, coffee had become the leading cash crop in Kenya grown mainly in Muranga, Thika and Kiambu.Africans were unfortunately not allowed to grow coffee until 1937 **Reasons why Africans in Kenya were not allowed to grow coffee before 1937** a) Europeans wanted to continue getting cheap African labour for their farms. This could not be available if Africans were allowed to earn some money through growing of coffee. b) European settlers did not want to compete with Africans in coffee growing. They feared that it would limit market for their produce. c) The settlers claimed that Africans did not have knowledge of growing coffee. They claimed that African participation in cash crop growing would lead to low quality products. d) They feared that diseases would spread from African farms to settler plantations. e) European settlers claimed that African farmers would produce low quality coffee due to inadequate resources. ***2) Wheat. *** It was introduced in Kenya in 1903 by Lord Delamere who experimented on his Njoro farm. It was however until 1912, when a more resistant variety was developed, that wheat growing took root in Kenya.In 1908, Lord Delamere set up Unga Ltd which boosted wheat farming in Kenya. It was grown in the Nakuru and Uasin Gishu areas. Like coffee, wheat farming was the preserve of wealthy European settlers from Australia, Canada, Britain and South Africa. Africans began to grow wheat only after independence. ***3) Sisal. *** It was introduced in Kenya from Tanganyika in 1893 by Richard Hindorf, a german Doctor. Initially, it was cultivated around Thika in 1904. By 1920, it had become the second largest income-earning crop after coffee.The main sisal growing areas included Baringo, Koibatek, Ol Donyo Sabuk, Ruiru, Thika, Voi, Taita and Taveta.Africans began growing coffee in 1964 though its growth declined due to the completion it faced from synthetic fibre. ***4) Tea. *** ----- 286 ### Tea was introduced in Kenya in 1903 around Limuru by Messrs Caine Brothers. It was until 1925 when tea began being grown successful with large tea estates being established by tea companies like Brooke Bond and Africa Highland from India.The main tea growing areas were Nandi, Kericho, Sotik, Nakuru, Muranga and Kiambu. **Stock rearing. ** Lord Delamere carried out many experiments in sheep and cattle rearing at his Equator Ranch in Njoro though the Maasai raids in his farm and cattle diseases frustrated his efforts.After cross-breeding exotic types with local stock, he came up with more resistant variety. The government also set up an experimental livestock farm in Naivasha. In 1925, the Kenya Cooperative Creameries was established due to Delameres efforts. Later, the Uplands Bacon Factory was established near Limuru to promote pig rearing. In 1930, the Kenya Farmers Association (KFA) was established Colonial land policies in Kenya.To empower the settlers to take up more arable land in Kenya, the Legislative council passed the following Land Acts or Ordinances; 1) The Indian Acquisition Act (1896). it empowered the authorities to take over land for the railway, government construction and public utilities. 2) The Land Regulations Act (1897). It allowed the government to offer a certificate of occupation and a lease of 99 years. This Act encouraged settlers to take up land left vacant by the Agikuyu due to drought and famine. 3) The East African Land Order in Council (1901). It defined crown land as all public land which was not private. The government could take up any land at will, sell it or lease it for use by settlers. 4) The Crown Land Ordinance (1902). It allowed the government to sell or lease crown land to Europeans at 2 rupees per 100 acres or rent at 15 rupees per 100 acres annually. 5) The Maasai Agreement (1904). It led to creation of the Ngong and Laikipia reserves while the settlers took up Maasai land for livestock farming. For example Lord Delamere in Nakuru. 6) The Elgin Pledge of 1906. The government through the British Secretary of State, Lord Elgin confirmed that the Highlands were reserved for settlers. This barred the Asian attempts to buy land in the highlands. 7) The second Maasai Agreement of 1911. The Maasai were pushed out of the fertile Laikipia reserve to pave way for more European settlement and large scale farming. 8) The Crown Land Ordinance (1915). This provided for land registration scheme for settlers. It defined crown land as land occupied by and reserved for Africans who could be evicted any time. Farm sizes wee increased from 5,000 to 7,500 acres. 9) The Kenya Annexation Order in Council (1920). It announced that Africans were tenants of the crown even in the reserves. 10) The Land Commission (1924). It fixed boundaries of the reserves, which were later legalized in 1926. ----- 287 ### 11) The Native Trust Ordinance (1930). It stated that African reserves belonged t the Africans permanently. 12) The Carter Commission (1932). It fixed the boundaries of the white highlands, leading to population pressure in the African reserves. All Africans were removed from the highlands into the reserves. 13) The Kenya Highlands Order in Council (1939). It fixed boundaries of the white highlands and reserved them permanently and exclusively for Europeans. **Effects of the colonial land policies ** a) The displaced Africans were confined to native reserves thus leading to congestion/overuse of land. By 1914, settlers like Lord Delamere and Captain Crogan owned 100,000 and 220,000 acres of land, respectively, at the expense of African congestion in the reserves. b) Africans who lost their land became poor. Many Africans became squatters and lived in misery and hopelessness. c) The situation in the reserves and the landlessness forced to supply labour in settler farms for wages in order to pay taxes. d) The displaced Africans moved to towns looking for employment. Their movement to towns led to growth of urban centres. e) The traditional socio-economic set-up of the Africans was disrupted. Communities could no longer migrate in search of better lands and pasture. Family roles changed as women increasingly took over headship of families while men sought for paid employment. f) The large European farms suffered acute shortage of labour as many Africans were unwilling to work on them. g) It led to the introduction of the Kipande System enforced by the Native Registration Ordinances of 1915 and 1920, to prevent the African labourers from deserting their duties on European farms. h) Taxes were imposed on Africans and were to be paid only in monetary form. This was meant to compel Africans seek for wage employment. i) The reserving of the highlands for the whites only denied Indians access to agricultural land, compelling them to resort to businesses and residences in urban areas. j) Loss of land led to bitterness and made Africans later to form political organizations to demand for their land/spread of nation **THE DEVONSHIRE WHITE PAPER. ** The Mandate of the League of Nations compelled Britain, just like any other colonial authority to institute reforms that would involve addressing African grievances. Governor Edward Northey who had given many concessions to the settlers was recalled to Britain in 1922. **Other reforms that were instituted were; ** a) Abandonment of Racial segregation policy in Kenya except in the highlands. ----- 288 ### b) Allowing Asians to elect four members to the Legco, which was initially settlerdominated. This however was not done until 1933.In March 1923, settlers in a form of protest to these reforms sent a delegation to London to try to settle scores with the Secretary for Colonies, the Duke of Devonshire. The fundamental set of principles that were issued in this meeting are what came to be known as the Devonshire White Paper. **Factors that led to the issuing of the Devonshire white paper. ** a) The influence of The Dual Mandate. This was a book of the League of Nations that had regulations concerning colonial mandates. Britain was committed to the principle of trusteeship whereby she was interested on its African population than European settlement b) The rise of race conflicts i.e. Africans versus European dominion and European versus Asian conflicts. The Indians were opposed to the privileged position of European settlers. c) The banning of racial segregation .The decision by the colonial government to ban racial segregation apart from the white highlands only, disappointed the settlers who wanted the ban lifted hence they sent a delegation to London to see the colonial secretary. d) The African general resentment. Their resentment was on land alienation, forced labour, taxation system, kipande system, low wages and no political representation. **Terms of the Devonshire White Paper** a) White highlands were reserved for European settlement only b) Indians would be allowed to elect five members to LEGCO not on a common roll, but on a communal roll. c) Racial segregation was abolished in all residential areas. d) Restriction on Indian immigration was lifted e) A nominated missionary was to represent African interests in the LEGCO. f) The European Settlers demand for self government in Kenya was rejected. g) African interests were declared paramount before those of immigrant races if there was a conflict. h) The settlers were to maintain their representation in the LEGCO. i) The Colonial Secretary was given mandate to exercise strict control over the affairs of the colony. **Implications of the Devonshire white paper. ** The issuance of the paper left the Settlers, Asians and Africans more dissatisfied than ever before as follows; On the part of the settlers; a) The Indian call for equality, to them, was unrealistic since they could not stomach the mixing of Oriental and Western cultures in Kenya. b) Since European culture was superior, they felt that racial segregation was justified in all spheres. c) To the settlers, instead of giving in the Indians grievances, they would rather give in to African demands since they had moral rights to protect African interests. ----- 289 ### d) To them, the white highlands were primarily theirs and they had a legal claim over ***On the Asian part; *** a) They wanted equality of all races instead of settler dominance in Kenya especially pertaining to settlement in the white highlands. b) They opposed policies on residential segregation and restriction on their immigration. The government was inviting more settlers to check Indian immigration into Kenya by this time. c) They wanted direct and adequate representation in the Legco based on a common roll free election (not communal roll). d) They objected separate taxation for Europeans and Indians and segregated education. The Devonshire White paper was therefore viewed as the product of the struggle between the Asians and the Europeans. The paper made the Asians join their African comrades in the struggle for freedom, especially in the trade Union Movement.Settler dominance In Kenyan affairs continued upto 1963 despite recommendations done in the white paper. **Results of the Devonshire white paper** a) The Devonshire white paper saved Kenya from becoming another Rhodesia or South Africa.The European demand for self-government was rejected. b) In theory, settlers dominance was weakened but in practice, the white paper upheld the dominance of the settlers more than that of the Africans e.g. segregation in residential areas in towns continued, they dominated the economy because they retained the white highlands. c) The paper did not satisfy the Asians since they did not gain access to the white highlands. d) Although many Asians came to Kenya, the Asians did not achieve equality with Europeans through a Common Roll. The Indian congress refused to cooperate with the government; they declined to hold elections for the Legislative Council seats offered to them. No Asian seats, five in all were occupied until 1933. e) Africans were to be represented by a nominated missionary, John Arthur, instead of representation by an African. For the first time, Africans were represented in the Legco. f) The Devonshire White Paper Benefited the Africans by declaring/recognizing Kenya as an African country where African interests should be paramount g) It failed to resolve African land and labour grievances. h) It sensitized the Africans on their plight leading to formation of politi cal parties. **URBANIZATION ** Towns that were already in existence before the advent of colonialism include Mombasa, Lamu and Malindi. Many other towns in the interior grew during the colonial period. **Factors which led to the establishment of urban centres in Kenya during the ** **colonial period ** ----- 290 ### a) Development of transport network. Construction of roads and the Uganda railway led to growth of some towns as transport terminus or along the transport lines e.g. Nairobi, Voi, Nakuru and Kisumu. b) Growth of trade in the interior of Kenya. Most towns began as trading centres for Indian commercial entrepreneurs. E.g Machakos, Nakuru, Kisumu, Nairobi and Voi. c) Development of administrative posts. The colonial government established administrative posts in various parts of the country. These posts later grew into urban centres. E.g Fort Hall, Embu, Kapsabet, Meru and Garissa. d) Rural-urban migration. The movement to urban areas by African labourers from various parts of the country led to further growth of urban centres. e) Development of agriculture. Settler farming led to growth of towns like Eldoret which began as agricultural collection centres f) Development of Agro-based industries like flour mills, meat-processing plants and sawmills which attracted labourers from all parts of the country to be transformed into urban centres. g) Development of mining activities. This stimulated development of industries in the mining areas leading to urban growth. E.g. Kakamega, Athi River and Magadi. **Why Africans moved to urban areas in colonial Kenya. ** a) The Urban centres had recreational facilities and social amenities which attracted the Africans, fed up with hardship conditions in the reserves. b) The Africans expected Job opportunities with better wages in the towns where there were industries as compared to the rural areas. c) Some Africans were escaping from forced labour and taxation. d) The African entrepreneurs wanted to take advantage of the wider markets in the towns to escape poverty in the crowded reserves. **Ways through which the colonial government controlled Africans migration to ** **urban centers. ** a) Taking headcount of those who were supposed to live in urban centres b) Enacting strict rules about migration into urban centre c) Creation of African reserves d) Ensuring that only those who had specific activities to undertake in the urban centres lived there e) Introduction of kipande system. **Positive effects of urbanization during the colonial period. ** a) It promoted interaction between people of diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds, who exchanged ideas and experiences. The centres became seedbeds of political activities that eventually culminated into the struggle for independence. b) Urbanization promoted national integration and instilled a sense of nationhood among Kenyans as it watered down the differences and prejudices between communities. ----- 291 ### c) The welfare associations formed by Africans in urban areas, like the Bara Association in Mombasa for all hinterland people, united them for a common cause by lessening ethnic hostilities. d) Through sporting and cultural activities that took place in towns, relationships between different ethnic groups and races were cemented. e) Many Africans benefitted from the numerous employment opportunities as shoe shiners and repairers, charcoal sellers, hawking in industries and in European homes. f) Due to the Abundance of labour and raw materials, industries in urban areas expanded further. **Negative effects of urbanization during the colonial period in Kenya ** a) There were inadequate housing facilities to meet the demands of the people. This led to overcrowding especially in slums/shanties led to the outbreak of diseases. Lack of planning of housing led to poor drainage and sanitation facilities. b) Africans in urban areas were subjected to racial discrimination. The social services provided to the Africans were inadequate and of poor quality. Even houses in towns were occupied according to the various racial groups, with Europeans enjoying the best facilities. c) Increased population in urban centres led to serious water shortages. d) Establishment of industries in urban centres led to pollution of the environment, whichaffected the health of the inhabitants. e) There was rampant unemployment as urban centres could not cope with the large influx of labourers and increased competition for the available jobs f) Many unemployed people in urban areas got involved in social vices / crimes such as drug abuse, alcoholism and promiscuity, due to desperation and poverty. g) Africans working in urban centres received low wages with employers taking advantage of the high supply of labour, which affected their standards of living. h) The mass rural-urban migration brought about intensification of migration regulations to control the numbers of African migrants. The Kipande system became stricter. i) Economic activities in the rural areas were disrupted by the absence of men who had moved to urban areas. Women took up mens roles. **EDUCATION AND HEALTH ** **Education. ** Formal education in colonial Kenya was provided by four groups; ~ The Christian Missionaries. ~ The Colonial government through local councils. ~ The Africans themselves. ~ Community organizations(Asians) Major milestones in the development of education in Kenya during the colonial period. ----- 292 ### Initially, the provision of education was the preserve of the missionaries. For example, the Church Missionary Society (CMS) pioneered by setting up a school at Rabai in 1844 and another in Mombasa in 1873. **Features of Missionary education ** a) It was elementary. The subjects taught included religion, writing, reading, reading, hygiene and arithmetic. b) It was industrial and technical in approach, aiming at training Africans to be carpenters, masons, agricultural assistants and shoe repairers. c) It was denominational and aimed at inculcating doctrines of a particular church in the learners. **Objectives of Missionary education. ** a) To impart in the Africans Agricultural Skills in order to promote settler farming. b) To give the Africans basic technical skills to improve their industrial knowledge. c) To train some Africans as Catechists to enhance the spread of Christianity. d) To offer Africans basic literacy and numeracy to read the bible and do simple arithmetic.Education development in Kenya in the period between 1904 and 1963 was facilitated by the following factors; 1) The WWI ex-soldiers experiences which convinced them of the advantage of higher education. 2) Increase in African nationalism that demanded for better education for Africans. 3) The need to produce better and more skilled manpower for the future independent Kenya. 4) Primary education had produced qualified children who needed higher education. In 1911, the colonial government agreed to share the burden of providing education to Africans with the missionaries. In 1913, the first Government African School was started at Machakos. It became a centre for Technical and Teacher training. In 1918, the education commission made the following far-reaching recommendations to the government in line with the Fraser Commission report of 1908 which had recommended a racially segregated system of education; a) Provision of technical education to Africans. b) Maintenance of racially segregated Schools. c) More cooperation between the colonial government and the missionaries. d) Appeals for grants-in-aid for mission schools. In 1924, a commission came to Kenya (the Phelps Stokes Commission) to look into the education situation. It recommended that Africans should receive Practical AgriculturalOriented Education suitable for rural areas. Other recommendations included; a) That there should be a uniform system of education in all government and missionary schools. ----- 293 ### b) That sufficient training for teachers and related personnel should be enhanced by establishing colleges. c) That schools should be built in the rural areas. This was done through the education ordinance of 1924. Due to its recommendations, the Native Industrial Training Centre was built at Kabete in 1924 and Jeanes School, Kabete (1925) for offering technical and industrial education. Other schools were started later at Kapsabet, Kajiado, Tambach, Kitui, Kwale, Kabianga and Kapenguria.The 1924 Education Ordinance created an advisory committee on African education. The representation to the committee was missionaries, colonial officials and settlers. The same year, more schools were built with the assistance of the newly formed Local Native Councils. In 1931, another Education Ordinance helped in the establishment of Kakamega GAS In 1932, Kisii GAS in 1934, and Kabianga. Finance for African education was to come from the colonial government.From 1925, the missionaries began providing advanced level education to Africans. Initially secondary education was the preserve of the Europeans. In 1926, the Alliance of protestant missionaries set up Alliance High School. Catholics established Kabaa in 1927 and Mangu School in Thika in 1930 for Africans. In 1938 and 1939, Maseno and St. Marys Yala were started as secondary schools. **Achievements of missionaries in provision of education. ** a) They designed a curriculum with emphasis on agriculture, tailoring, masonry and carpentry. b) They established the first secondary schools for Africans such as Alliance (1926), Kabaa (1927), Maseno (1938 and Yala (1939). c) They trained African teachers to man the Bush Schools (schools found in remote areas consisting of mud huts with grass-thatched roofs) and teach in independent schools. d) They offered the necessary financial and material support to make these schools operational. Secondary schools for whites included Prince of Wales (Nairobi School), and Duke of York (Lenana School) for European boys, Kenya Girls High School (Kenya High) and Limuru Girls for European Girls.Schools for Indians include the Asian Railway School (1904) and other schools developed by the government in Mombasa and Nairobi. Also community-based schools like Allidina Visram and the Arya Samaj Foundation.Hospital School became the first multi-racial school in 1953.In 1934, a District Education Board was created to plan education in districts, establish primaryschools and manage the schools.In 1949, the Beecher Committee was instituted to look into African education From 1961, Asian and African pupils begun to join European schools.Provision of elementary education by Africans was pioneered by John Owalo of the Nomiya Luo Mission in 1910. ----- 294 ### **University Education. ** Africans in Kenya got opportunity for university education at Makerere which was established in 1922 initially as a technical college and became an affiliate of the University of London on 1949. In 1954, the Royal Technical College, Nairobi began to offer higher education and became an affiliate of the university of London in 1959 to offer the first degree courses in 1961 when it became known as the royal college. **Community based education** This was done mainly by Asian families of Ismaili and Arya Samaj for the Indian traders in urban areas. Allidina Visram, A wealthy man, also established centres of higher education. **African Role in educational provision** Africans began their own schools for the following reasons; a) They wanted to protect certain cultural practices like feral circumcision and polygamy. b) They wanted to access higher education, since the government and missionaries were only offering them technical and industrial education, so that to be able to compete for the white-collar jobs with other races. c) They would also use the schools as a forum to air their grievances and to create political awareness in their community. The Nomiya Luo Mission built several schools in Nyanza between 1908 and 1910. Other schools were built in Gem-Luanda region between 1913 and 1918 and in central Kenya in 1923 in Kiambu. In 1934, the Kikuyu Independent Schools Association (KISA) and the Kikuyu Karinga Education Association founded more schools. In 1938, Githunguri Teacher Training College had been established under Mbiyu Koinange. **Health. ** **Developments in provision of health services in colonial Kenya** Initially, just like in the case of education, the Christian missionaries were concerned with provision of health services in colonial Kenya. The colonial government was majorly concerned with eradication of plague, malaria and sleeping disease which the Pioneer European settlers suffered from. Preventive medicine was later introduced to help stop various infections of killer diseases.The Church of Scotland Mission and the Church Missionary Society soon opened medical facilities in Kikuyu (1902), Kaimosi (1903), Kaloleni (1904) and Maseno (1905). Dr, Arthur, a missionary and pioneer doctor, put up the Thogoto Mission Hospital in 1907 and the facility exists prominently upto today as the Kikuyu Eye Unit Hospital and Kikuyu Rehabilitation Centre. **Objectives of the Health centres. ** a) To eradicate diseases such as smallpox, malaria and sleeping sickness. b) To train medical personnel to handle western medicine. c) To improve health and hygiene for Africans and Asians in towns where they lived in overcrowded areas lacking in sanitary facilities. ----- 295 ### Africans began being trained in the provision of emergence health services during the first war. (The East African Medical Corps was formed). Between 1919 1922, missionaries began to train Africans as Medical Dressers and Dispensers. After the opening of the Alliance medical college in 1920 and the establishment of a Medical training centre under the Nurses and Midwives Ordinance many African school leavers trained as laboratory and pharmacy assistants.A Public Health Ordinance was passed in 1921 giving the Medical Department powers to institute measures for the control of malaria and prevent communicable diseases. As a follow up to the 1921 Ordinance, new health units were established in the four different African reserves. The Rural Dispensary System was established to supplement the missionary efforts in provision of health care. Health centres were built in rural areas as part of the colonial government efforts to improve health facilities.After 1945, the Development and Research Authority (DARA) gave 47,000 sterling pounds for health care and improvement of health services. In 1949, the Bureau of Medical Research was set up as an agency of the East African High Commission.In 1950 King George IV hospital (today the Kenyatta National Hospital) was started as a hospital for Africans and in 1951, it started training female nurses.By 1962, there were over 100 rural health centres in the country. **Role of Africans in Health Provision** Africans were more pre-occupied with superstitions and over-reliance on traditional medicine which negated their participation in provision healthcare..The traditional medicinemen were dismissed by missionaries despite their wealthy knowledge on herbal Medicine. Today, many people rely on traditional herbalists to compliment healthcare provision. **POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN ** **KENYA (1919-1963) ** **Early Political Organizations In Kenya Upto 1939** African participation in the First World War contributed to rapid political developments in Kenya in the following ways; a) When many African from different communities and countries met, they realized that they shared numerous interests and problems which necessitated political unity. b) The Africans disapproval of the Whitemans immortality during the war, as he could also get wounded, die and suffer like them. This motivated them to strive for equal rights when they came back. c) The introduction of many unfair measures after the war made their lives difficult. For example, governor Northey introduced the Soldier settlement scheme in 1919 to settle British ex-soldiers while African ex-soldiers got a raw deal. **Other factors for the rise of early political organizations included; ** a) The introduction of the Kipande system in 1920 which was used to force Africans to provide labour for the European settlers. ----- 296 ### b) The replacement of the Indian Rupee with the shilling in 1921 meant that those in possession of the rupee had valueless money at a short notice. c) The reduction of African wages and the increase in hut tax and poll tax in 1920 from 10 to 16 shillings. d) The change of status of Kenya from a protectorate to a colony in 1920 which d awned on the Africans that the Whiteman was here to stay unless this move was fought. **Kikuyu Association ** This was the first political organization in Kenya. It was founded in 1920 by Loyalist Kikuyu chiefs, concerned about the continued grabbing of African land for European settlement.They also complained about the planned reduction of African wages after the replacement of the rupee with the shilling, the kipande system which they equated to slavery.The patron was Paramount Chief Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu and Chief Koinange wa Mbiyu was the president. The secretary was I.M.Ishmael. Other members were Josiah Njonjo, Philip Karanja, Mathew Njoroge and Waweru wa Mahui. The Association, being made of loyalist chiefs, was never aggressive in its demands. The members therefore failed to get any meaningful concessions from the government.Later, Harry Thuku and Abdalla Tairara joined the association together with other Christian converts who were labourers, colonial house servants and clerks in Nairobi and central Kenya.When Thuku tried to introduce radicalism in the Association, he was forced to decamp on 7 [th] June 1921 and founded the Young Kikuyu Association. **The East African Association. ** It began off as Young Kikuyu Association (YKA) in 1921 having been inspired by the Young Buganda Association in Uganda. Its founders included Harry Thuku, Abdalla Tairara, Mwalimu Hamisi and Muhamed Sheikh.Harry Thuku, the leading founder of this association was a mission educated elite who was working as a telephone operator in Nairobi. He became dissatisfied with the nonaggressiveness of the Kikuyu Association which was dominated by loyalist chiefs, in pressing the colonial government for Africans demands.YKA being very aggressive demanded; ~ The return of African land. ~ Better working conditions for Africans. ~ Reduction of taxes. ~ Withdrawal of Kipande system which had been introduced in 1920. ~ Increase in wages. YKA incorporated other ethnic community members thus necessitating it to change the name to the East African Association in July 1921. The officials included Harry Thuku (Chairman) George Samuel Okoth, Abdalla Tairara, Kibwana Kambo, Jesse Kangethe, Z. K. Sentongo from Uganda, Maitei ole Mootian, Molanket ole Sempele from Tanzania, James Mwanthi and Muhamed Sheikh. EAA became a very popular association in the 1920s attracting huge crowd in its meetings. ----- 297 ### **Grievances of the East African Association ** ~ They were demanding for the removal of the status of Kenya as a colonial territory. ~ They were demanding for a common roll for all in the legislative council elections. ~ They wanted the return of the alienated land, back to African owners. ~ They were opposed to forced labour. ~ They wanted more educational facilities and opportunities for Africans. ~ They were demanding that all labour in urban areas be paid fair wages. ~ They wanted the compulsory selling of cattle be stopped. ~ Removal of Kipande System. ~ Protested European domination of government. ~ Wanted hut tax that was exclusively paid by Africans abolished. Due to the radical approach that was adopted by Harry Thuku, the colonial Governor had him arrested on 15 [th] March 1922 and detained at the Kingsway Police Station (now Nairobi Central Police Station). On 16 [th] March 1922, a Kikuyu Woman, Muthoni Nyanjiru, challenged the African men to violence demanding the release of Thuku. More than 21 people including Muthoni Nyanjiru, were killed when the police opened fire on the over 1000 people who were surging forward.Harry Thuku was deported to Kisimayu. His colleagues Waiganjo and Mugekenji were banished to Lamu as EAA was banned. **Consequences of Harry Thukus arrest** a) The political parties that succeeded the EAA continued using even more radical approach when they realized that the colonial government was determined to continue using Iron Rule in Kenya. b) Governor Edward Northey was recalled to London by the then Colonial Secretary, Sir Winston Churchill due to the way he mishandled the Thuku affair. c) The colonial government did not allow formation of any other countrywide political Associations among Africans until 1945. d) Thuku became the undisputed flag-bearer of Kenyan Nationalism prior to formation of later political parties. **The kikuyu central association. ** When EAA was banned, its former officials Joseph Kangethe and Jesse Kariuki founded the Kikuyu central Association. It was formed in 1924 at Kahuhia, Fort Hall with Kangethe becoming the president and Henry Gichuru, secretary. Job Muchuchu (Treasurer), James Beauttah (secretary-general) and Jesse Kariuki (vice-president). All these were extremist politicians whose activities were closely monitored by the government. **Grievances of the Kikuyu Central Association. ** ~ They were demanding for the removal of the 1915 Crown Land Ordinance that made Africans mere tenants and not real owners of their land. ~ They were demanding for African representation in the Legislative Council. ~ They were opposed to forced labour. ----- 298 ### ~ They wanted free primary education as opposed to the colonial education system. ~ Establishment of a secondary school, training facility for hospital workers and a school for girls. ~ Removal of kipande system. ~ They demanded that all colonial laws be translated into Gikuyu Language so that all members of the community could understand them. ~ They demanded for the appointment of a well-educated Paramount Chief elected by the majority of the Agikuyu. ~ Wanted hut tax abolished and other taxes reduced ~ They advocated for the growing of coffee and other cash crops by Africans. ~ To work towards the restoration of alienated African land. ~ To pressurize the colonial government to abolish racial segregation. ~ Respect of African culture & customs e.g. Circumcision/polygamy ~ Agitating release of political prisoners e.g. Harry Thuku. By 1925, KCA had attracted membership from all large urban centres in Kenya and the Kikuyu squatters in the Rift Valley. They presented their demands to Governor Grigg when he visited Fort Hall in 1925.In 1927, KCA relocated its headquarters from Muranga to Nairobi in order to link up with other Kenyan elites. In 1928, Jomo Kenyatta became its Secretary- General, taking over from James Beauttah who had been transferred from Nairobi in an act of sabotage by the government. Kenyatta started the Association newspaper, Muigwithania which was instrumental in reviving the cultural values of the Agikuyu.When the Hilton Young Commission was formed in 1927 to look into the question of the federation of Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika, KCA through Jomo Kenyatta presented the following demands to it; ~ Introduction of free primary education for Africans. ~ Provision of secondary and higher education for Africans. ~ Abolition of kipande system ~ Appointment of Africans to LEGCO ~ Release of Harry Thuku ~ Giving of Title Deeds to Africans as a guarantee against any further land alienation. ~ Rejection of the proposed East Africa Federation KCA championed female circumcision arguing that it was a beautiful cultural practice which eradicated prostitution in the community. When the Church of Scotland Mission, African inland Mission and CMS expelled all sympathizers with the practice from their missions, KCA responded by leading the pack in the beginning of independent schools and churches.KCA sent Jomo Kenyatta, accompanied by Parmenas Mukiri, to present Agikuyu grievances in 1929 to the colonial office in London. It also helped kikuyu elders in preparing evidence to the Kenya Land Commission in 1931.Rivalry for power within the KCA between 1931 and 1938 nearly rocked the association.The Association was banned in 1940 alongside others. ----- 299 ### **Kavirondo Tax Payers and Welfare Association ** It started as Young Kavirondo Association (YKA) in December 1921 at a Baraza held in Ludha, central Nyanza, by mission educated Luo and Luhyia men. The meeting was meant to discuss issues affecting African communities.The official of the Association were Jonathan Okwiri (chairman), Simon Nyende (Treasurer), Benjamin Owuor (secretary), Rueben Omulo, Ezekiel Apindi, George Samuel Okoth, Mathayo Otieno, Joel Omino and Jolmeo Okaka. The demands of the YKA included; ~ They were demanding for addressing of the problem of change of the status of Kenya from a protectorate to colonial territory. ~ Demanded for a government school to be built in central Nyanza. ~ Demanded for a self- government for nyanza province with a separate legislative council and an elected African president. ~ They were opposed to forced labour and labour camps. ~ An end to land alienation. ~ Creation of the position of paramount chief for central and southern Nyanza, just like Mumias was for northern Nyanza. ~ Removal of Kipande System. ~ Demanded to be given title deeds for their land. ~ Wanted hut tax removed. ~ The advocated for better wages. The members presented their demands to the Nyanza PC in May 1922 and met governor Northey in Kisumu in July 1922 at Nyahera in Kisumu. The governor agreed to authorize the closing down of labour camps and reduce taxation. However, the revocation of the Crown Colony Status was out of question.In 1923, however, government, alarmed by the mobilization level of YKA in Nyanza, compromised its leadership and Jonathan Okwiri handed over chairmanship to Archdeacon Owen fearing the banning of the association the way EAA had been.Under Owen YKA changed its name to KTWA with its emphasis shifting from political grievances to social grievances focusing on killing rats, digging latrines and keeping compounds clean. It also adopted the use of written memoranda in expressing their grievances. All Nyanza chiefs became Vice-presidents of the association under its new constitution.In 1931, the association split up into Luo and Luyia Factions due to disagreements. The Abaluhyia faction formed the North Kavirondo Central Association that had close links with the KCA. It was formed with the objective of stopping any further land alienation for European use without compensation, especially after the 1930s Kakamega Gold rush.By 1944, many of the top leaders of the KTWA had been co-opted into the colonial administration with Okwiri becoming a chief. Benjamin Owuor, Nyende and Okwiri were made members of the LNC in central Nyanza. KWTA was therefore weakened and became extinct in 1944. ----- 300 ### **Ukamba Members Association ** UMA was formed in 1938 by Samuel Muindi Mbingu (Chairman), Elijah Kavula (Vice- chairman), Isaac Mwalozi (secretary) and Simon Kioko (treasurer) as an association of the Akamba of the eastern part of Kenya.The leaders who founded this association were closely associated with East African Association of Harry Thuku. For example, James Mwanthi, Ali Kilonzi and Muhamed Sheikh. **Reasons for the formation of Ukamba Members Association ** a) The Akamba wanted to fight against land alienation for European ranchers causing shortage of land for grazing. b) To oppose the colonial policy of de-stocking who argued that overstocking was responsible for soil erosion in Kitui and Machakos regions. In 1936, the Liebigs Group established a meat processing plant to effect the de-stocking policy. c) To oppose heavy taxation. d) To represent the Akamba peoples interests. e) To fight for the Akamba rights and freedoms They wrote memorandum to the colonial government with the assistance of Asian lawyers. It mobilized people to fight for their rights through meetings and signing of petitions. They got support from KCA and the Asian representative to the Legco, Isher Das.The association used Muigwithania journal of KCA to advance their cause. On 28 [th] July 1938, UMA members including women and children demonstrated and marched to Nairobi with their cattle to seek audience with the governor over destocking and grazing policies. They staged a sit in Nairobi for 6 weeks led by Muindi Mbingu until the governor conceded to their demands at a meeting in Machakos. However, their leader, Muindi Mbingu was arrested in September 1938 and deported to Lamu until 1946. The Association was banned at the beginning of World War II. **Problems that faced UMA in its operations** a) The colonial government had a negative attitude towards the activities of the association. This discouraged open participation. b) Arrest of their leader Muindi Mbingu and his deportation to Lamu demoralized the movement. c) The Association alongside others was banned, with the World War II looming. **Coast Africa Association ** The Association was formed in 1943 with Noah Mwana Sele as president, Muhamed bin Mwichande as vice president, E.W. Timothy as secretary General and H.G.Banks as honorary treasurer. Other officials were Muhamed bin Omar, Enoch Benjamin and H. Harrison. **Demands of Coast Africa Association. ** a) The demanded for improved education and the general welfare of Africans in the coastal region ----- 301 ### b) The elevation of Shimo la Tewa to a high school. c) The establishment of evening classes in the region so as to give African adults a chance to pursue basic western education. d) to protest inadequate healthcare services for the Africans. e) They were demanding for appointment of Africans as administrators. f) They demanded that tax collected from African drinks be used to develop African rural areas. g) They demanded for the revocation of allocation of Mijikenda land to Asians and Arabs. h) They demanded for African representation of Coast region in the LEGCO in 1947. Unlike other Associations CAA did not present their grievances in political meetings bur instead used written memoranda and also their newspaper, the Coast African Express whose editor wads Elkana Young. This explains why the association existed while others had been banned. ***In 1955 however, the association began to disintegrate due to the following reasons; *** a) The departure of their leaders Francis Khamisi and Ronald Ngala who joined the Mombasa African democratic union and the LEGCO. b) Leadership wrangles based on ethnic consideration. c) Shortage of funds to run the activities of the association. It succeeded in achieving elevation of Shimo la Tewa school into a high school and a Legco position for the Mijikenda. **Taita hills Association ** It was formed on 22nd June 1939, being modeled on the KCA and UMA styles. Its objectives were; ~ To achieve equal political status with whites and Asians. ~ To help the Taita community to advance. ~ To protest the destocking policy. Most of the fertile land of the community had been occupied by European settlers who were growing coffee on it. ~ Oppose the plan to relocate the Wada Wida people from Taita hills to Samburu to create room for settlers. ~ They were opposed to the kipande system and forced labour. The Europeans forced the Wataita to work on coffee plantations and ferry the coffee over long distances for low wages.The pioneer founder of the Association was Daniel Mapinga, a young catechist, who began mobilizing the Wataita against oppressive measures used by the colonial government. Unfortunately he died in 1837.In 1939, Woresho Kolandi Mengo, Jimmy Mwambichi and Paul Chumbo took over his course and established THA with the help of KCA leadership. **Achievements** a) The association succeeded in stopping the governments plan to relocate the Wada Wida people from Taita hills to Samburu to create room for settlers. ----- 302 ### b) The colonial government stopped the de-stocking plan among the Wataita. c) The government revised the Taita reserve boundaries and reduced the land initially carved for European settlers. **Problems experienced ** a) It failed to attract prominent personalities I Tata. b) It lacked support of all the African groups in the region. For example the Wataveta and Wagisiga were reluctant to join THA. c) The association was banned alongside others in May 1940. d) Their leader Mwambichi was deported after being arrested. **Problems faced by early political organizations. ** a) Their members were subjected to harassment by the colonial government, especially arresting and dispersing demonstrators. b) The organizations were demoralized through the deportation of the leaders like Thuku (EAA). Muindi Mbingu (UMA) and Mwambichi (THA). c) The associations experienced political wrangles between members as witnessed in KCA between 1931 1nd 1839 and CAA upon departure of its tow key leaders. d) Many of the leaders of the organizations had little experience in running political parties and therefore mismanaged their offices. e) The organizations were faced with financial inadequacy. Many Africans were experiencing financial problems due to land alienation, taxation and poor working conditions and therefore could not adequately contribute to the associations. f) There was a lot of disunity since most organizations were ethnic-based **Features of the political associations formed in Kenya before 1939 ** a) They lacked a national outlook since they were ethnic (tribal based/oriented/urban based). Most of them were confined to one or two ethnic communities except EAA. b) Most of them received material and moral support from the Asians c) Mission-Educated African young men led them. For example, Harry Thuku, Okwiri and Mwambichi. d) They were formed in response to socio-economic and land problems of various ethnic groups. e) They all agitated for an end to European exploitation and oppression rather than demand for political independence. f) Most of them did not attract large membership due to their ethnic tendency. g) They were non-militant and tended to be moderate and their demanded. h) They were characterized by squabbles over leadership. **Achievements of early political parties. ** a) They provided political education to the African communities through their political rallies. ----- 303 ### b) They communicated the communities feelings to the colonial government through publications, memoranda or speeches. c) They defended the African cultures against further erosion by the European missionaries. For example KCA defended female circumcision among agikuyu. d) They re-awakened the masses by making them conscious of the political situation in the country. d) Some succeeded in to stop further land alienation by restraining the Europeans from displacing the Africans to the reserves. For example THA succeeded in stopping the governments plan to relocate the Wada Wida people from Taita hills to Samburu to create room for settlers. e) The played the role of trade Unionism by fighting for the welfare of the workers in the absence of formal trade unions. f) They publicized Africans grievances to the international community. For Example, the role played by Jomo Kenyatta on behalf of KCA. g) They pioneered in the growth of nationalism by forging inter-community relations in the struggle for independence. **EMERGENCE OF INDEPENDENT CHURCHES AND SCHOOLS MOVEMENT ** **IN KENYA ** This was an expression of African protest against European interference with traditional African economic and political organization. **Reasons why independent churches and schools emerged in Kenya** a) The desire by majority of Africans to retain their cultural values while at the same time converting to Christianity. Many were unhappy with the western influence of Christian missionaries who taught against traditional customs. b) Africans were unhappy with the 3Rs style of education in mission schools which only prepared them for low positions in government or employment on European farms and homes. They desired to be equal to Europeans and Asians. c) Independent schools emerged as a reaction against colonial domination and exploitation in terms of taxation, kipande, forced labour and racial discrimination. d) Africans desired leadership in their own churches instead of being led by European missionaries whom they viewed as agents of colonialism. e) The role played by Africans like John Owalo and Elijah Masinde who claimed to have received divine calls to begin independent churches. f) Some Africans felt dissatisfied with the interpretation of the scriptures. The Holy Spirit Church, for example, broke away on this account. g) Some churches were formed to allow Africans to express their Christianity freely through dancing, singing and drum beating which many mission churches did not accommodate. h) Characteristics of independent churches and schools. **Characteristics of independent churches and schools. ** ----- 304 ### a) All of them accommodated African cultural values. b) Both churches and schools valued Christianity and western education but were against the westernizing influence by missionaries. c) Africans held positions of leadership in the churches and schools. d) Most Churches and schools worked closely with the African political association. **The independent churches movement in Nyanza. ** John Owalo is credited for leading in the establishment of independent churches in nyanza. He stared as a Roman Catholic, then joined the Church of Scotland mission (CSM) at Kikuyu before moving to the CMS first in Nairobi, then defected to Maseno. The reason why Owalo suffered from denominational defection is because he was seeking for a mission church that accommodated African cultural values and where Africans could be given a say I terms of leadership and worship. In 1907, Owalo claimed to have received a direct call from God with instructions to begin his own church. Though CMS at Maseno dismissed him as a lunatic, the colonial authority (Nyanza PC John Ainsworth) granted Owalo permission to start his own mission. In 1910, he founded the Nomiya Luo Church, which became the first independent church in Kenya. Owalo proclaimed himself as a prophet equating similar to Jesus. Other independent churches in Nyanza included; 1) Dini ya Roho (Holy Spirit Church) founded among the Luhyia in 1927 as a breakaway from the Friends African Mission. The members claimed to speak in tongues and believed in baptism by the holy spirit, 2) Joroho church founded by Alfayo Odongo Mango in 1932 among the Luo. It was similar to Dini ya Roho. 3) The Christian Universal Evangelical Union founded in 1938 In Siaya by Ismael Noo, a school teacher linked to the Anglican Church at Maseno. He began off as one of the leaders of the revival movement at Maseno, which emphasized salvation by the blood of Jesus and public confession of sin. His movement insisted that men and women should have sexual intercourse since they were saved. His church attracted many women and soon he was accused of infidelity with peoples wives.He officially broke away from the Anglican Church at a convention at Nyabondo in Nyakach to establish the Christian Evangelical Union. The church is currently known as the Christian Evangelical Church, having changed its name in 1965. **The independent churches and schools movement in central Kenya ** Due to its proximity to Nairobi, the seat of colonial administration, central Kenya experienced the presence of white settlers more than any other region in Kenya. The schools established by the so many missionary groups in the region only aimed at imparting basic literacy and numeracy skills to African converts. As the evangelized, the \missionary groups condemned many traditional African practices and values like polygamy, consumption of traditional brews and female circumcision. It is behind this backdrop that independent churches and schools emerged in central Kenya. ----- 305 ### **Kikuyu Independent schools** Kikuyu elders out of the desire for western education for their children, without necessarily being Europeanized, set up independent schools. In 1913, a Kikuyu elder, Mukunga wa Njehu, donated land at Gaithieko, Kiambu where the first independent school In central kenya was built.In 1925, another school had been built and registered at Githunguri.The independent Schools Movement emerged in the 1920s as a result of the expulsion from mission schools of the children of the supporters of female circumcision. The two bodies that emerged as a consequence were Kikuyu Independent Schools ***Association (KISA) and the Kikuyu Karinga Educational Association (KKEA) *** **The Kikuyu Independent Schools Association** The Body was closely associated with the Independent Pentecostal Church and was predominantly in Muranga, Nyeri and Embu. Following a showdown over female circumcision, the kikuyu elders got permission from the DC to build a prayer House around Gituamba on land donated by two elders, Kagere Gatundu and Gathai Gachohi of Thiru sub-location. Between 1929 and 1932, a school was set up at the church. This success inspired the emergence of similar churches and schools in Mariira, Kahiti and Gakarara in Kandara, Muranga.In 1934, KISA was established to coordinate the efficient running of these schools with its leaders including Daudi Maina Kiragu, Musa Muriithi, Hezekiah Gachui, Peter Gathecha and Johana Njoroge.The Association had the responsibility of establishing more schools and maintaining them as well as mobilizing funds for teacher training programmes. Their activities got the support of the colonial authorities which even permitted establishment of more schools that must be registered at the DOs office.By 1935, KISA had established 34 independent schools with an enrolment of 2,518 pupils. Similar schools emerged in the Rift Valley among the kikuyu squatters. **Challenges encountered by KISA. ** a) There were inadequate funds to support the large number of pupils and schools. b) Many teachers were untrained. c) Many of the KISA leaders lacked proper management skills. d) Mission schools fought the efforts of KISA leaders. e) There were disagreements among KISA leaders where some demanded for money for the land they had donated for the schools.The independent churches also suffered from lack of ordained ministers. This problem was solved when KCA invited the Most Reverend William Alexander, the Archbishop of the African Orthodox Church in South Africa in 1935, who established a seminary at Gituamba and ordained Daudi Maina Kiragu, Philip Kiande and Harrison Gachukia Kimanga as Ministers.In 1937 after Archbishop Alexander had left, Daudi Maina Kiragu and Harrison Gachukia Kimanga broke away and formed the African Independent Pentecostal Church which they claimed was independent from external influence.In 1938, KISA named their church the Independent Pentecostal Church. ----- 306 ### By 1952, at the time of its banning, KISA had 168 schools with an enrolment of 60,000 pupils in central Kenya and rift valley. **Kikuyu Karinga Educational Association** The association emerged out of a split at the Gituamba between the Muranga group and the -Kiambu members who were radical and were more closely associated with KCA. The term Karinga means pure implying unpolluted kikuyu customs and values. KKEA was opposed to all forms of cooperation with either the missionaries or the colonial authority.By 1940, it had established 12 schools in Kiambu and 11 in the rift valley. By 1952, it had established schools at Moshi and Arusha in Tanganyika. It established its own church in 1952(the African Orthodox Church of Kenya), relying on church ministers trained at Gituamba seminary. It was led by Arthur Gathuna and Philip KiandeThe Association was banned in 1952 after declaration of a State of Emergency.In 1939, the Kenya Teachers Training College was established at Githunguri, Kiambu, to train teachers for the independent schools. Mbiyu Koinange was the first principal. It was closed in 1952 alongside other independent schools. **Problems faced by independent churches and schools** a) Poor leadership as many churches and schools were led by people without any management experience. Many of them lacked trained personnel who could run them efficiently. b) They faced a lot of hostility from the colonial government and missionaries who constantly harassed them. c) Ideological differences among their leaders on which name to adopt. There were also many leadership squabbles as all founders wanted to be recognized. d) The schools were forced to follow the official syllabus and become members of the District Education Board. e) The independent churches and schools competed with mission churches and schools for followers with the later declaring war on certain African practices **POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS AND MOVEMENTS AFTER 1945. ** ***Factors that hastened political development in Kenya after 1945. *** a) The Acquisition of western education by many Africans by 1945 which enabled them to articulate their grievances more forcefully and to understand political developments outside Kenya. b) The return of the ex-servicemen after the second world war which exposed the myth of the white supremacy making Africans ready to fight them. Moreover, the colonial government failed to reward African ex-soldiers to embitter them more. c) The change of government from Conservative to Labour Party in Britain in 1946 stimulated a new attitude in Britain towards decolonization. Africans in Kenya took advantage of this attitude. d) The granting of independence to India and Pakistan in 1947 aroused great confidence among Africans in Kenya to also clamour for their own independence. ----- 307 ### e) The rise of Pan-Africanism in Africa after the 1945 Manchester conference contributed to the new demands for political independence in Kenya. f) The formation of the UNO and the pressure it exerted on the European powers to decolonize helped the Kenyans in their course. g) The emergence of United States and the Soviet Union as super powers in the world contributed to the decolonization process. USA was keen to see Britain and France grant independence to their subjects in the world in order to secure new markets. h) The signing of the Atlantic Charter in 1941 by Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt which demanded that when the WWII ended, all subject peoples should enjoy the right to self-determination. i) The costs incurred by the European nations during WW2 made their taxpayers become reluctant to raise any more funds for colonial expenditures. **Characteristics of political parties formed after 1945. ** a) They had a national outlook as members were drawn from different ethnic groups b) Their main objectives was to fight for independence c) Educated elites led them d) They had a large membership. e) They demanded for fair taxation for Africans. f) They all demanded for improved conditions for African workers. g) They all demanded for the return of alienated land. **Kenya African Study Union ** When Eliud Mathu was nominated to the Legco on 10 [th] October 1944, a number of well educated Africans led by Francis Khamisi agreed to form Kenya African Union (KAU) with the following objectives;. a) To assist Mathu in his new task as the first African nominated to the LEGCO. b) To create a Multi-ethnic political grouping representing the interests and constitutional rights of all Africans effectively. c) To advocate for more constitutional reforms for Africans. d) To demand for better living and working conditions. The interim officials were Harry Thuku (chairman), Francis Khamisi (Secretary) and Albert Owino (treasurer). Other officials were James Gichuru, John Kebaso, Simeon Mulandi, Harry ole Nangurai, S.0. Josiah, F.M. Nganga, Jimmy Jeremiah, J.D. Otiende and S.D. Jakay.Two weeks after its formation, the governor ordered its officials to change its name to the Kenya African Study Union as it was meant to help Mathu in studying African problems.In January 1945, James Gichuru became the president of KASU after Harry Thuku resigned, being unable to cope with radicalism in the union. Under Gichuru, KASU published a newspaper - Sauti ya Mwafrika that concentrated on African grievances and the proposed East African Federation which they opposed. The organization rejected proposals to give more powers to European members in the Executive council. They refused to accept a European dominated government of the East ----- 308 ### African Federation. Later in 1946 on KASU changed its name to KAU feeling that the former name was inappropriate. **Kenya African Union ** Formed in February 1946, the main demands of KAU were; ~ They protested against inadequate African representation in the LEGCO. ~ They protested against the lack of Participation of Africans in the governance of Kenya. They even demanded for Self-government for Africans. ~ They were against the continued existence of the Kipande System and forced labour. ~ They demanded improvement of the African working conditions with better wages equal to what was paid to other races. ~ They demanded an end to Land alienation and racial discrimination. ~ They demanded an end to Imposition of taxes. ~ They demanded compensation of ex-servicemen. ~ They were protesting against Lack of education opportunities for Africans. The return to Kenya by Kenyatta in 1946 marked the beginning of mass nationalism. On 1 [st] June 1947, Kenyatta became president of KAU after Gichuru stepped down for him. W.W.W. Awori was elected vice-president and Ambrose Ofafa and Muchohi Gikonyo were elected treasurer and secretary respectively.Kenyatta travelled widely in Kenya where he urged people to join KAU. After 1947 KAU began to face the problem of a standoff between Radicals like Fred Kubai and Paul Ngei who wanted to use force to acquire independence, and moderates like Kenyatta himself. Radicals who included Bildad Kaggia took over the Nairobi branch of KAU.When the national delegates conference was held in 1951, Jomo Kenyatta retained presidency, J.D. Otiende became secretary General, PAUL Ngei assistant SG and Ole Nangurai Treasurer. Between 1948 and 1950, KAU faced serious financial problems even failing to pay rent for its offices at the IBEA building. **Other problems that faced KAU ** a) Kenyatta also appeared too busy to run the affairs of the party as he doubled up as the Principal of Githunguri TTC. b) The party also faced a lot of hostility from the colonial government and the white settlers. c) There were rampant ethnic divisions within the membership of KAU being complicated by the fact that the party appeared to be dominated by one ethnic group, the kikuyu. d) Majority of the African population, who were illiterate, lacked political awareness under could not understand the political efforts required of them. When the Mau Mau movement began, the Nairobi office of Kubai, J.M.Mungai and Kaggia worked closely with it. KAU continued to expand its membership in Kenya with Ramogi Achieng Oneko opening a branch in Kisumu in 1951, Johana Adala and Boaz Muha opened a branch in ----- 309 ### Maragoli and Muinga Chokwe opened one in Mombasa.In 1952, KAU rallies were banned outside Nairobi after a political meeting in Nyeri, attended by the leader of Mau Mau, Dedan Kimathi, which attracted over 25,000 people thus startling the government. When a state of emergency was declared in 1952, KAU leaders were arrested for being behind Mau Mau. Walter Odede became the acting president, Joseph Murumbi acting secretary and W.W.W.Awori-acting treasurer.The acting official presented a 24-point memoranda to Oliver Lyttelton, secretary of state for colonies when he came to kenya during the emergency period, demanding the release of the Kapenguria six (Jomo Kenyatta, Paul Ngei, Kungu Karumba, Bildad Kaggia, Achieng Oneko and Fred Kubai) Walter Odede, the acting president was late arrested on 9 [th] march 1953 while Murumbi escaped to Bombay, India as KAU was banned on 8 [th] June 1953. **Achievements if KAU ** a) Party members especially from the Nairobi branch gave moral and material support to the Mau Mau freedom fighters. b) The party provided guidance and political support to Eliud Mathu, the first African representative to the Legco. c) The party laid the foundation for the growth of the Kenya African National Union that ushered in independence in Kenya. d) Some of the members of the party were active members of Mau Mau. For example, Fred Kubai and Bildad Kaggia. **THE MAU-MAU REBELLION 1951 - 60 ** Mau-Mau is an abbreviation which stands for Mzungu Arudi Ulaya, Mwafrika Apate Uhuru (meaning let the white man go back to Europe and the Africans regain Independence).Sometimes the movement was referred to as the Land and Freedom Army and the Anake-aForty.Sometime in the late 1940s the General Council of the banned Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) began to make preparations for a campaign of civil disobedience involving all of the Kikuyu in order to protest the land issue. The members of this initiative were bound together through oath. The rituals obliged the oath taker to fight and defend themselves from Europeans.In These oath rituals, There were rumors about cannibalism, ritual zoophilia with goats, sexual orgies, ritual places decorated with intestines and goat eyes, and that oaths included promises to kill, dismember and burn settlers. The oaths were a cultural symbol of the solidarity that bound Kikuyu men, women and children in loyalty together in their opposition to the colonial government. It also instilled courage and unity among people,Nonetheless, the British were scared by the oath, made taking the Mau Mau oath a capital offence. The British also screened Mau Mau suspects and forced them to take a 'cleansing oath', a strange instance of colonialism 'gone native'. **CAUSES OF THE MAU-MAU REBELLION ** a) The unemployment of the ex-soldiers who had been promised jobs after the World War II, but instead were made porters on European-estates. Similarly, people were ----- 310 ### retrenched, traders pushed out to business by Asian retail trade monopoly and European settlers. b) Africans, especially the Kikuyu, wanted their land returned. By 1948, 1.25 million Kikuyu were restricted to 2000 square miles (5,200 km), while 30,000 settlers occupied 12,000 square miles (31,000 km) fertile land. In the reserves Africans suffered from congestion, starvation and diseases like typhoid, cholera. c) It was a reaction against the Kipande system. This was a method of identity cards imposed on Africans to restrict them from unnecessary movements. d) The introduction of racial discrimination in Kenya. The Europeans equated the black colour with low intelligence, uncivilized, barbaric and a backward race. All the best hotels, restaurants, schools, recreational centres and most fertile soils in Kenya were reserved for the whites only. e) Africans were fed up of heavy and harsh taxation by the Europeans. Failure to pay tax was punishable by taking away the land or even imprisonment. So the Africans were forced to go and work under harsh condition and for long hours, yet poorly paid. f) The dominance of the economy by the Asian and white settlers. The Africans were not allowed to take part in meaningful business, were not given positive consideration in awarding jobs. g) They also wanted to be exposed to the social services e.g. education. The white settlers frustrated the African efforts to set up schools even the few educated Africans were not employed in the civil service. h) Africans feared a gradual destruction of their culture by the whites e.g. the missionaries were totally against the circumcision of women among the Kikuyu and the traditional view of twins. i) Africans wanted a fair share in the administration of their country (Parliament). For a long time many Kenyans were excluded from decision making and political participation the whites and Asians in the Legislative Council did not represent their interests. j) The return of Jomo Kenyatta in the 1950s after his studies in Europe, he came back with a wider vision to convince the Kenyans about their rights and they therefore united and rebelled. k) The role of educated Kenyans who aware of their rights as citizens and in turn educated the rest about their place in society. This prompted them to rebel against the whites. l) The colonial policy discouraged Africans from growing cash crops like coffee, tea, cotton, pyrethrum for fear of competition with the Africans who would grow rich and challenge the colonial administration. m) Forced labour. Africans were obliged by colonial law to offer labour on the plantation this was to be done forcefully without offering any payments. This kind of new slavery inspired the occurrence of the Mau Mau rebellion. ----- 311 ### n) Influence of the Second World War. Many Kenyans who participated in this war discovered the weakness of the white man and the loopholes in their systems of administration. These included General China, Dedan Kimathi among others who also acquired good military skills. o) The move was a quest for constitutional reforms in Kenya. African political parties had been banned with impunity and their leaders like Harry Thuku, Muindi Mbingu and Mwambichi detained p) They were protesting colonial brutality especially the mistreatment of Africans on the white farms. Many Africans were killed at the slightest excuse like in the case of the upland Bacon **Factory Massacre in September 1947. ** **The course of the uprising. ** On May 1, 1949, six trade unions formed the East African Trades Union Congress (EATUC). The union leaders joined with the "Forty Group," which was a roughly cohesive group mostly composed of African ex-servicemen conscripted in 1940 when attempts for a union members strike failed on May 16 [th] 1950. In June 1951, the urban KAU radicals (Mutonyi, Isaac Gathanga, Bildad Kaggia, Paul Ngei and Fred Kubai) created a secret Central Committee (Muhimu) to coordinate the oath campaign throughout Nairobi and outside Nairobi. It also formed armed squads to enforce its policies, protect members from the police, and kill informers and collaborators. Different leaders led the Land and Freedom Armies. Three of the dominant Active Wing leaders were Stanley Mathenge; Waruhiu Itote (known as General China), leader of Mount Kenya wing; and Dedan Kimathi, leader of Aberdare forest wing. Others were General Ndungu Gicheru, General Mwariama and General Matenjagwo (one who never shaves). Other armies were in Nairobi, Kiambu, Fort Hall and Rift Valley. They were mostly equipped with spears, simis (short swords), kibokos (rhino hide whips) and pangas (machete). Some made their own gunswhile others employed armed robberies on police stations and isolated settler homes. African and Asian merchants funded the movement by paying protection fees.On 1 [st] of October 1952, Mau Mau assassinated a Nairobi councillor, Tom Mbotela, who was a government loyalist. On 3 October, Mau Mau claimed their first European victim when they stabbed a woman to death near her home in Thika. A week later, on 9 October, Senior Chief Waruhiu, a strong supporter of the British presence in Kenya, had been shot to death in broad daylight in his car. His assassination gave Governor Baring the final impetus to declare a State of Emergency on 20 October 1952. Early the next morning, the British carried out a mass-arrest of 180 alleged Mau Mau leaders and subjected six of them to a trial (the Kapenguria Six); the real militants, such as Dedan Kimathi and Stanley Mathenge, fled to the forests. While much of the senior leadership of the Nairobi Central Committee was arrested, Local rebel committees took uncoordinated decisions to strike attack settlers and there was an abrupt rise in the destruction of European property and attacks on African ----- 312 ### loyalists. On January 24, 1953, Mau Mau, possibly former servants, killed settlers Mr. and Mrs. Ruck, as well as their six-year-old son, on their farm with pangas. White settlers reacted by dismissing all of their Kikuyu servants because of the fear that they could be Mau Mau sympathizers. Naivasha Police Station was raided in March 1953.Over 1800 loyalist Kikuyu were killed. Operating from the safety of the forests, the Mau Mau mainly attacked isolated farms at night, but occasionally also households in suburbs of Nairobi.In May 1953, the Kikuyu Home Guard became an official part of the security forces. It became the significant part of the anti-Mau Mau effort. On March25March 26, 1953, nearly 1000 rebels attacked the loyalist village of Lari, where about 170 non- combatants were hacked or burnt to death. Most of them were the wives and children of Kikuyu Home Guards serving elsewhere. In the weeks that followed, some suspected rebels were summarily executed by police and loyalist Home Guards.In June 1953 General Sir George Erskine arrived and took up the p ost of Director of Operations. A military brought in 20,000 troops who were used aggressively. The Kikuyu reserves were designated "Special Areas," where anyone failing to halt when challenged could be shot. The colonial government created so-called pseudo-gangs composed of de-oathed and turned ex-Mau Mau and allied Africans, sometimes headed by white officers. They infiltrated Mau Mau ranks and made search and destroy missions. By September 1953, the British knew the leading personalities in Mau Mau, the capture of General China in January the following year provided a massive intelligence boost on the forest fighters. On April 24, 1954, the Army launched "Operation Anvil" in Nairobi, the forest fighters' source of supplies, money and recruits, and the city was put under military control. By the end of 1954 there were 77,000 Kikuyu in concentration camps mainly deported from Nairobi. In June 1954, a policy of compulsory villagization was started in the reserves to allow more effective control and surveillance of civilians and to better protect pro- government collaborators. When the program reached completion in October 1955, 1,077,500 Kikuyu had been concentrated into 854 "villages."The last Mau Mau leader, Dedan Kimathi, was captured by Kikuyu Tribal Police on 21 October 1956 in Nyeri with 13 remaining guerrillas, and was subsequently hanged in early 1957. His capture marked the effective end of the Uprising, though some Mau Mau remained in the forests until 1963 and the Emergency remained in effect until January 1960. **Mau war by other communities ** ~ In April 1953, a Kamba Central Committee was formed by Kamba rebels who were all railway men and effectively controlled the railway workforce. They organized acts of sabotage against the railway lines during the emergency. ~ Rebel Maasai bands became active in Narok district before being crushed by soldiers and police who were tasked with preventing a further spread of the rebellion. ~ In Maragoli, Chief Mukudi of Bunyore was associated with the movement. ~ Other communities involved were the Kipsigis section of kalenjin, Luo etc. ----- 313 ### **Factors, which facilitated the MAU MAU uprising. ** a) Oathing, which united the people and gave them the courage, determination and momentum for the rebellion course. b) The use of guerilla tactics ensured less loss of life and prolonged war. It made it difficult for the British to suppress the rebellion. c) The support to the fighters from the civilians who supplied food, water, spying etc. d) Strong leadership for the movement by people like Dedan Kimathi, Waruhiu Itote (General China), Stanley Mathenge and General Matenjagwo. e) The deep resentment of the people against the Europeans gave them the reason to continue fighting. f) The natural forests of Mount Kenya and Aberdere ranges provided good hideouts for the fighters. g) The fighters had enough weapons. They accessed weapons like the homemade guns, swords and Machette to add to what they were able to seize from the settlers. **Problems that faced Mau Mau Rebellion ** a) The fighters lacked transport and communication facilities. b) They were faced with adverse weather conditions, operating in the Aberdere and MountKenya Forests that were extremely cold. c) In the Wild environment, they were frequently attacked by wild animals. d) They lacked proper fighting equipment when compared to the weaponry of the Europeans. e) They faced brutality from the British forces when they were retaliating. f) There were constant divisions and disagreements among the fighters. g) The movement suffered from the infiltration of spies in form of pseudo-gangs who exposed their military strategies. h) The movement suffered from lack of proper coordination due to the use of forest hideouts and mountain terrain by the guerrillas which prevented them from developing a wellcoordinated strategy. i) The arrest of the movements key leaders General China and Dedan Kimathi dealt in a devastating blow. j) The movement suffered from a disjointed recruitment process with some fighters being coerced into membership which put their loyalty to doubt. **Results of the Mau Mau uprising** a) Many people died as a result of the war. The official number of Kenyans killed was estimated at 11,503 by British sources. More than 1,800 Kenyan civilians and 32 British civilians were killed by Mau Mau militants. b) The war attracted the attention of British citizens and international community to the crimes committed by the colonial administration. British forces committed widespread human rights abuses, including rape, torture and castration. ----- 314 ### c) Many Africans were arrested and detained while thousands were seriously injured during the interrogations. For example, 11 of the 88 detainees at Hola Camp lost their lives as the rest were seriously injured in brutality incident. d) The war speeded up the march to independence especially when the realty of the inability of the colonial administration to govern kenya dawned on the British government e) The uprising led to destruction of property. Villages, houses and crops were burned down. f) The war led to the relocation of the Agikuyu, Ameru and Aembu communities from Nairobi region as their jobs were taken by people from western and rift valley who did not participate in the rebellion. g) The uprising led to the reduction of the influence of the settlers in Kenya as it was realized that it was the enormous settler influence that was responsible for the insurgence. h) The war forced the colonial authority to apply tough measures to restrict the activities of African political parties such as KAU that was banned in 1952. i) The war led to the beginning of a program of villagization and land reform consolidated the land holdings of the Kikuyu, thereby creating emergency kikuyu villages in various parts of the country. j) It led to the declaration of a state of emergence in Kenya on 20 [th] October 1952. k) The war bred bitterness among members of Agikuyu Aembu and Ameru where some were government loyalists while others were Mau Mau supporters. l) The war resulted into the land reform measures that came to be known as the SwynnertonPlan of 1954 that sparked off the resettlement of Africans in the countryside. **Swynnerton Plan ** Refusing to give more land to the Kikuyu in the reserves, which could have been seen as a concession to Mau Mau, Baring turned instead in 1953 to Roger Swynnerton, Kenya's assistant director of agriculture. The primary goal of the Swynnerton Plan was the creation of family holdings large enough to keep families self-sufficient in food and to enable them to practice alternate husbandry, which would generate a cash income. **Recommendations of the Swynnerton Plan of 1954** a) The survey and enclosure of African land in high potential areas. b) The processing of title deeds and giving out title deeds to the owners. Only progressive African farmers would get title deeds and benefit from the land reforms. c) A few Africans were allowed to practice new agricultural methods and obtain credit as well as title deeds. d) A few African s were allowed to practice individual land ownership. e) A few progressive African farmers were allowed to grow cash crops. Kenya African National Union During the emergency period, (From October 1952 to December 1959) African participation in the political process increased rapidly. The Kenya African National ----- 315 ### Union (KANU) was formed after the First Lancaster House Conference of January 1960 resolved that nationwide political parties be formed in Kenya as a step towards decolonization.On 27 [th] march 1960, at a meeting at Kirigiti, Kiambu convened by ex- KAU strongmen, James Gichuru and Oginga Odinga, KAU merged with Kenya Independent Movement and the People's Congress Party to form KANU. The colonial government declined to register KANU with Kenyatta as president since he was still in detention.In May 1960 James Gichuru took the presidency with Odinga as his deputy. Tom Mboya became the secretary General and Arthur Ochwada his assistant. Ronald Ngala and Daniel Moi were elected treasurer and assistant treasurer respectively in absentia as they were attending a commonwealth parliamentary Association meeting in London.In the partys constitution, drafted by Mwai Kibaki and Tom Mboya, the following were the objectives; a) To attain political independence for Africans inn Kenya. b) To achieve national unity through a unitary national constitution under one central government. c) To create a society based on African socialism. d) To eradicate poverty, ignorance and disease. e) To get back African land. f) To have all political detainees released. g) To unite with liberation movements in other countries in a Africa in order to end imperialism and colonialism in the continent. h) To encourage good neighbourliness in the East African Region. When Kenyata was released, he took over leadership of the party. During the independence elections in may 1963, KANU won 73 seats against KADUs 31 and African Peoples Partys 8 . Jomo Kenyatta became the Prime Minister on 1 [st] June 1963. **Achievements of KANU in the struggle for independence. ** a) KANU mobilized Africans in Kenya and united them in the struggle for independence. b) Through its numerous nationwide meetings, it provided political education to the Africans in Kenya. c) It participated in the independence constitution making process by being part of the Lancaster House conference of 1962. **Challenges faced by KANU in the struggle for independence. ** a) There was disunity among its members with some suspicious of the big communities who had taken up key leadership positions b) The party faced the problem of lacking adequate funds to carry out its countrywide campaigns for Independence. c) The KANU leaders suffered from ideological differences with some opposing the unitary system of government as advocated by the partys constitution. ----- 316 ### d) Some members were dissatisfied with the way party affairs were being run especially the elections which they felt were not fair. **Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU) ** KADU was formed in 1960 as an alliance of minority ethnic political groups to protect the rights /interests of the minority groups against possible domination of KANU /majority groups.Its senior leaders included Ronald Ngala (president), Masinde Muliro (Vice president), Daniel Arap Moi (chairman), Martin Shikuku (secretary General) and Justus ole Tipis (treasurer).KADU leaders advocated for a federal system while KANU group were advocating for a unitary system of government.When KANU refused to form government while Kenyatta was still in detention, KADU formed the first coalition government with the Europeans and Asians who belonged to Michael Blundells New Kenya Party after garnering 11 seats in the May 1961 elections.In 1962, KADU and KANU formed a coalition government while awaiting the 1963 elections.Following the defeat by KANU in the May 1963 elections, it became the major opposition party until 1964 when it was disbanded after persuasions from Jomo Kenyatta. **Roles played by the Kenya African Democratic Union in the struggle for ** **independence. ** a) It united the smaller communities in Kenya. E.g the Kalenjin, Luhyia, Maasai and coastal communities. b) It educated/ mobilized Africans against the colonial domination. c) It pressed for the release of Jomo Kenyatta while hopping that he would eventually join on their side. d) It participated in drawing up the independence constitution in the second Lancaster House conference. e) As an opposition party though for a short time, it helped to provide checks on the KANU government. **Challenges faced by KADU** a) There were suspicions of dominance of the party by some communities. b) The party faced the problem of lacking adequate funds to carry out its countrywide campaigns for Independence. c) Wrangles between senior officials of the party often undermined the partys operations. d) Illiteracy among the majority of the members left the top leaders with too much responsibility over party affairs. e) The party was prone to manipulations by the colonial authority in its operations. f) The party members were faced with a lot of pressure from KANU to decamp. African **Peoples Party** The party also emerged after the 1962 Lancaster House conference, founded by Paul Ngei, one of the radical members of KAUs Nairobi branch. ----- 317 ### Paul Ngei had similar fears just like the founders of KADU that the Akamba interests would not be catered for in the proposed government arrangement that favoured KANU as well as KADU.The party was formed in February 1962. After Kenya became a republic in 1964, APP decamped from the opposition to join KANU. **The trade-union movement. ** The early trade Unions in Kenya were formed along racial lines though all form them aimed at addressing labour problems that faced workers. The first trade union in Kenya was the Indian Trade Union formed in 1914 in mombasa. Upto 1914, there existed no African trade union in Kenya because of the following reasons; a) Artisans and farm labourers were not allowed to join or form associations since it was feared they would organize sudden and unofficial strikes. b) Majority of the Kenyans were illiterate and lacked the knowledge to run workers unions. c) The migrant labour system militated against the establishment of such unions. d) The colonial government fought attempts by Africans to form workers organizations. For this reason, in the 1920s, African political organizations doubled up as also defenders of workers welfare.In 1922, Asian workers in the railway department formed the Railway Artisans Union but its officials were sacked by the government causing it to wind up in 1923.in 1930s, a Trade Union Committee was formed in Mombasa by Masons and labourers with R.M. S hah as its president.In 1934, the Indian Trade Union became the Kenya Indian Labour Trade Union (KLTU ) whose membership was from other towns in Kenya.By 1935, the union began admitting members from other races necessitating it to change its name to Labour Trade Union of Kenya (LTUK). When it expanded its membership to the rest of East Africa in 1939, it became known as the Labour Trade Union of East Africa (LTUEA) on 14thJanuary 1947, over 15,000 striking African workers of Mombasa formed the African Workers Union (AWU). Muhamed Kibwana was elected president, Mwangi Macharia-secretary, Mbaruk Kenze-treasurer and Chege Kibachia executive officer. **The Unions demands included; ** a) A salary increase due to the high cost of living. b) Implementation of the policy of equal pay for equal work regardless of race. c) Respect for African workers wherever they were employed. d) Payment of sufficient allowances to cater for African wives and children. e) Elimination of the deliberate strategies applied by employers to keep Africans in their places of work all the time.The Union changed its name to African Workers Federation on 24 [th] January 1947 at the advice of Eliud Mathu who also convinced them to end the strike. Meanwhile a trade dispute tribunal led by Mr. Justice Thacker was set up to look into the workers grievances.The AWF became very popular to all workers in Kenya due to the success of the strike. However its leaders were either repatriated from Mombasa to ----- 318 ### their reserve areas or as was the case of Kibachia, arrested and detained in Baringo district.Achievements of AWF. a) It mobilized workers from different communities to come together and fight for better wages. b) It provided education to the workers about their rights. c) It introduced the concept of collective bargaining among workers in Kenya. d) It fought for better living and working conditions for workers. e) It advocated for better allowances for African workers wives and children, a factor which resulted in better wages and salaries for workers. f) Its activities made the colonial government change its attitude towards labour unions and start to give attention to workers grievances. g) It succeeded in exposing the Kenyan workers grievances to the international community as its strike was internationally publicized. **Kenya Federation of Labour** Following the enactment of the Trade Unions Ordinance in 1952, various small African trade unions (Kenya Local Government Workers Union, Domestic and Hotel Workers Union and East AFRICAN Federation of Building and Construction) united to form the Kenya Federation of Registered Trade Unions (KFRTU). Its officials included Mwichigi Karanja (president), Aggrey Mwinya(secretary general), S. Ondiege, Elikana Okusimba, Silas Okeya, David Jomo, S. Osore, James Wainaina and Dishon Sambili. Among the demands of KFRTU were the following; ~ Increase in African wages. ~ Improvement of the living conditions and poor housing for its workers ~ Protest against the arrest and detention of union officials. ~ Protest against forceful evacuation of the Aembu, Ameru and Agikuyu from Nairobi In 1953. ~ Protest against increase in the price of tea and bread in 1955 ~ Protest against the continuity of the state of emergency. In 1953, Tom Mboyas Kenya Local Government workers Union (KLGWU) joined KFRTU. The following were elected officials in the 1953 elections. David Njomo- prrsident, Stephen Obwaka- vice president, Tom Mboya- general secretary, G.W.Owuor- assistant SG, Daniel Ngethetreasurer and John Opiyo- ass treasurer. In 1955, it changed its name to the Kenya Federation of Labour (KFL) representing 35,000 members. Due to Tom Mboyas efforts KFL was affiliated to the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU). **Achievements of KFL. ** a) It kept the spirit of African nationalism alive during the emergency period when political associations had been banned. ----- 319 ### b) It secured international support through its affiliation to ICFTU for the cause of African nationalism. c) It educated Africans on their rights as workers. d) It helped to improve the living conditions of African workers securing for them a major salary increment in 1956 e) It prepared some African nationalists for leadership roles in the struggle for independence. For example, martin Shikuku and Tom Mboya. **Role of trade union movement in the struggle for independence in Kenya ** a) Trade Unions mobilized workers to strike against colonial government. b) They Motivated workers to sustain the struggle for their political rights/self governance c) They provided national political parties with funds required for their operation. d) Trade union leaders became prominent leaders of political associations that fought for independence. e) They introduced the concept of collective bargaining for workers in Kenya. f) The unions promoted regional cooperation in east Africa. g) They improved working conditions of the Africans through their welfare duties. h) They intensified the spirit of nationalism after ban on political parties. i) They provided a training ground for nationalist leaders e.g. Thomas Mboya j) Educated Africans on their rights **Problems faced by trade unions during the colonial period ** a) There was fear of victimization and harassment from the colonial authorities especially in the pioneer years. b) The migrant nature of African workforce paused a challenge to their membership. c) Ignorance of the African people about trade unionism and its role. d) Poor leadership which affected the running of pioneer trade unions. e) Shortage of funds since they relied on meager contributions from the poorly paid workers. f) Mismanagement of funds by the officials due to inexperience or corruption. g) Ethnicity, which had a hand in the choice of leaders for the unions. h) Constant wrangles among the leaders of the unions. **ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE ** Key women contributors in the struggle for independence.. 1. Mekatilili WA Menza of Giriama who mobilized and administered oaths to the kaya elders to cause the Agiriama resistance 2. Moraa, a Kitutu, prophetess of Gusii who was instrumental in the Gusii resistance. 3. Mary Muthoni Nyanjiru, famously remembered for inciting men to riot when Harry Thuku had been arrested in Nairobi in March 1922 4. Syotune wa Kithuke, a Kamba prophetess who used the kilumi dance in 1911 to mobilize the Akamba to protest against British colonialism. ----- 320 ### role played by women in the struggle for independence. a) The women acted as spies to the Mau Mau fighters in Nairobi and other urban centres. They supplied arms to fighters. b) They contributed to the establishment of independent churches and schools. For example, Legio Maria was co-founded by a Woman, Aoko, in western Kenya. c) They provided food to the fighters in the bushes. d) In central Kenya, they composed songs and dances, which ridiculed colonial chiefs and other agents of the colonial system. E.g Muthirigu. e) They, looked after families, as the men were busy fighting in bushes. f) In the 1930s, some section of the agikuyu women formed the Mumbi Central Association, feeling that KCA was not recognizing their contribution. g) The hid the fighters in houses. h) They participated in the oathing ceremonies, some acting as chief oathing administrators. i) Some participated actively in the freedom wars and were even killed e.g. Marshal Muthoni, Elizabeth Gachika etc. j) They participated in demonstrations and meetings to fight colonialists. k) They joined the MAU MAU fighters in the forest, with the main role of organizing and coordinating the rural network. They Supplied information to their husbands in the bush. l) They smuggled arms from the whites to the fighters. m) They led and inspired the resistance through their prophecy and encouragement e.g. Moraa and Mekatilili. n) In 1960, a woman, Priscilla Abwao, took part in the Lancaster House Conference. London, to prepare the independence constitution. **Role of women in the Mau Mau movement. ** a) Some women were fully-fledged warriors fighting alongside men. 'Field Marshall' Muthoni went to fight alongside famous warriors of the forest like Dedan Kimathi Waciuri. b) The women in the camps made sure that the family continued intact through all of the while their men were out fighting. They would weed and grow food for family use. c) While men were in the forests, Mau Mau women continued to educate their children to be the future leaders of their government. Women would collect money and smuggle the brightest children out of Kenya to study overseas through Sudan, Ethiopia and Egypt. d) Many women sought support for Mau Mau internationally. E.g, Mama Sarah Sarai, an ally of Kenyattas, when out of the country would get people to write in support of Mau Mau. e) Some women offered their property for use by mau mau. In Nairobi, Mama Josephine Muthoni offered her cars to be used for Mau Mau activities. Mama Elizabeth Waruirus house in Pangani which became a Mau Mau meeting place. ----- 321 ### f) Women were first class spies and informers. They supplied information to the forest forces. g) Women supplied guns, would do anything to get them. Sometimes they killed for them. h) Women had primary responsibility for the organization and maintenance of the supply lines. Operating from villages, thousands of women acted as go -betweens and carriers of food and firearms, and generally provided a system of intelligence. i) Women composed songs like the Kanyegenuri, to commemorate their deeds, like the bravery of Mary Nyanjiru. Years later the song became the Mau Mau anthem of resistance j) They also recruited for Mau Mau fighters. k) They officiated at and participated in oathing ceremonies. Some like Waithera allowed themselves to be subjected to unnatural sexual acts for the sake of the movement. l) In forest camps, women would serve male leaders as Kabatuni (a small platoon to be commanded by the man), doing minor military duties like cleaning guns as well as seeing to the other needs like meeting his sexual needs. m) Some women were co-opted in the political Arena in the mau mau duo-sex councils. For example Muthoni Ngatha - even rose to the senior position of Field Marshal. In June 1953 Wagiri Njoroge was crowned as the Queen of Mau Mau and ruled for 7 months. n) Women also contributed the services of their children who served as errand boys and girls and informers. o) Women were allowed to flirt with "enemies" to gather vital information, weapons and other resources. For example, in Gakenia's village in Nanyuki, four girls lured four loyalist African soldiers to Kaarage Forest where the soldiers were killed and their rifles taken. p) Some women like Wanjiru were appointed judges in Nakuru's Mau Mau Courts which passed sentences on anti-Mau Mau crimes. These illustrated by the emergence of a small number of women who acted as executioners. **Problems caused by presence of women in forests during mau mau wars ** a) Some women could not withstand the harsh forest conditions of torrential rains and bitter cold and constantly fell sick b) Many women could not defend themselves against enemies and were therefore a burden to men. c) Women would be extra mouths to feed, but would do very little useful things in return. d) Occasionally, women could cause tension and conflict among male guerillas as the men competed for sexual favours from the small number of women. **CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES LEADING TO INDEPENDENCE. ** **African representation to the Legco. ** ----- 322 ### In 1944, Eliud Mathu, a former teacher at Alliance School, the first African was appointed to the LegCo. KAUs demand for more representation in 1946 caused the appointment of Benaiah Ohanga as the second African to the LegCo. By 1948, there were four Africans in the LegCo compared to 11 Europeans, 5 Asians and 2 Arabs. Various commission reports made significant pointers to the fact that the British government had realized the need to involve Africans in the administration and need to reduce settler influence. For example; ***1) The Report of the East African Royal Commission of 1955 proposed; *** ~ An end of racial segregation. ~ Increased involvement of Africans in the colonial administration ~ Opening of the Kenya Highlands to all races. ***2) The Swynnerton Plan of 1954 proposed the consolidation and registration of*** African land with a view to having better land management. ***3) The report on African wages and the Lidbury Commission on Civil Service*** recommended better pay for African workers. **The Lyttelton Constitution** In 1954, the British secretary for colonies visited Kenya in the wake of the Mau Mau Uprising and made the following constitutional proposals; a) A multi- racial Council of Ministers to replace the executive council, which would include one African (B.A. Ohanga, minister for community development and African affairs), two Asians and three Europeans. For the first time, Africans were represented with members with executive powers. b) Lifting the ban on African political Associations. This was done in 1955 though only Africans were allowed to form local (district based) political organizations. Tom Mboya formed the Nairobi Peoples convention Party while D. Mwanyumba formed the Taita African Democratic Union. John Kebaso formed the Abagusii Association, Argwings Kodhek formed the Kenya National Congress and John Keen the Maasai Front. c) Africans were able to take part in elections of 1957. /it proposed multi-racial elections. However, other than race-pegged rules for participation in the elections, voting qualification for Africans were based on income, property and education d) Proposed direct representation of Africans in the LEGCO. In march 1957, the African elections to the Legco were held and Tom Mboya(Nairobi), Masinde Muliro( Northern Nyanza), Oginga Odinga(Central Nyanza), Lawrence Ogunda(south Nyanza), Ronald Ngala( Coast ), Daniel Arap Moi( Rift Valley), James Miumi(Ukambani) and Bernard Mate (central)were elected. The elected Africans formed the African Elected Members Organization (AEMO) with Odinga as chairman and Mboya as secretary. ----- 323 ### **Demands of AEMO after formation** a) They contested the fewer African positions in the LegCo by condemning the Lyttelton constitution. While elected members were 29, nominated members were 30, majority of who were Europeans. b) They protested the rigid voter qualification requirements imposed on Africans and demanded that every African of 21 years and above be allowed to vote, regardless of education or income. c) They demanded that registration of voters be done on a common roll. d) They called for the end of a State of Emergency. **Role played by AEMO in the struggle for independence up to 1963. ** a) They formed pressure groups to demand for greater political rights for Africans. e.g., formation of AEMO. b) They formed the core team, which pressurized for independence. c) They made known the grievances of Africans in International Fora. d) They networked with other African nationalists elsewhere e.g. in Ghana and Nigeria to hasten achievement of independence in Kenya. e) They fought for the release of detained nationalists e.g. Kenyatta. f) They formed he national political parties e.g. KANU and KADU, which led the country to independence. g) They educated and created awareness among the masses about the nationalists struggle. h) They took part in the formulation of the independence constitution. **The Lennox-Boyd Constitution. ** In 1958, Sir Allan Lennox- Boyd, who had succeeded Oliver Lyttelton as secretary State for Colonies visited Kenya and made the following constitutional proposals; a) An increase by six LegCo Seats for Africans to bring their total representation to 14 seats. b) A special membership in the LegCo, with four members from each race, who were to elected by other members of the LegCo. c) An increase of the number of African ministers to two. AEMO members rejected the Lennox-Boyd proposals saying they still favoured white monopoly in the colony especially the specially elected membership to LegCo. AEMO also called for the unconditional release of Jomo Kenyatta. They even boycotted the Legco from 1958 to 1959 when a new constitutional conference was promised. Acted of Betrayal became evident among Africans when Musa Amalemba and Wanyutu Waweru accepted the special seats appointment and even Amalemba went ahead to appointed the second African Minister for Housing in 1958.Other developments in 1959 included; ----- 324 ### ~ The White moderates led by Michael Blundell (who resigned as minister of agriculture) formed the New Party of Kenya (NPK). He was backed by 46 non -African members of the LegCo for his ideas of multi-racialism. ~ The white extremists led by Captain Briggs formed the United Party (UP) demanding for the abolishing of the LegCo and replacing it with regional assemblies. This was aimed at preserving the white highlands as one regional assembly for European benefits. ~ Increased divisions on AEMO between radicals and moderates .Ngala, Moi, Mate, Towett and Nyagah resigned from AEMO to form the Kenya National Party (KNP) advocating multi-racialism. This party was interestingly joined by all Arab and Asian members. ~ The radicals led by Mboya, Odinga and Gikonyo Kiano formed the Kenya Independent Movement (KIM) that was exclusively for African membership. They demanded convening of a full constitutional conference to discuss Kenyas future and release of Jomo Kenyatta. **The Lancaster House Conferences ** The Conferences were called to iron out the differences that arose out of the fact that both radical Europeans and AEMO members opposed multi-racialism. The First Lancaster House Conference (1960 ) The conference was convened by Ian MacLeod, the secretary of state for colonies. it was attended by all members of the LegCo.. The African team was led by Ronald Ngala and Tom Mboya was the secretary. The conference came up with the following compromise decisions; a) The 12 elective seats In the LegCo would remain intact. b) There were to 33 open seats in the LegCo, which were to be vied for on a common roll. c) Another 20 seats would be reserved 10 of these for Europeans, 8 for Asians and 2 for Arabs. d) The composition of the Council of Ministers was to be altered to incorporate 4 Africans, 3 Europeans and 1 Asian. e) The conference authorized the formation of countrywide political parties for Africans. KANU and KANU were formed.The Lancaster conference however failed to entirely please both Africans and the settlers. Some settlers, finding the new turn events so tough began to sell their property and leave Kenya. Africans though feeling that they had not been given a responsive government, accepted ministerial positions as follows; a) Ronald Ngala- Minister for Labour, Social Security and Adult Education. b) Julius Gikonyo Kiano- Minister for Commerce and Industry. c) Musa Amalemba- Minister for Housing, Common Services, Probation and Approved Schools. d) James Nzaui Miumi- Minister for Health and Welfare. ----- 325 ### Out of fear of political domination by the big tribes the following new alliances were formed; a) The Kalenjin Political Alliance of Taita Towett. b) The Coast African Political Union of Ronald Ngala. c) The Kenya African Peoples Party of Masinde Muliro. In the 1961 elections KANU won but refused to form government demanding release of Kenyatta. KADU was invited by the governor, Patrick Renson to form a coalition government with Europeans and Asians. When Kenyatta came on 21 [st] August 1961, Kariuki Njiiri offered his Muranga seat to Kenyatta to enable him join LegCo. **The second Lancaster conference (1962) ** The main aim of this conference, called by the then secretary for colonies, Reginald Maulding was to the independence constitution acceptable to the two main parties KADU and KANU. It also aimed at reconciling the differences between the two parties. KANU delegation was led by Jomo Kenyatta while Ngala led the KADU group. KANU conceded many KADU grounds to enable success of the negotiations. **Main provisions of the independence constitution of Kenya ** a) The independence constitution provided for a regional/majimbo government with each region having a regional assembly and p resident. b) It also provided for a bicameral parliament consisting of the senate and the house of representatives/upper house and lower house. c) The constitution stipulated that the Prime Minister was to be head of Government and Queen the Head of State, represented by the Governor General. d) The constitution recommended a multiparty system of government and the party with the majority of seats forming the government. e) It contained the Bill of Rights, which protected the individuals rights. In the elections of 1963, KANU won with 73 seats against KADUs 31, APPs 8. Jomo Kenyatta became the first Prime Minister on 1 [st] June 1963.On 12 December, Kenya attained full independence. On 12 [th] December 1964, Kenya became a republic with Kenyatta becoming an executive president. **EMERGENCE AND GROWTH OF NATIONALISM IN AFRICA ** **Factors for the rise of nationalism in Africa ** a) The exposure of Africans to severe economic exploitation during the colonial period. For example land alienation in the Kenya Highlands, in southern Rhodesian, Algeria and South Africa which was accompanied with forced labour where the labourers faced mistreatment. b) Africans were fed up of heavy and harsh taxation by the Europeans. They were exposed to heavy taxation, ranging from hut tax to breast tax in Belgian Congo. c) Africans were fed up with the gradual destruction of their culture by the whites. ----- 326 ### Missionaries totally dismissed the age-old African traditions as being barbaric. This explains why independent schools and churches sprung up in central Kenya. d) The introduction of racial discrimination to go hand in hand with colonialism. All the best social amenities in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Kenya were reserved for the whites. The Europeans equated the black colour with low intelligence, uncivilized and a backward race. e) Africans resented colonialism because it interfered with their political institutions. The colonial rulers disregarded traditional rulers, appointing their own puppets in their place. f) The Acquisition of western education by many Africans by 1945 enabled them to articulate their grievances more forcefully and to understand political developments outside Africa. g) The return of the ex-servicemen after the second world war which exposed the myth of the white supremacy making Africans ready to fight them. Moreover, the colonial government failed to reward African ex-soldiers to embitter them more. h) The change of government from Conservative to Labour Party in Britain in 1946 stimulated a new attitude in Britain towards decolonization. This motivated African nationalists. i) The rise of nationalism in Asia, culminating into the granting of independence to India and Pakistan in 1947 aroused great confidence among Africans who worked closely with Asian nationalists like Jawaharlal Nehru, the India Prime Minister. j) The rise of Pan-Africanism in Africa after the 1945 Manchester conference contributed to the new demands for political independence in Africa Many African lites attended the conference which served as a source of awakening. k) The formation of the UNO and the pressure it exerted on the European powers to decolonize helped the Africans in their course. l) The emergence of United States and the Soviet Union as super powers in the world contributed to the decolonization process. USA was keen to see Britain and France grant independence to their subjects in the world in order to secure new markets. m) The signing of the Atlantic Charter in 1941 by Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt which demanded that when the WWII ended, all subject peoples should enjoy the right to self-determination. **NATIONALISM IN GHANA ** The British annexed Gold Coast in 1874 after quelling a stiff resistance by the Asante. In response to the British imperialism, the Fonte Confederation was initiated in 1868, marking the birth of African Nationalism in Ghana. In 1897, the Aborigines Rights Protection Society was formed to guard against the alienation of African land.In the 1930s, African elites like J.B. Danquah launched the Gold Coast Youth Conference in order to awaken the youth to the economic and social needs of the country.Their efforts bore fruits because in 1946, governor Burns embarked on constitutional reforms leading ----- 327 ### to increased African representation in the LegCo. (Of the 18 slots given to Africans in the LegCo, 13 were to drawn from among the chiefs while 5 were to be popularly elected). The elites formed the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) and invited Kwame Nkrumah, a graduate of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, to come and lead it since most of them were professionals lacking time for political commitment. Nkrumah appeared to have more political experience having participated in the 1945 Manchester conference. **Factors for the growth of nationalism in Ghana ** a) The early Introduction of cocoa growing led to adoption of money economy in Ghana ahead of other countries. This enabled faster social and economic transformation of the people. b) The colonial governments attempt to tamper with cocoa growing by ordering cutting of coca trees hurt people to the level of developing nationalistic feelings against the British. c) Ghana was one of the first countries in Africa to receive western education from the missionaries. There was a large class of elites with western university education accompanied with leadership skills to spearhead nationalism their country. d) The existence of ex-servicemen in Ghana also played an important role in the campaign for independence. e) The granting of trading licences by the government selectively to European traders while deliberately denying then Africans. f) Ghana had comparatively better developed transport and communication system. Also being a small country, movement of information, ideas and people was easy, quick and efficient. This facilitated nationalist activities. g) The charismatic and strong leadership provided by Kwame Nkrumah brought cohesiveness among people of Ghana. He formed the CPP party, which became the symbol of struggle for the oppressed people of Ghana. h) The participation of Kwame Nkrumah in the Pan-African Manchester conference in 1945, which championed the right of countries to self-determination, made the country take the lead in Africa in championing this right. i) The people of Ghana were more exposed to international affairs than other countries in Africa due to its location in a region, which had the earliest contacts with European traders and colonizers. The peak of nationalism in Ghana.On 28 [th] February 1948, the ex-soldiers led the Accra riots, protesting to Governor Gerald Creasy the failed fulfillment of the government pledges while in service during the World WarII. Two rioters were killed. The shooting incident sparked of chaos in the town leading to another 29 Africans being killed. Nkrumah was arrested together with his colleagues popularly known as the Big Six. (Nkrumah, Danquah, William Ofori, Addo, Adjei and Obetsebi Lamptey). ----- 328 ### This arrest popularized Nkrumah among the Africans. The 1948 Alken Watson commission blamed the social-economic oppression for the riots. The governor ordered for constitutional reforms led by J.H Coussey.On 12 [th] June 1949, Nkrumah broke ranks with the conservative UGCC senior members and formed the Convention Peoples Party (CPP). His party gained support mainly from among the primary school leavers, store- keepers, artisans, peasants and cocoa farmers. Nkrumah advocated positive action through legitimate political action, newspaper and political campaigns and constitutional application of boycotts, strikes and non-cooperation based on the policy of absolute non- violence on the basis of Mahatma Gandhi teachings. He started a newspaper, The Accra Evening News to expound CPP views. He was arrested, but secured landslide victory in the February 1951 elections while in jail. He was released to become the leader of government business in the new cabinet. CPP also won in the 1954 elections in which a new party, the National Liberation Movement (NLM) had emerged to compete CPP. NLM membership mainly from the Ashanti, were uncomfortable with Nkrumah because; ~ He came from a small ethnic group little known in southern Ghana. ~ His radicalism did not please the conservative Ashanti leaders. Again elections were called in July 1956 and CPP trounced NLM. This time, the British accepted the results and on 6 [th] March 1957, the country attained political independence under Kwame Nkrumah **Achievements of CPP under Kwame Nkrumah** a) CPP under Nkrumah united Africans of all ranks in Ghana in the struggle for national liberation. b) The party introduced the concept of positive action to pressurize the government to liberate Africans. c) CPP formed the first African government in Africa in 1951 after winning the elections. Under Nkrumahs leadership, Ghana began attaining economic development. d) CPP, under Nkrumah, advocated for unity of all Africans in the country us other parties like NLM advocated for regionalism, a factor that enhanced progress towards political libration.How Kwame Nkrumah contributed to the liberation struggle in Africa. a) He funded nationalists in other countries e.g. Guinea and Algeria. b) He supported other African leaders who faced political threats from their former colonial masters. c) When some countries were faced with threats from their former colonial masters after independence like in the case of Patrice Lumumba in DRC, Nkrumah provided them with his support. d) He championed trade unionism in Africa. e) He attended pan-African congress in 1945 which was key to defining the liberation struggles in Africa. f) He initiated the formation of the Ghana- Guinea Union in 1958 as a practical step towards building African unity. ----- 329 ### g) He convened two pan-African conferences in April 1958 and the all African Peoples conference in December 1958 that led to the formation of O.A.U in 1963. **NATIONALISM IN MOZAMBIQUE ** Mozambique was among the last countries in Africa to attain independence from the Portuguese. Even before the Berlin conference, Mozambique and Angola were considered Portuguese colonies owing to the laters interests in the region dating back to the pioneer years. **Reasons for slow process in decolonization process of Mozambique. ** a) Mozambique was colonized by a colonial power that was very poor and backward and which needed to keep its hold on her to enable her economy grow. She was an important source of revenue for the Lisbon government. b) Mozambique housed many settlers who had invested heavily in farming, mining, building, construction and in other sectors. They were therefore reluctant to leave. c) Mozambique was an important market for Portuguese products. Portugal was not willing to let go easily. d) The support, which the colonial government got from South Africa, enabled them to get uranium, which they used, for making bombs used to suppress African independence riots. They also got electricity and assistance to built caborra bassa dam on Zambezi. e) Mozambique was big geographically with very poor infrastructure i.e. roads and communication facilities. This hampered fast movement of people and ideas. f) Unlike other colonized countries, Mozambique suffered the worst kind of exploitation and repression/ rigorous censorship and surveillance by security forces, which discouraged emergence of nationalism. g) The Portuguese practiced racism out of fear that if they educated Africans and gave them equal status, the Africans would outnumber them and throw them out. **Factors for the growth of nationalism in Mozambique. ** a) The arbitrary replacement of the traditional rulers by the Portuguese administrators whenever they felt they were not performing. b) The massive alienation of African land by the Portuguese who pushed Africans to regions of unfavourable conditions. c) The exposure of Africans to severe economic exploitation like forced labour where the labourers faced mistreatment. d) The rampant racial discrimination through which Africans continued to lose agricultural land to the Europeans. Being from a poor country, the Europeans competed with Africans for simple jobs like taxi driving and often gaining advantage on racial lines. e) The Portuguese imposed many restrictions on Africans, limiting their freedom of expression and intellectual advancement. For example, General Salazar, who rose to power in the 1920s, ensured strict censorship of the press. ----- 330 ### f) The security police treated Africans with great cruelty. Any political unrest was crushed ruthlessly. The peak of nationalism in Mozambique . In early 1960, the Makonde people of Cabo Delgado province formed the MozambicanMakonde Union (MANU).In June 1960 MANU organized a peaceful protest but in which over 600 Africans perished in police firepower. The government outlawed all African organizations with membership of over thirty people. African political activities went underground. Mwalimu Julius Nyerere inviting some of the liberation groups to relocate to Tanzania in 1962. The political groups united to form the Liberation Front of Mozambique (FRELIMO) with Eduardo Mondlane Chirambo, formerly a lecturer at Syracuse University in USA, as its first president.From 1962 to 1964, FRELIMO undertook guerilla training in Bagamoyo and at the Mozambique institute in Dar es Salam in preparation for war. From September 1964, they began a full-scale war against the Portuguese along river Ruvuma and extending their attacks on the Cabo Delgado province. By 1967, the Portuguese forces numbered 65,000 soldiers.Mondlane Eduardo was assassinated in 1969. Samora Machel was elected to become the FRELIMO army commander in 1970.The coup detat in Lisbon in 1974 was a blessing to FRELIMO movement since soldiers who did not favour colonial wars by Marcello Caetano carried it out. The new military junta finally signed an agreement with FRELIMO the enabled the setting up of a transitional gover nment in September 1974. He handed over power to the Africans in 1975 with Samora Machel becoming the first president. Machel died in 1986 in a plane crash blamed on the South African Apartheid regime, unhappy with his support for African nationalists in South Africa.Samora Machels widow, Graca Machel, married South African President Nelson Mandela in 1994. **Reasons why the struggle for independence in Mozambique was violent** a) The depth of suffering by ordinary people in Mozambique was unbearable. b) The harshness of the Portuguese administration could only be matched with similar violence. c) The unwillingness of Portugal to ease her colonial hold and begin the process of decolonization. (they were deeply entrenched in Mozambique) d) Extreme exploitation of Mozambique resources e.g. land, labour, minerals. e) Widespread land alienation left many landless. f) To uproot the Portuguese from Mozambique, they had to use full-scale military operation by the liberators because the masters did not see any sense of granting Mozambique independence peacefully. **Factors that facilitated the defeat of the Portuguese colonial armies by FRELIMO in ** **Mozambique. ** a) A few Africans were privileged to acquire university education in Portugal and came to form the bulk of FRELIMO leadership. ----- 331 ### b) The overwhelming support Mozambique fighters received from other African states e.g. Tanzania, Zimbabwe and DRC. From these countries, they gained moral and military support. c) FRELIMO was a formidable, well-organized force, which witnessed rapid expansion from a mere 250 in 1964 to 35000 in 1967. d) The forested environment favoured guerilla warfare. Moreover, the soldiers knew the topography of the country. e) The local population gave their logistic support to the fighters, having become tired of the extreme suppression by the Portuguese administration. f) The movement fighters had their own supply of food. g) African countries through OAU were united against the Portuguese in Mozambique. h) The communist countries notably USSR and china gave FRELIMO military aid. i) FRELIMO adopted the right strategy; liberating the country bit by bit and systematically. This approach won the local peoples support for the movement. j) The FRELIMO Army consisted of all tribes, all sexes and all ages. The women played a very important role in the success of the war. I.e. spies, some fought, hiding the fighters and cooking for them. **Problems that faced FRELIMO in the war against Portuguese** a) Africans experienced severe shortage of basic needs while in the forests. The government forces ensured that food and other supplies did not reach the fighters. b) The attitude of the church in Mozambique made many African faithful reluctant to support the liberation war. The church termed FRELIMO a terrorist organization. c) FRELIMO suffered internal divisions due to ideological differences and selfish ambitions among some of the nationalists. African elites like Reverend Uria Simango and Lazaro Kavandame saw FRELIMO as an instrument of acquiring assets for their own selfish benefits. d) Competition from rival guerilla movements like Revolutionary Committee of Mozambique (COREMO) which broke away from FRELIMO in 1965 due to the laters lean towards socialism. e) The assassination of FRELIMO leader Eduardo Mondlane in Da es Salaam on 3 [rd] February 1969 was a great blow to the nationalists. f) The brutality employed by the Portuguese in dealing with FRELIMO sympathizers. For example at Wiriyamu, in December 1972, 400 civilians, protesting against the Portuguese administration, were massacred. g) The apartheid regime in South Africa and the Unilateral Declaration of Independence regime in south Rhodesia combined forces to fight the nationalists in Mozambique since they were a threat to their countries. **SOUTH AFRICA. ** The complex nature of nationalism in South Africa was due to the following reasons; a) The country was not colonized by one specific European power. ----- 332 ### b) The existence of valuable mineral deposits made the Europeans more aggressive in their efforts to control the wealth in South Africa. There existed different types of nationalism in South Africa namely; ~ The British nationalism ~ Afrikaner nationalism ~ African nationalism. **Afrikaner nationalism ** Afrikaners were the Dutch speaking speaking settlers. The Afrikaner nationalism emerged in the 19 [th] century reaching its peak in 1948 when their Nationalist Party under Daniel F. Malanwon the lections introducing the Apartheid policy. **Reasons for the birth of Afrikaner Nationalism in South Africa. ** a) The desire to regain the culture against Anglicization, which they considered, was alien. (Anglicization of power, language and cultures) b) The Boers hated the British rule, which they considered as alien. c) The British were dominant in many spheres of life yet they could neither speak nor understand Afrikaners language. d) The Boers wanted to rule South Africa and restore Boer culture, language, education and literature. e) They favoured republican states and complete independence for South Africa and noncooperation with British to fulfill their divine mission of bringing civilization to the heathen. f) The Jameson raid flared up Boer sentiments. Jameson, a Briton led a force of 500 soldiers to invade Transvaal, a Boer territory. g) Formation of union of South Africa under British terms. **African Nationalism ** Its roots are traced in the 17 [th] century with the first Boer occupation of South Africa. Africans resisted strongly against the interference with their political freedom and economic resources. This was in form of the Xhosa and Ndebele wars of the 17 [th] c and the Zulu wars of 1870s led by Cetewayo.In 1906, a Zulu chief named Bambata staged another African uprising this time against the British who had annexed the Zululand in 1887.From 1910, when the union of South Africa was created and the Afrikaners gained political control of South Africa, Africans lost all the political privileges they previously enjoyed like ability to vote and contest parliamentary seats.Africans founded independent churches and formed organizations like the Orange River Organization. **Factors for the growth of African nationalism in South Africa** a) The role of the Christian religion whose ideals encouraged Africans to fight for equality, as all people were equal before God. The Boers however treated Africans with contempt. b) The exposure of Africans to severe economic exploitation like land alienation and causing them to be subjected to forced labour on Afrikaner farms. Even the native Land ----- 333 ### Act of 1913 denied Africans the right to purchase land outside the areas set aside for Africans. c) The influence of Pan-Africanism in South Africa as early as the 19 [th] century when people like Rev. Dube founded the Ohlange Institute to educate fellow Africans in South Africa. d) The introduction of racial discrimination enshrined in the apartheid law of 1948 convinced Africans that only freedom could save them. All the best hotels, restaurants, schools, recreational centres and most fertile soils were reserved for the whites only. e) The Acquisition of western education by many Africans like Rev. Dube, Walter Sisulu and Nelson Mandela enabled them to articulate their grievances more forcefully. They became pioneers of early African political parties. f) The return of the ex-servicemen after the second world war which exposed the myth of the white supremacy making Africans ready to fight them. The war also exposed them to democratic ideals elsewhere. g) The great exploitation of African labour through Labour regulations and laws. For example, the Mines and Works Act of 1911 effectively excluded Africans from all skilled occupations confining them to manual occupations in Mines and farms. h) The development of large urban centres created an enabling environment for Africans to forge close inter-ethnic relations that enabled them to counter the Afrikaner racist policies. **Formation of the African National Congress, 1912 ** Opposition to the Natives Land Act led to the formation of the South African Native NationalCongress (renamed the African National Congress [ANC] in 1923) by South Africa's educated African elite in a meeting at Bloemfontein on January 8, 1912. ~ The founding president was John L. Dube, a minister and schoolteacher. ~ Pixley Ka Isaka Seme, a lawyer, was appointed treasurer. ~ Solomon T. Plaatye, a court translator, became secretary general. ~ Other members were Thomas Mapikela, Walter Robusana, Solomon Plaatye and Sam Makgatho.The congress was moderate in composition, tone, and practice. However, In 1940s, a militant form of nationalism emerged under the ANC Youth League formed in 1943 led by Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu and Oliver Tambo, emphasizing the inalienable right of the Africans to the African continent. As a result of the Leagues activities, violent confrontations between ANC and the government broke out in 1952 in Witwatersrand, Kimberley and Eastern Cape.The Congress of the People and the Freedom CharterIn 1952, Albert Sisulu became the president of the organization and presided over the congress of the people which adopted the Freedom Charter on June 25 and June 26 1955.The congress drew 3,000 delegates from; ~ The black (the ANC). ~ White (the Congress of Democrats). ~ Indian and coloured (the the SA Coloured People's Congress) political organizations ----- 334 ### ~ The multiracial South African Congress of Trade Unions (SACTU). The Freedom Charter emphasized that South Africa should be a non-racial society with no particular group assumed to have special rights or privileges. After adoption of the charter, in 1956 the police arrested 156 leaders, including Luthuli, Mandela, Tambo, Sisulu, and others, and put them on trial for treason in a court case that dragged on for five years. The Pan-Africanist Congress and Sharpeville. The Africanists, led by Robert Sobukwe, criticized the ANC for allowing itself to be dominated by 'liberal-left-multi- racialists. They formed their own organization, the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) in 1959. In March 1960, the PAC began a national campaign against the pass laws. One such demonstration outside the police station at Sharpeville, the police fired on the demonstrators, killing at least 76 of them and wounding 186. Approximately 18,000 demonstrators were arrested, including the leaders of the ANC and the PAC, and both organizations outlawed. **The ANC and the PAC Turn to Violence ** Prohibited from operating, both the ANC and the PAC established underground organizations in 1961. The militant wing of the ANC, Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation), targeted strategic places such as police stations and power plants. Poqo (Blacks Only), the militant wing of the PAC, engaged in a campaign of terror, targeting in particular African chiefs and headmen believed to be collaborators with the government and killing them. 17 Umkhonto leaders, including Walter Sisulu were arrested at Rivonia farm house. Along with Nelson Mandela, they were tried for treason. Albert Luthuli was confined by government to his rural home in Zululand until his death in 1967. Tambo escaped from South Africa and became president of the ANC in exile. Robert Sobukwe of Poqo was jailed on Robben Island until 1969 and then placed under house arrest in Kimberley until his death in 1978. The Johannesburg railway station bomber, John Harris, was hanged. **The Black conscious movement - Soweto, 1976 ** In the absence of other forms of political expression, young people sought alternative means to express their political aspirations. African university students, disappointed with the multiracial National Union of South African Students (NUSAS), decided to establish the South African Students' Organization (SASO) in 1969 with Steve Biko, an African medical student at the University of Natal, as president.In 1972, a Black allied workers union and the Black Peoples' Convention (BPC) was set up to act as a political umbrella organization for the adherents of black consciousness. In 1972, SASO organized strikes on university campuses resulting in the arrest of more than 600 students. On June 16, 1976, hundreds of high-school students in Soweto marched in protest against use of Afrikaans as a Language of instruction. Over 360 African school children were killed.On 12 [th] September 1977, Steve Biko, who had been held in indefinite detention, died from massive head injuries sustained during police interrogation. In October 1977, SASO, the BPC and all black consciousness organizations were banned. ----- 335 ### **The peak of African nationalism in South Africa ** In 1983, P.W. Botha's government proposed establishment of separate houses of parliament for each racial group. In place of the single House of Parliament were; ~ A 50-member (all-white) House of Assembly. ~ A 25-member (coloured) House of Representatives. ~ A 13 member (Indian) House of Delegates. **Implications and results ** ~ Whites thus retained a majority in any joint session. ~ Liberal government opponents denounced Botha's plans arguing it would permanentlyexclude Africans from any political role in South Africa. ~ Most blacks strongly condemned the new constitution as it reinforced the apartheid notion. ~ Indians and coloureds also condemned the constitution feeling it weakened their participation in the political process ~ Radical Afrikaners, led by Eugene Terry Blanche, vowed to use all means, including violence, to make sure that apartheid was not weakened.The United Democratic Front (UDF), which was formed in late 1983 and the National Front (NF) aimed to use nonviolent means to persuade the government to withdraw its constitutional proposals and do away with apartheid. The UDF membership included, Bishop Desmond Tutu and the Reverend Allan Boesak, who emerged as its prime spokesmen.Black trade unions meanwhile resorted to economic and political protests. For example, TheNational Union of Mineworkers (NUM), formed in 1983 by Cyril Ramaphosa, successfully brought work in mines to a stop in a dispute over wage increases. By end of 1985, 879, fatalities and 8000 arrests were linked to political unrest. ANC and UDF were banned.Meanwhile, Supporters of the Zulu-dominated Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) and the banned ANC clashed in an upsurge of "black-on-black" violence that would cause as many as 10,000 deaths by 1994.President Botha resigned under pressure on August 14, 1989, the Electoral College named de Klerk to succeed him in a five-year term as president. In October 1989, De Klerk released Walter Sisulu and others except Mandela. He announced on February 2, 1990, the impending release of Mandela and unbanning of the ANC, the PAC, and the SACP, and the removal of restrictions on the UDF and other legal political organizations. Mandela was released on February 11, 1990, at age 71 after 27 years in prison. ANC officials elected Mandela deputy president in March 1990, under ailing president, Oliver Tambo.Between June 5, 1991 and June 17, 1991, the government repealed the pillars of apartheid, the Land Act of 1913, the Group Areas Act of 1950 and Population Registration Act of 1950, (the most infamous, which had authorized the registration by race of newborn babies and immigrants). Most international sanctions were lifted soon after the Population Registration Act, Group Areas Act, and Land Acts were repealed. ----- 336 ### In mid-1992 due to escalating violence, by IFP supporters on ANC sympathizers in Boipatong delayed the process of negotiation for elections. On March 5, 1993, Chris Hani, the popular general secretary of the South African Communist Party (SACP), was murdered threatening the process again.On April 12, 1994, a team headed by former British foreign secretary Lord Carrington and former United States secretary of state Henry Kissinger attempted in vain to break the logjam that was keeping the IFP out of the elections. However, on April 19, Buthelezi --under intense pressure from trusted local and international figuresincluding a Kenyan diplomat professor Washington Okumu, relented and agreed to allow the IFP to be placed on the ballot.When the elections finally took place on schedule, beginning on April 26, 1994, ANC won 62.6 percent of the vote; the NP, 20.4 percent; and the IFP, 10.5 percent. Mandela was unanimously elected president by the National Assembly on May 9, 1994, in Cape Town. He was inaugurated on May 10 at ceremonies in Pretoria. **Key South African Nationalists** ***Nelson Mandela *** Nelson Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in Umtata, to a Thembu royal family of Transkei. His forename Rolihlahla, means "troublemaker". Later he was given a clans name, Mandiba. His father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa, was a local chief and councillor to the monarch. In 1926, Gadla was sacked for corruption. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, a member of the amaMpemvu clan of Xhosa. At a local Methodist school when he was about seven, he was baptised and given the English forename of "Nelson". His father died of an undiagnosed ailment when he was nine. Aged 16, he underwent the circumcision. Mandela joined Clarkebury Boarding Institute in Engcobo, the best secondary school for black Africans in Thembuland. In 1937, he moved to Healdtown, the Wesleyan college in Fort Beaufort where he took an interest in boxing and running. Mandela joined Fort Hare University, where he met Oliver Tambo, a long time friend. He was studying Bachelor of Arts but was expelled in his first year for being involved in a Students' Representative Council boycott against university policies. Mandela relocated to Johannesburg, fearing early forced marriage, where met with his friend and mentor, Walter Sisulu. After 1948 Mandela began actively participating in politics. He led in the ANC's 1952 Defiance Campaign as secretary General of the youth league. Mandela and 150 other participants in the freedom charter adoption were arrested on 5 December 1956 and charged with treason. In 1961 Mandela became leader of the ANC's armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation). He coordinated sabotage campaigns against military and government targets.On 5 August 1962 Mandela was arrested and was imprisoned in the Johannesburg Fort. On 11 July 1963 police arrested other prominent ANC leaders at Rivonia, north of Johannesburg. Together with Mandela, they were charged with capital crimes of sabotage at the Rivonia Trial. All were sentenced to life imprisonment on 12 June 1964 on Robben Island. Mandela remained there for the next ----- 337 ### 18 of his 27 years in prison. In March 1982 Mandela was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison, along with other senior ANC leaders. In 1988 Mandela was moved to Victor Verster Prison where he remained until his release on 11 February 1990. Mandela returned to the leadership of the ANC led the party in the multi-party negotiations that led to the country's first multi-racial elections in 1994. Mandela and President F. W. de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993. Mandela, as leader of the ANC, was inaugurated on 10 May 1994 as the country's first black President after the 27 [th] May 1994 Elections.As President from May 1994 until June 1999, Mandela presided over the transition from minority rule and apartheid. He helped to resolve the long-running dispute between Libya on one hand, and the US and Britain, over bringing to trial the two Libyans indicted of the Lockerbie bombing on 21 December 1988. Mandela decided not to stand for a second term and retired in 1999, to be succeeded by Thabo Mbeki. In July 2001 Mandela was diagnosed and treated for prostate cancer. In June 2004, at age 85, Mandela announced that he would be retiring from public life.On 8 [th] December 2012; Mandela was hospitalized at a Military Hospital near Pretoria suffering from a recurring lung infection. On 15 December, Mandela had surgery to have gallstones removed. He was released from the hospital on 26 December 2012.Until July 2008 Mandela and ANC party members were barred from entering the United Statesexcept to visit the United Nations headquarters in Manhattanwithout a special waiver from the US Secretary of State, because of their South African apartheid-era designation as terrorists. ***Robert Mangaliso Sobukwe *** Sobukwe was born in Graaff-Reinet in the Cape Province on the 5 December 1924. He attended a Methodist college at Healdtown and later Fort Hare University where he joined the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) in 1948. In 1949 Sobukwe was elected as president of the Fort Hare Students' Representative Council. In 1950 Sobukwe was appointed as a teacher at a high school in Standerton. In 1954 Sobukwe became a lecturer of African Studies at the University of the Witwatersrand. He identified with the Africanists within the African National Congress. He edited The Africanist Newspaper in 1957, criticizing the ANC for allowing itself to be dominated by 'liberal-left-multi-racialists. He later left ANC to form the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC). He became its first President in 1959.On 21 March 1960, Sobukwe led a march of PAC supporters to the local police station at Orlando, Soweto in order to openly defy the Pass laws. In a similar protest in Sharpeville, police opened fire on a crowd, killing 69 in the Sharpeville Massacre. Sobukwe was arrested, convictedof incitement, sentenced to three years in prison and later interned on Robben Island. Sobukwe was released in 1969 and allowed to live in Kimberley with his family under house arrest. He died on 27 Feb. 1978 Due to lung cancer and was buried in Graaf-Reinet on 11 March 1978. **Albert Luthuli ** Albert Luthuli was born near Bulawayo, Rhodesia, around 1898 to a Seventh-day Adventist missionary John Bunyan Luthuli and Mtonya Gumede. When His father died, ----- 338 ### his mother returned to her ancestral home, Groutville in Stanger, Natal, South Africa to stay with his uncle, Martin Luthuli. On completing a teaching course at Edendale, Luthuli became principal and only teacher at a primary school in rural Blaauwbosch, Natal. Here he also became a lay preacher. In 1920 he declined a scholarship to University of Fort Hare to provide financial support for his mother. In1928 he became secretary of the African Teacher's Association and in 1933 its president. He was also active in missionary work. He became chief in1936, until removed from this office by the government in 1952 due to what colonial authority called conflict of interest.In 1944 Luthuli joined the African National Congress (ANC). In 1945 he was elected to the Committee of the KwaZulu Province Provincial Division of ANC. A month later Luthuli was elected president-general of ANC. In 1955, he attended an ANC conference only to be arrested and charged with treason a few months later, along with 155 others. In December 1957, Luthuli was released and the charges against him dropped. Luthulis leadership of the ANC covered the period of violent disputes between the party's "Africanist" and "Charterist" wings. In 1962 he was elected Rector of the University of Glasgow by the students, serving until 1965. In 1962 he published an autobiography titled: LET MY PEOPLE GOIn July 1967, at the age of 69, he was fatally injured in an accident near his home in Stanger. **Methods used by nationalists in South Africa in their struggle for liberation from ** **white minority rule ** a) They used force to fight for their independence. b) Africans used mass media to articulate their grievances, spread propaganda and mobilize the masses. c) Riots e.g. the Soweto riots of 1976 against the proposal to make Afrikaner (Boer language) the medium of instruction in all schools. d) There were demonstrations against Press Laws in 1960 at Sharpeville leading to massacres. e) Guerilla fighters trained in Algeria, Ghana etc carried out acts of sabotage like bombing strategic installations and power plants. f) The role of the clergy .e.g. Desmond Tutu who bitterly campaigned worldwide against apartheid. g) Use of diplomacy and negotiations to convince the whites about the futility of apartheid policy. h) Use of slogans such as Freedom Charter (1955) which proclaimed south Africa belonged to all races and called for political, social and economic equality i) They sent petitions, delegations to international forum. j) They formed political parties e.g. ANC, PAC, UDF and trade union activism to pressurize the government to change. k) They used job boycotts and strikes. ----- 339 ### l) They organized defiance campaigns and demonstrations in the streets to provoke the police to arrest them. m) They formed underground movements after the Umkhonto we Sizwe. n) Pressure from youth groups e.g. Steve Biko formed the Black Consciousness Movement as a weapon to counter oppression through organized strikes. o) Africans serving jail terms organized hunger strikes. **Problems encountered by African nationalists in South Africa ** a) The colonial government employed the method of Banning of political organizations as a means of frustrating the struggle for independence. .g ANC, PAC, and CP which restricted their activities b) The Nationalists were harassed, arrested and detained or jailed by the authorities e.g. Mandela, Oliver Tambo Sisulu, Sobukwe e.t.c c) Many were forced into exile or flee the country in search of political asylum and restriction. d) A lot of violence was unleashed on them/ Killing of many nationalists and Africans such as Steve Biko and the 1960 Sharpeville massacre of school children spreading fear. e) Deliberate policy of divide and rule was employed to weaken African unity e.g. establishment of black homelands or Bantustans which eventually brewed the conflict between ANC and IFP of Buthelezi. f) The racist regime used emergency powers to harass and frustrate Nationalist leaders. g) The nationalists faced the problem of lack of money and other resources which slackened the struggle. h) Nationalists were denied access to state owned radio and other media outlets. Those media were instead used as a means of propaganda against the nationalists. i) Banning of trade unions also frustrated the activities of nationalists. Where they were allowed to exist, they were monitored by the police. j) The nationalists faced the challenge of movement restrictions through the pass laws that were introduced. k) African Journalists were harasses and their newspapers proscribed by the government. **LIVES AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF KENYAN LEADERS ** **Jomo Kenyatta. ** ***Early life *** Jomo Kenyatta was born Kamau wa Ngengi to Ngengi wa Muigai and Wambui in Gatundu, Kiambu on 20 [th] October 1891. His father died while Kamau was very young was adopted by his uncle Ngengi, who inherited his mother. When his mother died during childbirth, young Kamau moved from Ng'enda to Muthiga to live with his medicine man grandfather Kng wa Magana.He joined the Church of Scotland Mission (CSM) at Thogoto, as a resident pupil. In 1912, having completed his mission school education, he became an apprentice carpenter. In 1914, he converted to Christianity, assuming the name Johnstone Kamau. He left the mission later that year to seek employment as an ----- 340 ### apprentice carpenter on a sisal farm in Thika.To avoid forced recruitment as WWI soldier, he lived with Maasai relatives in Narok, where he worked as a clerk for an Asian contractor. He took to wearing a traditional beaded belt known as a 'Kenyatta', a Swahili word which means 'light of Kenya'.In 1922 Kamau adopted the name Jomo Kenyatta, and began working for the Nairobi Municipal Council Public Works Department as a store clerk and water-meter reader. **Marriage and family. ** In 1919 he married Grace Wahu. On 20 November 1920 Kamau's first son Peter Muigai was born. Grace Wahu lived in the Dagoretti home until her death in April 2007 at the age of around 100.In 1942, he married Edna Clarke and Peter Magana was born in 1943. In 1951 Kenyatta married Ngina Muhoho, daughter of Chief Muhoho and was independent Kenya's First Lady, when Kenyatta was elected President. **Kenyatta and politics** Kenyatta joined the EAA in 1922 which disbanded in 1925.Kenyatta worked as editor of the KCA's journal between 1924 and 1929, and by 1928 he had become the KCA's general secretary. In May 1928 Kenyatta launched a monthly Kikuyu-language newspaper called Mwgwithaniawhich was intended to draw all sections of the Kikuyu together. He also made a presentation on Kikuyu land problems before the Hilton Young Commission in Nairobi in the same year.In February 1929 Kenyatta was dispatched to London to represent the KCA in discussions with the Colonial Office. He wrote several letters and in the letter published in The Times in March 1930 set out five points: ~ The security of land tenure and the return of the land taken by European settlers. ~ Improved educational opportunities for Black Africans. ~ The repeal of Hut and poll taxes. ~ Representation for Black Africans in the Legislative Council. ~ Freedom to pursue traditional customs (such as female genital mutilation) He returned to Kenya on 24 September 1930. He returned to London in 1931. In 1932 to 1933, he briefly studied economics in Moscow. at University College London from 1935 studied social anthropology. Kenyatta published his own book, Facing Mount Kenya in 1938. **Kenyatta and pan-Africanism. ** In 1945, with other prominent African nationalist figures, such as Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Kenyatta helped organize the fifth Pan-African Congress held in Britain. Kenyatta and the struggle for independence.On arrival into Kenya in 1947, he became principal of Kenya Teachers College Githunguri.In 1947, he was elected president of the Kenya African Union (KAU) after James Gichuru stepped down.From 1948 to 1951 he toured and lectured around the country. He also published My People of Kikuyu and The Life of Chief Wang'ombe, a history shading into legend.The Mau Mau Rebellion began in 1951 and KAU was banned, and a state of emergency was declared on 20 October 1952. Kenyatta was arrested in October 1952 and indicted with five others (Bildad ----- 341 ### Kaggia, Fred Kubai, Paul Ngei, Achieng Oneko and Kungu Karumba).At Kapenguria trials lasting 5 years, Rawson Macharia who was the main prosecution witness later confessed that he had been bribed to give false information about Kenyatta. The defense was led by British barrister D.N. Pritt. The court led by Judge R.S. Thacker, sentenced Kenyatta and his team on 8 April 1953 to seven years imprisonment with hard labour and indefinite restriction thereafter.Kenyatta remained in prison at Lokitaung in north western Kenya until April 1959, after which he was detained in Lodwar.On 14 May 1960, he was elected KANU President in absentia. In 1960, Ambu Patel, a follower of Mahatma Gandhi formed the Release Jomo Kenyatta Committee. On 23 [rd] march 1961, Kenyan leaders visited him in Lodwar. On 11 April 1961, he was moved to Maralal with daughter Margaret. On 14 August 1961, he was released. **Leadership ** Kenyatta was admitted into the LegCo after his release in 1961, after Kariuki Njiiri gave up his Kigumo seat for him. In 1961 and 1962, he led the KANU delegation to first and second Lancaster Conference in London to negotiate Kenya's independence constitution. Elections were then held in May 1963 and KANU beat KADU by winning 83 seats out of 124. On 1 June 1963, Kenyatta became prime minister of the autonomous Kenyan government. On 1 June 1964, Kenyatta became an executive President following amendment of the Constitution to make Kenya a republic. **Commentary ** Historians have questioned Kenyattas alleged leadership of the radical Mau Mau movement. Kenyatta was in truth a political moderate. It is even alleged that the colonial administration deliberately arrested him to protect him from the radical KAU members who accused him of betraying their course. (There were three attempts to assassinate him before he was arrested). His marriage of Colonial Chief's daughters, his post independ- ence Kikuyu allies mainly being former colonial collaborators, and his short shrift treatment of former Mau Mau fight ers after he came to power, all strongly suggest he had scant regard for the Mau Mau **Kenyatta and nation building ** On 10 November 1964, KADU officially dissolved and its representatives joined KANU, forming a single party. Kenyatta was re-elected un-opposed in 1966, and the next year had the Constitution amended to expand his powers. In the 1969 elections, Kenyatta banned the only other party, KPU led by Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, detained its leaders, and called elections in which only KANU was allowed to participate. Kenyatta made use of detention, ethnic loyalties, and careful appointment of government jobs to maintain his commanding position in Kenyas political system.Kenyatta was again re-elected unopposed as President in 1974He remained president until his death four years later in 1978. ----- 342 ### **Sickness and Death ** President Kenyatta had suffered a heart attack in 1966. In April 1977, then well into his 80s, he suffered a massive heart attack.On 14 August 1978, he hosted his entire family, including his son Peter Magana who flew in from Britain with his family, to a reunion in Mombasa. On 22 August 1978, he died in Mombasa due to old age. He was buried on 31 August 1978 at a mausoleum on Parliament grounds.Kenyattas tenure as president featured the following problems. a) There was a great split within KANU due to his land policy. Kenyatta compromised with the whites over their property. The Land-buying companies formed to buy European farms favoured one community. b) From the onset of independence, KADU advocated for Majimboism and therefore opposing national unity. c) The 1966 term featured border conflicts with Somalia, and more political opposition. He made the Kikuyu-led KANU practically the only political party of Kenya. He placed several of his Kikuyu tribesmen in most of the powerful state and security offices and posts. d) Increasing loss of confidence in his government suspected of complicity in murders of Pio Gama Pinto, Tom Mboya and J.M. Kariuki. MP and Lawyer C.M.G. Argwings- Kodhek and former Kadu Leader and Minister Ronald Ngala. e) Poverty, ignorance and disease were serious problems in Kenya in the early years of independence. f) There was shortage of manpower since the inherited educational policy left Africans illequipped for skilled employment. g) Kenya did not have adequate funds to provide for is development needs. h) There was a serious problem of poor transport and communication. i) The existence of Banditry (Shifta Menace) in north-eastern kenya also shifted attention from economic development. **Achievements. ** a) Mzee Jomo Kenyatta is credited with leading Kenya to independence and setting up the country as a relatively prosperous capitalist state. b) He oversaw a peaceful land reform process, oversaw the setting up of the institutions of independent Kenya, and also oversaw Kenya's admission into the United Nations. c) During his reign, the country was reasonably well governed, peaceful and stable, the economy developed and grew rapidly and attracted high levels of foreign investment, and a black Kenyan professional and business middle class was established. **Failures ** a) Kenyatta failed to mould Kenya, being its founding father, into a homogeneous multi- ethnic state. The country remains a de facto confederation of competing tribes. b) His resettlement of many Kikuyu tribesmen in the country's Rift Valley province is widely considered to have been done unfairly. ----- 343 ### c) His authoritarian style, with elements of patronage, favouritism, tribalism and/or nepotism drew criticism and dissent, and set a bad example followed by his successors. d) He had the Constitution radically amended to expand his powers, consolidating executive power. e) He was also been criticized for ruling through a post colonial clique of his relatives, mainly African Kikuyu colonial collaborators from Kiambu, while giving scant reward to the real fighters for Kenya's independence. f) Kenyatta has further been criticized for encouraging the culture of wealth accumulation by public officials their office influence, thereby deeply entrenching corruption in Kenya. g) His policies are also criticized for leading to a large income and development inequality gap in the country favouring mainly Nairobi and the Country's Central Highlands, over others. **Tom Mboya ** Thomas Odhiambo Mboya was born on August 15, 1930 in Kilimambogo, near Thika town.In 1942, he joined St. Mary's School Yala. In 1946, he went to the Holy Ghost College (later Mang'u High School), where he passed well enough to proceed to do his Cambridge School Certificate. In 1948, Mboya joined the Royal Sanitary Institute's Medical Training School at Nairobi, qualifying as an inspector in 1950 and employed by the Nairobi City Council.In 1955, he attended Ruskin College, Oxford, where he studied industrial management. In 1956, he returned to Kenya and joined politics at the height of Mau Mau uprising. **Political life ** A year after joining African Staff Association, he was elected its president. He molded it into a trade union named the Kenya Local Government Workers' Union. Upon returning from Britain, he contested and won a seat against incumbent C.M.G. Argwings-Kodhek. In 1957, he formedhis own party, the People's Congress Party. In 1958, during the All- African Peoples' Conference in Ghana, convened by Kwame Nkrumah, Mboya was elected as the Conference Chairman at the age of 28.In 1960, Mboya together with others formed KANU. As Secretary General of KANU, Mboya headed the Kenyan Lancaster House delegation.After Kenya's independence on 1 June 1963, Mboya was elected as an MP for Nairobi Central Constituency (today: Kamukunji Constituency) and became Minister of Justice and Constitutional Affairs.As Minister for Economic Planning and Development, he wrote "Sessional Paper 10" (adopted by Parliament in 1964), which provided a model of government based on African values.He was gunned down on July 5, 1969 on Moi Avenue, aged 38 years.Mboya left a wife and five children. He is buried in a mausoleum located in Rusinga Island which was built in 1970. ----- 344 ### **Ronald Ngala ** **Early career ** Ngala was born in 1922 at Gotani in Giriama country. In 1929 the family moved to Vishakani near Kaloleni, which was to be Ngala's home for the rest of his life. Ngala attended Alliance High School and Makerere University College where he gained a teaching diploma. He worked as a teacher and later became headmaster of Mbale Secondary School in Taita-Taveta. In 1952 he was transferred to Buxton School in Mombasa where he served as the principal. **Political career ** Ngala was elected to the Legislative Council in 1957 to represent the Coast Rural constituency.He formed the African Elected Members Organization (AEMO) together with other elected African MPs.at a meeting held on May 14, 1960 in Kiambu he was elected as the KANU's treasurer, a position he declined to take. At a meeting held in Ngong on June 25, 1960, the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU) was formed with Ngala as its leader, in opposition to KANU.At the 1961 legislative council elections Ngala formed the first African government. Ngala became Leader of Government Business and later Prime Minister.On 12 November 1964 the leaders of KADU, including Ronald Ngala, Masinde Muliro and Daniel arap Moi decided to dissolve KADU and join KANU. Ngala in the post independence periodRonald Ngala was made Minister of Cooperatives and Social Services in the Kenyatta government. He went on to become one of KANUs vice-presidents at the 1966 Limuru Conference. Ngala remained active in the government until he died in a road accident in 1972. The circumstances of Ngala's death in 1972 were suspicious. **Daniel Arap Moi ** **Early life and entry into politics ** Daniel Arap Moi was born on 2nd September, 1924 in Kurieng'wo in Sacho Location of Baringo County, raised by his mother Kimoi Chebii following the early death of his father. His elder brother Tuitoek played a guardian role, influencing him to go to school at an early age. In 1934, Moi joined African Inland Mission School, Kabartonjo. On October 20th 1936 he was baptised Daniel. In 1938, he transferred to African Inland Mission, Kapsabet and later to Government African School, Kapsabet where he was a school captain and a captain of the football team. He attended Tambach Teachers Training College. He worked as a teacher from 1946 until 1955. He was posted as a Head teacher at Kabarnet where he studied privately and passed London Matriculation Examinations. He was promoted in 1949 to the rank of P2 and transferred to Tambach Government African School as a Teacher Trainer. President Moi married Helena (Lena) Bommet in 1950 and they were blessed with 8 children; 3 daughters and five sons, (Jennifer, Doris and adopted daughter June; Jonathan, Raymond, John Mark, Philip and Gideon). But they separated in 1974, before his presidency.. Lena died in 2004. ----- 345 ### **Mois long political career. ** In October 1955 the Electoral College selected Moi from a list of eight nominated candidates to fill a vacancy left by Joseph ole Tameno who resigned from the unofficial benches of the legislative council. In 1957, when elections were held, for LEGCO, Moi won with a landslide against Justus Ole Tipis and later joined AEMO. In 1959, he led AEMO members to visit Jomo Kenyatta in detention in Lodwar. In 1960 he founded the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU) with Ronald Ngala to challenge the Kenya African National Union (KANU) led by Jomo Kenyatta.Moi was among the Kenyan delegation under the auspices of KADU who went to the London Constitutional talks of June 1960. Moi was elected to the Kenyan parliament in 1963 from Baringo North. Since 1966 until his retirement in 2002 he served as the Baringo Central MP and only served as a vice -president from 1967 until 1978 when he became the president.In 1976, the Kiambu Mafia, tried to infamously change the constitution to prevent the vicepresident automatically assuming power in the event of the president's death. However, Kenyatta withstood the political pressure and safeguarded Moi's position. **Presidency ** When Jomo Kenyatta died on 22 August 1978, Moi became president. Political realities dictated that he would continue to beholden to the Kenyatta system which he had inherited. On 1 August 1982, fate played into Moi's hands when forces loyal to his government defeated an attempted coup d'tat by Air Force officers led by Hezekiah Ochuka. Moi took the opportunity to dismiss political opponents and consolidate his power reducing the influence of Kenyatta's men in the cabinet. He appointed supporters to key roles and changed the constitution to establish a de jure single-party state. Moi, his regime now faced an economy stagnating under rising oil prices and falling prices for agricultural commodities, singlehandedly convinced the KANU delegates at a conference at Kasarani in December, 1991 over the restoration of a multi-party systemin 1992 and 1997, marred by political violence and absence of an effective and organized opposition, Moi had no difficulty in winning, skillfully exploited Kenya's mix of ethnic tensions. Mwai Kibaki was elected President on 29 December 2002 and Moi handed over power to him. Moi After retirement . After leaving office in December 2002, Moi lived in retirement but still retained some popularity with the masses. He spoke out against a proposal for a new constitution in 2005. On 25 July 2007, Kibaki appointed Moi as special peace envoy to Sudan. On 28 August 2007, Moi announced his support for Kibaki's re-election. Moi owns the Kiptagich Tea Factory, established in 1979, which in 2009 the factory was under threat of being closed down by the government during the Mau Forest evictions. **Challenges and achievements ** The major test to His leadership was in August 1982 when a detachment of Airforce soldiers attempted to overthrow his government but they were crushed. ----- 346 ### **Achievements** ~ Moi served as Chairman of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) for two consecutive terms - 1981 and 1982. ~ He has also been involved in mediation between various conflicting sides in Uganda, Congo, Somalia, Chad, Sudan, Mozambique, Eritrea/Ethiopia, Rwanda, and Burundi etc. ~ He served as Chairman of Preferential Trade Area (1989-1990), COMESA (1999- 2000), E.A. Co-operation (1996- 2002) and Inter-Governmental Authority on Development IGAD (1993 -1998). ~ He has travelled widely, being called upon as a president to provide peace keeping forces in troubled parts of the world like Chad, Uganda, Namibia, Mozambique, Iran/Iraq, Kuwait, Yugoslavia, Liberia, Morocco, Angola, Serbia/ Croatia, D.R. Congo, Sierra Leone and East Timor. ~ Moi has supported the formation of regional economic bodies to increase trade and as a means for the developing countries to have a united voice in the global economy. ~ On 30th December 2002, Moi handed over power to Mwai Kibaki in a peaceful transition that followed the Narc victory over Kanu in the December 2002 General Elections. ~ Currently, Moi is setting up a foundation through which he hopes to participate in solving conflicts in the horn of African and the Great Lakes Region as well as help rehabilitate street children and those orphaned by HIV/aids. **Jaramogi Ajuma Oginga Odinga (Oct.1911 Jan 20, 1994). ** **Early years and career ** Oginga Odinga was born at Nyamira Kango, in Sakwa location in Bondo, in October, 1911. Christened Obadiah Adonijah, he later renounced his Christian names and became known as Ajuma Oginga Odinga.Young Odinga began his formal education in 1926, at Maranda. He sat for his common entrance examination in 1929. He Attended Maseno School where he sat his STD 8 exams in 1934. He enrolled at Alliance High School in 1935 upto, finishing his formal education with a diploma in education from Makerere University College in 1939. From 1940 to 1942 Odinga taught mathematics at the Church Missionary Society school, Maseno. From 1943 to 1946 he was headmaster of the Maseno Veterinary School. Odinga and Economic and social independence In 1944, he quit teaching and formed the Bondo Thrift Association in 1945.In 1947, he founded the Luo Thrift and Trading Corporation for commercial and political purposes, serving as its managing director until 1962. LUTATCO build their first shop, MasenoStore, posho mills at Ngiya, Bondo and Dudi. The company owned Ramogi Press in Nairobi in 1947, publishing a Dholuo newspaper, Ramogi, edited by Achieng Oneko, Odingas student in Maseno School. They also published Nyanza Times, Radioposta, Sauti ya Mwafrika and Mumenyereri. Between 1956 and 1957, they built Ramogi House and Africa House Kisumu. ----- 347 ### He helped to form the Luo Union, which brought together all the Luo people. His efforts earned him admiration and recognition among the Luo, who revered him as Ker a title previously held by the fabled classical Luo king, Ramogi Ajwang, who reigned 400 years before him. Odinga became known as Jaramogi (man of the people of Ramogi). Odinga travelled across the major towns in East Africa raising funds that resulted in the building of the Ofafa Memorial Hall in Kisumu in 1957 which became the headquarters of the Luo Union. **Odingas political contributions (1948-1963) ** In 1947, he won the central Nyanza African District Council elections. In 1948 he joined Kenya African Union (KAU) having been influenced by a Luo Union and KAU leader, Ambrose Ofafa. In 1957 and became the political spokesman of the Luo. The same year, he was elected member of the Legislative Council for the Central Nyanza constituency. He became the chairperson of AEMO formed by the eight African elected Members of the LEGCO. He with Mboya and Kiano formed the Kenya Independence Movement after AEMO began to disintegrate. After the 1960 Lancaster House Conference, attended by a unified African delegation, Odinga emerging as one of the radical group leader, dissatisfied Africans with the conference decisions.Odinga and other members of the legislative council formed the Kenya African National Union (KANU). Odinga's KANU used its strong showing in the 1961 general elections to help gain Kenyatta's release. **Odinga after independence ** Kenya gained independence in Dec 1963, and Odinga was appointed minister for home affairs.When Kenya became a Republic in 1964, he was its first Vice-President. As VicePresident he did not agree with Jomo Kenyatta's government, and he resigned his post and quit KANU in 1966 to form the Kenya People's Union (KPU). He openly challenged the government's use of private and foreign investment capital and its close ties with the West.Within KANU, a coalition formed against Odinga and in 1966 a KANU reorganization conference abolished his post of party vice-president. In October 1969, Odinga together with Achieng Oneko and other KPU members were jailed by the government. The KPU was banned, and he stayed in prison for 15 months. Odinga remained an opposition leader throughout the1970s. After Kenyatta's death in 1978, the new president, Daniel Arap Moi, tried to bring Odinga back into KANU. Moi, appointed Odinga as chairman of the Cotton Lint and Seed Marketing Boardwhere he did not last long, because he was still outspoken against Kenyatta's policies. When Odinga was reinstated into the party in 1980, he attacked Moi and Kenyatta as corrupt and protested U.S. military presence in Kenya.Odinga attempted to register a political party in 1982, but his plans were foiled when Kenyawas made a de jure single-party state in 1982, KANU party again banished Odinga.Throughout the 1980s, Odinga remained vocal in calling for democracy. In 1984, he tried to launch and register the Ramogi Development Trust (RADET) but the government denied it registration. ----- 348 ### **Odinga and the Struggle for multi-parytism in the 1990s ** In 1991, Odinga founded the National Democratic Party, but the government refused to recognize it and briefly jailed Odinga. Later that year Odinga and five other opposition leaders formed the Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD). But FORD split in 1992, and Jaramogi formed FORD-K finishing fourth behind Moi, Matiba and Kibaki. In 1993, Odinga's reputation suffered when he admitted taking a campaign contribution from a bank accused of bribing government officials. In the months before his death in January 1994, Odinga tried to reconcile his branch of FORD with KANU, but without success. **Wangari Maathai ** **Early life of Wangari Maathai. ** Maathai was born on April 1, 1940 in the Ihithe village, Nyeri County, in the central region to Muta Njugi, a farm labourer on a white owned farm in the rift valley. In 1950, she joined Ihithe Primary School for primary education in 1951, Maathai moved to St. Cecilia's Intermediate Primary School at the Mathari Catholic Mission in Nyeri where she studied for four years.During this time, she converted to Catholicism, taking the Christian name Mary Josephine. In 1956 she joined Loreto High School Limuru. She was chosen to study at American universities in September 1960 under the Kennedy Airlift or Airlift Africa. In 1964, she joined the University of Pittsburgh to study for a master's degree in biology.In January 1966, upon her return to Kenya, Maathai dropped her Christian name, preferring to be known by her birth name, Wangari Muta. In April 1966, she met Mwangi Mathai, whom she later married in 1969 and had three children with him.In 1971, she became the first Eastern African woman to receive a Ph.D., (in Anatomy) from the University of Nairobi. She was a member of the Nairobi branch of the Kenya Red Cross Society, becoming its director in 1973. In 1979, her husband, Mwangi Mathai divorced her, saying she was too strong-minded for a woman and wife and accusing her of adultery with another Member of Parliament. **Wangari Maathai as political activist. ** In 1979, Maathai ran for the position of ch airman of the National Council of Women of Kenya (NCWK). She lost, but was chosen to be the vice-chairman of the organization. In 1980, Maathai was elected chairman of the NCWK unopposed. However NCWK was left virtually bankrupt, as Future funding by government was channeled to Maendeleo Ya Wanawake a progovernment splinter group.In 1982, she resigned from the University of Nairobi to campaign for a Parliamentary seat in her home region of Nyeri. However, she was disqualified from vying.On February 28, 1992, Maathai and others took part in a hunger strike in Uhuru Park, to pressure the government to release political prisoners. The protest continued until early 1993, when the prisoners were finally released. After the first multi-party election of Kenya, in 1992, Maathai traveled with friends and the press to areas of violence in order to encourage them to cease fighting. After her friend and supporter Dr. Mukanga was kidnapped, Maathai chose to go into hiding.During the ----- 349 ### elections of 1997, Maathai ran for parliament and for president as a candidate of the Liberal Party. She lost the election.On July 7, 2001, shortly after planting trees at Freedom Corner in Uhuru Park in Nairobi to commemorate Saba Saba Day, Maathai was again arrested. Later that evening, she was again released without being charged.Maathai again campaigned for parliament in the 2002 elections, this time as a candidate of the National Rainbow Coalition; she won with an overwhelming 98% of the vote. In January 2003, she was appointed Assistant Minister in the Ministry for Environment and Natural Resources and served in that capacity until November 2005. In December 2007, choosing to run as the candidate of a smaller party Maathai was, defeated in the parliamentary election. The life of Wangari Maathai as an environmental conservationist.Following the establishment of the Environment Liaison Centre in 1974, Maathai became the chair of the board. In 1974, with her husband as the MP for Langata constituency, Maathai founded the Envirocare Ltd., a business that involved the planting of trees to conserve the environment. This led to the planting of her first tree nursery, in a government tree nursery in Karura Forest. On June 5, 1977, marking World Environment Day, Maathai led the NCWK in a procession from Kenyatta International Conference Centre to Kamukunji Park where they planted seven trees in honor of historical community leaders. This was the first "Green Belt" planted by what became the Green Belt Movement. In 1982, she was approached by Wilhelm Elsrud, executive director of the Norwegian Forestry Society. Who partnered with the Green Belt Movement and offered her the position of coordinator. In 1987, Maathai stepped down as chairman of the NCWK and focused her attention on the newly separate nongovernmental organization.In October 1989, Maathai learned of a plan to construct the 60 -story Kenya Times Media Trust Complex in Uhuru Park. Her protests, some leading to her being harassed, led to the foreigninvestors to cancel the project in January 1990. In June 1992, both Maathai and President Arap Moi traveled to Rio de Janeiro for the UN Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) where she became a chief spokesperson despite government protest. In 1998, Maathai protested against the privatization of large areas of pu blic land in the Karura Forest. In August 16, 1999, when the president announced that he was banning all allocation of public land.On October 8, 2004, Maathai became the first African woman, and the first environmentalist, to win the Nobel Peace Prize for her contribution to sustainable development, democracy and peace.On March 28, 2005, she was elected the first president of the African Union's Economic, Social and Cultural Council and was appointed a goodwill ambassador for an initiative aimed at protecting the Congo Basin Forest Ecosystem. **Achievements of Wangari Maathai ** a) As a member of the Kenya Association of University Women, she was on the forefront in campaigning for equal benefits for the women while at the university and also as a member National Council of Women of Kenya (NCWK). ----- 350 ### b) She succeeded in stopping the government from encroaching on a public utility at Uhuru park to construct the 60-story Kenya Times Media Trust Complex. c) She succeeded in pressurizing the government to release political prisoners through painful hunger protests at Uhuru Park. The prisoners were released in early 1993. d) Maathai was the first African woman, and the first environmentalist, to win the Nobel Peace Prize for her contribution to sustainable development, democracy and peace. e) Maathai has been very instrumental in environmental protection through the Green Belt Movement. **THE FORMATION, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT ** **OF KENYA. ** THE ELECTORAL PROCESS . **Role of the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission in Kenya. ** a) The Commission is responsible for conducting or supervising referenda and elections to any elective body or office. b) It is responsible for continuous registration of citizens as voters and regular revision of the voters roll. c) It Prescribes and reviews electoral boundaries in constituencies and wards at intervals of not less than eight years, and not more than twelve years. The constitution provides for 290 constituencies established under the following considerations; ~ Community of interest, historical, economic and cultural ties ~ Geographical features and urban centres ~ Means of communication d) It is responsible for regulation of the process by which parties nominate candidates for elections. e) The commission is responsible for settlement of electoral disputes, including disputes relating to or arising from nominations. However it does not handle election petitions and disputes subsequent to the declaration of election results. f) The registration of candidates for election. g) Educate/informs the public on the requirements for voters and contestants h) Facilitation of the observation, monitoring and evaluation of elections. i) It is responsible for regulation of the amount of money that may be spent by or on behalf of a candidate or party in respect of any election. j) Identifies, appoints and trains election officials. k) Verifies and announces election results l) Prepares ballot papers and other election materials. m) Identifies and recommends polling stations. **Types of elections. ** There are three types of elections in Kenya; ----- 351 ### a) General elections . These are elections held after every five years. Initially they were meant to be held on the second Tuesday in August on the fifth year. But this has since been altered due to the delay in new constitution implementation process b) By elections. These are elections of new leaders to fill vacant seats left following deaths of occupants, resignation or annulment of their election through successful petition in court. c) Re run elections - this are elections held exactly one month after the general elections involving only two presidential candidates in case of no clear winner in the general election. **Why Kenyans elect their representatives to parliament every five years. ** a) It is a constitutional requirement that Kenyans elect MPs after every five years. b) The elections give Kenyans a chance to practice their democratic right of choosing their representatives. c) It enables Kenyans control their elected representatives i.e. the fear of losing election ensures that elected representative serve the electorate well. d) It enables Kenyans choose between representatives and between parties that express the policies that they agree with. e) Through periodic elections, Kenyans are able to participate in activities of their government The following methods have been used in elections in Kenya. a) Mololongo (queuing) b) Acclamation c) Secret ballot. **THE 2007 ELECTIONS IN KENYA ** The electoral process that was adopted by the ECK under the stewardship of Samuel Kivuitu in the 2007 election was very unfair and yielded false results. This caused the outbreak of violence, bloodshed, destruction and loss of property.The Kreigler commission that was formed to look into the causes of the 2008 violence reported the following weaknesses. a) Irregularities in the voter register which excluded 30% of the potential voters the register contained names of deceased persons. Women who had attained the voting age were found to be under represented. b) Imbalanced distribution of registered voters among constituencies. Some constituencies like Embakasi had over 200, 000 registered voters while others like Mandera East had less than 20,000 registered voters. c) Rampant cheating where in some cases the votes cast were more than 100% of the registered voters. d) Existence of exclusive strongholds with some electoral areas being out of bounds for some political parties. ----- 352 ### e) There was a defective system of voter tallying and relaying of information. Some of those declared winners finally lost their seats through election petitions. f) Incompetence of the ECK officials with even the chairmen stating clearly that it was impossible to establish who won the elections. g) The results relayed sometimes faced integrity queries. Some officials relayed cooked results. h) The composition of the ECK raised suspicion especially among the opposition. **The principles that govern the electoral process in Kenya. ** a) All citizens have the freedom to exercise their political rights b) Not more than two-thirds of the members of elective public bodies shall be of the same gender. c) Persons with disabilities must receive fair representation. d) There must be universal suffrage based on the aspiration for fair representation and equality of vote. e) The elections should be free and fair and will be by secret ballot, free from violence, intimidation, improper influence or corruption. f) The elections will be conducted by an independent body, transparent; and administered in an impartial, neutral, efficient, accurate and accountable manner. **Legislation on Elections. ** The following legislations govern the electoral process in Kenya. a) The constitution of Kenya -that is a sovereign state and republic with the people owning all sovereign power directly or through democratically elected leaders. b) The national assembly and presidential elections Act- it outlines the steps to be followed in the registration of voters, nomination of candidates, polling and counting of votes and other related processes. c) The local government act - it gives the procedure and rules for conducting elections for county, municipal and town councils. d) The electoral offences Act . it lays out the election offences like bribing of voters, threatening voters, voting more than once or causing violence on polling day or during campaigns. **Voter registration. ** ***Qualifications of a voter in an electoral process in Kenya. *** a) One must be an adult citizen at least 18 years old. b) He/she must be a Kenyan citizen in possession of an identity card or passport. c) He/she must be a registered voter. d) He/she must been registered at only one registration centre e) One must not be an insane person. f) He/she must have been convicted of an election offence during the Preceding five years. ----- 353 ### **Voter and civic education. ** Voter education refers to the provision of information, materials and programmes to voters with the intention of informing them about the specifics of voting process for a particular election. For example, information on who is eligible to vote, where and how to register.Civic education is aimed at conveying knowledge to the citizens about the countrys politica l system and context. For example, information about the system of government, the nature and powers of the elective offices, to be filled in an election. Nomination of candidates. There are two categories of Nominations a) Party nominations b) IEBC nominations **Party nominations ** This refers to the selection of political party candidates to contest in an election. It is done through queuing, acclamation or secret ballot. It may involve nomination for county, parliamentary or presidential elections. **IEBC nominations ** Once the political parties have nominated their candidates, they are presented to the IEBC for formal nomination to contest the presidential, parliamentary or county/civic elections. **Independent candidates ** A person is eligible to stand as an independent candidate under the following conditions; a) The person should not be a member of a registered political party and should not have been a member for atleast three months immediately before the date of elections b) He/she must be a registered voter. c) He/ she must satisfy the educational, moral and ethical requirements as per the constitution or act of parliament. d) In case of national assembly elections, he/she must attract the support of atleast 1000 registered voters in the constituency. e) In case of the senate, one must attract the support of atleast 2000 registered voters in the county. Conditions that must be met by one wishing to be elected Member of Parliament . a) A person is eligible for election as a Member of Parliament if the person is registered as a voter. b) If the person satisfies any educational, moral and ethical requirements prescribed by the Constitution or by an Act of Parliament. c) if he is nominated by a political party, or is an independent candidate who is supported in the case of election to the National Assembly, by at least one thousand Registered voters in the constituency; or in the case of election to the Senate, by at least two thousand registered voters in the county. **Disqualifications for one from being elected a Member the National Assembly. ** a) If the person is a State officer or other public officer, other than a Member of Parliament. ----- 354 ### b) If a person has, at any time within the five years immediately preceding the date of election, held office as a member of the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission. c) If a person has not been a citizen of Kenya for at least the ten years immediately preceding the date of election. d) If a person is a member of a county assembly. e) If one is of unsound mind. f) If one is declared bankrupt. g) Is subject to a sentence of imprisonment of at least six months, as at the date of registration as a candidate, or at the date of election. h) If one is found, in accordance with any law, to have misused or abused a State office or public office. **An elected MP may lose his/her seat in parliament under the following ** **circumstances. ** a) When he/she ceases to be a Kenyan citizen. b) He /she receive a jail sentence exceeding 6 months or death penalty from a court of law. c) When he/she resign, through writing to the speaker, from the national assembly. d) When he/she is declared bankrupt by a court of law. e) When he/she is found to be of unsound mind. f) When he/she resigns from the sponsoring political party or as an MP. g) When he/she fails to attend 8 consecutive sessions during the life of a particular parliament without permission from the speaker. h) When he/she defects from one party to another. i) When he/she having been elected to parliament as an independent candidate, decides to join a political party. **Campaigns. ** The campaign periods starts immediately after IEBC nomination of candidates and ends 12 hours before the polling day. The main purpose of campaigns is to give the voters chance to assess aspiring candidates and their party policies and strategies and then decide the right candidate. **Polling ** Voting is done in the polling station. It takes place from 6.00am to 6.00 pm on the Election Day.Counting of votes begins after the closure of the exercise. The presiding officer then announces the number of votes garnered by each candidate. The returning officer, the election officer in the constituency then tallies the total votes from all the polling stations and announces per candidate in the constituency. He/she declares the elected mp for the constituency and councilors of each ward. He announces the number of votes per candidate for the presidential elections. ----- 355 ### The IEBC then declares the validly elected candidates for the presidential, National Assembly and Senate. Factors likely to interfere with free and fair elections in Kenya. a) Ethnic loyalties/polarization/Party loyalties. People may be compelled to vote along tribal lines, in total disregard of the leadership records or accomplishment of those they elect. b) Illiteracy of some voters. This curtails their ability to mark the ballot papers correctly. c) Inadequate civic education. The lack of adequate sensitization of the voters can lead to ineffective election process. d) Violence. Harassment of voters by rival groups/ Insecurity/fear instilled in candidates. All forms of chaos makes accessibility to voting stations by voters difficult. e) Corruption of candidates and their supporters. This is through bribing of voters to vote for certain candidates. f) Incompetent election officials. Some election officials are partisan and therefore unable to preside over elections competently. g) Rigging. On many occasions aspiring candidates or their agents have complained of rigging. h) Transport difficulties. The electoral process in Kenya has been faced with the problem of Inaccessibility of some polling stations i) Communication problems. During the voting day, some remote areas experience communication problems between the headquarters and the polling stations. j) Extreme weather conditions. Delivery of polling materials has sometimes been affected by bad weather. k) Gender insensitivity. For a long time, women have not been given a fair share in the electoral process in Kenya. l) Use and misuse of mass media. Some politicians own some media houses, sometimes they have subjected them to misuse. There has been also the problem of imbalance when it comes to media coverage of elections. Electoral guidelines and regulations that may help minimizeirregularities. a) Whatever voting method is used, the system must be simple, accurate, verifiable, secure, accountable and transparent. b) The votes cast must be counted, tabulated and the results announced promptly by the presiding officer at each polling station. c) The results from the polling stations must be openly and accurately collated and promptly announced by the returning officer. d) Appropriate structures and mechanisms to eliminate electoral malpractices must be in place, including the safekeeping of electoral materials. ----- 356 ### **Electoral disputes ** The following must be observed as pertains to election disputes : a) Electoral petitions, other than in a presidential election, must be filed within 28 days after the declaration of the election results by the IEBC. b) Service of a petition may be direct or by advertisement in a newspaper with national circulation. **ELECTION OFFICIALS ** The following are the officers appointed by the IEBC to assist in administering elections. 1. District election coordinators. - Officials responsible for all electoral matters at district level. They act as a link between people at the grassroots level and the IEBC headquarters. 2. Registration officers . they register voters in each constituency and issue them with voters card. 3. Returning officers. are in charge of elections in a constituency which has several polling stations. They perform the following functions: a) They set up polling booths in each polling station. b) They receive nomination papers from prospective candidates c) They distribute ballot papers and boxes to polling stations. d) They supervise the voting and counting of votes in the constituency. e) They appoint the presiding officers in each polling station. f) Announcing the results of the elections. 4. Presiding officers. in charge of polling stations. And perform the following duties; a) They conduct the polls in an orderly, free and fair manner at the polling station. b) They ensure that every eligible voter votes only once. c) They help illiterate voters mark ballot papers. d) They seal the ballot boxes and transfer them to a central point in the polling station where the votes will be counted. e) They maintain law and order at polling stations and report any irregularities to the returning officer. f) They ensure that there is impartiality in conducting. 5. Polling clerks . On the polling day, they assist and guide voters, particularly those who are illiterate. 6. Security personnel . police officers maintain law and order during the polling and counting of votes. 7. Counting clerks . they sort out ballots and then count the ballots per candidate. 8. Party agents . they represent candidates or political parties in a polling station or counting hall to ensure that the polling and counting procedures are transparent, orderly, free and fair. 9. Observers . these are neutral persons who make observations and write reports on the polling and counting exercise to indicate if the elections were free and fair or not. ----- 357 ### **FORMATION OF GOVERNMENT ** **NATIONAL GOVERNMENT ** Kenyans directly or indirectly exercise their sovereign or absolute power through their democratically elected representatives. This power is delegated to the state organs or arms of government namely; a) The parliament and the legislative assemblies in the county assemblies. b) The national executive and the executive structures in the county government. c) The judiciary and independent tribunals. **The process of National government formation. ** After every election, the party with the majority of seats in the house forms the government by appointing cabinet secretaries from among professionals (not among elected MPs) with the approval of the National Assembly. The president then appoints the judiciary with the a dvice of the JSC. The president-elect is sworn in by the chief Justice and the members of the three arms of government also take oath.The three arms of government operate independently and work on checks and balances The executive is responsible for running the country by developing and implementing policies that lead to national development.Even after dissolution of parliament after its expiry, the cabinet exists until a new one is appointed. This is to ensure that there is no power vacuum and that government operations continue. **Role of government in Kenya ** a) Government ensures that social and economic development is undertaken by putting in place policies to improve schools, hospitals, agriculture, trade, housing and industry. b) It upholds human rights and freedoms and ensures that all citizens live in peace and harmony through the administration of justice and maintaining law and order. c) Government organizes an effective defence force to protect the country from internal and external aggression. d) It also has a duty to establish sound foreign policies to promote international cooperation with other countries by setting up foreign embassies and high commissions. e) It has a duty to foster national unity by recognizing diversity and ensuring equitable sharing of national and local resources. f) Government protects and promotes the interests and rights of the minorities and marginalized communities. **COUNTY GOVERNMENT ** The county government is composed of County assemblies, county executive committees and county public service and exist in each of the 47 counties throughout Kenya. A county government consists of; a) Members (one member per ward) elected by the registered voters of the wards in a general election in Kenya. b) The Speaker, who is an ex officio member. ----- 358 ### c) Members appointed by the county governor, with the approval of the county assembly, from among persons who are not members of the assembly. The structure of the executive arm of the county government . The executive authority of the county is vested in the county executive committee. The committee consists of; a) The county Governor and the Deputy County Governor who are the chief executive and deputy chief executive of the county respectively. b) Members who are not members of the assembly and appointed by the County Governor, with the approval of the assembly. They should be not more than ten other. If the assembly has less than thirty members, the members should be One-third of the number of members of the county assembly. NB; ~ Members of a county executive committee are accountable to the county governor for the performance of their functions and exercise of their powers. ~ The appointed members of the county executive committee cease to hold office once the office of the county governor falls vacant. **The election of a county governor. ** The county governor is directly elected by the voters registered in the county at a general election for a term of 5 years. To be eligible for election as county governor, a person must be eligible for election as a member of the county assembly. If re-elected, can serve for another final term of 5 years. Each candidate for election as county governor nominates a person as his/her running mate to be the deputy governor. **Removal of a County Governor from office. ** A governor may be removed from office under the following grounds; a) Gross violation of the Constitution or any other law. b) When the county governor commits a crime under national or international law. c) When the governor abuses office or is accused of gross misconduct. d) When he/she suffers from Physical or mental incapacity that hinders performance of the functions of office. ***The office of the county governor falls vacant when the holder of office; *** a) Dies. b) Resigns, in writing, addressed to the speaker of the county assembly. c) Is convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment for atleast twelve months. d) Ceases to be eligible to be elected as a county governor. e) Is removed from office under the constitution. The deputy county governor assumes office as a county governor for the remainder of the term of the county governor when a vacancy arises. Where the deputy governor is unable to act or his office is also vacant, the speaker acts as governor and elections must be held within sixty days after the speaker assumes office. ----- 359 ### **THE COUNTY ASSEMBLY ** The composition of a County Assembly in Kenya is as follows; A county assembly consists of Members (one member per ward) elected by the registered voters of the wards in a general election. ### Members of special seats (no more than two-thirds of the membership of the assembly is of the same gender.) Members of marginalized groups, including persons with disabilities and the youth. The Speaker, who is an ex officio member. Nb-The members for special seats and marginalized communities are nominated by political parties in proportion to the seats received in the election in a particular county. **The functions of a county assembly** a) County assemblies make laws for the effective performance of the county government. b) It acts as a watch dog over the county executive committee. c) It receives and approves plans and policies for managing and exploiting the countys resources, and, developing and managing the infrastructure and institutions. **Conditions that must be met by a person seeking for election to a County Assembly ** a) The person must be a registered as a voter in his/her county. b) The person must have been a Kenyan citizen for atleast ten years before the elections. c) The person must be able to read and write in English and Kiswahili. d) He or she must be of sound mind. e) The person must be of unquestionable morals and ethics f) If a public officer, he/she must relinquish his/her public work. g) The person must be nominated by a political party h) If he/she is an independent candidate, must be supported by at least five hundred registered voters in the Ward concerned. i) The person must not have been declared bankrupt. j) The person must not have served a sentence of imprisonment of more than six months. k) The person must not have misused or abused a State or public office. **Vacancy in the office of member of county assembly may happen if the member; ** a) Dies. b) Is absent from eight sittings of the assembly without permission, in writing, of the speaker of the assembly and is unable to offer satisfactory explanation for the absence. c) Resigns, in writing, addressed to the speaker of the county assembly. d) After being elected to the assembly as a member of a political party, he/she resigns from the party, or is deemed to have resigned from the party, or after being an independent candidate, the member joins a political party. ----- 360 ### e) Gets to the end of the term of the assembly f) Becomes disqualified for election after the court rules in favour of an election petition made against him/her. **Speaker of County Assembly ** The speaker is elected by the county assembly from among persons who are not members of the county assembly. The speaker presides over the county assembly. Another member of the assembly may be elected to play the role of a speaker in case of the absence of the speaker. **STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. ** **The three arms of government are: ** ***a) Judiciary *** ***b) Executive *** ***c) Legislature *** **LEGISLATURE. ** The two components of the Kenyan Parliament/legislature are; 1. The National Assembly. 2. The Senate. **The Composition and membership of the National Assembly. ** The National Assembly consists of; a) Two hundred and ninety members, each elected by the registered voters of single member constituencies. b) Forty-seven women, each elected by the registered voters of the counties, each county constituting a single member constituency. c) Twelve members nominated by parliamentary political parties according to their proportion of members of the National Assembly to represent special interests including the youth, persons with disabilities and workers. d) The Speaker, who is an ex officio member. **Membership of the Senate ** The Senate consists of; a) forty-seven members each elected by the registered voters of the counties, each county constituting a single member constituency b) Sixteen women members nominated by political parties according to their proportion ofmembers of the Senate elected. c) Two members, being one man and one woman, representing the youth. d) Two members, being one man and one woman, representing persons with disabilities. e) The Speaker, who shall be an ex officio member. The official languages of parliament are English, Kiswahili and Kenyan sign language. Parliament quorum is 50 members for the national assembly and 15 members for the senate. ----- 361 ### **Office of parliament ** The following are the officers of parliament; ~ Speakers and deputy speakers. Two Speakers, ex-officio member, one for each of the two houses. Each is elected by members of the respective house from among persons who are qualified to be elected as members of parliament but are not MPs. A deputy speaker is elected from among members of each of the houses by the mps. Their offices become vacant when; ~ A new house of parliament first meets after an election. ~ When he/she resigns, dies. ~ When a house resolution of two-thirds removes him/her from office. The speakers Preside at any sitting of the house. In a joint meeting of the two houses, the speaker of the national assembly assisted by that of the senate presides over. The speaker has no vote in parliament and in case of a tie, The question is lost. The six speakers in Kenya since independence include; *1. 2008-upto date- Kenneth Marende. * *2. 1993-2007- Francis Ole Kaparo * *3. 1991- 1992-Professor Jonathan Ngeno * *4. 1988- 1990-Moses Arap Keino * *5. 1970 1987-Fredrick Mbiti Mati. * *6. 1964-1969-Humphrey Slade became the first speaker of the single house. * *7. 1963- Muinga Chokwe (speaker of the upper house) * *8. 1963- Humphrey slade (speaker of the lower house). * **Role of the speaker. ** a) He/she presides over the proceedings of the house and ensures that they are conducted in accordance with the rules of procedure. He enforces standing orders in the house. b) The speaker disciplines members of the house who violate standing orders by ordering such them to leave the house or be barred from attending three house consecutive sittings. c) Maintains order during debates and enforces rules which govern conduct of the house. The speaker interprets the rules of the house. d) He/she gives the MPs chance to contribute towards house debates to ensure that the minority are given a fair hearing before the will of the majority prevails. e) He/she represents and protects the authority of the house. f) He/she organizes and determines the business to be conducted in the house by receiving Bills, motions and questions for discussion in the house, and then prepares an order paper. g) He/she adjourns sittings if the house lacks a quorum. ----- 362 ### h) He/she keeps and maintains the attendance register and grants permission to MPs to be absent from sessions. MPs going out of the country must inform the speaker of their absence from Kenya. i) He/she heads the National Assembly department and takes charge of its general administration and welfare. He/she is responsible for preserving dignity and order and for the comfort and convenience of the members and staff within parliament buildings. j) He/she chairs the speakers committee, the committee of powers and Privileges and the Order Committee. k) The speaker issues orders and makes rules for the regulation of visitors to parliament and represent parliament in its relations with foreign countries. l) The speaker chairs the branches of the commonwealth Parliamentary Association, InterParliamentary Union and the Union of African Parliaments. He/she represents Parliament at the commonwealth speakers conference. m) He/she declares parliamentary seats vacant and issues writs for general elections and byelections. n) He/she receives and accepts letters of resignation from members of parliament. o) He/she swears in members of parliament before participating in the House deliberations. p) He, summons parliament to a new when parliamentarians are on recess. **~ Party leaders ** As part of parliament officers, there is the leader of the majority party and leader of minority party. The majority party leader is the person who is the leader in the national assembly of the largest party or coalition of parties. The minority party leader is the person who is the leader in the national assembly of the second largest party or coalition of parties. **Role of party leaders. ** a) They promote and uphold national unity through party activities. b) They enforce adherence to principles of good governance, democracy and upholding human rights and fundamental freedoms and gender equality and equity. c) The leaders work to advance the goals of the party and ensure their programme is carried out to the satisfaction of the party. d) The leader of the majority party has to ensure and maintain support for legislation. e) The leader of the minority party has to protect the rights of the minority. f) The leader of the majority party has to ensure accountability and transparency in the party. And the government. **Functions of parliament in Kenya. ** a) The elected members of parliament Represents the will of the people, and exercises their sovereignty. ----- 363 ### b) Parliament considers and passes amendments to the Constitution c) It has powers to alter county boundaries as provided for in the Constitution. d) Parliament has the duty to protect the Constitution and promote the democratic governance of the Republic. e) Parliament is the sole body that has the power to make provision having the force of law in Kenya **Functions of the National Assembly in Kenya. ** a) The national assembly represents the will of the people and expresses their sovereignty since it represents people from the 290 constituencies and special interest groups. b) The National Assembly deliberates on and resolves issues of concern to the people in the Constituencies and special interest groups. c) The National Assembly enacts legislation that affect the nation-not the county government. For example the money bill may be introduced only in the national assembly. d) The National Assembly determines the allocation of national revenue between the levels of government/it controls revenue and expenditure in the republic. e) It appropriates funds for expenditure by the national government and other national State organs/ it exercises oversight over national revenue and its expenditure. f) The National Assembly reviews the conduct in office of the President, the Deputy President and other State officers/It may initiate the process of removing them from office. g) The National Assembly approves declarations of war and extensions of states of emergency. **Functions of the Senate in Kenya. ** a) The Senate represents the counties, and serves to protect the interests of the counties and their governments. b) The Senate participates in the law-making function of Parliament by considering, debating and approving Bills concerning counties. c) The Senate determines the allocation of national revenue among counties/It exercisesoversight over national revenue allocated to the county governments. d) The Senate participates in the oversight of State officers by considering and determining any resolution to remove the President or Deputy President from office. **The process of law making in Kenya. ** **What is law making? ** This is the process of enacting new laws or amending the existing ones. The two conditions for the start of a law making process are a) The presence of a speaker or his deputy. b) A quorum of fifty members of the national assembly. c) A quorum of 15 members of the senate. ----- 364 ### **What is a bill? ** A bill is a proposed piece of legislation (law). Bills originate in the National Assembly. A Bill not concerning county government is considered only in the National Assembly, and passed in accordance with the Standing Orders of the Assembly. A Bill concerning county government may originate in the National Assembly or the Senate, and is passed in accordance with the Standing Orders of the Houses. Bills are classified into two; a) Public Bill - these deal with matters of public policy that affect all citizens of Kenya. They are also categorized into two; a. Government Bill-introduced by cabinet secretaries. b. Private members Bill.-introduced by back-benchers in the national assembly a) Private Bill.-this is a bill that affects a particular person, associations or people living in a small part of the country. Money Bill This a bill that has provisions dealing with taxes, payment of charges by public, appropriation, receipt,custody or issue of public money, raising or guaranteeing of any loan, its repayment or other matters relating to such monies. **The process ** ~ The government departments and public offices to be affected by a bill consult first before it is drafted. A bill is then drafted by the government draftsman (the parliamentary counsel)in the attorney generals chambers. ~ When the cabinet is satisfied with the , it is published in the Kenya gazette at least fourteen days before it is introduced to parliament. The main purpose of this is to give the public chance to view and criticize the Bill. The proposal is also presented to parliament to give members chance to research on it on preparation for a debate in thefuture. ~ A Bill is first introduced by any member or committee of the relevant House of Parliament, but a money Bill may be introduced only in the National Assembly. ~ Before either House considers a Bill, the Speakers of the National Assembly and Senate jointly resolve any question as to whether it is a Bill concerning counties and, if it is, whether it is a special or an ordinary Bill. ~ When any Bill concerning county government has been passed by one House of Parliament, the Speaker of that House refers it to the Speaker of the other House. ~ If both Houses pass the Bill in the same form, the Speaker of the House in which the Bill originated shall, within seven days, refer the Bill to the President for assent. ~ The National Assembly may amend or veto a special Bill that has been passed by the Senate only by a resolution supported by at least two-thirds of the members of the Assembly. ----- 365 ### ~ Within fourteen days after receipt of a Bill, the President assents to the Bill; or refer the Bill back to Parliament for reconsideration by Parliament, noting any reservations that the President has concerning the Bill. When a bill is referred back to parliament, the following procedure is followed; a) Parliament may amend the bill in light of the presidents reservations or pass the bill a second time without amendments. b) If parliament amends the Bill after consideration of the presidents reservations, the speaker must resubmit the bill to the president for assent. c) Parliament could pass the bill without amendments or with amendments that do not fully accommodate the presidents reservations if supported by; ~ Two-thirds of the members of the national assembly, and ~ Two-thirds of the delegations in the senate, if the bill requires approval of the senate. ~ The bill then has to be submitted by the appropriate speaker to the president for assent within seven days. ~ If the president fails to assent the bill within seven days, the bill will be considered acted upon and therefore considered null and void. **The process of the bill coming into force as a law. ** After presidential assent, a Bill becomes a law or an act of parliament. It is then published in the official gazette, the Kenya gazette, within seven days after assent.Sections of it may also be published in the local dailies so as to publicize the law t o all residents in the country.The Act of parliament then comes into force as a law on the fourteenth day after its publication in the Kenya Gazette unless the Act specifies a different date or time when it will come into force. The law then binds everybody in the country. **Special Bills concerning county governments. ** Such Bills, when passed by senate, can only be amended or vetoed by National Assembly by a resolution of of the members. When the veto or amend fails to pass, the speaker of the National Assembly must within seven days refer the Bill in the form adopted by the senate to the president for assent. **Ordinary Bills concerning counties. ** If one house passes an ordinary bill concerning counties and the second house rejects it, the Bill must be referred to the mediation committee.A mediation committee refers to a committee comprising equal number of members from both houses appointed by the speaker with the task of formulating a version of the Bill that both Houses could pass. Both houses will then vote to pass or reject the formulated version. The Bill is considered rejected if the committee fails to reach an agreed version within 30 days.If the second House passes it in an amended form, the bill must be taken back to the orig inating house for consideration. If the originating house passes it as amended; it is referred to the president for assent within seven days. If it rejects it, it is referred to the mediation committee. ----- 366 ### **Parliamentary supremacy ** **Meaning of parliamentary supremacy ** This refers to the sovereign power exercised by parliament which makes law for the country.Parliament is supreme because, through elections, it has the peoples mandate to legislate and govern on their behalf and is the only means through which people control government. **How parliamentary supremacy is upheld in Kenya. ** a) It is the only Body that makes and repeals laws. Technically, a constitutional court can overrule an act of parliament, but parliament can change the law to prevent that from happening. b) Parliament can remove the president from office by impeachment. A member of the national assembly, with the support of at least a third of all the members, may move an impeachment motion. c) Parliament through an amendment of the constitution, can limit the powers of the executive. It can also pass a vote of no confidence in the government, compelling the president and his/her cabinet secretaries to resign. d) Cabinet secretaries are accountable to the parliament for their activities in the ministries under their control. They have to answer questions in parliament about their ministries. e) Bills prepared by the cabinet have to be legislated by parliament, which is a law making body. f) Parliament has to approve government expenditure. The Cabinet secretary in charge of Finance annually presents the budget to parliament for approval by MPs. - the public accounts committee scrutinizes government expenditure. The Auditor and controllerGeneral check the expenditure of all ministries and reports to parliament. ***NB; - The upholding of parliamentary supremacy however depends largely on the *** integrity and maturity of members of the national assembly . **Ways in which parliamentary supremacy in Kenya is limited. ** a) Parliament cannot make laws that contradict traditional customs and practices of the people, unless people want change. b) Parliament cannot pass a law that contradicts the constitution. /the supremacy of the constitution is upheld. c) Increased power of the cabinet can reduce parliaments authority. If the cabinet is too powerful, it may influence parliamentary decisions. d) The president can limit the supremacy by making independent decisions. For example, the president has emergency powers which sidestep parliamentary supremacy. State of Emergency does not follow parliamentary directions. e) Parliament supremacy can be limited by the application of international laws. Parliament may be forced to ratify a law out of necessity; failure to ratify an international law may invite punitive actions on the country. ----- 367 ### f) Delegated legislation may also limit its powers, i.e. the operation of the county government by-laws may limit parliamentary supremacy although national legislation prevails over county legislation. g) Referendum may be used to decide important issues as opposed to parliamentary decisions. **Merits of parliamentary supremacy/parliamentary system. ** a) It increases harmony, since the legislature and the executive work together. This is realized when MPs, who represent the electorate, bring their views to the executive (cabinet secretaries) in the legislature. b) This system allows ordinary citizens to participate in the governing process by electing their representatives to articulate their views on issues of national interest. c) It ensures a responsible and responsive government since the cabinet is controlled by parliament in its actions. Cabinet cannot ignore public opinion, since people choose the MPs. Such could risk a vote of no confidence. d) It instills a sense of responsibility in the executive since cabinet secretaries have to sit and answer questions in the house. e) The system legitimizes actions taken by the government, particularly when such actions originate from recommendations passed by the MPs- the peoples representatives. f) A parliamentary system gives citizens a chance to participate in national political leadership through presenting themselves for election as members of parliament or county assemblies. g) It provides for regular elections, giving the electorate the chance to reject non performing MPs and elect others who can perform. h) Parliament is a training ground for effective leaders; the system enables Kenyans of ability and experience to prove their worth in parliamentary debates. **Demerits of parliamentary supremacy. ** a) It only works well where there are two parties; with one ruling while the other in opposition. In a case where there are more than two parties. A coalition government may be formed and this form of government is sometimes weak and unstable. Also where the legislature is dominated by one party, the cabinet tends to be dictatorial. b) Such government may not be effective in times of emergencies. The head of government has to consult with the cabinet and the legislature before acting. c) It weakens the executive. It compels the cabinet secretaries to spend most of their time in parliament instead of dealing with matters of their ministries. **Terminative Role of Parliament in Kenya. ** This means that parliament has the power to impeach a president or pass a vote of no confidence in the government by a two-thirds vote majority of the national assembly, forcing the government to resign. ----- 368 ### **Functions of the Parliamentary Service Commission ** a) The Commission is responsible for providing services and facilities to ensure the efficient and effective functioning of Parliament b) It is responsible for constituting offices in the house. c) It prepares annual estimates of expenditure of the parliamentary service and submitting them to the National Assembly for approval, and exercising budgetary control over the service. d) It is responsible for undertaking, singly or jointly with other releva nt organizations, programmes to promote the ideals of parliamentary democracy. e) It performs other functions necessary for the well-being of the members and staff of Parliament; or prescribed by national legislation. **THE EXECUTIVE ** **Meaning of the executive. ** This is the arm of government which deals with the implementation of laws made by parliament. It is charged with the administration of affairs of a country as well as affairs which affect the country from outside. **The National executive comprises; ** *a) The president. * *b) The deputy president. * *c) The cabinet. * *d) The attorney general. * *e) The director of public prosecutions * *f) The public service. * **The president. ** He is the Chief Executive Officer of the republic of Kenya. He is the head of state and government in Kenya. He is the commander-in-chief of the Kenya Defence Forces. He is a symbol of national unity.He holds office for a five year term from the date of being sworn in to office and the term expires when the next candidate elected as president is sworn in. the constitution gives a twofive year term as the maximum period for the presidents position. **Qualifications for election as President in Kenya. ** a) A person qualifies for nomination as a presidential candidate if the person is a citizen by birth b) The person must be qualified to stand for election as a Member of Parliament. c) He or she must be nominated by a political party, or is an independent candidate and is nominated by not fewer than 2000 voters from each of a majority of counties. NB;- A presidential candidate, whether affiliated to a political party or independent, must garner 50% plus one of all the votes cast in the election.A candidate must also attract 25% of the votes cast in more than half of the counties in kenya in order to qualify to be a president. ----- 369 ### **Disqualifications one from vying for election as a president in Kenya ** a) If the person owes allegiance to a foreign state. b) If he is a public officer, or is acting in any State or other public office. **Assumption of office of the president. ** ***The president-elect assumes office by taking two oaths namely; *** ~ The oath of affirmation of allegiance ~ The oath of affirmation for execution of the functions of office. If the president-elect dies before assumption of office, the deputy president-elect is sworn in as acting president. A new fresh election to the office of president must be held within sixty days after death of the president-elect.The president must be sworn in public before the Chief Justice. **Importance of a presidential election. ** a) The citizens get a chance to exercise their democratic right. It is the essence of democracy in a government. The people have a choice to elect a president directly, freely, and fairly. b) It is a means through which the people of Kenya give the president the mandate to rule the country and act on their behalf. c) It helps to check dictatorship. The president becomes responsible and accountable to the electorate. He cannot go against public opinion. d) The president enjoys legitimacy of power because it is derived from the people **Powers and functions of the president of Kenya as derived from the constitution of ** **Kenya. ** a) As the Head of State, he performs the following functions; ~ He represents the government and the people of Kenya both locally and internationally. ~ He receives foreign diplomatic and consular reprentatives. b) He is the head of Government. ~ He nominates a deputy president to deputize him. ~ He nominates and, with the approval of the national assembly, appoints or dismisses cabinet secretaries, the attorney general, the Director of Public Prosecutions, the secretary to the cabinet, Principal secretaries, High Commissioners, Ambassadors, and diplomatic and consular representatives, the chief justice and the deputy and all the judges in line with the recommendations of the Judicial Service Commission c) He is the Commander-in-Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces ~ He has powers to declare a state of emergency, declare war with the approval of parliament. ~ He is the chairperson of the National Security Council of Kenya. d) The President has the duty to safeguard the Constitution, ensure the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms and the rule of law, safeguard the sovereignty of the republic, promote and enhance unity of the nation and promote respect for diversity. ----- 370 ### e) The President has legislative powers to address the opening of each newly elected Parliament. He also addresses a special sitting of parliament once every year and any other time. f) The President chairs Cabinet meetings and assigns responsibility for the implementation and administration of any Act of Parliament to a Cabinet Secretary. g) He presides over national holidays during which he expounds on government policy. h) He confers honours in the name of people and republic on men and women of Kenya for outstanding achievements. E.g. OGH, OBS, DSM, HSC and EBS. i) He may, on petition of any person, exercise mercy powers in accordance with the advice of the advisory committee. E.g.; ~ Grant a free or conditional pardon to a person convicted of an offence. ~ Postpone execution of any punishment for an offender, for a specified period, or indefinitely ~ Substitute a less severe form of punishment. ~ Remit all or part of a punishment. j) The President ensures that the international obligations of the Republic are fulfilled through the actions of the relevant Cabinet Secretaries. NB-the constitution provides the president with immunity from criminal proceedings during the tenure of office in respect of anything done or not done in exercise of the powers granted by the constitution. But this immunity does not extend to a crime for which the president may be prosecuted under any treaty to which Kenya is part to, and which prohibits such immunity. **The process of Removal of President by impeachment. ** A member of the National Assembly moves a motion for the impeachment of the President on the following grounds; a) A gross violation of a provision of the Constitution. b) President commits a crime under national or international law. c) For gross misconduct. If a motion is supported by at least two-thirds of all the members of the National Assembly, the Speaker informs the Speaker of the Senate of that resolution within two days.The President continues to perform the functions of the office pending the outcome of the proceedings.Within seven days, the Speaker of the Senate convenes a meeting of the Senate to hear charges against the President.A special committee appointed by the senate investigates the matter; and report to the Senate within ten days.If the special committee reports that the particulars of any allegation against the President have not been substantiated, further proceedings shall not be taken. If any of allegations against the President have been substantiated, the Senate, after according the President an opportunity to be heard, votes on the impeachment charges.If at least two-thirds of all the members of the Senate vote to uphold any impeachment charge, the President shall cease to hold office. ----- 371 ### **Reasons that may lead to a presidential by-election in Kenya. ** a) The presidents election may be nullified by court due to election offences. b) The serving president may die while in power. c) The president may resign. d) If the president becomes physically /mentally incapacitated. e) Parliament may pass a vote of no confidence in the president /government. f) If the serving president deserts/defects from the party that sponsored him to parliament. g) If the serving president ceases to be a Kenyan citizen. **THE DEPUTY PRESIDENT ** The deputy president is nominated by the presidential candidate during a general election. The process of Electing and swearing in of a Deputy President in Kenya. a) A candidate, (qualified for nomination for election as President) is nominated by each candidate in a presidential election. b) The Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission then declare the candidate nominated by the person who is elected as the President as the Deputy President. c) The swearing in of the Deputy President-elect is before the Chief Justice or, in the absence of the Chief Justice, the Deputy Chief Justice and in public. d) The Deputy President-elect assumes office by taking and subscribing; a) The oath or affirmation of allegiance. b) The oath or affirmation for the execution of the functions of office. **Under the following circumstances, one can cease to hold the office of the Deputy ** **President ** a) At the end of term of office when the person next elected President at an election is sworn in. b) When the Deputy President assumes the office of President. c) On resignation, death or removal from office of the Deputy President **Functions of the Deputy President in Kenya. ** a) The Deputy President is the principal assistant of the President and shall deputize for the President in the execution of the Presidents functions. b) The Deputy President performs the functions conferred by the Constitution and any other functions of the President as the President may assign. c) When the President is absent or is temporarily incapacitated, and during any other period that the President decides, the Deputy President shall act as the President. ***NB-The Deputy President is not permitted to hold any other State or public office. *** **The cabinet. ** **The composition of The Cabinet in Kenya. ** The Cabinet consists of a) the President; b) the Deputy President; ----- 372 ### c) the Attorney-General; and d) Not fewer than fourteen and not more than twenty-two Cabinet Secretaries. The President nominates and, with the approval of the National Assembly, appoints **Cabinet Secretaries.** A Cabinet Secretary should not be a Member of Parliament. Secretary to the cabinet.This office is an office in the public service.The office holder is **. ** nominated and appointed by the president, with the approval of the national assembly **He/she has the following responsibilities;** a) Taking charge of the cabinet office. b) Arranging the business of the cabinet subject to its directions. c) Keeping minutes of the cabinet. d) Conveying decisions of the cabinet to the appropriate persons or authorities. e) Serving other functions as directed by the cabinet. **Principal Secretaries. ** Each state department is under the administration of a principal secretary. He/she is nominated and appointed by the president from among persons recommended by the public service commission and approved by the national assembly. This office is an office in the public service. **General Functions of the cabinet. ** a) The cabinet Advises and assists the president in governing the country. b) The cabinet Discusses matters of national and international concern with the president. c) The cabinet Formulates government policies and programmes. During parliamentary debates, the secretaries defend the same policies, interpret them to the people and ensure their implementation. d) The cabinet initiates new bills and table government bills in the National assembly. e) Cabinet secretaries on their individual capacity give direction to operations within their ministries. f) The secretary for finance formulates and prepares the national budget which he/she then presents to the National Assembly. **The principle of collective responsibility of the cabinet. ** a) The cabinet does not work in the light of day. Cabinet must abide by oath of secrecy. b) It requires that the cabinet must act together as a team. The cabinet must speak together with one voice on all matters of government policy. c) All cabinet members are collectively responsible to parliament and to the people through parliament. One act of a cabinet secretary is taken to be an act of all the members of the cabinet. d) A minister would resign if in his conscience he cannot abide by the principle of collective responsibility. ----- 373 ### **The functions of the Attorney-General in Kenya. ** a) The Attorney-General is the principal legal adviser to the Government. b) He represents the national government in court or in any other legal proceedings to which the national government is a party, other than criminal proceedings. c) He performs any other functions conferred on the office by an Act of Parliament or by the President. d) The Attorney-General has authority, to appear as a friend of the court in any civilproceedings to which the Government is not a party. e) The Attorney-General has duty to promote, protect and uphold the rule of law and defend the public interest. **The Director of public prosecutions. ** The DPP is nominated and with the approval of the National Assembly is appointed by the president to hold office for a term of eight years and cant be re-appointed. He/she does not require the consent of any person or authority for the commencement of criminal proceedings. His/her powers may be exercised in person or by subordinate officers acting under general or special instructions.A person qualified to be appointed a DPP should have the qualifications to be appointed a judge of the High Court. **The functions of the Director of Public Prosecutions. ** a) The Director of Public Prosecutions has power to direct the Inspector-General of the National Police Service to investigate any information or allegation of criminal conduct. b) The Director of Public Prosecutions exercises State powers of prosecution and may institute and undertake criminal proceedings against any person before any court (other than a court martial) in respect of any offence alleged to have been committed. c) He has powers to take over and continue any criminal proceedings commenced in any court (other than a court martial) that have been instituted or undertaken by another person orauthority, with the permission of the person or authority. d) He has powers to discontinue at any stage, before judgment is delivered, any criminal proceedings instituted by the Director of Public Prosecutions or taken over by the Director of Public Prosecutions. **THE PUBLIC SERVICE ** The public service includes all state organs in both levels of government and all state corporations. **Values and principles of public service ** a) High standards of professional ethics. b) Efficient, effective and economic use of resources. c) Responsive, prompt, effective, impartial and equitable provision of services. d) Involvement of the people in the process of policy making. e) Accountability of administrative acts. f) Transparency and provision to the public, of timely, accurate information. g) Fair competition and merit as the basis of appointments and promotions ----- 374 ### h) Representation of Kenyas diverse communities. i) Providing adequate and equal opportunities for appointment, training and advancement at all levels of the public service, for women and men, members of all ethnic groups and persons with disability. **The Public Service Commission. ** This is the body charged with the responsibility of recruiting, promoting and managing the affairs of the public servants in Kenya in order to make it a motivated and an efficient workforce.The commission consists of a chairperson, a vice chair person and seven other members appointed by the president with the approval of the National Assembly. The commission has a secretary who is the CEO and is appointed by the commission for a term of five years and is eligible for re-appointment. **The following persons do not qualify for appointment to the commission; ** A person who in the proceeding five years, held office, or stood for elections as; i. A member of parliament or the county assembly. ii. A member of the governing body of a political party. iii. If the person holds any state office. iv. A holder of an office in a political organization that sponsors or supports a candidate for election as Member of Parliament or county assembly. **Functions and powers of the Public Service Commission. ** a) The Commission is responsible for establishment and abolishment of offices in the public service. b) It appoints persons to hold or act in Offices in the public service and confirm appointments. c) It exercises disciplinary control over and removes persons holding or acting in public offices. d) It promotes the values and principles throughout the public service. e) It investigates monitors and evaluates the organization, administration and personnelpractices of the public service. f) It has the duty to ensure that the public service is efficient and effective. g) It develops human resources in the public service. h) It reviews and makes recommendations to the national government in respect of conditions of service, code of conduct and qualifications of officers in the public service. i) It evaluates and reports to the President and Parliament on the extent to which the values and principles that govern public service are complied with in the public service. j) It hears and determines appeals in respect of county governments public service. Offices in the public service that are exempted from the regulation and control of the public service commission; a) State offices. b) An office of high commissioner, ambassador or other diplomatic or consular representative of the republic. ----- 375 ### c) An office or position subject to: ~ The Parliamentary Service Commission. ~ The Judicial Service Commission. ~ The Teachers Service Commission ~ The National Police Service Commission. d) An office in the service of a county government, with the exception of powers to create and establish offices. The commission can not appoint a person to hold office or act in any office on the personal staff of the president or retired president, except with the consent of the president or retired president. **Ways in which a public officer is protected by law while in service. ** a) A public officer shall not be victimized or discriminated against for having performed the functions of office in accordance with the Constitution. b) He/she shall not be dismissed, removed from office, demoted in rank or otherwise subjected to disciplinary action without due process of law. **Organs of national security. ** National security is the protection against internal and external threats to Kenyas territorial integrity and sovereignty, its people, their rights, freedoms, property, peace, stability and prosperity. **Principles that promote and guarantee national security in Kenya. ** a) National security is subject to the authority of the constitution and parliament. b) Operations of national security must be consistent with the law and must respect the rule of law, democracy, human rights and fundamental freedoms. c) In performing their functions and exercising their powers, national security organs must respect cultural diversity of the communities within Kenya. d) Recruitment by the national security organs must reflect the diversity of the Kenyan people in equitable proportions. **National security organs in Kenya. ** The national security organs are; a) The Kenya Defence Forces. b) The National Intelligence Service. c) The National Police Service. **National Security Council ** This is a body whose main responsibility is to exercise supervisory control over national security organs **Composition of the National Security Council ** The Council consists of a. The President. b. The Deputy President. c. The Cabinet Secretary responsible for Defence. ----- 376 ### d. The Cabinet Secretary responsible for foreign affairs. e. The Cabinet Secretary responsible for internal security. f. The Attorney-General. g. The Chief of Kenya Defence Forces. h. The Director-General of the National Intelligence Service. i. The Inspector-General of the National Police Service. **Functions of the National Security Council in Kenya. ** a) It exercises supervisory control over national security organs. b) It has duty to integrate the domestic, foreign and military policies relating to national security in order to enable the national security organs to co-operate and functioneffectively. c) It makes assessment and appraisal, the objectives, commitments and risks to the Republic in respect of actual and potential national security capabilities. d) The Council reports annually to Parliament on the state of the security of Kenya e) With the approval of Parliament, The Council is responsible for deploying national forces outside Kenya for regional or international peace support operations; or other support operations. f) It approves the deployment of foreign forces in Kenya. **The Kenya Defence Forces. ** The Kenya defence Forces comprises; a) The Kenya Army, established in 1963 and which protects the country against external land-based aggression. b) The Kenya Air force, established in 1963, disbanded in 1982 and renamed 82 Air force. It helps in the control of locust invasion. c) The Kenya Navy, based in Mombasa and created in 1964, patrols Kenyas territorial waters and is always on the alert for sea-borne invasions, and for illegal landings and departure, and unauthorized fishing by foreign vessels in Kenyan waters. **Functions of the Kenya Defence forces. ** a) The Defence Forces are responsible for the Defence and protection of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Republic. b) They assist and cooperate with other authorities in situations of emergency or disaster. c) They may be deployed to restore peace in any part of Kenya affected by unrest or instability only with the approval of the National Assembly. d) The forces also assist in the preservation of internal security. For example the handling of the attempted coup by the Kenya Army in 1982. e) They participate in nation building activities such as road and bridge construction. f) The military also assists the public during emergencies and calamities such as floods, famine, fire outbreaks, landslides and other disasters. For example during the E l Nino rains-construction of mobile bridge on Mombasa-Nairobi highway. ----- 377 ### g) The Navy specializes in detecting and fighting off criminals who use water masses like the Indian Ocean to commit crimes within the Kenyan territory. E.g. Somali Pirates. h) The Kenya Army takes part in peacekeeping Missions, such as the United Nations peace keeping operations in different parts of the world and also the African Union and Commonwealth. **The Kenya Defence Council. ** Its composition is as follows; a) The cabinet secretary responsible for defence is the chairperson. b) The Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces. c) The Three Commanders of the defence forces. d) The Principal Secretary in the ministry responsible for defence. **Functions. ** It is responsible for the overall policy, control and supervision of the Kenya Defence Forces. **Challenges facing the Kenya Defence Forces. ** a) There has being cases of indiscipline, such as the abortive coup attempt in 1982. b) There have been rampant cases of corruption facing some members of the Kenya Defence Forces, especially on matters of recruitment of new members into the defence forces, purchase of military and police equipment and deployment of officers on specialized duties. c) Tribalism, regionalism and nepotism have also been experienced in the Kenya Defence Forces, thereby demoralizing hardworking officers who are left out unfairly during promotions. d) Sometimes the Kenya Defence Forces faces the problem of lack of adequate funds to equip the forces with good equipment to facilitate their work. e) The majority of the military personnel are not provided with opportunities to acquire further education. f) Piracy and militia attacks and raids at the Kenyan Borders also present a major security challenge to the Defence Forces. g) Invasion of Kenyas territorial waters by foreign fishermen and foreign fishing vessels from the big nations challenges the ability of the Kenya Navy to curb illegal fishing. h) The location of Moi Airbase at Eastleigh presents a big challenge to the air force. The Airbase was built by Britain in 1964 when the population in the area was scarce. Today the area has human congestion i) The defence forces also face challenges related to allegations on violations of human rights. After the 2008 elections violence, the Kenya Army was deployed to restore peace in Mt. Elgon, where they were accused of violating human rights by killing people, destroying property, and sexually assaulting women. ----- 378 ### **The National Intelligence Service. ** Initially called the Special Branch, This is an independent civilian government agency dedicated to protecting the national security interests of Kenya and safeguarding its citizens from threats such as terrorism and corruption. **Function of the National Intelligence Service ** a) It is responsible for security intelligence and counter intelligence to enhance national security. b) It liaises with the National police CID to investigate some of the threats that have criminal implications e.g. terrorism. And lay the appropriate charges. c) Information gathered by the NIS assists the government in decision making and planning. d) The NIS in its operations protects human rights issues and the individual freedoms. **Challenges facing the National Intelligence Service. ** a) Lack of trust from Kenyan citizens. The citizens are reluctant to provide information to NIS as they view it not to be any different from the former Special Branch which was known to be a tool of oppression and torture. b) The body lacks financial credibility and political independence. The extent to which NIS is Neutral in its handling of sensitive affairs is questionable. c) Lack of a clear distinction between accountability and necessary secrecy has sometimes brewed tension. It is difficult to audit the activities of the Body just like any other government organization, due to the nature of its tasks. d) The growing volumes and complexity of communications presents a significant security challenge for national intelligence and government agencies that seek to intercept, process monitor and analyze it. e) External and internal threats for example Al-shabaab militia from Somalia, Merille Warriors from Ethiopia and Al-Qaeda attacks. Internally, the refugees hosted in Kenya and the illegal migrants from Somali and Sudan are also a threat. The problem of drug trafficking is also a threat. f) Continuous capacity building training is a necessity, given the complexity of the task. However this remains a challenge. g) Limited financial and human resources since inadequate funds are allocated to the service. This limits its operations. Sometimes even the staff employed is incompetent. h) Political interference- with the aim of using the service to gain political mileage. i) Ignorance of the Kenyan people on the kind of tasks the service undertakes and the advice it gives to the government. For example, anytime the country has been faced with tension or violence as was the case in 2008, the public seem not to understand the role of NIS. j) The organ does not have implementation powers and is limited in terms of the ability to follow up an implementation of the advice given to the government. ----- 379 ### **The National Police Service. ** The East African Protectorate Police was first created in the 1890s. In 1920, it was renamed the Kenya Police. In 1953, control of the entire police force was placed under the Commissioner of Police. The National Police service was established in 2010 with a mandate to function throughout Kenya. It is headed by the Inspector-General who appointed by the president with the approval of the parliament.He / She exercises independent command over the national police service **The National polices Service Consists of; ** a) The Kenya Police Service, headed by a deputy inspector general also appointed by the president in accordance with the police service commission recommendations. b) The Administration Police Service, headed by a deputy inspector general also appointed by the president in accordance with the police service commission recommendations. **Functions of the National Police Service ** a) The National Police Service is responsible for the operations of the Kenya police service and the Administration police service in Kenya. b) It has the duty of ensuring the highest standards of professionalism and discipline among its members. c) It has the duty to prevent corruption and promote and practice transparency and accountability. d) It has the duty to ensure that organs operating under it comply with constitutional standards of human rights and fundamental freedoms. e) It ensures that the staff is trained to the highest possible standards of competence and integrity and to respect human rights and fundamental freedoms and dignity. f) It fosters and promotes relationships with the broader society. **Functions of the police service (Kenya police service and administration police ** **service). ** a) The police maintain law and order to ensure that those who break the law are arrested. b) The police protect the law in order to safeguard both life and property. c) It investigates crime and prosecutes offenders in the court. d) The police confines suspected criminals in remand as they await the hearing and judgment of their cases in the court. e) The police regulate traffic and arrests traffic offenders. They also check for defective or unroadworthy vehicles on the road in order to safeguard life. f) Provides assistance and relief services to victims of natural calamities such as floods, fire outbreaks and other emergencies. g) Takes part in national projects such as road construction, bridges, hospitals and other national facilities. h) The police take a leading role during public holidays. They control the crowd and entertain people. ----- 380 ### i) They liaise closely with international police (Interpol), in order to investigate and arrest international criminals such as terrorists and notor ious Somali pirates. **Challenges facing the National Police Service ** a) The police lack adequate transport and communication equipment necessary to discharge their duties. Lack of facilities such as radios, motor vehicles etc. b) Frequent road accident and congestion on roads add pressure to police work. c) Many members of the public in Kenya have Negative attitude towards the police making it difficult for them to discharge duties. d) Poor conditions of work and remuneration demotivates the police force. e) The police force has been accused of Corruption, sometimes demanding for money from the public. This undermines the maintenance of law and order. f) Easy access to dangerous and sophisticated weapon by criminals makes police work more difficult. g) Terrorism is a serious challenge to the police in Kenya. Some of the terrorists have targeted members of the police force. h) Political interference in the work of the police compromises the integrity of the police force. i) Modernization and advancements in ICT also some with major challenges for the police. Incidents of cyber crimes have escalated in the world, including kenya. j) Lack of regular in service training for police officers to cope with emerging challenges. This challenge is even compounded by the problem of recruiting of people with low academic qualifications into the force and who cant deal with sophisticated cases. **The National Police Service Commission. ** **The structure of the National Police Service Commission. ** The Commission consists of the following persons, each appointed by the President; a) A person who is qualified to be appointed as a High Court Judge, and who is appointed by the president. b) Two retired senior police officers, each of whom is appointed by the president. c) Three persons of integrity who have served the public with distinction, each of whom is appointed by the president. d) The Inspector-General of the National Police Service. e) Both Deputy Inspectors-General of the National Police Service. **Functions of the National Police Service Commission ** a) The Commission recruits and appoints persons to hold or act in offices in the service. b) The commission confirms appointments, and determines promotions and transfers within the National Police Service c) It observes due process, exercises disciplinary control over and removes persons holding or acting in offices within the Service. ----- 381 ### **Possible solutions to challenges facing the national security organs. ** a) The security organs have acquired modern telecommunication equipment and vehicles to improve transport and communication in the security force. b) Introduction of the post of public Relations Officer/ Spokesman in the organs to coordinate and disseminate information. c) Raising of qualification requirements for anybody aspiring to join the security organs. This has paved way for employment of university graduates in the forces. d) Introduction of professional training programmes for officers with the aim of improving the effectiveness of the organs of national security. e) The terms and conditions of service for the members of the security organs have been improved f) Community policing has-been introduced to help the security forces to get information from the public through hotlines and suggestion boxes. g) There is increased patrolling by the Kenya navy as far north as Somali border to address maritime defence more seriously. h) The aviation experts have recommended the relocation of Moi Airbase from its current location which id congested. **Correctional services. ** The Correctional service Department in Kenya has its origins in the adoption of the India Prisons Act in Kenya in 1894 by the colonial government. Initially, prisons were under the supervision of the provincial Administration.In 1963 the Prisons Act was enacted to harmonize the treatment and conditions of offenders in Kenyas penal institutions. The Acts milestone provisions were; a) Youth corrective training centres b) Extra-mural and penal employment c) Provision for organization, discipline, power and duties of prisons officers. Correctional services in Kenya are provided by the former Kenya Prisons Service. The Kenya Prisons Reform Programmee in 2001 adopted The Open Door Policy under which the following reforms were initiated. a) Interactive collaboration with all stakeholders in the administration of criminal justice such as courts of law and members of the National Police Service. b) Improvement in the management and conditions of the prisons, including rehabilitation programmes, with a view to empower prisoners with knowledge and skill, hasten their reintegration into society and empower them to be law abiding citizens upon release. **The functions of Correctional Services in Kenya. ** a) They Rehabilitate/correct criminals through counseling. b) They deter known criminals from committing other crimes. c) They administer Punishment to sentenced criminals as prescribed by the court rulingsimplement the decisions of the courts regarding treatment of prisoners. ----- 382 ### d) They confine prisoners convicted by the courts of law to ensure that the rights and freedoms of the public are protected. e) They provide vocational training for prisoners in fields that they make them productive citizens of the country at the end of their jail term. f) They keep watch over he behaviors of suspected criminals whose cases are still pending in the law courts. g) They take care of the welfare of prisoners by providing them with the necessary medical attention. h) They confine suspected dissidents who are a threat to state security. **Challenges facing correctional services in Kenya ** a) The challenge of overcrowding in prisoners on the rise, overcrowding in correctional facilities has been inevitable. This results in poor living and sanitation conditions for inmates. b) Disease outbreak is a very common problem in our prisons mainly caused by inadequate and congested facilities. HIV and AIDS is rampant in prisons c) Mistreatment of inmates by warders. This has once happened at Kingongo when some inmates were allegedly tortured and killed by warders when they attempted to escape. d) Food shortage, inadequate medical facilities and poor clothing further compound the situation in prisons. The following reforms have been undertaken to improve the conditions of correctional services in Kenya. a) Improvement in the quality of food, medical services and living conditions for prisoners. b) Provision of sufficient beddings and clothing. c) Introduction of extra-mural Penal employment for petty offenders to ease congestion in the prisons. d) There has been supply of new and comfortable motor vehicles for efficient transport in the correctional services department. e) Petty offenders have been constantly released to ease congestion in prisons. For example the release of a record 11,500 prisoners in December 2003. Death row inmates who have also been in jail for over ten years have been released. f) Easing of access to prisons/visits by members of the public/relatives. g) Introduction of public Relations office to disseminate information. h) Streamlining the hearing of cases with a view of keeping prisoners in remand for a short period before sentencing them. i) The national government has also become directly involved the affairs of those receiving correction services. **THE JUDICIARY. ** Judicial authority and legal system. ----- 383 ### Judicial Authority is derived from the people and is vested in courts and tribunals established by the constitution. **Principles that guide Judicial Authority in Courts and Tribunals in Kenya. ** a) Justice must be done to all, irrespective of status. b) Justice shall not be delayed. c) Alternative forms of dispute resolution must be pursued including reconciliation, mediation, arbitration and even traditional dispute resolution mechanism. d) Justice shall be administered without undue regard to procedural technicalities. e) The purposes and principles of the constitution must be protected and promoted. **Ways in which the traditional Dispute resolution is limited in Kenya. ** a) The mechanisms used in traditional dispute resolution should not contravene the Bill of RIGHTS. b) The traditional court should not operate in a way that is repugnant to justice and morality or results in outcomes that are regnant to justice or morality. c) The operations of the traditional courts should not be inconsistent with the constitution. **The structure of the judicial system in Kenya. ** The Hierarchy of the court system in the Kenyan judiciary is in accordance with; a) The seriousness of the cases the courts handle. b) The punishment they give out c) The geographical area of operation. The courts have either original or appellate jurisdiction. **Difference between original and appellate jurisdictions. ** ~ Original jurisdiction refers to the ability of a court to hear cases brought to a court for the first time. ~ Appellate jurisdiction is the powers of a court to hear appeals brought in from a lower court.The Judiciary consists of the judges of the superior courts, magistrates, other judicial officers and staff. The Head of the Judiciary is the Chief Justice with the Deputy Chief Justice as the Deputy Head of the Judiciary.Chief Registrar of the Judiciary is the chief administrator and accounting officer of the Judiciary. **The System of courts is as follows ** ***1. Superior Courts *** Supreme Court consisting of the Chief Justice who is the president of the court, the Deputy Chief Justice-the vice-president of the court; and five other judges. **Appointment to the Supreme Court requires the following qualifications; ** a. Degree in law from a recognized university or an advocate of the high Court of Kenya. b. Atleast fifteen years experience as a superior court judge or a distinguished academic, judicial officer, legal practioner and or other relevant legal field. c. High moral character, integrity and impartiality. ----- 384 ### Supreme Court Judges retire at the age of seventy Five Years. **Functions of the Supreme Court of Kenya. ** a) The Supreme Court has exclusive original jurisdiction to hear and determine disputes relating to the elections to the office of President. b) It has appellate jurisdiction to hear and determine appeals from the Court of Appeal; and any other court or tribunal. c) The Supreme Court gives an advisory opinion at the request of the national government, any State organ, or any county government with respect to any matter concerning county government. d) It has of right in any case involving the interpretation or application of the Constitution. e) All courts, other than the Supreme Court, are bound by the decisions of the Supreme Court 2. Court of Appeal consisting of judges, not fewer than twelve, a president of the Court of Appeal elected by the judges of the Court of Appeal from among themselves. (The court of Appeal has membership of 30 Judges currently). Each judge to be appointed to the court of Appeal should have ten years experience as a superior court judge or atleast ten years as a distinguished academic or legal practioner.The court of appeal does not have original jurisdiction except on an application for a stay of execution pending appeal to it on contempt proceedings. **Function of the Court of Appeal in Kenya. ** The Court of Appeal has jurisdiction to hear appeals from the High Court; and any other court or tribunal as prescribed by an Act of Parliament. 3. High Court headed by a Principal Judge of the High Court, who shall be elected by the judges of the High Court from among themselves. **Functions of the high court of Kenya. ** a) The High Court has unlimited original jurisdiction in criminal and civil Matters. b) It has jurisdiction to determine the question whether a right or fundamental freedom in the Bill of Rights has been denied, violated, infringed or threatened. c) It has jurisdiction to hear an appeal from a decision of a tribunal appointed to consider the removal of a person from office. For example, appeals from the courts martial, Business and rental Tribunals on matters related to the constitution. d) It has jurisdiction to hear any question respecting the interpretation of the Constitution including the determination of the question whether any law is inconsistent with or in contravention of this Constitution; e) It determines any matter relating to constitutional powers of State organs in respect of county governments and any matter relating to the constitutional relationship between the levels of government. ----- 385 ### f) The High Court has supervisory jurisdiction over the subordinate courts and over any person, body or authority exercising a judicial or quasi-judicial function, but not over a superior court g) It listens to appeals from the lower courts when the parties involved are not satisfied. h) It deals with disputes that take place outside Kenya's territorial wate rs/maritime. i) It hears appeals from decisions made by professional disciplinary tribunals involving advocates of the high court and other members of the profession. j) It acts as a constitution court by determining whether a case brought before it is constitutional or unconstitutional. k) It listens to appeals from special courts when the parties are not satisfied with the decision made. l) It corrects/amends the irregularities in decisions made by lower courts. m) It hears cases that carry death sentences / involve large sums of money. n) It deals with cases that concern land/succession disputes. o) It hears election petitions. p) It exercises divorce jurisdictions in matrimonial matters, q) It hears appeals from tribunals E.g. Rent Restrictions, Business Premises Rent Tribunal. **Termination of the services of a judge from office. ** ***A judge can be dismissed from service on the following grounds. *** a) Inability to perform the functions of the office arising from mental or physical incapacity. b) A breach of a code of conduct prescribed for judges or superior courts by an act of parliament. c) Bankruptcy. d) Incompetence. e) Gross misconduct or misbehavior. **The process of removal of a judge from office. ** Such a process is initiated by the Judicial Service Commission on its own initiative or on petition of any person to it based on any of the dismissal grounds.The commission, if satisfied with the petition or initiative, forwards the matter to the president, who will suspend the said Judge, within Fourteen Days after receiving the petition and on advice of the Judicial Service Commission.A tribunal is then appointed to determine the case. If the Judge is aggrieved by the decision of the Tribunal, he/she may appeal to the Supreme Court within ten days after the tribunal has made its recommendation. The president will finally act in accordance with the recommendation of the tribunal. 4. Subordinate courts . a) The Magistrates courts . Its jurisdiction in both Civil and criminal cases is limited to geographical areas. ----- 386 ### However the courts have unlimited Jurisdiction in proceedings concerning claims under customary law such as dowry, divorce, legitimacy, inheritance and the administration of estates of the deceased person.They have unlimited jurisdiction in dealing with matters related to land, adultery and inheritance. These are the courts responsible for sentencing persons who have broken law of the land. **Reasons why a person who has broken the law should be sentenced by a court. ** i. To deter the criminal from future crimes. ii. To deter others from committing similar offences since they would have known the punishment for breaking the law. iii. To secure for the public a period o protection from the offender who is in prison. iv. To reform the criminal through counseling and corrective training v. To satisfy the demands of the people for retribution through punitive justice. **b) The Kadhis courts. ** The courts are headed by a Chief Kadhi and not fewer than three Kadhis Qualifications for appointment as a Kadhi. a. One must profess the Muslim religion. b. One must possess such knowledge of the Muslim law applicable to any sects of Muslims. The jurisdiction of the Kadhis Court is limited to the determination of questions of Muslim Law relating to personal status, marriage, divorce or inheritance in proceedings in which all concerned parties profess to the Muslim religion. **c) The Courts Martial. ** This is a subordinate court that was established under the Armed Forces Act after the abortive 82 Air force coup. It has penal or disciplinary powers to ensure discipline within the armed forces. they try cases involving assisting an enemy, cowardice, desertion, insubordination, neglect of duty, drunkenness, malingering and absence without leave. There is no right to appeal to the high court against the decisions of the courts martial unless they involve constitutional cases. **Industrial Court ** **Juvenile Court ** **The Judicial Service Commission. ** Membership of the JSC is as follows. a) The Chief Justice who is the Chairperson of the Commission. b) One Supreme Court judge elected by the judges of the Supreme Court. c) One court of appeal judge elected by the judges of the court of appeal. d) One High Court Judge and one magistrate, of whom one must be a woman and one a man elected by members of the association of judges and magistrates. e) The attorney General. ----- 387 ### f) Two advocates, one woman and one man each with atleast fifteen years of experience, elected by members of the statutory body responsible for the professional regulation of advocates (LSK) g) One person nominated by the public Service Commission. h) One woman and one man to represent the public, not being a lawyer, appointed by the president with the approval of the national assembly. i) The chief registrar of the Judiciary, who will be secretary to the commission. Members, except the AG and Chief Justice hold office for a term of 5 years and can be reappointed for one further term **Functions of the Judicial Service Commission ** a) The Judicial Service Commission promotes and facilitates the independence and accountability of the judiciary and the efficient, effective and transparent administration of justice. b) It recommends to the President persons for appointment as judges. c) It reviews and makes recommendations on the conditions of service of judges and judicial officers, other than their remuneration; and the staff of the Judiciary. d) It appoints, receives complaints against, investigates and removes from office or otherwisediscipline registrars, magistrates, other judicial officers and other staff of the Judiciary. e) It prepares and implements programmes for the continuing education and training of judges and judicial officers. f) It advises the national government on improving the efficiency of the administration of justice. **The concept of Independence of the Judiciary in Kenya. ** a) In the exercise of judicial authority, the Judiciary is subject only to the Constitution and the law and not to the control or direction of any person or authority. b) The office of a judge of a superior court cannot be abolished while there is a substantive holder of the office. c) A member of the Judiciary is not liable in an action or suit in respect of anything done or omitted to be done in good faith in the lawful performance of a judicial function. The Judicial Act protects Judges and Magistrates against any form of victimization and molestation. d) There is a separate system of command for the judiciary unlike other government departments. e) Appointment of the magistrates is done independently by JSC, which is independent of PSC. The president in consultation with the Judicial Service Commission appoints the Judges. f) The judges are bound by the Oath of Allegiance to perform their duties without fear or favour. g) Judges enjoy security of tenure. ----- 388 ### h) Statutes fix salaries and allowances of Judges. **Challenges facing the judiciary in Kenya. ** a) There is constant Conflict between the three arms of government. This hinders the just operation of the judiciary. Too much interference from the Executive has undermined the independence of the Judiciary. b) The long court processes have always delayed dispensation of justice in Kenya. c) Corruption. This is common among the Judges who sometimes compromise their integrity due to greed/ Public doubts of its impartiality due to rampant corruption d) Inadequate personnel. There are few qualified judges. For example in 2002, there were 47 judges serving a population of 30 million people. This causes delay in hearing of cases. e) There is constant termination of cases by the Attorney General thereby denying justice to some genuine cases. f) Poor co-ordination within the court system g) Incompetence of some judicial officers. E.g. poor and inconsistent judgments. This has been attributed to flawed appointments and promotion procedures. h) Lack of adequate funds to cater for the needs of the judiciary. This has led to inadequate court structures and facilities such as equipment, chairs, libraries etc. i) Lack of continuous legal education to keep them a breast of the latest legal development and skills in information technology. j) There is a lot of ignorance among the public in Kenya on judicial affairs and their legal rights/ignorance on the legal rights. Members of the public fear the courts and the court language. k) Information on the judiciary has not been made available to the public and it appears to be a preserve of a few. l) Litigation fees are high limits publics access to the courts. **Solutions to the problems facing Kenyas Judiciary. ** a) There has been increased legal education given to officers and members of the public by the judiciary and other bodies like Kituo Cha Sheria, which releases information booklets and offers free legal advice to people. b) The terms and conditions of service for judges and other officers were improved in 2002 in order to make them work better. c) The government also set up a committee led by Justice Aaron Ringera in what was famously referred to as Judicial Surgery, to investigate the conduct of judges. Those who were adversely mentioned in the report were suspended. d) The government has recruited more legal officers to reduce the backlog of cases in courts. e) The passing of the Vetting of Judges and Magistrates Act, 2011 (VJM Act) In March 2011, established the Judges and Magistrates Vetting Board, chaired by Sharad Rao,which is carrying out the vetting exercise to restore public confidence in the Judiciary. ----- 389 ### **Some of the mile stone decisions undertaken to restore public confidence in the ** **judiciary include; ** ~ The suspension of Deputy CJ Nancy Baraza and her final resignation for harrassing an innocent security guard. ~ Dropping of President of the Kenyan Appellate Court Justice Riaga Omollo for political bias and authoritarian demeanor while carrying out his activities on the bench. ~ Dropping Judge Samuel Bosire for condoning torture of suspects during Coup trial in 1982. ~ Dropping of Court of Appeal Judge Emmanuel Okubasu for being unsuitable to continue holding office. Joseph Nyamu ~ Justice Mohammed Ibrahim, though Praised as impartial and immune to corruption, was dropped for having an overflowing in-tray of cases ~ Appellate judge Roselyn Nambuye was kicked out due to delays in delivering more than 270 judgements and being too wordy in her ruling. However Nambuye and Mohammed Ibrahim successfully appealed against the decision which once more saw their reinstatement on 21at September 2012 pending further investigations. **The Rule of Law. ** **Meaning of the Rule of Law. ** This is the absolute supremacy or predominance of regular law as opposed to arbitrary power.The concept is associated with the view of Albert Venn Dicey who published a book, The Law of the Constitution in 1895, in which he presupposes the supremacy of the law. That all persons whether individual or in government, are subject to the law. In Kenya, all citizens and residents are subject to and governed by the same law irrespective of their status, race and religion **Elements of the rule of law. ** a) The principle of legality. The state can only exercise those powers granted to it by the law. It should be a government of laws and not of men. b) Separation of powers of the three arms of government. This refers to the practice of dividing the powers of government into the executive, legislature and judicial functions equally and putting in place a system of checks and balances to ensure they control each other. The three functions are to be independent of each other. c) Equality before the law. Everyone should be treated equally under the law. d) The judiciary must work without favour or the fear of intimidation in the administration of justice. **The principles of the Rule of Law. ** Joseph Raz in an article titled, The Rule of Law and its Virtues outlines the following eight principles of the rule of law. a) All laws should be prospective and open. A new law should only apply in future. b) Laws should be durable and not changing every other day. ----- 390 ### c) No centre of power, and specifically parliament, should enjoy monopoly right in making laws for citizens of a country, the judiciary should scrutinize parliament. d) The independence of the judiciary should be protected. e) The principal of natural justice should form an important element in the judicial system of a country. f) There must be easy accessibility to the courts of law. They should neither be expensive nor intimidating. g) The security forces should not use force in contravention of the law. Meaning of the concept of Natural Justice. it refers to the requirement that the bodies that resolve disputes adhere to at least minimum standard of fair decision making **Two principles govern the Concept of Natural Justice. ** 1. The person affected by an impending decision must have the right to a fair hearing prior to the decision being made. 2. The person or body hearing the case should act in good faith and without Bias. The right to fair hearing a) The accused must be given prior notice of the case against him and given a chance to respond. b) The accused must be given chance of knowing the case against him and stating his own case. c) The person charged should have opportunity to consider, challenge and contradict any evidence, being fully aware of the allegations leveled against him. d) The person has a right to legal representation by a legally qualified person. e) All legal decisions should have reasons within the law.. **The rule against Bias. ** Full inquiry must be conducted into the circumstances involved before the Arbitrator makes a decision. The decision made should be impartial with the adjudicator lacking interest in the outcome.A person is presumed innocent until proven otherwise and the police have no right to beat up suspects. ----- 391 # **HISTORY FORM FOUR NOTES ** ### **World War ** World War I or the First World War was a war fought by many countries, which is why it is called a "world" war. It started in 1914 and ended in 1918. 135 countries took part in World War I, and more than 15,000,000 people died in the war. **World War One - Causes ** The First World War, which began in August 1914, was directly triggered by the assassination of the Austrian archduke, Franz Ferdinand and his wife, on 28 June 1914 by Bosnian revolutionary, Gavrilo Princip. This event was, however, simply the trigger that set off declarations of war. **The actual causes of the war were; ** **1) The system of Alliances ** An alliance is an agreement made between two or more countries to give each other help if it is needed. A number of alliances had been signed by countries between the years 1879 and 1914. For example, the Dual Alliance signed by Germany with Austria Hungary in 1879 and later joined by Italy in 1882 to become the triple Alliance. This system led to the division of Europe into two antagonistic power blocs. It led to fear and suspicion between nations. It transformed local disputes into a general conflict. The Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy were directly opposed by the Entente powers of France and Russia and later included Great Britain to form the Triple Entente in 1907. **2) Imperialism ** Imperialism is when a country takes over new lands or countries and makes them subject to their rule. By 1900, the British Empire extended over five continents and France had control of large areas of Africa. With the rise of industrialism, countr- ies needed new markets. The amount of lands 'owned' by Britain and France increased their rivalry with Germany who had entered the scramble to acquire colonies late and only had small areas of Africa. **3) Economic rivalry. ** According to Marxism, the highest form of capitalism would ultimately lead to an inevitable war through economic rivalry. In the late 19th century, all European powers had industrialized or had started. Therefore, to match the needs of economy and industry, nations sought to expand their territory through imperialism in order to gain raw mater- ials and markets. This then led to the clash of imperial interest between nations and ultimately led to conflict and war. **4) Militarism ** Militarism means that the army and military forces are given a high profile by the government. The growing European divide had led to an arms race between the main ----- 392 ### countries. The armies of both France and Germany had more than doubled between 1870 and 1914 and there was fierce competition between Britain and Germany for mastery of the seas. The British had introduced the 'Dreadnought', an effective battleship, in 1906. The Germans soon followed suit introducing their own battle- ships. The German, Von Schlieffen also drew up a plan of action that involved attacking France through Belgium if Russia made an attack on Germany. **5) Nationalism ** Nationalism means being a strong supporter of the rights and interests of one's country. The Congress of Vienna, held after Napoleon's exile to Elba, aimed to sort out problems in Europe. Delegates from Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia decided upon a new Europe that left both Germany and Italy as divided states. Strong nationalist elements led to the re-unification of Italy in 1861 and Germany in 1871. The settlement at the end of the Franco-Prussian war left France angry at the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany and keen to regain their lost territory. Large areas of both Austria-Hungary and Serbia were home to differing nationalist groups, all of whom wanted freedom from the states in which they lived. **6) Moroccan Crisis ** In 1904 Morocco had been given to France by Britain, but the Moroccans wanted their independence. In 1905, Germany announced her support for Moroccan indepe- ndence. War was narrowly avoided by a conference which allowed France to retain possession of Morocco. However, in 1911, the Germans were again protesting against French possession of Morocco. Britain supported France and Germany was persuaded to back down for part of French Congo. **7) Bosnian Crisis ** In 1908, Austria-Hungary took over the former Turkish province of Bosnia. This angered Serbians who felt the province should be theirs. Serbia threatened Austria Hungary with war. Russia, allied to Serbia, mobilized its forces. Germany, allied to Austria-Hungary mobilized its forces and prepared to threaten Russia. War was avoided when Russia backed down. There was, however, war in the Balkans between **SPECIAL COVERAGE ** **The First Moroccan Crisis ** The First Moroccan Crisis clearly indicated that Germanys relation with France was at best fragile. In 1905 Morocco was one of the few African states not occupied by a European power. In May 1905 it was agreed that an international conference should be held on Morocco in Algeciras. **The Algeciras Conference of 1906 ** The main aim was to decide what was to be done with regards to Morocco. The two main protagonists at Algeciras were France and Germany. However, it soon became very clear to Germany that other European powers had sided with France Britain, Spain and Italy. The Algeciras Conference ended on April 7 [th] ----- 393 ### 1906.The Germans got very little out of the conference. The plan to create a triple alliance or even a quadruple alliance to isolate Great Britain failed. Arguably, by the end of the conference, Britain and France had even closer ties to one another. A German presence in North Africa had also failed to materialize. The French media portrayed Germany as an inferior nation, much to the concern of the more experienced politicians in Paris. The Algeciras Conference may have resolved the crisis in Morocco but the outcome clearly defined Europe into certain camps. At this conference Germany publicly lost out . **The Agadir Crisis of 1911 (the Second Moroccan Crisis.) ** The Agadir Crisis occurred in 1911 just four years after the First Moroccan Crisis. Germanys attention was diverted after the 1905-06 crises by other issues, mainly building up her navy so that it rivaled the Royal Navy. As a result France spent five years having far more influence in Morocco than Germany. They backed the corrupt Sultan, Abdul Aziz, who was accused by some of his countrymen of selling out Morocco to the French. The half-brother of Aziz, Mulay Hafid, took a stand on behalf of the Moroccan people who proclaimed him Sultan in January 1908. Fez also came under attack. In April 1911 a decision was made in Germany to send troops to Fez to support the foreign contingent living there. The plan was to send German warships to Agadir and Mogador ostensibly to defend German citizens in Morocco. A gunboat, the Panther, was sent to Agadir on July 1 [st] 1911. **What part did the Agadir Crisis play in the outbreak of World War One? ** The episode proved that Germany was hell-bent on trying to dominate Europe as a whole. Winston Churchill and David Lloyd George were among those who believed this. 1911 and 1912 when the Balkan states drove Turkey out of the area. The states then fought each other over which area should belong to which state. Austria -Hungary then intervened and forced Serbia to give up some of its acquisitions. Tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary was high. **8) The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand ** A secret society called Ujedinjenje Ili Smrt, ('Union or Death') or Black Hand was founded in Belgrade, an outgrowth of an older Serb nationalist group: Narodna Odbrana. When it was learned that the Heir-Apparent to the Austrian throne, Franz Ferdinand, was scheduled to visit Sarajevo in June of 1914, the Black Hand decided to assassinate him. Three young Bosnians were recruited, trained and equipped: Gavrilo Princip, Nedjelko Cabrinovic and Trifko Grabez. The murders of Franz Ferdinand and Sophie brought Austro-Serbian tensions to a head. As Vienna took a hard line against Serbia, the other powers in Europe took sides. The wheels of war gained speed. The Crisis of July turned into world war, just over thirty days after Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie were shot. **System of Alliances. ** By 1914, Europe had divided into two camps. 1) The Triple Alliance was Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary. ----- 394 ### 2) The Triple Entente was Britain, France and Russia. **1) The Triple Alliance ** The alliance between Germany and Austria was natural. Both spoke the same language - German - and had a similar culture. Austria was in political trouble in the south-east of Europe - the Balkans. She needed the might of Germany to back her up if trouble got worse. Italy had joined these countries as she feared their power on her northern border. Each member of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria and Italy) promised to help the others if they were attacked by another country. By the close of the war the Central Powers had been extended to incorporate Bulgaria and Turkey **2) The Triple Entente ** The Entente Powers comprised a military alliance - driven by a variety of inter-related treaties - of France, Great Britain and Russia.The Entente alliance sprang from the military concerns of Germany's neighbours to east and west. Russia and France; accordingly in 1894 they signed an alliance based upon fears of growing German power. Britain subsequently forged alliances with both Russia and France once it became clear that Germany intended to construct a navy to match the Royal Navy in the late 1890s. Thus the Entente Alliance was not a formal alliance. The term was later replaced by the more general 'Allies' to include other nations including Italy and Japan. **THE COURSE OF THE WAR. ** The war was fought in three continents; Europe, Africa and Asia and both on land and on the sea. In Europe, the war was fought in two fronts 1. The Western Front was where most of the fighting between Germany and the Allies happened. The war in western front was fought in Belgium and France as per the Schlieffen plan. Count Alfred von Schlieffen, mastermind of the Schlieffen Plan, served as Germany's Chief of the Imperial General Staff from 1891 to 1905. It was Schlieffen's plan, long after he retired fro army (1906) that was used for the August 1914 attack on France that was to trigger World War One. The Schlieffen Plan entailed an attack on France (while Russia mobilised her army) followed by an attack on Russia. The plan meant that Germany could place the bulk of her military might on one frontier and then move it to another. **The basic mechanics of Von Schlieffens plan were; ** a) A devastating attack on France via neutral Belgium as soon as Russia had announced her intention to mobilise, which would take six weeks. b) A holding operation on the Russian/German border to be carried out if necessary and if required. c) Germany was to use 6 weeks to defeat France. a massive and successful surprise attack against France would be enough to put off Britain becoming involved in a continental war ----- 395 ### d) Germany would then use her modernised rail system to move troops quickly from the French operation to the Russian front. Russia would then be attacked and defeated. **The Schlieffen Plan was daring but it had a number of glaring weaknesses: ** a) The actions of Russia determined when Germany would have to start her attack on France even if she was ready or not. b) It assumed that Russia would need six weeks to mobilise. But she mobilized faster than it was assumed. c) It assumed that Germany would defeat France in less than six weeks. Early on July 31, Russia began a full mobilization of its forces in preparation for war with Austria-Hungary. On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia and German troops began moving into Luxembourg in preparation for invading Belgium and France. On August 2, Germany contacted the Belgian government requesting free passage through Belgium for its troops. This was refused by King Albert and Germany declared war on both Belgium and France on August 3.The German Army went into Belgium on the 4 August. On the same day, Great Britain started a war on Germany, because Britain was a friend of Belgium. When the Germans got to the Belgian city of Lige, they did finally push the Belgians out of the city, but it had taken longer than the German generals had planned.On December 24-25, 1914, there was a temporary halt to the fighting on parts of the Western Front. This was the Christmas truce.The initial force behind the Christmas Truce came from the Germans. Christmas was celebrated in full, with men visiting across the lines and gifts of food and tobacco being exchanged. As Christmas ended, both sides reluctantly returned to war, the bonds forged at Christmas slowly eroded as units rotated out and the fighting became more ferocious.By 1915, the Western Front had become a stalemate as both sides engaged in trench warfare.The men on both sides took spades and dug lines of trenches went all the way from Switzerland to the North Sea, because they did not want to be killed. In front of the trenches, there was barbed wire that cut anyone who tried to climb over it, and mines that blew up anyone who tried to run across the "no man's land" that was in between the trenches. Gas was also an important weapon used.The war in the west was static in the next three years and attempts by the military commanders on both sides to break the stalemate led to deaths of many soldiers. At the battle of the Somme in 1916 60,000 British men died in a single day. It was one of the bloodiest days in the history of the British army. Seeking to shatter the Anglo-French lines, the German Chief of Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, began planning a massive assault on the French city of Verdun. The Battle of Verdun lasted from February 21, 1916 until December 18, 1916 and was one of the longest and bloodiest battles of World War I. A brutal battle of attrition, Verdun cost the French an estimated 161,000 dead, 101,000 missing and 216,000 wounded. German losses were approximately 142,000 killed and 187,000 wounded. 2. The Eastern Front was fought in Central and Eastern Europe and was one of the ----- 396 ### main places where World War I took place. The start of the war on the eastern front involved an attack on Russia on 1 [st] of august 1914. On August 6, Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia and six days later entered into hostilities with France and Britain. The Russians were decisively defeated by allied forces of Austria and Germany at the battle of Tanneberg in august 1914 and at the battle of Missourian Lakes in September 1914. **War in the seas ** Some of the fiercest battles between the Allies and the central powers took place in the sea.By May 1916, Germanys main fleet was stationed in the North Sea to attack Britains fleet. However, the British intelligence decoded the German wireless code and was able to prepare the royal navy to fully counter Germanys challenge. Both sides suffered causalities in the war that followed. 11 german ships and 14 British ships were lost. **Importance of Britains supremacy at sea ** a) The British naval forces assisted in blocking the central powers particularly the Germans from accessing food and raw materials from other parts of the world. This derailed their war plans. b) Her naval supremacy enabled the allies to capture colonies of the central powers. c) The sea blockade enabled the allies to maintain uninterrupted communication with other allied forces, as well as safeguard the british food and raw material supplies from other parts of the world. **The final phase of World War 1 ** The final phase of the war was a second Germany onslaught on France in 1918 where the Germans were decisively defeated in the hands of USA soldiers. **End of World War I. ** ***Two events that led to the end of World War I were: *** 1) Russias withdrawal from the war after the Great Russian revolution. 2) The declaration of war by the United States of America against the central powers. **The First Russian Revolution ** In 1917, there was a revolution in Russia. The Russian people didn't want to fight anymore, because the war had been putting burdens on them, and many of them were poor and hungry. **The Second Russian Revolution ** Two factions fought to rule over Russia. The passive Mensheviks lost against radical Bolsheviks. The leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) which was Communist who followed the ideas of Karl Marx. The new government sued the Germans for peace, and signed a peace treaty called Brest-Litvosk with the Central Powers in March 1918 at the city of Brest Litovsk. ----- 397 ### The Germans and Russians stopped fighting. This gave Germany lots of land in Eastern Europe and the Baltic Sea **USA entry into the war. ** The German generals using submarines named U-boats (underwater boats) attacked American ships (Lusitania) that were carrying food and weapons to Great Britain. Some Americans were killed by the submarines.Germany also wrote a secret telegram note to Mexico suggesting that the two countries work together to attack the United States (the Zimmerman Telegram- because the person who sent it was named Arthur Zimmerman- the german foreign minister). **Other reasons why USA entered the war on the side of the Allies were; ** a) America was concerned with safeguarding her trade with Britain. (US Anglo relationship was strong). USA was fully aware that the a defeat of Allied powers would cost her financial and industrial institutions b) The USA and British intelligence were able to link some Germany sympathizers with the industrial sabotage in factories and trade unions in the USA. c) Cruelty of the Germans led to the growth of anti-Germany feelings in the United States. Many of the Allies sympathizers had relatives in either France or Britain. American people decided that they wanted their country to enter the war to punish Germany. On April 6, 1917 the United States declared war against Germany and became part of the Allies.The socialist politicians declared Germany a republic and met with the Supreme Commander of the allied forces on 7 [th] November 1918, Ferdinand Foch, to negotiate for end of the war with very stiff terms to the Germans. **The stiff terms given to the Germans included; ** a) Germany to withdraw from all occupied territories, including overseas colonies. b) All German forces west of the Rhine to be withdrawn. c) All German warships to surrender to the Allies. d) Occupation of some parts of Germany by the Allies. e) All Allied prisoners of war to be released. The Germans were given 72 hours to either accept or reject these stiff conditions. Protesting bitterly, they signed an armistice on 9 [th] November 1918. At 11:00 AM on 9 [th] November 1918, the war ended. **Reasons why the allies won World War I. ** a) Allied powers had many supporters drawn from 25 states some of which were Britain, France, Belgium, Russia, Italy, USA, Japan and Portugal. They had more manpower than the central powers. b) Germany failure to effectively control her expensive colonies and others turned against her. c) USA entry into war on the side of the allies accelerated the defeat of the central powers. The industrial might of USA and her economic wealth helped the Allies to force the central powers to their knees. ----- 398 ### d) The Allies had able and focussed political leaders like Lloyd George-the British Premier and Georges Clemenceau, the French Premier. e) Germans/axis powers made serious technical mistakes like invasion of the neutral Belgium by Germany which turned the world opinion against the central powers. f) Superior naval power of the Allies. The superiority of the British Royal Navy enabled the Allies to enforce a naval Blockade that caused severe food shortages among the central powers. g) Germany fought the war on many fronts. h) Germany was badly led down by her colleagues like Italy who decamped and Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary who had to be assisted all the time. Turkey on her part easily accepted defeat. i) The Allies had financial and industrial resources in Europe and in their colonies which were used to great advantage during the war. j) The Allies had powerful weapons e.g. they used Tankers, Aircraft and Battleships. k) The allies were united under the Command of General Foch which disadvantaged the central powers. German also used young and inexperienced soldiers after 1918 due to heavy causalities. l) The central powers were surrounded by the Allies as they lay in the centre of Europe. They also lacked an extensive coastline and thus were easily blockaded. **The Peace Treaties. ** In January 1918, Woodrow Wilson, President of the USA, outlined, in his speech to the congress, the fourteen points that were essential in maintenance of world peace. **Among these were three great principles that formed the basis of world peace ** **namely; ** 1. Self-determination of all peoples, i.e, the right of peoples all over the world to determine their own fate. 2. The need to make public all diplomatic and international agreements. 3. The need to establish a League of Nations which would provide an avenue for discussing all international problems, protect small states from aggression by large ones.In January 1919, statesmen from the 27 Allied powers converged at Paris, France to determine the fate of the defeated central powers. The central powers were not party to the discussions but were required to sign on the final . The Key personalities at the conference were; *a) Lloyd George( PM of Britain) * *b) George Clemenceau (PM of France) * *c) Woodrow Wilson (President of USA) * *d) Vittorio Orlando (PM of Italy) * Five treaties were signed with each of the central powers separately as follows; *a) The Treaty of Versailles with Germany (28 [th] June 1919) * *b) Treaty of St. Germaine with Austria (10 [th] September 1919) * ----- 399 ### *c) Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria (27 [th] November 1919) * *d) Treaty of Trianon with Hungary (4 [th] June 1920) * *e) Treaty of Sevres in 1920 and Lausanne in 1923 with Turkey. * **The Treaty of Versailles. ** It should be noted that all the above treaties were generally referred to as the Treaty of Versailles. **Terms of the Versailles Treaty of 1919. ** a) The treaty declared Germany an aggressor who was supposed to pay reparations and whose military capability was to be reduced. b) She lost all her colonial passions with the African colonies being taken from her and put under supervision of the League of Nations. c) The treaty of St. Germaine provided for the creation of Yugoslavia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Malta as mandated territories. d) Germany was totally disarmed and only allowed to retain a force of 100,000 soldiers and her navy was disbanded. Military conscription was banned in Germany. e) Germanys population and size was reduced as Austria, with a large German population was allowed to remain independent. Italy acquired Stria, the Italianspeaking region of Austria. f) Rhineland was to be permanently demilitarized. Germany troops were not allowed in the region. h) By the treaty of Versailles, Germany lost the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to France. i) The treaty established the League of Nation. **Failures of the treaty of Versailles. ** a) The treaty handed Germany a heavy punishment as if she was the only one to blame for World War 1. This provoked deep resentment and bitterness among the German nationals. b) The treaty ignored the interests of the colonial people. The former colonial possessions of Germany and turkey were handed over to France and Britain in total disregard to the African grievances during the Versailles conference c) The treaty failed to carter for the interests of the minority in Europe. The new republic of Austria was forbidden from merging with Germany though a national vote was for the merger. d) Italy was given a raw deal in the settlement. She was only given Stria, an Italian speaking region formerly belonging to Austria. e) Though the treaty proposal for the formation of the League of Nations came from the USA president Wilson, the US constitution prohibited commitment to such an organization, whose membership required a nation to help a future victim of aggression. ----- 400 ### **RESULTS OF WORLD WAR I ** a) Nationalist movements in Asia and Africa grew in strength and number after the war and a sense of patriotism arose. b) USA gained an upper hand in the post war European affairs. She emerged as a leading world power. c) German military capability was reduced on land and sea and heavy indemnity imposed on her. She lost all her colonies, which were made mandated territ ories of the League of Nations. d) The end of the war marked the beginning of the decline of western imperialism. As early as 1920, there was a possibility of independence for colonial countries. The war encouraged imperial powers to give more freedom to their subjects. e) The end of the war witnessed the creation of new states e.g. Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Finland. f) Germany and Italy fell in the hands of dictators e.g. Mussolini and Hitler. g) The war Created bitter feelings and mistrust among the countries that fought in the war. This continued until the outbreak of the Second World War. h) It led to the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 in Russia as radicals took over government there. i) It led to a change of government in Britain. j) There was greater use of motor vehicles and aircraft, which facilitated transport. k) The art of surgery improved. l) Between 1914 and 1918, European factories were destroyed and business brought down hence heavy losses. m) There was massive destruction of property and infrastructure. n) It led to the great depression 1920 to 1921, which affected economies worldwide. o) It led to increased taxation by he colonial authorities to meet war and post -war demands. **THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS ** **Origin and organization of the League of Nations. ** The League of Nations was established by the victors of the First World War in 1920 at the treaty of Versailles with the main aim of preventing the occurrence of another war. The idea of its formation was mooted by Woodrow Wilson, the US president who was supported by Lord Robert Cecil of Britain, Jan Smuts of South Africa and Leon Bourgeois of France.The League of Nation came into force during the first meeting in London Britain,on 10 [th] January 1920. **Reasons for the formation of the League of Nations in 1920. ** a) It was formed for the Maintenance of world peace / It was specifically created to prevent the outbreak of another world war b) The League of Nations was meant to foster international cooperation in solving problems as they arise. ----- 401 ### c) It was formed to jointly take instant action against an agreed aggressor by economic and possibly by military means. d) Members were to secure and maintain fair and humane conditions of labour as one way of maintaining peace in the world. e) It was formed to oversee development of territories lost to central powers during the First World War. E.g. Tanganyika, Togo, South West Africa etc. **The main organs of the League of Nations were; ** ***The Council. *** It was made up of permanent and Non-permanent members. The permanent members were France, Britain, Italy and Japan. Non permanent members were four, elected by the general assembly.The main role of the council which sat in Geneva was to appoint committees and secretary General with the approval of the majority of the Assembly. It also dealt with disputes amongst member states, reduction of armament, execution of arbitral awards and admittance and expulsion of members. ***The Assembly. *** It met once a year at Geneva and was comprised of three delegates from each member state. It elected non-permanent members to the council. The functions of the Assembly included; a) Control of the Budget of the organization (including contributions and expenditure). b) Admission of new members after approval of a two-thirds majority. c) Appointment of non-permanent members of the League of Nations Council. d) Consideration of treaties. e) Supervision of the work of the League of Nations council. f) Appointment of the 15 judges of the permanent Court of International Justice. g) Giving approval to the appointment of Secretary-General. ***The Secretariat. *** The Secretariat, based in Geneva, consisted of the secretary general and his staff. It was the administrative body of the League of Nations. It kept records of the organization and conducted correspondences including treaties by member states. It implemented the decisions of the League of Nations. It provided continuity between one meeting of the council or the assembly and the next, ***The International Court of Justice. *** Set up between 1920 and 1922, it comprised of eleven judges and four deputy judges elected for nine years by the assembly and the council. It was based at the HagueHolland. Decisions made by the court were binding on all parties in dispute. ----- 402 ### International Labour Organization.It consisted of 4 delegates- two for member states and two for workers from each member state. Its main aim was to maintain good working conditions for men, women and children. ***The Mandates Commission. *** It had then responsibility of supervising the administration of the trustee colonies. The League of Nations also had several specialized agencies. **Achievements of the League of Nations. ** a) The League of Nations, through the Permanent Court of International Justice, maintained international peace and security. E.g. in the city of Danzig in spite of the hostility between the poles and the Germans. b) The League of Nations achieved its objective of treating the minority with humane. The International Office for Refugees, for example, assisted refugees. Victims of the Nazi persecutions were also assisted. c) The league assisted in the administration of the trust territories, through the Mandates Commission. E.g. in Togo, Tanganyika Cameroon and Rwanda-urundi. In addition, the territories acquired from turkey. E.g. Iraq and Palestine. d) The league was able to solve several interstate disputes in a peaceful manner. E.g the frontier dispute between turkey and Iraq over the Mosul province (1924 -1926), the dispute between Poland and Germany over northern Silesia. e) The league successfully restored financial stability in Austria following the economic slump in the country after the World War 1. f) It successfully enforced control over the manufacture and sale of arms. It also held disarmament meetings. g) The league ensured signing of peace treaties to promote security in the world. For example, the Locarno treaties of 1925 that settled boundary disputes between Germany and France. **Failures of the League of Nations. ** The League of Nations failed its Prime objective of maintaining world peace in the following ways; a) It failed to solve the Sino-Japanese dispute after Japan invaded Manchuria in China in 1931. Japan after refusing to abide by the Leagues demands that it withdraws from the Chinese territory, even pulled out of the league in 1933. b) The Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935. Benito Mussolini, rather than accept the Leagues verdict that he withdraws Italian troops from Ethiopia, pulled out of the League. c) The League failed to stop German Violation of the terms of the Versailles Treaty. She embarked on a remilitarization programme and established a navy and an airbase. d) Nations continued to make many defensive pacts in total disregard of the Treaty of Versailles. e) Germany invaded other regions such as Poland and Austria between 1936 and ----- 403 ### 1939, while Russia invaded Finland in 1939 in violation of the League of Nations. **Factors that undermined the effectiveness of the League of Nations. ** a) Member countries were not willing to take disputes to the international court of justice. b) German was still determined to increase its military strength and continue with its aggression policy. c) Individual nations were more pre-occupied with national interests and pride, at the expense of the organizations interests. d) The Versailles peace settlement resolutions were too harsh to Germany thus leaving the Germans aggrieved and refuse to cooperate with the League of Nations. e) The League of Nations lacked the executive authority to implement its resolutions. f) USA congress refused to ratify the treaty of the League of Nations. This denied the organization diplomatic and economic strength. g) There was shortage of funds to implement the functions of the League of Nations. h) The Appeasement Policy of Britain and France forced them to stand aside and avoid taking a firm action against Japan when she invaded china, Germany when she invaded and occupied Rhineland, and Italy when she attacked Ethiopia. **The Second World War. ** The 1930s witnessed the rise of dictators in Europe like Adolf Hitler of Germany, Benito Mussolini of Italy and General Francisco Franco of Spain who intentionally defied international opinion and disregarded the Versailles Treaty and League of Nations. Their activities and those of Japan began to interfere with prevailing peace in the world. This happened at the time when USA had retreated into isolation leaving the task of maintaining world peace only to Britain and France.The Second World War involved most countries in the world with millions of people conscripted for service in both the military and war related industries. **Causes of the Second World War. ** ***a) Germanys dissatisfaction based on territorial grievances. *** The Versailles treaty of 1919 imposed harsh and humiliating conditions on Germany, which aggrieved the Germans to the level of being ready to go to war again. ***b) The rise of nationalism in Europe. *** In Germany, the chancellor, Adolf Hitler who had the desire to dominate the whole world, fuelled it. For example, he encouraged German speakers in Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia to demand independence from Czechoslovakia. Italy under Mussolini invaded Ethiopia, in 1939 to regain her lost glory and national pride after the Adowa defeat I 1896. Syria rose up against France. ***c) Political developments in Europe. *** In Italy in 1922, the fascist government under Benito Mussolini came to power. In ----- 404 ### Germany, Hitlers Nazi government assumed power in 1933. The Fascist government in Italy emphasized on the regaining of lost glory. The Nazi government began a fresh new policy of aggression. ***d) The economic problems caused by the great depression of 1929 to 1931. *** The great slump led to widespread unemployment, declining wages, poverty etc. these led to social discontent and political unrest in many countries of the world. ***e) The failure of Germany to pay reparations. *** This was followed by the French invasion of the Ruhr industrial region- a German territory. This led to increased tension. ***f) Weakening of the League of Nations. *** Japan left the League of Nations after protest over Manchuria, which she had grabbed, from china. Italy left the League of Nations after Mussolini had grabbed Abyssinia and annexed it against the will of the allies and Ethiopians. Russia invaded Finland in 1939 and the league was unable to intervene. There were many secret treaties among members of the league. ***g) The Spanish civil war (1936-1939). *** The republican revolution of 1931 ended the Spanish monarchy. The struggle between the royalists and socialists, however, continued. The European powers took sides in the civil war. France, Britain and Russia supported the royalists. Germany and Italy supported General Franco who was fighting from exile in Morocco. ***h) Growth of military alliances. *** Hitler and Mussolini established a military pact in 1936 (The Berlin-Rome Axis). it became the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis with the joining of Italy. The alliance between Russia and German to divide Poland widened the gap between them and the allied forces. It created fear and suspicion. ***i) The invasion of Poland by Germany. *** This happened in September 1939 was the immediate cause of the war. This upset Britain and France, who stated their intensions of assisting Poland. They declared war on Germany in October 1939. ***COURSE OF WORLD WAR 2 *** The invasion of Poland by German forces on 1 [St] of September 1939 and the subsequent declaration of war against Germany by Britain and France on 3 [rd] of September 1939 marked the beginning of the Second World War. Meanwhile on 17 th September 1939, the USSR attacked Poland from the East, as per the secret clause in the Nazi -Soviet act of August 1939. Poland had been overrun by German and Russian forces by 27 th September 1939. The country was divided between Russia and Germany. **The phoney war. ** This was a period during world war two when no major military operations were undertaken on the western front although war had been declared on Germany by ----- 405 ### France and Britain. The period lasted eight months from 3 [rd] of September 1939. It was used by the Allied countries to fully mobilise their forces for an attack on Germany since they had not initially been prepared. Hitler on his part did not want to be involved in war in the west since his armies had not fully recovered from the consequents in the east. During this period, two unsuccessful attempts were made to bring peace; a) On 6 [th] October 1939, Hitler and Stalin of Russia made an attempt to convince the to accept the Nazi Occupation of Poland and make peace. b) On 7 [th] October, King Leopold of Belgium and Queen Wilhelmina of Netherlands appealed to the Axis powers and the Western Allies to make peace. War in Western Europe.On 9 [th] April 1940, Hitler launched a sea-borne invasion against Norway after attacking Denmark via land. They were assisted by a Norwegian Nazi sympathiser Vidkund Quisling. The prime minister of Norway and his Ministers fled to London and Hitler established a puppet government in the country. The defeat of British and French forces in Norway sparked off a parliamentary revolution in Britain forcing the PM Neville Chamberlain to resign to be replaced by Sir Winston Churchill. Germany extended their attack on Luxembourg, Netherlands and Belgium. The Allies were unable to contain the German advance and even retreated to the French port of Dunkirk, marking a major defeat of the allies in Europe.On 14 [th] June 1940, the Germans captured Paris forcing the new Prime Minister Paul Reynaud to sue for peace with Hitler on 22 [nd] June 1940. Under the peace agreement, The Germans took over Alsace Lorraine, Northern France and the Atlantic coastline. the French government fled to Vichy, southern France. **Why the French were defeated so quickly. ** a) The French forces were not psychologically prepared for the war and thus were found divided. b) The French forces were not as well organized as the Germans thus exposing various military weaknesses. For example, the Germans were supported by combat planes which the French did not use. c) Poor communication between the army and the airforce. The French generals failed to coordinate the war properly to the extend of ignoring the fact that the Airforce could have been used to drive German Bombers off. Having succeeded in their Paris onslaught, the Germans attacked Britain in July 1940. However, Winston Churchill, the British Premier, had mobilized forces to resist this attack successfully he even obtained reinforcement from USA. The battle of Britain determined the future of World War II. It forced Hitler to delay his attacks. **War in North Africa. ** WWII in Africa was marked by the Italian successful attack on French and British Somaliland. Under Marshal Graziani, the Italian forces advanced to Egypt though unsuccessful. In June1942, German forces moved to North Africa to reinforce the ----- 406 ### Italians.However, British forces led by General Bernard Montgomery moved quickly and captured Malta which would have been used as a base for attack by the Germans. General Montgomery attacked the Germans at El Alamein in Egypt, forcing them to move to west. On 8thNovember 1942, British and American forces invaded Morocco and Algeria.Although the Germans continued fighting in Tunisia, by May 1943, their Army under General Rommel had surrendered. **War in the Balkans. ** In August 1940, Hitler Attacked and captured Romania and Bulgaria. In April 1941, Yugoslavia and Greece were taken. Crete was taken in May 1941.On 22 [nd] June 1941, Hitler attacked USSR forcing the Russian troops to retreat. However, he failed to capture Moscow before the onset of winter. In June 1942, the Germans resumed their offensive. They were finally defeated at the battle of Stalingrad on 31 [st] January 1943 by the Russian Red Army led by Marshal Zhukov. The Germans lost 300,000 men while 100,000 survivors surrendered. By May 1944, the Russians had pushed the Germans from their territory and were approaching Germany itself. **Why the Germans were defeated during the Russian Invasion. ** a) The Germany army was fighting in several fronts at the same time as compared to the allies. This lack of concentration in one area allowed the other Russian army to defeat them. b) The soviet forces employed the scorched earth policy which left very little for the German forces. c) The Germans ill-treated the soviet people and exploited their economic resources causing resentment and unity to fight with determination. d) Weak leadership by the German military leaders contributed to their defeat. **USA entry into World War I. ** The Japanese attack on the American great Naval Base at Pearl Harbour on the Hawaiian island is the one incident that dragged USA into WWII.On 8 [th] December 1941, the USA, Britain and the Netherlands declared war on Japan. The Germans and Italians also declared war on the USA. Russia kept off the war in Asia having signed a treaty with Japan.Japan resisted fiercely. Her airforce sank two British battleships on 10 [th] December 1941.She captured Hong Kong, Malaya in Malaysia and took over the great naval base at Singapore. She also occupied Burma, Dutch East Indies, the Philippines and parts of the western pacific islands.The Japanese forces were repulsed while on their way to Port Moresby, New Guinea in may 1942.In 1942, Britain used her bases in India to attack Japan. Japan attacked India in 1944, but the strong and large allied forces defeated the Japanese at the battle of Kohima. **The defeat of Germany. ** After 1942, the tide of success began to turn against Hitler. German forces were defeated by the allies in North Africa and France. By March 1945, the Allies had crossed the Rhine, pushed the Germans out of France in June 1944.The Germans were meanwhile ----- 407 ### facing the Russian attack from the East. Hitler accepted defeated and handed over power to one of the Military Generals to retreat to an underground Bunker in Berlin.On 29 [th] April 1945, Hitler married his long term Mistress Eva Braun. On the following day, he committed suicide by shooting himself while Eva Braun took Poison. On 7 [th] May 1945, the Germans surrendered unconditionally **Why the Germans were defeated. ** a) Germany had acquired far too many territories and she was unable to effectively control them. b) The USSR recovered from her losses and began to rearm in a bid to fight against Germany. c) The USA entry into the war in 1941 on the side of the allies contributed to the eventual defeat of the Germans. d) Germanys Axis powers were only four, fighting against more than 27 allies. Even among the Germany collaborators, Italy surrendered while Bulgaria and Romania also were a burden to the Germans. **The defeat of Japan. ** After Germany surrender, Japan continued with fierce fighting sometimes employing the services of suicide bombers known as Kamikaze. The allies were able to liberate the territories captured by Japan After the defeat at Okinawa, Japan was certain of defeat, but her PM, Admiral Suzuki Kantaro, did not believe in unconditional defeat. On 6 [th] August 1945, a bomber Aeroplane, Enola Gay, commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets, flew over Hiroshima dropping a 4535.15kg atomic bomb. About 78,000 people died. On 8 [th] August 1945, Russia attacked Japan. On 9 [th] August 1945, an even larger Bomb was dropped on Nagasaki killing more than 40,000 people. Japan surrendered unconditionally on 15 [th] August 1945 bringing WWII to an end. **Factors that enabled the allied powers to win the Second World War. ** a) Allies had more wealth in terms of food, raw materials and equipments. b) Allies controlled the North Sea, which ensured safe transportation of troops and equipment. They were also able to block the central powers in the sea. c) Entry of USA in the war led to defeat of Germany. America had strong American air force and war resources, d) Germanys inability to control her expansive territories and some turned against her and in favour of the allied powers. e) The unity, morale and determination of the allied leaders and fighters. f) Popular sentiment was for allied victory and Hitlers defeat. g) Hitler's over-confidence and craziness did not allow him to comprehend the enormity of opposition up against him and the axis forces. h) External support especially from the colonial people in Africa, Asia and elsewhere. i) Axis powers dropped out of war one by one. ----- 408 ### j) Allies had better industries and financial resources/ superior economy, war tactics and superior diplomacy by all the allied powers. k) The axis powers made serious tactical mistakes e.g. Hitler failed to prepare for a winter campaign in Russia and was obsessed with the idea that Germans must not retreat. l) When the USSR recovered from her losses, she rearmed her self and attacked Germany. **Social results of Second World War ** a) Depopulation and great suffering as Millions of people perished either in war or due to famine and diseases. b) People suffered psychologically and emotionally from the loss of loved ones and torture of the war. c) The end of the war witnessed change in the status of women. Women started doing work, which was initially monopolized by men. E.g. military and management. d) There was permanent ill health and shortening of life for millions of peoples because of years of under- nourishment or captivity. e) There was massive Destruction of property such as homes, houses, buildings, roads and bridges. f) A large number of people were displaced as people moved to look for peaceful areas and this led to great suffering. The new refugees included the Jews, Slavs and the poles. g) The war fomented bitter feelings and mistrust among the countries that fought h) The war helped to shade off the myth popularized by Europeans that they were a superior race to Africans as European causalities in the war proved that they were mortals **Identify the political effects of the World War II. ** a) Defeat of axis powers led to government changes in Germany, Italy and Japan. b) The division of Europe into two opposing blocks led to the cold war, which was followed by an arms race between USA and USSR. c) Germany was divided into two. The communist East and the capitalist West. The city of Berlin was also divided between the east and the west. d) Germany and Italy were weakened especially with the loss of their colonies. e) U.S.A & U.S.S.R emerged as superpowers. The pre-war balance of power was destroyed and the power vacuum was filled by two new superpowers, the USA and USSR f) A weakness of the League of Nations to prevent the outbreak of war was demonstrated. This Led to UNO formation. g) There was rise of nationalism in Asia and Africa. It led to Africans struggle for independence because they were confident knowing that Europeans were no superior to them. Nationalists among the Asians leading to attainment of independence in Pakistan and India in 1947, in Burma (Myanmar) in 1948, and in ----- 409 ### Ceylon (Sri Lanka.) in 1949. h) The Japanese destroyed the myth of European military superiority due to the defeat of British and American forces in the Far East. i) New states were created. In 1948, the state of Israel was established in the Middle East, to settle the Jews who were displaced during the war. **Economic effects of World War 2. ** a) Agriculture and industries were disrupted due to lack of equipment, raw materials and human resources. b) External trade almost came to a standstill because of fear and insecurity. c) It led to increased dependency on colonies by European powers. There was need of raw materials to reconstruct the destroyed industries. d) Some Industries were established in the colonies to manufacture goods because of the difficulties faced in running them during the war. e) It led to the rise of European economic cooperation. The post war economic destructions led to the need for cooperation. This paved way for formation of the European Economic Community in 1957. **INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS ** International Relations refers to the cooperation or interaction between individuals or groups of nations of the world **Benefits of international relations. ** a) Enhance peace and security in the world the diplomatic policies of nations call for peaceful settlement of disputes, thus reducing war incidences. b) Promote understanding and unity. This done through Encouraging cultural exchange between nations. c) Help in getting collectives solutions to world problems. Problems of global concern like desertification, global warming, armament and environmental pol lution, are dealt with collectively. d) Promote economic growth through trade. Due to good relations, there is expanded international trade which enables countries to acquire goods they dont produce e) Developing countries get financial assistance. Developed nations have continued to provide financial and technical assistance to developing nations **Ways in which nations relate internationally. ** a) Economic relations. This is through trade and commercial activities among nations. For example, developed nations giving loans and grants to developing nations. b) Diplomatic relations. This is a peaceful means of relationship between nations in which there is exchange of Ambassadors or High Commissioners. c) Political relations. This involves cooperation between countries with similar political systems or ideologies. E.g. USA and Western Europe, in 1964, Tanganyika united with the island of Zanzibar to form the United Republic of Tanzania. d) Socio-cultural relations. This takes place in form of exchange and competition ----- 410 ### between dance troops, musicians, acrobats, sports teams, theatre groups etc, e.g. participation in Commonwealth Games. **International Organizations ** There are two types of international organizations; 1. International Governmental Organizations (IGOs) for example UN, Commonwealth, NAM and African Union.( formed by two or more sovereign states). 2. International Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) created by individuals or private organizations. E.g. International Red cross, Amnesty International and Transparency International. **Role played by International Governmental Organizations. ** a) The provide member states with a forum to consult and tackle problems of concern. b) They act as regulators in their fields to ensure the welfare of Humankind e.g World Health Organization (WHO) regulates health sector through immunization, vaccination and other prevention campaigns. c) They enhance peace and security through peace-keeping missions and response to disasters. d) They contribute to charity and facilitate equitable distribution of resources in the world. For example, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank advance loans to developing nations. **THE UNITED NATIONS. ** The UN was founded after world war Two as an organization of independent states with the following objectives; a) To promote and maintain international peace and security and prevent the occurrence of another world war. b) To foster friendly relations among nations of the world. c) To promote respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms. d) To promote social progress and better living standards of the people. e) To protect the interests of minority groups such as women and children. f) To promote economic growth among member states who are working towards reconstructing the world economy that was destroyed by the World War 2. g) To replace the league of nations which had collapsed before the outbreak of world war 2 **Formation of the United Nations. ** The signing of the Allied declaration in London on 12 [th] June 1941 marked the first step in the formation of the UN. On 14 [th] August 1941, Franklin Delano Roosevelt of USA and Winston Churchill of Britain, meeting in USA, proposed a set of principles for international collaboration in maintaining peace and security. This was the Atlantic Charter. The charter pledged respect for human Freedom, Allowed all nations the ----- 411 ### freedom to choose the form of government they preferred and provided that no territory should change hands after war without consent of its people.On 1 [st] January 1942, representatives of Allied nations meeting in Washington signed the Declaration by United Nations and proclaimed support for the Atlantic Charter. This marked the first official use of the term United Nations as suggested by President Roosevelt in reference to the 26 nations. The first Blueprint of the UN was prepared at a conference held at Dumbarton Oaks Estate, Washington from 21 [st] September to 7 [th] October 1944. Representatives of USSR, USA, UK and China agreed on the aims, structure and functions of a world organization.On 11 [th] February 1945, the Yalta Conference held by US president Roosevelt, UK PM Churchill and Russian PM Stalin declared the resolve to establish an international organization to maintain peace and security.On 25 [th] April 1945, the United Nations Conference on International Organization began in San Francisco, USA attended by delegates from 50 nations. It drew a 111 Article Charter which was adopted on 25 [th] June 1945.The UN began its official functions on 24 [th] October 1945 after ratification of the charter by USSR, USA, Britain, China and France. **Organization of the UNO. ** Membership to the UN is open to all peace-loving nations that accept the obligations of the charter. By 1945, only 51 states had signed the charter. Kenya Joined on 16 [th] December 1963By April 2003 membership had grown to 191 states. **To achieve its aims, the UN spelt out in its charter the following principles; ** a) It is based on the sovereign equality of all its members. b) All member states must fulfil, in good faith, their charter obligations. c) All member states must settle international disputes by peaceful means and without endangering peace, security and justice. d) They must refrain, in their international relations, from the threat or use of force against others. e) They must give the United Nations every assistance to any action it takes in accordance with the charte`r, and shall not assist states against which the United Nations is taking preventive or enforcement action. f) The United Nations must ensure that states which are not members act in accordance with these principles insofar as necessary for maintenance of international peace and security. The UNO structure comprises six principal organs as follows; **THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY ** This is the main deliberative organ of the UNO, but which cannot enforce action on members. It comprises all member states. **Functions of the UN General Assembly. ** To help in its operation, the general assembly has the following committees; The political and security committee, the special political committee, the economic and financial committee, the committee on social,humanitarian and cultural issues, the ----- 412 ### trusteeship committee, the administration/budget committee and the legal affairs committee. **THE SECURITY COUNCIL ** It has 15 members from 15 countries. Ten of these are non -permanent. It also has five permanent members namely china, France, USA, Russia and UK.Its main function is to maintain world peace and security. **ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL ** Its membership is 54. 18 are elected each year for a term of three years.Its function is to coordinate the economic and social work of UN and its specialized agencies. E.g. in trade, status of women. Population, science and technology. **TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL. ** It inherited the work of the Mandates Commission of the former League of Nations. It had responsibility over the territories under colonial rule-. - To promote social, economic, political and educational advancement of the inhabitants of the trust territories.Consists of five permanent members and six additional ones appointed by the General Assembly. **THE SECRETARIAT. ** The head of the secretariat is the secretary general. It has its headquarters in New York. Its staff members come from 139 countries. Its work covers all areas outlined in the UN Charter. **THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE. ** It has its headquarters at Hague. It is the principal judicial body of the UN. It gives advisory opinions on legal questions. It has 15 judges. **SPECIALIZED AGENCIES. ** These are separate specialized agencies which are autonomous organizations related to the UN by special agreements. (REF TO PAGE 49 OF EVOLVING WORLD) Past Secretary Generals of the United Nations Organization since its inception. a) Trygve lie of Norway (1946-1953). b) Dag Hammarskjld of Sweden (1953-1961) c) U Thant of Burma (1961-1971) d) Kurt Waldheim of Austria (1972-1982) e) Javier Perez de Cueller of Peru (1982-1991) f) Boutros Ghali Boutros. Of Egypt (1992-1996) g) Kofi Annan of Ghana (1997-2000) h) Ban Ki Moon.(2000 up to present) **Achievements of the United Nations Organization. ** a) The organization has succeeded in keeping peace amid the threats of nuclear war and seemingly endless regional conflicts in the world. UNO has developed more than 35 peacekeeping missions and observer nations. ----- 413 ### b) The UN specialized agencies are engaged in a vast array of social work, affecting positively, every aspect of peoples lives around the world. E.g., child survival and development, environmental protection, medical research, agricultural development, education etc. c) The organization has helped in promoting democracy around the world. It has enabled people in more than 45 countries to participate in free and fair elections, e.g. in Namibia, Cambodia, El Salvador, Eritrea, Mozambique, South Africa etc. d) The UNO has promoted development of skills and potentials vital for all aspects of development. The UNDP, in close co-operation with over 170 member states and the UN agencies designs and implements projects for agriculture, industry, education and environment. e) It has helped in promotion of Human Rights. Since the adoption of the u niversal declaration of human rights in 1948, the UN has helped to enact more than 80 agreements on political, civil, economic, social and cultural rights. f) It has played a vital role in environmental protection. The Earth Summit, the UN Conference On Environment and Development held in Rio De Janeiro in 1992, resulted in treaties on biodiversity and climate change g) Promoting self-determination and independence. The organization has brought about independence of 80 countries that are now among its member states. h) Providing humanitarian aid to victims of conflicts. More than 30 million refugees fleeing war, famine or persecution have received aid from the UN high commission for refugees since 1951. **Problems facing the United Nations Organization in its operation. ** a) National sovereignty. Many countries disregard the UNO resolutions in favour of their sovereignty. b) It is unable to stop aggressions and conflicts between individual countries when super powers are involved. c) Lacks sufficient funds to carry out its work efficiently. E.g it has not always been able to send enough peacekeeping forces due to lack of sufficient funds. d) It lacks an effective machinery to affect its decisions. It also lacks a standing army to implement and effect its resolutions. e) The permanent members with veto powers often adopt policies that promote their own national interests at the expense of the collective interests of most countries in the world. f) Loyalty to other organizations. UNO members are also members of other organizations; the interests of these organizations are not in accord with those of the UNO. g) Ideological disputes among member states have hampered the work of UNO in promoting world peace. This was manifested in the cold war period. ----- 414 ### h) The arms race. The UNO has found it difficult to achieve world peace because of the arms race in different parts of the world. The arms race generates and sustains conflict rather than peace. i) Differences in economic development levels of member states militate against cooperation. j) The increased occurrence of natural disasters such as famine, floods and epidemics has created an unexpected demand for economic resources. This automatically the UNs resources. **THE COMMONWEALTH. ** Origin and structure of Commonwealth of Nations. It is a voluntary association of 54 sovereign countries around the world, which were initially part of the British Empire.The commonwealth origin is the British Empire comprising the British protectorates, colonies and dominions, which included Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Newfoundland, Irish Free State and South Africa. The idea to launch the association is traced back to 1839, with the publication of the Durham report.The modern commonwealth began in 1947 with the end of the British rule in India. In 1949, India and Pakistan joined the commonwealth.The commonwealth secretariat is based in London. It deals with day to day running of the organization and organizes meetings. The head of the commonwealth is the Queen/King of England. The Commonwealth has the Heads of State Summit which meets for a week every two years to discuss political and economic issues.There are also the Ministerial meetings once after every three years to deal with different issues. The commonwealth has specialized agencies dealing with various areas of concern. **Membership to commonwealth. ** It comprised 54 developed and developing nations. The members are categorized as follows; 1. Britain and her Dominions of Canada, Australia and New Zealand. 2. African Nations. 3. Asian nations. 4. Islands from the Caribbean, Pacific and Mediterranean. **Characteristics of commonwealth states. ** a) Members of the commonwealth use English as a common language. b) Members maintain cultural ties. For instance, they participate in the commonwealth games every four years. c) Members co-operate in the field of education. d) Members recognize the queen of England as the head of commonwealth. e) Members have a common military tradition based on the British military system. They also promote military exchange programmes. f) Members share common democratic institutions from Britain such as parliamentary system of government. ----- 415 ### g) Members have adopted constitutions that are almost similar. **Objectives that led to the formation of the commonwealth nations. ** a) To promote world peace and international understanding. Members are expected to abide by the UN Peace programmes. b) To promote development of poor member states. c) To intensify co-operation between member states, in matters of education, sport and economic development. d) To ensure personal liberty and equality of rights to all citizens regardless of race, colour, creed or political beliefs. e) To oppose all forms of colonial dominion by being committed to the principles of human dignity and equality, self-determination and non-racism. f) To promote the exchange of knowledge, professionalism and cultural, economic, legal and political issues. g) T fights poverty, ignorance and disease to remove wealth disparities and raise the living standards, and achieve a more equitable international soci ety. h) To enhance free international trade by removing trade barriers, bur tat the same time, giving due consideration to the special requirements of the developing countries. **Organization of the Commonwealth. ** The structure of the commonwealth comprises of three organs; 1. The Head of state Summit . It meets once in every two years for a week for extensive decisions and consultations. Decisions are reached by consensus. 2. Ministerial Meetings . The commonwealth ministers of Finance, Foreign Affairs and defence hold regular meetings once every year. Ministers of Health, Education and Law hold meetings once every three years 3. The Commonwealth Secretariat : headed by the secretary general and with a staff of 350 drawn from member countries. It co-ordinates co-operation among members. The first secretary General was Arnold Smith of Canada. In 1990, Chief Emeka Anyaoku of Nigeria became the first African Secretary General. 4. Specialized Agencies . a) The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-Operation; supplies funds, finance, experts and advisers for projects carried out in member states. b) The Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau; it provides co-operation in the field of agriculture. c) The Commonwealth Parliamentary Association; helps to improve relations between parliamentarians of member states. d) The Commonwealth Regional Health Secretariat for East, Central and Southern Africa; promotes co-operation in health. benefits of membership to Commonwealth. a) Member states have received technical expertise through the provision of experts ----- 416 ### and advisers in various fields e.g. agriculture. b) The developing member states of the organization have acquired skilled manpower through the provision of scholarship and setting up of training programmes by nations like Britain and Canada. c) Member states have been able to interact with one another through activities such as the commonwealth games and cultural exchange programmes. d) Member states have conducted trade among themselves with relative ease and this has helped them to develop their economies. e) The organization has promoted friendship and understanding among member states through conferences such as The Heads of Government meetings. f) It has enhanced democratization process in developing member states of the organization Functions of commonwealth (REF to evolving world page 60) **Problems facing Commonwealth of Nations. ** a) Differences in economic development levels of member states militate against cooperation. Members coming from developing world have very different outlook from those coming from the developed world. b) Ideological disputes among member states have hampered the operations of the Commonwealth of Nations. c) Lacks sufficient funds to carry out its work efficiently. Poor members normally owe many debts to their foreign masters and would therefore toe to their demands. d) The problem of sovereignty. Many countries disregard the commonwealth resolutions in favour of their sovereignty. e) It lacks an effective machinery to affect its decisions. It also lacks a standing army to implement and effect its resolutions. f) Loyalty to other organizations. commonwealth members are also members of other organizations; the interests of these organizations are not in accord with those of the commonwealth g) The colonial legacy. Many problems arising from past colonial policies have rocked the organization. E.g. the land issue in Zimbabwe. h) The influence of other organizations like NATO who weaken the commonwealth by wooing members to their regions. i) Race and colour problem. The conflict between white and black people or other color has become another setback. j) Dominance by the big powers. This has caused dismay to the organization. Serious inner tension still undermines the commonwealth activities. **THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT ** **NAM STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION ** NAM was an organization that did not have formal structures like UNO and Commonwealth. It did not have a secretariat or a constitution. The movement had a ----- 417 ### unique administrative style as follows. **Coordination ** The administration is non-hierarchical, rotational and inclusive, providing all member states, regardless of size and importance with an opportunity to participate in global decision making and world politics.The country that hosts the summit holds office until the next summit. Non-aligned countries place the onus of an administrative structure on the country assuming the chair. The country is required to create or designate an entire section of the ministry of foreign affairs to deal specifically with the Non-Aligned Movement. The chairs ambassador in the United Nations essentially functions as the minister of Non-Aligned Affairs.NAM has also created contact groups, task forces and committees to facilitate the chairs responsibility as follows; **The Coordinating Bureau. ** This is the focal point for coordination. It reviews and facilitates the harmonization of the NAM working groups, contact groups, task forces and committees. Working Groups, Contact Groups, Task Forces and Committees.They include NAM High-level working group for the restructuring of the United Nations, NAM working group on Human Rights, Disarmament, Committee on Palestine, Contact Groups on Cyprus, and Task Force on Somalia etc. these groupings meet often. **Non-Aligned security Caucus. ** The countries that make up the NAM council caucus are expected to constantly strive to adopt unified positions so that the decisions and positions of NAM are reflected in the Security Council decisions without prejudice to their sovereignty. **Joint coordinating committee ** This is a coordinating committee established in 1994 and sitting in New York, whose main mandate is to promote cooperation and coordination between the NAM and the Group of 77 in promoting the interests of developing countries in international fora. **Coordination of non-aligned countries in the UN centres. ** This is aimed at facilitating coordination and cooperation with the coordinating bureau and enhances the role of NAM in the international Fora. **The Troika. ** The concept of Troika emerged on 6 [th] April 1997 in New Delhi, India, during the meeting of foreign ministers of NAM representing past, present and future chairs. The concept simply implies a meeting of past, present and future chairs who began to meet in September 1997 as a discussion forum. **Panel of economists ** This is an ad hoc panel of economists formed from Non-Aligned countries to assess the current international economic situation from the perspective of developing countries and to identify and analyze their major issues of concern. **Documentation. ** This is the responsibility of the host country but after wide consultation. The host ----- 418 ### country must circulate the First not later than one month before the meeting. **Decision making. ** The movement makes all its decisions by consensus. This concept presupposes understanding of and respect for different points of view, including disagreement and mutual accommodation. This promotes solidarity and unity of the movement. **NAM Meetings ** **They include the following ** a) Conference of Heads of State and Government. This is NAMs highest decisionmaking authority and meets once every three years. It has two committees, one on political issues and another on economic and social issues. The summit is held atleast one month before the regular session of the UN General Assembly. During the summit, there is a formal ceremony for handing over the chair. b) Ministerial conference. Its task is to review developments and implement decisions of the preceding summit and also discuss matters of urgency. The conference meets 18 months after the summit. c) Ministerial meeting in New York during a session of the UN General Assembly. This is a meeting of foreign ministers annually in New York at the beginning of the regular session of the UN Assembly. The purpose of the meeting is to deliberate on the items of the Agenda of the General Assembly that are of major importance to the movement. d) Ministerial Meeting of the Coordinating Bureau. The main task is to prepare for the summits, and where necessary, to consider issues of major importance to the movement. e) Meeting of the Ministerial Committee on Methodology. The attendance is by all NAM members and its meetings are held by the decision of the summit or the ministerial conference. The meetings are chaired by the chair of NAM. f) Meeting of the standing ministerial committee on economic cooperation. These meetings are meant to strengthen south-south cooperation, reactivate the dialogue between the developing and developed countries and enhance the role of the UN General Assembly, in international cooperation for development. The meetings are held frequently upon recommendation of the coordinating Bureau. g) Ministerial Meetings in various fields of international cooperation. They discuss issues like agriculture, information and external debt. h) Extraordinary Meetings of the Coordinating Bureau. They address exceptional cases that call for urgent consideration. i) Meetings of the Working Groups, Task Forces, Contact Groups and Committees. The meetings are held as often as necessary. **The growth of NAM. ** After the Bandung Conference of 1955 which established the movement, NAM has attracted many developing counties. . A number of conferences have been held since then; ----- 419 ### a) The first summit, Belgrade, 1961. The attendance was by 25 non-aligned countries who met at a time when world peace was threatened seriously by the looming nuclear war. The meetings objective was to prevent the outbreak of a nuclear war in the world. b) The second summit, Cairo, 1964. The summit of October 1964 was attended by 47 Nations and 10 observers. There were 28 representatives from Africa. The conference mainly focused on problems facing NAM countries due to colonial inheritance, policies of former colonial powers and the rivalry between the great powers.. c) The third summit, Lusaka, 1970. The attendance was by 53 members the meeting resolved that time was ripe for declaration on peace, independence, cooperation and democratization. The members were out to fight colonialism and racism. The main resolution was the members determination to achieve economic emancipation. d) The Fourth Summit, Algiers, 1973. It was attended by 75 members, eight observers, three guest nations and 15 liberation movements. The meeting was an attempt to transform the existing system of economic and financial relations in a manner that would liberate developing countries from a subordinate role into an equal position with industrialized countries. The members developed an action programme in the interest of economic cooperation. e) The fifth Summit, Colombo, 1976. It was attended by 86 members, who focused on the liberation of Zimbabwe and Namibia, the abolition of apartheid in South Africa as a way of promoting world peace. f) The sixth Summit, Havana, 1979. The conference was attended by 93 members, 12 observers, 8 guest nations and seven new members. The meeting declared that imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, apartheid, racism, foreign aggression, expansion, occupation, domination, interference or hegemony, Great power bloc, Subjugation, dependency and pressures in international relations as enemies of nonalignment. The chairman of the summit was Fidel Castro who put forth his ideas that the socialist bloc is a natural ally of the movement. g) The seventh summit, New Delhi, 1983. It was attended by 96 members, 16 observers and 20 guest nations. The summit took place at a time when there was intense confrontation as the great powers continued to amass nuclear weapons. . Indra Gandhi appeared to be the moderate leader to host the conference and soften the impact of Cuban radicalism. The conference discussed peace, nuclear disarmament, development strategies for north-south Dialogue on a new world economic order, and the south-south cooperation for collective self-reliance. h) The eighth summit, Harare, 1986. It marked NAMs silver Jubilee. The main concern was Namibias independence and apartheid in south Africa.. NAM emphasized its sanctions against the Pretoria (South Africa) regime. It drew an action plan to deal with ----- 420 ### the threat posed by South Africa. The summit came up with a special solidarity fund to help the frontline states. i) The Ninth summit, Belgrade, 1989. j) The tenth Summit, Jakarta, 1992. k) The eleventh Summit, Cartagena de Indias, 1995. l) The twelfth Summit, Durban 1998. m) The thirteenth Summit, Kuala Lumpar, 2003. **Performance of the Non-Aligned Movement. ** Though critics have questioned the relevance of NAM after dismantling apartheid and achieving independence, and after end of cold war, there still exist situations that require NAMs participation. **Reasons why NAM is still relevant. ** a) NAM is the only forum that can articulate the voice of justice and sanity in the world in view of the unending Arms Race. b) NAM is the only forum through which the demand for a less unjust world economic order can be raised given the kind of hold the developed nations still have on developing nations. c) NAM remains the third worlds shield against the pressures of the superpower elephants that can easily trample on the grass of the lesser animals even after end of cold war. d) NAM can still play a role in addressing emerging world issues such as terrorism, environmental degradation, HIV/AIDS and racism. **Achievements of NAM. ** a) It has helped speed up the attainment of freedom in states that were under colonial bondage. b) NAM has assisted its members in safeguarding their national security and territorial integrity. c) Nan-aligned nations also worked to eliminate conflict between the superpowers. This helped in the promotion of peace and security for the non-aligned world. India for example played a role in solving the Korean War, the Suez crisis and IndoChinese conflict. d) NAM created a conducive environment for peace, justice, equality and international cooperation by contributing to the relaxation of international tension by keeping clear of the two military blocs, USA and USSR. e) The movement has strengthened African and Asian Countries diplomatically at a time when they lacked necessary physical strength. They were able to exert their voting power as Afro-Asian bloc to influence world affairs. f) NAM provided an international forum where members voices could be heard. It was able to work to dismantle apartheid by its two-third world community membership despite the Reagan administrations opposition to sanctions against South Africa. ----- 421 ### g) The movement has given members freedom to put their national interests before those of the great power blocs. h) The NAM through the Cairo and Colombo Summits termed as World Disarmament conferences, played a key role in the disarmament process. The 1967 Treaty of Tlatelolco, signed by 22 states, set up a weapon Free Zone in Latin America. i) The Non-aligned states have helped in international crisis management since they are not committed to any course of military action. For example during the 1961 Berlin crisis, Nehru of India and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana went to Moscow for a peace mission, while Achmad Sukarno of Indonesia and Modibo Keita of Mali went to Washington DC to try and create a conducive atmosphere for managing the crisis. j) NAM has worked towards creation of new international economic order. Members of the movement are able to trade with both the great power blocs. Membership to the Group of 77 in the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) is drawn from the non-aligned nations. The non-aligned nations were open to aid from both blocs and also ready to expand their trade with both sides of the ideological divide. k) The Solidarity fund established during the Harare Summit of 1986 cushioned the frontline states against the economic sanctions imposed on apartheid South Africa. l) NAM has worked to create the new scientific and technological order. The members have demanded a new scientific and technological order by favouring access to the most advanced technology and scientific research available as a means of bridging the technological gap between the developed countries and developing ones. **Factors which have undermined the activities of the Non-Aligned Movement. ** a) Political instability is frequently experienced by some member states. For example, civil wars and military coups in DRC, the Sudan, Rwanda, Burundi, interstate wars like in the case of Iran and Irag. This has undermined their contribution to the movement. b) Economic ties between the third world countries and their colonial masters had made it difficult for the member states to pursue an independent line. c) Border disputes between neighboring member countries has weakened the course of the movement. E.g. between morocco and Algeria, North Korea and South Korea, Vietnam and Cambodia, Ethiopia and Somalia, Uganda and Tanzania etc. d) Economic backwardness of some of the member states has made it difficult for them to meet their obligation in the movement as national needs come first in view of the meager resources of some of the nations. e) Ideological differences between member states have undermined their co operation. Its large size of 116 members by 2004 has frustrated its ideological coherence and organizational solidarity. Whereas some countries are inclined towards the west, others are inclined to the east. f) Membership to other organizations like AU, commonwealth and the French ----- 422 ### community, has made it difficult for some states to participate actively in the affairs of the movement. g) Breakup of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War has destabilized the movement. As power bloc rivalry subsided, NAM appeared to become irrelevant. h) Conflicting national interests. Individual national interests have failed to agree with the objectives of the movement. i) Personality differences between leaders of member states have undermined the . For example, several leaders rejected the radical views of Fidel Catron of Cuba. j) Differences unrelated to the principles of NAM have developed among members. For example at the Colombo Summit of 1978, several Arab states were keen to see Egypt expelled from the movement on grounds that she had signed a separate peace treaty with Israel. This was not an agreement with a superpower and therefore had nothing to do with NAM. k) NAM lacks a permanent Army or a permanent institutional framework or machinery that can enable it carry out its activities effectively. For example, it fai led to persuade irag and Iran to end the 8 year long war from 1980. **THE COLD WAR. ** The Cold War refers to the strained relations that existed between the western world led principally by the United States and the communist East led by the USSR, after the Second World War. It was so called because it was fought not with weapons, but with words, propaganda, military and financial aid to enemies of the opposing sides. Although there was no actual physical confrontation, Cold War was characterized by a conflict of the most serious and deadly kind. **Causes of the Cold War. ** a) Ideological differences. There was deep-seated fear and mutual suspicion between USA and USSR over the spread of their ideologiescapitalism and communism. E.g The establishment of the Soviet Union through acquisition of satellite states was a measure to contain capitalism. b) Disagreement over the issue of disarmament. The use of atomic bomb on Japan by USA towards the end of World War II alarmed USSR. The two sides failed to agree on an arms reduction plan and continued to stockpile atomic bombs. c) Economic rivalry. In 1947, the USA President Harry S. Truman introduced the Marshal Plan, a scheme to assist western European countries that had been devastated by war. The USSR in turn formed Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), an economic cooperative plan for Eastern Europe. This further heightened the hostility between the west and the east. d) Formation of military alliances. In April 1949, the USA, western European countries and Canada formed a military alliance through the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty in Washington D.C. (NATO). The formation of NATO ended USAs isolationist policy. ----- 423 ### Russians responded by signing the Warsaw Pact, in May 1955, a military alliance of communist countries. These alliances fostered hostility between countries. e) The use of Russian veto powers in the UN. Russia used her veto powers to defeat UN proposals, which she accused of being pro-USA. The struggle by the two powers to dominate the UN increased tension between them. f) Disagreement over the future of Germany as a whole. Western allies wanted a strong Germany to assist in the economic prosperity of other nations. Russia was keen on a politically and economically weak Germany to safeguard against another invasion. NB- in 1961, the USSR built the Berlin Wall, thus dividing East Berlin from West Berlin. g) USAs military advancement. By 1945, the USA was the only country that possessed atomic weapons. This created fear. **COURSE OF THE COLD WAR. ** The cold war was fought in Europe Asia, Latin America and Africa, **The course of the Cold War in Europe ** The cold war in Europe involved a conflict between the West and the East. The highlights of this conflict included Russias overwhelming encroachment and dominance of Eastern Europe. Russia used her military might to impose communist governments on many states like Poland and Romania. They also fanned civil wars. E.g the Greek civil war of 1946. There were widespread outbreaks of violence and demands of freedoms in Poland and Romania, based on western ideologies, in politics and economy.In Czechoslovakia, communist Russia orchestrated protests against reforms based on western ideologies, by the Dubcek Government, which was supported by the west. Dubcek was arrested and flown to Moscow. Dr. Husak, a Russian ally was installed. **The following are the major developments that characterized cold war in Europe. ** a) In March 1947, the US president Harry Truman, through The Truman Doctrine declared that the USA would support free people resisting subjugation by armed minorities. In 1947, USA took over Britains commitment in Greece and turkey to support the anti-communist regimes. b) In 1947, the US Secretary of state, George Marshall came up with a proposal which was to become the Marshall Plan. This was a plan through which the US would make a major contribution to the economic recovery of Europe. The plan was rejected by USSR terming it an American interference in the internal affairs of other nations. c) Stalin set up the Communist Information Bureau (COMINFORM) to coordinate the work of communist parties in Europe and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) to counter the US Marshal Plan. d) The NATO and Warsaw Pact. By the treaty of Brussels in March 1948, Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg formed a defensive alliance against ----- 424 ### any form of aggression (It became the North Atlantic Treaty Organization-NATO, in April 1949 when other European Nations joined it. In response to NATO, the Soviet Union signed the Warsaw Pact in Poland on 14 [th] May 1955 with East \Germany and six Eastern European countries. The existence of NATO and Warsaw Pact only intensified the hostilities. e) The Berlin Blockade. Germany was divided into two zones, East and West. Russia treated East Germany as a satellite state thus curtailing trade between east and west. This move almost led to starvation in the west as East Germany was the main producer. In May 1948, all roads and rail routes into West Berlin were sealed off by Russian troops. For over two years, food, coal medical supplies and other necessities to the 2 million people in West Berlin were airlifted since there was no land linkage. The blockade ended in may 1949 with diverstating consequences. f) Partition of Germany. The west was prepared to give freedom to the Germans as a whole to decide their own fate. Russia was determined to ensure that East Germany remained dominated by communism under Russian control. On 23 [rd] may 1949, the western occupation zone in Germany became the Federal Republic of Germany with Konrad Adenauer as the chancellor in September elections. On 7 [th] October 1949, the soviet zone formed the Germany Democratic Republic.In August 1961, the East Germans built the Berlin Wall, curtailing communication and flow of refugees from the west. **The cold war was fought in Asia. ** In Asia, China was the first front of Cold War. She embraced communism, following the successful takeover of the country by the forces of Mao Tse-tung in October 1949, assisted by the Russians. The Sino-Soviet Treaty of friendship was signed in 1950. Korea, formerly controlled by Japan, was another front for cold war in Asia. When Japan was defeated in 1945, Korea was occupied from the south by American forces, from the north by Russians, placing the country under joint control. The occupying powers failed to unite the two Korea sections when she became independent.In 1948, the USA announced the formation of the Independent Democratic Republic of Korea in the South. The Russians formed the Peoples Republic of Korea in the north.On 25 [th] June 1950, North Korea Forces invaded South Korea in an attempt to unite. UN condemned this and An American General, Douglas MacArthur led the UN forced that repulsed the invaders. The cold war spread to Vietnam, with USSR and USA clashing over Vietnam, formerly a colony of France that had been seized by Japan. The two super powers supported different nationalist leaders in the struggle for independence from France.The Russians supported Ho Chi-Minh who led a revolt by the Vietnamese, against the French. USA supported Ngo Dinh Diem. The Vietnam War erupted as a resultThe Vietnam War was the heaviest cost of containing communism by Americans in a distant country. Americans were humiliatingly defeated in 1975 with a causality of 53,000, despite employing over ----- 425 ### 400,000 troops. The communist guerillas, the Viet Cong, established a communist government in South Vietnam. The war strengthened American hostility towards Russia There was an armed conflict between the super powers in Afghanistan from 1978. The height of the conflict in Afghanistan was the Boycott of the Moscow Olympic Games in 1980 as a protest against USSRs involvement in Afghanistan. The conflict took the form of a civil war which was only eased in 1989 when the USSR began to withdraw its troops. **The cold war in Latin America (the Cuban Missile Crisis) ** Cuba became the theatre of cold war when USA unsuccessfully supported the Cuban dictator, General Fulgencio Batista against Fidel Castro who was fighting to end Batistas regime. Fidel Castro overthrew the Batista regime in 1958. The new government immediately gained recognition from many world nations including USA and USSR In 1960, Fidel began a communist nationalization programme of American oil refineries and sugar plantations. This strained relations between him and the US who attempted unsuccessfully to invade Cuba in 1961 at Bay of Pigs. In January 1962, Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States.In May 1962, USSR leader Nikita Khrushchev secretly built missile installations in Cuba as a means of countering any future American invasion, in exchange for sugar. The discovery, by American president J. F. Kennedy in October 1962, of the Russian missile installations in Cuba was the beginning of the most serious cold war crisis. He declared that any nuclear missile attack from Cuba would be taken to be an attack by the USSR and USA would respond accordingly.USA declared a Naval Quarantine on Cuba to blockade any Russian Vessels This most serious cold war crisis was only ended when the Russian leader Khrushchev removed the missiles from Cuba and dismantled Russias bases in Cuba. **The Cold War in Africa. ** The cold war in Africa was majorly witnessed in Ethiopia and Angola. In Ethiopia, Mengistu Haile Mariam, overthrew Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974, with the assistance of USSR. Haile Mariam introduced socialist programmes, However, they were short-lived up to the end of his rule in May 1991, when Russians withdrew their assistance.In Angola, on 11 [th] November 1975, Angola attained her independence from Portugal, with the assistance of the Soviet Union and Cuba.Soon after, a bruising civil war broke out. USA supported the rebels, led by Jonas Savimbi and his UNITA movement based in Ovimbudu. Cuba and Russia supported the MPLA government based in Luanda. Democratic elections were held in Angola in 1989, when USSR eased their aid to MPLA. **FACTORS that led to the Cold War dtente by world powers. ** a) The death of Stalin and the flexibility of Stalins successor, Nikita Khrushchev. The successor of Joseph Stalin, after his death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev, was more flexible and willing to relax both cold war abroad and Authoritarianism at home. He announced the policy of peaceful coexistence in 1956. ----- 426 ### b) The willingness of David Dwight Eisenhower, Trumans successor, to reach compromise with the Soviet Union over a number of issues. For example he convened the Camp David Summit in 1959, with Khrushchev in which a cooperative spirit emerged between the east and the west. However this happened against the backdrop of the Cuban missile crisis. c) The signing of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (The SALT Treaty) in 1972. The treaty, signed between USA and Russia limited strategic arms to certain quantities. This was followed by the Improvement of the Chinese American relations in 1972 and American relations with Russia. In 1972. President Nixon visited Beijing and Moscow d) The introduction of reforms in Russia by Mikhail Gorbachev. In 1985, Gorbachev introduced the Glasnost (openness policy) and the perestroika reforms (economic restructuring that appealed favourably to the west) which won him the Nobel peace Prize in 1990. e) The adoption of President Reagans Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) in 1983. This initiative led to setting up of space stations that would destroy every missile in the sky. This was Star Wars. f) The collapse of the Communist rule in Europe. Russias president recognized the independence of other republics of USSR in 1989 thus weakening Russias position. Western democracy was introduced in Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and Poland. g) The successful re-unification of Germany under Helmut Kohl in 1990. The nations united to form the republic of Germany. This was a clear indicator of the joint commitment of the superpowers in maintaining their spheres of influence had been weakened. h) The dissolution of the Warsaw Pact. With the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, the Warsaw pact started to fall apart. In November 1990, the Paris Charter was signed, effectively dissolving the Warsaw Pact. i) The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990. Several of its states seceded. Russia officially became an aid receiver instead of an aid donor. j) The signing of the START Treaty in 1991 by Gorbachev and George Bush, after the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks. The treaty officially ended the cold war. Destruction of weapons of mass destruction commenced. **Effects of the cold war ** a. It brought immense divisions and conflict to people of the same continent, region and countries based on pro-west or pro-east ideologies. E.g. in Angola b. Oppressive regimes found their way to power, supported by either the west or the east. c. There was untold suffering to the people. Disease, poverty and refugee camps became common sights. ----- 427 ### d. There was destruction of the economy as infrastructure was destroyed by war. As communist systems failed to produce wealth, unemployment and poverty set in. e. It created mistrust and suspicion amongst nations. f. It led to arms race. It led to militarization of regions and countries. g. It led to political crises and actual war e.g. civil wars in Korea and Vietnam, the Suez Canal crisis of 1956 and the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. h. It threatened international peace and security. Insecurity in the world increased. i. Led to formation of Non-Aligned Movement by third world countries. j. Led to formation of economic alliances and military alliances like NATO (1949) and the Warsaw pact (1955). COMECON (1949) and the European Economic Union (1957. k. The cold war led to development in science and technology. The war Stimulated space science/space race. **Effects of the end of Cold War on Africa. ** a) Some African countries that were formerly socialist are in problems following collapse of USSR in 1990. E.g. Somalia, Ethiopia, Angola and Mozambique. b) The end of the cold war has led to the removal of financial aid and military support for some African countries. Military or food aid is no longer rushed to countries experiencing problems because there is no more superpower competition. E.g failure to prevent the Rwanda genocide and failure to assist in the Somali crisis and the current Al- shabaab crisis. c) There was emergence of new world political and economic order. The end of war has led to emergence of USA as a world policeman over developing nations. The countries must act according to USA wishes or suffer lack of aid and receive harassment from superpowers. d) It has led to marginalization of Africa in international affairs. e) There are conditionalties for getting aid from the western powers. Besides, Africa no longer has a choice of donors who comprise mainly of western world countries. COOPERATION IN AFRICA Cooperation in Africa refers to the way African countries relate to each other. It is stimulated by the economic exploitation and political domination by Western Eu rope. The cooperation has been in form of; a) Pan-African Movement b) Organization of African Unity (African Union) c) The East African Community d) Economic Community of Western African States. e) Common Markets for Eastern and Southern Africa. ----- 428 ### **PAN-AFRICANISM. ** **Meaning of Pan-Africanism. ** Pan means all and Africa refers to the continent. Africanism refers to those of African Origin.Pan-Africanism is a belief in the uniqueness and spiritual Unity of Black people acknowledging their right to self determination.It is a movement aimed at unifying all the people of African descent in the world. It stands for economic, political and social advancement for all peoples of African descent throughout the world. **Origin and Development of pan-Africanism. ** The movement has roots in the trans-Atlantic slave trade that took place between 15 [th] and 19 [th] c. the trade was responsible for the dispersal of black people all over the world. The suffering the slaves underwent made them become conscious of their colour and origin. The Africans viewed themselves as having a common destiny. Even those who remained in Africa were later subjected to the colonial experience including forced labour, land alienation, taxation, poor wages, discrimination corporal punishment rape and murder.The movement first started as the Pan Black Movement for the American and Caribbean black only. Several African Americans wanted to uplift the lives of fellow Africans in USA and in Africa. They included Martin Delaney, Alexander Cromwell, Bishop James Johnson, Wilmot Blyden and Bishop Turner. The leading pan -Africanists in America were Booker T Washington, Marcus Moziah Garvey, Dr. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois and George Padmore.The pioneer African pan-Africanists included Kwegyir Aggrey from Gold Coast, Wilmot Blyden from Liberia, Kwame Nkrumah from Ghana and Leopold Sedar Senghor.The Pan Black Movements enlisted all blacks worldwide. It sometimes was called Pan Negro Movement and was pitted against the evils of racism.Pan Black Movement gave birth to Pan-African Movement, which had its first meeting in London in 1900 attended by 32 delegates, drawn from USA, Africa, Canada, West Indies and Britain.Sylvester Williams, a lawyer from Trinidad, coined the term Pan-Africanism. By 1920, an all-African idea had been developed.The first pan- African congress for Africans was held in Manchester England in 1945, also attended by Jomo Kenyatta. **Causes of pan-Africanism. ** a) The Trans-Atlantic slave trade. It took place between 15 [th] and 18th centuries. Africans who were forced into slavery in America during this period suffered a lot under the white people. The Africans in Diaspora, through humiliation and sadness realized they had a common destiny. b) Colonization of Africa . The division of Africa into 50 colonies separated some communities. It also put together various people of different history and culture. The divide and rule tactics of colonialists brought deep divisions among same communities. The Africans realized later on that there was need to find a common ground to bring about change. ----- 429 ### **c) The need to correct the negative ideas about Africa and Africans held by ** **Europeans. ** The whites held a popular belief that Africans belonged to an inferior race without ability to run their own affairs. d ) Pan-Africanism was a fight against Racism-Africans were despised and ridiculed on the ground of colour and hair texture. e) The evolution of leadership cadre of educated class of Africans- leaders like Kwame Nkrumah, Sedar Senghor, Jomo Kenyatta and Blyden wanted to prove that Africans were a civilized people with a rich history and culture. f) European missionaries had discriminated against the Africans /Africans formed **. ** independent churches contributing to the rise of Pan -Africanism **Objectives of the Pan-African movement ** a) To unite all the peoples of African origin in the struggle for emancipation from social discrimination and colonial rule. b) To challenge the ideology of white supremacy on which European colonization was based. c) To improve the African living conditions in the Diaspora and in the African continent. d) To secure democratic rights for all African peoples e.g. right to vote. Form political associations etc. e) To restore the dignity of the black people and liberate them from the bondage of slavery. f) To create a forum through which protests against European colonization and racial discrimination could be channeled. g) To find better ways of establishing better relations between the Europeans and Africans on the one hand and among Africans on the other hand. h) To appeal to missions and humanitarians to protect Africans against colonial aggression and exploitation as well as land alienation. i) To fight neo-colonialism **LEADING PAN-AFRICANISTS. ** **1. Marcus Garvey (1887-1940) ** He was born on 17 [th] August 1887 in the West Indies island of Jamaica to a family offreed slaves. The fact that Marcus was very dark is what shaped his philosophy of Pan Africanism. While a young man, he witnessed great European and Mullato discrimination on account of his complexion.He arrived in USA in 1916 after widely travelling in south and Central America and Britain. While in England, he was greatly encouraged by Mohammed Duse to lead the peoples of African descent all over the world in the struggle for liberation.He developed the Pan-African philosophy in USA through which he sought to make Africans take pride in their blackness and cultural heritage. He founded the Negro Empire in New York in 1920. He organized a black convention in 1924 in New ----- 430 ### York during which he launched the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) whose HQs were to be at Harlem, New York. UNIA had the following objectives; ~ To create universal fraternity among the Black Race. ~ To assist uplift the civilization of African communities. ~ To establish a central nation for the black race. ~ To establish academies for African children. ~ To promote African cultures. Garvey founded a Journal The Negro World and the African Orthodox Church under a black Patriarch or chief Bishop and a Black Madonna as the symbol of his church. He advocated for the return to Africa by the Africans. To Garvey, freedom was to be gained through economic empowerment of Africans. To this end, he mobilized African Americans to contribute funds to establish black businesses like the Black Starline Shopping Company. The project however collapsed due to mismanagement. He was arrested, tried and convicted of fraud (collecting funds unlawfully) and imprisoned for five years. He was deported to his home country Jamaica after two years in Jail where he died in 1940.He is credited for succeeding in mobilizing Africans to take pride in their cultures and complexion. **2. Booker T. Washington.(1856-1915) ** He was born in 1856 in USA to a poor slave family. He acquired a university degree in Agriculture at Hampton Institute.He is credited for promoting African Education. He started a model institute for training blacks in agricultural and industrial skills (the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama).Unfortunately, Washington adopted a policy of cooperation with the government as a means of winning acceptance by the European community. To him, Africans ought to gain wealth in order to attain equal status with Europeans and end racial discrimination.He began the National Negro Business League with the help of a European Andrew Carnegie.He died in 1915. **3. Dr. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois. ** He was born in great Barrington, Massachusetts, USA on 23 [rd] February 1868. He was the first black to receive a PHD Degree and become a professor of History, Economics and Sociology. He was also a renowned journalist.He greatly disagreed with Booker T. Washingtons policy of accommodation and cooperation. In 1905, he established the Niagara Movement to protest against racial discrimination. In 1900, he was one of the founder members of the National Association for the advancement of Coloured Peoples (NAACP) an association that championed for the struggle for Negroes civil rights in America.He prepared the pan-African conferences that were held between 1900 and 1945 to fight against slavery, colonial exploitation and repression of Af rican peoples. He was the chairman of the Manchester Conference of 1945..In 1961, he relocated to Ghana where he became a citizen, on invitation of Nkrumah. He died in 1963 in Ghana. **THE PAN-AFRICAN CONGRESSES (1900-1945) ** a) The 1 [st] pan-African conference, London, 1900. It was held at the Westminster ----- 431 ### Townhall from 23 [rd] to 25 [th] July with 32 participants from Africa, USA, Canada and West Indies. The conference was sponsored by a Trinidad lawyer Henry Sylvester Williams who coined the term Pan-Africanism. The conference marked the entry of Du Bois into Pan Africanism where he made his famous statement The problem of the 20 [th] c is the problem of colourline. **Objectives of the conference. ** ~ To unite people of African origin in all parts of the world. ~ To appeal for the end of European colonization and exploitation of Africa. ~ To look for ways of establishing better relations between the Caucasian and African races. ~ To initiate a movement for securing the full rights for all Africans in and outside Africa and promote the economic rights. ~ To appeal to missionaries and philanthropists in Britain to protect Africans against aggression by colonizers. **Conference Agenda ** ~ Human Rights Violation against blacks in South Africa. ~ Living conditions of blacks in different parts of the world. ~ Racial discrimination against Africans all over the world. The conference sent a Memorandum to the Queen of England demanding respect for the rights of Black People especially in the British Empire. b) The 2 [nd] Pan-African Conference, Paris, 1919. The conference coincided with the Paris Peace conference. The conference was convened by William Du bois who had been sent to Paris by NAACP to investigate the allegations that African American troops stationed in France during world war I experienced racial discrimination and to represent the interest of the black peoples at the Paris peace conference. The conference made the following recommendations; ~ The need for international laws to protect Black people. ~ African land to be held in trust for Africans. ~ The prevention of exploitation of African nations by foreign companies. ~ The rights of Africans to be educated. ~ That slavery and capital punishment were to be abolished. ~ The right of Africans to participate in their government as fast as their development permitted. c) The 3 [rd] Pan-African Conference 1921. The conference was held in three sessions in London, Brussels and Paris. The London session was attended by 41 Africans, 35 American coloureds, 7 West Indies and 24 Africans living in Europe at that time. It was patronaged by Du Bois. The conference demanded for the establishment of political organizations among the suppressed blacks. It emphasized international and interracial harmony and democracy. d) The 4 [th] mPan-African congress (London and Lisbon 1923.) it reiterated earlier ----- 432 ### resolutions and also demanded that black people be treated like human beings. e) The 5 [th] Pan-African Conference, New York 1927. It was mainly attended by African Americans and was partly sponsored by European Philanthropists. It discussed the attitude of the communists towards pan-Africanism. f) The 6 [th] Pan African conference, Manchester 1945.it coincided with the end of the World War II. It was convened by the Pan African Federation which had been formed in 1944 by 13 organizations representing students welfare and political groupings. Leaders of the federation were George Padmore, Ras Makonnen (Ethiopia). C.L.R Wallace Johnson and Jomo Kenyatta. The conference was greatly inspired by the liberation of Ethiopia in 1941 and Clause three of the Atla ntic Charter (1941) (that USA and British governments would respect the right of all people to choose the form of government under which to live) which Winston Churchill claimed was not applicable to the Africans.The conference was convened on 15 [th] oct. 1945 and was attended by 90 delegates who included Du Bois(West Indies), Nkrumah(Ghana), Kenyatta(kenya), Padmore(Trinidad), peter Abrahams(south Africa), Ras Makonnen(Ethiopia), Magnus Williams representing Azikiwa Nnamdi (Nigeria), Obafemi Owolowo(Nigeria) and Kamuzu Banda (Malawi) and 11 observer nations Du bois chaired the conference while Nkrumah and Padmore were joint secretaries. **Uniqueness of the conference. ** a) The conference was mainly organized by Africans from the continent unlike earlier ones which were organized by the Africans in Diaspora. The only exceptions were W.E.B Du Bois and Padmore. b) Representatives of white philanthropists were absent. Neither did they finance the conference. c) Many African trade unions were represented. These included the trade Unions from Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Ghana and Gambia. Most of West Indies was also represented. **Key Resolution of the Manchester Conference ** a. Africans should concentrate on winning political power through non-violent means e.g strikes and boycotts. b. African intellectuals should play an important role in mobilizing the masses to fight for political liberation. Pursuant to the conference resolutions, Kwame Nkrumah established the West African National Secretariat (WANS) on 15 [th] December 1945 in England to act as a regional body for Pan African Federation, promote unity in West Africa. WANS published a newsletter, The New African, whose main aim was to inspire the youth in Africa to resist imperialism. **Why the 1945 Manchester (Pan-African) Congress was a landmark in the history of ** **Africa. ** a) For the first time leading African representatives in the continent attended e.g. Jomo Kenyatta, Kwame Nkrumah, Kamuzu Banda, Haile Sellasie etc. on coming back, they all adopted radical nationalistic demands for independen ce of their states. ----- 433 ### b) It was the first congress that strongly condemned European colonization of Africa and demanded the autonomy and liberty of African states. c) The congress was instrumental in granting of independence to Ghana in 1957 and to Egypt soon after. d) It set the pace for organization of similar conferences in the African continent like; the 1958 All African Congress and the 1960 Tunis-Pan African Peoples Conference. e) During the conference, the solidarity and unity among Africans began to develop and paved way to the formation of Organization of African Unity. f) It marked the establishment of the movements activities in Africa. Why pan-African movement was not active in Africa before 1945 a) There was lack of adequate African representation in the movement before 1945. Africans in the movement were few and were staying outside Africa as political exiles or students. b) Colonial authorities could not allow Africans to organize a movement that was against their policies. Such movements were outlawed. c) The divide and rule policy used by the Europeans made it impossible for Africans to communicate and cooperate. d) Africans in each colony were mainly concerned with issues that affected them directly e.g. Land alienation, forced labour and taxation. e) The only Countries that were independent (Liberia and Ethiopia) could not champion pan-Africanism since they had their own internal problems and paid little attention to international matters e.g. Ethiopia and Liberia. f) Lack of venue to hold meetings on the African soil since the colonial government would not have allowed such meetings. g) Poor state of transport and communication at the time did not permit fast spread of Pan-Africanism. h) Few people were educated and only a minority in Africa had higher education hence there was widespread illiteracy and ignorance. i) Africans were too poor to contribute to pan-African efforts. **The role of Kwame Nkrumah in Pan-Africanism. ** a) He participated in the 1945 Manchester Conference as the secretary during which he proposed that delegates go back to their countries and spearhead the nationaliststruggle for political independence. b) He established the West African National Secretariat (WANS) in England to coordinated pan African federation activities in West Africa and promote pan Africanism. c) He founded the Convention Peoples Party (CPP) in 1949which led Ghana to Independence in 1957. d) As president of Ghana, Nkrumah inspired many African countries to struggle for political independence, and the black civil rights movement in the USA to fight for their rights. ----- 434 ### e) In 1958, he hosted the first pan-African conference of independent states in Accra which pledged to assist fellow Africans to fight for political independence. f) He funded nationalists in other countries e.g. Ghana and Algeria. g) He supported other African leaders who faced political threats from their former colonial masters. For example he assisted the Guinean leader, Sekou Toure, with Loans following the withdrawal of French support to the country after independence h) He championed trade unionism in Africa as a means of promoting pan-Africanism. During the Manchester conference as a joint secretary with George Padmore, he allowed participation of trade Unions from Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Ghana and Gambia. i) He participated in convening various pan-African conferences that led to the formation of O.A.U, an association of independent African states. NB- it is most probably because of his fight against western domination that Nkrumah was eventually overthrown in 1966 in a military coup that forced him into exile. He died on 27 [th] April 1972 in Bucharest, Romania, where he had gone to seek treatment for cancer. **Reasons why the pan-African movement became active in Africa after 1945. ** a) World War II strengthened nationalism in the continent. The Africans quest for political independence received a boost with support from UNO, USA and USSR. b) The 1945 Pan-African Conference in Manchester, brought many African elites together. They later inspired their colleagues back home to join the movement. c) The attainment of political independence in India in 1947 and Burma (now Myanmar) in 1948 encouraged many nationalists in Africa. d) The slowing down of the pan0africanism activities in America during the cold war period activated the same in Africa. USA tried to control activities of people like Padmore who had links with USSR. e) The attainment of independence by Ghana in 1957 inspired other African nations to focus on the liberation of their respective countries rather than fight for the betterment of fellow Africans outside the continent. **Performance of the Pan-African Movement.. ** **Achievements of Pan-Africanism. ** a) The movement created political awareness among people of African origin and a sense of deep concern for suffering of blacks all over the world. b) It put in place Steps towards the restoration of status and dignity to the African people, which had been eroded by slave trade, colonialism and racism. c) The movement provided an important forum where the people of African origin could discuss their problems. It promoted brotherhood among Africans. d) The movement led to the Development of the spirit of solidarity among the African people when dealing with issues that concern the continent. ----- 435 ### e) It laid the basis for the Formation of OAU, which later became the African Union f) The movement enabled African leaders to be more committed to African issues. For example the black caucus in the USA played an important role in pressurizing the US congress to take drastic measures against the Apartheid regime in South Africa. g) The movement laid the foundation for the interest in research on African culture, history, literature, music, religion, medicine, art, etc. this empowered Africans by enabling them to understand the status quo. h) The movement played an important role in the advancement of African nationalism by encouraging peoples of African origin to take pride in their ancestry and demand their rights. i) The movement condemned Mussolinis attempt to colonize Ethiopia in 1935 by organizing protests in major towns like New York, London, Brussels and Paris. **Challenges encountered by the pan African movement. ** a) Many European groups fought the activities of the pan Africanists. The fact that Marcus Garvey was arrested, tried and convicted of fraud (collecting funds unlawfully) and imprisoned for five years is a clear manifestation of this. b) It was difficult for the Africans to participate in African affairs since majority of Africans were still under colonialism. c) Due to lack of economic empowerment and lack of education, many of the pan African projects did not succeed. The Marcus Garvey project for instance collapsed due to mismanagement. d) Illiteracy and ignorance amongst some people of African origin hindered them from offering constructive support. e) The movement was restricted to the African continent after independence in 1960s. ***The absence of African-Americans in the continents affairs dealt a big to its progress. *** f) Division among Africans after independence e.g. Radical and the conservative leaders and between the francophone and the Anglophone countries. g) The European powers domination of the international media was used to water down the importance of pan-Africans by spreading negative propaganda. h) Some of the pan-African leaders could not agree on the best strategy of uplifting the welfare of the African origin peoples. i) The deep economic connection between colonies and the mother countries hindered any meaningful cooperation. j) Lack of venues to hold conferences in Africa especially before 1957 meant that the movement could not take root in Africa quickly. The far-away venues were inconveniencing. The Pan-African movement activities after 1950. Despite the challenges mentioned, the movement was still active in Africa after 1950 as manifested in the political developments that took place in the 1950s and 1960s. ----- 436 ### **The following conferences were convened during that period. ** 1) The 1 [st] Conference of Independent African States, Accra, Ghana April 1958. In attendance were the eight independent African states of Ghana, Egypt, Morocco, Ethiopia, Liberia, Tunisia Sudan and Libya. the delegates pledged to assist fellow African countries who were fighting for political independence.. 2) The All-African Peoples conference, (Accra De. 1958) the conference was attended by freedom fighters and trade unionists from all over Africa. It was chaired by Tom Mboya of Kenya The conferences main resolution was to use all means to acquire political independence and to encourage unity between the African leaders. 3) The All-African Peoples Conference, Tunis, January 1960. It strengthened the desire for unity among African states. 4) The 2 [nd] Conference of Independent African States, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, June 1960. The conference was the forerunner to the formation of a continental Body, OAU. The conference exposed sharp division among African states over the situation in Congo, where Patrice Lumumba was facing problems with his former colonial masters. 5) The Brazzaville Conference December 1960 Attended exclusively by the 12 francophone conservative African states, the conference emphasized the need to respect international Frontiers and noninterference in the internal affairs of any African state. They promised political support for Mauritania in her boundary disputes with morocco. 6) The Casablanca conference, January 1961. It was a reaction to the resolutions of the Brazzaville conference by the radicals who supported Morocco in her dispute with Mauritania. They advocated for the removal of foreign troops in Congo. 7) The Monrovia conference, May 1961. It attracted both moderates and conservatives and aimed at uniting the antagonistic groups. The conference emphasized the absolute equality of all states. The conference succeeded in uniting the hostile groups through the undertaking of two crucial events; ~ The Algerian Referendum of 1961, which passed that the Algerians wanted political independence from France. ~ The situation in Congo stabilized after 1961. **ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (OAU) ** **What was the OAU? ** It was an association of independent African states that existed between 1963 and 2002, when it was renamed the African Union (AU) **Origin and development of OAU. ** It was formed as a climax of a series of pan- Africanism congresses up to 1963. In January 1961, several African independent states, i.e. Egypt, Ghana, morocco, Libya and Algeria, met in Casablanca and pledged to help Patrice Lumumba of Congo against ----- 437 ### the secessionist Tsombe. In May 1961, another group of African states, i.e. Liberia, Tunisia and Togo met in Monrovia and agreed to work in unity to solve the Congo crisis. In august 1961, a bigger group made up of former French colonies met in Brazzaville to find a solution to the Congo crisis.In 1963, the regional groupings compromised and joined with others to form one organization. In May 1963, foreign ministers of 32 independent African states met in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, to prepare the agenda for the heads of state meeting.The heads of states met under chair of Emperor Haile Selassie and gave birth to OAU, with Selassie as its first chairperson. Its membership grew from 32 at the time of its inception to 54 ***NB; when the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic was admitted to the OAU in 1984, *** ***Morocco withdrew since she claimed that SADR was part of her territory. *** **The Charter of OAU. ** **Objectives of the OAU. ** a) To provide African countries it a permanent organization through which they could discuss issues affecting them and lay strategies for solving them. b) To provide identity for the newly independent countries of Africa in a world dominated and controlled by the white race. c) To co-ordinate and assist in the speedy decolonization of the rest of Africa. d) To improve the living standards and conditions of African people as a group and as individual states. e) To help in the Defence of the independence of African states and maintenance of the sovereignty of these countries. f) To promote cooperation among the African states in economic, social and political fields so as to improve living standards. g) To promote and enhance African solidarity and unity. h) To support world, peace organizations like the UN and the Non-Aligned Movement. i) To promote peaceful settlement of disputes. j) To promote non-interference in the internal matters of member states. **The fundamental principles of OAU as outlined in the charter. ** a) Recognition of the sovereign equality of member states. b) Non-interference in the internal affairs of member countries. c) Respect for the sovereign and territorial integrity of each country and its inalienable right to independent existence. d) Peaceful settlement of disputes. e) Condemnation of political assassination or any form of subversion by one country in another member country. f) Dedication to the emancipation of territories under colonial rule. g) Adherence to the principle of non-alignment. ----- 438 ### **The structure of the former OAU. ** The OAU charter borrowed heavily from that of the United Nations Organization. The only difference is that no member of OAU enjoys veto powers. All members have equal privileges and vote. The charter outlined the structure of OAU as follows;The Assembly of Heads of State and Government. This was the supreme organ of OAU meeting once a year to discuss specific urgent matters and electing a chairperson every year. A two-third majority vote was used to decide critical issues.The Council of Ministers. It was made up of all foreign ministers of OAU member states and met twice a year to prepare agenda for the meeting of heads of state and government. It implemented decisions passed by heads and prepared the OAU budget.The General Secretariat. Headed by the secretary general elected by the Assembly of Heads of state, it offered the administrative services to the organization on daily basis. The past secretaries were Kifle Wodajo of Ethiopia (1963- 1964), Diallo Telli Boubaker of Guinea (1964-1972), Nzo Ekangaki of Cameroon (1972- 1974), Eteki Mboumoua of Cameroon (1974-1978), Edem Kodjo of Togo (1978-1983), Peter Onu of Nigeria (1983-1985), Ide Oumarou of Niger(1985-1989). The last was Salim Ahmed Salim from Tanzania.The Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration. It was charged with the task of settling disputes involving members. It had membership of 21 states and served for a term of five years.Specialized Agencies. The OAU also comprised specialized agencies and committees that handled the technical business of the organization. E.g. the OAU Liberation Committee-to co-ordinate activities of liberation movements. The Economic and Social Commission, the Commission on Education, Science and Culture, the Defence Commission, the Supreme Council of Sports Etc. **Achievements of OAU. ** a) It offered solution to border disputes between member states like Kenya vs. Somalia, Ethiopia vs. Somalia, Libya vs. Chad, morocco vs. Algeria, Chad vs. Nigeria and the Rwanda Burundi conflict. b) The OAU achieved total liberation of African countries, with South Africa being the last one. It offered military support to the nationalistic struggles in Mozambique, Angola, Rhodesia, Namibia and South Africa. c) It condemned human rights violation in countries like Namibia and South Africa. It encouraged economic sanctions against the apartheid regime of South Africa. d) Through the OAU, African governments were able to speak with one voice on matters affecting Africa and they even attempted to formulate a common foreign policy. e) It provided a forum for discussing Africas common problems like desertific ation, foreign interference, and dependency and at the same time sought for solutions to the problems. f) The organization embarked on common economic ventures for Africa. For example creation of the African Development Bank (ADB) which represented the collective ----- 439 ### contribution by all Africans towards emancipation of Africans from economic backwardness. g) It encouraged construction of roads and railways to link different regions. E.g. Tanzam, the Great North Road and the Trans-African Highway. This improved economic co-operation between member states. h) It created a cultural identity for African countries sports and the All -African Games, which provided Africans with the opportunity to meet and socialize. i) Through its refugee agency, it addressed itself to the refugee problem in the continent. E.g. refugees from countries like Rwanda, Burundi, Chad, Gambia, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia have been assisted. j) It was instrumental in the formation of regional organizations like ECOWAS, SADDC and COMESA. **Problems that faced OAU during its operation. ** a) Differences in economic development levels and in history of member states militated against co-operation. b) Ideological differences among member states, especially during the Cold war period, hampered the operations of the OAU. c) It lacked sufficient funds to carry out its work efficiently. The members were poor given that all of them were third world countries. d) The problem of sovereignty. Many countries disregarded the OAU resolutions in favour of their sovereignty and national interests. e) It lacked an effective machinery to effect its decisions. It also lacked a standing army to implement and effect its resolutions hence the term Toothless Bulldog coined by Gadaffi to refer to it. f) Loyalty to other organizations. OAU members also belonged to other organizations like ECOWAS, COMESA, The Arab League etc; the interests of these organizations were not always in accord with those of the OAU. g) The colonial legacy. Many problems arising from past colonial policies have rocked the organization. E.g. The land issue in Zimbabwe. There is also the problem of NeoColonialism in trade. h) Interference by the big powers. This has caused dismay to the organization. i) Emergence of dictators like Amin Dada of Uganda, Bakassa Jean Bedel of Central African Republic, And Mobutu of Congo. j) Civil strife in various countries remained unresolved for a long time. E.g in Sudan, Rwanda, Ethiopia, Nigeria. This made cooperation difficult. **THE AFRICAN UNION ** **Origin of the African Union. ** On 9 [th] September 1999, the Heads of State and Government met in Libya and made the Sirte Declaration calling for the establishment of an African Union and a pan-African ----- 440 ### parliament.On 29 [th] may 2000, the document for the formation of African Union and Pan- African Parliament was adopted by the joint sitting of legal experts and parliamentarians. On 2 [nd] June 2000, heads of state and government meeting in Lome, Togo adopted the Constitutive Act of the African Union drafted by the council of ministers. The AU was born in 2002, at a Summit held in Durban, South Africa, where the first Assembly of Heads of State of African Union was convened. **Differences between the former Organization of African Unity and the present ** **African Union. ** a) Unlike the O.A.U, the A.U challenges the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of member states. It allows for intervention whenever a member state experiences conflict or widespread human rights violation. b) O.A.U was like an Association of African Heads of State, but A.U is like a Union of African Peoples. Increased participation of all African people is manifested in the proposed Pan-African Parliament and an economic, social and cultural council. c) Unlike the O.A.U the African Union has an accountability mechanism. An African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) has been developed as a means through which countries can be held accountable on matters of security, development, stability and cooperation. d) Unlike the O.A.U, the A.U has a broader development plan for Africa e.g. through the New Partnership for Africas Development-NEPAD whose main objectives include to promote accelerated growth and sustainable development, to eradicate the widespread poverty in the continent and to halt the marginalization of Africa in the globalization process. e) Unlike OAU, AU presupposes the establishment of a security council and the African Court of Justice with law enforcement powers(A standing military) **The AU Charter. ** **Objectives of AU. ** a) To accelerate the political, social and economic integration of the continent. b) To promote and defend the African common positions on issues of interest. c) To defend the independence and territorial integrity of African states and maintain the sovereignty of these countries. d) To promote democratic principles and institutions, popular participation and good governance. e) To establish the necessary conditions which enable the continent to play its rightful role in the global economy and in international negotiations. f) To promote cooperation among the African states in economic, social and political fields so as to improve living standards. g) To achieve and enhance greater African solidarity and unity. h) To promote peace, security and stability in the continent through peaceful settlement of disputes. ----- 441 ### i) To advance the development of the continent by promoting research in all fields, particularly in science and technology. j) To encourage international cooperation, taking into account the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. k) To work with relevant international partners in the eradication of preventable diseases and promotion o good health on the continent. **The structure of African Union ** The AU charter outlined the structure of AU as follows; 1. The Assembly . This is the supreme organ of AU meeting once a year to elect a chairperson and determine the common policies of the union, consider requests for admission, monitor implementation of policies and decisions, appoint and terminate the judges of the court of Justice among other functions.(students to make additions) Decisions are either by consensus or by two-thirds majority vote. 2. The Executive Council. It is made up of Foreign Ministers or the authorities designated by the member states. Its core function is to co-ordinate union policies ion areas of common interest like foreign trade, ener gy, industry, water resources and environmental protection. Such functions can be delegated to specialized technical committees. 3. The Commission/Secretariat . Comprises a chairperson, deputy chairperson and eight commissioners and staff members. It deals with the administrative issues and implements decisions of the Union. 4. The Permanent Representatives Committee . It comprises the Ambassadors to the AU. Its main responsibility to prepare for the executive council and run the association daily. It seats permanently in Addis Ababa. 5. Specialized committees and Agencies. The AU also comprised specialized agencies and committees that handled the technical business of the organization. E.g the Committee on Rural Economy and Agricultural Matters, the Committee on Monetary and Financial Affairs, the Committee on Trade, Customs and Immigrations Matters, the Committee on Transport and Communication, the Committee on Education, Human Resource and Culture, the Committee on Health, Labour, and Social Affairs. 6. The economic and social council. It performs advisory functions 7. Specialized technical committees. E.g the Committee on Rural Economy and Agricultural matters, the Committee on Trade, Customs and Immigration Matters, The Committee on Industry, Science and Technology, the Committee on Transport, Communication and Tourism, the Committee on Health, Labour and Social Affairs, the Committee on Education, Culture and Human Resources. **They perform the following roles; ** a) Prepare projects and programmes of the Union and submit them to the executive council. b) Ensure supervision, follow-up and evaluation of the implementation of ----- 442 ### decisions taken by the organs of the Union. c) Ensure co-ordination and harmonization of projects and programmes of the Union. d) Submit to the Executive council, their reports and recommendations on implementation of the African Unions Act. ***8. Other proposed structures though not yet in place are; *** ~ The peace and Security Council to comprise 15 members to monitor and intervene in conflicts. ~ The Pan-African Parliament responsible for ensuring civil society participation in AU matters. ~ The Court of Justice to deal with human rights abuses in Africa. ~ Financial Institutions like The African Central Bank, the African Monetary Fund and the African Investment Bank. **THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY ** Founded on 6 [th] June 1967, it comprises Kenya Uganda and Tanzania. **Origin of the East African Community. ** Its origin can be traced back to 1902- the efforts of the British and German colonial governments to establish a unified administration over the East African territories.For example, the East African Court of Appeal was established in 1902, The East African Postal Union in 1911, East African Customs Union in 1917, East African Currency Board in 1920 And East African High Commission in 1948.On 9 [th] December 1961, the East African High Commission was replaced with the East African Common Services Organization with the headquarters in Nairobi.The treaty to establish the East African Community was signed on 6 [th] June 1967. The organization came into force on 1 [st] December 1967. **Objectives of the East African Community. ** a) To maintain a common markets for the member states and promote balanced economic cooperation. b) To provide common services to the three member states especially in the areas of transport and communication. c) To promote political co-operation between the three countries and hence peace and security. d) To facilitate the movement of the people within the region to foster greater cooperation and understanding among them. e) To expand the market in a region where population and incomes are low. **Challenges that faced the East African Community up to 1977. ** a) Suspicion over perceived dominance among members. Tanzania and Uganda accused Kenya of acquiring the lions share of benefits from the community. Kenyan industries for example were protected more by the common external tariffs. ----- 443 ### b) Personality differences. This was between individual leaders of the three countries, making it more difficult for them to hold meetings. c) Ideological differences. Each of the three countries pursued different economies. Kenya followed capitalism and Tanzania socialism. Uganda had a mixed economy. d) Political instability in Uganda. The coup dtat, which overthrew Milton Obote, undermined the unity that was desired for the organization. Nyerere for example refused to recognize Amin as the president of Uganda. e) National pride and interests. National interests were given more priority than the regional interests were. E.g Tanzania favoured railway transport while Kenya favoured road transport. f) Boundary closures .Tanzania closed its common border with Kenya in 1977, thereby halting the community activities. There was also boundary closure between Tanzania and Uganda during the war between the two in 1978. g) Financial constraints resulting from failure by member states to remit funds to meet the organizations needs. h) The use of different currencies by the three nations made transaction difficult. **The Rebirth of the East African Community-2001 ** **Reasons that led to the rebirth of the East African Community in 1996. ** a) There was need to maintain a common market for the member states in order to promote balanced economic cooperation. b) There was increasing need to provide common services to the three Member states especially in the areas of transport and communication as well as research. c) There was a strong desire to promote political cooperation between the three countries in a world that was becoming a global village. d) There was need to facilitate free movement of people in the region. e) A greater lesson had been learnt following the great losses and costs incurred by the East African countries following the collapse of the Community in 1977. **Milestones in the Formation of the East African Community-2001. ** a) The full East African cooperation was started on March 14, 1996, when the Secretariat of the Permanent Tripartite Commission was launched at the headquarters of EAC in Arusha, Tanzania. Ambassador Francis Muthaura was appointed the first secretary general. b) On 19 [th] November 1996, the agreement for the establishment of the East African Business Council was signed in Nairobi. f) On 29 [th] April 1997, the second summit of heads of state was held in Arusha. It launched the first East African Cooperation development strategy (1997 -2000). g) On 30 [th] April 1998, the ninth meeting of the Permanent Tripartite Commission in Arusha launched the treaty for the establishment of the East African Community. h) On 24 [th] November 1998, the first East African Ministerial meeting on the Lake Victoria hyacinth was held in Arusha. A regional strategy was developed for control ----- 444 ### of the lake hyacinth. i) On 22 [nd] January 1999, the third summit met in Arusha and directed the Permanent Tripartite Commission to complete the treaty making process by 30 [th] July 1999. j) The treaty establishing the East African Community-2001 was signed on 30 [th] November 1999 in Arusha by the three heads of state. **The structure of the New East African Community. ** In the november30, 1999 treaty, the following organs were established to coordinate the activities and the direction of the community. 1. The Summit of Heads of State. It had the responsibility of giving direction towards realization of the goals and objectives of the community. It was the communitys supreme organ, consisting of the three heads of state with the chair being rotational. 2. The Council of Ministers. The main decision making organ of the heads of governments of the member states. It comprised the designated ministers from member states. 3. The Coordinating Committee. Made up of permanent secretaries. It reports to the council of ministers. It coordinates the activities of the sectoral committees. 4. The Sectoral Committees. These are committees created by the council on recommendation of the respective coordinating committee. 5. The East African Legislative Assembly. It provides a democratic forum for debate. It is also a watchdog of the activities of the community. It is a 30 -member assembly whose members are drawn from the member state. 6. The Secretariat. Based in Arusha, it carried out the day-to-day administrative duties of the community. 7. The Court of justice of East Africa. This was the highest appellate court in the region. **Other autonomous institutions established by the Council include; ** ~ The East African Development Bank (EADB). ~ Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization (LVFO) ~ Inter-University Council for East Africa (IUCEA) **Challenges that have faced the EAC-2001. ** a) Suspicion still exists over perceived dominance of Kenya in the community affairs. b) Despite signing the treaty in 1999, Tanzania customs are still taxing Kenyan products. c) Increased cross-border smuggling. The freedom of movement within the region sometimes results in smuggling of illegal arms and spread of crime and insecurity. E.g. the smuggling of a vehicle belonging to Kenyas Chief of Staff, General Joseph Kibwana to Tanzania in 2004. d) Cattle rustling across the borders. This is common on the Kenya Uganda border with the Pokot and Karamojong attacking each other e) Arrest of Kenyan fishermen on Lake Victoria by either Tanzania or Ugandan ----- 445 ### policemen/navy accusing them of fishing in their waters. f) Membership to other regional bodies e.g. COMESA, SADDC. This complicates the work of the EAC. g) The recent wrangles between Kenya and Uganda over ownership of Migingo Island. Although this problem was resolved by Uganda conceding Kenyas ownership of the Island, it raised tension between the two countries. h) The use of different currencies by the three nations has made transaction difficult. i) Political squabbles in the individual countries slow down the progress of the community j) Individual national interests have slowed down the implementation of the activities of the community the deep-seated differences between the member states over the proposed taxes on imports from countries outside the region. **Achievements of the East African Community-2001. ** a) It has boosted movement of citizens within the three member states of East Africa. An East African passport has been introduced. b) It has provided a forum for the East African Leaders to discuss issues harmoniously. c) It has facilitated the improvement and expansion of transport and communication networks between the three East African countries. d) Tariffs for industrial goods produced in East Africa have been reduced. e) Investment procedures have been eased to enable all citizens to invest more easily within the community. f) It has enhanced cooperation of the civil society leading to formation of the Law Society of East Africa and the Business Council of East Africa. g) The community has promoted trade among member states by encouraging citizensto conduct trade in all the countries. **THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES. ** **Formation of ECOWAS. ** This is a regional group comprising of 15 West African countries.The treaty establishing ECOWAS was signed in Lagos, Nigeria on 28thmay 1975 by Gambia, Mali, Cape Verde, Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin, Togo, Cote dIvoire, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Senegal, Guinea Bissau, Nigeria and Guinea. **Objectives of ECOWAS. ** a) To provide economic co-operation among West African states in specialized fields such as transport, communication, agriculture, trade industry etc. b) To liberalize trade between member states. c) To improve relations between the member states. d) To improve living standards of people in the member states. e) To create a customs union in the region. f) To promote industrial development among member states. g) To promote cultural interaction among the member states. ----- 446 ### **Organization of ECOWAS. ** The following are organs that were established to coordinate the activities and the direction of ECOWAS. 1. The Authority of Heads of State and government. The authority meets once a year, with the chair being rotational. 2. The Council of Ministers. It comprises the designated ministers from member states. It meets twice a year. It manages the affairs of the community. 3. The Tribunal. Acting as the industrial court, it was established for settling disputes arising from the community. 4. The Executive Secretariat. Based in Lagos, Nigeria, it carries out the day-to-day administrative duties of the community. 5. Specialized commissions and Agencies. E.g the Committee on industry, natural resources and Agricultural Matters, the Committee on Trade, Customs and Immigrations Matters, the Committee on Transport and Communication, the Committee on Culture and Social Affairs. **Achievements of ECOWAS. ** a) The defence Act adopted by ECOWAS in 1981 provided military support to any Member state attacked by outsiders. Their defence force known as ECOMOG was instrumental in quelling civil wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone. b) Economically, Member states benefit from ECOWAS. For example, Nigeria provides her oil to member states at a reduced price. c) The community has enabled regular meeting of the Heads of State to tackle problems facing the region. d) Socio-cultural exchanges within the West African region have promoted good relations among the people. e) Improvement has been realized in transport, trade, agriculture and communication. f) The organization has resolved political problems facing member states. g) ECOWAS has enabled citizens of member states to move freely from one country to another through waiver of visa requirements. h) There has been progress in education through the establishment of a Joint examination Syllabus for West African States. Challenges that ECOWAS has faced in its operation. a) Political instability in member states. Countries like Nigeria and Ghana have witnessed Military coups. Civil wars have been fought in Sierra Leone, Liberia and Ivory Coast. These have been a hindrance to cooperation. b) Nationalistic issues. Most member states give priority to their own domestic issues at the expense of the organization. c) Language barrier. Countries in West Africa inherited the languages of their former colonial masters. The problem in communication has hindered the efficient operation of the organization. ----- 447 ### d) Infrastructural problems. The state of roads, railway and communication linkages are poor. This has hampered economic progress of member states. e) Ideological differences. The leaders of the member states view each other with suspicion and mistrust due to differences in ideologies. f) Lack of uniform currency. Each country has its own currency. This creates a problem of rates of exchange thus hindering trade. g) Foreign interference. The presence of Israeli and French soldiers in Cote DIvoire was viewed suspiciously by guinea. h) Border closures. For example between Ghana and Togo and between Burkina Faso and Mali. **THE COMMON MARKETS FOR EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA ** It is an economic organization comprising 19 states and which was established on 8 [th] December 1994 to replace the Preferential Trade Area. **Aims and objectives of COMESA. ** a) To attain sustainable growth and development of the member states by promoting a more balanced and harmonious development of its production and marketing. b) To promote cooperation in all fields of economic activity and joint adoption of macro-economic policies and programmes. c) To cooperate in the promotion of peace, security and stability among member states in order to enhance economic development in the region. d) To cooperate in the creation of an enabling environment for foreign, cross-border and domestic investment. e) To cooperate in strengthening the relations between the common market and the rest of the world. f) To contribute towards the establishment, progress and realization of the objectives of the African Economic Community. **Principles that govern the operation of COMESA. ** a) Equality and interdependence of member states. b) Solidarity and collective self-reliance among member states. c) Inter-state cooperation, harmonization of policies and integration of programmes. d) Non-aggression. e) Recognition, promotion and protection of human and peoples rights in accordance with the provisions of the African Charter on human and peoples rights. f) Accountability, economic justice and popular participation in development. g) The recognition and observance of the rule of law. h) The promotion and sustenance of a democratic system of governance in each member state. i) The maintenance of regional peace and stability through the promotion and strengthening of good neighbourliness. j) The peaceful settlement of disputes among member states and active cooperation ----- 448 ### between neighbouring countries **Organization of COMESA. ** COMESA is made up of the following organs; 1. The Authority of Heads of State and government. It is the supreme-policy making organ of COMESA. The authority meets once a year, but may hold an extra-ordinary meeting on request of any member of the authority. 2. The Council of Ministers. It comprises the designated ministers from member states. It meets once a year. It manages the affairs of the community. It monitors and ensures the proper functioning and development of COMESA. 3. The Court of Justice. It ensures proper interpretation and application of the provisions of the treaty. it was established for settling disputes arising from the community. E.g between Kenya and Egypt over export of cement in 2004 4. The committee of Governors of Central Banks. Governors of banks of member states form a committee to manage COMESA clearing house and ensure implementation of the monetary and financial co -operation programmes. 5. The Inter-Governmental Committee. A committee of permanent secretaries from member states which develops and manages programmes and action plans in all areas of cooperation except in the financial sector. 6. The Secretariat. Based in Lusaka, Zambia, it provides technical support and advisory services to the member states and coordinates the activities of COMESA. The current secretary general is Erastus Mwencha since 1997 7. The Technical Committees. E.g the Committee on natural resources and Environment, the Committee on Agricultural Matters, the Committee on Trade, Customs and Immigrations Matters, the Committee on Transport and Communication, the Committee on Labour, Culture and Social Affairs. 8. The consultative committee. This comprises the business community and other stakeholders. It provides a link between the business community and other COMESA stakeholders, monitors implementation of the necessary provisions of the treaty, consults and receives reports from other interested groups and Participates in the technical committees and makes recommendation. 9. Specialized independent institutions. The Eastern and Southern African Trade and Development Bank (PTA Bank) based in Nairobi, Kenya, the PTA reinsurance company, Nairobi, Kenya, The COMESA clearing house, Harare, Zimbabwe, COMESA association of Commercial Banks, Harare, Zimbabwe, COMESA leather institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. **Achievements of COMESA. ** a) It provides its members a wide, harmonized and more competitive market for internal and external trading. b) It provides member states with a rational way of exploiting natural resources for their welfare. ----- 449 ### c) COMESA has established harmonized monetary, banking and financial policies in the region. d) It has improved the administration of transport and communicat ion to ease movement of goods, services and people. e) It has ensured cooperation in the promotion of peace, security and stability among member states in order to enhance economic development in the region. f) COMESA has strengthened relations between the Common Market and the rest of the world while ensuring that the members adopt a common position in international fora. g) Through the Authority of Heads of State and Government, COMESA directs and controls the affairs of the common market. h) Customs cooperation has been achieved through a unified computerized customs network that operates across the region. The harmonization of macro-economic and monetary policies throughout the region has been achieved. i) It has provided room for greater industrial productivity and competitiveness due to its large market. j) It has encouraged member states to practice good governance, accountability and respect for human rights. Burundi and Rwanda were subjected to these demands before they were admitted to COMESA. k) It has contributed to employment of many people in the region. l) COMESA has promoted increased agricultural production and exploitation of natural resources. m) The organization has ensured a more efficient and reliable transport and communication infrastructure. **Challenges that face COMESA in its operations. ** a) Membership to other bodies. Members of COMESA are also members of EAC and SADC. This leads to divided loyalty. b) Personality differences. For example, presidents Museveni of Uganda and El Bashir of Sudan were involved in disagreements in 2004 over rebel activities. c) Boundary conflicts. This has been witnessed between Ethiopia and Eritrea. d) Civil wars. Wars have been witnessed in DRC, Uganda, Sudan, Rwanda and Burundi. Such inevitable wars undermine the operations of the common markets. e) Constant quarrels among member states over trading rights. For example Kenya and Egypt quarreled over duty-free cement dumped in Kenya by Egypt, on which Kenya wanted to charge duty. f) Poor transport between member states. This hampers movement of goods in the region. g) Pulling out of Tanzania and Namibia. The two founder members have opted for the South African Development Cooperation (SADC). This has undermined COMESA. ----- 450 ### h) Some members undermine their neighbours. For example Uganda and Rwanda have been accused of participating in the civil wars in the DRC. **Reasons why Africa has been unable to achieve full economic integration. ** a) The problem of poor transport and communication has impeded flow of trade. This has affected all previous and existing economic groupings. b) There is uneven distribution of resources in Africa. Some countries are endowed with strategic natural resources like oil and fertile soils while others are impoverished with no resources. This hinders integration. c) All member states of economic co-operations suffer from budgetary deficit and balance of payment problems. They therefore lack adequate foreign exchange required for international trade. d) There is constant political interference by unenlightened leaders e) There has been rivalry among member states of trading co-operations. f) Africa has had a poor share from world trade as prices on world market are dictated by industrialized countries. g) The advent of multi-partism after the end of the cold war and the subsequent introduction of Structural Adjustment Programmes has crippled the performance of economic integration in Africa. h) Inability of member states to interfere in the internal affairs of other states even where there is need. i) Failure by member states to contribute fully to the organizations. j) The colonial legacy. Many member states still depend heavily on the West for manufactured goods, machinery, technology, donations and ideas. **NATIONAL PHILOSPHIES (KENYA) ** **AFRICAN SOCIALISM ** **Meaning and origin of African Socialism. ** The Sessional paper No.10 of 1965 defines African socialism as an African political, economic system that is positively African, and capable of incorporating useful and compatible techniques from whatever source. African socialism was born out of the desire by our leaders to create a new society, different from the colonial society and which embraced equity devoid of racism, oppression and other social injustices. Main features that characterized African socialism in Kenya. a) Political Democracy where all people are politically free and equal b) Various forms of ownership of wealth. E.g. free enterprise allowing private ownership of property, nationalization policy for key industries, partnership with private sector c) Mutual social responsibility. That the spirit of service and not greed for personal gain motivate Kenyans. d) A range of control to ensure that property is used in mutual interests of society and its members. ----- 451 ### e) Progressive taxation to ensure an equitable distribution of wealth and income. f) Diffusion of ownership to avoid concentration of economic power on a few people in the society. **Achievements of African socialism as a National Philosophy. ** a) It has led to promotion of democratic process in governance. Multi-partism has been established in Kenya due to African socialism policies. Kenya has also witnessed the growth of the civil society. b) Since the philosophy is built on African traditions, it has promoted African cultures Kenya pursued African values consistent with her traditions. c) The philosophy has promoted national unity and coexistence among Kenyan communities. d) There has been a greater effort to achieve fairness and justice through progressive taxation and a range of other controls. The government has tried to achieve fair distribution of resources through the activities of the District Focus for Rural Development. e) The philosophy led to establishment of cooperative societies in Kenya. This has promoted social and economic development in Kenya. f) African socialism has promoted agricultural development through the land tenure system that was undertaken to ensure settlement of the landless in settlement schemes like Bura. g) Social development in education and health has been achieved. Discrimination in schools, hospitals and residential areas stopped. Uniform systems were adopted. h) The philosophy gave Africans the right to participate in their economy. This was through the policy of Africanization in which industrial enterprises hitherto owned by Asians and Europeans, changed ownership. i) African socialism has encouraged rapid development in Kenya. The policy of mutual social responsibility through self-help promotes a sense of patriotism and service to the nation as Kenyans work together to build the nation. **Problems that faced African socialism. ** a) Progressive taxation has put an additional burden of taxation on the poor thus discouraging development. b) Political interference in public projects and wrangles among leaders retards development. c) The spirit of unity and co-operation and self-help has been discouraged by misappropriation of funds. d) Corruption leads to negative attitude from people towards contributing to national development. **HARAMBEE PHILOSOPHY ** Meaning and origin of Harambee philosophy. ----- 452 ### Harambee is a Kiswahili slogan, which means pulling together or working together. It was a development strategy in which, people supplemented government efforts through voluntary contribution.Mzee Jomo Kenyatta made it a national Motto in 1963 when he aptly advanced it as unity in all causes of national integrity and human progress. The Harambee spirit embodies ideals of assistance, joint effort, mutual social responsibility and community self-reliance. **Harambee projects are categorized as; ** 1. Social Projects. Educational institutions and facilities, medical centres, recreational facilities and religious institutions. 2. Economic projects. Construction of rural access roads, bridges and culverts, agricultural and livestock activities. **Principles that guide the Harambee spirit. ** a) It is a development strategy that is aimed at mobilizing the people at local level to participate in their development b) Participation is guided by the principles of collective good as opposed to individual gain. Harambee efforts should be directed towards community projects rather than individual projects. c) The choice of project is supposed to be guided by the felt needs of the majority. Participants should be involved in decision making. d) In the implementation of projects, there should be maximum utilization of the local resources such as labour, materials and money. **Contribution of Harambee movement to the development of Kenya. ** a) Harambee movement has led to development of education in Kenya through Harambee fundraising to construct schools and colleges. b) Funds have been collected through Harambee to improve infrastructural facilities such as roads, rural electrification and provision of water. c) Collective participation in development programmes by people from different groups has promoted national unity. d) It has helped inculcate hard work in the people of Kenya. This has in turn encouraged various ethnic groups to develop their respective areas. e) Harambee projects especially in rural areas have attracted foreign donors especially the NGOS f) Has led to re-distribution of resources as people with more funds have participated in the development projects in the less developed areas. g) Funds have been raised through Harambee to help the less fortunate members of the society. For example, President Moi 8 [th] April 1989 held a Mammoth Rally where KSH 70Million was raised to help the disabled. h) Harambee movement has promoted agricultural development e.g., through construction of cattle dips and purchase of farms through Harambee. ----- 453 ### i) Funds raised through Harambee have been used to purchase buses and Matatus to provide transport. Ways in which the Harambee philosophy has promoted the development of education in Kenya. a) Many education institutions have been constructed using funds raised through Harambee effort. Thus enabling many children to attend school. b) Many students have been assisted to pay school fees/thus it enables the needy to go on learning. c) Physical facilities have been constructed/improved through Harambee. This enables learning in a conducive environment. d) Teaching/learning materials have been purchased/ donated to schools to improve the quality of education. e) Additional staff/workers in schools have been paid through Harambee contributions by the parents to offset inadequacy. f) Through Harambee spirit, well-wishers, thus helping the learners to exploit their talents, have supported co-curricular activities. g) Scholl furniture has been bought through Harambee effort thus making learning /teaching comfortable. h) Parents have contributed funds to supplement the governments school feeding programmes thus improving enrolment. **problems that face Harambee movement in Kenya. ** a) Misuse of Harambee funds/diverting its use and lack of commitment by leaders. b) It puts an additional burden of taxation on the poor. c) Embezzlement of public funds. d) Political interference and wrangles among leaders. e) The spirit of unity and co-operation and self-help may be killed by misappropriation of funds. f) Poor co-ordination and supervision of Harambee projects. g) Use of force or extortion of Harambee funds from the people/dictatorial tendencies. h) Corruption and negative attitude from people. i) Use of Harambee for political gains. NYAYOISM . **Meaning and origin of Nyayoism. ** Nyayoism originally meant footsteps i.e. following the footsteps of Mzee Jomo Kenyatta. This was a phrase coined by the former president of Kenya Daniel Arap Moi, in reference to his Endeavour to follow the foot steps of his predecessor.Today, Nyayoism means peace, love and unity that form the pillars of the development philosophy.It stresses the concept of being mindful of other peoples welfare.It is closely related to the principal of mutual social responsibility as embodied in African socialism. ----- 454 ### **Sources of Nyayoism. ** 1) Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 that articulated African socialism, which is based on collective responsibility and on being mindful of other peoples welfare. 2) The Biblical teaching of the Ten Commandments, summarized as Love for God, fellow man and oneself. 3) Mois long political career inspired him to develop the philosophy when he realized that national building required love. **Pillars of Nyayoism ** 1) Peace : - the state of being free from war and disorder. Peace is the beginning of sustainable and cumulative progress. Peace promotes development. According to Nyayoism, peace discourages political stability. 2) Love: - Love brings about trust and readiness to cooperate by working together tofoster national development. Lack of love disturbs peace, creates disorder and destroys progress. Love encourages the African culture of sharing through the extended family (communalism). 3) Unity : - the state of being one, being in harmony or in agreement in objectives and feelings. The diversity of Kenyas culture, religion, races and language requires that there must be unity for nation-building. **Role played by Nyayoism in national development. ** a) The philosophy formed the basis for solving national development problems. The philosophy perpetuated the Harambee spirit. b) The philosophy helped in unifying different communities. The philosophy enhanced cooperation and unity of all. c) Nyayoism was used as the rallying spirit for the collective contribution and approach to national development. d) Nyayoism discouraged societal evils since it preached love, unity and peace. Corruption was discouraged through the philosophy. e) It discouraged all forms of discrimination based on religion, tribe, race, and social status. f) The philosophy created respect for public property and functions. g) It enabled the creation of a welfare state since everyone became mindful of others welfare. h) It created a sense of nationalism and patriotism necessary for national development. **Impact of National Philosophies ** **Social Impact of National Philosophies. ** a) Education has been promoted through philosophies like the Harambee that have assisted in construction of schools, laboratories and libraries. b) Medical services have been improved c) Cooperation, understanding and unity have been encouraged since the philosophies emphasized togetherness for nation-building. ----- 455 ### d) The philosophies have promoted the spiritual and social welfare of people by raising their living standards. African socialism encourages people to assist others are share with others. e) Through the Harambee spirit, the plight of persons with disabilities and other disadvantaged groups has been looked into. f) The philosophies have promoted African cultures, since they are drawn from African traditions. **Economic impacts. ** a) Self-reliance and The Africanization process through which the people of Kenya were able to take over from foreigners was made possible by the philosophies. b) Due to the policy of pooling together resources and the spirit of cooperation derived from African socialism, cooperative societies have been formed in agriculture and other sectors, thus contributing to the countrys development. c) Transport and communication has been improved through African socialism and Harambee spirit. Rural access roads have been constructed; Nyayo buses were bought though the scheme failed due to mismanagement. d) The agricultural sector has been boosted by the philosophies. Kenyans are encouraged to work hard to increase food production. e) The pillars of Nyayoism have created a conducive atmosphere for growth of tourism and foreign investment in the country. **Political impacts. ** a) The philosophies have promoted nationalism and patriotism in the country. b) African socialism has encouraged the democratization process as it champions for political equality. c) It has promoted international cooperation and understanding **SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND ** **CHALLENGES IN KENYA SINCE INDEPENDENCE POLITICAL ** **DEVELOPMENT AND CHALLENGES ** It must be noted that Kenya inherited a number of political problems from the colonial government. For example; a) Lack of African technocrats who could give political direction to the country. b) Suspicion and jealousy between different communities due to the divide-andrule tactic employed by the colonial administration for many years. c) An illiterate population, ignorant of its political obligations **Political developments in Kenya between 1963 and 1991 ** On 12 [th] December 1963, Kenya became independent under KANU led by Jomo Kenyatta.In 1964, there was voluntary disbanding of KADU and APP making Kenya a de facto one party state. There was abolition of Federal Constitution in favour of a Unitary or Republican Constitution. The post of an executive president was created to replace the post of Prime Minister.In 1966, the Limuru conference presided over replacement of the ----- 456 ### Vice -President of KANU With seven Provincial Vice Presidents and one for Nairobi Area. On 14 [th] April 1966, Oginga Odinga resigned from KANU and Government and formed Kenya Peoples Union (KPU) where Bildad Kaggia, Achieng Oneko and Tom Odongo joined him.In 1966, the bicameral legislature (the senate and the House of Representatives) was disbanded. A single chamber parliament was established. In 1966, Joseph Murumbi was appointed the countrys vice-president to replace Oginga. He resigned in 1967to pave way for Mois appointment.1969 witnessed the political assassination of the flamboyant Tom Mboya in the hands of one, Nahashon Njenga on 5 [th] July on Nairobis Moi Avenue.1n 1969, KPU was banned following riots in Kisumu. In 1975, Josiah Mwangi Kariuki. MP for Kinangop was found brutally murdered in Ngong Forest.In October 1975 martin Shikuku and the deputy speaker, Jean Marie Seroney, were arrested and detained for making claims in the house that KANU and parliament were dead. In 1976, Chelagat Mutai, MP for Eldoret North was arrested and jailed for 2 years for inciting his constituents to violence. In 1977, George Anyona, MP for Kitutu was also arrested after he accused the government of corruption.In 1976, the change the constitution campaign was began by Kihika Kimani, Dr. Njoroge Mungai, Jackson Angaine, Paul Ngei and Njenga Karume with the objective of making sure that the then vice president, Daniel Arap Moi would not succeeded the president.On 22 [nd] august 1978, Jomo Kenyatta died and Moi assumed presidency for 90 days and was finally elected as second president of Kenya.In July 1980, Moi banned all tribal organizations, the Kenya Civil Servants Union and the Nairobi University Staff Union. In June 1982, after an attempt by Anyona to form a political party, section 2A was introduced in the Kenyan constitution makin g it a de jure one party state.On 2 [nd] august 982, Kenya experienced a coup detat by some air force servicemen. Charles Njonjo, the Constitutional Affairs Minister was accused of masterminding the coup. In 1988, KANU introduced the infamous Queue voting method (mlolongo) that was open to abuse.In February 1990, Dr, Robert Ouko, minister of foreign affairs and international cooperation was murdered. The better part of 1991 witnessed a series of tribal clashes involving Kalenjin and Kikuyu, Kalenjin and Luhyia and Luos. **Kenyas political developments from 1991 up to 2011. ** In December 1991, a parliamentary act repealed the one-party system provisions of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system. The first political party to be formed under the repealed act was Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD) In august 1992, one of the leaders of FORD Masind e Muliro died mysteriously. The first multiparty elections were held in 1992 in December.KANU won against a disjointed opposition.In 1994, the official leader of the opposition and MP of Bondo, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga died.After 1997 elections, the Inter-Parliamentary Parties Group ((IPPG) passed the reforms that marked the genesis of the constitutional review process.In 2002, several opposition parties formed a coalition that overwhelmingly defeated KANU in the general elections. ----- 457 ### In January 2003, the National Rainbow Coalition formed the new government with Mwai Kibaki as the president.In august 2003, Wamalwa Kijana, the vice president of the coalition government died after a short illness. Mood Awori was appointed the next Vice president.In 2005, a new political movement, the Orange Democratic Movement (ODM) was formed as a campaign tool against the proposed new constitution. Raila Odinga was its leader.The general Elections of 2007 resulted in a political crisis that provoked an unprecedented wave of political violence and killing across Kenya.On 28 [th] February 2008 the former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan succeeded in brokering a power sharing deal between the incumbent President, Mwai Kibaki, and the opposition leader, Raila Odinga thus bringing to end the political violence. On April 17, 2008, Raila Odinga, from Orange Democratic Movement, was sworn as Prime Minister of Kenya, after more than forty years of the abolition of office.On 28 [th] august 2010 Kenya promulgated a new constitution thus making it the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitution.In 2011, the International Criminal Court seating at the Hague, begun criminal proceedings against Uhuru Kenyatta, William Ruto, former police Commissioner Hussein Ali, Henry Kosgei, the head of public service Francis Muthaura and a journalist Joshua Arap Sang over their involvement in the 2008 post-Election Violence.In June 2011, Dr. Willy Mutunga became the first Kenyas Chief Justice and Nancy Makokha Barasa, his deputy under the new constitution.The Electoral Commission of Kenya (ECK) was also replaced with the Independent Elections and Boundaries Commission (IEBC). The constitutional changes in Kenya in the period between 1963 and 1991.The first meeting in Lancaster in 1960 resulted in an interim constitution that failed to grant any substantial autonomy to Kenya. The second Lancaster conference in 1962 negotiated a framework for self government. The third and final conference in 1963 resulted in the drafting and adoption of Kenya's first independent Constitution by the British Parliament. The 1963 constitution marked the end of colonial rule and transformed the colony into a dominion.It established a parliamentary system with executive powers vested in a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister.The Constitution was changed in 1964 and Kenya became a republic and the executive becamepresidential. The senate and regions were also abolished.In 1966, the voting majority to change the Constitution was lowered to two -thirds of the MPs. The term region was replaced with province.In 1966, a constitutional amendment abolished the Bicameral Legislature and replaced it with a Unicameral Legislature, chosen directly by the electorate.On 28 [th] April 1966, an amendment was passed to compel MPs who defected from sponsoring party, to resign from parliament and seek re-election.In May 1966, the Public Security Act was passed empowering the president to detain a citizen without trial on grounds of being a threat to state security.In 1968, the president was empowered to alter provincial and district boundaries.In 1968, the procedure for presidential elections and succession in the event of his death was laid down. The age qualification for presidential candidates was also lowered to 35 from 40 years.In 1974, an amendment of the constitution empowered ----- 458 ### the president to pardon any election offender at his own discretion. This was done to favour Paul Ngei. In 1975, Kiswahili was declared the national language of the national assembl y.In 1977, the Kenya court of appeal was established after the breakup of the East African Community. Voting age was lowered from 21 to 18. In 1979, both Kiswahili and English were declared languages of the national assembly.In 1982, Kenya became a de jure one party state. KANU became the only lawful party in Kenya.In 1987, the security of tenure of the Attorney General, Chief Secretary, The Comptroller and AuditorGeneral was removed. Office of chief secretary was abolished.In 1988, the security of tenure of Puisine Judges and Chairman of Public Service Commission was removed.A parliamentary act in December 1991 repealed the one-party system provisions of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system. Multiparty elections were held the following year in December. **Steps towards realization of a new constitution in Kenya since 1997 ** In 1997, Parliament passed the Constitution of Kenya Review Act that set the pace for comprehensive constitutional reforms. The Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC) was established to provide civic education, seek public input and prepare a constitution). In 2005, after many years of struggle, the constitution was ultimately rejected by Kenyans at the constitutional referendum because of disagreements amongst various stakeholders. 28 February 2008The National Accord and Reconciliation Act (NARA) signed by President Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga put in place arrangement for a new process to finalize the long awaited constitution of Kenya In 2008 the Constitution of Kenya Review Act 2008 was passed and a Committee of Experts (CoE) was established as the main technical constitutional review organ to drive the process. The CoE was chaired by Nzamba Kitonga, the deputy chair was Ms Atsango Chesoni, other members were Ms Njoki Ndung'u, Mr Otiende Amolo,Mr Abdirashid Hussein Mr Bobby Mkangi Professor Christina Murray (South Africa) Dr Chaloka Beyani (Zambia) and Dr Frederick Ssempebwav (Uganda. 23 February 2009 Members of the CoE were appointed by the President were later on sworn in On 17 November 2009 CoE released the to the public and invited views and comments on the constitution, By 23 [rd] February 2010. CoE had submitted the final of constitution to the Parliamentary Select Committee. On 4 [th] august 2010 Kenya held a Constitutional Referendum where the new constitution was overwhelmingly endorsed. On 28 [th] august 2010, the new constitution was promulgated and became operational making Kenya the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitution. ----- 459 ### **MULTI-PARTY DEMOCRACY IN KENYA SINCE 1991. ** **Factors that led to the development of multi-party democracy in Kenya after 1991 ** a) International pressure from multilateral and bilateral donors. The western donors took advantage of the collapse of the Soviet Union to set the stringiest conditionalties for aid on the government, for democratic reforms. b) Disunity in KANU. There was pressure from individuals who had been expelled from KANU without political alternatives. c) Existence of people who were ready to push democratic agenda ahead. This included the civil society, the lawyers and intellectuals. E.g the Law Society of Kenya led by Paul Muite and Gitobu Imanyara put pressure on the government for reforms. d) Success of multi-party in other African countries. In Zambia for example, Chilubas Movement for Multiparty Democracy defeated Kaundas United National Independence Party. e) Pressure from the church. Several church leaders, among them Alexander Muge, Bishop Henry Okullu and Rev. Timothy Njoya called upon the government to create an en environment in which Kenyans could participate in governance. f) Massive rigging of the elections. The most notorious of all was the 1988 general elections, which were marred with widespread rigging. g) The developments in Eastern Europe. Due to Gorbachevs liberal reforms, one party dictatorship in Eastern Europe was replaced by regimes that were more liberal. h) Rampant corruption in particular, embezzlement and misappropriation of public funds and grabbing of public assets. Those who criticized were punished through detention, arbitrary arrests and other forms of intimidation. i) Repeal of section 2A of the constitution in December 1991 Role played by political parties in government and national building in Kenya. a) The party that gunners majority of seats and votes forms the government either alone or in coalition with other parties. b) Political parties influence government affairs and development through participation in legislation process. c) Political parties through the elected members of parliament decide on national development policies and development projects. d) Political parties provide exemplary leadership founded on freedom, justice, fair play and African socialism. e) Opposition parties provide a system of scrutinizing government expenditure through public accounts committee and public investment committee. f) Opposition parties make the government more accountable to the people through constant criticism. g) Opposition parties provide checks and balances to abuse and misuse of powers and privileges by those in the government. ----- 460 ### **Challenges of multi-party democracy in Kenya. ** a) Since many politicians and senior government officials were not ready for Multipartism, they often incited their supporters to kick out opposition supporters from certain regions. This has been common in the Rift Valley region. b) The executive arm and the ruling party have many a times misused the members of the civil service to frustrate the opposition. In case of flawed elections, the provincial administration has always been used in rigging. c) Many of the parties formed failed to attain a national outlook. They mainly were tribal based. d) The multi party democracy has been hampered with defection of greedy politicians who become preys to bribes. This has weakened some parties. e) The former KANU for a long time retained control of the government machinery,,(the police force, the radio and television.) these were utilized for the advantage of KANU for al long time. f) There has been a problem of lack of funding from the government. Most of the political parties have been unable to sustain competition for political power due to inadequate funds. g) Interference by the international community in the running of the country. Some members of the diplomatic community openly side with certain political parties. h) Many political parties have been embroiled in wrangles. For example the Orange Democratic Movement has been bedevilled with a number of desertions due to wrangles between Ruto and his supporters and Raila Odinga. Ford Kenya has split into New Ford Kenya and Ford Kenya due to wrangles between Eugene Wamalwa and Moses Wetangula. **Identify the disadvantages of multiparty system. ** a) Multipartism tends to divide the people on tribal, regional and sectarian line. b) It tends to sharpen the struggle for personality and group dominance rather than policy implementation. c) Multipartism is a foreign system, which does not conform to the aspirations of independent Africa. d) It encourages the politics of destabilization. e) Political statements deadlocks on debates and tensions become too common. f) Decisions take too long to be made and implemented. g) Encourages use of violence in a state since opposition party members will be regarded as traitors by the government. The government will be regarded as oppressors by the opposition. **ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS AND CHALLENGES ** **Economic challenges that have faced Kenya since independence. ** a) Stagnation of investment in the first years of independence due to massive transfer of capita from the country by the white settlers. The government faced the ----- 461 ### challenge of cultivating investor confidence. b) The problem of landlessness among many Africans whose arable land had been alienated. There was an urgent need for redistribution. c) Serious economic disparity in the country with the former white highlands having adequate provision of water, electricity and roads while the rest lacked enough of the same. d) Overpopulation in urban areas as result of rural-urban migration, putting facilities under pressure and creating unemployment. e) Problem of control of economy by the Europeans prior to independence and after independence. E.g. farm ownership and key industries. f) Lack of qualified manpower to run the technical sectors of the economy. These were issues that were addressed by session paper number 10 of 1965. **Types of landholding in Kenya. ** Land tenure refers to the terms and conditions under which land is acquired, used or transferred At independence the type of landholding in Kenya was mainly communal, where land belonged to the whole community. Access to land was open every member of a social group. Community elders, clan heads or kings were empowered to control and give advice on land use.Land alienation during the colonial period transformed land into a commodity th at could be disinherited from an individual. Such colonial land policies ***leading to alienation of African land resulted in the following;*** a) Widespread landlessness as Africans lost ancestral lands. b) Reduction in land available to Africans leading to land pressure as population increased. c) Deterioration of the quality of land due to fragmentation. d) Overstocking because of limited land, leading to soil erosion. e) Displacement of pastoral and agricultural communities, leading to problems such as famine and livestock diseases. f) Disintegration of social and cultural institutions in the reserves due to ethnic boundaries being fixed, thus separating African communities. The Mau Mau wars which were a consequent of the bitterness arising from land alienation resulted in a number of land reforms under the Swynnerton Plan of 1954. The plan put in place a programmee for land consolidation, adjudication and registration. This was whet the Kenya government inherited at independence. Land Adjudication: - verification of individual or group rights to land within a given area. Land consolidation: - merging of fragmented land into single economic units. Land registration: - recording of rights to land and the consequent issuance of a title deed.The post-colonial land holding system in Kenya.The land tenure system in Kenya after independence was categorized as private or modern, communal or customary, public or state and open accessPrivate land; comprised of 6% of the total land areaGovernment- owned; former crown land, comprised 20% of the land area. It included the national ----- 462 ### parks, government or public forests, alienated (land acquired from customary land owners by government for own use or private development) and unlalienated land (land that has not been leased or allocated by the government).Trust land comprised 64% of the total land area as at 1990. This comprised the former native areas and was awaiting small holder registration to transform it into private tenure system.Land ownership in Kenya has been a source of bitter conflict as manifested in the post election violence after the 2007 elections. The historical injustices in Kenya have always been related to land. In 2010, land ownership in Kenya was classified as follows under the new constitution. a) Public land b) Community land c) Private land a) Public land Public land is the land held by the central or local government. It consists of; ~ Land not set aside for any purpose (unlalienated land). ~ Land set aside for public utility use or land that is occupied by the State organ as lessee. ~ land transferred to the State by way of sale, reversion or surrender; ~ Land to which no individual or community ownership is traceable. ~ Land which no heir can be identified. ~ All minerals and mineral ores. ~ government forests, game reserves, water catchment areas, national parks, government animal sanctuaries, and specially protected areas; ~ All roads and thoroughfares. ~ All rivers, lakes and other water bodies. ~ The territorial sea, the exclusive economic zone and the sea bed. ~ The continental shelf. ~ All land between the high and low water marks. ~ Any other land declared to be public land by an Act of Parliament. **Community land ** Community land is land which is implied as owned by a group of people on the basis of customary norms, not through formal registration. It consists of: ~ Land registered in the name of group representatives. ~ Land transferred to a specific community through a legal process. ~ Any other land declared to be community land by an Act of Parliament. ~ land that is held, managed or used by specific communities as community forests, grazing areas or shrines; ~ Ancestral lands and lands traditionally occupied by hunter gatherer communities; ----- 463 ### ~ Land held as trust land by the county governments, but not including any public land held in trust by the county government. **Private land ** Private land is land (and houses and buildings) held under registered entitlement (freehold or leasehold). It consists of: ~ Registered land held by any person under freehold tenure. ~ Land held by any person under leasehold tenure. ~ Any other land declared private land under an Act of Parliament. Note: ~ Landholding by non-citizens is allowed only through lease for a period not exceeding ninety-nine years. ~ A corporate body, for the purpose of land ownership can only be recognized as a citizen if it is wholly owned by one or more citizens. ~ Property held in trust will only be recognized as being held by a citizen if all the beneficial interest of the trust is held by the persons who are citizens. **Land policies since independence. ** **Two type of programme that characterized land reforms exercise that commenced ** **in 1963 in Kenya were; ** 1) Transfer of land from European large scale farmers to Africans. 2) Land consolidation and registration in which the government purchased several farms from the Europeans and sub-divided them among African holders. **In the former European farms, the government established settlement schemes as ** **follows; ** 1) The Million Acre Scheme which was began in 1963 and involved settling African families on 13.5 hectares each. 2) The Harambee Scheme started in 1969, involved settling families on 16.25 hectares each. 3) The Haraka Scheme where squatters were settled in small plots of land in Central, Coast, Eastern and Rift Valley Provinces. 4) Shirika Scheme started in 1971 to settle the landless and unemployed on the former European lands. Under this scheme, the individual farmers would own a small plot each while the rest of the farm would be managed by a cooperative. This scheme did not succeed since people wished to have their own pieces of land.However, these schemes failed to adequately solve the problems of landlessness in the country. A few politically- connected people acquired large tracts of land, most of which remained underutilized. Some of the schemes are located in areas of harsh climatic conditions and are unviable without irrigation.Several commissions have addressed land issues in Kenya. For example, in 2001, President Moi appointed the Njonjo Commission to investigate the main problems of land ownership and distribution in Kenya. In 2003, the NARC ----- 464 ### government set up the Ndungu Commission on land. Its Recommendations are yet to be implemented.By 1983, 29 districts in Kenya had benefitted from Land adjudication and registration, a process which began in the 1950s in Central Kenya then spread to other parts of the country after 1963. **Benefits of the land reforms in Kenya. ** a) Farmers could use their land title deeds to get loans from banks in order to expand farming on their land. b) Land titles enabled people to purchase land with confidence. No one would alienate them from their land. c) The reforms enabled thousands of landless people to own land. d) Dairy and cash crop production increased. **Land ownership by non-citizens. ** A non-citizen can only own land in the country on the basis of leasehold tenure not exceeding 99 years. **Principles that govern utilization of land in Kenya. ** a) Equitable access to land. All members of the society must have equal access to land since it is an important resource. b) Transparent and cost effective administration of land. State institutions should be given powers and responsibilities of ensuring transparent and accountable administration of land. c) Elimination of gender discrimination. in line with protection of human rights, for all, discrimination against women on issues of land ownership and access to land need be eliminated. d) Sustainable and productive management of land resources. Since land is an economic resource, it should be managed well to ensure maximum productivity. e) Sound conservation and protection of ecologically sensitive areas. Conservation measures like prohibiting settlement and agricultural activities in water catchment areas and zoning of forest lands to protect them from further degradation. f) Encouragement of communities to settle land disputes. This should happen as long as they are consistent with the constitution. Ways in which the Kenya government has solved land related problems since independence. a) The problems related to Communal Land ownership have been solved through land demarcation and adjudication by the government. This saw the conversion from traditional system of land ownership to modern freeload tenure. b) Landlessness was solved through creation of resettlement schemes. Large-scale farms and former European farms were divided into smaller ones and given to the landless. E.g Mwea Tebere, Bura, Shirika etc. c) The government has put marginal lands to more productive use through establishment of irrigation schemes and drainage schemes. ----- 465 ### d) The government removed restriction of movements from the reserves that were created by the colonial government. This decongested the reserves and gave chance to arable farming. e) At independence, the t government embarked on land consolidation policy through which scattered plots were put into one holding. f) The government also embarked on land reclamation measure to bring previously unused land to productive use. g) The Government has established the National Land Commission which manages public land **The National Land Commission. ** **Functions of the National Land Commission. ** a) It manages public land on behalf of the national and county governments. b) It advises the national government on a comprehensive programme for land registration throughout the country. c) It investigates present and past historical injustices, as a result of a complaint or on its on initiative, and recommends appropriate action. d) It has a duty to encourage the use of traditional methods of dispute resolution in land conflicts. e) It recommends the national land policy to the national government. f) It assesses tax on land and premiums on immovable property in any area designated by law. g) It monitors land use planning throughout the country. **Development in agriculture since independence. ** After independence, the government encouraged small scale farming of coffee and tea as opposed to large scale farming that existed during the colonial period. The Agricultural development corporation (ADC) was set up to manage large scale farms that were established by the government in western, Rift Valley and Coast provinces. Such farms specialize in production of seeds to be used by farmers for planting. They also specialize in production of high quality dairy and beef cattle in Kenya.The government also established the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) in Muguga near Kikuyu to assist in identifying good crop breeds for different types of soils. Irrigation Schemes were expanded in the marginal areas. For example. Mea (central), Bura (coast), Ahero (Nyanza) and Perkerra (central).The government created development authorities to effectively manage water catchment areas. For example, TARDA, KVDA and LBDA. **Challenges facing Kenyas agricultural sector. ** a) The 1984 drought and famine in various parts of the country occasioning supply of relief food to the affected regions. b) Rapid increase in population which is not at pace with the rate of increase in agricultural production. ----- 466 ### c) From the late 1970s, the world market prices of agricultural commodities fell drastically yet the inputs remained expensive. d) Corruption and mismanagement of the cooperatives leading to meager earnings for key cash crops in Kenya. e) Grabbing of research land by corrupt government officials has affected the operations of the research institutes. f) The problem of poor infrastructure in the country sometimes discourages farmers especially during the rainy season. g) Ethnic clashes in Molo in 1991-1992, Likoni in 1997 and Mahi Mahiu in 2005 plus the post election violence in 2008 discouraged farmers from intense farming due to insecurity. h) Poor technology hassled to low yields. People in Kenya still rely on natural rains for agriculture instead of using irrigation. Others use primitive traditional tools in cultivation. i) The problem of pests that destroy the farm yields before reaching the factory. j) Competition from COMESA member states and from the more industrialized powers such as the European Union and USA often frustrate Kenyan farmers. **Industrial developments in Kenya since independence. ** Kenyas industrial sector was shaped by the long period of colonization. At independence, industry was characterized by dominance of foreign capital and dominance of the agricultural sector. **Factors that facilitated industrial development in Kenya since the colonial era. ** a) The existence of raw materials, such as trona (soda ash) at lake Magadi, fluorspar at Kerio Valley and lime in several parts of the country. b) Existence of fish resource from numerous water bodies has promoted the fishprocessing industry. c) Existence of expansive forests which provide timber needed in the furniture industry. d) The rich scenary, e.g Mt. Kenya, Mt. Elgon, the Aberdares and rich wildlife have promoted the tourism industry. e) Kenyas rivers have enough water for production of HEP. f) Increase in population since the colonial period ensured supply of labour and the market required for industries to flourish. g) The transport and communication infrastructure have provided the necessary link between the material producing zones, industries and markets.. h) Existence of rich agricultural lands producing raw materials such as coffee, tea, sugarcane, sisal and fruits **Measures taken by the Kenyan government to promote industrial development since ** **independence. ** a) The government engaged on decentralization programmes to spur development ----- 467 ### in new areas. Industries were established in rural areas. b) The government has embarked on the programmes of funding new markets for industrial products. c) Infrastructure was improved through establishment of more roads, railways and improvement of water transport, to-transport raw materials labour and goods. d) Power concerns were addressed through construction of the Seven Forks Dam to supplement power from neighboring Uganda. e) Favourable government policies have been put in place to attract investors. f) The government has put in place measures to reduce imports in order to protect local infant industries. E.g discriminative tariffs were introduced. g) The government encouraged and assisted in giving capital for industrial development through development of the co-operative movement, funding through Industrial and Commercial Development Corporation(ICDC), the Development Finance Company of Kenya.(DFCK) and the Industrial Development Bank. h) The government has ensured political stability in the country, which is an important factor in industrial development. **Factors that have hindered industrial development in Kenya. ** a) The problem of multi nationals whose interests do not favour Kenyas progress. Multi-national co-operation repatriate capital to their own home countries b) There is shortage of strategic raw materials e.g. petroleum, diamond. Cotton for textile industries. Many industrial companies use imported raw materials. c) Foreigners, who pass policies not friendly to the country, hold managerial positions in industries. d) Mismanagement of major industries and lack of transparency I parastatals. e) Over concentration of industries in few areas leading to negligence of other areas. It also has led to related problems of industrial concentration like the social ills. f) Competition from the industrialized nations who dominate the market and produce high quality goods. g) Poverty limits industrialization. A poor population means a small domestic market thus hindering industrial development. h) Products are produced with low technology hence small quantities. Further reading on industrial development should be done with reference to evolving world book 4 pages 162-164 **Social Development and challenges since independence. ** **Education. ** To solve the problems inherited at independence in the education sector (poor quality education and poor facilities available the Kenya children), the government undertook the following measures; a) Constitutional amendments were made in 1975 to give Kiswahili a respectable position in the country. ----- 468 ### b) Several educational Commissions were set up to streamline education. c) The Harambee strategy was employed to expand educational facilities. Education Commissions. a) The Kenya Education Commission (1964) (The Ominde commission) that recommended overhaul of curriculum to make it relevant. b) The National Committee on Education Objectives and policies- Gachathi commission(1976) that looked into he possibility of setting up a second university. c) Presidential Working Party on the Second University- The Mackey commission (1982) that established the 8-4-4 system and proposed emphasis of vocational subjects such as art and craft, music, agriculture and Home science. d) The Kamunge commission (1988) which recommended cost-sharing in education e) The Koech commission (1999) which recommended reintroduction of A-level system in form of Totally Integrated Quality Edu cation and Training. **Main developments in education in Kenya since independence. ** In 1975, Kiswahili was made the official languages of parliament and learning in schools. The ministry of education established structures right from the district level to national level to help in fulfilling the national objectives of education.Several education commissions were set up to streamline education. The harambee strategy was employed to expand education facilities. Many schools were built.In 1980, the government took over the responsibility of providing pre-primary education.In the 1990s, the government in collaboration with UNICEF launched a programme to promote early childhood education.By 1998, the total number of students in the various universities was over 40,000.In 1969, the ministry of education took over the administration of primary education from local government, this witnessed increased enrolment.In 1978, the government introduced the school milk programme to encourage children especially in drought prone areas to go to school.The programme stalled in 1990 but had achieved higher enrolment in schools.The Ministry of education launched school feeding programme, targeting dry areas.In 2002, the NARC government introduced the Free Primary Education policy.Further reading be done from evolving world on Elementary education and Tertiary education in Kenya. **Health. ** Measures taken to improve the health sector in postcolonial Kenya. a) The ministry of health was created to oversee health matters. b) Expansion of health facilities through harambee and donor funds e.g. Nyanza Provincial hospital (Russian Hospital) c) Many health training institutions were started e.g. Medical training colleges d) Improvement in hygiene through provision of piped water. e) Establishment of several research institutions on human diseases e.g. KEMRI f) Provision of more basic education in order to uplift hygiene standards in the society. g) Provision of free anti-retroviral and anti-malaria drugs. ----- 469 ### **Major challenges facing the Health sector in Kenya. ** a) Increase in population has posed major challenges to the government in the provision of healthcare services to its citizens. There has been a challenge of inadequate doctors and medical facilities. b) The cost- sharing policy introduced in the 1980s to help buy medicine and other equipment has prevented the poor from going to the hospitals. c) The spread of HIV and AIDS and other diseases such as Diabetes and Heart diseases has worsened the situation. d) Cultural practices like Female mutilation have made provision of medical services more challenging. e) Pollution of the environment has increased allergy-related ailments, many of which have no cure. f) Poverty and malnutrition render many people vulnerable to diseases. g) Illegal abortion and early pregnancies endanger the lives of mothers. h) High rate of accidents and injuries, especially on roads. **ways through which the government has encouraged the preservation of African ** **culture since independence. ** a) Creation of the ministry of culture and social services. The ministry promotes cultural and social values. b) The syllabus has been tailored to include cultural studies. c) Inclusion of music as a subject in the national curriculum. d) The government has encouraged music/drama festivals on an annual basis as way of promoting cultural exchange. e) The government has encouraged intermarriage between different ethnic groups. f) The government has developed cultural heritage centre at the Bomas of Kenya, National Archives and Museums. g) Schools have been encouraged to admit people from different communities. h) Allowing the media houses to play traditional music/dance.. Students Read on sports, literature, theatre, music and dance from evolving world page 174. **SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT AND ** **CHALLENGES IN ** **AFRICA SINCE INDEPENDENCE. ** **THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO. ** Political developments in Democratic Republic of Congo since independence The Belgians relinquished their political dominion of Congo by granting them autonomy on 30 [th] June 1960. Patrice Lumumba (Prime Minister) of Congolese National Movement Party and Joseph Kasavubu of Abako Party (Head of State) formed a fragile coalition government. The two leaders differed ideologically.The period between 1960 and 196 witnessed power struggle between Kasavubu and Lumumba on one side and Secessionist ----- 470 ### Moise Tsombe of Katanga and Albert Kalonji of Kasai on the other side. In 1961, Patrice Lumumba was assassinated. This led to withdrawal of his supporters from government. In 1961, the UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjld perished in a plane crash in the Congo while attempting to bring a peaceful political solution to the Congo crisis.In 1964, a new constitution was formulated as a way of solving the political problems that plagued Zaire soon after independence. Zaire became a federal state with a federal president and separate assemblies for each state.On 23 [rd] November 1965, Joseph Desire Mobutu organized a bloodless military coup, which removed the civilian government of president Kasavubu and Prime Minister Sylvester Kimba.In November 1965, Mobutu took over power after a bloodless coup.In the same year,, Mobutu banned all political parties. He suspended the constitution and parliament. He abolished the federal system and local assemblies and reduced the number of provinces to eight.In 1967, He formed the Peoples Revolution Movement (MPR), which became theonly legal party in Congo. He in effect-replaced democracy with one-party dictatorship leaned to the west during the cold war.1n 1970, Mobutu declared himself the life president of Congo, after winning the presidential election.In 1971, he outlawed the use of European names for people, places and physical features as a way of removing colonial legacy. The country was renamed Zaire. His own name changed to Mobutu Sese Seko. Leopoldville was renamed Kinshasa.In 1973, Mobutu announced the nationalization of all foreign enterprises. In 1977-1978, the Shaba Rebellion broke out mainly after an attack by the Congolese National Liberation Front from their base in Angola. The Belgian troops were called to silence the rebels.In 1990 and 1991, multiparty activists stepped up pressure for change. In September 1991, dissatisfied soldiers and civilians held demonstrations, which led to death of 117 people. In 1997, Laurent Kabila successfully ousted Mobutu, assisted by Rwanda and Uganda. Mobutu fled to exile in Morocco where he died. In January 2001, Laurent Kabila was assassinated in mysterious circumstances. His son took over power.In April 2002, through a powersharing agreement presided over by Thabo Mbeki and a UN envoy, Mustapha Niasse, a government of national unity was formed. **Economic developments in DRC since independence. ** The political chaos inn DRC up to 1965 did not favour any economic progress. During the reign of the Belgians in Congo, no viable economic development was initiated. Little development was done in infrastructure in order to facilitate transportation of raw materials to the ports of Matadi etc.At independence, the country was faced with the problems of shortage of manpower, skills and entrepreneurship.When Mobutu took over, there was some slight economic progress. Transport and communication improved as more roads and railway were constructed to link major towns of Matadi, Kinshasa, Lubumbashi and Kisangani. Navigation on the river Congo was improved, which led go expansion of mining and agricultural sectors.Mining of diamonds resumed after the turbulent years and resulted in reduced inflation.Mobutu encouraged foreign investment ----- 471 ### in the mining sector.However, the fall of world copper prices in 1970s again began to derail the economic growth in DRC.In the 70s, the government nationalized foreign firms employed inexperienced people to control them.In 197, Mobutu enacted a law that placed state finances and expenditure under him, thus reducing the flow of capital to the provinces.In 1976, he encouraged mutual cooperation between private firms and the government in the extraction of minerals such as copper, oil, diamond, cobalt and manganese in a bid to create employment opportunities.He also emphasized on diversification of the economy which greatly boosted food production.The entertainment industry has also grown to become an invisible export through repatriation of profits back home by the foreign based musicians. Energy supply has been increased through the construction of the Luga hydro-electric power station. **Social developments and challenges in DRC since independence. ** Between 1961 and 1965, there was little improvement in the field of health and education in DRC due to constant power struggles and civil strife.When Mobutu took over in 1965, he strived to expand schools and universities. For example, by 1970, he had established three universities. He also improved on the provision of health facilities. He banned religious education in schools. In 1971, attempted to revive indigenous culture through the Authenticity programme that involved renaming places that had foreign names.In the 1970s, in an effort to improve the welfare of citizens, a national insurance programme was established. Mobutu also gave prominence to music as part of the Congolese curriculum.The independent government supported sporting activities through construction of stadium and other sporting facilities.However, living standards in Zaire continued to fall as health services, water and sanitation continued to be inadequate. The steady rise in population was without a commensurate growth of social services. In summary, the common challenges socially were illiteracy, extreme poverty, famine and diseases caused by civil strife, massive unemployment, refugee problem and religious persecutions by Mobutu. **Political challenges that the democratic republic of Congo has faced since ** **independence. ** a) There was general lack of preparedness of the people for independence. Foreigners controlled even the army and the police. b) The assassination of Patrice Lumumba in 1961, which plunged the country into the Congo crisis. c) Political instability/military coup dtat. In November 1965, Mobutu organized a military coup. In 1997, Kabila ousted Mobutu d) Ethnic differences/tribal clashes/civil wars, which split the country into two parts at independence. One controlled by Lumumba and another controlled by Kasavubu. e) The problem of Secession. Secessionist movement of the Katanga region (Shaba) led by Tsombe and Kasai under Kilonji seceded. f) Foreign interference/intrigues. Belgium constantly interfered and intervened in ----- 472 ### Zaires internal matters. France and Britain also began to interfere from 1977 during the cold war period. g) Mutinies in the army were common. **Economic challenges that Democratic Republic Of Congo (D.R.C) faced in 1970s. ** a) Corruption and mismanagement of the economy. Mobutu was the richest president in the world while Zairians became the poorest people in the world. b) Inflation due to power struggle and corruption. By 1980, the countrys currency was not worthy the paper on which it was printed. c) There was also a problem of heavy foreign debt. The country was unable to service her debts. By 1980, Zaire had become the worlds third biggest debtor nation. d) There was a standstill in the economic activities and disruption of railway transport due to civil wars in the country and neighbouring Angola. e) The period also witnessed fall in world copper prices and increase in oil prices f) Lack of a sound economic policy **TANZANIA. ** Political developments in Tanzania since independence.At the time of independence, Tanzania comprised of two countries. I.e. Tanganyika and Zanzibar. Tanzania became independent in 1961 under Julius Nyerere while Zanzibar became independent in 1963 under the Sultan Seyyid Abdullah.In 1962, Tanzania became a one-party state with a republican constitution and an executive president. Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) became the sole political party.On 22 [nd] April 1964, Julius Nyerere and Sheikh Abeid Karume signed a union document. Nyerere became the executive head of state and government while Karume as the first vice-president.In 1967, president Nyerere adopted the ideology of African Socialism through the Arusha Declaration In 1972, the first Vice- president, Sheikh Abeid Karume, was assassinated. Aboud Jumbe succeeded him as Zanzibars president and the vice-president of Tanzania.In 1973, the capital of Tanzania was transferred from Dar-es-Salam to Dodoma.In 1967, the ruling party in the Mainland Tanganyika-TANU and Afro-Shirazi Party in Zanzibar merged to form Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM). Nyerere became the party chairman.In 1978-1979, president Idi Amin invaded Tanzania to annex the Kagera Province, which he claimed, was a Ugandan territory. Nyerere swiftly repulsed Ugandan soldiers.In 1985, Nyerere retired as president and was replaced by Ali Hassan Mwinyi who had succeeded Jumbe as head of Zanzibar and Tanzanias first vice president.In May 1992, Tanzania adopted multi-partism after the 8 [th] constitutional Amendment Act.In 1995, Tanzania conducted the first multi-party election, where Benjamin Mkapa was elected president. **Social developments in Tanzania since independence. ** The major highlight in the social development of an independent Tanzania was an attempt to create a classless society with e reduced gap, between the rich and the poor. Through the Ujamaa policy, president Nyerere tried to turn Tanzania into a country that had political and economic policies based on African traditions and aspirations. ----- 473 ### Under the policy, communal farms were created.Primary education was made free in 1977 and became compulsory in 1978.At present, Tanzania boasts of the highest number of literate persons in eastern Africa.Upto late 1980s, government provided free health services, until the introduction of the Structural Adjustment Programmes by the Donor community.Kiswahili was adopted as a national language and a major medium of instruction in schools. **Economic developments in Tanzania since independence. ** The main landmark in Tanzanias economic the launch of Ujamaa as a development policy in 1967 during the Arusha declaration..Ujamaa was meant to transform production in rural areas and to increase labour productivity and even allow specialization introduction.The government nationalized all the major means of production and essential services in order to empower people economically.The Tanzam railway was constructed with the help of china and was completed in 1975.In 1976, cooperative societies were abolished and replaced with centralized corporations owned by the government.The period between 1979 and 1985 witnessed economic stagnation in Tanzania as investors pulled out of the country.The collapse of the East African Community also affected the economy of the country.After 1985, Nyereres economic policies began to be challenged openly by scholars and economistsWhen president Mwinyi took over, he undertook to reform the economy of Tanzania. **Political challenges that Tanzania has faced since independence. ** a) There was an Army mutiny in Tanzania 1964, which threatened her political stability. b) The socialism policy (The Arusha Declaration) received stiff opposition from many both internally and externally. People favoured capitalism. c) The assassination of Abeid Karume in 1972 and the resignation of Aboud Jumbe in 1984 appeared to threaten the unity of the two members of the Union Declaration. d) The invasion of Tanzania by Uganda in 1978.and the consequent war with Uganda was costly to the country. It also threatened her cooperation with neighbours. e) There was an escalation of corruption among leading members of Tanzanias political elite, including claims that President Hassan Mwinyi and his family capitalized on liberalization to amass a lot of wealth. f) the re-introduction of multiparty democracy tended to awaken tribalism and regionalism although this problem was contained. **Social problems, which Tanzania faced since independence. ** a) Famine and shortage of health services as the government adopted the Structural Adjustment Policies of IMF. b) Poverty and a general drop in living standards as production dropped due to socialism. c) Lack of social amenities, like clean water in rural areas. d) High illiteracy level. ----- 474 ### e) Unemployment. In Tanzania, industries closed after the Arusha declaration. f) Population explosion which outstripped the countrys resources g) Terrorism. Tanzania was under terrorist attacks in 1997 targeting the American embassy. h) Environmental pollution. i) Over-crowding in urban areas. **Economic challenges. ** a) In the early years of independence, the proliferation of African enterprises led to the widening of the gap between the rich and the poor. b) Under the ujamaa policy, the forced villagization programme did not satisfy communities in areas with favourable climate. They therefore strongly resisted it. c) There was rampant rural-urban migration affecting mainly able-bodied men who felt exploited by the new system of production. d) The abolition of cooperatives was met with stiff resistance with many farmers cutting down heir production. Other producers reverted to the black market. e) The Tanzanian shilling became unstable due to price fluctuations of some commodities. f) There was shortage of donor funds caused by the nationalization programme that was opposed by many donor countries. g) The collapse of the East African Community in 1977 denied Tanzania a large common market for her goods **SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL CHALLENGES IN AFRICA IN ** **GENERAL. ** **Political challenges that have faced African countries since independence ** a) The political systems that were inherited from the colonial governments seemed to be unworkable in many independent African states. b) Sharp ideological difference arose among the pioneer leaders of African states. Such differences internally exploded into civil strife in countries like Mozambique, Angola and DRC. c) The cold war had diverstating effects on Africa. it left many African nations divided and locked in border conflicts that continue up to date. d) Political instability was quite common in African states. Coups dtat and military takeover was witnessed in Somalia, Zaire, Nigeria, Chad etc Human rights were violated with the rise of dictatorship. e) There were strained relations between African leaders caused by personal and ideological differences. Some ended in border closure, which greatly undermined international cooperation. f) Many national interests in Africa countries have been in conflict with global and continental interests. Nigeria and Zimbabwe, for example had to be expelled from the Commonwealth of Nations for alleged disregard of human rights and personal ----- 475 ### property. g) Neo-colonialism. Most countries retain the colonial structures of parliament although they have difficulties in sustaining them. Multinational peacekeeping forces are still common in Africa, many African leaders inherited the divide and rule colonial strategy that precipitates anarchy. h) The existence of different ethnic groups has contributed to ethnic wars as witnessed in Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan, Nigeria and Kenya. i) Most African government seemed ill prepared and in experienced in administration. This resulted in rise of rebel movements, as was the case of Mozambique and Angola. **economic challenges facing independent African states today. ** a) Unemployment and socio-economic inequalities both among individuals and between regions are common in may African nations. b) Overdependence on primary exports. The African economy is an extractive one rather than a manufacturing economy. Many countries depend on agriculture and foreign nations for manufactured goods. c) World trade terms are not fair for African nations. Africa countries find themselves trading with former colonial powers that give low prices fort raw material from Africa and charge high process for the manufactured goods. d) There has been the problem of unfavourable climatic conditions. This has curtailed food production, particularly among agricultural communities. e) Population pressure has led to overstretching of social services. There is a high dependency ratio since the population is largely youthful and unemployed. f) Poor economic planning. Some economic policies have destabilized the economies. For the Ujamaa policy in Tanzania, the expelling of foreign investors in Uganda and the massive printing of money in Zaire. g) The tough conditions given by donor agencies have sometimes led to deterioration of social welfare. Retrenchment for example was a key prescription of the Structural Adjustment Programme. h) Corruption and embezzlement of public funds is common in African countries. There is also general lack of transparency among many leaders. Social challenges that have faced African states since independence. a) Inaccessibility to clean water by majority of the people. Most African peoples rely on water fetched from sometimes contaminated streams across long distances. b) The challenge of HIV/AIDS pandemic. This has had a toll on productive members of the society. c) Poor housing facilities.. in urban areas, majority of the population live in slums without sanitation facilities. d) The challenge of high population growth rate. This affects the quality of the services provided by governments. ----- 476 ### e) Language problem. Language development and use has been a challenge in Africa. In many countries, conflict tends to arise over the language to adopt- local or the inherited f) Religious differences. This challenge has been the main cause of the splitting of the once largest country in Africa-Sudan in 2011. The predominantly Christian southern Sudan has become the youngest African state thanks to religious differences. g) Absence of practical systems of education. Many countries rely on theoretical education with little emphasis in technical skills. **DEVOLVED GOVERNMENT. ** Devolution This refers to the granting of power from the central government to a lower level such as a region or a local level.A Devolved Government is a system of government where there is a transfer or allocation of authority from a central government to a regional government. In a devolved government, power and resources are decentralized with part of the political and economic decision making transferred to the people through the locally established assemblies. **Origin of devolution in Kenya. ** The Lancaster House Conference of 1962 forms the basis of devolution in Kenya. When the independent constitution was drawn during the conference, a federal system of government as proposed by the KADU delegates was adopted in Kenya. It made provisions for six regions. The legislature was to comprise two chambers (the Senate or upper House and the Lower House. However after independence in 1963, the Kenyatta Government began plans to scuttle the system of government. By December 1964, KANU and KADU merged to form a unitary government of the republic of Kenya. The enactment of the new constitution on 27 [th] August 2010 reintroduced the concept of devolution in Kenya.Kenya is divided into 47 Counties each governed by A County Governor with theassistance of the County Executive Assembly. The National Government seats in Nairobi. To change County Boundaries, the Following must be considered; a) Population density and demographic trends. b) Physical and Human infrastructure. c) Historical and Cultural Ties. d) The cost of administration. e) The Views of the communities affected. f) The objectives of devolution of government. g) Geographical features. **Reasons why devolved governments were established in Kenya. ** a) They were established as a means of promoting democratic and accountable exercise of power. b) To Foster national unity by recognizing diversity. c) To give powers of self-governance to the people and enhance the participation of ----- 477 ### the people in the exercise of the powers of the State and in making decisions affecting them. d) To recognize the right of communities to manage their own affairs and to further their development. e) To protect and promote the interests and rights of minorities and marginalized communities. f) To promote social and economic development and the provision of services throughout Kenya. g) To ensure equitable sharing of national and local resources throughout Kenya. h) To facilitate the decentralization of State organs, their functions and services, from the capital of Kenya; i) To enhance checks, balances and the separation of powers. **Principles of devolution of government in Kenya. ** a) County governments shall be based on the democratic principles and separation of power. b) County governments shall have reliable sources of revenue to enable them to govern and deliver services effectively. c) No more than two-thirds of the members of representative bodies in each county government shall be of the same gender. **Structure and Functions of a county government in Kenya. ** The county government is composed of County assemblies, county executive committees and county public service. **County Assembly in Kenya. ** A county assembly consists of Members (one member per ward) elected by the registered voters of the wards in a general election.Members of special seats (no more than two-thirds of the membership of the assembly is of the same gender.)Members of marginalized groups, including persons with disabilities and the youth.The Speaker, who is an ex officio member. Nb-The members for special seats and marginalized communities are nominated by political parties in proportion to the seats received in the election in a particular county. **Conditions for seeking election to a County Assembly. ** a) The person must be a registered as a voter in his/her county. b) The person must have been a Kenyan citizen for atleast ten years before the elections. c) The person must be able to read and write in English and Kiswahili. d) He or she must be of sound mind. e) The person must be of unquestionable morals and ethics f) If a public officer, he/she must relinquish his/her public work. g) The person must be nominated by a political party ----- 478 ### h) If he/she is an independent candidate, must b e supported by at least five hundred registered voters in the Ward concerned. i) The person must not have been declared bankrupt. j) The person must not have served a sentence of imprisonment of more than six months. k) Must not have been a member of IBEC within five years before the date of election. l) The person must not have misused or abused a State or public office. **Functions of a county assembly. ** a) County assemblies make laws for the effective performance of the county government. b) It acts as a watch dog over the county executive committee. c) It receives and approves plans and policies for managing and exploiting the countys resources, d) It approves policies for developing and managing the infrastructure and institutions in the county. e) It enhances legislation that may set out the structure and framework for the better administration and management of county governments. f) It approves oversight budgets and development projects within the county. g) It approves investment decisions and loans. h) It supervises other units within the county through political authority, guidance and direction. i) Monitors the execution of projects under approved development plans, and assesses and evaluates their impact on development in the county. **The process of law making in a county government. ** It is the duty of the County Executive committee, comprising of the governor, the deputy governor and ten other members to the details of the proposed legislation with no bias.The public servants in the county governors office participate in preparation of the proposed law.The county executive committee then presents the proposed legislation to the county assembly.The members of the county assembly are then free to make their contributions to the bill during the discussion and debate that follows. Amendments and improvements may be proposed to the bill at this stage.The recommendations are incorporatedIf the members are in favour of the bill, and if it is in conformity with the National Government legislation, then it is approved to become a by- law of the county government **The structure of The County Executive Committee. ** The executive authority of the county is vested in the county executive committee. The committee consists of The county Governor and the Deputy County Governor. Not more than ten other Members appointed by the County Governor, with the approval of the assembly, who are not members of the assembly.If the assembly has less than thirty members, the members should be One-third of the number of members of the ----- 479 ### county assembly.The county governor and the deputy county governor are the chief executive and deputy chief executive of the county respectively.Members of a county executive committee are accountable to the county governor for the performance of their functions and exercise of their powers.The members of the county executive committee cease to hold office once the office of the county governor falls vacant. **Functions of a County Executive Committee. ** a) It implements county legislation. b) It implements, within the county, national legislation. c) It manages and coordinates the functions of the county administration and its departments. d) It prepares proposed legislation for consideration by the county assembly. e) It provides the county assembly with full and regular reports on matters relating to the county. **Powers and functions of a governor in a county government. ** a) The Governor is the chief executive officer of the county. The Executive Branch of government, headed by the Governor, includes executive departments and advisory boards. b) The Governor is the Chairman of county executive committee. c) he/ she is in charge of implementing, within the county, national legislation to the extent that the legislation so requires; d) He ensures, through the county executive committee, the implementation of county legislation. e) He manages and coordinates the functions of the county administration and its departments. f) He provides the county assembly with full and regular reports on matters relating to the county. g) He appoints with the approval of the assembly members, members to the county executive committee. h) He ensures that Members of a county executive committee perform their functions and exercise of their powers fully. i) He handles on behalf of the county, all external affairs with other counties in consultation with the central government. (Excluding any which have been delegated to cabinet secretaries.). j) The Governor prepares and submits a budget of the county for the following fiscal year. k) He sets the terms and conditions of service of persons holding or acting in public offices in the county. l) By virtue of his office, the Governor serves on certain boards and special commissions in the county. The Governor chairs the Board of Public Works. ----- 480 ### **Election of a county governor. ** The county governor is directly elected by the voters registered in the county at a general election for a term of 5 years.To be eligible for election as county governor, a person must be eligible for election as a member of the county assembly.Each candidate for election as county governor nominates a person as his/her running mate to be the deputy governor.If re-elected, can serve for another final term of 5 years. Each candidate for election as county governor nominates a person as his/her running mate to be the deputy governor. A County Governor can be removed from office under the following circumstances. a) Gross violation of the Constitution or any other law. b) When the county governor commits a crime under national or international law. c) When the governor abuses office or is accused of gross misconduct. d) When he/she suffers from Physical or mental incapacity that hinders performance of the functions of office. **Functions of a deputy governor. ** a) As the deputy chief executive of the county, he or she assists the governor in the management and coordination of the functions of the county administration. b) He or she acts as the governor of the county when the governor is absent. c) The deputy assists the governor in the supervision of work of the county executive committee. d) Since he/she is a member of the county executive committee, he participates in legislation by also preparing proposals for county legislation. e) He assumes governorship of the county incase the governor is incapacitated or is removed from authority for various reasons. **Functions and powers of a county government. ** a) County governments have the duty to assist in promotion of agriculture by initiating development in specific areas like crop and animal husbandry, livestock sale yards, slaughterhouses control of plant and animal diseases and development of fisheries. b) It provides and supervises county health services, both public health and personal health of county members. c) It assists in control of environmental pollution by putting in place legislation to regulate and control air pollution, noise pollution and outdoor advertising. d) It promotes cultural activities, public entertainment and public amenities ion the county by putting in place structures such as libraries, museums, sporting facilities, casinos, beaches and county parks. e) It has a duty to promote and regulate education at the pre-primary, polytechnic, craft and childcare levels. f) It has a duty to develop transport facilities in the county through road construction, street lighting, developing ferries and harbours and parking areas. ----- 481 ### g) The county government regulates county planning and development through land survey and mapping, boundaries, housing, electricity, gas and energy regulation. h) It implements specific national government policies on natural resources and environmental conservation. i) It also puts in place measures to control drug abuse and access to pornography. Relationship between national and county government. a) Governments at either level must exercise their powers and functions in a manner that respects the functional and institutional integrity of government at the other level. b) Each of the two governments must assist, support, consult and implement the legislation of the other level of government. c) Either of the two governments must liaise with government at the other level for the purpose of exchanging information, coordinating policies and administration and enhancing capacity. d) Governments at each level or different level should co-operate in the performance of functions and exercise of powers. e) In any dispute between governments, reasonable efforts to settle dispute should be made. f) County governments rely on Procedures provided under national legislation in settling intergovernmental disputes between them. g) Parliament at national level has the role of ensuring that county governments have adequate support to enable them to perform their functions. h) County governments must operate financial management systems that comply with any requirements prescribed by national legislation. i) National government is permitted to take any measure on county government provided that Notice must be given to county government. j) Where a county government is unable to perform its functions, or does not operate a financial management system that complies with national legislation requirements, the national government may intervene. **Challenges facing county governments in Kenya. ** a) County governments have inadequate funds. Some are located in areas of limited resources. This impedes provision of essential services. Some are too small to operate efficiently. b) Corruption and misappropriation of funds is common in most counties. This is because those vested with the management powers do not have experience since the appointment of governors is through popular vote. c) Rural urban migration is likely to generate population pressure in urban based counties like Nairobi city and Mombasa. urban problems like mushrooming of slums, poor garbage disposal and insufficient sanitary facilities arise. d) There is likely to be national government interference in the affairs and management of county legislation. This hinders free decision-making. ----- 482 ### e) Election of ward members to manage ward affairs may hamper operations of the counties especially in legislation. **Possible solutions to the challenges that may face county governments in Kenya. ** a) The National governments through the Equalization Fund should be able to provide adequate financial support to County governments located in areas of limited resources. This will assist in provision of essential services. b) Those counties that are too small to operate efficiently should be merged with others in terms of social service delivery. c) There should be stricter vetting of candidates to vie for positions of county Governors and deputy county Governors in order the possible challenge of financial management and corruption. d) Urban-based counties should be given more funding by the National Government to enable them solve urban related problems. e) The National government should come up with means on how to curb Rural urban migration. This may be done through creation of employment generating opportunities in rural counties. f) The county governments, especially those that are in economically viable areas should be given financial autonomy and a free-hand in decision making, by the national government. **PUBLIC REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE IN KENYA. ** **SOURCES OF PUBLIC REVENUE. ** Public finance refers to revenue and expenditure of the national and county government. **Principles that govern the use of public finance in Kenya. ** a) The principle of openness and accountability. There shall be public participation in financial matters. b) The public finance system should promote an equitable society, and in particular the burden of taxation should be shared fairly. c) Revenue raised nationally should be shared equitably among national and county governments. d) Expenditure of public finance should promote the equitable development of the country, including making special provision for marginalized groups and areas. e) The burdens and benefits of the use of resources and public borrowing should be shared equitably between present and future generations. f) Public money should be used in a prudent and responsible way. g) There should be responsible financial management accompanied by clear fiscal reporting to ensure effective use of public funds. **NATIONAL BUDGET. ** The national budget is a comprehensive statement that gives an estimate of public revenue, expenditure and financial plans for a given financial year for a government. ----- 483 ### **Components of the national and county governments budgets in Kenya. ** a) Estimates of revenue and expenditure, differentiating between recurrent and development expenditure. b) Proposals for financing any anticipated deficit for the period to which they apply. c) Proposals regarding borrowing and other forms of public liability that will increase public debt during the following year. **The process of Budget preparation and implementation in Kenya. ** Three months before the end of each financial year, the head of each department or State organ submits estimates of revenues and expenditures for the following year to the secretary for finance. Two months before the end of each financial year, the Cabinet Secretary for finance submits to the National Assembly estimates of the revenue and expenditure of the national government for the following financial year.He also submits a detailed national fiscal, monetary and development plan for a period of three years prepared by him in collaboration with the Secretary responsible for planning and national development.The estimates include estimates for expenditure from the Equalization Fund.The National Assembly then considers the estimates submitted together with the estimates submitted by the Parliamentary Service Commission and the Chief Registrar of the Judiciary.Before the National Assembly considers the estimates of revenue and expenditure, a committee of the Assembly will discuss and review the estimates and make recommendations to the Assembly.Committee makes its recommendations to the National Assembly. When the estimates have been approved by the National Assembly, there will be an Appropriation Bill, introduced into the National Assembly to authorize the withdrawal from the Consolidated Fund of the money needed for the expenditure. The Appropriation Bill will not include expenditures that are charged on the Consolidated Fund.The process of Budget preparation and implementation in a county government.Further reading about this is encouraged. **Sources of public revenue for national government in Kenya. ** **Domestic Revenue Sources. ** These are the taxes levied on citizens, private and public organizations, foreign investors and business people. There are two main groups of taxes; 1. Direct taxes. 2. Indirect taxes. **1. Direct taxes. (Income tax) ** These are taxes derived from peoples salaries in form of income tax. **2. Indirect taxes. ** These are taxes levied on goods and services but with parliamentary approval. They include; a) Value-added tax; an indirect sales tax paid on specific goods such as sugar, bread, petroleum products, clothes, electronic equipment and motor vehicles. ----- 484 ### b) Customs duties:- there are duties on imported goods such as motor vehicles, machinery, fertilizer, sugar, wheat, electronics, luxury goods, etc. c) Excise tax; this is charged on locally produced goods that are sold within the country . d) Export Duty; the duty charged on locally produced goods such as textiles, coffee, tea, soda ash and pyrethrum which are exported. e) Trading Licenses; f) Sales Stamp Duty; on entertainment services, betting, casino and premium bonds. g) Traffic Revenue tax; levied on various categories of traffic services. E.g., the Road Maintenance Levy, the drivers licence, Airport tax by air passengers. h) Investment Revenue; earned from parastatal and other profit making bodies that remit profits through the treasury. i) Loan interest receipts. Collection of taxes from parastatals like AFC, KTDA, KPC, NCPB and KCB. j) Land Rates. k) House rates. l) Fees; paid in terms of timber levies, CO2 levies and mining fees. m) Court Fines n) Borrowing (under laid down law or procedure). o) Tourism fess External Revenue Sources **There are two main sources of external assistance; ** 1. Bilateral Aid; where two friendly nations assist each other. E.g. Kenya and Japan 2. Multilateral Aid ; many countries form trading blocs or global institutions like World Bank, IMF, European Union and commonwealth for this purpose. **Sources of finance for county governments. ** a) The main source of funding for many counties is their equitable share from 15% of the national budget. b) Conditional and unconditional grants. Unconditional Grants are funds allocated by the national government without conditions regarding their use. Conditional grantsare the funds allocated by the national government for funding of specific projects and programmes. They include; ~ The Equalization Fund for provision of basic services like water, health services, electricity and roads in marginalized areas. ~ The Contingencies Fund to carter for urgent and unforeseen circumstances c) Counties own revenues. Counties have the power to collect property rates, impose taxes on entertainment, and impose fees and charges for services they render to people and any other tax that Parliament permits them to impose. d) Borrowing, where the national government guarantees the loan or with the approval of the county assembly. e) Grants and donations ----- 485 ### **Factors that determine equitable sharing of public finance. ** a) The national interest. b) Any provision that must be made in respect of the public debt and other national obligations. c) The needs of the national government, determined by objective criteria. d) The need to ensure that county governments are able to perform the functions allocated to them. e) The fiscal capacity and efficiency of county governments. f) Developmental and other needs of counties. g) Economic disparities within and among counties and the need to remedy them. h) The need for affirmative action in respect of disadvantaged areas and groups. i) The need for economic optimization of each county and to provide incentives for each county to optimize its capacity to raise revenue. j) The desirability of stable and predictable allocations of revenue. k) The need for flexibility in responding to emergencies and other temporary needs. **Regulations that govern imposition of taxes and charges in Kenya. ** a) Only the national government may impose Income tax, Value-added tax, Customs duties and other duties on import and export goods; and excise tax. b) An Act of Parliament may authorize the national government to impose any other tax or duty. c) A county may impose property rates, entertainment taxes, and any other tax that it is authorized to impose by an Act of Parliament. d) The national and county governments may impose charges for services. e) The taxation and other revenue-raising powers of a county should not be exercised in a way that prejudices national economic policies, economic activities across county boundaries or the national mobility of goods, services, capital or labour. f) No tax or licensing fee may be imposed, waived or varied except as provided by legislation. g) If permitted, a public record of each waiver shall be maintained together with the reason for the waiver; and each waiver, and the reason for it, should be reported to the Auditor-General. h) No law may exclude or authorize the exclusion of a State officer from payment of tax. **The revenue collected by the government is deposited into the following funds; ** 1. Equalization Fund; This is a Fund specially established by the National government, to provide basic services including water, roads, health facilities and electricity to marginalized areas to the extent necessary to bring the quality of those services in those areas to the level generally enjoyed by the rest of the nation. 2. Consolidated Fund; this is the fund into which all the money raised or received by the national government is paid. Money set aside by parliament for specific ----- 486 ### purpose and money set aside by state organs to take care of their expenses is however not deposited in this fund. 3. Contingencies Fund; this is a fund from which advances will be made if the secretary for finance is convinced that there is an urgent matter that needs funding and for which there is no other provisions. 4. Revenue Funds; this is a fund for each county into which all the money raised or received by the county government is paid. **Expenditure of Public Revenue. ** There are two ways in which the national government spends its revenue. 1. Capital expenditure . The money set aside in the national budget for development projects. 2. Recurrent expenditure. The money used by the government to sustain and maintain the existing facilities. **How the national government spends its money under recurrent expenditure. ** a) The government remunerates its employees through regular payment of salaries and wages. b) The expenditure is also used to maintain public property throughout the country by allocating necessary funds to roads, airports, colleges, school text book provision and bridge maintenance. c) The money is also used to service debts from international donor agencies and local financial institutions. d) The money is also used to contribute to regional and international organizations like COMESA, AU, UN and Commonwealth. e) It is used to provide grants to counties and parastatals, and bursaries to schools and colleges. f) The money is also used to maintain Kenyan embassies abroad. **County government expenditure. ** County governments spend their monies in the following ways; a) Provision of basic social services like water, health facilities, electricity and cemeteries. b) The money from its recurrent expenditure is used to pay wages and salaries to its employees. c) The counties spend their money to some extend to control air and noise pollution, and also on refuse removal and solid waste disposal. d) Money is used to finance development of roads, parking facilities, ferries and street lighting, develop entertainment, sporting, trading and cultural facilities. e) In repair maintenance and improvement of public facilities like roads, health facilities, markets, libraries, housing etc. f) Some money is set aside as emergency utility for fire fighting services and disaster management. ----- 487 ### g) The counties use their money to service the borrowed funds plus the interest accrued. h) They also use money to provide early childhood education through development of nursery schools. They also develop village polytechnics and home craft training centres. **Ways through which proper management of public finances by national ** **government is ensured in Kenya. ** a) Any national governments expenditure by state departments or state organs must be approved by parliament which acts as the public watchdog. b) The controller of budget oversees the implementation of the national budget by authorizing legal withdrawals from public funds such as the equalization fund, consolidated fund and contingencies fund c) The controller of budget submits to each house of parliament report on the implantation of the budget of the nationa l government. d) Where a state organ or any other public body fails to adhere to the laid down procedures of expenditure, the cabinet secretary for finance, with the approval of parliament, may stop the transfer of funds to the body. e) There is constant auditing of accounts and financial records of all government and other public bodies. f) Every public body has a n accounting officer who is accountable to the national assembly for the financial management of the public body. g) The auditor general audits all accounts of all government and state organs. h) The government has put up policies related to procurement which is supposed to be fair, transparent, competitive and cost effective. to regulate public procurement, various bodies have been set up. e.g the public procurement oversight authority (PPOA), the public procurement administrative review board (PPARB) i) The government has also imposed sanctions against contractors who fail to fulfil their contractual agreements either by failing to complete jobs or by doing sh oddy work. j) Sanctions are to be imposed against those persons who fail to pay their taxes, or engage in corrupt practices. k) All government contracts are publicly advertised for awarding of tenders and awards. l) The government established the Kenya Anti-Corruption Commission (KACC) in 2004 which has the function of investigating corrupt cases in a non-partisan manner. Management and expenditure of public finances in county governments. a) In every county, there is established a revenue fund where all funds, (includ ing the countys own revenues, transfers from national revenues, grants and borrowed funds) are consolidated. ----- 488 ### b) Money from this fund is only withdrawn following specific procedures authorized by parliament or by county laws. c) County governments must operate financial management systems that comply with all requirements of national legislation. d) The county assembly must vote on the budget and approve expenditure by various departments of the county. e) The county treasury must seek quarterly approvals from the controller of budget for withdrawal from the revenue fund based on the needs of the county. f) The accounting officer of a county organ or public body is accountable to the county assembly for the financial management of the public body. g) Each county has a county accountant general who maintains financial records of all the funds withdrawn from the revenue fund, and expenditure incurred. h) Apart from the internal audits in every county, the auditor general audits the accounts of the county governments and submits reports to the relevant county assembly. **The controller of Budget. ** ***Role of the controller of budget. *** a) He or she oversees the implementation of the budgets of the national and county governments. b) He or she authorizes withdrawals from the public funds such as the Equalization, Consolidated and Revenue Funds. c) he or she submits to each house of parliament, every four months, a report on the implementation of the budgets of both national and county government **Auditor General. ** Read on this **The Commission on Revenue Allocation. ** The Commission consists of; a) A chairperson. b) One nominee of each regional assembly. c) Two persons to represent county governments. d) Two persons nominated by the National Assembly. e) The Principal Secretary in the Ministry responsible for finance. f) The Controller of Budget. Functions of the commission of Revenue Allocation. a) He is responsible for determining the basis for the equitable sharing of revenue from national resources between the national government and the various levels of devolved government. b) It makes recommendations on matters concerning the financing, and financial management by county governments c) It determines and regularly reviews a policy that set out the criteria by which to identify the marginalized areas. ----- 489 ### d) It defines and enhances the revenue sources of the national and county governments. e) It submits its recommendations to the senate, national assembly, the national executive, county assemblies and county executives. f) It mediates in and determines disputes relating to financial arrangem ents between the national government and devolved governments. **Functions of Central Bank. ** a) Promote and maintain the stability of the value of the currency of the Republic. b) Issue notes and coins. c) Act as banker and financial adviser of the Government. d) Conduct the monetary policy of the Government in a manner consistent with the relevant provisions of the law in the interest of the balanced and sustainable economic growth of the Republic. e) Encourage and promote economic development and the efficient utilization of the resources of the Republic, through effective and efficient operation of a banking and credit system. **Why the Economic and Social Council established in Kenya. ** a) To advise the national government and Parliament on matters of economic and social concern to the people of the Republic. b) To advise the national government on the formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of strategic economic and social policies. c) To consider and report to Parliament on the economic and social implications of all Bills and budgetary proposals introduced in Parliament. d) To monitor progress in the improvement of the living standards of the people of Kenya, particularly those of the poor and the disadvantaged. **THE ELECTORAL PROCESS, FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENTS IN OTHER ** **PARTS OF THE WORLD. ** **BRITAIN ** Britain comprises England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. The country has evolved a parliamentary system of government over the years.The Saxon Kings who invaded Britain in the 5 [th] Century AD had absolute powers- ruling without consulting the citizens, and there positions were hereditary.However, in the 12 [th] century AD, they introduced the parliamentary system. They agreed that the kings/queens could only rule according to the laws of the land that should be made by the representatives of the people. This was what came to known as a constitutional monarchy. **The electoral process in Britain ** The British government is based on the party system. Elections for party leaders are held separately before the general elections. The three main parties are the Conservative Party, **Liberal Party and Labour Party. ** ----- 490 ### Unlike USA and other major democratic states outside commonwealth, there is no fixed date for British parliamentary elections. The date of a general election is decided upon by the prime Minister. The Choice of a date of elections is influenced by the following factors; 1. The economic situation that is the availability of funds. 2. The state of the governments legislative programme in the House of Commons. 3. The desire to increase government support in parliament. The electoral system for the House of Commons is based on the principal of one person, one vote There are two types of elections for the House of Commons. ~ General elections where members of the House of Commons are elected for a 5-year term. ~ By elections in the event of resignation, death or resignation of a member of parliament. There are also local elections in which representatives of local authorities (councillors) are voted for are held every 4 years. The local authorities include the District Councils, London Boroughs, Metropolitan districts and Regional and island councils. In Britain, there are also euro-elections, first introduced in 1979, in which representatives to the European Union parliament are chosen.81 MPs were elected in 1979. **Voter Registration. ** It is the local authorities that hold the responsibility of registering voters. Since 1948, a postal vote is possible for citizens who are away from their constituencies during the voting period, either on business or other reasons. **The following categories of people qualify to vote in Britain; ** a) British Citizens over the age of 18 years. b) Citizens from commonwealth countries who have resided in Britain for periods stipulated by law. c) Citizens of the republic of Ireland who have been residents for periods stipulated by law. **The following are ineligible to vote in Britain. ** a) Persons of unsound mind. b) Convicts detained in a prison. c) Persons convicted of corrupt or illegal practices in connection with elections cannot vote for five years from the date of conviction. d) Adults whose names do not appear on the register of voters. e) Peers or members of the House of Lords A candidate who wishes to contest for a parliamentary seat in Britain must fulfil the following conditions; ----- 491 ### a) He/she must be a British citizen or a common subject or a citizen of the republic of Ireland. b) He/she must be of a minimum age of 21 years. c) He/ she must be nominated by a political party or be an independent candidate. **The following are disqualified from vying for a parliamentary seat in Britain. ** a) English/Scottish peers who have the right to sit in the House of Lords. b) Clergy of the Church of England, or the Church of Ireland, Ministers of the church of Scotland, and Roman Catholic priests. c) Aliens. d) Certified Lunatics. e) Undisputed bankrupts. f) Convicted persons. g) Persons who have committed illegal practices during elections like corruption. h) Members of the armed forces. **Candidates vie for 650 parliamentary seats. ** The candidates are either nominated by respective parties or stand as independent candidates and need not reside in the constituencies as long as they register as voters in that constituency. Once nomination of candidates has taken place, campaigns are allowed for two weeks before voting. Each candidate appoints an election agent to manage the finances and protect the interests of the candidate during he campaign. The agent also explains the candidates party policies and identifies party supporters within the constituency. He/she familiarizes the candidates name toprospective voters.Election officials work hand in hand with party agents during Election Day.Each candidate must deposit 500 sterling pounds with the registrar, which is returned in the event that the candidate garners over 5% of the total vote in the constituency.Elections in Britain are by plurality. Candidates who get the highest of votes win the elections.The party that secures most parliamentary seats is declared winner and is asked to form the next government. Emphasis is on number of seats not votes cast.The House of Lords members are drawn from people with high offices. E.g. bishops, distinguished scientists and artists, great sportsmen, retired judges etc **Functions of Government in Britain. ** The British government operates around four basic institutions; a) The Monarchy. b) The Legislature. c) The Executive. d) The Judiciary. **The Monarchy. ** In Britain, the Monarchy is represented by the queen. The Monarch assent to all legislations.The Monarch appoints the PM and approves the cabinet ----- 492 ### **Other Functions of the Monarchy. ** a) The monarch as head of state advises government b) The monarch summons, prorogues and dissolve parliament in consultation with the Prime Minister. c) The Monarch gives royal assent to bills passed by parliament to become law. d) Management of the countrys foreign policy including enactment of treaties. e) It confers honours to persons who have rendered distinguished services. For example, the peerages to become Lords or knights and will be referred to as LADY OR Sir f) The Monarch approves appointment s to important state offices such as judges, senior members of the armed forces and civil service. g) The monarch pardons and gives reprieve to people who have been accused of committing various offences. h) The Monarch appoints Bishops and Archbishops of the Anglican Church. NB; At the beginning of each new session of parliament, the monarch addresses both Houses together in the House of Lords to mark the formal opening of parliament. In the address, the monarch outlines government proposed legislations for the coming session. **Importance of the monarchy to the British people. ** a) The presence of the monarchy helps to give some continuity to executive policy. b) It inspires the head of government with a sense of responsibility and dignity. c) It acts as a useful counsellor to the head of government. d) It is the symbol of commonwealth unity. e) It sets standards for social life. The presence of members of the royalty at the inauguration of scientific, artistic and charitable works ensures nationwide support. f) The royal family pays state visits to foreign government and undertakes tours in other countries of the commonwealth, hence contributing to better understanding between Britain and other nations. **The Legislature/parliament. ** It is made up of the monarchy, House of Lords and House of commons. The following are ways through which one can gain membership to parliament in Britain; a) Elections. b) Nominations c) Inheritance. d) By Virtue of office. E.g. members of the House of Lords maintain their parliamentary seat whenever a new parliament is constituted.Parliament is a supreme institution in Britain. It passes changes or repeals laws without being vetoed by the courts of law. How parliamentary supremacy is demonstrated in Britain. a) Parliament makes amends and abolishes laws. No other institution can do that. b) Branches of government operate under the laws passed by parliament. /parliament is the supreme institution in Britain and all other institutions derive their power from it. ----- 493 ### c) Parliament can pass a vote of no confidence in the executive. / has powers to remove any unpopular government from office. d) It approves government revenue and expenditure. / It is the only institution empowered to approve government budget. e) Decisions of parliament are binding to all. They cannot be overruled or nullified by a court of law. **The House of Lords. ** Membership to The House of Lords is based on nomination by the monarch or by hereditary principle. Some membership is through holding senior positions within the Church of England Consists of 1200 members 800 of whom are heredity peers, 26 are Bishops and 21 are Lords of Appeal One can become a member of the House of Lords in the following ways; 1. Through nomination by the monarch. 2. When one holds hereditary parentage position. Normally the eldest male member of the family inherits the position. 3. Through holding some senior position in the society e.g. within the Church of England -Archbishop of Canterbury. Members of the House of Lords only receive sitting allowances. Only the Lords of Appeal receive annual salaries. **Role played by the House of Lords in the British parliamentary system. ** a) The house of lords checks the powers of the House of Commons and therefore prevents nasty legislation. Bills from the House of Commons have to go to the House of Lords for debate and approval. b) It addresses non-controversial bills that the lower house has no time to address. c) The house of lords holds bills from the lower hose long enough to seek public approval d) The House of Lords questions ministers about the activities of government and stages debates on general issues of national policy. e) It seats as a court of appeal for criminal cases. on such occasions, the court is presided over by the lord chancellor (speaker of the house) f) It provides a forum for utilization of the talents of people who coul d not win a general election. These people are created peers by the queen and become members of the House of Lords. g) It enhances unity in the country as newcomers are created lords by the queen and then become members of the House of Lords. h) It provides continuity in operation of parliament. Old experienced peers retain their seats in the House of Lords until they die, so provide guidance to new and young politicians. **House of Commons. ** It is the major legislative arm of the government. It comprises 650 elected members ----- 494 ### representing constituencies. The leader of the House is the P.M. The chief officer is the speaker who is elected at the start of a new parliamentary session. **Functions of the House of Commons. ** a) Discusses makes and amends laws. However, the monarchy and the house of Lords have powers to veto such laws. b) Approves government revenue and expenditure. It controls finances. No taxes can be imposed without the consent of the House of Commons. c) It has powers to pass a vote of No confidence in the executive (Check the powers of the executive to ensure that the rule of law is maintained. d) Debates on matters of national interest. e) It directs government policy and keeps development programmes on track. f) It is a training ground for future leaders. **Factors which influence the activities of Parliament in Britain. ** a) Members of the House of Commons must consider the moral values of the British society before making any decision. b) Parliamentarians are always sensitive to public opinion because any unpopular government or party risks not being re-elected. c) Local authorities are empowered to make by-laws even without consulting parliament. d) Interests of the institutions under the spotlight are always taken into account before legislation is done in parliament. E.g. the Church, Un iversities, Farmers, trade Unions etc. e) Legislation passed by one parliament can be changed by another future one. f) International law is also taken into account when laws are made. ***NB; these are the factors that limit the parliamentary supremacy in Britain. *** **The executive. ** The executive is made up of the Prime Minister, the cabinet and the civil service. **The Prime Minister. ** Appointed by the monarch, being the leader of the political party that controls an absolute majority, He/she is the Chief executive of the country. **He performs the following functions; ** a) Appoints and dismisses Cabinet ministers with the consent of the monarch. b) He/she recommends to the sovereign the appointment of senior civil servants such as the chief Justice, High Commissioners. c) He/she represents Britain in international fora. d) He/she controls the cabinet secretariat and oversees the execution of cabinet decisions by various departments. e) He/she is the leader of the party that nominates him/her. f) He/she settles disputes between various departments. g) He/she is the leader of the House of Commons. h) He/she initiates both domestic and foreign policies. ----- 495 ### **The Cabinet. ** The cabinet is made of the ministers appointed by the P.M with the approval of the monarch and nominated from the party with the majority of seats. The cabinet performs the following functions; a) The cabinet ministers institute policies that guide the operations in the various departments of the ministry. b) Cabinet determines the policy to present to parliament for consideration. c) Cabinet is responsible for the coordination of government activity. E.g. all ministers must implement cabinet decisions with regard to their department. **The following conventions provide guidance on the operation of the cabinet; ** a) Once a government is defeated, on a major issue or on a vote of no confidence, it is expected to resign. A government whose party is defeated in General elections is expected to resign. b) The cabinet is drawn from the House of Commons and the House of Lords. c) The entire cabinet comes from the same political party of majority seats except during a crisis like war. Since 1945, Britain has never embraced a coalition. d) The advice offered by the cabinet must be accepted by the monarch, failure to which a crisis can occur. e) All members of the cabinet take the Oath of the Privy councillors and are bound to Secrecy by this oath and the official secrets Act. f) Members of the cabinet are collectively responsible for all decisions and actions as well as individually responsible of the departments they head. **The Civil Service ** The British law stipulates the civil servants are servants of the crown. A civil servant is expected to non-partisan and to serve the government of the day without favour. Civil service staff does not change with change of government. Recruitment In the civil service is based on merit. **Functions of the civil Service in Britain. ** a) It implements ministerial policies as agreed by parliament. b) It assists in formulation of policies and generation of policy proposals. c) It manages government administrative machinery. d) It carries out normal duties that public administration demands. **Principles that characterize the British civil service. ** a) The tradition of anonymity. Civil servants are taken to be carrying out the instructions of minister. Ministers get all the credit for all good, as well as censure for all that is criticized. b) The principal of civil service impartiality. Those civil services are expected to serve whichever minister is in office without partiality. Senior civil servants are not permitted to take part in national politics except voting. c) Ministers make policies and civil servants execute the policies. ----- 496 ### d) The tradition of assumption that it is not the task of the civil service to initiate change or take responsibility for planning future lines of social an d economic development. **The Judiciary. ** The judiciary in Britain is based on the supremacy of the law. To safeguard the rule of law, the British Judiciary has an independent court system. How judicial independence is ensured in Britain. a) The salaries of judges are not open to discussion by parliament. b) Since 1701, judges have always bee appointed on good behaviour until retirement. c) A Judge can only be dismissed by a resolution from both houses. **The structure of the British Court System. ** (Further reading encouraged) **components of the British constitution. ** e) Statutes or acts of parliament e.g. act of union with Scotland of 1707. f) Customs-the accepted traditions e.g. the first-born of the sovereign succeeds the king /queen. g) Law of precedence-judges applies accepted principles to new set of facts. h) Custom of parliament e.g. the procedures of the two houses. i) Historical documents e.g. the Magna Carta. **THE USA ** The origin of USA dates back to 1776, when the thirteen British Colonies declared their independence from Britain. USA is a federal government, a form of representative democracy comprising a union of 50 states The adopted a new constitution in 1787 and has the following features. a) It is Federal in nature. b) A written constitution. c) Bill of rights is contained in it. d) The Supreme Court can only interpret it. e) Legislature is Bi-cameral i.e. the senate & the House of Representatives forming the congress/two houses. f) It caters for the separation of powers. g) Does not provide for secession of a member state. h) Federal government and individual states share power through their senators in congress i.e. in making laws. i) The president is the head of the federal government and governors are heads of state. j) It is the supreme law of the land. k) Amendment can only be done through a clearly laid down procedure. **The electoral process in USA. ** **There are three types of election held in USA. ** ***a) The election of the president. *** ***b) Congressional elections *** ----- 497 ### ***c) The state election involving election of state governors and state legislatures. *** All candidates vying for various seats must be American citizens and must be residents in the area they aspire to represent. Age limit is 25 years for the representatives and 35 years for the president.During the lection year party primaries are held between March and May to choose presidential candidates.Party conventions are held in July to confirm winners of the primary elections.Each presidential candidate picks a running mate who becomes the vice president if the presidential candidate wins.Presidential elections are held after every 4 years (on 2 [nd] November).The election of the president is determined indirectly by the Electoral College that comprises electors appointed by each state. When a presidential candidate wins the popular vote in a state, he automatically wins all the states electors.Direct elections are done through popular vote of one man one vote. Senators and members of the House of Representatives are elected after every two years. Senators serve for a period of six years with a third of them elected after every 2 years. Members of the House of Representatives serve for four years and are elected on party basis.Each state elects 2 representatives to the senate making a total of 100 senators for the 50 states.Election of House of Representatives is on the basis of state population. For example, the largest state, California has 52 representatives while Wyoming, the smallest has only one representative.State governors and legislators are elected after every 4 years. **Features of the US system of government. ** a) The federal government is made up of the legislature, executive and the judiciary. b) Each state within the federal government functions as a republic and enjoys equal status. c) The federal government and independent states share the power of formulating and enforcing laws. d) All states have their constitutions but they should not be contradicting to the Federal Constitution. e) The Supreme Court interprets the constitution. f) The congress (Senate and the House of Representatives) is the body entrusted with legislative powers. g) Senate membership is through popular vote of two members from each state for a period of six years. h) The House of Representatives members are elected for a period of two years based on the size of the population. However, each state has to have at least one representative. i) All treaties and appointments by the president have to be ratified by the senate. j) Presidential vote must be supported by two thirds of the votes of the house. k) The Supreme Court made up of the chief justice and eight associate judges heads federal judiciary. l) The president appoints federal judges with the approval of the senate. m) Courts in the judiciary include the court of appeal, the district courts and other special courts, all formed by the congress. ----- 498 ### n) All criminal cases are handled in the courts except the cases of impeachment, which are voted by the house with the approval of the senate. o) Foreign policy and Defence is the preserve of the Federal Government. features of the state governments of U.S.A. a) Each state has a governor. b) Each state has a law court those carters for internal affairs. c) Each state provides educational, health facilities and public amenities for the welfare of the residents. d) Each state is responsible for its own development. e) Each state generates its own revenue necessary for discharging its responsibility. f) Each state has a bicameral legislature. g) Each state has a state police that maintains law and order. **Limitations of state governments in USA. ** a) No state is permitted to enter any treaty, alliance or confederation with other states or countries. b) No state may make her own currency. c) States are forbidden, unless congress approves, to levy duties on imports or exports. d) States are prohibited from maintaining armed forces. e) States are prohibited from entering into any agreement with foreign powers or engaging in war. **how the conduct of USA president is checked ** a) The senate approves presidential appointees to executive positions. b) Congress can refuse to approve the use of government funds for a foreign policy it disagrees with. E.g. war. c) The congress can impeach a sitting president if his conduct while in office is wanting. d) The Supreme Court has powers to declare that the president has acted unconstitutionally, a verdict which can damage his status. e) Any president is limited by the constitution to two four-year terms in office. f) Opinion polls normally reflect the wishes and feelings of the American people, which the sitting president cannot ignore. g) The mass media monitors and reports to the general public every action or speech of the president. **functions of the political parties in USA ** a) Make electoral policies coherent. b) The party level helps voters to sort out through the candidates as parties usually stand for different policies. c) Parties help to put the desire of the people on the government policy agenda. d) Parties provide outlets for citizens to express their sentiments about nominees. e) Political party system provides accountability when the policies of the party fails/ voters hold candidates accountable. ----- 499 ### differences existing between the House of Representatives and the senate in terms of membership. a) The house of representatives is larger with more than 436 members whereas the senate has only 100 members. b) The house of representatives has short period of office (2 years) but the senate is on for a long period of office (6 years) c) Members of the House of Representatives arte elected by constituencies whereas the senate is elected by the state. d) Easier qualification for candidates for membership to the House of Representatives. The senate demands stricter qualifications. e) The house of representatives is less prestigious than the senate. f) Rules of the House of Representatives are more rigid than the rules governing the senate. **functions of the USA president. ** a) He is the head of state. b) He appoints cabinet ministers and senior civil servants with approval of the congress. c) He is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. d) He is the head of the federal government of USA and the defender of of its constitution. e) The president formulates the public policy. f) He can veto or override bills passed by the congress. g) As a head of the party in power, the president influences public opinion and thereby guides the course of the congress. h) He guides and controls foreign affairs and makes treaties. **India. ** **Describe the Indian electoral process. ** a) Indias parliament is composed of the Lower Chamber or House of The People (lok Sabha) and the Upper House or the Council of States (Rajya Sabha). b) The term of lok sabha is five years while that of rajya sabha is six years. c) Lok sabha consists of 545 elected members, 543 elected from each constituency created based on population size. The president nominates two. d) Political parties field candidates in each constituency. e) Indias universal adult suffrage is 18 years. Qualification age for vying is 25 years and above. f) The election commission, a constitution arm of the Indian electoral process oversees the elections. g) Candidates are required to declare their assets, age, educational qualifications and criminal history before being cleared to vie. ----- 500 ### h) Campaigning ends a day before the voting day. Government schools and colleges are chosen to be polling stations. Government servants are employed to man the polling stations. i) There is the use of electronic voting machines instead of ballot boxes. j) The candidate who gunners the most number of votes is declared the winner of the constituency. k) The party or coalition that has won the most number of seats is invited by the president to form the new government. The leader of the party becomes the prime minister. l) Rayja sabha consists of 250 members; the electoral college of India elects 248. The president nominates twelve members from among distinguished people. m) Every state is allotted a certain number of members. n) Candidate age limit is 30 years and above. **functions of a prime minister in India. ** a) He is the head of the federal government b) He is the leader of the house to which he belongs. (he can be either a member of the rajya sabha (upper house) or lok sabha. c) As head of the council of ministers, the prime minister oversees the work o all the ministries. d) Chairs cabinet meetings, which are normally held in the cabinet room of the prime ministers office. e) Guides the president on appointment to the cabinet. f) Participates in the law-making process as a member of the lok sabha. g) The prime minister has traditionally been the minister-in-charge of the department of space, atomic energy and the ministry of personnel, public governance and pensions h) Recommends persons for presidential awards. **functions of the Electoral Commission of India. ** a) Prepares electoral registers b) Setting dates for polling. c) Establishing and operating polling station. d) Allocation party symbols. e) Publishing electoral report. f) Accepting or rejecting nominations as per the law. g) Counting the votes. h) Drawing constituency boundary. What conditions must one fulfill to be elected president in India a) He/she must be a citizen of India. b) He/she must have attained the age of 35 and above. c) He/she should not hold any office. ----- 501 ### d) He/she should be qualified to be elected as a member of the house of the people. (the lok sabha) **functions of the cabinet in the government of India. ** a) Formulation of policy issues affecting the management of the government of India. b) Defends the government policy. c) Ensures that the civil servants implement government policy. d) Advises the president. e) Gives approval to the budget and estimates of the expenditure. f) The cabinet exercises general direction and control of government departments. ----- |
**BIOLOGY FORM ONE NOTES**<br><br>**INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY** **What is Biology?** Biology is the branch of science that deals with the study of living things. In Greek, Bios means life while Logos means knowledge. **Branches of biology** There are two main branches: 1.**Botany:**Study of plants 2.**Zoology:**Study of animals <br><br>**The others include:**<br><br>1.**Ecology:**Study of living things in their surroundings. 2.**Genetics:**The study of inheritance and variation. 3.**Entomology**: Study of insects 4.**Parasitology:**Study of parasites 5.**Taxonomy:**Study of classification of organisms 6.**Microbiology:**Study of microscopic organisms 7.**Anatomy: S**tudy of structure of cells 8.**Cytology:**Study of cells 9.**Biochemistry:**Study of chemical changes inside living <br><br>organisms <br><br>**Name at least six other smaller branches of biology (6 marks).** **Importance of Biology**<br><br>**1. Solving environmental problems**e.g. Food shortage, poor <br><br>health services, pollution, misuse of environmental resources etc. <br><br>**2. Choice of careers e.g.**Medicine, Agriculture, public health, Veterinary, Animal husbandry, Horticulture, Dentistry etc. **3. Acquiring scientific skills**e.g. observing, identifying, recording, <br><br>classification, measuring, analyzing, evaluating etc. <br><br>**4. International co-operation**e.g. Development of HIV\AIDS vaccine, fight against severe Acute respiratory Syndrome (SARS), fight to save ozone layer from depletion, management of resources through international depletion. **Others**<br><br> Help on study of other subjects Learn what living things are made up of and their bodies <br><br>work <br><br> Acquire knowledge about plant and animal diseases and <br><br>their treatment. <br><br> Know the effects of our bodies on drug and substance abuse <br><br>and can kill. <br><br> Learn about HIV\AIDS diseases and other viral diseases e.g. its treatmentbalanced diets, proper hygiene, spreading, sexual behavior, cultural practices etc. <br><br>**List five professional occupations that require the study of biology.** **(5 marks)** **Characteristics of living things;**<br><br>**1. Nutrition:**Process by which living things acquire and utilize nutrients: plants photosynthesize; animals feed on already manufactured foods. <br><br>**2. Respiration:**energy-producing process occurring in all the cells <br><br>of living things. <br><br>**3. Gaseous Exchange:**where living things take in air (oxygen) and <br><br>give out air(carbon iv oxide) across respiratory surfaces. <br><br>**4. Excretion:**Process by which waste or harmful materials resulting <br><br>from chemical reactions within cells of living things are eliminated. Excess of such materials poison living things. <br><br>**5. Growth and Development: Growth**is the irreversible increase in size and Mass.Essential for body function**. Development** Irreversible change in complexity of the structure of living things. 6.**Reproduction:**Process by which living things give rise to new <br><br>individuals of the same kind. <br><br>7.**Irritability:**Is the ability of living things to perceive changes in <br><br>their surroundings and respond to them appropriately. E.g. reaction to changes in temperature, humidity, light, pressure and to the presence of certain chemicals. <br><br>8.**Movement:**Change in position by either a part or the whole <br><br>living thing. Locomotion Progressive change in position by the <br><br>2 whole living thing. In animals, movement include; swimming, walking, running, flying. In plants, closing of leaves, folding of leaves, closing of flowers, growing of shoots towards light etc. <br><br>**Question**<br><br>**1. List four uses of energy obtained from the process of**<br><br>**respiration. (4 marks).**<br><br>**2. List six characteristics of living things (6 marks).**<br><br>**Collection of specimens** **Apparatus used**<br><br>**1. Sweep net:**for catching flying insects. **2. Fish net:**For trapping small fish and other small water <br><br>animals. <br><br>**3. Pooter:**For sucking small animals from rock surfaces and <br><br>tree barks. <br><br>**4. Bait trap:**For attracting and trapping small animals e.g. <br><br>rats. <br><br>**5. Pit fall trap: For catching**crawling animals. **6. Pair of forceps:**picking up small crawling animals e.g. <br><br>stinging insects. <br><br>**7. Specimen bottles:**keeping collected specimen. Larger <br><br>specimens require large bottles. <br><br>**8. The magnifying lens:**Instrument used to enlarge objects. <br><br>Lenses are found in microscope and the hand lens (magnifier). Its frame is marked e.g. x8 or x10indicating how much larger will be the image compared to object. **Precautions during Collection and Observation of specimens** Collect only the number of specimen you need. Do not harm the specimens during the capture or collection <br><br>exercise. <br><br> Handle dangerous or injurious specimens with care e.g. stinging plants or insects i.e. use forceps or hand gloves. The teacher will immobilize highly mobile animals. (diethyl <br><br>ether, formalin, chloroform) <br><br> Do not destroy the natural habitat of the specimens. <br><br>Practical activity 2 <br><br>3 Practical activity 3 **Comparison between plants and animals**<br><br>**Plants** 1. Green in colour( have **Animals** 1. Lack chlorophyll thus <br><br>chlorophyll) 2. Their cells have feed on readymade food. 2. Cells lack cellulose cell <br><br>cellulose cell walls. 3. Respond slowly to changes in the environment. 4. Lack specialized excretory organs. 5. Do not move about. <br><br>walls. <br><br>3. Respond quickly. <br><br>4. Have complex excretory organs. 5. Move about in search of food and water. 6.Growth occurs in all body parts9intercalary growth). <br><br>6. Growth occurs in shoot and root tips.(apical growth) <br><br>**Revision questions** **CLASSIFICATION I**<br><br>**INTRODUCTION** Living things are also known as living organisms. Organisms (forms of life) have distinguishing characteristics and therefore are grouped. **The Magnifying lens** -Is used for enlarging small objects. **(Diagram)** **Procedure of its use**<br><br> Place the object on the bench. Move the hand lens from the object to the eye. An enlarged image is seen. <br><br>Drawing magnification = Length of the drawing/ drawing Length Length of the object/Actual Length <br><br>4 **External features of plants and animals** **External features of plants**<br><br>i) Rhizoids as in moss plant. ii) Fronds in ferns. iii) Roots, stems, leave, flowers, seeds, fruits, and cones in higher <br><br>plants. <br><br>**External features of animals** i) Tentacles in hydra ii) Feathers in birds iii) Shells in snails iv) Wings in birds v) Fur and hair in mammals vi) Scales and fins in fish vii) Proglotids in tapeworms viii) Mammary glands in mammals ix) Locomotory Structures e.g. limbs in insects x) Body pigmentation **Practical activity 1** **To collect and observe animal specimens** **To collect and observe plant specimens**<br><br>**What is classification?** **-I**s an area of biology that deals with the grouping of living organisms according to their structure. Organisms with similar structures are put under one group referred to as**a taxontaxa**(plural). The groupings also consider evolutionary relationships (phylogeny) since all living organisms had a common origin at one time. TaxonomyScience of classification. TaxonomistBiologist who studies taxonomy. **Need for classification.** **Reasons** 1. To identify living organisms into their correct groups for <br><br>reference and study <br><br>2. To bring together living organisms with similar characteristics but <br><br>separate those with different features. <br><br>3. To arrange information of living organisms in an orderly manner. <br><br>This avoids chaos and confusion. <br><br>4. To understand the evolutionary relationship between different <br><br>organisms **Taxonomic Units** Are groups (taxa) into which organisms are placed as a matter of convenience. Groups are based on observable characteristics common in the group. In a classification scheme (taxonomic units or groups, a hierarchy of groups are recognized starting with the first largest and highest group; the**Kingdom**to the smallest and lowest unit; the**species**. There are 7 major taxonomic units. **The Kingdom** There are five Kingdoms of living organisms, namely: <br><br>1.**Kingdom Monera**: bacteria 2.**Kingdom protoctista**: algae, protozoa, amoeba, paramecium 3.**Kingdom Fungi**: Moulds, Yeast, Mushrooms 4.**Kingdom Plantae**: Moss plants, ferns, maize, garden pea, pine, <br><br>meru oak, bean etc. <br><br>5.**Kingdom Animalia**: hydra, tapeworms, bees, human beings etc. <br><br>6 **A kingdom**is divided into**Phyla**in animals or divisions in plants and sorts out organisms based on body plan and form. Plan is the adaptation to a special way of life. The**Class**is further divided into small groups;**Orders**using structural features. Orders are divided**into families**using structural features, then Families into**Genera**(singular genus) based on recent common ancestral features that are less adaptive. Genus is divided into**species**i.e. kind of plant, or animal. Down the hierarchy, the number of organisms in each group decreases but their similarities increases. The Species group members naturally interbreed to produce fertile off springs. Minor differences are exhibited in the species groups e.g. on colour of the skin in human beings and varieties of plants. The groups of the species are termed to as varieties, races or strains. **Classification of A human being and a maize plant** **Human being maize** **Taxonomic** **unit** **kingdom** **Phylum or** **division** **class** **order** **family** **genus** **species**<br><br>**bean**<br><br>**Animalia** Chordata **plantae** **Angiospermaphyta Angiospermae**<br><br>**plantae**<br><br>**Mammalia monocotyledonae Dicotyledonae** Primates **Hominidae** **homo** **sapiens** **Graminales** **Graminaceae** **zea** **mays** **Rosales** **Leguminosae** **Phaseolus** **Vulgaris**<br><br>Scientific name*Homo sapiens Zea mays* *phaseolus vulgaris* **Scientific Naming Of Living Organisms** **P**resent naming was developed by carolus Linnaeus 18th c, where organisms were given 2 names in Latin language. Living organisms have their scientific names and common names i.e. local or vernacular names. <br><br>7 Scientific naming uses the double naming system**Binomial system**. In binomial system, an organism is given both the**genus**and**species** name. **Binomial nomenclature**(Double naming system)-Is the assigning of scientific names to living organisms governed by a definite set of rules recognized internationally. **Principles of binomial nomenclature**<br><br>**a)**The first, genus name, should begin with a capital letter and the <br><br>second name, species, should begin or written in small letters e.g. Lion----*Panthera leo* Leopard*----- Panthera pardus* Domestic dog*----- Canis farmiliaris* Human being---*Homo sapiens* Maize plant---*Zea mays*<br><br>Lion and Leopard are closely related ---Same genus but distantly relateddifferent species. <br><br>b) The scientific names must be printed in italics in textbooks and <br><br>where hand written to be underlined e.g.*Panthera leo.*<br><br>c) The specific name (species) is frequently written with the name of <br><br>the scientist who first adequately described and named the organism e.g.*Phaseolus*vulgaris i.e. Vulgaris is the scientist who described and named the bean plant. d) Biologists should give a Latinized name for a newly described <br><br>animal or plant species where Latin name is missing e.g. *Meladogyne kikuyuensis* Is a scientific name of a nematode from kikuyu. *Aloe kilifiensis*--- A member of Aloeceae family from Kilifi discovery. *Garinsoga parviflora waweruensis*--- a member of Macdonald eye family discovered by Waweru. <br><br>**Study Question 1** **Complete the table below** Lion Taxon <br><br>Domestic dog Garden pea Napier grass <br><br>kingdom <br><br>8 **CLASSIFICATION 1**<br><br>*Review of the magnification lens* *Calculating Magnification* *External characteristics of plants and animals*<br><br>**Diversity of Living Organisms**<br><br> Organisms with similar characteristics are placed under one group <br><br>called**taxon (taxa).**<br><br> The science of classification is known as**taxonomy**. Biologists who study taxonomy are called**taxonomists**. <br><br>**Need For Classification**<br><br>1. Help in identifying living organisms into their correct groups for <br><br>reference. <br><br>2. It brings together organisms with similar characteristics and <br><br>separates those with different features. <br><br>3. Help to organize information about living organisms in an orderly <br><br>manner avoiding any confusion. <br><br>4. Help to understand the evolutionary relationship between <br><br>different living organisms. <br><br>**Historical Background of Classification**<br><br> Long time ago classification was artificial where living things <br><br>were classified as either plants or animals. <br><br> Plants were classified as herbs, shrubs and trees. Animals were further divided into carnivores, herbivores and <br><br>omnivores. Today modern classification uses evolutionary relationships <br><br>between living organisms. **Taxonomic Units of Classification**<br><br> This refers to the groups into which living organisms are placed <br><br>in classification. <br><br> These units start from the first largest and highest group (**kingdom**) to the smallest and lowest unit (**species**). <br><br> There are seven taxonomic units as shown below. Kindom Phylum(division) Class Order Family Genus Species <br><br>**1. Kingdom**<br><br>***Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778)***initially introduced the two kingdom system of classification. However many new life forms have been discovered which are neither animals nor plants. This has led to a more accepted classification system that adopts five kingdoms. These are; **i.) Monera .eg bacteria** **ii.) Protoctista e.g algae and protozoa** **iii.) Fungi e.g. mushrooms, moulds and yeast.** **iv.) Plantae e.g. maize, ferns and all types of trees.** **v.) Animalia e.g. man, cow tapeworm, flies etc.** Kingdom is further divided into several phyla in animals or divisions in plants. <br><br>**2. Phylum (phyla) or Division in plants.**<br><br>It is the second largest and further divided into classes. <br><br>**3. Class**<br><br>Each class is divided into several orders**.**<br><br>**4. Order** Orders are divided into smaller groups called families**.**<br><br>**5. Family**<br><br>Family is divided into several**Genera.**<br><br>**6. Genus**<br><br>Here members are closely related. It is further divided into the species. <br><br>**7. Species**<br><br>This is the smallest unit of classification. *Species is defined as a group of organisms whose members**naturally*** ***interbreed**to produce**fertile offsprings*.** Members of a given species have small differences such as skin colour, height etc. ***Classification of Man and Maize plant. ( Table 2.1 KLB Bk*** ***1)*** **Scientific Naming of Living Organisms.**<br><br> Today organisms are given two names in Latin language. This <br><br>was developed by***Carolus Linnaeus.***<br><br> Latin language was used because it was widely spoken during his <br><br>time. <br><br> In scientific naming, an organism is given the**genus**and the <br><br>**species name**. <br><br> This double naming system is known as*Binomia*l system (two <br><br>name System) **Binomial Nomenclature.** This is the*double naming*system of organisms where organisms are assigned two names i.e. the*generic*name and the*specific*name. In binomial nomenclature the following rules are observed. <br><br>i.) Generic name is written first followed by the specific name. First letter in the generic name is in capital and the rest are in small letters. Specific name is written in small letters. <br><br>ii.) The two names are underlined separately when handwritten or <br><br>italicised when printed. <br><br>iii.) Newly discovered species must be given Latinized names. iv.) Specific name is frequently written with the name of the scientist <br><br>who first adequately described and named the organism. <br><br>11 **Revision Questions**<br><br>**CELL PHYSIOLOGY**<br><br> This is the study of the functions of cell structures. <br><br>**Membrane Structure and Properties**<br><br> A membrane is a surface structure which encloses the cell and <br><br>organelles. Membranes regulate the flow of materials into out of the cell or organelle. <br><br> Examples of membranes: cell membrane, tonoplast (membrane surrounding the vacuole), nuclear membrane, mitochondrial membrane, chloroplast membrane etc. <br><br>**The Cell Membrane**<br><br> It has three layers, two protein layers and a phos-pholipid layer <br><br>sandwiched in between the two. <br><br>**Diagram** **Properties of Cell Membrane**<br><br>**1. Semi-permeability. **It has small pores allowing for the passage of molecules of small size into and out of the cell.**Cell Wall** however allows all materials to pass through it hence it is referred to as being**Permeable**. <br><br>**2. Sensitivity to Changes in Temperature and pH **Extreme <br><br>temperature and pH affects the cell membrane since it has some protein layers. Such changes alter the structure of the membrane affecting its normal functioning. <br><br>**3. Possession of Electric Charges **it has both the negative and <br><br>positive charges helping the cell to detect changes in the environment. These charges also affect the manner in which substances move in and out of the cell <br><br>**Physiological Processes**<br><br> The ability of the cell to control the movement of substances in and out of the cell is achieved through physiological processes such as**Diffusion, Osmosis and Active Transport**. <br><br>12 **Diffusion**<br><br>*This is a process by which particles move from a region of**high***<br><br>***concentration**to a region of**low concentration**.*<br><br>**Practical Activity 1** **To demonstrate diffusion using potassium permanganate (VII)** The difference in concentration of particles between the region of high concentration and the region of low concentration is known as the**diffusion gradient.**<br><br>**Role of Diffusion in Living Organisms**<br><br>**1. Absorption of Materials** Mineral salts in the soil enter the root by diffusion since their concentration in the soil is greater than in the root hair cells. Digested food (glucose and amino acids) diffuse across the wall of the ileum into the blood for transport to rest of the body. <br><br>**2. Gaseous Exchange in Plants and Animals** In both plants and animals, respiratory gases (oxygen and Carbon (IV) oxide) are exchanged through simple diffusion depending on their concentration gradient. <br><br>**3. Excretion of Nitrogenous Wastes** **4. Transport of Manufactured Food form Leaves to other Plant**<br><br>**Parts.**<br><br>**5.**<br><br>**Factors Affecting Diffusion** **a) Diffusion Gradient** A greater diffusion gradient between two points increases the rate <br><br>of diffusion. <br><br>**b) Surface Area to Volume Ratio** The higher the ratio the greater the rate of diffusion and the lower <br><br>the ratio the lower the rate. <br><br> This means that small organisms expose a large surface area to **c) Thickness of Membranes and Tissues** The thicker the membrane the lower the rate of diffusion because the distance covered by the diffusing molecules is greater. The thinner the membrane, the faster the rate. <br><br>**Size of the Molecules** Small and light molecules diffuse faster than large and heavy <br><br>molecules. **d) Temperature** Increase in temperature increases the energy content in molecules <br><br>causing them to move faster. <br><br>**Osmosis**<br><br>*This is the process where**solvent molecules (water)**move from a* ***lowly concentrated solution**(dilute) to a highly**concentrated*** ***solution**across a**semi-permeable membrane***. <br><br>**Diagram fig 4.6** The highly concentrated solution is known as**Hypertonic**<br><br>**Solution**. <br><br> The lowly concentrated solution is called**Hypotonic solution**. Solution of the same concentration are said to be**Isotonic**. Osmosis is a*special type of diffusion*because it involves the <br><br>movement of solvent (water) molecules from their region of high concentration to region of low concentration across a semi permeable membrane. **Practical activity 2** **Practical activity 3** **Osmotic Pressure**<br><br> This is the pressure which needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of water across a semi permeable membrane. This is the pressure needed to nullify osmosis. <br><br> Osmotic pressure is measured using the**osmometer.**<br><br>**Osmotic Potential**<br><br> This is the measure of the pressure a solution would develop to withdraw water molecules from pure water when separated by a semi permeable membrane. **Water Relations in Animals**<br><br> Cell membrane of the animal cell is semi permeable just like the <br><br>dialysis/visking tubing. <br><br> Cytoplasm contains dissolved sugars and salts in solution form. If an animal cell e.g. a red blood cell is placed in distilled water <br><br>(hypotonic solution), water flows in by osmosis. <br><br> The cell would swell up and eventually burst because the cell membrane is weak. The bursting of the red blood cell when placed in hypotonic solution is called**Haemolysis**. <br><br> If a similar red blood cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water <br><br>is drawn out of the cell by osmosis. The cell will shrink by a process called**Crenation**. <br><br> Body fluids surrounding the cells must therefore have same <br><br>concentration as to that which is found inside the cell. <br><br>**Diagrams** **Water Relations in Plants**<br><br> When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution it gains water <br><br>by osmosis and distends outwards. <br><br> As the cell gains more water, its vacuole enlarges and exerts an <br><br>outward pressure called**turgor pressure.**As more water is drawn in, the cell becomes firm and rigid and is said to be**turgid**. The cell wall in plant cell is rigid and prevents the cell from bursting unlike the case in animal cells. <br><br> The cell wall develops a resistant pressure that pushes towards the inside. This pressure is equal and opposite the turgor pressure and is called**wall pressure.**<br><br>**Diagrams**<br><br> When a plant cell is placed in hypertonic solution, water <br><br>molecules move out of the cell into the solution by osmosis. The cell shrinks and becomes**flaccid**. <br><br> If the cell continues to lose more water, plasma membrane pulls <br><br>away from the cell wall towards the center. The process through which plant cells lose water, shrink and <br><br>become flaccid is called**plasmolysis.**<br><br> Plasmolysis can be reversed by placing a flaccid cell in distilled <br><br>water and this process is called**deplasmolysis.**<br><br>**Study Question 5** **Practical Activity 4** **Wilting**<br><br> When plants lose water through evaporation and transpiration, **cells lose turgidity**, shrink and the plant**droops**. This is called **wilting.**<br><br> If water supply from the soil is inadequate, plants do not recover <br><br>hence**permanent wilting.**<br><br>**Study Question 6** **Role of Osmosis in Organisms**<br><br>**1. Absorption of water from the soil**<br><br> Root hair cells of plants absorb water from the soil by osmosis. <br><br>**2. Support**<br><br> Cells of herbaceous plants, which are less woody, absorb <br><br>water, become turgid hence support. <br><br>**3. Opening and closing of the stomata**<br><br> During the day, guard cells synthesize glucose, draw in water, <br><br>become turgid hence open the stomata. <br><br> During the night, they lose turgidity since there is no <br><br>photosynthesis. As a result, they shrink thus closing the stomata. <br><br>**4. Feeding in insectivorous plants**<br><br> These plants are able to change their turgor pressure on the leaves which close trapping insects which are digested to provide the plant with nitrogen. **Factors Affecting Osmosis**<br><br>*i.) Concentration of Solutions and Concentration Gradient.*The <br><br>greater the concentration gradient between two points, the faster the rate of osmosis. <br><br>*ii.)* *Optimum Temperature as long as it does not destroy the*<br><br>*semi-permeability of the membrane.*<br><br>**Active Transport**<br><br> This is the process that moves substances across cell <br><br>membranes***against a concentration gradient.***<br><br> This process***requires energy***to move these substances across <br><br>cell membranes and involves***carriers.***<br><br> Substances such as amino acids, sugar and many ions are taken <br><br>in by living organisms through active transport. <br><br>**Role of Active Transport**<br><br>i.) Re-absorption of sugars and useful substances by the kidney ii.) Absorption of some mineral salts by plant roots iii.) Absorption of digested food from the alimentary canal into <br><br>the blood stream <br><br>iv.) Accumulation of substances in the body to offset osmotic <br><br>imbalance in arid and saline environment <br><br>v.) Excretion of waste products from body cells <br><br>**Factors Affecting Active Transport.**<br><br>i.) Oxygen concentration. ii.) Change in pH. iii.) Glucose concentration. iv.) Temperature. v.) Enzyme inhibitors. NB/ Any factor affecting energy production affect the rate of active transport. **Revision Questions.** **Cell Specialization, Tissues, Organs and Organ Systems**<br><br>**1. Cell specialization** This is where cells are modified to perform specific functions. <br><br>Such cells are said to be specialized. Examples include the sperm cell which has tail for swimming and the root hair cell which is extended creating large surface area for water absorption. <br><br><br><br>**2. Tissues.** These are cells of a particular type that are grouped together to <br><br>perform the same function. <br><br>**Animal tissues include;**<br><br>-**Epithelial tissue **which is a thin continuous layer of cells for <br><br>**lining and protection**of internal and external surfaces. <br><br>-**Skeletal **it is a bundle of elongated cells with fibres that can <br><br>contract. Its contraction and relaxation brings about movement. <br><br>-**Blood tissue **this is a fluid containing red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. It transports many substances and protects the body against infections. <br><br>18 <br><br>-**Connective tissue **made up of strong fibres that connect <br><br>other tissues and organs holding them together. <br><br>**Plant tissues include:**<br><br>-**Epidermal tissue of a plant **this is a single layer of cells <br><br>protecting the inner tissues of the plant. <br><br>-**Palisade tissue **this is a group of cells rich in chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. They absorb light energy during photosynthesis. <br><br>-**Parenchyma tissue **it is made thin walled irregularly shaped <br><br>cells. They store water and food. <br><br>-**Vascular bundle **consists of the xylem and phloem. Xylem conducts water and mineral salts while phloem conducts food substances. <br><br>19 **3. Organs**<br><br> Many tissues become specialized and grouped together to <br><br>perform a functional unit called the**organ**. <br><br> Examples of organs in plants include; roots, leaves, flowers <br><br>and stem. <br><br> In animals they include heart, lungs, kidney, brain, stomach <br><br>and the liver. **4. Organ systems.**<br><br> This is made of several organs whose functions are coordinated <br><br>and synchronized to realize an effective action is called an **organ system**. Examples include; digestive, circulatory, excretory, respiratory, reproductive and nervous system**.**<br><br>**Revision Questions** **MICROSCOPE** **Microscope Parts & Function** **Parts of the*Microscope***<br><br>1. Eyepiece <br><br>Contains a magnifying lens that focuses the image from the objective into your eye. <br><br><br><br>2. Course Adjust <br><br>For focusing under low magnification <br><br>3. Fine Adjust <br><br>For focusing under high magnification or low <br><br>4. Low Power Objective For large specimens or overview <br><br>20 5. High Power Objective For detailed viewing or small specimens <br><br>6. Specimen on glass slide <br><br>What you want to look at <br><br>7. Stage <br><br>Supports specimen in correct location to lens <br><br>8. Condenser Focuses the light on specimen <br><br>9. Diaphragm (iris or disc) <br><br>Regulates amount of light and contrast <br><br>10. Light Source <br><br>Illuminates the specimen for viewing **Handling and Care of the Microscope** The following rule should be observed: <br><br>1. Use both hand when carrying the microscope. One hand should <br><br>hold the base and the other holds the limb. <br><br>2. Never place the microscope too close to the edge of the bench. 3. Do not touch the mirror and the lenses with the fingers. 4. Clean dirty lenses using soft tissue. 5. Clean other parts using a soft cloth. 6. Do not wet any part of the microscope. <br><br>7. Make sure the low power clicks into position in line with the eye <br><br>piece before and after use. <br><br>8. Always store the microscope in a safe place free from dust and <br><br>moisture. <br><br>**Using the Microscope**<br><br>1. Place microscope on the bench with the stage facing away from <br><br>you. <br><br>2. Turn the low power objective lens until it clicks into position. 3. Ensure the diaphragm is fully open. 4. Look through the eyepiece with one eye. Adjust the mirror to <br><br>ensure maximum light can pass through. <br><br>5. Place the slide containing the specimen on the stage and clip it into position. Make sure the slide is at the centre of the field of view. <br><br>6. Again look through the eyepiece while adjusting the mirror to <br><br>ensure maximum light reach the specimen. <br><br>7. Use the coarse adjustment knob to bring the low power objective lens to the lowest point. While viewing through the eyepiece, turn the coarse adjustment knob gently until the specimen comes into focus. <br><br>8. Use the fine adjustment knob to bring the image into sharp focus. 9. Make a drawing of what you see. 10. <br><br>For higher magnification, turn the medium power into position and adjust the focus using the coarse knob. Use the fine adjustment knob for sharper focus. 11. For even large magnifications, turn the high power objective <br><br>lens into position. In this case use only the fine adjustment knob to bring details into sharper focus. <br><br>**Magnification** Magnification of the object viewed under the microscope is <br><br>calculated by; **Magnification = Eye Piece Lens Magnification X Objective** **Lens Magnification.** If the eyepiece lens has the magnification of x5 and the low power objective lens has a magnification of x10, the total magnification is 5x10=50. <br><br>**Study Question 1** **Fill the table below.** **Eye piece lens** **maginification** **X5** **X10** **X10**<br><br>**Objective lens** **magnification** **X4** **X5**<br><br>**Total magnification**<br><br>**X100** **X600**<br><br>**X40** **X100** **X10** **Practical Activity 1** **Cell Structures as Seen Under the Light Microscope** The following cell organelles can be seen under the light <br><br>microscope. - Cell wall. - Cell membrane - Cytoplasm - Nucleus - Vacuole. - Chloroplasts. <br><br>**Diagrams- plant and animal cells**<br><br>**The Electron Microscope.** It is more powerful than the light microscope. It can magnify up to 500,000 times and has high resolving power. The high resolving power of the electron microscope enables it to <br><br>separate objects which lie close to one another. <br><br> Electron microscope uses a beam of electrons instead of light to <br><br>illuminate the object. <br><br>**Study Question 2** **Practical Activity 2** **Diagrams Plant and Animal Cells** **The Cell Organelles**<br><br>***i) Cell membrane (Plasma Membrane).*** It has three layers i.e. one layer of phospho-lipid layer <br><br>sandwiched between two protein layers. <br><br> It is flexible with pores and ahs the following main functions. <br><br>a) Encloses all the cell contents. b) It allows selective movement of substances into and out of the <br><br>cell since it is semi-permeable. <br><br>**Diagram** ***ii) Cytoplasm*** It is s fluid medium in which chemical reactions take place. It has some movement called cytoplasmic streaming. It contains organelles, starch, glycogen, fat droplets and other <br><br>dissolved substances. <br><br>***iii) Nucleus*** It has double membrane called the nuclear membrane. The membrane has pores allowing passage of materials into and <br><br>out of the cell. <br><br> Nucleus has a fluid called***nucleoplasm***in which the***nucleolus***<br><br>***and chromatin***are suspended. <br><br> Nucleolus manufactures***ribosomes***while chromatin contains the <br><br>hereditary material. <br><br>***iv) Mitochondria(Mitochondrion)*** They are sausage shaped and are the***respiratory sites***. Mitochondrion has two membranes. Inner membrane is greatly folded into***cristae***to increase the surface area for respiration. Some endoplasmic reticulums have granules called***Ribosomes***on their surfaces hence referred to as***rough endoplasmic reticulum.***<br><br> Others do not contain ribosomes hence the name***smooth***<br><br>***endoplasmic reticulum***. <br><br> Rough endoplasmic reticulum***transport proteins***while the <br><br>smooth endoplasmic reticulum***transports lipids.***<br><br>**Diagrams** ***vi) Ribosomes*** They are spherical in shape and form the site for***protein***<br><br>***synthesis***. ***vii) Lysosomes*** They contain***lytic enzymes***which break down large molecules, <br><br>destroy worn out organelles or even the entire cell. <br><br>***viii) Golgi Bodies (Golgi apparatus)*** Their function is to package and transport***glyco-proteins.*** They are also associated with***secretion***of synthesized***proteins***<br><br>and***carbohydrates***. <br><br>**Diagram** ***ix) Centrioles*** They are rod shaped structures that are used in***cell division***and in <br><br>the formation of***cilia and flagella***. <br><br> Plant cells lack the Centrioles. ***x) Chloroplasts*** They are egg shaped and contain two membranes. Chloroplast has chlorophyll which traps light energy to be used during photosynthesis. <br><br>***xi) Vacuoles*** This are sacs filled with a fluid called cell sap. Animal cells contain small vacuoles while plant cells have large <br><br>vacuoles. <br><br> Sap vacuoles store sugars and salts. Food vacuole store and digest food while contractile vacuoles <br><br>excrete unwanted materials from the cell. <br><br>***xii) Cell wall***<br><br>25 It is a rigid outer cover of the plant cells made of***cellulose***. It gives the plant cell a***definite shape***while providing <br><br>***mechanical support***and***protection***. <br><br> Cell wall also allows water, gases and other materials to pass <br><br>through it. <br><br>**Study Question 3** **NUTRITION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS**<br><br>**Nutrition**<br><br> This is the process by which organisms*obtain and Assimilate*<br><br>nutrients. <br><br> There are two modes of nutrition;**Autotrophism and**<br><br>**Heterotrophism.**<br><br>**Autotrophism**<br><br> This is where living organism*manufacture its own*complex food substances from simple substances such as carbon (iv) oxide, water,*light or chemical energy.*<br><br> Where sunlight is used as a source of energy, the process is <br><br>referred to as**photosynthesis**. <br><br>**Photo**means light while**synthesis**means to make. Some**none green plants**make their own food using energy obtained from certain chemicals through a process called **chemosynthesis.**<br><br> Organisms that make their own food are referred to as <br><br>**autotrophs**. **Heterotrophism** This is where organisms*take in complex food*materials such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats obtained from bodies of plants and animals. <br><br> Organisms that feed on already manufactured foods are called <br><br>**Heterotrophs**. <br><br>**Autotrophism** **External Structure of a Leaf** A leaf is a flattened organ which is attached to the stem or a branch of a plant. **Diagrams** **Parts of a leaf** ***Lamina:***This is the flat surface. It is green in colour and contain the photosynthetic tissue. ***Midrib:***This is a thick structure running through the middle of the leaf ***Veins:***They arise from the midrib to forming an extensive network of veins. ***Leaf Apex:***This is the tip of the leaf and usually it is pointed. ***Petiole:***It attaches the leaf to the stem or branch. <br><br> In some monocotyledonous plants the leaves are attached to the stem by the leaf sheath. <br><br>**Practical Activity 1: To examine the External Features of a** **Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous leaf** **Study Question 1** **Internal Structure of a Leaf**<br><br> Internal structure of the leaf is composed of the following parts. *i.) Cuticle.* It is a thin waterproof and transparent layer that coats the upper <br><br>and lower surfaces of the leaf. <br><br> It reduces excess water loss and protects the inner tissue of the <br><br>plant against mechanical injury. <br><br> It also prevents entry of disease causing micro organisms. Since it is transparent, it allows penetration of light for <br><br> It is a one cell thick tissue on both the upper and lower leaf <br><br>surfaces. <br><br> It secretes the cuticle and also protects the inner tissues from <br><br>mechanical damage and prevents entry of pathogens. <br><br> Epidermal cells have no chloroplast except the**guard cells**. Guard cells are special bean shaped cells. They have chloroplast and are able to carry out photosynthesis hence controlling the opening and closing of the stomata. <br><br> Air moves into and out of the leaf through the stomata. *iii.)* This is layer of cells located beneath the upper epidermis. It is made of cylindrical shaped cells***closely packed***together. They have***numerous chloroplasts***containing chlorophyll. <br><br>*Palisade layer.*<br><br> Their position and arrangement enables them to receive <br><br>maximum light. <br><br>*iv.)* This is below the palisade layer. The cells are***irregularly shaped*** ***and loosely packed***creating large air spaces in between them. The***air spaces allow gases to diffuse***in between the cells. They contain fewer chloroplasts as compared to the palisade cells. <br><br>*Spongy Mesophyll Layer.*<br><br>*v.)* Each vein is a vascular bundle consisting of xylem and phloem. Xylem conducts water and mineral salts from the roots to the <br><br>*Leaf Veins.*<br><br>leaves while the phloem translocates manufactured food from the leaves to the rest of the plant. <br><br><br><br>28 **Study Question 2** **Adaptations of Leaves to Photosynthesis.**<br><br>1. Broad and flat lamina to increase surface area of Carbon (IV) <br><br>oxide and sunlight absorption. <br><br>2. Thin transparent cuticle and upper epidermis; to allow easier <br><br>penetration of light to photosynthetic cells; <br><br>3. Thin; for faster diffusion of gases; 4. Palisade cells placed next to the upper surface; to trap maximum <br><br>light for photosynthesis; <br><br>5. Palisade cells with numerous chloroplasts; to trap maximum <br><br>amount of light for photosynthesis; <br><br>6. Large/ intercellular air spaces in the spongy mesophyll layer; for <br><br>storage of Carbon (IV) oxide for easier gaseous exchange; <br><br>7. Waxy water proof cuticle; to reduce water loss sand reflect excess <br><br>light; <br><br>8. Leaf mosaic/ non-overlapping leaves; for maximum exposure to <br><br>light; <br><br>9. Guard cells, modified cells to open and close stomata; to control amount of water loss from the leaf and allows gaseous exchange; 10. <br><br>Leaves have leaf veins; xylem to conduct water to photosynthetic cells, Phloem to translocate products of photosynthesis to other parts of plant; <br><br>**The Chloroplast**<br><br> They are disc shaped organelles found in the cytoplasm of plant <br><br>cells. <br><br> Each chloroplast has a double membrane; the inner and outer <br><br>membrane. <br><br> Chloroplasts are made of layers of membranes called***lamellae***<br><br>contained in a fluid matrix called***stroma***. <br><br> Several lamellae come together to form the***granum (grana).*** Granum contains***chlorophyll molecules***and other***photosynthetic***<br><br>***pigments***. The stroma contains***enzymes***that speed up the rate of <br><br>photosynthesis. <br><br><br><br>**Practical Activity 2: To Observe Distribution of Stomata** **Study Question 3.** **The Process of Photosynthesis**<br><br> The raw materials for photosynthesis are; water and carbon (IV) oxide. The process however requires the presence of sunlight energy and chlorophyll pigment. <br><br> The products of photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen. The <br><br>process can be summarized using an equation as shown below. <br><br>**6H2O + 6CO2 ----------> C6H12O6+ 6O2** Water + Carbon (IV) oxide Glucose + Oxygen. **The above chemical equation translates as:** **Six molecules of water plus six molecules of carbon (IV) Oxide** **produce one molecule of sugar plus six molecules of oxygen**<br><br> The process of photosynthesis is however more complex than <br><br>shown in the above equation and can be divided into two stage; the*light*and*dark*stages. <br><br>**Light stage (Light Dependent Stage)** - Occurs in the grana containing chlorophyll which traps / absorbs sun light energy**.** - and oxygen gas. - <br><br>This Energy is used to split water molecules into hydrogen ion <br><br>This process is called**photolysis**of water and is shown below. <br><br>LIGHT ENERGY <br><br>**2H2O**<br><br>**4H** 30 <br><br>**+** **O2** CHLOROPHYLL **(Water) Hydrogen atom** **Oxygen**<br><br>- Hydrogen atoms produced here enter into the dark stage. - Oxygen gas removed through stomata or is used for respiration within the plant**;** - <br><br>Some Light energy is used in***Adenosine Triphosphate***(ATP) formation;**ATP**an energy rich compound. <br><br>- ATP is later used in the dark stage. **Dark stage. (Light Independent Stage)** - glucose/simple carbohydrate. - <br><br>Carbon (IV) oxide combines with hydrogen atoms to form <br><br>This is called*Carbon (IV) Oxide fixation.* **Carbon (IV) oxide** **Carbohydrate** **CO2** - present or not. - ATP Energy from light stage is used to provide the required energy in this reaction**;** - <br><br>**+ Hydrogen Atom** **Simple**<br><br>**+** **4H** **C6H12O6**<br><br>This stage takes place in the stroma and proceeds whether light is <br><br>Simple sugars formed are used for respiration to provide energy or are converted to storable forms e.g lipids, proteins, starch, cellulose, etc. **Study Question 4** **Practical Activity 3: To Investigate the Presence of Starch in a**<br><br>**Leaf.**<br><br>**Study Question 5** **Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis**<br><br>*i.) Light Intensity.* Increase in light intensity increase the rate of photosynthesis up to <br><br>a certain level where it slows down and finally levels off. <br><br> Very bright sunshine may damage the plant tissues due to high <br><br>amount of ultra violet light. <br><br> Light quality or light wavelength also affects the rate of <br><br>photosynthesis. ***Light intensity***<br><br>*ii.)* Increase in Carbon (IV) oxide concentration increases the rate of photosynthesis linearly up to a certain level after which it slows down and levels off. <br><br>*Carbon (IV) oxide concentration* ***Carbon (IV) oxide concentration*** *Temperature*<br><br>*iii.)* Photosynthesis is an enzyme controlled process, therefore <br><br>increase in temperature increase the rate of photosynthesis up to the optimum temperature. <br><br> Increase in temperature beyond the optimum decreases the rate <br><br>sharply as the enzymes become denatured. <br><br><br><br>*iv.) Water* Plants need water for photosynthesis. Hydrogen atoms required in the dark stage during Carbon (IV) oxide fixation are derived from water during photolysis. <br><br>**Study Question 6** **Practical Activity 4: To Investigate Factors Necessary for** **Photosynthesis.** **a) Light**<br><br>**Study Question 7**<br><br>**b) Carbon (IV) oxide.**<br><br>**Study Question 8** **c) Chlorophyll.** **Study Question 9** **Study Question 10** **Practical Activity 5: To Investigate the Gas Produced During** **Photosynthesis.** **Study Question 11**<br><br>33 **Chemical Compounds Which Constitute Living Organisms** Cells, tissues and organs are made of chemicals which are <br><br>referred to as***chemicals of life***. <br><br> The study of chemical compounds found in living organisms and <br><br>reactions in which they take part is called***Biochemistry***. Chemicals of life include carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. **a) Carbohydrates** They are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio <br><br>of 1:2:1 respectively. <br><br> Carbohydrates have a general formula of**(CH2O)n**where n represents the number of carbon atoms in a molecule of carbohydrate. <br><br> Carbohydrates are divided into three groups;**Monosaccharides,**<br><br>**Disaccharides and Polysaccharides.**<br><br>**i) Monosaccharides** They are the simplest carbohydrates and have a general chemical <br><br>formula of**(CH2O)n**where n = 6. <br><br> Their chemical formular is therefore**C6H12O6**. They include; <br><br>glucose, fructose, galactose etc. <br><br>**Properties of Monosaccharides**<br><br>i) They are soluble in water to form sweet tasting solutions. ii) They are crystalissable. iii) They have the reducing property where they reduce copper sulphate in Benedicts solution to red copper (I) oxide. **Functions**<br><br>i) They are oxidized to release energy during respiration. ii) When condensed together, they form polysaccharides such as <br><br>starch, cellulose or glycogen. <br><br>**ii) Disaccharides** They are formed by linking two Monosaccharide molecules <br><br>through the process of condensation where a molecule of water is liberated. **Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide**<br><br>**Disaccharide + Water.** **+ C6H12O6** **C6H12O6** **C6H22O11**<br><br>**+ H2O** ***Examples*** **Glucose** **Water.** **Glucose** **Water** **Glucose** **+ Galactose** **Lactose**<br><br>**+ Water.**<br><br> The type of disaccharide formed depends on the monosaccharide <br><br>units that condense together. <br><br>**Properties of Disaccharides** i) Soluble in water to form sweet tasting solutions ii) They are***non reducing sugars***. Some such as the maltose can reduce copper sulphate in Benedicts solution when heated together and are therefore referred to as***complex reducing*** ***sugars***. <br><br>iii) They are readily broken into their constituent <br><br>monosaccharide molecules in a process known as***Hydrolysis***in the presence of water. <br><br>***Hydrolysis***<br><br>**Disaccharide**<br><br>**+ Water** **Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide**<br><br>**C6H22O11**<br><br>**+ H2O** **C6H12O6 + C6H12O6** **+ Water**<br><br>***Hydrolysis***<br><br>**Sucrose** ***Hydrolysis***<br><br>**Glucose +** **Fructose**<br><br>**Lactose**<br><br>**+ Water** **Glucose + Galactose**<br><br>**Maltose** **+ Water**<br><br>**Glucose + Glucose.**<br><br>35 Naturally disaccharides are hydrolyzed by enzymes. In the laboratory, hydrolysis is achieved by boiling them in dilute Hydrochloric acid. <br><br>**Functions** They are hydrolyzed by enzymes into monosaccharides which <br><br>are then oxidized to produce energy. <br><br>**iii)** **Polysaccharides.**They are made of many monosaccharide <br><br>molecules hence are long and more complex. <br><br> They have a general formula of**(C6H10O5) n;**where the value of**n**<br><br>is a very large number**.** **Examples of polysaccharides**<br><br>**i)** It is present as stored food in plant tissues e.g. maize, wheat, <br><br>**Starch**<br><br>potatoes, rice etc. <br><br>**ii) Cellulose** This is the component of the cell wall in plants. Cellulose gives <br><br>the plant cells their definite shape. <br><br>**iii) Glycogen** This is the form in which carbohydrates are stored in animal <br><br>tissues. Excess glucose is converted into glycogen for storage in the liver. <br><br>**Properties of Polysaccharides**<br><br>i) All are insoluble in water. ii) Do not have a sweet taste hence are referred to as non-sugars. **Study Question 12** **Practical Activity 6: To Carry out Food Tests for** **Carbohydrates** **Starch** **i)** **ii) Reducing sugars** **iii) Non Reducing Sugars**<br><br>**b) Lipids** These are the fats and oils. Fats are found in animals while oils <br><br>are found in plants. <br><br> Oils are liquid while the fats are solid at room temperature. <br><br> They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen just like the <br><br>carbohydrates. However they contain fewer number of oxygen atoms than in carbohydrates. <br><br> Lipids are made up of three***fatty acid molecules***and one <br><br>molecule of***Glycerol.***<br><br> The nature of a lipid formed, depends on the fatty acids it <br><br>contains. Glycerol remains the same in all lipids. <br><br>**Diagram**<br><br> Complex lipids are formed through condensation of many lipid <br><br>molecules just like in carbohydrates. <br><br> Examples of complex lipids include; phospholipids, waxes, <br><br>steroids and cholesterol. <br><br> Presence of lipids in a food sample is detected using the***grease***<br><br>***spot test or emulsion test***. <br><br>**Properties of Lipids**<br><br>1. When fats are heated they change into liquid while oils solidify <br><br>under low temperature. <br><br>2. Both fats and oils are insoluble in water. They however dissolve <br><br>in organic solvents such as alcohol to form emulsions and suspensions. <br><br>3. Lipids are inert hence can be stored in the tissues of organisms. <br><br>**Functions of Lipids**<br><br>**i)** They give almost twice as much energy as the Monosaccharides. **ii) Source of metabolic water** When oxidized, lipids release more water than Monosaccharides. <br><br>**Source of energy** Such water is referred to as**metabolic water**. <br><br>**iii) Structural compounds** Lipids are constituents of plasma membrane and protoplasm. **iv) Heat insulation** Fats are deposited under the skin of animals forming the adipose <br><br>tissue which acts as a heat insulator. <br><br> Mammals in the temperate regions have thick adipose tissue to <br><br>greatly reduced heat loss. Thick adipose tissue in aquatic animals helps them to be buoyant <br><br>in water. **v) Protection** Fat is deposited around the major organs such as kidney, heart etc <br><br>where they act as shock absorber. <br><br> Wax in plant cuticles reduces excessive water loss. <br><br>**Study Question 13** **Practical Activity 7: testing for the Presence of Lipids** **i) The Grease Spot** **ii) The Emulsion Test**<br><br>**c) Proteins** Like carbohydrates and lipids, proteins are compounds of carbon, <br><br>hydrogen and oxygen. <br><br> In addition they contain***nitrogen***and sometimes***phosphorous***<br><br>***and sulphur***. <br><br> Some proteins such as haemoglobin contain other elements such <br><br>as iron. <br><br> Proteins are made up of small units called amino acids. There are <br><br>about 20 different types of amino acids. <br><br> All amino acids contain the amino group**(-NH2)**which consists <br><br>of hydrogen and nitrogen. <br><br> Two amino acids combine to form a**dipeptide molecule**through <br><br>the process of condensation. <br><br> The bond between two amino acids is called**peptide Bond**. Many amino acids join together to form a long protein chain called**polypeptide chain**. <br><br> The***type and sequence***of amino acids contained in such a chain <br><br>determine the***uniqueness***of the protein being formed. <br><br>**Properties of Proteins**<br><br>i.) They dissolve in water to form***colloidal suspensions***(not true <br><br>solutions) where particles remain suspended in water. <br><br>They are***denatured by temperatures above 40 0C.***Heat alters the structure of the protein molecule. Chemicals such as detergents, acids, bases and organic solvents also denature proteins. <br><br>ii.) <br><br>38 iii.) <br><br>They are***amphoteric***whereby they have both acidic and basic properties. This property enables them to combine with non-protein compounds to form***conjugated proteins***such as mucus, and haemoglobin. In mucus the non protein compound is a carbohydrate while in haemoglobin, iron is a non protein. <br><br>**Functions of Proteins**<br><br>i.)*Structural Functions*<br><br> Proteins make the framework of living systems e.g. plasma membrane, connective tissues, muscle fibres, hair, nails, hooves, skeletal materials etc. <br><br>ii.)*Metabolic Regulators*<br><br> These are divided into two ***a) Enzymes*** Enzymes are***organic catalysts which speed up***the rate of metabolic reactions such as respiration, photosynthesis, digestion etc. ***b) Hormones*** They are***chemical messengers which regulate many body***<br><br>***processes***such as growth, reproduction, amount of sugars, salts and water in the blood etc. <br><br>iii.) *Source of Energy*<br><br> Under extreme starvation, proteins are broken down to release <br><br>energy. <br><br>**Study question 14** **Practical Activity 8** **To Test for Proteins** **Enzymes** They are organic catalysts which are protein in nature. They speed up or slow down the rate of chemical reactions in the body without themselves being used up. <br><br> They are divided into two; *a) Extracellular Enzymes* Extracellular enzymes are produced within the cells but are used outside the cells which produce them e.g. the digestive enzymes. <br><br>39 **Naming of the Enzyme**<br><br> There are two methods on naming enzymes; <br><br>**i) Trivial Naming**<br><br> Enzymes are given names of persons who discovered them. The names end in**-in**such as pepsin, trypsin ptyalin etc. <br><br>ii) Use of suffix**ase**<br><br> This is the modern method of naming. The suffix ase is added <br><br>to the substrate (type of food) or the reaction the enzyme catalyzes. **Example 1** **Substrate** Carbohydrate Starch e.g. amylose Amyl**ase** Sucr**ase** Sucrose Malt**ase** Maltose Prote**ase** Protein Lipid Lip**ase** **Example 2** **Reaction Enzyme** Hydrolysis Hydrolase Oxidation Oxidase Reduction Reductase <br><br>**Enzyme** Carbohydr**ase**<br><br>**Properties of Enzymes**<br><br>1. They are protein in nature hence are affected by changes in <br><br>temperature and pH. <br><br>2. They are substrate specific. 3. They are efficient in small amounts as they are not affected by the <br><br>reactions they catalyze. They can be used again and again. **Factors Affecting the Rate of Enzyme Controlled Reactions**<br><br>i.)*Temperature*<br><br> Enzymes are sensitive to changes in temperature and pH since <br><br>they are protein in nature. <br><br> Enzymes work best within a narrow range of temperature <br><br>called the optimum temperature. <br><br> Above the optimum temperature, reaction decreases sharply as <br><br>the enzymes are denatured. <br><br> Most enzymes have optimum temperature between 35-40oC. Very low temperature inactivates the enzymes hence decrease <br><br>rate of reaction. <br><br>***Diagrams***<br><br>ii.) *pH*<br><br> Most enzymes have a pH of close to 7. Some however work best in acidic pH e.g. pepsin while others <br><br>work best in alkaline conditions. <br><br> As pH changes from the optimum, enzyme activity decreases. Extreme acidity or alkalinity denatures most enzymes. <br><br>***Diagrams*** iii.) *Specificity*<br><br> Enzymes are specific in nature where a particular enzyme acts <br><br>on a particular specific substrate. <br><br> For example, sucrose works on sucrose and not any other <br><br>substrate. <br><br>iv.) <br><br>*Substrate Concentration and Enzyme Concentration.* When substrate concentration increases, the rate of enzyme reaction also increases upto a certain level. <br><br> Further increase does not increase the rate of reaction as***all the***<br><br>***active sites***of an enzyme are occupied. <br><br> When enzyme molecules are increased, the rate of reaction <br><br>increases proportionally. <br><br>***Diagrams***<br><br>v.) *Enzyme Co-factors and Co-enzymes* Co-factors are non protein substances which activates enzymes. They are required in small quantities and they include metallic ions such as those of iron, magnesium, zinc, copper etc. Some are vitamins. <br><br> Co-enzymes are non protein molecules that work in association with particular enzymes. Most co-enzymes are derived from vitamins. <br><br>vi.) *Enzyme Inhibitors*<br><br> Inhibitors compete with the normal substrate for the active sites and they take up the active site of the enzyme permanently. <br><br> There are two types of inhibitors; **a) Competitive Inhibitors**<br><br> These are chemicals closely related to normal substrate and they compete for active sites with the normal substrate. They slow down the rate of reaction. **b) Non Competitive Inhibitors**<br><br> They do not compete with the substrate. They combine <br><br>permanently with enzyme molecules thus blocking the active sites. They include poisons such as cyanides, mercury and silver- arsenic compounds. **Importance of Enzymes** Enzymes speed up the rate of cellular reactions and also control them. This way, they help prevent violent reactions in the cells. <br><br>**Study Question 15** **Practical Activity 9** **Study Question 16** **Study Question 17** **Practical Activity 10** **FORM TWO BIOLOGY NOTES**<br><br>**EXCRETION AND HOMEOSTASIS** **Excretion**-Process by which living organisms separate and eliminate waste products formed during metabolic processes from the body. They include; carbon IV oxide, excess water and mineral salts, nitrogenous wastes etc. accumulation of these substances may become toxic to cells. <br><br>**Homeostasis**-This is the maintenance of internal environment of cells under constant conditions E.g. temperature, osmotic pressure, blood sugar and chemical constituents. <br><br>**Egestion**. - This is the removal of undigested and indigestible <br><br>materials from the alimentary Canal of animals. <br><br>**Secretion**. - This is the release of certain useful substances <br><br>produced by cells e.g. hormones, Enzymes, sebum, saliva and mucus. **Excretion in Plants**<br><br> Plants do not have complex organs for excretion because; <br><br>i. There is very little accumulation of toxic wastes such as <br><br>nitrogenous wastes. <br><br>ii. Some waste products are re-used in the same plant such as Co2, <br><br>oxygen and water. <br><br>iii. Some of these gases are removed by simple diffusion through the <br><br>stomata and lenticels. <br><br>iv. Some plants store wastes in their tissues in non-toxic forms such as nicotine, caffeine, tannins, resins, quinine, morphine etc. <br><br>**Economic Importance of Plant Excretory Products**<br><br>i.*Tannins* They are deposited in dead tissues of wood and <br><br>barks of trees e.g. in acacia and wattle tree. Tannin is used to treat leather. <br><br>ii.*Caffeine* it is stored in coffee berries and tea leaves. It is used <br><br>as a stimulant. <br><br>iii.*Quinine* it is stored in the leaves of aloe and bark of*cinchona*<br><br>tree. It is used in the treatment of malaria. <br><br>43 iv.*Cocaine* it is obtained from the leaves of coca plant and is <br><br>used as an anesthetic. <br><br>v.*Cannabis* found in the leaves and flowers of*Cannabis sativa*<br><br>(bhang). It is used to manufacture some drugs. <br><br>vi.*Nicotine* found in leaves of tobacco plant and is used in the manufacture of insecticides and narcotic drugs. It also manufactures cigarettes. <br><br>vii.*Rubber* it is made from latex of rubber plant. It is used in <br><br>shoe industry and manufacture of chewing gum. <br><br>viii.*Colchicines* it is used in plant breeding and treating of cancer. ix.*Pappain*- it is obtained from raw paw paw and it is used as a <br><br>meat tenderizer. <br><br>x.*Khat/miraa* its chewed and acts as a mild stimulant. <br><br>**Excretion and Homeostasis in Unicellular Organisms**<br><br> Most simple organisms such as the protozoa (amoeba and <br><br>paramecium) live in aquatic environment. <br><br> They depend mainly on diffusion as the means of excretion. Their bodies have a large surface area to volume ratio providing a large surface area for gaseous exchange and excretion to take place by simple diffusion. <br><br> Waste products diffuse from the cytoplasm where they are highly concentrated across the cell membrane into the surrounding water where their concentration is low. <br><br> The organisms also use the contractile vacuole to achieve <br><br>excretion. <br><br> Amoeba and paramecium live in an aquatic environment that is <br><br>hypotonic to their body fluids. Water therefore tends to move into their cytoplasm by osmosis. <br><br> The excess water and dissolved chemicals accumulate in the <br><br>contractile vacuole which releases them to the surrounding water. <br><br>**Diagram** **Excretion in Mammals**<br><br> Mammals have an elaborate excretory system since their bodies <br><br>are complex. The main excretory organs in mammals include; lungs, skin, <br><br>kidneys and the liver. <br><br>**A Structure and Function of the Mammalian Skin**<br><br> Skin is the largest body organ covering the whole body surface. **It has the following functions.** i. Protection of the underlying tissues from entry of micro- <br><br>organisms, physical damage and ultra violet rays from the sun. <br><br>ii. Regulation of body temperature. iii. Excretion of salts, excess water and traces of urea. iv. Reception of stimuli such as heat, cold, pain, touch and <br><br>pressure. <br><br>v. Synthesis of vitamin D. vi. Storage of fats. <br><br>**Diagram**<br><br> The skin is made up of two layers; a) Epidermis (upper and outer layer) b) The dermis (inner layer) a)**Epidermis (upper and outer layer)** It is made up of three other layers; <br><br>i. Cornfield layer. ii. Granular layer. iii. Malphigian layer. i.**Cornifield layer**<br><br> The Cornifield layer of the epidermis consist of dead cells which form a tough outer coat; that protects the skin against mechanical damage, bacterial infection and water loss; ii.**Granular layer**<br><br> Its the middle layer of the epidermis and is made up of living <br><br>cells that give rise to the Cornifield layer. <br><br>iii.**Malphigian layer**<br><br> Malphigian layer consists of actively dividing cells that contain <br><br>fine granules of melanin; that prevents the skin against ultraviolet light rays from the sun; melanin gives the skin its colour. <br><br>b)**The Dermis**(**inner layer**) It is thicker than the epidermis and consists of the following <br><br>structures; <br><br>1)*Sebaceous glands*produce an oily secretion sebum which give <br><br>hair its water repelling property; that keeps the epidermis supple and prevents it from dying Sebum also prevents bacterial attack due to its antiseptic property; <br><br>2)*Has blood vessels;*that dilate and contract; <br><br>In hot conditions, they dilate; increasing blood flow near the skin surface enhancing blood flow near the skin surface; minimizing heat loss; Blood vessels supply nutrients and oxygen to skin tissues and also remove waste products and carbon IV oxide. <br><br>3)*Has Hair follicle*;hairs stand during cold weather thus trapping a layer of air which prevents heat loss; In hot weather they lie close to the skin surface; to enhance heat loss to the atmosphere. 4)*Have many sensory neurons*which detects environmental <br><br>changes; increasing sensitivity of the skins. <br><br>5)*Has subcutaneous layer*; contains fat which acts as a heat- <br><br>insulating layer and a fuel storage. <br><br>6)*Lymphatic vessels*; they drain excess tissue fluid. 7)*Sweat glands*; are involved in temperature regulation through loss of excess heat by the evaporating water. Sweat also excretes excess water, mineral salts, urea and lactic acid. **B The Lungs**<br><br> They are involved with the removal of carbon VI oxide which is <br><br>released by cells during their metabolism. <br><br> Carbon IV oxide would be toxic if it was left to accumulate in the <br><br>tissues. <br><br>**C Structure and Function of the Kidney** ***Diagram fig. 4.3; generalized urinary system of a mammal (page 88*** ***KLB)***<br><br> Mammals have a pair of kidneys which are bean shaped and dark <br><br>red in colour. <br><br>46 The kidneys are surrounded by a layer of fat which cushions them <br><br>against mechanical injury. <br><br> Above each kidney are the adrenal glands which secrete <br><br>hormones. <br><br> Renal artery supplies blood to the kidneys and the renal vein <br><br>removes the blood. <br><br> Ureter transports urine from the kidney to the bladder which <br><br>temporarily stores the urine. <br><br> The mammalian kidney has three distinct regions; cortex, medulla <br><br>and pelvis. <br><br>***Diagram fig. 4.4(a) and 4.4(b) (page 89 KLB)*** **Cortex**<br><br> It is the outermost region and is dark red in colour. <br><br>**Medulla**<br><br> It is red in colour and extends to form conical structures called <br><br>pyramids. <br><br> Pyramids open up into the pelvis. <br><br>**Pelvis**<br><br> Its white in colour and narrows down to form the Ureter. The human kidney contains urinary tubules called the nephrons. <br><br>**Nephron**<br><br> It is the basic functional unit of the kidney. Each nephron is made <br><br>up two main parts; Renal tubule Glomerulus. <br><br>***Diagram fig. 4.6. The structure of the kidney nephron*** **X**<br><br><br><br>**B**<br><br>**A**<br><br>**D** **C** **C**<br><br>The renal tubule has 5 main parts. <br><br>1. Bowmans capsule 2. Proximal convoluted tubule 3. Loop of Henle 4. Distal convoluted tubule 5. Collecting tubule **1. Bowmans capsule**<br><br> It is a thin walled and cup shaped structure which contains the <br><br>glomeruli. <br><br> Glomerulus is a fine network of blood capillaries enclosed by <br><br>the Bowmans capsule. <br><br> It is made the afferent and efferent arterioles. Blood entering the kidney via the renal artery is rich in <br><br>nitrogenous wastes such as urea. <br><br> Also it has dissolved food substances, plasma proteins, mineral <br><br>ions, hormones and oxygen. <br><br> Afferent arteriole entering the Glomerulus is wider than the <br><br>efferent arteriole leaving it. <br><br> This creates extremely high pressure in the Glomerulus <br><br>coupled with the fact that renal artery branches directly from the aorta where blood is at high pressure. <br><br>***Diagram: structure of the nephron*** 48 Due to the high pressure in the glomeruli, the liquid part of the <br><br>blood and dissolved substances of low molecular sizes including urea, glucose, salts and amino acids are forced out of the Glomerulus into the cavity of the Bowmans capsule. The large sized molecules in the plasma such as proteins and <br><br>blood cells are not filtered out. <br><br> This is because the capillary walls of the Glomerulus and bow <br><br>mans capsule have very small pores. <br><br> This process is known as***ultra-filtration***and the filtrate formed <br><br>is called***glomerular***filtrate. <br><br> The filtrate then enters the proximal convoluted tubule. <br><br>***Diagram of ultra-filtration at the Glomerulus***<br><br>**2. Proximal convoluted tubule**<br><br> As the filtrate flows along the renal tubules, most of the filtered <br><br>substances in the glomerular filtrate useful to the body are selectively reabsorbed back into the blood. <br><br> The following substances are actively reabsorbed using energy in the proximal convoluted tubule;***All glucose, Amino acids*** ***and Mineral salts.***<br><br> The proximal convoluted tubule is adapted in the following ways for efficient re-absorption of these substances. <br><br>i) Presence of mitochondria in the cells lining to provide with <br><br>energy required <br><br>ii) Cells of the tubule have micro-cilli (infoldings) which <br><br>increase surface area for re-absorption. <br><br>iii) Tubule is long and coiled to increase the surface area. iv) Coiling of the tubule reduces the speed of flow of filtrate <br><br>giving more time for efficient re-absorption. <br><br>v) Tubule is well supplied with blood capillaries. <br><br>**3. Loop of Henle**<br><br> This is where particularly sodium chloride is actively <br><br>reabsorbed into the blood. <br><br> Loop of Henle has counter current flow between the flow of <br><br>filtrate and the flow of blood i.e. the filtrate and blood flow in opposite directions. <br><br>49 The hormone***Aldosterone***secreted by the adrenal glands <br><br>regulate the absorption of sodium salts. <br><br> Low content of sodium salts in the blood stimulates adrenal <br><br>glands to secret more*Aldosterone*hormone and therefore more salts are reabsorbed from the filtrate. <br><br>**4. Distal convoluted tubule**<br><br> When the filtrate reaches here, some water is reabsorbed into <br><br>the blood by osmosis. <br><br> This is made possible by the following; <br><br>- Active intake of sodium salt into the blood at the loop of <br><br>Henle increases the osmotic potential of the blood. <br><br>- The antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secreted by the pituitary gland. ADH increases the permeability of the tubule and blood capillaries to water <br><br> When there is excess water in the body there is less production of ADH and less water is reabsorbed hence production of large amounts of dilute urine. <br><br> If the body has lost a lot of water such as through sweating, this raises the osmotic pressure of blood. Pituitary gland releases more ADH which increases permeability of the kidney tubules to water. More water is reabsorbed hence production of little but concentrated urine. <br><br> The distal convoluted tubule has large surface area, it is has a wall that is one cell thick and is surrounded by may blood capillaries. **5. Collecting tubule**<br><br> The filtrate in the collecting tubule becomes the urine and <br><br>moves to the collecting duct. <br><br> Urine flows into the pelvis via the pyramids and is finally <br><br>emptied into the urinary bladder through the ureter. About 1-2 litres of urine are formed in a day. <br><br> About 250ml of urine in the urinary bladder initiates the urge <br><br>to urinate. The sphincter muscles relax and urine pass. <br><br>**Urine Composition**<br><br>**Substance** **%**<br><br>50 **Composition.** **95%** **2%** **0.03%** **0.1%** **1.4%** **0.04%** **0%** **0%** **Water** **Urea** **Uric acid** **Creatine** **Salts** **Ammonia** **Proteins** **Glucose** The quantity and concentration of the urine in animals is affected <br><br>by i) Physiological adaptations. ii) Habitat of an organism e.g. terrestrial, desert or aquatic. iii) Structural adaptations of the animals e.g. a desert rat has long kidney tubules to increase water reabsorption. <br><br>**Study Questions. .** **Comparison Between Aquatic and Desert Animals** **Desert Animals.** **Fresh Water Animals** i) Have many glomeruli to Few glomeruli to reduce ultrafiltration. increase ultrafiltration. ii) Short loop oh Henle to reduce Long kidney tubules to increase water reabsorption. Produce small quantity of concentrated urine. <br><br>water reabsorption. iii) Produce large quantity of <br><br>dilute urine. **Comparison of Composition of urine with that of Glomerular** **Filtrate and Blood Plasma.**<br><br>**Substance** **% Composition of;**<br><br>**Plasma Glomerular** **urine**<br><br>**Filtrate.** **0.03** **0.005** **0.001** **0.1** **Urea** **Uric acid** **Ammonia** **Glucose** **0.03** **0.005** **0.001** **0.1** **2.0** **0.03** **0.004** **0**<br><br>51 **Amino acids 0.05** **Mineral salts 0.70** **8.00** **Blood** **proteins.**<br><br>**0.05** **0.70** **0** **0** **1.4** **0**<br><br>**Functions of the kidney include:**<br><br>i) Excretion. ii) Osmoregulation. iii) iv) Ionic balance. Regulation of PH <br><br>**Kidney Diseases**<br><br>*i) Nephritis* This is the inflammation of the glomerulus of the kidney. It is caused by bacteria or infections such as small pox and measles. **Symptoms** Headaches and vomiting **Treatment** Use of antibiotics *ii)*Use of just adequate amounts of salts and proteins in diets <br><br>Fever Passing coloured urine Presence of proteins in urine <br><br>*Kidney stones*<br><br>**Causes** Lack of vitamins such as vitamin A and inadequate intake of <br><br>water <br><br> Chemical salts in urine that crystallize to form hard stones. **Symptoms**<br><br> Increased frequency in passing out urine Pain and soreness in the upper backside Difficulty in passing out urine Fever <br><br>**Control & Treatment**<br><br> Seeking medical assistance <br><br> Taking a balanced diet with adequate amount of water and <br><br>vitamins <br><br> Dialysis or artificial washing out of the wastes Use of laser beam to disintegrate the stones Kidney transplant <br><br>*iii) Kidney failure*<br><br> This is the failure of the kidney to perform as a result of a <br><br>drop in blood pressure due to heart failure, haemorrhage or shock. <br><br> If failure is due to other causes, the condition can be <br><br>corrected by; - Kidney dialysis - Kidney transplant *iv) Albiminuria (Proteins in Urine).* This is also called*Proteinuria* Capillaries of the glomerulus lose their ability to be selective and start allowing blood proteins to pass through into the kidney tubules. These proteins are released in urine. <br><br>**D The Liver and its Structure**<br><br> This is the second largest excretory organ after the skin. It receives blood from two blood vessels;***the hepatic portal*** ***vein from the alimentary canal and hepatic artery from*** ***the aorta***. <br><br><br><br>**Homeostatic Functions of the Liver**<br><br>53 ***Regulation of blood sugar level*** Excess glucose is converted to glycogen ;and stored in the liver <br><br>under the influence of the hormone insulin secreted by the pancreas. Another hormone called glucagon; stimulates the conversion of glycogen to glucose; when there is shortage of glucose in the body; Glucagon is also secreted by the pancreas <br><br>***1. Deamination***<br><br> The liver breaks down excess amino acids; The amino group is <br><br>removed as ammonia which is toxic; <br><br> Ammonia is changed into urea which is less toxic in the <br><br>*ornithine cycle*. <br><br>Ornithine Cycle <br><br>2NH3 + CO2 H20 Ammonia Water (Toxic) <br><br>CO(NH2)2 + Enzyme arginase <br><br>Carbon iv Urea <br><br>Oxide (less toxic) The remaining carbon skeleton oxidized to carbon IV oxide <br><br>and water; this process leads to release of energy. The carbon skeleton may be converted to glucose to be used during respiration; ***2. Detoxification***<br><br> Toxic substances are made harmless in the liver e.g. Ammonia from the process of deamination is converted in the <br><br>liver into urea; which is less toxic. <br><br> Bacterial toxins are converted to less toxic substances by liver <br><br>cells; <br><br> Hydrogen peroxide produced by respiring cells is broken down <br><br>into water and oxygen which are harmless by the enzyme catalase found in the liver. <br><br>Enzyme <br><br>Catalase Hydrogen Peroxide Water + <br><br> Oxygen <br><br>54 (H2O2) <br><br>***3. Regulation of plasma proteins***<br><br> The liver produces most of the proteins found in blood; <br><br>fibrinogen and prothrombin which play a role in blood clotting. Albumin and globulins are also produced by the liver. Globulins act as antibodies;. Albumin contributes to the maintenance of osmotic pressure in the body; Non essential amino acids are synthesized by the liver; <br><br>***4. Storage of vitamins A, B,D,E and K and mineral salts***<br><br> The liver store vitamins A, B, D, E and K. Iron released from the breakdownof erythrocytes is stored in the liver cells; in the form of a compound called ferritin. The liver therefore is a good source of these vitamins and iron; <br><br>***5. Heat production (Thermoregulation)***<br><br> The various metabolic activities of the liver lead to release of heat energy; This energy is distributed by the blood to other parts of the body hence contributing to maintenance of constant body temperature; <br><br>***6. Inactivation of hormones and drugs***<br><br> After performing their functions, hormones and drugs are <br><br>chemically modified to inactive compounds; The by-products are eliminated through the kidneys and faeces and via bile; ***7. Storage of blood***<br><br> The large size and high capacity for contraction and expansion of its veins enables the liver to hold a large volume of blood; It therefore regulates the volume of blood in the general circulation depending on the bodys requirements ; <br><br>***8. Regulation of cholesterol and fat metabolism***<br><br> When carbohydrates are in short supply in the body, fats in <br><br>different parts of the body are mobilized and taken to the liver; The fats are oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide and water with the production of energy or modified and sent to tissues for oxidation; <br><br>***9. Manufacture of red blood cells in foetus.***<br><br>**Liver Diseases and Disorders**<br><br>55 **1. Liver Cirrhosis**<br><br> This is the hardening of the liver tissues due to death of <br><br>liver cells. <br><br> This is caused by ingestion of toxic chemicals such as <br><br>alcohol. <br><br> Bacteria, viruses and parasites such as liver flukes can <br><br>also cause the disease. <br><br>**Control**<br><br> Avoid excess alcohol. Avoid fatty diets. Low salt intake <br><br>**2. Hepatitis**<br><br> This is a viral disease causing inflammation of the liver. It is transmitted through contaminated food, milk and <br><br>water. <br><br> There are two types of hepatitis; Hepatitis A and B**.**<br><br>**3. Jaundice**<br><br> This is characterized by the yellowing of the skin due to <br><br>the failure of the liver to excrete bile. <br><br>**Homeostasis**<br><br> This is the maintenance of internal environment of cells under constant Conditions E.g. temperature, osmotic pressure, blood sugar and chemical constituents. <br><br>**Principles of Homeostasis**<br><br> Various body systems such as circulatory, excretory, <br><br>endocrine (hormonal) and nervous work in a coordinated way to bring about homeostasis. <br><br> These systems work on a feedback mechanisms. There are two types of feedback mechanisms**.**<br><br>a)***Negative Feedback Mechanism***<br><br> When a factor in the body such as temperature or blood sugar <br><br>level falls below normal or rises above the normal, it is detected and corrected via the negative feedback mechanism. <br><br> Such an action is through: <br><br>56 *Temperature* *Osmoregulation (water and salt balance)* *Ionic content regulation* *Blood sugar regulation*<br><br>**a) Temperature Regulation. (Thermoregulation)** Hypothalamus of the brain is the thermoregulatory center. It also <br><br>controls other homeostatic processes such as Osmoregulation, and blood sugar level. **Skin and Thermoregulation** The skin is adapted in the following ways to effect thermoregulation; <br><br>***1. It has Hair shaft;***<br><br> Connected to erector pili muscles**;** In low Temperature Erector pili muscle contract raising hair <br><br>shaft erect**;**<br><br> Hair traps air which insulates the body/poor conductor of heat.; In high temperature, the Erector pili muscle relax and extends**;** Hair shaft lies on the skin**;** Little or no air is trapped**;** Skin loses heat through convection /conduction /radiation**;**<br><br>***1. Blood vessels***<br><br> In High temperature they vasodilate**;** More blood flows near skin surface**;** Heat is lost through conduction /convection/ radiation**;** In Low temperature they Vasoconstrict**;** Little blood flows near the skin**;** Less heat or ho heat lost through conduction/convection/ radiation**;**<br><br>**Diagrams** 3***)*** ***Sweat gland***<br><br> In High temperature**,**Sweating occurs and ( evaporates) and <br><br>Carries latent heat of vaporization; cooling the body**;**<br><br>4) *Has subcutaneous layer*; contains fat which acts as a heat- <br><br>insulating layer. Organisms in cold areas have thick subcutaneous layer for heat insulation. <br><br>58 **Homoiotherms and Poikilotherms** **Homoiotherms (Endotherms)**<br><br> They are the animals whose body temperature is maintained at a constant body temperature despite the wide fluctuations in the temperature of the external environment e.g. birds and mammals. <br><br>**Poikilotherms (Ectotherms)**<br><br> These are organisms with variable body temperature according to the temperature of the local atmosphere e.g. in organisms such as reptiles, amphibians, insects, and fish. <br><br>**Methods of Regulating Body Temperature in Animals**. <br><br>i) Metabolic activities of the Body, such as shivering to raise <br><br>body temperature. Insulatory mechanisms such as dilation or constriction of blood vessels, hair movement etc. <br><br>ii) <br><br>iii) Behavioral activities such as clustering together, burrowing, <br><br>basking, hibernation, aestivation, putting on warm clothes etc. <br><br>iv) Presence of adaptive features such as hair/fur, subcutaneous <br><br>tissue etc. <br><br>***Hibernation***is where animals go into deep sleep for long period of time due to cold. ***Aestivation***is where animals go into deep sleep due to dry and harsh conditions. ***Differences Between Homoiotherms and Poikilotherms.***<br><br>**Poikilotherms** i) They are sluggish under **Homoiotherms** i) They remain active even <br><br>cold conditions. <br><br>under cold conditions. ii) Only the small animals hibernate because they have large surface area to volume ratio hence lose a lot of heat. iii) They do not aestivate because they can maintain constant body <br><br>ii) They hibernate to avoid death by freezing under very cold conditions. <br><br>iii) They aestivate under very hot conditions. <br><br>59 iv) They are easy prey to predators due to their hibernation and aestivation. v) Require less food v) Require more food <br><br>because they get heat from the environment to warm their bodies. <br><br>because they use it to generate heat for maintaining the temperature constant. <br><br>**b) Osmoregulation (Water and Salt Balance).**<br><br> The osmotic pressure of the body fluids must be kept at a <br><br>constant so as to have a favourable environment for the normal functioning of cells. This is determined by the relative amounts of water and solutes (salts) in the body fluids. <br><br> If the osmotic pressure of these fluids falls below that of the <br><br>cells, the cells take in water by osmosis, swell and may burst. If the osmotic pressure of thee fluids was higher than that of <br><br>the cells, the cells would lose water and shrink. <br><br> The hypothalamus and the Pituitary gland are involved in <br><br>Osmoregulation in the following ways; <br><br>i) When the osmotic pressure of the blood rises due to <br><br>dehydration, the hypothalamus is stimulated and sends an impulse to the pituitary gland which secretes the***Antidiuretic*** ***Hormone (ADH) or Vasopressin***into the blood. ADH increases permeability of the kidney tubules to water. More water is reabsorbed, osmotic pressure of the blood falls hence production of little but concentrated urine. ii) When osmotic pressure of the blood falls due to excess water in the body there is less production of ADH and less water is reabsorbed hence production of large amounts of dilute urine. <br><br>**Diabetes Insipidus**<br><br> This is a condition whereby large quantities of dilute urine are produced when the pituitary gland fails to produce ADH or produces it in inadequate amounts. This condition is also known as***Diuresis.***<br><br>**c) Regulation of Ionic Content**<br><br> Important ions must be regulated within narrow ranges for <br><br>efficient functioning of the cells. <br><br> Ions are involved in processes such as respiration, protein <br><br>synthesis, muscle contraction etc. <br><br> The level of sodium ions is regulated by a hormone called <br><br>***Aldosterone***produced by the adrenal glands. <br><br> When the level of sodium ions is low in the blood, more Aldosterone is released which stimulates reabsorption of sodium ions into the blood. <br><br> If sodium ions concentration in the blood rises above the <br><br>optimum level, adrenal glands produce less Aldosterone into the blood and less amounts of sodium ions are reabsorbed. <br><br>d)**Regulation of Blood Sugar Level**. <br><br> All sugars such as galactose, lactose and fructose are converted <br><br>to glucose. <br><br> Glucose is broken down to release energy and excess is <br><br>converted into glycogen and stored in the liver or converted into fats as stored as adipose tissue. <br><br> Some glucose flows in general circulation of blood and is <br><br>maintained within a narrow range of 90-100mg per 100cm3 of blood. The pancreas produces two hormones Insulin and Glucagon <br><br>that are responsible for blood sugar regulation. <br><br> When there is*excess sugar in the blood, insulin is produced*<br><br>and regulates the blood sugar level by the following; <br><br>i) Converts excess glucose into glycogen for storage. ii) iii) Converts glucose into fats. iv) Increases breakdown of glucose to release energy. <br><br>Inhibits conversion of glycogen to glucose. <br><br> When the level of the*blood sugar falls, glucagon*is secreted <br><br>and corrects the situation by the following; <br><br>i) Increases the breakdown of glycogen into glucose. <br><br>61 ii) iii) Inhibits the conversion of glucose into energy. NB/.*The hormone adrenaline produced by the adrenal glands also* *has homeostatic effect on glucose.* *It is released during emergencies to avail glucose for fight or flight.* **Diabetes Mellitus (Sugar Disease)**<br><br>Increases the conversion of fats and proteins into glucose. <br><br> This is due to a deficiency in insulin secretion from the <br><br>pancreas. <br><br> This leads to very high levels of sugar in the blood that cannot <br><br>be utilised by cells hence eliminated by kidney in urine. <br><br>**Symptoms**<br><br> Presence of glucose in urine Loss of body weight due to breakdown of fats and proteins Chronic starvation Thirst sensation. <br><br>**Control**<br><br> Insulin injection into the blood stream Avoid foods rich in sugars. Avoid excessive intake of alcohol. <br><br>**Question**<br><br> Explain why insulin is not administered orally (through the <br><br>mouth) Corrective mechanism, the liver; i) <br><br>Converts excess glucose into glycogen for storage. Inhibits conversion of glycogen to glucose. Converts glucose into fats. Increases breakdown of glucose to release energy. ii) iii) iv) <br><br>**Fall**<br><br>Normal glucose level 90mg/100ml blood **Rise**<br><br>Corrective mechanism, the liver; i) <br><br>Increases the breakdown of glycogen into glucose. Increases the conversion of fats and proteins into glucose. Inhibits the conversion of glucose into energy. <br><br>ii) <br><br>iii) ***Revision questions*** **Gaseous Exchange**<br><br> This is the process by which respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon IV oxide) are passed across the respiratory surface. <br><br> Gases are exchanged depending on their concentration gradient. In simple organisms such as amoeba, diffusion is enough to bring <br><br>about gaseous exchange. <br><br> CO2 diffuses out into the surrounding water while oxygen <br><br>diffuses from the water across the plasma membrane into the amoeba. **Importance of Gaseous Exchange**<br><br>1. Promote oxygen intake for respiration. 2. Facilitate carbon IV oxide removal from the body as a metabolic <br><br>waste product. <br><br>**Gaseous Exchange in Plants**<br><br> During the day, green plants take in carbon IV for photosynthesis. Oxygen is given out as a byproduct of photosynthesis and is <br><br>released into the atmosphere. <br><br>**Examples of respiratory Surfaces in Plants**<br><br> Stomata in leaves Roots e.g. pneumatophores Lenticels in woody stems <br><br>**Structure and Function of the Stomata**<br><br> They are tiny openings on the leaf surfaces. They are made up of <br><br>two guard cells. <br><br> Guard cells are the only epidermal cells containing chloroplasts. <br><br>They regulate the opening and closing of the stomata. <br><br>**Adaptations of Guard Cells**<br><br>i) They are bean shaped/sausage shaped. ii) Contain chloroplast hence can photosynthesize. iii) Inner walls are thicker while outer wall is thin to facilitate <br><br>the opening and closing of stomata. <br><br>**Diagram** **Mechanism of Opening and Closing of Stomata**<br><br> There are three theories that try to explain how the stomata open and close. <br><br>i) Photosynthetic theory ii) Starch Sugar inter-conversion Theory. (effect of changes in <br><br>pH of guard cells) <br><br>iii) **i) Photosynthetic theory**<br><br>Potassium Ion Theory. <br><br> During the day, guard cells photosynthesize forming glucose. This glucose increases the osmotic pressure in the guard cells. Guard cells draw in water from the neighbouring epidermal cells <br><br>and become turgid. <br><br>64 The stoma opens. During the night, there is no photosynthesis due to absence of <br><br>light. <br><br> Glucose is converted into starch lowering the osmotic pressure in <br><br>the guard cells. <br><br> Guard cells lose water and become flaccid closing the stomata. <br><br>**ii) Starch Sugar inter-conversion Theory. (effect of changes**<br><br>**in pH of guard cells)**<br><br> This is under the influence of pH in the guard cells. During the day CO2 is used up during photosynthesis raising the <br><br>pH in the guard cells. <br><br> In this high pH, enzymes convert more starch into glucose. Osmotic pressure of the guard cells increases and water enters into them, making them turgid hence opening the stomata. During the night, there is no photosynthesis. The level of CO2 <br><br>increases lowering the pH. <br><br> Enzymes become inactivated and starch is not converted into <br><br>glucose. <br><br> Osmotic pressure of guard cells falls making them to lose water <br><br>by osmosis. <br><br> Guard cells become flaccid and stoma closes. **Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Plants** Oxygen diffuses from the atmosphere where it is more concentrated into the plant. <br><br> CO2 diffuses out as a metabolic waste product along a <br><br>concentration gradient into the atmosphere. **a) Gaseous Exchange through the Stomata** Stomata are modified in number of ways depending on the habitat <br><br>of the plant. <br><br>***Xerophytes:***These are plants adapted to life in dry areas. <br><br> They have less number of stomata that are small in size. Stomata may be sunken, hairy and in some they open during the <br><br>night and close during the day. <br><br>***Hydrophytes:***These are the aquatic plants (water Plants) <br><br>65 They have many stomata that are large in size and mainly found <br><br>on the upper leaf surface. <br><br> Hydrophytes have the aerenchyma tissue with large air spaces to <br><br>store air for gaseous exchange. <br><br>**Diagrams** ***Mesophytes***: They are plants growing in areas with adequate amounts of water. <br><br> They have a fairly large number of stomata found on both leaf <br><br>surfaces. <br><br>**b) Gaseous Exchange through the Lenticels** They are openings found on woody stems and they are made of <br><br>loosely packed cells. <br><br> They allow gaseous exchange between the inside of the plant and <br><br>the outside by diffusion. <br><br> Actual gaseous exchange occurs on some moist cells under the <br><br>lenticels. <br><br>**Diagram** **c) Gaseous Exchange through the Roots** Plants like the mangroves growing in muddy salty waters have <br><br>specialized aerial breathing roots called pneumatophores. <br><br> Pneumatophores rise above the salty water to facilitate gaseous <br><br>exchange. 1. Cell Membrane. Water 2. Gill Filaments Water 3. Tracheoles Air 4. Alveoli/Lungs Air <br><br>5. Skin <br><br>Water Air Air 6. Buccal Cavity The respiratory surface is the basic unit of any breathing system <br><br>upon which actual gaseous exchange occurs by diffusion. Respiratory surfaces have the following main characteristics. *i) Must have a large surface area.* *ii) Must be moist to allow gases to diffuse in solution form.* *iii)* *Have a dense network of blood capillaries for efficient*<br><br>*gaseous exchange.*<br><br>iv) *Have a thin membrane to reduce the diffusion distance*. <br><br>**Gaseous Exchange in Insects** Insects have their gaseous exchange system made of many air tubes forming the tracheal system. <br><br> Tracheal system is made up of spiracles and Tracheoles. Spiracles are external openings found on both sides of the <br><br>abdomen and thorax. <br><br> Spiracles have valves to control their opening and closing. They also have hairs to prevent excessive water loss from the body tissue. <br><br> Spiracles open into tubes called trachea. Trachea is reinforced <br><br>with spiral bands of chitin to keep them open. <br><br> Trachea subdivides into finer air tubes called Tracheoles. <br><br>Tracheoles are in direct contact with body tissues and organs and they supply individual cells with oxygen. **Diagram** **Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in the Tracheal System of an** **Insect**<br><br> Air is drawn into and out of the tracheal system by muscular <br><br>movement of the abdominal wall. <br><br> When spiracle valves are open, air is drawn into the tracheal <br><br>system. The valves close and air is forced along the system by muscle movement. <br><br> Oxygen diffuses into the tissue fluid and into the cells. CO2 diffuses out of the cells and into the tissue fluid then into the <br><br>tracheal system. **Gaseous Exchange in Fish** The breathing system of the fish consists of the following; <br><br>o**Mouth (buccal) cavity.** o**Gills.** o**Opercular cavity.** o**Operculum.**<br><br> Gills are made of a long curved bone called the gill bar. Gill filaments arise from one side of the gill bar. They are many and suspend freely in water providing a large surface area for gaseous exchange. <br><br> Gill rakers arise from the other side of the gill bar. They are teeth like and they prevent solids present in water from damaging the delicate gill filaments. <br><br> Blood vessels enter the gill bar and branch into the gill filaments <br><br>as blood capillaries. <br><br> Operculum is found on either side of the body near the head and <br><br>it also protects the delicate gills. <br><br>**Diagram** Floor of the mouth cavity is lowered increasing the volume of the <br><br>mouth cavity but lowering the pressure. <br><br> Water flows into the mouth cavity and the operculum closes. Operculum on either side bulge outwards without opening. This <br><br>increases volume in the gill cavity but the pressure drops. <br><br> Water containing dissolved oxygen flows from the mouth cavity <br><br>to the gill chamber over the gills. <br><br> The mouth closes and the floor of the mouth cavity is raised. The remaining water in the mouth is forced to flow towards the <br><br>gill chamber. <br><br> Oxygen diffuses from the water into the blood through the thin walls of the gill filaments. It combines with haemoglobin for transportation to all body parts. <br><br> CO2 diffuses from the blood into the flowing water. To ensure maximum gaseous exchange, the water flowing over the gills and the blood in the gills flows in opposite directions. This is called counter current flow system and it ensures that at all the points, concentration of oxygen is always higher in the water than in the blood. <br><br>**Diagram** If the water and blood were flowing in the same direction, <br><br>gaseous exchange will not be that effective. <br><br> Where the oxygen is 50% in water, there is no concentration gradient because blood also has 50% oxygen concentration. <br><br>**Diagram** **Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Amphibians**<br><br> Amphibians live on both land and water and therefore exhibit the <br><br>following methods of gaseous exchange. <br><br>1. Gaseous exchange through the lining of the buccal cavity 2. Gaseous exchange through the lungs 3. Gaseous exchange through the skin **a) Gaseous exchange through the mouth (buccal) cavity**<br><br> Air is taken in or expelled from the mouth cavity by raising and <br><br>lowering of the floor mouth. <br><br> Lining of the mouth cavity is moist to dissolves oxygen. There is a rich supply of blood capillaries under the lining of the mouth cavity. Oxygen diffuses into the blood and is carried by haemoglobin to all parts of the body. <br><br> Carbon IV oxide from the tissues is brought by the blood to the <br><br>mouth cavity where diffuses out. <br><br>**Gaseous exchange through the lungs** The frog has two lungs which are connected to the buccal cavity. T he inner lining of the lungs is moist, thin and is richly supplied <br><br>with blood capillaries. <br><br> During inspiration, the floor of the mouth cavity is lowered and nostrils are open. Air rushes through the open nostrils into the mouth cavity. <br><br> Nostrils close and the floor of the mouth cavity is raised. This <br><br>reduces the volume and increase the pressure in the mouth cavity forcing air into the lungs. <br><br> Carbon IV oxide from the tissues diffuse into the lung while the <br><br>oxygen from the lungs diffuses into the tissues. **b) Gaseous exchange through the skin** Frogs have a thinner and moist skin than the toads. There is large network of blood capillaries below the skin to carry <br><br>the respiratory gases. <br><br> Oxygen from the air and water diffuse through the skin into the <br><br>blood stream. <br><br> Carbon IV oxide diffuses out of the blood capillaries through the <br><br>moist skin into the surrounding water and air. **Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Mammals**<br><br> The following structures are involved in gaseous exchange in <br><br>mammals; <br><br>-**Nose (Nostrils)** -**Larynx**<br><br>70 -**Trachea** -**Chest cavity (ribs and intercostals muscles)** -**Diaphragm**. <br><br>**a) Nose** It has two openings called nostrils which let in air into the air <br><br>passages. <br><br> As air moves in the passages, it is warmed and moistened The lining of the nasal cavity has also the sense organs for smell. **b) Larynx** It is located on top of the trachea It is called the voice box. It controls the pitch of the voice. **c) Trachea** It is a tube made of rings of cartilage which prevents it from <br><br>collapsing during breathing. <br><br> Inside it is lined with ciliated epithelium. Cilia beat in waves and move mucus and foreign particles away from the lungs towards the pharynx. <br><br> As the trachea enters the lungs, it divides into two branches called <br><br>Bronchi (Bronchus). <br><br>**d) Lungs** They are found in the chest cavity and they are enclosed by a <br><br>double membrane called the pleural membrane. <br><br> The space between the membranes is called the pleural cavity. Pleural cavity is filled with pleural fluid which reduces friction making the lungs to move freely in the chest cavity during breathing. **Diagrams** In the lungs each bronchus divides into small tubes called **The mechanism of breathing**<br><br> Breathing is achieved by changes in the volume and air pressure <br><br>of the thoracic cavity. <br><br> Thoracic cavity is enclosed by ribs. Ribs are covered by intercostals muscles. The diaphragm is a muscular sheet of tissue below the chest <br><br>cavity. It curves upwards in the form of a dome shape. <br><br> Breathing mechanism involves two processes. a) Inspiration (Inhalation) i.e. breathing in. b) Expiration (Exhalation) i.e. breathing out. <br><br>**Inspiration (Inhalation) i.e. breathing**<br><br> This occurs when the volume of thoracic cavity increases and the <br><br>pressure decreases. <br><br> External intercostals muscles contract while the internal <br><br>intercostals muscles relax. <br><br> Ribs are pulled upwards and outwards. Diaphragm flattens increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity <br><br>while decreasing the pressure inside it. <br><br> Air rushes into the lungs through the nose and trachea inflating <br><br>the lungs. **Diagrams page 62** **Expiration (Exhalation) i.e. breathing out**<br><br> Volume of thoracic cavity decreases while pressure increases. <br><br>This is brought about by the following; External intercostals muscles relax while internal ones contract. Ribs move downwards and inwards. Diaphragm relaxes and regains its original dome shape. Volume of the thoracic cavity decrease and pressure increases. Air is forced out of the lungs through the air passages to the <br><br>atmosphere. The wall of the alveolus is covered b a film of moisture which <br><br>dissolves oxygen in the inhaled air. <br><br> Oxygen diffuses through the epithelium of the alveolus, the <br><br>capillary wall and through the cell membrane of the red blood cells. <br><br> In the red blood cells it combines with haemoglobin. Carbon (iv) oxide is more concentrated in the blood capillaries <br><br>than in the alveoli. <br><br> It therefore diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli. Water vapour also passes out of the blood by the same process. <br><br>**Diagram page 64 KLB**<br><br><br><br>M <br><br>N <br><br>Z **Percentage composition of gases in inhaled and exhaled air** **Gas** **% in inhaled air. % in exhaled air** **Oxygen** **20** **0.03** **Carbon (iv) oxide** **Nitrogen and other gases 79.97** **16.9** **4.0** **79.97**<br><br>**Regulation of Breathing** This is controlled by a part of the brain called*Medulla oblongata*. <br><br>73 **Factors affecting the rate of breathing in humans**<br><br>**1. Exercise**<br><br>Breathing rate increases during vigorous activity. <br><br>**2. Age**<br><br>Younger people have a faster breathing because their bodies have more energy demand. 3.**Emotions**<br><br>Things like anxiety, fear and fright increases the breathing rate. <br><br>**4. Temperature**<br><br>Relatively high temperatures increase the rate of breathing. However, very high temperatures reduce the breathing rate. <br><br>**5. Health**<br><br>If there is fever (high body temperature), the breathing rate increases. Some respiratory diseases however, make breathing difficult. **Lung Volumes**<br><br>*i)*<br><br>*Lung capacity* This is the total amount of air the lungs can hold when completely filled. The lungs of an adult have a capacity of about 5,500cm3 <br><br>*ii) Tidal volume*<br><br>This is the amount of air taken in and out of the lungs during normal breathing. Tidal volume is about 500cm3 <br><br>*iii) Inspiratory reserve volume*<br><br>This is an additional volume attained after having a forced inhalation in addition to the tidal volume. It is about 2000cm3 *Inspiratory capacity* This is the tidal volume +Inspiratory reserve volume. <br><br>*iv)*<br><br>*v) Expiratory reserve volume*<br><br>This is air removed after a forced exhalation. It can be up to 1,300cm3 *vi) Vital capacity*<br><br>This is the deepest possible exhalation. This air can only be forcibly pushed out of the lungs. <br><br>*vii) Residual volume* **Diseases of the Respiratory System**<br><br>i)***Asthma***<br><br>It is caused by: <br><br> Allergens such as pollen grains, certain foods and drugs Infections of the lungs by bacteria and viruses <br><br>**Symptoms**<br><br> Difficulty in breathing Wheezing sound when breathing **Treatment and Control**<br><br> Avoiding the causative agents Injection of drugs and oral application of pills Spraying directly into the bronchial tubes with a muscle <br><br>relaxant ii)***Bronchitis***<br><br>There are two types; Acute and Chronic <br><br>**Symptoms**<br><br> Production of thick greenish or yellowish sputum Difficulty in breathing Difficulty in walking and sleeping <br><br>**Treatment**<br><br> Seeking early medical assistance iii)***Whooping cough*** It is caused by a bacterium called*Bordetella pertussis.* ***Symptoms*** Prolonged coughing and vomiting Conjuctival haemorrhage (bleeding) Convulsions and coma Severe pneumonia in the bronchioles Ulcers and heart complications <br><br>75 Emaciation due to repeated vomiting **Treatment**<br><br> Use of antibiotics Use of a balanced diet on patients <br><br>**Control**<br><br> Children immunization at early age <br><br>iv)***Pneumonia*** It is caused by a bacterial called*Streptococcus pneumoniae* **Symptoms**<br><br> Coughing Fever Chest pains Deposits of fluids in the lungs <br><br>**Treatment**<br><br> Use of antibiotics such as penicillin and sulphonamides <br><br>**Control**<br><br> Avoid overcrowding. Good ventilation in living houses <br><br>v)***Pulmonary Tuberculosis*** It is caused by a bacterium called***Mycobacterium tuberculosis*.** **Symptoms**<br><br> Weight loss Coughing with blood stained sputum. Fever **Treatment**<br><br> Use of antibiotics such as streptomycin <br><br>**Control**<br><br> Pasteurization of milk Immunization using BCG (Bacille Calmette Guerin) Use of radiography (X-Ray) <br><br>vi)***Lung cancer*** Cancer is uncontrolled cell growth in the body causing tumours. **Some general causes**<br><br> Smoking <br><br>76 Inhalation of cancer causing substances such as asbestos Exposure to radiations such as X-rays, radioactive substances <br><br>such as uranium and substances that alter the genetic composition of the cell such as mustard gas <br><br>**Treatment and control** Surgery to remove the tumour Radiotherapy Chemotherapy Use of some drugs Not smoking **Revision Questions** **RESPIRATION**<br><br> Process by which food substances are chemically broken down in living cells to release energy, carbon (iv) oxide, water or alcohol. <br><br> Respiration takes place mainly in the mitochondria. It has two <br><br>membranes, inner and outer. <br><br> Inner membrane is folded into projections called cristae. Cristae provide a large surface area for respiratory enzymes. Respiratory enzymes are bound to the cristae. <br><br>**Diagram** **Practical Activity 1** **To investigate the gas given off when food is burnt**. **Types of Respiration**<br><br>**Aerobic Respiration** **Anaerobic Respiration.**<br><br>**Aerobic Respiration**<br><br> Process by which food substances such as glucose are broken down in the presence of oxygen to release energy, water and carbon (IV) oxide. <br><br> The energy is stored in the form of a chemical substance called <br><br>Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). <br><br> This energy is released in small quantities since a lot of heat <br><br>energy would burn the body cells. Respiratory <br><br>Enzymes 77 C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 Energy (ATP) Respiration takes place in two phases with each phase consisting <br><br>+ 6H2O + <br><br>of series of reactions. **First Phase (Glycolysis)** This takes place in the*cell cytoplasm*.*Oxygen is not required*in <br><br>this stage. <br><br> Glucose is broken down into a 3 carbon compound called Pyruvic <br><br>acid through a process called glycolysis. <br><br> In glycolysis*one molecule of glucose gives 2 molecules of ATP*. In absence of oxygen Pyruvic acid is broken down into lactic acid <br><br>in animals and into alcohol (ethanol) in plants. <br><br>lactic acid <br><br>pyruvic acid <br><br>glycolysis enzyme controlled reactions in cytoplasm glucose enzyme controlledd (in animals) <br><br>carbon (iv) oxide glycolysis <br><br>pyruvic acid glucose ethanol enzymecontrolled (in plants) <br><br>**Second phase (Krebs Cycle)** This takes place in the*matrix of the mitochondria*and involves a <br><br>series of enzyme controlled reactions*that require oxygen*. <br><br> Pyruvic acid formed in the first phase is oxidized by oxygen in a <br><br>series of enzymatic reactions (Krebs cycle) into energy, water and carbon (IV) oxide. <br><br> In this phase*one molecule of glucose gives 38 molecules of ATP*. <br><br>78 The following conditions are required in this phase; i. Cells must be provided with glucose/food. ii. Oxygen must be present. iii. Respiratory enzymes must be present to catalyse the reaction. iv. Temperature must be favourable for efficient functioning of <br><br>enzymes. <br><br>v. End products of the reaction (energy, water and carbon (iv) oxide) must be constantly removed from the mitochondrion. <br><br>***Practical Activity 2*** ***To investigate heat production in germinating seeds*.** **Anaerobic Respiration in Plants and Animals**<br><br> This is the process by which food substances are broken down in <br><br>the absence of oxygen to release energy. <br><br> The glucose is not completely broken down hence less energy is <br><br>given out. <br><br> In plants glucose is broken down into energy, carbon (iv) oxide <br><br>and ethanol (alcohol). <br><br>**Glucose** **oxide** **(C6H12O6)** **(CO2)** Anaerobic respiration in plants is also referred to as*fermentation*. <br><br>**Ethanol + Energy. + Carbon (iv)**<br><br>**(2C2H5OH)** **(ATP)** In animals glucose is broken down into energy and lactic acid **Glucose** **(C6H12O6)** **Oxygen Debt**<br><br>**Lactic acid + Energy.**<br><br>**(2C3H6O3)** **(ATP)**<br><br> This is oxygen required to get rid of the lactic acid that <br><br>accumulates in the body tissues when the oxygen supply is less than required. <br><br> Accumulation of lactic acid causes fatigue and muscle crumps. Oxygen debt is paid back by breathing more quickly and more <br><br>deeply in order to increase oxygen supply such as during recovery period after a race when a person pants. <br><br> When paying back the oxygen debt, lactic acid is oxidized to <br><br>energy, water and carbon (iv) oxide or it is taken to the liver and converted into glycogen. <br><br>**Application of Anaerobic Respiration** i. Baking industry ii. Beer brewing and distillery industry. iii. Dairy industry in the production of yoghurt and cheese. iv. Production of vinegar citric acid, oxalic acid, butyric acid and <br><br>some drugs. <br><br>v. Production of power alcohol which is used as a substitute for <br><br>petrol. vi. Silage making. vii. Biogas production. viii. Making compost manure <br><br>**Practical Activity 3** **To investigate gas produced during fermentation.** **Comparison between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration** **Aerobic Respiration** i. Oxygen is required ii. High amount of energy is released as one molecule of glucose yields 38 ATP molecules (2880 KJ) <br><br>**Anaerobic Respiration.** Oxygen not required Low amount of energy is released as one molecule of glucose yields 2 ATP molecules (210 KJ) There is incomplete breakdown iii. There is complete <br><br>80 breakdown of the substrate into carbon (iv) oxide and water. <br><br>of substrate hence lactic acid or alcohols are produced. <br><br>iv. End products are energy, water and carbon (iv) oxide <br><br>End products are energy, alcohol in plants and lactic acid in animals. Water molecules are not produced. Over short period of time, energy is released faster. <br><br>v. Water molecules are <br><br>produced. <br><br>vi. Over a short period of time, energy is not released faster <br><br>vii. Occurs in the cytoplasm <br><br>Occurs only in the cell cytoplasm. and in the mitochondrion. **Respiratory Substrates**<br><br> These are energy rich foods which when oxidized release energy. <br><br>They include; **i.***Carbohydrates* <br><br> They are the main source of energy mainly in the form of simple <br><br>sugars such as glucose, fructose and galactose. <br><br> They produce about 17KJ (2898/mole) per gram when completely <br><br>oxidized. <br><br>**ii.***Fats* <br><br> They produce more energy than carbohydrates or proteins. One gram of fats yields about 38 KJ of energy when completely oxidized. <br><br> They are however not the main substrate because they are not <br><br>very soluble in water hence not easily transported to the sites of respiration. It also requires more oxygen to oxidize one gram of fats than one gram of glucose. <br><br>**iii.***Proteins* <br><br> They are not normally used in respiration unless in cases of <br><br>extreme starvation. <br><br> One gram of proteins yields 22KJ of energy when completely <br><br>oxidized. <br><br>81 **Assignment**<br><br>*Where do plants and animals get the following from;*<br><br>-*Carbohydrates.* -*Fats* -*Proteins*<br><br>**Respiratory Quotient (RQ) and its Significance**<br><br> RQ is the ratio showing the relationship between the amounts of carbon (iv) oxide used against the amount of oxygen used in respiration. = <br><br> () RQ varies with the type of substrate being oxidized. For example carbohydrates have a RQ of 1.0 when fully oxidized, fats have 0.7 and proteins have 0.9. <br><br>RQ RQ can therefore be used to indicate the type of substrate being oxidized and also whether aerobic respiration or anaerobic respiration is taking place. <br><br> RQ is also affected by factors such as age, health of the organism <br><br>and the temperature. <br><br>**Factors Affecting the Rate of Respiration** i.*Oxygen concentration.*When the amount of oxygen increases, the respiration rate also increases. Decrease in oxygen concentration will lead to decreased respiration rate. <br><br>ii.*Substrate concentration.*Increase in sugar concentration increases <br><br>respiration and vice versa. <br><br>iii.*Hormones.*Presence of some hormones such as***adrenaline and***<br><br>***thyroxine***in the body increases the rate of respiration. <br><br>iv.*Surface area to volume ratio (Body size).*If the SA/volume ratio is high, the organism would lose more heat energy. As more heat is lost to the surrounding more is required to replace the lost energy hence more respiration. <br><br>v.*Age.*Young people require more energy because their cells are actively dividing hence respiration rate is higher in them than in older people. vi.*Occupation.*People engaged in heavier tasks have higher rate of <br><br>respiration. <br><br>vii.*Sex.*Generally males have faster respiration rate than females <br><br>due to presence of more muscles in their bodies. <br><br>viii.*Basal metabolic rate.*This is the energy required to maintain normal body functions such breathing, heartbeat, blood circulation etc while at rest. <br><br>**Revision Questions** **FORM THREE BIOLOGY NOTES**<br><br>**ECOLOGY**<br><br>***Introduction*** ***Ecology***is the study of the interrelationships of organisms to each other and to their environment (biotic and Abiotic factors). ***Autecology***; study of single species within a community and how it relates with both the biotic and Abiotic factors. ***Synecology.***This is the study of many different species of organisms interacting among themselves within an ecosystem. Ecology helps to address the following issues. <br><br> Sustainable food production Pollution control Natural resources conservation Pest and disease control Population control Eco-tourism Prediction of adverse weather conditions <br><br>***Concepts of ecology***<br><br>**Biosphere/ecosphere.**This is the part of the earth and <br><br>atmosphere inhabited by living organisms. <br><br>**Habitat.**This is a specific locality with a particular set of <br><br>conditions where an organism lives. Habitats can be terrestrial or aquatic. <br><br>83 **Ecological niche.**This is the position occupied by an organism in a habitat. It includes the***physical space***where an organism is found and***its role***in the habitat. <br><br>**Population.**This refers to all members of a given species in <br><br>particular habitat. <br><br>**Community.**This refers to all organisms belonging to different species interacting in the same habitat. Many populations make up a community. <br><br>**Ecosystem.**This is a natural unit made of biotic and Abiotic <br><br>factors whose interactions lead to a self sustaining system. E.g. a tropical rain forest, a small pond etc. <br><br>**Biomass.**This is the total dry weight of living organisms at a <br><br>particular Trophic (feeding) level or per unit area. <br><br>**Carrying capacity.**This is the maximum number of organisms <br><br>an area can comfortably support without depletion of the available resources. E.g. the maximum number of cows a pasture land can comfortably hold without overgrazing. <br><br>**Study Question 1**<br><br>**Factors in an Ecosystem**<br><br>**They are divided into two:**<br><br>1. Abiotic factors or the non living factors 2. Biotic or the living factors ***Abiotic Factors***<br><br>**Light.**This is required by plants and photosynthetic bacteria to manufacture food. The sun is the source of light energy. Light intensity and quality (wavelength) affects the rate of photosynthesis, flowering and germination in plants, while in animals it affects migration, hibernation and reproduction. Light intensity is measured using a**Photographic Light meter**while a **Seechi disc**measures light penetration in water. <br><br>**Atmospheric pressure.**Variation in atmospheric pressure affects <br><br>the availability of oxygen and carbon (IV) dioxide in the atmosphere. These two gases in turn affect the distribution of living organisms. Low atmospheric pressure increases the rate of transpiration. Barometer is used to measure it. <br><br>**Humidity.**This is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. It affects the rate of water loss from plants and animals surfaces through transpiration and sweating respectively. The higher the humidity the lower the rate of loss and vice versa. It is measured using the**hygrometer.**<br><br>**Salinity.**This refers to the salt concentration of the water. This <br><br>divides the aquatic environment into***marine, estuarine and fresh*** ***water***. Only organisms with adaptable osmoregulatory features can comfortably occupy such habitats. In estuaries, there are fluctuations of salt concentrations at different times. When the sea tide is low, the salt concentrations are low due to the greater diluting effect of the fresh water being discharged. High tide raises the salt level. Estuarine organisms must therefore be adapted to cope with such wide salt variations. <br><br>**Wind.**This is moving air. It increases the rate of water loss from organisms affecting their distribution. It also influences rain formation. It helps in formation of sand dunes in deserts which become habitats for the growth of deserts plants. Its an agent of seed and fruit dispersal **Temperature.**This affects the distribution of organisms in any <br><br>habitat. Very low temperature may inactivate enzymes while very high temperatures denature them. Temperature varies due to seasons, altitude, and latitude and diurnally in hot deserts. <br><br>**pH (hydrogen ion concentration.)** This is the measure of acidity or alkalinity of water in aquatic habitats or soil solution. This influences the distribution of plants and animals in soil and aquatic habitats. Different organisms have different pH requirements. pH is determined using the pH meter. <br><br>**Study Question 2** **Practical Activity 1** **Study Question 3** **Biotic Inter-Relationships** **Competition**<br><br>85 Living organisms compete for resources such as nutrients, space, light and mates. There are two types of competition. <br><br>i.)**Inter-specific competition.**This is the competition between individuals of different species for the same resources. For example. An experiment6 was carried out on two closely related species of paramecia-*Paramecium caudatum and Paramecium* *aurelia.*It was observed that when each species is grown separately in controlled cultures with constant food supply, they show normal population growth. When they are grown together in the same culture, thre is competition and*Paramecium* *caudatum*is eliminated. See graphs. However, closely related species can live together without competition. For example, when*Paramecium caudatum and* *Paramecium bursoria*are grown in the same culture, there is no competition because each species occupies a different part of the culture. Similarly, browsers and grazers can occupy same habitat without competition because they feed at different levels of the same plants. For example, the zebras eat the softer shoots, followed by the 86 wild beasts, and the gazelles which eat the fibrous left over of the same grass. **Study Question 4** ii.)**Intra-specific competition.**This is the competition between <br><br>members of the same species for the same resources. <br><br>When there is competition the best adapted organisms survive while the less adapted ones may die or be forced to migrate. <br><br>**Predation**<br><br>This is the relationship where one organism kills another for food and feed on it either as a whole or a part of it. The**predator**is the one which kills while the**prey**is the one being killed for food. Predators have various adaptations to enable them to be efficient in capturing the prey. These include; <br><br> Sharp eyesight as in eagles, kites and hawk Fast flight, Modified beaks Strong jaws with carnassials teeth as in leopards and lions. Large claws on strong forelimbs. Colour camouflage such as the spotted pattern of the leopard <br><br>blends well with the background colour of the bushes and trees. <br><br> Moving against the wind while stalking the prey. Preys also have structural and behavioural adaptations. These include: Swift movement e.g. the antelope and gazelle Camouflage e.g. in gazelles and stripes of the zebra. Large eyes on the sides of the head to giving them a wide field of *NB/. When the number of the prey increases that of the predators also* *increases. An increase in the number of predators leads to a decrease* *in the population of the prey. This decrease in prey population leads to* *a fall in predator population which in turn gives space for the increase* *in the population of the prey. This is the basis of biological control.* *See the graph below.* **.**<br><br>**n** **o** **i** **t** **a** **u** **p** **o** **p** **r** **o** **t** **a** **d** **e** **r** **p** **d** **n** **a** **y** **e** **r** **P**<br><br>**Prey** **l**<br><br>**Predator** **Time**<br><br> **Parasitism** This is the relationship where an organism**[parasite**] obtains nutrients from another live organism**[host]**without killing it. The parasite obtains food and shelter from the host causing some harmful effects. Parasites may weaken the host and also transmit diseases which may kill their host thus reducing their number an d distribution. There are two types of parasites; <br><br>**Ecto-parasites** **Endo-parasites** **Study Question 5** **Symbiosis**<br><br>This is an association between two of different species in which both benefit. For example the association of colon bacteria with humans and other animals, especially plant-eating animals, the ox-pecker bird and the ox etc. The***Rhizobium***bacteria help the leguminous plants to fix nitrogen while the bacteria obtain shelter and carbohydrates from the plants. Diagram <br><br>**Saprophytism**<br><br>This is where organisms obtain nutrients from dead organisms causing decomposition hence releasing nutrients into the ecosystem. Saprophytes include the bacteria and fungi. **The Nitrogen Cycle** This refers to the cycling of nitrogen and its compounds in the natural environment. Although nitrogen is abundant in the atmosphere as nitrogen gas, it cannot be utilised by plants. It has to be converted into a form that can be absorbed by plants through a process called**nitrogen** **fixation.**<br><br> Nitrogen fixation is done in two ways; **Biological fixation**. This can occur in two forms <br><br>1.**Nitrogen fixation by symbiotic bacteria**such as <br><br>***Rhizobium spp*.**They are found in the root nodules of legumes. They convert nitrogen gas into ammonia which is then converted into nitrates for plant utilisation. <br><br>2.**Nitrogen fixation by free living bacteria e.g.*Clostridium,*** ***Azotobacter,*and**some algae such as***Anabaena, chlorella*** ***and Nostoc.***<br><br>**Non-Biological nitrogen fixation**. This is done by lightning. <br><br>During thunderstorms, lightning energy combines atmospheric nitrogen gas with oxygen to form nitrous and nitric acid. These are then converted into nitrates. <br><br> Plants absorb nitrates and convert them into plant proteins. <br><br>Animals feed on these plants and obtain the proteins. They are then digested into amino acids and become assimilated into animal proteins. When living organisms die, saprophytic bacteria and fungi break <br><br>down the proteins in their bodies into ammonia. Nitrifying bacteria convert this ammonia into nitrates thorough a process called**nitrification.*Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus***convert ammonia into nitrites and***Nitrobacter***convert nitrites into Nitrates. <br><br> Some soil micro organisms such as***Pseudomonas denitrificans*** ***& Thiobacillus denitrificans***utilise the oxygen in the nitrates reducing it to nitrites, ammonia and eventually into nitrogen gas. This is called**de-nitrification.**<br><br> This reduces the amount of nitrogen available to plants but it frees the nitrogen so that it becomes available for the cycle to continue. <br><br>**Diagram**<br><br>89 **Practical activity 2** **Study question 6**<br><br>**Energy Flow in an Ecosystem**<br><br>The sun is the natural source of energy. This energy is transferred to the following feeding levels; Producers Primary consumers Secondary consumers Tertiary consumers Quaternary consumers These feeding levels are called**Trophic levels** **Decomposers** They break down organic materials into simple substances which are made available for re-use by other organisms. Decomposers are mainly fungi and bacteria. **Food Chains** This is the representation of energy flow from a producer to other organisms linearly. Green plants are eaten by herbivores which are eaten by carnivores. Producers Primary consumers Secondary consumers Tertiary consumers Quaternary consumers Some energy is lost as it is moved from one trophic level to the next. This is through respiration, defecation, excretion and in form of heat. **Fig. 2.7** **Examples** When the decomposers are included in a food chain, they are placed at the end. **Study Question 7** **Food Webs** These are several interconnected food chains. Simple food chains <br><br>rarely exist since in any ecosystem, many populations interact. **Ecological Pyramids** These give a simplified representation of feeding relationships and <br><br>energy flow in an ecosystem. They are of three types. <br><br>**Pyramid of numbers** **Pyramid of biomass** **Pyramid of energy**<br><br>**Pyramid of Numbers**<br><br>There is a progress decrease in the number of organisms as one move from the producers all the way to the quaternary consumers. Producers have the greatest number followed in a decreasing order by primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary consumers. **Construction of Pyramid of Numbers**<br><br>i.) Use data provided or collected. ii.) From the data, identify and draw the most suitable food chain. iii.) iv.) Choose a suitable scale for the data. v.) Using the chosen scale draw a horizontal rectangular bar to <br><br>Indicate the numbers at each trophic level in the food chain. <br><br>represent the number of the producers as the base of the pyramid. *vi.)*Progressively draw horizontal bars of the other trophic levels in <br><br>their ascending order. <br><br>*Ensure that the width of the bars is uniform.*<br><br>**Study Question 9** **Interpretation of Pyramid of Numbers** Generally the body size of organisms increases at each trophic level from the base to the apex of the pyramid as their number decreases. <br><br> At each trophic level much energy is lost through respiration, excretion, sweating, defecation etc. therefore less energy is transmitted to the succeeding trophic level. Fewer organisms can therefore be supported. <br><br> Inverted pyramid of numbers also exist. For example where one mango tree supports several monkeys each being fed on by several fleas. **Pyramid of Biomass** Biomass of an organism is its constant dry weight. In an ecosystem, the producers have the highest biomass followed in decreasing order by primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary consumers. <br><br>Mango tree <br><br>20 Consumer <br><br>Primary Consumer <br><br>Producer **Study Question 11** **Population** Populations change in size, structure and organisation. **Characteristics of a population.**<br><br>**Density.**This is the number of individuals per unit area. E.g. 50 <br><br>gazelles per Km2. <br><br>**Dispersion.**This is the distribution or spread of organisms in a <br><br>habitat. <br><br>**Population growth.**This refers to the rate of increase in <br><br>numbers. <br><br>**Population Estimation Methods** Usually a representative sample is used to estimate the population of organism in a big habitat. A sample is a small number of individuals taken from the habitat that is a representative of the whole population. The following methods are used when sampling. <br><br> Quadrat method. Line transect. Belt transect. Capture-recapture method. <br><br>**Adaptations of plants to various Habitats** An adaptation is a**change to suit environment:**the development of physical, physiological or behavioural characteristics that allow organisms to survive and reproduce in their habitats. There are four main groups of plants namely; <br><br> Xerophytes. Mesophytes. Hydrophytes. Halophytes. **Xerophytes** These are plants adapted to survive in the dry habitats. These habitats have the following characteristics. i.) Unpredictable and poorly distributed rainfall between 250- <br><br>350mm per year. <br><br>ii.) Very high day temperatures and very low night temperatures <br><br>hence high diurnal temperature range. <br><br>93 iii.) They are very windy. iv.) Low humidity. **Adaptations of Xerophytes** i.) Shedding of leaves during the dry season to reduce the surface <br><br>exposed to transpiration. <br><br>ii.) Reduced leaves in size such as in pine or modified into spines as in cactus. This reduces the surface area over which transpiration occurs. <br><br>iii.) Leaves have a thick waxy cuticle to reduce the rate of <br><br>transpiration. <br><br>iv.) Some store water in large parenchyma cells contained in <br><br>succulent stems and leaves. <br><br>v.) Some have reversed stomatal rhythm. vi.) Sunken stomata vii.) Folded leaves reduced the surface area. viii.) Reduced number of stomata <br><br>ix.) Some have deep roots to absorb water from deep in the soil. <br><br>Others have superficial roots growing horizontally close to the surface to absorb water after a light <br><br>**Mesophytes** These are plants growing in well watered areas. Such habitats have the following general characteristics. <br><br> Adequate rainfall; 950-1800mm that is well distributed <br><br>throughout the year. Relatively high humidity Thick clouds Moderate to high temperatures Shallow water table Less windy **Adaptations of Mesophytes** They show various adaptations depending on where they grow. Some of these adaptations are for reduction of water loss, others for increased water, loss and some are also adapted to light conditions. ***Forest Ecosystem*** i.) Vegetation grows fast to compete for light. <br><br>94 ii.) Trees grow very tall to compete for light. iii.) Some develop buttress roots or prop roots for extra support such <br><br>as the***Ficus natalensis.***<br><br>iv.) Climbers such as lianas support themselves on stems of tall trees <br><br>to reach light. <br><br>v.) Epiphytes support themselves on the branches of tall trees. vi.) Others are adapted to carry out photosynthesis under low light intensity by having many chloroplasts that are sensitive to low light intensity. <br><br>vii.) They show leaf mosaic pattern to minimise overlapping enhancing trapping of light for photosynthesis. <br><br>*Those in areas with a lot of water have broad leaves, thin cuticle* *and many stomata on both surfaces to encourage high rate of* *transpiration.*<br><br>*Those in dry areas have waxy and shiny cuticle to reflect light.* *Others are deep rooted to obtain water from deep in the soil.* **Hydrophytes** These are plants growing in fresh water either partially or wholly. Such habitats have the following general characteristics. <br><br> Low concentration of dissolved gases such as oxygen Presence of waves and currents Inadequate light in water **Adaptations of hydrophytes** i.) Broad leaves with maximum number of stomata on upper leaf <br><br>surface providing a large surface are for transpiration. <br><br>ii.) They have a large air filled tissue called***aerenchyma***tissue. The air reduces the density hence creating buoyancy to the plants and also aids in gaseous exchange. <br><br>iii.) Submerged ones have dissected leaves to offer large surface area <br><br>for light absorption required during photosynthesis. <br><br>iv.) They have chloroplasts sensitive to low light intensity. v.) They have poorly developed leaves and lack the root hairs to <br><br>reduce water absorption <br><br>vi.) Flowers are raised above the water to allow for pollination. <br><br>95 **Diagrams** **Halophytes** These are plants which are able to tolerate very salty conditions in soil and marine water. Such habitats have the following general characteristics. <br><br> High concentration of mineral salts Low concentration of dissolved gases Low light intensity in marine water Presence of waves and currents in marine water <br><br>**Adaptations of Halophytes** i.) They root cells which concentrate a lot of salts to enable them to <br><br>absorb water by osmosis. <br><br>ii.) Some have salt glands that secrete excess salts. iii.) Many have water storage tissues. iv.) Some like the mangroves have breathing roots called <br><br>***pneumatophores.***These rise above the water surface to obtain oxygen from the atmosphere. <br><br>v.) Mangroves growing on mud flats have buttress roots for support. vi.) Submerged halophytes are adapted to photosynthesise under low <br><br>light intensity. <br><br>vii.) Their fruits are adapted for dispersal by having***aerenchymatous***<br><br>tissue for air storage to make them buoyant. **CLASSIFICATION II** Classification, in biology is the identification, naming, and grouping of organisms into a formal system based on similarities such as internal and external anatomy, physiological functions, genetic makeup, or evolutionary history. **Study Question 1** **General Principles of Classification** Organisms that have similar and common features are grouped together while those that have different features are grouped separately. **Taxonomy**is the study of grouping of organisms according to their relationship. There are seven major taxonomic units (taxa). <br><br>96 Kingdom Phylum (phyla) or Division in plants Class Order Family Genus Species <br><br>As you move from the kingdom to the species the differences decrease as the similarities increases. **Species**is a group of organisms that can freely interbreed to give rise to viable/fertile offsprings. Sometime members of different species may interbreed to give an offspring which is*sterile*. E.g. a donkey and a horse can interbreed to give rise to a mule which is infertile. **Binomial Nomenclature** This is the*double naming*system of organisms where organisms are assigned two names i.e. the*generic*name and the*specific*name. **Examples** In binomial nomenclature the following rules are observed. v.) Generic name is written first followed by the specific name. vi.) First letter in the generic name is in capital and the rest are in <br><br>small letters. <br><br>vii.) Specific name is written in small letters. viii.) The two names are underlined separately when handwritten or <br><br>italicised when printed. <br><br>**Study Question 2** **The Five Kingdoms of Classification** ***Carolus Linnaeus***initially introduced the two kingdom system of classification. However many new life forms have been discovered which are neither animals nor plants. This has led to a more accepted classification system that adopts five kingdoms. These are; Animalia. <br><br>**Fig. 1.2** **1. Kingdom Monera** The kingdom is made up of mainly the bacteria e.g.*nitrobacter,* *azotobacter. Vibrio cholerae*etc. **General characteristics** i.) They are unicellular and microscopic. Some are single cells while <br><br>others are in colonies. They have different body shapes. <br><br>Fig. 1.4 <br><br>ii.) Most are heterotrophic, feeding either saprophytically or <br><br>parasitically. Some are autotrophic. <br><br>iii.) They are prokaryotic i.e. their nuclear material is not enclosed by <br><br>a nuclear membrane. <br><br>iv.) They have few organelles which are not membrane bound. They <br><br>dont have mitochondria. <br><br>v.) They have a cell wall though not made of cellulose. vi.) They reproduce asexually mainly through binary fission. vii.) Most of them respire an-aerobically but some respire aerobically. viii.) Most of them move by use of flagella. <br><br>**Diagrams** **Study question 3** **2. Kingdom Protoctista** Examples include paramecium, amoeba, plasmodium, chlamydomonas, euglena, spirogyra, and trypanosome. **General characteristics** i.) They are eukaryotic whereby their nuclei is bound by a nuclear membrane. <br><br>ii.) Some are heterotrophic while others are autotrophic. iii.) They have may organelles including mitochondria all of which <br><br>are membrane bound. They have different body forms; some are unicellular or colonial while others are multicellular. <br><br>iv.) <br><br>v.) Reproduction is mainly asexual by fission, fragmentation or sporulation. Some reproduce sexually by conjugation. vi.) They are mobile and move by means of cilia, flagella or <br><br>pseudopodia. <br><br>vii.) Some may have specialised structures that perform specific <br><br>functions such as contractile vacuole for osmoregulation. <br><br>**Diagrams**<br><br>**Practical Activities 1 and 2**<br><br>**3. Kingdom Fungi** **Examples** Saprophytic ones include mushrooms, toadstools, bread moulds, penicilia, yeast etc. Parasitic ones cause plant diseases such as wheat rust, potato and tomato blight and animal diseases such as athletes foot and ringworm. <br><br>**Practical Activities 3** **General characteristics** i.) They are eukaryotic. ii.) Most have cell walls made of chitin but a few have cellulose cell <br><br>walls. <br><br>iii.) They store food particles in their cytoplasm in the form of <br><br>glycogen or oil droplets but not starch. <br><br>iv.) The basic unit is the***hyphae***. Hyphae are thin filaments and many <br><br>of them make up structures called***mycelium***. <br><br>v.) Fungi have neither the chloroplasts nor the chlorophyll. They feed on already manufactured food. Hyphae act as the roots and are sent into the food material to obtain nutrients. In saprophytic fungi the hyphae are referred to as***rhizoids***and in parasitic ones as***haustoria***. <br><br>vi.) They reproduce***sexually***(fusion of nuclei in hyphal branches) <br><br>and***asexually***(spores and budding). **4. Kingdom Plantae** **Study question 5** **General Characteristics** i.) They are eukaryotic and multicellular. ii.) iii.) They reproduce both sexually and asexually. iv.) Their cells have cellulose cell walls v.) They have photosynthetic pigment hence are autotrophic. vi.) Majority have a transport system vii.) They show alternation of generation. <br><br>In most their body is differentiated into leaves, stem and roots. **A. Division Bryophyta** These are the mosses and the liverworts. **General Characteristics** i.) The lack the vascular system ii.) Contain chlorophyll and are therefore photosynthetic. iii.) They have rhizoids for anchorage and water and mineral salts <br><br>absorption. <br><br>iv.) They show alternation of generations. v.) Fertilisation depends of availability of water. Male gametes are <br><br>produced by the***antheridia***and female gametes by the ***archegonia.***<br><br>vi.) They grow on damp substratum such as walls, rocks and marshes. vii.) They are***thalloid***as in liverworts or differentiated into simple <br><br>leaf like and stem like structures as in mosses. <br><br>**Diagrams**. **General Characteristics** i.) They have leaves, stems and roots but no flowers. ii.) They are photosynthetic. iii.) They have a clearly defined vascular system made of xylem and <br><br>phloem. <br><br>iv.) They have compound leaves with leaflets called***pinna.*** v.) On the lower side of mature leaves are the spores bearing <br><br>structures (sporangia) which occur in groups called***sori***(***sorus-*** ***singular***). see diagram. <br><br>vi.) They show alternation of generations where the sporophyte (fern plant) is the dominant one while the gametophyte is a heart shaped structure called***Prothallus***. See diagram. <br><br>vii.) They have sexual reproduction which is dependent of water. <br><br>**Study Question 6**<br><br>**Practical Activity 4**<br><br>**Study Question 7**<br><br>**Practical Activity 5** **C. Division Spermatophyta** This comprises of all the seed bearing plants. **General Characteristics** i.) They contain chloroplasts hence are photosynthetic. ii.) The plant body is differentiated into roots, stems, leaves and seed <br><br>bearing structures. <br><br>iii.) Vascular system is highly developed with xylem tissue consisting <br><br>of both xylem vessels and tracheids. iv.) Sexual reproduction is well defined. v.) Seeds are produced after fertilisation. vi.) They show alternation of generation. The division Spermatophyta is made up of two main subdivisions i.e. <br><br>**Gymnospermaphyta** **Angiospermaphyta**<br><br>**Gymnospermaphyta** **General Characteristics**<br><br>101 They bear male and female cones. After fertilisation seeds are borne on the female cones and they <br><br>are naked i.e. they are not enclosed in a fruit wall. <br><br> They show xerophytic characteristics such as needle like leaves, <br><br>rolled leaves, thick waxy cuticle and sunken stomata. <br><br> Phloem doesnt contain companion cells and xylem mainly <br><br>consists of tracheids. This subdivision has three main classes. <br><br> Coniferales Cycadales Ginkgoales **i) Class Coniferales**<br><br> These include all the common gymnosperms. They are found in areas of little water. They have small needle-shaped leaves with waxy cuticle. They have cones and most of them are ever green. ***Male cones***are in form of clusters at the***base of the terminal***<br><br>***bud***. <br><br>***Female cones are on lateral buds***of young shoots and they <br><br>contain naked seeds. <br><br>**Diagrams.** **ii) Class Cycadales**<br><br> They resemble the palm trees by appearance. They have long compound leaves which are clustered at the apex <br><br>of a thick short un-branched stem. <br><br> They bear cones at the apex of the trunk. <br><br>**iii) Class Ginkgoales**<br><br> Members here are very rare. They include the***Ginkgo biloba***of China. They are deciduous with fan like leaves. <br><br>**Angiospermaphyta** **General characteristics**<br><br> Are usually bisexual and flower bearing. <br><br>102 Seeds are enclosed in an ovary which develops into a fruit. Xylem has tracheids and vessels while the phloem has companion <br><br>cells. <br><br> They have double fertilisation. <br><br>This subdivision is divided into two classes. <br><br>**Monocotyledonae. examples** **Dicotyledonae**. **examples** **Class Monocotyledonae** **Class Dicotyledonae.**<br><br> They have seeds with one Have two cotyledons. <br><br>cotyledon. <br><br> They have narrow-long leaves Broad leaves with reticulate <br><br>with parallel venation. Most of their leaves have a modified petiole to form a leaf sheath. <br><br>venation. <br><br> Leaves have distinct petioles. <br><br> Their stems have scattered <br><br> Vascular bundles are arranged to form a concentric ring. vascular bundle. <br><br> Pith is usually absent. Vascular cambium is usually absent hence no secondary growth. Pith is present. Vascular cambium is present hence there is secondary growth. <br><br> They have a fibrous root They have a tap root system <br><br>system <br><br> Floral parts are in threes or in Floral parts are in fours, fives <br><br>multiples of three. <br><br>or their multiples. In roots, the xylem is <br><br> In the root vascular bundles are arranged in a ring with phloem and xylem alternating. <br><br>centrally placed and star shaped with the phloem alternating with the arms of the xylem. **Practical activity 6** **ix.) Kingdom Animalia** **Study Question 9** **General characteristics** i.) Most show locomotion but a few are sessile ii.) Most reproduce sexually and a few asexually iii.) They are eukaryotic and multicellular iv.) All are heterotrophic v.) Their cells have no cell walls Kingdom Animalia has nine phyla but only two will be discussed i.e. Arthropoda and chordata. **Phylum Arthropoda** **Practical Activity 7** **General Characteristics** i.) They are segmented. ii.) They are bilaterally symmetrical. iii.) They have open circulatory system where blood flows in open <br><br>cavities called haemocoel. <br><br>iv.) Head is well developed with eyes, sensory structures and a fairly <br><br>developed brain. <br><br>v.) Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system which opens <br><br>through the spiracles to the outside. Some aquatic ones use gills. <br><br>vi.) Reproduction is mostly sexual with internal fertilization. They <br><br>have different sexes. <br><br>vii.) They have jointed appendages hence the name arthropoda. viii.) They have a body covered with exoskeleton made of chitin. This provides a surface for muscle attachment. It is shed periodically to allow growth through a process called***moulting***. ix.) Most have their body divided into head, thorax and abdomen. In some, the head and the thorax are fused to form***Cephalothorax***. The thorax and the abdomen are all segmented. The phylum arthropoda is divided into five classes. <br><br> Crustacea Chilopoda Diplopoda <br><br>104 Arachnida. Insecta. <br><br>Different members of the phylum are placed to their respective classes based on; <br><br> Number of limbs Presence and number of antennae Number of body parts. <br><br>**1. Class Crustacea** Examples. Daphnia, crayfish. Crab and prawn. **General Characteristics** i.) Head and thorax are fused to form cephalothorax. ii.) They have two pairs of antennae. iii.) They have between five and twenty pairs of limbs modified for different functions e.g. locomotion defence and feeding. <br><br>iv.) They have a pair of compound eyes. v.) Gaseous exchange is through the gills. vi.) They have three pairs of mouth parts made of one pair of mandibles (lower) and two pairs of maxillae (upper). **2. Class Chilopoda** These are the centipedes. **Diagram** **General Characteristics** i.) Body is divided into two parts, the head and the trunk. ii.) The body is dorsa-ventrally flattened. iii.) Body is made up of 15 or more segments. iv.) Head has a pair of simple eyes. v.) Each segment has a pair of walking legs. vi.) Head has a pair of antennae. vii.) Have poison claws n the head and are therefore carnivorous. viii.) Have a tracheal system for gaseous exchange. <br><br>ix.) Have separate sexes. <br><br>105 **General Characteristics** i.) They have cylindrical body. ii.) Have three body parts, head, and thorax and body trunk. iii.) They have two clumps of many simple eyes. iv.) They have no poison claws and are therefore herbivorous. v.) Heads has a pair of short antennae and mandibles. vi.) Each body segment has a pair of spiracles for breathing. vii.) Body has between 9-100 segments. viii.) Each segment has two pairs of walking legs except the first <br><br>thoracic segment. <br><br>**4. Class Arachnida** These include the scorpions, spiders, ticks and mites. **Diagrams** **General Characteristics** i.) Body has two parts, cephalothorax and abdomen. ii.) Cephalothorax has two chelicerae which produce poison to <br><br>paralyse the prey. <br><br>iii.) Cephalothorax has four pairs of walking legs each having seven <br><br>joints. <br><br>iv.) At the end of each leg are two toothed claws. v.) Cephalothorax has eight simple eyes. vi.) Most have lung books for gaseous exchange, some use gill books <br><br>or tracheal system. <br><br>vii.) They have no antennae but have a pair of pedipalps which are <br><br>sensitive to touch. <br><br>**5. Class Insecta** They include grasshoppers, bees, houseflies, butterflies, termites, beetles etc. Insects form half the population of animals on earth. They occupy all habitats i.e. air, water, and land. Their food is varied such as plant tissues, animal fluids, dead animals and excretions of animals making them to be found almost everywhere on earth. **General Characteristics** i.) Body is divided into three parts, head, thorax and abdomen. ii.) Thorax is made up of three segments with three pairs of legs. <br><br>Some have one or two pairs of wings on the thorax. <br><br>iii.) Head has one pair of antennae. iv.) They undergo complete or incomplete metamorphosis. v.) Excretion is through the malpighian tubules which remove uric <br><br>acid. <br><br>vi.) Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system but they breathe <br><br>through the spiracles. <br><br>vii.) The head a pair of compound eyes and several simple eyes. viii.) Abdomen is made up of 11 or fewer segments. The terminal <br><br>segments are modified for reproduction. <br><br>ix.) Mouth parts consist of the mandibles, maxillae and labium. The **Phylum Chordata** Chordate, common name for animals of the phylum Chordata, which includes vertebrates as well as some invertebrates that possess, at least for some time in their lives, a stiff rod called a notochord lying above the gut. About 43,700 living species are known, making the chordates the third largest animal phylum. In animals such as the***Amphioxus***the notochord persists but in others it is replaced at later stages of development by the vertebral column. <br><br>107 Members in this phylum inhabit both aquatic (marine and fresh water) and terrestrial (burrowers and arboreal) environments. **General Characteristics** i.) Members have a notochord at some stage of their development. ii.) They are bilaterally symmetrical. iii.) Heart is ventrally placed. Blood flows from the heart through the <br><br>arteries and gets back to the heart through the veins. <br><br>iv.) They have a post anal tail although it is greatly reduced in some. v.) They have an endoskeleton. vi.) They have a closed circulatory system. vii.) They have visceral clefts where in fish they become the gills in <br><br>higher chordates they are only present in the embryo. <br><br>viii.) They have a tubular dorsal nerve cord. It develops anteriorly into <br><br>brain and posteriorly as the spinal cord. Spinal cord is enclosed by the vertebral column. <br><br>ix.) They have segmented muscle blocks called***myotomes***on either <br><br>side of the body. <br><br>The main classes of the phylum chordata are; <br><br> Pisces Amphibia Reptilia. Aves. Mammalia **Pisces** **Diagram** These are the fishes. They include those with a skeleton made of cartilage e.g. shark and those with a bony skeleton such as the tilapia, Nile perch, lung fish, dog fish, and cat fish etc. **General Characteristics** i.) The move by fins ii.) Bodies are covered with scales iii.) Have gills for gaseous exchange in water. iv.) They dont have a middle or inner ear. v.) They have streamlined bodies. <br><br>108 vi.) They have a lateral line for sensitivity. vii.) Their heart has two main chambers i.e. the auricle and the <br><br>ventricle. <br><br>viii.) They are poikilothermic/ectothermic. <br><br>ix.) Eyes are covered by a nictating membrane. <br><br>**Amphibia**<br><br>They include the toads, newts, salamanders and frogs. The toad is the most advanced amphibian. Its skin is less moist and therefore uses the lungs more for gaseous exchange. They therefore stay mostly on land and only return to the ponds during reproduction. **Diagrams** **General Characteristics** i.) They have a double circulatory system. ii.) They have a three chambered heart with two atria and one <br><br>ventricle. <br><br>iii.) Fertilisation is external and they breed in water. iv.) Gaseous exchange is through the skin, lungs and gills. v.) They have two eyes and an eardrum behind the eyes. vi.) They are ectothermic. vii.) They have 4 well developed limbs. The hind limbs are more <br><br>muscular than the forelimbs. <br><br>**Reptilia** Examples include tortoise, turtles, snakes, crocodiles, lizards and chameleons. **General Characteristics** i.) They are ectothermic. ii.) They have a well developed lung for gaseous exchange. iii.) They have double circulatory system with the heart having three <br><br>chambers i.e. two atria and a partially divided ventricle. Crocodiles however have a four chambered heart. <br><br>iv.) The body is covered with a dry scaly skin reducing desiccation. v.) Some have four limbs while others dont have any limbs such as <br><br>the snakes. vi.) Fertilisation is internal. They lay eggs with a leathery shell to avoid desiccation. Some species of chameleons give birth to young ones. <br><br>**Aves**<br><br>Examples include doves, chicken, hawks, eagles and turkeys. They are terrestrial and arboreal while some have been adapted for aquatic life. **General Characteristics** i.) Bodies are covered with feathers for in insulation. ii.) They have beaks. iii.) They internal auditory canal/ meatus iv.) Fertilisation is internal and they lay hard calcareous eggs. v.) They have lungs for gaseous exchange. vi.) They have air sacs which store air in them reducing their body <br><br>density for flight. vii.) They are endothermic. viii.) They have hollow bones. <br><br>ix.) They have scales on their hind limbs. x.) They have double circulatory system with a four chambered <br><br>heart. <br><br>xi.) The sternum is enlarged to form keel for attachment of flight <br><br>muscles. **Mammalia** **Study Question 11**<br><br> Some are arboreal such as the tree squirrels, and some monkeys. Some are terrestrial either on the surface of the earth or in tunnels. <br><br> Some are aquatic such as the dolphins and whales. <br><br>**General Characteristics** i.) They have double circulatory system ii.) They have mammary glands hence the name Mammalia. iii.) Their body is usually covered with fur or hair. iv.) They have two eternal ears (pinna) v.) They have sweat glands. vi.) They have lungs for gaseous exchange. <br><br>110 vii.) They have four limbs. viii.) They have a diaphragm which separates the body cavity into <br><br>thoracic and abdominal cavities.. <br><br>ix.) The brain is highly developed. x.) They have seven cervical vertebrae at their neck. xi.) They are endothermic. xii.) They have*heterodont*type of dentition where the teeth are <br><br>differentiated into four types, incisors, canines, pre-molars and molars. The number varies in relation to feeding habits. <br><br>**Although most mammals give birth to live young ones, some**<br><br>**are egg laying such as the duck billed platypus. After** **hatching, the young ones are fed on milk.**<br><br>**Practical Activity 9** **Practical Activity 10.** **The Dichotomous Key** The word dichotomous means separating into two. I.e. Separation of different or contradictory things: a separation into two divisions that differ widely from or contradict each other. As you move down the key you progress from general characteristics to more specific characteristics. The last single choice reveals the identity of the unknown organism. **Rules Used in Constructing a Dichotomous Key** i.) Use morphological features as far as possible. ii.) Start with the major characteristics and proceed to lesser <br><br>variations that separate the organisms into smaller groups. E.g. in leaves start with type of leaf i.e. simple or compound. <br><br>iii.) Select a single characteristic at a time and identify it by a number <br><br>such as. <br><br> Type of leaf Type of venation <br><br>iv.) Use identical forms of words for the two contrasting statements <br><br>e.g. <br><br>1. <br><br>a) leaf simple. b) Leaf compound <br><br>111 2. <br><br>a) Leaf net veined. b) Leaf parallel veined. <br><br>v.) The statements should always be written in positive form. Where <br><br>a negative statement cannot be avoided, the first statement must be in the positive form e.g. <br><br>a) Animal with wings b) Animal without wings vi.) Avoid overlapping statements or generalisations such as <br><br> Short plants Tall plants <br><br>Be very specific in your description such as <br><br> Plant I metre tall and above. Plant 15cm to 60cm tall. <br><br>**Some common Features Used For Identification.**<br><br>**In animals**<br><br>**i.)**Locomotory structures (legs, wings and fins) **ii.)**Antennae, presence and number **iii.)**Presence and type of eyes **iv.)**Number of body parts **v.)**Body segmentation **vi.)**Type of skeleton present **vii.)**Feeding structures **viii.)**Presence of hair, fur, scales or feathers on the body **In plants**<br><br>**Part of** **plant** Leaf <br><br>**Some characteristics.**<br><br> Phylotaxy Leaf type Leaf venation Margin Lamina Colour Inflorescence Flower shape <br><br> Flower Number of floral Type of stem( woody, herbaceous or fleshy) Shape (rectangular or cylindrical) Texture of the stem (smooth or spiny/thorny) Root system (taproot or fibrous) Storage roots. **Summary of the Five Kingdoms.** **Practical Activities.** **Revision Questions.**<br><br>**REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS**<br><br> This is the process by which mature individuals produce <br><br>offsprings. <br><br> There are two types of reproduction. <br><br>**1) Sexual reproduction which involves male and female**<br><br>**gametes**<br><br>Diagram **2) Asexual reproduction where no gametes are involved.** Diagram <br><br>**Importance of Reproduction**<br><br>**1) Procreation**<br><br>This ensures that a species does not become extinct. <br><br>**2) Quality improvement**<br><br>Reproduction allows for mixing of genetic materials bringing about variations. These variations are important tools in the refinement of quality of offsprings. <br><br>113 **Cell Division**<br><br> Life in all living things start as a single cell as a spore or as a <br><br>zygote. <br><br> The cells have to divide further to give rise to make cells. Cell division starts with division of the nucleus (chromosome) <br><br>and then the cytoplasm. <br><br>**Chromosomes**<br><br> These are microscopic thread like structure within cells that carries the molecule deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)the hereditary material that influences the development and characteristics of each organism. <br><br> Each chromosome is made up of two parallel strands called <br><br>**chromatids.**<br><br> Chromatids are joined together at one point by the**centromere**. <br><br>**Diagram**<br><br> Each cell has a fixed number of chromosomes e.g. each human <br><br>body cell has 46 chromosomes. <br><br> Chromosomes occur in pairs in the nucleus. A member of each <br><br>pair is called homologous chromosomes. <br><br> Homologous chromosomes are similar in appearance, size, and <br><br>shape but their genetic constitution may be different. Genes are found along the length of the chromosomes. Genes are very tiny and made up of a chemical substance called <br><br>DNA (De oxy Ribonucleic Acid) DNA determines the characteristics of the offspring. **There are two types of cell division** **i) Mitosis** ii)**Meiosis**<br><br>**Mitosis**<br><br> In this type of cell division, each cell divides into two daughter <br><br>cells each having the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. <br><br> Mitosis occurs in series of stages i.e. <br><br>**i)** **Interphase**<br><br>114 **ii) Prophase** **iii) Metaphase.** **iv) Anaphase** v)**Telophase**. 1)**Interphase** During this stage the following activities take place within the cell in preparation of the division. <br><br> Synthesis of new cell organelles such as ribosomes, centrioles, <br><br>mitochondria and Golgi apparatus. <br><br> Multiplication of genetic material so that each daughter cell will <br><br>have same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. <br><br> Build up of enough energy stores in form of ATP (Adenosine <br><br>Triphosphate) during respiration. This energy is important to see the cell through the process of division. <br><br> At this stage the chromosomes are not clearly visible. <br><br>**Diagrams**<br><br> 2)**Prophase** The following events take place in this stage. <br><br> Centrioles separate and move to opposite poles of the cells. Spindle fibres begin to form Nuclear membrane begins to break down and nucleolus <br><br>disappears. <br><br> Chromosomes thicken and shorten and they can be stained easily <br><br>hence become visible. **Diagram**<br><br>**3)Metaphase**<br><br> Nuclear membrane disappears and chromosomes are free in the cytoplasm. <br><br> Spindle fibres lengthen and attach to the centrioles at both poles. Chromosomes align themselves at the equator and are attached to <br><br>the spindle fibres by their centromere. <br><br>**Diagram**<br><br>**3) Anaphase** Chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite poles. This is brought about by the shortening of the spindle fibres. <br><br> Spindle fibres begin to disappear. In animal cells, cell membrane begins to constrict towards the end <br><br>of anaphase. <br><br>**Diagram**<br><br>4)**Telophase**<br><br> Chromatids collect together at the two opposite poles of the <br><br>spindle. <br><br> Nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromatids and are <br><br>now referred to as chromosomes. <br><br> Cytoplasm divides into two hence the formation of two daughter <br><br>cells. <br><br> Chromosomes become less distinct. <br><br>*In animal cells, division of cytoplasm is by constriction of cell* *membrane.* *In plant cells, a cell plate forms within the cytoplasm and grows to* *separate the cell into two.* **Diagrams** Significance of Mitosis <br><br>i) <br><br>Forms basis for asexual reproduction e.g. budding and spore formation. <br><br>ii) Causes cell growth when the cells formed increase in <br><br>number and size. <br><br>iii) Ensures genetic constitution of the offspring is the same <br><br>as the parents. <br><br>iv) Replaces damaged and dead cells in the body. **Meiosis**<br><br> This involves two divisions of the parental cell resulting into four <br><br>daughter cells. <br><br> First meiotic cell division involves the separation of the <br><br>homologous chromosomes. It is referred to as*Reduction division* because the numbers of chromosomes are reduced by half. In the second stage, the sister chromatids are separated and it is <br><br>referred to*as Equatorial division*<br><br> Each daughter cell has half the number of chromosomes (haploid <br><br>n) as the parent cell. <br><br> This takes place in the reproductive organs of animals (testis and <br><br>ovary) and plants (anthers and ovary). <br><br> Meiosis is divided into same series of stages as in mitosis. The phases are given names as in mitosis but each is followed by <br><br>I or II. <br><br>**First Meiotic Division** **Interphase I** The cell prepares for division by the following. <br><br> Replication of chromosomes. Synthesis of new cell organelles. Build up of energy. <br><br>**Prophase I**<br><br> Nucleolus disappears. Centrioles move to opposite poles. Chromosomes shorten and thicken becoming more visible. Homologous chromosomes lie side by side in the process of <br><br>*synapsis*forming pairs called*bivalents.*<br><br> Homologous chromosomes may become coiled around each other <br><br>with their chromatids remaining in contact at points called *chiasmata.*<br><br>NB/. During chiasma formation homologous chromosomes may exchange genetic material during crossing over. These genetic exchanges are important because they bring about variations in offsprings. **Metaphase.I** Nuclear membrane disappears. Homologous chromosomes as a bivalent move to the equator of <br><br>the cell. <br><br> Spindle fibres are fully formed and get attached to the <br><br>chromosomes at the centromere. <br><br>117 Homologous chromosomes orientate towards different poles. **Diagram** **Anaphase I** Homologous chromosomes separate and migrate to the opposite <br><br>poles with their centromeres leading. This is brought about by the shortening of the spindle fibres. <br><br>**Diagram** **Telophase I**<br><br> Cell divides across the middle when the chromosomes reach the <br><br>poles. <br><br> At the end of meiosis I homologous chromosomes are separated. <br><br>**Diagram** **Second Meiotic Division**. In this stage the sister chromatids are separated from each other. **Interphase II**<br><br> Cells go into a short interphase. <br><br>**Prophase II**<br><br> Chromosomes become shorter and thicker. New spindle fibres are formed. <br><br>**Metaphase.II**<br><br> Chromosomes align at the equator of the cell. Spindle fibres attach to their centromeres. Chromosomes orientate themselves towards the opposite poles. <br><br>**Anaphase II**<br><br> Sister chromatids separate from each other. Spindle fibres shorten pulling them to the opposite poles. <br><br>**Telophase II**<br><br> Spindle fibres disappears Nucleolus reappears and nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromatids. <br><br> Chromatids uncoil and become threadlike. Cytoplasm divides. Four cells are formed (tetrad). Each cell has haploid (n) number of chromosomes. <br><br>118 **Significance of Meiosis**<br><br>1. Gamete formation (sperms and ova) forming basis for sexual <br><br>reproduction <br><br>2. Provides opportunities for genetic variations during crossing over <br><br>**Similarities between mitosis and meiosis** 1. Both take place in plants and animals. 2. Both involve division (multiplication) of cells. <br><br>**Differences between meiosis and mitosis** Mitosis. Meiosis No association of homologous chromosomes <br><br>1. Homologous <br><br>chromosomes associate with each other. <br><br>2. Takes place in 2 nuclear <br><br>Takes place in one nuclear division. 2 daughter cells are produced each diploid (2n) Occurs in somatic (body) cells leading to growth. <br><br>divisions. <br><br>3. 4 daughter cells are <br><br>produced each haploid (n) <br><br>4. Occurs in reproductive <br><br>organs leading to gamete formation. <br><br>5. Chiasma formation takes place leading to crossing over hence variation No chiasma formation therefore no crossing over hence no variation. **Asexual Reproduction**<br><br> This is the production of offsprings from a single organism <br><br>without fusion of gametes. <br><br> This type of reproduction involves mitosis. <br><br>**Types of Asexual Reproduction**<br><br>**1. Binary fission in amoeba, plasmodium and bacteria** **2. Sporulation in rhizopus** **3. Budding in yeasts** **1. Binary fission in amoeba** When there is enough food and favourable temperature and pH, a <br><br>mature amoeba divides into two. During binary division, in amoeba, internal reorganization of molecules necessary for structural construction takes place. <br><br> Nucleus first divides mitotically (Karyogamy) into two followed <br><br>by the division of the cytoplasm (Cytogamy) <br><br>**Diagrams**<br><br>**2. Sporulation in Rhizopus** This is the formation of spores in substrates like the bread to form <br><br>bread moulds <br><br> A spore is a microscopic reproductive unit which contains a <br><br>nucleus and a small amount of cytoplasm. <br><br> Spores are produced by bacteria, most fungi, mosses and ferns. Rhizopus has a vegetative body called the mycelium. Mycelium is made up of many branched threads called***hyphae***. Horizontal hyphae are called***stolons***. Vertically growing ones are called***sporangiophore***. Tips of sporangiophore swell up to form the***sporangia***<br><br>***(sporangium)***. <br><br> Sporangia are the spore bearing structures. When fully mature, sporangium wall burst releasing the spores. If spores land on a suitable medium, they germinate and develop into other rhizopus. <br><br> Rhizopus uses structures called***rhizoids***for anchorage and to <br><br>obtain nutrients from the substrate. <br><br>**Diagrams** **Budding in Yeast** Under favourable conditions such as plenty of sugar, moisture, oxygen and optimum temperature, the yeast cell reproduces asexually by budding. <br><br> A projection of bud forms on the parent cell. Nucleus divides into two. One nuclei moves into the new bud. Bud grows in size and forms new cell organelles. Later the bud <br><br>separates off. <br><br>**Diagrams** **Sexual Reproduction in Plants**<br><br> In flowering plants the flower is the reproductive organ. <br><br>**Structure and Function of a Flower**<br><br> A flower is made up of a flower stalk (pedicel) and a receptacle. Attached to the receptacle are four groups of floral structures i.e. **i)**Calyx (sepals) **ii)**Corolla/petals **iii)** **iv)** Androecium male parts Gynoecium female parts **i) Calyx (sepals)** Made up of the sepals which are usually green. If sepals are fused they form***gamosepalous***calyx. If they are free, they form***polysepalous***calyx. Calyx protects the inner parts of the flower especially during***bud***<br><br>development. <br><br> Some flowers have sepal like structures below the calyx called <br><br>the***epicalyx***. **ii) Corolla/petals** Its made up of the petals which are brightly coloured, large and <br><br>conspicuous especially in insect pollinated flowers. <br><br> If fused gamopetalous. If free polypetalous **iii)** **Androecium male parts** Made up of one or more stamens Satmen is made up of the filament and anthers. Another has four pollen sacs containing pollen grains. Pollen grains contain the male gametes. <br><br>**Diagrams**<br><br>**iv)** It may contain one or more carpels A carpel consists of the ovary, the style and the stigma. Ovary contains the ovules. <br><br>**Gynoecium female parts**<br><br>121 Ovaries are described as epigynous, hypogynous or perigynous <br><br>depending on the place they occur in the flower. <br><br>**i) Epigynous (inferior) ovary** Ovary is located within the receptacle. All other floral parts occur above it such as in the apple flowers. **Diagram** **ii) Hypogynous (superior) ovary** Ovary is above the receptacle and other floral parts such as in <br><br>hibiscus. **Diagram** **iii)** The receptacle surrounds the carpel. All other floral parts arise around the ovary such as in roses. **Diagram** The gynoecia can also be grouped into different types dependi.ng on the number of carpels present i.e. monocarpous or syncarpous. **Monocarpous Gynoecium** It has only one carpel e.g. in beans. **Diagram** **Polycarpous Gynoecium** It has two or more carpels. It is divided into two. <br><br>**Perigynous ovary**<br><br>**a) Apocarpous gynoecium**<br><br> The carpels are free e.g in roses and bryophyllum. **Diagrams**<br><br>b)**Syncarpous gynoecium**<br><br> The carpels are fused together such as in hibiscus. <br><br>**Diagrams** **Terms Used in Describing a Flower**<br><br>i)*Complete flower* has all the four floral parts; calyx, corolla, <br><br>androecium and gynoecium. <br><br>*ii) Incomplete flower *has one or two floral parts missing. *iii) Unisexual flower *a flower with only one of the reproductive parts either male or female flower. <br><br>*iv) Staminate flower *male flower. *v) Pistillate flower *female flower. <br><br>122 *vi) Monoecious plant *bears both male and female parts of the <br><br>flower. <br><br>*vii) Dioecious plants -*the plant is either male or female e.g. in <br><br>paw paw. <br><br>*viii) Hermaphrodite or bisexual flower *has both the male and <br><br>female parts. <br><br>*ix) Regular or actinomorphic flower *a flower that can be <br><br>divided into tow similar halves by any vertical section passing through the center i.e. radial symmetry such as in morning glory. <br><br>x)*Irregular or zygomorphic flower *can be divided into two similar halves on one particular plane only i.e. bilateral symmetry e.g. in clotalaria. <br><br>xi)*Pedicillate flower-*flower with a stalk. xii)*Solitary flower *are flowers occurring singly. xiii)*Inflorescence *flowers that grow in clusters. xiv)*Essential parts of the flower *are the androecium and <br><br>gynoecium. <br><br>xv)*Non essential floral parts *are the calyx and corolla. <br><br>**Pollination** This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. **Types of Pollination** i) <br><br>***Self pollination***. Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower. <br><br>ii)***Cross Pollination*** transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower but of the same species. **Agents of Pollination**<br><br> Insect Wind <br><br>**Adaptations of Insect Pollinated Flowers (Entomophilous)**<br><br>i) <br><br>Flowers are large, conspicuous with brightly coloured petals and inflorescence to attract insects. <br><br>ii) Flowers are scented and produce nectar to attract insects. iii) Pollen grains are relatively large, heavy, rough or sticky so as <br><br>to stick on to the body of the sticks. <br><br>iv) They have small and firmly attached anthers to a firm filament. v) Stigmas are small, sticky and contained within the flower. This ensures that pollen grains from the body of an insect stick onto it. <br><br>vi) Flowers have a tubular or funnel shaped corolla, landing <br><br>platforms and honey guides. <br><br>**Adaptations of Wind Pollinated Flowers (Anemophilous)** **e.g. maize and other grasses**<br><br>i) <br><br>Small flowers with inconspicuous petals, bracts or inflorescence. <br><br>ii) Flower structure is simple and flowers have no particular <br><br>shape. <br><br>iii) Stigmas are long, feathery and hang outside the flower to trap <br><br>pollen grains. <br><br>iv) Pollen grains are small, smooth and light to be easily carried by <br><br>the wind. <br><br>v) Flowers are not scented and lack nectar. vi) Anthers are large and loosely attached to a flexible filament to <br><br>be easily released when the wind blows. <br><br>**Diagram of a grass flower**<br><br>**Stigma**<br><br><br><br>**Anther** Filament <br><br>**Features and Mechanisms Hindering Self Pollination and Self** **Fertilization**<br><br>i) Heterostyly condition whre the stigma na d style have different arrangements e.g. coconut flowers have shorter <br><br>124 stamens than pistils hence pollen grains from the anthers cannot reach the stigma. <br><br>***Diagram*** ii)*Self sterility or incompatibility* condition where pollen grains <br><br>of a flower fail to germinate if they land on the stigma of the same flower. <br><br>iii)*Protogyny and Protandry* condition where either male parts <br><br>of a flower mature before the female ones. *Protandry* stamen mature before the stigma e.g.in sunflower. *Protogyny* stigma matures before the anthers mature e.g. in maize. <br><br>iv)*Dioecious plants and presence of features that promote cross* *pollination*such as brightly coloured petals which attract insects hence cross pollination. <br><br>**Fertilization in Flowering Plants** Fertilization in plants is the fusion of the male and female nuclei in the embryo sac. <br><br> Male gamete is contained in the pollen grain produced in the <br><br>anther. ***Diagram***<br><br> Female gamete (egg cell) is found in ovules contained in the embryo sac. <br><br><br><br>125 **Process of Fertilization**<br><br><br><br>Style <br><br>Integuments Ovary wall <br><br>Antipodal cells <br><br>Embryo sac Polar nuclei <br><br>Egg cell <br><br>Synegids <br><br>funicle Micropyle <br><br>Pedicel <br><br>- Pollen grains land stick to the stigma and germinates to form <br><br>pollen tube, which grows through the tissue of the style towards the ovary <br><br>- The generative nucleus undergoes mitosis, forming 2 male <br><br>nuclei <br><br>- The pollen tube gets into the embryo sac through the micropyle; pollen tube nucleus disintegrates, creating a passage for the male nuclei. <br><br>- The egg cell fuses with one of the two male nuclei to form a <br><br>diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes mitosis to form an embryo - The two polar nuclei fuse with the second male nucleus to form <br><br>a triploid nucleus. <br><br>- The triploid nucleus forms the endosperm. The two con current fertilization incidents are collectively referred to as double fertilization <br><br>**Seed and Fruit Development**<br><br>- Some changes occur to the ovary, ovule and the entire flower <br><br>after fertilization. <br><br>- Calyx dries and falls off or may persist. - Petals and stamens wither and fall off. <br><br>126 **Development of the Seed**<br><br>- Zygote undergoes mitotic division to become the embryo <br><br>(plumule and radicle) and one or two cotyledons. <br><br>- Primary endosperm nucleus develops into the endosperm. - Ovule forms the seeds. - Ovary develops into a fruit. - Integuments become the seed coat (testa). - Testa has got a scar (hilum) which is the attachment point to the <br><br>placenta. <br><br>- A seed a tiny opening called the micropyle which allows water <br><br>into the seed during germination. <br><br>- Water is withdrawn from the seed from about 80% to 15% by <br><br>mass making the seed dry and hard. <br><br>**Development of Fruits**<br><br>- A fruit is a fully grown fertilized ovary containing fully <br><br>developed seeds. <br><br>- This is brought about by the hormones gibberellins and occurs <br><br>after fertilization. <br><br>- As the ovules develop into seeds, the rest of the ovary develops <br><br>into the fruit wall or the pericarp. <br><br>- Pericarp has two scars indicating the points of attachment to the <br><br>style and to the receptacle. <br><br>- Pericarp has three layers; epicarp/exocarp (outer most), <br><br>- In some fruits such as pineapples and bananas fruit formation <br><br>takes place without fertilization. This is called***parthenocarpy***. <br><br>- False fruits are formed when other parts of the flower such as <br><br>the receptacle enlarge and enclose the ovary e.g. in pineapples, apple, straw berry and cashew nut. <br><br>**Classification of Fruits**<br><br>berry e.g tomato & orange <br><br>succulent fruits <br><br>drupe e.g mango and coconut <br><br>schizocarp e.g castor <br><br>fruits <br><br>legume e.g. beans dehiscent <br><br>capsule e.g. poppy <br><br>dry fruits <br><br>nuts e.g. macadamia <br><br>caryopsis e.g maize indehiscent <br><br>cypsela e.g black jack <br><br>**Succulent fruits** They are divided into berry and drupe. <br><br>128 ***Berry*** has a succulent pericarp divided into epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp e.g. orange, tomato, passion fruit, melon, paw paw etc. **Diagram** ***Drupe*** they have a thin epicarp, fleshy or fibrous mesocarp and a very hard endocarp enclosing the seeds. In mango the fleshy edible part is the mesocarp while in coconut the mesocarp is a fibrous cover just before the hard endocarp. **Diagram** **Dry Fruits**<br><br>- They are divided into dehiscent and indehiscent. <br><br>**Dry Dehiscent fruit** They dehisce to release their seeds. They are divided into; <br><br>1. Legume e.g beans ***Diagram***<br><br>3. Schizocarp e.g. castor. <br><br>***Diagram***<br><br>**Dry indehiscent fruits**<br><br>- These do not dehisce. - They include; 1.**Caryopsis**- pericarp and seed coat are fused together to form a <br><br>thin covering round the seed e.g. maize. <br><br>**Diagram** 2.**Cypsela**- its a one seeded e.g. the blackjack. <br><br>**Diagram**<br><br>3.**Nut** the pericarp becomes hard and woody and it is separate <br><br>from the seed coat e.g. macadamia. **Diagram**<br><br>**Placentation**<br><br>- This is the arrangement of the ovules in an ovary. They include; <br><br>129 1.*Marginal Placentation*. - Ovules are attached to the placenta in a row e.g. peas in a pod. **Diagram** *2. Basal placentation* - Placenta is formed at the base of the ovary. Ovules are attached <br><br>to it sunflower and sweet pepper. <br><br>**Diagram** *3. Axile Placentation* - The edges of the carpels fuse together to form a central placenta <br><br>in the axile. <br><br>- Ovules are arranged on the placenta. - The ovary is divided into a number of loculi by the walls of the <br><br>carpel e.g. in orange <br><br>**Diagram** *4. Parietal Placentation* - Edges of the carpels fuse together and dividing walls disappear <br><br>leaving a loculus. <br><br>- Placentas from each carpel appear as a ridge on the ovary wall <br><br>and have numerous ovules on them e.g. in paw paw. <br><br>**Diagram** *5. Free central placentation* - Edges of carpels fuse together and the dividing walls disappear <br><br>leaving one loculus. <br><br>- Placenta appears at the center and have numerous ovules on it e.g. in primrose <br><br>**Diagram**<br><br>**Adaptations of Fruits to Various Agents of Dispersal** a) Water dispersal <br><br>- Such seeds and fruits enclose air in them to lower their <br><br>density for buoyancy; <br><br>- They are fibrous/ spongy to lower the density for <br><br>buoyancy; <br><br>- Have impermeable seed coat or epicarp to prevent water from entering during flotation so as to avoid rotting; <br><br>- The seeds can remain viable while in water and only <br><br>germinate while on a suitable medium; <br><br>b) Wind dispersal <br><br>- They are light; and small; to be easily carried by wind <br><br>currents due to lower density; <br><br>- Have developed extension (Parachute like structures and Wing like structures) which create a larger surface area; so as to be kept afloat in wind currents e.g. sonchus and jacaranda <br><br>- In some a Perforated capsule is usually loosely attached to a long stalk which is swayed away by wind scattering seeds; <br><br>c) Animal dispersal <br><br>- Brightly colored to attract animals - Fleshy to attract animals; e.g. mangoes, passion fruits, <br><br>oranges, tomatoes etc. <br><br>- aromatic /scented to attract animals; - The seed coats are hard and resistant to digestive enzymes; the seeds are therefore dropped away in feaces/droppings e.g. passion fruit and tomatoes. <br><br>- Some have hook like structures to attach on animals fur <br><br>e.g. blackjack <br><br>d) Self dispersal <br><br>- They have weak lines (sutures) on the fruit wall (pod), along which they burst open to release seeds, which get scattered away from the parent plant e.g. in legumes such as peas and beans. **SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS**<br><br> This involves gamete fusion. The male produces the male gamete (sperms) and the female <br><br>produces the female gamete (ovum/ova). <br><br> The gametes are produced in special organs called gonads i.e. the <br><br>testes and ovaries. The sperm fuses with the ovum to form a zygote through a <br><br>process called*fertilisation*the gametes are haploid and the zygote is diploid. <br><br> Fertilisation may be internal or external. <br><br>**External Fertilisation in Amphibians**<br><br> The female lays eggs and the male sheds sperms on them (to <br><br>fertilise them). This is only possible in water. <br><br> Many eggs are released to increase the chances of survival since <br><br>bacteria and other organisms can eat fertilised eggs. <br><br> Eggs are also in long strands of slippery jelly like substance, <br><br>which offer the eggs protection. <br><br> This substance separates the eggs from each other allowing for <br><br>good aeration. <br><br> It also attaches the eggs to water plants and makes them buoyant. <br><br>**Internal Fertilisation**<br><br> This occurs in reptiles, birds and mammals where fertilisation <br><br>occurs within the body of the female. <br><br> Sperms are introduced into the females body. Few eggs are produced because there are high chances of <br><br>fertilisation and the gametes/zygote receive further protection. <br><br> In most mammals, some chameleons and some snakes the <br><br>fertilised eggs develop into young ones within the body of the female. They give birth to young ones. **Study Question 8** **Reproduction in Mammals**<br><br> Mammals have internal fertilization where eggs are laid or <br><br>develop within the females body in the uterus. <br><br> The egg laying mammals (monotremes) they are said to be <br><br>*oviparous such as the platypus.* <br><br>**Platypus** The duck-billed platypus,*Ornithorhynchus anatinus,*found only in eastern Australia, belongs to an unusual group of egg-laying mammals called monotremes. It lives in streams, rivers, and occasionally lakes. The duck-billed platypus feeds on bottom- dwelling aquatic insect larvae, which it finds by probing the streambed with its pliable, sensitive bill. In marsupials such as the kangaroo the zygote does not develop fully within the uterus but completes development in the pouch. <br><br>**Mother Kangaroo and Baby**<br><br>Kangaroos are a type of mammal called a marsupial. Baby marsupials are unable to survive on their own when they are born, so they must live in a pouch on their mothers belly. A newborn kangaroo, called a joey, stays in its mothers pouch for about six months, where it feeds on her milk. <br><br> The ability to give birth to young ones as in placental mammals is <br><br>called viviparity. <br><br> Mammals have mammary glands, which produce milk on which the young ones are fed. Parental care is highly developed in mammals. <br><br>133 **Reproduction in Human beings** **Structure and Function of The male Reproductive System**<br><br><br><br>**Male Reproductive System**<br><br>The organs of the male reproductive system enable a man to have sexual intercourse and to fertilize female sex cells (eggs) with sperm. The gonads, called testicles, produce sperm. Sperm pass through a long duct called the vas deferens to the seminal vesicles, a pair of sacs that lies behind the bladder. These sacs produce seminal fluid, which mixes with sperm to produce semen. Semen leaves the seminal vesicles and travels through the prostate gland, which produces additional secretions that are added to semen. During male orgasm the penis ejaculates semen. <br><br> Testes are found outside the abdominal cavity in the*scrotal* *sac.*This position provides a cooler environment for sperm production since sperms develop best at lower temperature than that of the body. <br><br> Testis is made up of highly coiled tubes called**seminiferous** **tubules**whose inner lining has actively dividing cells which give rise to sperms. <br><br> Between the seminiferous tubules are interstitial cells, which <br><br>produce the male hormones (androgens). <br><br>134 <br><br>**Internal View of Male Reproductive System**<br><br>The reproductive anatomy of the male human is largely external. Beginning at puberty, sperm are produced within seminiferous tubules of the testicles, a pair of glands that reside in a pouch called the scrotum. The external location of the scrotum keeps the temperature of sperm slightly below body temperature, which is necessary for their healthy development and survival. From each testicle, sperm migrate to a long, coiled tube known as the epididymis, where they are stored for one to three weeks until they mature. Also located outside the body is the penis, the erectile organ responsible for the excretion of urine and the transfer of sperm to the vagina of the female. Just before ejaculation during sexual arousal, mature sperm travel from the epididymis, a coiled tube behind each testicle, through a long duct called the vas deferens. Sperm leave the body in semen, a fluid produced by the seminal vesicles. <br><br> Seminiferous tubules unite to form the**epididymis, which**is <br><br>about 6m long and highly coiled. It stores the sperms. <br><br> Its connected to the**sperm duct/vas deferens.**Sperm duct <br><br>connects the epididymis to the urethra, which is the ejaculatory duct. <br><br>**Seminal vesicles**provide an alkaline fluid, which contains <br><br>nutrients for the sperms. <br><br>135 **Prostate gland**secretes an alkaline substance to neutralise the <br><br>vaginal fluids. It also activates the sperms. <br><br>**Cowpers glands**secrete an alkaline fluid that neutralizes the <br><br>acidity along the urethra. <br><br>**All these fluids combine with the spermatozoa to form the**<br><br>**semen.**<br><br> Since the urethra serves both passage of urine and semen it is <br><br>said to be urino-genital in function. <br><br> The penis is erectile and made of spongy tissue, muscle and <br><br>blood vessels. <br><br> Once erect, the penis is able to penetrate the vagina in order to <br><br>deposit sperms into the females reproductive tract. <br><br>**Study question 9 and Practical.** **Structure and Function of The Female Reproductive System**. **Diagram**<br><br> The internal sex organs of the female consist of the vagina, <br><br>uterus, fallopian tubes (or oviducts), and ovaries. <br><br> The*vagina*is a flexible tube-shaped organ that is the passageway between the uterus and the opening in the vulva. Because during birth the baby travels from the uterus through the vagina, the vagina is also known as the birth canal. <br><br> The woman's menstrual flow comes out of the uterus and through <br><br>the vagina. <br><br> When a man and a woman engage in vaginal intercourse, the <br><br>penis is inserted into the vagina. <br><br> The*cervix*is located at the bottom of the uterus and includes the opening between the vagina and the uterus. It secretes a plug of mucus, which prevents entry of pathogens into the uterus during pregnancy. <br><br> The*uterus*is a muscular organ that has an inner lining <br><br>(endometrium) richly supplied with blood vessels and glands. During pregnancy, the uterus holds and nourishes the developing foetus. <br><br> Although the uterus is normally about the size of a fist, during pregnancy it is capable of stretching to accommodate a fully developed foetus, which is typically about 50 cm (about 20 in) long and weighs about 3.5 kg (about 7.5 lbs). <br><br> The uterine muscles also produce the strong contractions of <br><br>labour. <br><br> At the top of the uterus are the pair of*fallopian tubes (oviduct)*<br><br>that lead to the ovaries. <br><br> The two*ovaries*produce eggs, or ova (the female sex cells that can become fertilized), and female sex hormones, primarily oestrogen and progesterone. <br><br> The fallopian tubes have finger like projections at the ends near the ovaries that sweep the egg into the fallopian tube after it is released from the ovaries. <br><br> Movement of ovum is also aided by the smooth muscles of the <br><br>oviduct. <br><br> If sperm are present in the fallopian tube, fertilization <br><br>(conception) may occur and the fertilized egg will be swept into the uterus by*cilia*(hair like projections inside the fallopian tube). **Practical**<br><br>**The Human Sperm**<br><br> Are formed in the seminiferous tubules of testes by meiosis. Final products of meiosis enter the sertoli cells where they are <br><br>nourished and undergo maturation. <br><br> Mature sperms leave for epididymis where they are stored. A mature sperm has an ovoid head, short neck, middle piece and <br><br>a tail. <br><br>**Diagram**<br><br> Head has a large nucleus carrying the genetic material, which is <br><br>haploid (n). At the tip of the head there is the acrosome containing lytic <br><br>enzymes. These enzymes digest the wall of ova. <br><br> The short neck contains centrioles. Middle piece has a large number of mitochondria, which provide with the energy required for propulsion of the sperm to reach the ova. <br><br> The tail propels the sperm forward by its side-to-side lashing <br><br>action. <br><br>**Formation of The Ova**<br><br> In females egg formation begins in the ovary of the foetus before <br><br>birth unlike in males where production of sperms starts at puberty. <br><br> At birth there are about**70,000 potential egg cells**in the ovaries <br><br>of a baby girl. <br><br> A layer of ovary cells called**primary follicles**, which provide <br><br>them with nourishment, encloses them. <br><br> Only about 500 of them develop into ova during puberty. During puberty the primary follicles grow to become**Graafian follicle**. At ovulation, the Graafian follicle bursts open to release a mature <br><br>ovum surrounded by a layer of cells. <br><br>**Diagram**<br><br> A mature ovum is spherical in shape with a diameter of about 0.2 <br><br>mm. <br><br> It has a large haploid nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane. Nucleus is within the cytoplasm enclosed by the**plasma** **membrane**.**Vitelline**membrane surrounds the plasma membrane. **Fertilisation**<br><br> Process where the nucleus of a male gamete fuses with the <br><br>nucleus of a female gamete to form a zygote. <br><br> This takes place in the upper part of he oviduct after copulation. Sperms are drawn up by suction through the cervix into the uterus. They swim up to the oviduct using their tails. <br><br> Very many sperms are released but only one is required to <br><br>fertilise the ovum. <br><br> The ovum releases chemical substances, which are neutralised by <br><br>those released by the acrosome. <br><br> When the ovum comes into contact with the egg the acrosome <br><br>bursts releasing lytic enzymes, which dissolve the egg membranes. <br><br> The acrosome turns inside out forming a filament, which is used <br><br>to penetrate the eggs. <br><br>**Diagrams**<br><br> The Vitelline membrane undergoes a change, which stops any <br><br>other sperm from entering the ovum. <br><br> Once inside the cytoplasm the head bursts to release the male nucleus, which then fuses with the female nucleus to form a diploid zygote. <br><br> After ovulation the ovum can remain viable for 8-24 hours before <br><br>it dies. <br><br> The sperm can remain viable for 2-3 days in the female <br><br>reproductive tract. After fertilisation, the zygote undergoes various mitotic divisions as it moves down the oviduct. Its movement is aided by cilia in the oviduct and by the contractions of the smooth muscles lining the oviduct. <br><br> By the time it reaches the uterus it has formed a hollow structure <br><br>of cells called blastocyst. <br><br> Movement of the zygote from the oviduct to the time it is <br><br>implanted takes about 7 days. <br><br>**Diagrams**<br><br> Sometime the zygote may fail to move down to the uterus and gets implanted into the walls of the oviduct. This condition is referred to as**ectopic pregnancy**. <br><br>**Formation of Placenta**<br><br> During implantation the blastocyst differentiates into three layers, <br><br>**chorion, amnion**and**allantois.**<br><br>**Diagram**<br><br>**Chorion**is the outermost and it has finger like projections called **chorionic villi**. These villi grow into the endometrium. During the early stages of embryo development, villi form the sites for material exchange between the embryo and maternal blood vessels. <br><br>**Amnion**surrounds the embryo forming an amniotic cavity. <br><br>Amniotic cavity contains the amniotic fluid, which suspends the foetus providing it with support. It also acts as a shock absorber hence protecting it against mechanical injury. <br><br>**The chorionic villi, allantois and the endometrium form the**<br><br>**placenta.**<br><br> The embryo is attached to the placenta by a tube called the <br><br>**umbilical cord**. <br><br> When the placenta is fully formed, the embryo becomes the <br><br>foetus at about three months of pregnancy. <br><br>140 **The Role of The Placenta**<br><br> This is a temporary organ found only in placental mammals. It is the only organ in animals composed of cells derived from two different organisms; the foetus and the mother. <br><br> It facilitates the transfer of nutrients and metabolic waste products between the mother and the foetus. It selectively allows some materials to pass through and not others. <br><br>Refer to the table below <br><br> Drugs, alcohol and some chemicals from cigarette smoke pass <br><br>through the placenta. Pregnant mothers should therefore not take alcohol or smoke excessively. <br><br> There is no direct connection between the foetal blood system and <br><br>that of the mother. <br><br> If the two systems were directly connected, the delicate blood vessels of the foetus would burst due the higher pressure in the maternal circulatory system. <br><br> Exchange of materials occurs across the sinus in the uterine wall and the capillary system of foetus across intercellular space by diffusion. <br><br>**Diagram**<br><br>**Study question 13**<br><br> During pregnancy, placenta takes over the role of producing <br><br>hormones oestrogen and progesterone. <br><br>***Major functions of oestrogen and progesterone during pregnancy*** **Oestrogen** i.) Growth of mammary **Progesterone.** i.) Growth of mammary <br><br>glands Inhibits FSH release. Inhibits prolactin release. <br><br>glands. Inhibits FSH release Inhibits prolactin release. Inhibits contraction of ii.) iii.) iv.) Prevent infection in ii.) iii.) iv.) uterus Increase size of the uterine muscle cells. Increase ATP and creatine phosphate formation. Increases sensitivity of myometrium to oxytocin. <br><br>myometrium. <br><br>v.) <br><br>vi.) <br><br>**What is allowed to pass** **through the placenta** **From the mother to the** **foetus.**<br><br>**What is not allowed to pass** **through the placenta** i.) All blood cells. ii.) Plasma proteins. iii.) Most bacteria. <br><br>i.) Oxygen ii.) Vitamins iii.) Mineral salts iv.) Hormones v.) Water vi.) Antibodies and antigens. vii.) Glucose, amino acids, <br><br>fatty acids and glycerol. <br><br>**From the foetus to the** **mother**<br><br>i.) Carbon (iv) oxide. ii.) Nitrogenous wastes. <br><br>**Gestation Period**<br><br> This is the period between conception and birth. This varies in <br><br>different animals. E.g. mice 22 days Rabbits, 30 days Man, 9 months Elephants, 18 month When the human embryo is**two weeks**old, allantois, <br><br>chorion and amnion have already formed. Embryo then differentiates into tissues and organs. <br><br> By the end of the**third month**, the heart and blood vessels are fully developed. Spinal cord and the head region, which includes the eyes and the nose, are also well developed. Limbs show early signs of development. <br><br> By the end of**6 months**the alveoli and nose are well developed. Foetal movement can as well be felt. <br><br> By the end of the**nine months**, the foetus head is directly <br><br>above the cervix. <br><br> By now all the organs and systems are fully developed. If birth occurs before completion of 6 months, this is called <br><br>**miscarriage**and the baby cannot survive. <br><br> If the foetal development is interfered with either <br><br>physically or chemically such that the foetus is released, this is called**abortion.**<br><br> If birth occurs after 7 months but before term, this is called **premature birth**. Such babies are raised in incubators and they do survive. <br><br> Pregnant mothers must have a balanced diet. Calcium, <br><br>proteins, phosphates and iron should be abundant in her diet. <br><br> Calcium and phosphorous are needed for bone formation <br><br>while iron is for haemoglobin formation. Pregnant mother should visit antenatal clinic. **Birth/Parturition**<br><br> Maternal posterior pituitary gland releases hormone oxytocin. Progesterone level goes down. Oxytocin stimulates contraction of the myometrium. <br><br> Oxytocin is released in waves during labour. This provides the force required to expel the foetus from the uterus. <br><br> The cervix dilates, the amnion and chorion rupture <br><br>releasing the amniotic fluid. <br><br> The uterus starts contacting from the top downwards pushing the foetus downwards head first through the widened cervix and the birth canal. <br><br> After birth, the umbilical cord is ligatured/cut to separate the baby from the placenta. Placenta is expelled later after birth. <br><br> Then newborn baby takes in the first breath, lungs expand and become functional. The respiratory role of the placenta is taken over by the lungs. <br><br>**Diagrams**<br><br>**Caesarean delivery**<br><br> This is the surgical incision of the abdominal and uterine <br><br>walls for delivery to be achieved. This is done where there are complications ns such that the foetus cannot pass through the birth canal. <br><br>**Parental care**<br><br> The newborn baby is given food and protection. Placental mammals feed their young ones on milk. Milk is produced by the mammary glands under the influence of lactogenic hormones e.g. prolactin. <br><br> Mothers milk is the best as it contains all the nutrients needed for the growth and development of the body. For the first 3 days, colostrum is produced which contain antibodies, which provide natural defence to the foetus against diseases. <br><br> Milk is deficient of iron. The baby relies on iron stored in <br><br>its liver during gestation. <br><br> Milk let down is an example of a reflex action. The prevailing environment as shown below influences it <br><br>either positively or negatively. <br><br>**Milk production in various environments**<br><br>***Positive Environment*** ***Negative Environment***<br><br> Sucking at the breast, smell of the baby or crying of the baby trigger milk let down. <br><br> Milk let down may be inhibited or blocked if the breastfeeding mother experiences embarrassment, fatigue or anxiety. <br><br> Hypothalamus relays impulses to pituitary gland which releases hormone oxytocin Oxytocin reaches the breasts and causes alveoli to contract forcing milk into the ducts. <br><br> Ducts conduct milk into the reservoirs behind the areola <br><br> Baby sucks the milk from this reservoir. <br><br>**Assignment**<br><br>**Child labour**<br><br>**Role of Hormones in Human Reproduction**<br><br>**Secondary sexual characteristics**<br><br>These are physiological, structural and mental changes associated with masculinity and femininity. They are controlled by oestrogen in females and androgens in males. They occur at puberty. <br><br>**Secondary sexual characteristics in males**<br><br> Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release <br><br>gonadotrophic hormones i.e. FSH and LH. <br><br> FSH stimulates sperm synthesis. LH is also known as Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone <br><br>(ICSH) and it stimulates interstitial cells to release Androgens mostly Testosterone. It stimulates the onset of secondary sexual characteristics mostly at the age of 14. These include; <br><br>i.) Deepening of voice ii.) Growth of hair in pubic parts and armpit region iii.) Appearance of beards iv.) Body becomes masculine v.) Testes enlarge and begin to produce sperms <br><br>**Secondary sexual characteristics in females**<br><br> In females they start at early age 10-12 years. They include, <br><br>i.) Development of mammary glands ii.) Growth of hair in pubic parts and armpit region iii.) Enlargement of the pelvic girdle and widening of the <br><br>hips <br><br>iv.) Body becomes feminine. v.) Ovaries mature and start releasing eggs under the <br><br>influence of FSH and LH hence ovulation and menses. Unlike in males, the production of gonadotrophic hormones <br><br>is not continuous. It is produced periodically in cycles. <br><br>**Menstrual Cycle**<br><br><br><br>**Menstruation** An average menstrual cycle begins with three to five <br><br>days of menstruation, the shedding of the uterine lining, during which hormone levels are low. <br><br> At the end of menstruation, pituitary gland secrets FSH which has two functions. It stimulates new Graafian follicles to develop in the ovary and stimulates the ovary to secrete the hormone oestrogen. <br><br> Oestrogen brings about repair and healing of the <br><br>endometrium, which is destroyed during menstruation. <br><br> Oestrogen accumulates to levels, which stimulate the release of LH. LH stimulates the maturity of Graafian follicle. The mature Graafian follicle releases the ovum into the fallopian tube. This is called Ovulation and occurs on the 14th day. <br><br> The empty Graafian follicle forms the corpus luteum, an <br><br>endocrine body that secretes progesterone. <br><br> LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete hormone <br><br>progesterone. This hormone stimulates thickening and increased blood supply to the endometrium preparing the endometrium for implantation. <br><br> If fertilization takes place, the level of progesterone increases and thus inhibits FSH from stimulating the maturation of another Graafian follicle. <br><br> If fertilization does not take place, the corpus luteum dies <br><br>and progesterone hormone levels fall. <br><br> Without hormonal support, the uterine lining <br><br>disintegrates and discharges, beginning a new menstrual period and cycle. <br><br> This cycle lasts for 28 days in human beings. <br><br>146 **Assignment** **Sanitary Health**<br><br>**Menopause** **STI**<br><br>**Advantages of Asexual reproduction** **i.)**Good qualities from the parents are retained since there <br><br>is no variation. <br><br>**ii.)**There is faster maturation. **iii.)**<br><br>Its independent of processes such as pollination, fertilisation and fruit and seed dispersal <br><br>**iv.)**New offsprings are able to obtain nourishment from their parents and are therefore able to survive under unsuitable conditions. <br><br>**v.)**There is no wastage of a large number of offsprings**.**<br><br>***Disadvantages*** i.) Reduction in strength and vigour in offsprings. ii.) Undesired qualities are easily inherited. iii.) Due to faster maturation there are chances of <br><br>overcrowding and competition. <br><br>iv.) Offsprings may not withstand changing environmental <br><br>conditions due to lack of variation. <br><br>**Advantages of sexual reproduction** **i.)**There is hybrid vigour due to mixing of genetic material. **ii.)**There is high adaptability **iii.)**Variation form basis for evolutionary changes. **Disadvantages** i.) May produce individuals with undesirable qualities. ii.) Method is dependent of union of gametes and therefore may not take place if the two organisms are isolated <br><br>**Revision Questions** **BIOLOGY FORM FOUR NOTES**<br><br>**THE EYE** The mammalian eye is spherical; fluid filled and has three layers; <br><br> Outer layer or sclera Middle layer or choroid Inner layer or retina **Adaptations of the eye**<br><br>**Part** **Properties** **Functions** 1. Sclera Protects delicate inner <br><br>parts of the eye. <br><br> Maintain shape of the <br><br>eye. <br><br>2. Cornea Allow light into the <br><br>eye. <br><br> Refract light entering <br><br>the eye <br><br>3. Conjunctiva Thin and Allow light into the <br><br>transparent layer before the cornea. Have cells that have melanin, arteries & veins <br><br>eye. <br><br> Protects the cornea. <br><br>4. Choroid Provide nourishment to <br><br>the eye. <br><br> Pigment prevents reflection of light within the eyeball. Produce the aqueous 5. Ciliary body Have thin rings <br><br>of thickened tissue arising from choroids. <br><br>humour <br><br> <br><br>6. Ciliary muscle Have circular Muscles alter the <br><br>and radial muscles which are antagonistic. fibrous <br><br>tension of suspensory ligaments. <br><br>7. Suspensory ligaments. <br><br> Alter the shape of the <br><br>lens. <br><br>8. Pupil <br><br>Hole at the center of iris. <br><br> Regulates the amount of light entering the eye. <br><br>9. Iris <br><br>Contain melanin, circular and radial muscles. <br><br> Give the eye its colour. Regulates the amount <br><br>of light entering the eye humor from vitreous humor. <br><br> allow light pass / refract light, <br><br> Hydrostatic pressure maintain shape of eyeball. <br><br> Contains sugars / proteins / salts provide nutrients to eye. <br><br> Rods are sensitive to <br><br>low light intensity and detect black and white and more in nocturnal animals. Have photochemical pigment called*rhodopsin.* Cones are sensitive to high light intensity, detect colour and present in large numbers in diurnal animals. Have photochemical pigment called*iodopsin*. <br><br> Its the most sensitive part of the retina. Image is formed here. Optic nerve leaves the <br><br>retina. <br><br> Blood vessels emerge <br><br>here to nourish the eye. <br><br> Transmits nerve <br><br>impulses to the brain for interpretation. Tears moisten the <br><br>cornea and washout foreign particles. Tears have antiseptic <br><br>effect. <br><br> Draw across the eye <br><br> move eyeball within <br><br>socket <br><br>**orbi**t- protective **eye lids**-protect the eye <br><br>by closing <br><br>**Eye lashes**-prevent <br><br>entry of small foreign particles. <br><br>**Eye brows**-prevent dust & sweat from entering eye. **Image formation and interpretation**<br><br> Light from an object is refracted by cornea, aqueous <br><br>humour, the lens, through the vitreous humour and focused on the yellow spot of the retina. <br><br> Image formed is recorded as real, inverted and small. Photoreceptors are stimulated and generate a nerve impulse which is transmitted by the optic nerve to the cerebrum of the brain for interpretation. <br><br> In the brain the image is interpreted as real, upright and <br><br>normal. <br><br> Images from the right eye are interpreted by the left <br><br>hemisphere of cerebrum while those from the left eye by the right hemisphere. **Diagram pages 100 KLB** **Binocular vision or Stereoscopic Vision**<br><br> This is the ability of both eyes to look straight ahead but <br><br>see the same scene from a slightly different angle. <br><br> The eyes' visual fields overlap in the center, and the brain merges these images to create a sense of depth important for judging distance. <br><br> Humans and other mammals have stereoscopic vision. Birds, fish, and snakes have monocular vision in which each eye sees a separate image covering a wide area on each side of the head. <br><br>3. Damage to one eye is compensated by the other 4. Cancels the effect of blind spot <br><br>**Accommodation of The Eye**<br><br> This is the refraction of light in order to fall on the fovea centralis (yellow spot) for clear focus of image regardless of the distance of the object. **Accommodation of a close object**<br><br> Ciliary muscles contract thereby relaxing the tension on <br><br>suspensory ligaments. <br><br> Curvature of the lens increases. The close objects are greatly refracted by the lens focusing <br><br>them on the retina. <br><br>**Diagram** **Accommodation of a distant object**<br><br> Ciliary muscles relax increasing the tension on suspensory <br><br>ligaments. <br><br> The lens is stretched decreasing its curvature i.e. lens <br><br>become thinner. <br><br> Light rays from the object are less refracted and focused on <br><br>the retina. <br><br>**Diagram** **Control of Light Entering the Eye**<br><br>***1. Bright Light*** Circular muscles of iris contract and the radial muscles <br><br>relax. <br><br> Diameter of pupil decrease and less light enters. This protects retina from damage by too much light. **Diagram**<br><br>***2. Dim Light.*** Circular muscles relax and radial muscles contract. Diameter of pupil increase and more light enters the eye. This allows in enough light to stimulate photoreceptors on <br><br>the retina. <br><br>**Diagram** **Defects of the Eye** **1.*Short sightedness(Myopia)***<br><br> This is the ability to view near objects clearly but distant <br><br>objects are blurred. This is due to a long eyeball and image is formed before the <br><br>retina. **Correction**<br><br> Wearing concave (Diverging lens) <br><br>**Diagram** **2.*Long sightedness (Hypermetropia)***<br><br> This is the ability to view distant objects clearly but near <br><br>objects are blurred. <br><br> This is due to a short eyeball and image is formed behind <br><br>the retina. <br><br>**Correction**<br><br> Wearing convex (converging lens) <br><br>**Diagram** **3.*Astigmatism***<br><br> The curvature of the cornea is uneven hence the image is <br><br>formed on different planes. <br><br> Its corrected by wearing cylindrical lens. <br><br>**4.*Squintedness***<br><br> Eyeballs face different directions due to defective muscles <br><br>which move the eye left and right. <br><br> Corrected surgically **5.*Old sight (Presbyopia)*** **6.*Cataracts*** **7.*Colour blindness*** **Diagram**<br><br>**Adaptations of the ear to its Functions** The ear is divided into: <br><br>**1. Outer ear** *Pinna.* - Pinna is funnel shaped to direct sound waves into <br><br>auditory canal; <br><br>- its large to offer large surface area for collection of <br><br>sound waves; <br><br>*Auditory meatus/canal* - Tube that directs sound waves to ear drum. - Lined with hairs to trap solid particles. - Lined with wax secreting cells to trap dust. **3. Inner ear. Its fluid filled**<br><br>*Cochlea* - Its responsible for hearing - Its filled with endolymph and perilymph - Highly coiled to occupy a small space ; and increase <br><br>surface area ; for accommodation of many sensory cells <br><br>- Vibrations from oval window are transmitted to <br><br>perilymph which vibrates <br><br>- Sensory cells are stimulated by these vibrations to <br><br>generate nerve impulses which are transmitted to the brain for interpretation. **Diagram** *Semi circular canals* - Has semi circular canals which are at right angles to each <br><br>other <br><br>- Each canal has a swelling called***ampulla***at one end <br><br>containing sensory cells. <br><br>- Contains endolymph ***Terms used in genetics***<br><br>1.*Inheritance*; transmission of characteristics from the <br><br>parents to the offsprings <br><br>2.*Variation;*possession of characteristics different from those <br><br>of the parents and other offsprings. <br><br>3.*DNA*; De-oxyribonucleic acid 4.*RNA*; Ribonucleic acid 5.*Monohybrid inheritance*; inheritance of one characteristic controlled by one pair of hereditary factors e.g. Tallness 6.*Dihybrid inheritance*; inheritance of two characteristics at the same time e.g. colour and Texture/shape in the garden pea plant <br><br>7. Dominance; ability of a trait to only express itself 8. Recessiveness; a trait that only expresses itself when in <br><br>homozygous state. <br><br>9.*Heterozygosity*; presence of two dissimilar members of an <br><br>allele e.g. Rr, Tt etc. <br><br>10. *Homozygosity*; presence of two similar of an allele e.g. <br><br>TT, RR, tt, rr etc. <br><br>11. *Allele*; one pair of genes which occupy corresponding <br><br>loci/positions in homologous chromosomes 12. *Phenotype*- the physical appearance of an individual <br><br>or organism. Its influenced by the genotype and environment. <br><br>13. *Genotype*- the genetic constitution of an organism. Its <br><br>purely genetical. <br><br>14. <br><br>*F1 generation (first filial generation)*- are the offsprings that represent the first generation of organisms or individuals under study. <br><br>15. *F2 generation (second filial generation)*- these are <br><br>offsprings obtained after self crossing the F1 gen. <br><br>16. *Incomplete dominance/ co-dominance*- a condition <br><br>where no allele is dominant over the other. The phenotype of the offspring is intermediate between that of the parents. <br><br>17.*Multiple allelism*- are characteristics determined by <br><br>more than two variant forms of a single gene e.g. inheritance of the Blood groups in man (ABO) <br><br>18. <br><br>*Test cross / back cross*- its a crossing involving a homozygous recessive to determine the genotype of an organism. <br><br>19.*Mutation-*these are spontaneous changes in the <br><br>individuals genetic makeup. <br><br>**Concepts of Variation** Variation refers to observable differences among living organisms. **Types of variation**<br><br>1. Discontinuous variation in this type of variation, there are distinct and definite groups of individuals with no intermediate forms. E.g. <br><br> sex either male or female, blood groups- one can only belong to one of the <br><br>four blood groups A,B,AB,O <br><br> ability to role the tongue Presence of long hair in the nose and on the ear <br><br>pinna. <br><br> Presence of a free or attached ear lobe. *All these traits are controlled by one or two major genes. These* *traits are not influenced by the environment*<br><br>2. Continuous variation this variation has a wide range of differences for the same characteristic from one extreme to the other e.g. Height Skin colour/pigmentation **A normal distribution curve of heights** *This type of variation is brought about by the interaction of both* *the genetic environmental factors.* E.g. a plant with genes for tallness may fail to grow tall due to climate and poor soils. <br><br>**Practical Activity 1**<br><br> Tongue rolling Finger prints Height <br><br>***Causes of variation***<br><br>1.**Gamete formation** during gamete formation two <br><br>processes contribute to variation. These are <br><br>*Independent assortment*- during metaphase I of meiotic division, homologous chromosomes come together in pairs and segregate into daughter cells independently of each other. This independent assortment produces a variety of different gametes. The total number of combinations is given by 2n where n is the haploid number of chromosomes. In man n = 23 hence 2n = 223 which is equal to 8,388,608. <br><br>*Crossing over*during the prophase I of meiotic cell division. I.e. when homologous chromosomes break and rejoin at certain points called*chiasmata.*<br><br>2.**Fertilization** during fertilization parental genes ca <br><br>come together in different combinations. Therefore desirable and undesirable qualities of parents can be combined in the offsprings. <br><br>3.**Mutation**- these are spontaneous changes in the genetic makeup of an organism. Mutation brings about changes in the living organisms. <br><br>***The Chromosome*** Each chromosome is made up of two parallel strands called chromatids. Each pair of chromatids is connected at a point by the centromere. Chromosomes contain the hereditary material called the genes. All cells including the sperms and ova have chromosomes. Chromosomes are present in the nucleus and are only visible under the microscope during cell division mitosis and meiosis. There is a definite number of chromosomes in each cell for every species of animal or plant. E.g. in man somatic cells (body cells) have 46 chromosomes while the sex cells/gametes have 23 chromosomes. During fertilization fusion of the sperm- 23 chromosomes and the ova - 23 chromosomes restores the 46 chromosomes to form a diploid zygote. <br><br>***Chromosomal numbers in different organisms***<br><br>Organism Number of chromosomes <br><br>Somatic cells 2n 56 60 8 <br><br>Gametes - n <br><br>Sheep (Ovis auries) Cow (Bos Taurus) Fruit-fly (Drosophila melanogaster) Maize (Zea mays) Wheat(Triticum vulgare) Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) Man ( Homo sapiens) <br><br>28 30 4 <br><br>20 14 12 <br><br>46 23 **Practical Activity 2**<br><br> Chromosomal behaviour during mitosis Chromosomal behaviour in meiosis <br><br>**GENES AND DNA** Genes occupy specific positions on the chromosomes called the *gene loci( gene locus)* The gene is a chemical in nature. The genes are in the form of a nucleic acid molecule called De-oxyribonucleic acid (DNA). In 1953 two Biologists Francis Crick and James Watson worked out the structure of the DNA. DNA was found to be composed of three different components; <br><br>1. A five carbon sugar-pentose 2. phosphate molecule 3. nitrogenous base <br><br>There are four types of the nitrogenous base; <br><br> Adenine N Guanine G Thymine- G Cytosine C <br><br>A combination the pentose sugar, a phosphate molecule and a nitrogenous base forms a***nucleotide.*** *I.e.*<br><br>Phosphate <br><br>Base Pentose sugar DNA structure contains several nucleotides fused together to form long chains called DNA strands. Two parallel strands twist on one another forming a double helix structure. Adenine always combines with Thymine and Cytosine with Guanine. <br><br>**Diagram**<br><br>***Role of DNA***<br><br> Stores genetic information in a coded form Enables transfer of genetic information unchanged to <br><br>daughter cells through replication <br><br> Translates the genetic information into the <br><br>characteristics of an organism through protein synthesis <br><br>**DNA REPLICATION**<br><br> During cell division both daughter cells arising from mitotic division have the same genetic constitution as the parent cell. DNA in the parent cell must therefore duplicate accurately before the cell divides. The process through which a DNA molecule forms an exact*Replica*is called*DNA replication*. <br><br> The two strands forming the double helix separates <br><br>like a*zipper*. Each parallel strand becomes a*template* that specifies the base sequence of a new complimentary strand. Through the action of replicating enzymes, free nucleotides take up positions along the template strands. <br><br> The specificity of the base pairing ensures that only *complimentary*bases link together with those on the template strands. I.e. G-C and A-T. <br><br> Covalent bonds are formed between the nucleotides resulting in the formation of a new DNA strand. The template and the new DNA strand the undergo coiling to form a double helix. In this way, two identical DNA molecules are formed from the original single molecule. <br><br> Each of the new DNA molecules gets incorporated into one of the two nuclei formed just prior to the separation of the daughter cells. **Diagram**<br><br>***Role of the DNA in protein synthesis*** The sequence of bases along the DNA strand acts as the alphabet and determines the sequence of amino acids when they join to form a polypeptide chain. Protein synthesis takes place in ribosomes found in the cytoplasm. Since the DNA molecules are confined in the nucleus, there has to be a way of communicating the DNA information to the ribosomes where actual protein synthesis occurs. The cell therefore has a special molecule called the Ribonucleic acid (RNA). Its role is to carry genetic information from the DNA to the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. Its referred to as messenger RNA (mRNA). RNA is formed from the DNA strands. During formation of the mRNA a section of the DNA strands acts as the template strand. The double helix of the DNA unzips and free nucleotides align themselves opposite the template. The base sequence of the template strand is copied onto a new strand. In RNA, Thymine is replaced by another base called*Uracil (U)* The transfer of DNA sequence on the mRNA strand is referred to as*Transcription.* triplets known as Codons which code for a particular amino acid of a protein molecule e.g. <br><br> AAA-phenylalanine TTT-lysine CAA- valine CTA- aspartic acid <br><br>Differences between DNA and RNA <br><br>DNA 1. Has De-ox ribose sugar 2. Double stranded 3. Confined in the nucleus <br><br>RNA <br><br>Has ribose sugar Single stranded Found in nucleus and cytoplasm Has organic bases as cytosine, guanine, adenine and uracil <br><br>cytosine, guanine, adenine and thymine. **THE FIRST LAW OF HEREDITY** **MENDELS EXPERIMENTS** An Austrian monk known as Mendel is considered to be the father of genetics. He carried out various breeding experiments and observed variations in different characteristics of the garden pea. The characteristics include: <br><br> Height of the stems- tall or dwarf Texture of the seed coat- smooth or wrinkled Colour of the seeds- yellow or green Texture of the ponds Colour of the flowers- white or purple Position of the flower- axial or terminal <br><br>He selected a group of dwarf plants and self pollinated them by dusting mature pollen grains onto the stigmas of the same plant. He collected the resulting seeds and planted them. He noted that these seeds grew into dwarf plants only. He repeated the experiment for several generations and obtained the same results. In another experiment, Mendel selected tall plants and self- pollinated them. He planted the resulting seeds and observed that they grew into a mixture of tall and dwarf plants. He took seeds from the tall offsprings only and repeated the experiment for many generations until he obtained only tall plants. This way he was able to obtain a pure line of tall garden peas and a pure line of dwarf garden peas. He then cross-pollinated pure bred tall garden pea s with the pure bred dwarf variety. He planted the resulting seeds and he observed that all the offsprings were tall plants. <br><br>**Diagram** He further crossed two of these tall offsprings and planted the resulting seeds. Mendel observed that this second generation consisted of a mixture of tall and dwarf plants. After counting these plants he noted that the ratio of tall to dwarf plants was approximately 3:1 respectively. He observed that this ratio was always obtained when crosses were made between the non-pure breeds of tall plants. <br><br>**Diagrams** Mendel concluded that the traits of an organism are determined by hereditary factors which occur in pairs. Only one of pair of such factors can be represented in a single gamete. This later became***Mendels First Law, The Law of Segregation*** At this time Mendel had no idea of genes and so he called them factors. He postulated that these factors are found on the chromosomes and are passed from the parents to the offsprings via gametes. <br><br>***Reasons behind Mendels success***<br><br>1. He used favourable materials i.e. the garden pea plant <br><br>which is normally self pollinated. This made it easy for him to employ cross pollination at will. <br><br>2. the pea plant he used had several contrasting traits 3. His study was focused on particular traits while those <br><br>before him had been attempting to determine wholesome heredity of each organism. <br><br>4. He kept accurate data on all his experiments and fro the analysis of this data he was able to formulate definite hypothesis. ***Mendel chose the garden pea plant because of the following*** ***reasons***<br><br> Plant had many contrasting traits e.g. flower colours, <br><br>seed coat texture, length of the stems etc. <br><br> Plant is normally self pollinated but cross pollination <br><br>can be employed t will. Plant matures relatively fast Plant produces many seeds that can be planted to <br><br>produce many offsprings ***Monohybrid Inheritance*** This is the inheritance of one trait like height in the garden pea plant that is controlled by a single pair of hereditary factors (genes) contributed by both parents. Genes occur in pairs on chromosomes and such gene pairs are known as***alleles.*** The genetic constitution of an organism is called the***Genotype*** while the physical appearance is known as the***Phenotype.*** The genotype of an organism is represented using paired letter symbols. Capital letters represents the dominant gene while small letters represent the recessive gene. <br><br>***Genetic Cross***<br><br>Components of a genetic cross Parental phenotypes The parental genotype the crossing X should be <br><br>shown here. <br><br> The gametes and should be circled. The fusion process or fertilization. The filial generation genotypes <br><br>*NB. The conventional symbol for male is****and that of female is* ******<br><br>***Example 1*** During gamete formation in the dwarf plat, each gene in the pair segregates into different gametes. When the female and male fuse during fertilization, the offspring produced contain the same number of genes as in each parent. The inheritance of dwarf ness in the pea plant can be illustrated diagrammatically by the following genetic cross Diagram ***Example 2*** Similarly the pair of genes in the pure breed tall plants will segregate into different gametes during gametogenesis. When self fertilised the resulting seeds will have half the number of genes from each parent i.e. <br><br>**Diagram**<br><br>***Example 3*** When the purebred tall plant is crossed with dwarf plants, the resulting seeds grow into tall plants only. These offsprings represent the first generation (F1 gen) **Diagram.** In the genetic cross above, the male plant is tall and the female plant is dwarf. If the cross is reversed so that the female is tall and the male a dwarf, this is referred to as a**reciprocal cross**. The F1 results will be the same for either cross. <br><br>**Diagram**<br><br>***Example 4*** When the F1 offsprings are self pollinated, they produce offsprings which that grow into a mixture of tall and dwarf plants. These offsprings are known as the F2 gen. <br><br>**Diagram** A*Punnet Square*can also be used to work out genetic crosses e.g. Parental phenotype tall tall Parental genotype Tt X Tt Gametes T t T t **When the allelic genes are identical, as in TT and tt, the** **condition is known as*homozygous*. An individual** with such a condition is known as a***homozygote.*** When the allelic genes are not identical as in**Tt,**the condition is referred to as***heterozygous***. An individual with such a genotype is referred to as a***heterozygote***. An individual with genotype**Tt,** will be physically tall because the gene**T i**s***dominant***over**t.** The allele**t**is***recessive***. A dominant gene expresses itself in both the homozygous**(TT)** and heterozygous**(Tt)**states while a recessive gene only expresses itself I its homozygous state**(tt). TT**is therefore referred to as homozygous dominant and**tt**is homozygous recessive. The ratio 3 tall: 1 dwarf, in the F2 gen is characteristic of monohybrid inheritance where one gene is completely dominant over the other. This is referred to as***complete dominance.*** The monohybrid crosses are based on Mendels first law, The law of Segregation which states the characteristics of an organism are determined by internal factors which occurs in pairs. Only one of a pair of such factors can be represented in a single gamete. Diagram - the process of segregation <br><br>***Ratios and Probability*** The 3:1 ratio in monohybrid inheritance can be represented in the form of probability. When a large number of heterozygous garden pea plants are selfed, the probability of getting tall plants is or 75% and that of dwarf will be or 25%. <br><br>**Diagram** ***NB.***The inheritance of characteristics involves probability. The chance that a particular gamete will fuse with another is a random occurrence, in genetics this done by showing all possible fusions. <br><br>**Practical Activity 3 and 4**<br><br> Tossing a coin To demonstrate random fusion of gametes in <br><br>monohybrid inheritance. <br><br>Similar monohybrid inheritance results as those of Mendel have been obtained by using the fruit fly (*Drosophila melanogaster)* the insect has many observable characteristics that are contrasting such as, <br><br> Wing length long wing dominant over vestigial wing Eye colour red eyes dominant over white eyes Size of the abdomen broad abdomen dominant over <br><br>narrow abdomen <br><br> Body colour grey body colour dominant over black <br><br>body colour. ***Assignment***<br><br>Using appropriate letters work out the following crosses with respect to the fruit fly <br><br> Cross between a purebred long winged and a vestigial <br><br>winged <br><br> Cross between two long winged heterozygotes Cross between a red eyed heterozygote and a white <br><br>eyed fruit fly. <br><br>The fruit fly is suitable for genetic study because of the following reasons. <br><br>1. The female lays very many eggs hence increasing the <br><br>sample size for study. 2. Have many observable characteristics that are distinct <br><br>and contrasting. <br><br>3. It is easily bred in the laboratory with minimum <br><br>requirements. <br><br>4. It has a short generation time 10-14 days. Therefore many generations can be studied in a short period of time. <br><br>5. Offsprings can be crossed with their parents at will <br><br>(backcrossing) <br><br>6. Flies are safe to handle because they do not transmit <br><br>any known human diseases. <br><br>*Study Question 10*<br><br>**Practical Activity 5**<br><br> Breeding fruit flies. <br><br>***Incomplete Dominance (Co-dominance)*** In Mendels experiments with garden pea p[plants, the genes determining the various traits were clearly dominant or recessive. However in some species, alleles determining several contrasting traits do not have a clear cut dominant-recessive relationship. This implies that neither of the alleles is completely dominant over the other. Heterozygous individuals are phenotypically different from either of the parents. Mostly the phenotype of the heterozygous offspring is intermediate between that of the parents. This phenomenon is called***Incomplete Dominance**.*Examples of incomplete dominance. <br><br>1. I***nheritance of flower colour in the 4 oclock plant***<br><br>(*Mirabilis Jalapa*). If a true breeding plant producing red flowers is crossed with a true breeding plant producing white flowers, all the F1 offsprings will have pink flowers. When the F1 plants are self pollinated, they yield***red*** flowered,***pink***flowered and***white***flowered offspring at a ratio of 1:2:1 respectively. **Diagrams**<br><br>2.***Incomplete dominance in short horn cattle***. Mating red and white shorthorn cattle yields Roan light Red) calves due to presence of both red and white hairs. A mating between two roan coloured shorthorns yields a mixture of red, roan and white coloured calves at a ratio of 1:2:1 respectively. **Diagrams**<br><br>*Study Question 12* **Inheritance of the Blood groups (Multiple allelism)** In all the kinds of inheritance discussed so far, each phenotypic characteristic is determined by 2 variant forms of a single gene located at a specific locus on the homologous chromosome. However some characteristics are determined by more than two variant forms of a single gene. This phenomenon is referred to as***multiple allelism***and the genes involved are called***multiple*** ***alleles***. E.g. in the ABO blood groups in humans, there are***three*** genes involved and they are responsible for the presence of antigen types on the red blood cells. These are gene**A**responsible for the presence of antigen**A**, gene**B**for antigen**B**and gene**O**responsible for absence of antigens on the red blood cells. Genes A and B have equal degree of dominance i.e. are***co-*** ***dominant***. They both express themselves when present together as in the blood group AB. Genes A and B are***dominant over***gene O. Gene***O***is***recessive*** and only expresses itself in the***homozygous***condition. The genotypes for the four blood groups in the ABO system are therefore, Blood group (Phenotype) A B AB O <br><br>Genotype Antigens <br><br>AA, AO BB,BO AB OO A B A and B O- Zero <br><br>**i.e.**<br><br> AA or AO-Blood group A BB or BO blood group B AB blood group AB OO blood group O <br><br>A marriage between a man of blood group A and a woman of blood group B will produce children of all the four blood groups if both parents are heterozygous. <br><br>Diagram Marriage between a man of genotype AA (blood group A) and Woman of genotype BB (blood group B) results in all the offsprings having blood AB. Diagram. <br><br>***Assignment***<br><br>Work out the following crosses <br><br> Both parents with blood group O Heterozygous blood group A and blood group O <br><br>*Study Question 13*<br><br>***Inheritance of the Rhesus factor*** In man the possession of Rhesus antigens makes one Rh+ and this is dominant over Rhve. If blood from a Rhesus positive person is transfused into a rhesus negative person, this induces antibodies against the Rhesus factor of the donor. This causes agglutination of red blood cells of the recipient. If a Rh-ve woman is married to a Rhe+ve, when she becomes pregnant, the child will be Rh+ve. Rhesus antigens cross the placenta into the mothers blood stream. This stimulates the mothers immune system to produce Rhesus antibodies. When these antibodies get into the foetal circulation, an antigen- antibody reaction takes place and the red blood cells of the foetus are destroyed (Haemolysed). During the second pregnancy, the amount of Rhesus antibodies are more and cause a lot of damage to the foetuss red blood cells resulting to death. This is called***Haemolytic Disease of the*** ***Newborn or Erythroblastosis foetalis.*** ***Determining Unknown Genotypes*** This can be done in two ways. 1. Carrying out a Test Cross A test cross is a cross between an individual of unknown genotype with an individual of a recessive genotype. A test cross where an offspring is crossed with one of its parents is called a **Back Cross.** In garden pea plants the gene that determines red flowers is dominant over that which determines white flowers. A plant with red flowers may either be homozygous (RR) or heterozygous (Rr) for this characteristic. To establish its correct genotype it is crossed with a homozygous recessive plant i.e. a white flowered one (rr) If all their offsprings bear red flowers then this indicates that the red flowered plant is homozygous or its from a pure line. **Diagram** If the offsprings bear a mixture of red and white flowers in the ratio of 1:1, this indicates that the red flowered plant was heterozygous. **Diagram** **Selfing** Unknown genotypes can also be determined by carrying out selfing experiments. For example, a phenotypically tall plant is either homozygous (TT) or heterozygous (Tt) for this trait. If selfed and all its offsprings are tall, the parental genotype is TT that is homozygous dominant. <br><br>**Diagram** But if after selfing both tall and dwarf offsprings are produced in the ratio 3:1 respectively, then the parental genotype is heterozygous (Tt). **Diagram** ***Sex Determination*** The sex of an organism is a genetically determined characteristic. Cells of most organisms contain a pair of chromosomes called*sex chromosomes*in addition to the ordinary chromosomes. In man there are*46 chromosomes (23* *pairs of homologous chromosomes in everybody cell).*The genes determining whether a child becomes a female or a male are located on the*specific pair of sex chromosomes*called the**X**and the**Y**named after their shapes. The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are called***Autosomes.*** Autosomes are responsible for other inheritable traits. A male human being carries the XY chromosome i.e. he is ***Heterogametic*** The female carries the XX chromosomes i.e.***Homogametic***. After meiosis in a male the spermatozoon can either carry the X or Y chromosome while the female ova contain only the X chromosome. The sex of a child is a matter of chance and depends only on whether a spermatozoon that fertilizes the ovum carries X or Y chromosome. There is therefore a 50% chance that fertilization can result in either XY (Boy) or XX (Girl) i.e. (XY) <br><br>X <br><br>Y <br><br>**I.e. 2 girls: 2 Boys** In terms of probability, the chance that a boy or a girl is produced in a family is . <br><br>NB/ in birds the female is XY *heterogametic*and the male is XX *homogametic*. <br><br>In some insects, the female is XX and the male is XO with the Y chromosome absent. <br><br>In the fruit fly (*Drosophila melanogaster)*sex determination <br><br>is as exactly as in man, i.e. male XY and Female XX. <br><br>***Linkage*** An organism has a large number of traits controlled by many different genes. Because the number of chromosomes is limited, each gene cannot be located on its own chromosome. Therefore chromosomes must accommodate many genes each controlling particular characteristics. Those genes located on the same chromosome are called linked Genes. All the linked genes constitute a linkage group. Linked gene are inherited together and do not segregate/separate during meiosis. They are therefore transmitted into the same gamete. <br><br>**Diagram** If genes Q, R and T are linked, then all the three pairs of genes are accommodated on a homologous pair of chromosome. In*Drosophila sp*, it has been found that the genes for wing length, abdomen size and body colour are located on the same chromosome. Therefore these characteristics are usually inherited together. ***Sex-linked Genes*** All the genes located on the sex chromosomes are said to be*sex-* *linked*. They are therefore transmitted together with those that determine the sex. In*Drosophila melanogaster*, the gene, which determine eye colour, is located on the X chromosome. However the corresponding allele on the Y chromosome is absent. This is because most sex-lined genes are carried on the X chromosome whereas the Y chromosome carries very few genes and is almost empty. In humans there are few genes located on the Y chromosome, which control traits that are exclusively found in males. These are,***Premature baldness***and***tufts of hair in the in the inner*** ***pinna and in the nose.*** Diagrams. The characteristics controlled by genes located on the X chromosome include***Colour blindness***and***Haemophilia.***These characteristics can arise in either male or females. <br><br>***Colour blindness***<br><br>This is the inability to distinguish Red and Green colours by some people. This trait is linked to the X chromosome. The gene that determines normal colour vision is dominant over that for colour blindness. A marriage between a colour-blind man and a woman homozygous for normal colour vision results in their daughters being carriers but with normal colour vision. The daughters are said to be carriers because they are heterozygous and colour blindness is suppressed/masked by the dominant gene for colour vision. All the sons are of the two parents are however normal. This is illustrated below. Let N represent the gene for normal colour vision and n represent gene for colour blindness. Since the gene is linked to X chromosome, its alleles are represented as XN and Xn. <br><br> Colour blind male <br><br>Xn Y <br><br>( XnY) Normal Woman (XNXN) All the daughters are carriers- XNXn All the sons have normal colour vision-XNY <br><br>If a carrier daughter from the above parents married a normal man, some of their sons will suffer from colour blindness while the daughters will either be carriers or homozygous for normal colour vision as shown below. Carrier female XN Xn XNY XnY Y <br><br>**Offsprings are; XNXN** **vision**<br><br>**-Daughter with normal colour**<br><br> XNXn XNY XnY -Carrier Daughter -Son with normal colour vision -Colour blind son. <br><br>The above examples show that the gene for colour blindness is passed from mother to sons. <br><br>This is because the only X chromosome a man inherits is from the mother. If the X chromosome carries the gene for the trait, then this gene will be expressed since allele on the Y is absent. Therefore there are more male sufferers in a population compared to females. <br><br>Females only suffer when in homozygous condition of the recessive gene. Inheritance of colour blindness through several generations can be clearly illustrated using a pedigree. A pedigree is a record in table form showing the distribution of one or more traits in different generations of related individuals. *Fig. 1.24*<br><br>***Haemophilia***<br><br>This is another sex-linked trait where the blood of the sufferer takes abnormally long time to clot. There is prolonged breeding in the event of a cut hence the term***Bleeders Disease***. A recessive gene on the X chromosome causes haemophilia. <br><br>If a normal man is married to a carrier woman for <br><br>haemophilia, there is a probability of that if their child is a boy will be a haemophiliac and if a daughter, she will be a carrier. None of the daughters of the couple will be haemophiliacs. Let H represent the gene for normal blood clotting and h to represent gene for haemophilia i.e. <br><br> Carrier woman XH Xh XHY XhY Y <br><br>**-XHXH -Normal daughter**<br><br>**Their offsprings will be;** XHXh -Carrier daughter XHY XhY -Normal son -Haemophiliac son. <br><br>*Study question 14* Apart from carrying the sex-linked traits, the X chromosome in the females and the Y in males bring about the development of both the primary and secondary sexual characteristics. At puberty, secondary sexual characteristics in females include breast enlargement, widening of the hips, and growth of pubic hair and onset of menstrual cycle. The X chromosome controls these. In males, they include growth of pubic hair and beard, deepening of the voice, widening of the shoulders etc. <br><br>***Effects of Crossing Over on Linked Genes***<br><br>Some of the linked genes separate and are transmitted on different chromosomes. This happens during crossing over (prophase I of meiosis) when sections of chromatids of a bivalent intertwine and may break off. Some of these sections get rejoined to different chromatids thus separating genes that were previously linked. The fusion of such gametes containing chromatids whose genes have changed places produces new combinations (recombinants). Crossing over results in chromosomal mutations, which in turn cause variations. **Diagrams** ***Mutations*** Mutation is brought about by*spontaneous changes in the* *individuals genetic makeup.*Mutations are normally due to recessive genes most of which are transmitted in the usual Mendelian fashion. Therefore they are quite rare. Individuals with mutations are referred to as*mutants*. Mutation can be induced by certain factors. Such factors are called*Mutagens.* They include, <br><br> Exposure to Gamma rays Ultra violet light <br><br> Colchicine Mustard gas <br><br>*NB: Mutations occurring in gametes are more important than* *those in somatic cells. Mutational changes are the basis of* *discontinuous variation in population.*<br><br>***Types of Mutations*** 1. Chromosomal mutation 2. Gene mutation <br><br>Chromosomal Mutations This involves the change in the structure or the number of chromosomes. During crossing over in meiosis homologous chromosomes intertwine at points called chiasmata. These points are later broken creating various opportunities for changes on the chromatids. There are five types of chromosome mutations (*chromosome aberrations).* Deletion Duplication Inversion Translocation Non-disjunction <br><br>***Deletion*** This occurs when some sections of chromatids break off and fail to recombine. They are therefore completely lost and the genetic material they contain is said to be deleted out. Most deletions are lethal since the offspring may lose genes responsible for the synthesis of some vital protein molecules. Diagrams <br><br>***Duplication*** In this case a section of chromatids replicates and adds an extra length to itself. Duplication can produce serious effects depending on the chromosome sections involved. Diagrams ***Inversion*** In this case a chromatid breaks at two points. When rejoining, the middle piece rotates and joins in an inverted position. This reverses the gene sequence along the chromatid. This might bring together genes whose combined effects are advantageous or dis-advantageous. **Diagrams** ***Translocation*** This occurs when a section of one chromatid breaks off and becomes attached to another chromatid but of a non-homologous pair. Translocation therefore involves the movement of genes from one non-homologous chromosome to another. **Diagrams**<br><br>***Non-disjunction*** This leads to addition or loss of one or more whole chromosomes. If it occurs at anaphase of the first meiotic division, two homologous chromosomes fail to segregate and they move into the same gamete cell. If it happens at anaphase of the second meiotic division, sister chromatids fail to segregate. This results in half the gametes containing two of the same chromosome while the others have none. <br><br>Diagrams <br><br>Non-Disjunction causes the following <br><br>1.***Downss Syndrome***: this is where there is an extra somatic <br><br>chromosome number 21. such individuals have; <br><br> Slit eye appearance Reduced resistance to infections Mentally deficient Thick tongue Cardiac malfunctions Short body with thick fingers NB/ these conditions are common among children born of <br><br>mothers above 40 years old. 2.***Klinefelters Syndrome:***in this case individuals have an <br><br>***extra sex***chromosome. Such individuals have a total of 47 chromosomes in their cells i.e. XXY (male) and XXX (female). This occurs as a result of non-disjunction during spermatogenesis or oogenesis. The symptoms of Klinefelters syndrome are <br><br> Infertility in males due to lack of sperm production Under developed testes Reduced facial hair in males Very tall with signs of obesity ***Diagrams***<br><br>3.***Turners syndrome:***This is where an individual lacks one sex chromosome hence there are 45 chromosomes (XO or YO). <br><br>4.***Polyploidy:***sometimes during meiosis chromosomes might undergo non-disjunction. This results in half the number of gametes having two of each type of chromosome i.e. ***diploid***the rest having none. If the resulting diploid gamete fuses with a normal haploid gamete a***triploid***zygote is formed. If two diploid gametes fuse, a***tetraploid***individual is obtained. This is what is called polyploidy. <br><br>Polyploidy is rare in animals but common in plants where <br><br>its considered to be advantageous. Polyploidy increases yields, early maturity and resistance to pests and diseases. It can be artificially induced using a chemical called***colchicine***, which prevents spindle formation during mitosis leading to a cell with double the number of chromosomes (4n). <br><br>**Gene Mutation**<br><br>This involves a change in the structure of a gene. Gene mutations are also referred to as***point mutations.***A gene mutation arises as a result of a change in the chemical nature of the gene. The change may involve some alterations in the DNA molecule. A change in the DNA molecule is passed onto the m-RNA. This alters the sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. This may result in unintended protein molecules being synthesised, which may be lethal. Types of gene mutations; <br><br> Insertion Substitution Inversion Deletion ***Insertion*** This is the addition of an extra base onto the existing DNA strand. <br><br>Diagram By this insertion no polypeptide chain is formed as it were intended. <br><br>***Deletion*** This is the removal of a gene portion. If the base Thymine is deleted from its position as indicated below, the base sequence becomes altered at this point. **Diagrams**<br><br>***Substitution*** This is the replacement of a portion of the gene with a new portion. If Adenine is substituted by Guanine on a DNA strand, the base sequence is altered at this particular portion. Diagrams <br><br>***Inversion*** If a portion of the DNA strand is rotated through 1800 that portion is said to be inverted as shown below. This alters the base sequence at this point. Diagrams ***Study Questions*** **Disorders Due to Gene Mutations** Such disorders include albinism, sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia, colour blindness and chondrodystrophic dwarfism. <br><br>1. Albinism This a condition where the synthesis of skin pigment called *melanin*fails. The victim has a light skin, white hair and pink eyes. Such a person is referred to as an Albino. Melanin is derived from two amino acids Phenylalanine and Tyrosine. Melanin is synthesised through a series of reactions controlled by a specific gene. <br><br>Gene***A***is responsible for presence of melanin and ***a***is responsible for its absence. Gene ***aa*** in homozygous state blocks in one or two places in the synthesis of melanin hence no melanin is formed. This occurs as a result of one enzyme (Tyronase) failing to be formed in the presence of the recessive gene. <br><br>A person with genotype***AA***has normal skin pigmentation. One with genotype***Aa***is a carrier and has normal skin pigmentation. In a family an albino can be born under three conditions only. If both parents are albinos If one of the parents is an albino and the other a carrier If both parents are carriers <br><br>***Assignment***<br><br> Work out crosses in each case. What is the probability of getting an albino child in <br><br>each case? 2. Sickle Cell Anaemia This is a gene mutation as a result of substitution. Normal haemoglobin Hb A consists of two polypeptide chains. In the sickle cell condition, one amino acid called*glutamic*acid is substituted by another amino acid called*valine*in each of the two-polypeptide chains of the haemoglobin molecule. The resulting haemoglobin is known as Haemoglobin S Hb S and is different from the Hb A in several ways. **Comparison between Hb A and Hb S**<br><br>**Normal haemoglobin (Hb** **A)** 1. A position in each polypeptide chain is occupied by glutamic acid 2. Does not easily crystallise in low oxygen concentration 3. The haemoglobin is efficient in oxygen loading and transportation Red blood cells are sickle 4. The red blood cells are shaped (crescent shape) biconcave in shape Sickle cell anaemia is therefore the condition where the victim is*homozygous*for the defective gene that directs the synthesis of haemoglobin S. Most of the victims red blood cells are sickle shaped and the person frequently experiences oxygen shortage to the body tissues. Such a person cannot carry out strenuous physical exercises. Many sickle cell victims die young due to insufficient oxygen <br><br>**Defective Haemoglobin (Hb** **S)** The same position is occupied by valine in each polypeptide chain Easily crystallises in low oxygen concentration <br><br>Not efficient in oxygen loading and transportation <br><br>supply to body tissues. <br><br>In the heterozygous condition, less than half the number of the red blood cells is sickle shaped. The rest are normal and efficient in oxygen transport.*This is referred to as sickle cell* *trait*. An individual with the sickle cell trait experiences a mild case of anaemia but leads a normal life. **Inheritance of Sickle Cell Anaemia**<br><br>If a man with sickle cell trait marries a normal woman, the probability that any of the offspring will carry the sickle cell trait is . <br><br>If both parents are carriers the probability of getting an <br><br>offspring with sickle cell anaemia is . 3.**Haemophilia**: This condition where the blood takes <br><br>abnormally long time to clot. A haemophilic gene that prevents the production of the clotting factors causes the condition. <br><br>**4. Colour blindness:**There are different forms of colour <br><br>blindness. The most common one is the red-green colour blindness. In this case an individual is unable to distinguish between red and green colours. <br><br>***NB.**Most disadvantageous genes are recessive. Very few are*<br><br>*dominant e.g. the gene for chondrodystrophic dwarfism*<br><br>**Study Question 16**<br><br>***Effect of Environment on Heredity*** The genotype and the environment influence the development of an individual. In animals genetically identical individuals reared under different environments will appear different than those reared under very different conditions.*Consider identical twins.* ***Practical Applications of Genetics*** o Plants and animal breeding o Blood transfusion o Genetic counselling o Genetic engineering <br><br>1. Plants and Animal Breeding <br><br>Man chooses those plants and animals with the desirable qualities. This is referred to as*artificial selection.*Inbreeding or crossbreeding does this*.*Inbreeding however increases the chances of undesirable genes whereas crossbreeding increases heterozygosity with the offsprings having better performance than both parents. This is referred to as*hybrid vigour*e.g. a cross between Boran and Hereford. Polyploidy has also been used in planting. The original wheat had a diploid number of 14 chromosomes but the commercial wheat has either 28 or 42 (tetraploid-4n or hexaploid-6n). Examples of characteristics, which have been selected in agriculture. <br><br>1. Resistance to diseases e.g. cassava resistant to cassava <br><br>mosaic, coffee variety resistant to CBD. <br><br>2. Early maturity in animals and plants. 3. Adaptations to various conditions e.g. rainfall, temperature <br><br>etc. <br><br>4. Ease of harvesting e.g. in coffee and bananas where dwarf **2) Blood Transfusion**<br><br>Before blood is given to a recipient, blood typing is first done. This is done to ensure compatibility between the donor and the recipient. Blood typing also can be used to solve disputed parentage. However the most recent technique in establishing parentage is the*DNA matching.*<br><br>**3) Genetic Counselling** This is the provision of information and advice on genetically inherited disorders to individuals. The individual is given such advice to enable him or her make the best choice. <br><br>Examples of disorders for which genetic counselling may be done include <br><br> Sickle cell anaemia Haemophilia Albinism Erythroblastosis foetalis Colour blindness Klinefelters syndrome <br><br>In order to confirm the disorder the doctors can do the following Physical examination e.g. Lack of breasts in Turners <br><br>syndrome. <br><br> Laboratory tests e.g. blood tests to confirm sickle cell <br><br>anaemia <br><br> Amniocentesis for chromosomal abnormalities in <br><br>foetus <br><br> Family history may be used to determine possible <br><br>inheritance of the disorder e.g. haemophilia. Genetic screening of the defective gene in the <br><br>population **a) Identify**the nerve cell. <br><br>(1mark) <br><br>(b) (i)**Give**a reason for your answer in (a) above <br><br> (1mark) (ii)**Show**by use of an arrow the direction of flow of <br><br>the nerve impulses. (1mark) 2. Below is a diagram showing parts of a synapse observe and other the questions that follow. <br><br>(a)**Name**the parts labeled: A, B. <br><br> (2mks) <br><br>(b)**What**is the role of part labeled**C**. <br><br>(1mk) <br><br>3. below. <br><br> A student set up an experiment as shown in the diagram <br><br><br><br>Light <br><br>Box with black paint <br><br>Seedlings <br><br>The set up was left for 4 days. a) What was the aim of the experiment. <br><br>( 1mk) <br><br>b) i) State the expected results after 4 days. ( 1mk) ii) Account for the results you have stated in ( b) (i) above. <br><br>( 4mks) <br><br>c) In another experiment, a student placed a seedling horizontally on moist cotton wool. Later the shoot grew upwards while the Radicle grew downwards. Explain why the radicle showed a downward curvature. <br><br> ( 2mks ) <br><br>180 (a)**Name**the parts labelled. A, B <br><br>(2mks) <br><br>(b)**State three**adaptations that enable the neurone to <br><br>carry out its functions efficiently. (3mks) <br><br> (c)**State two**features that would distinguish sensory <br><br>neurone from the above neurone. (2mks) 6. The diagram below shows the structure of its human ear. <br><br>C D G J H <br><br>a) State the functions of the ear. (2mks) b) Give the names of the structure labelled C,G and F. <br><br>(3mks) <br><br>c) (i) What is the function of the structure labeled H? <br><br>(1mk) <br><br> (ii) Name the structure in the ear that detects sound waves. <br><br>(1mk) <br><br>d) In which structure of the ear is the velocity of the sound waves fastest? (1mk) <br><br>7. The diagram below represents a nerve cell. Study it and answer the questions that follow. b) Name the parts labelled N, P, Q and R. <br><br>(4mks) <br><br>c) State the functions of the parts labelled N and Q. <br><br>(2mks) <br><br>8. Use the diagram below to answer the questions that follow <br><br><br><br>a) (i) Name the eye defect represented above <br><br>(1 mk) <br><br>(ii) What is the cause of this defect <br><br>(1 mk) <br><br>(iii)How can the defect you have named (a) (i) be corrected? (1 mk) <br><br>9 The diagram below shows three different types of neurones <br><br>along a reflex arc <br><br>a) Identify the neuron labelled 1 ,2 and 3 <br><br>(3 mks) <br><br>b) Using arrows show the direction of impulse transmission on the diagram c) Name the part of the spinal cord where the cell bodies of neurone 2 and 3 are located (1mk) d) Describe the transmission impulse across the part labelled P <br><br>(1 mk) <br><br>(3 mks) <br><br>10 A response exhibited by a certain plant tendril is illustrated below <br><br>(i) Name the type of response <br><br>(1mk) <br><br>(ii)**Explain**how the response named in (i) above <br><br>occurs. (3mks) <br><br>(iii)**What**is the importance of tactic responses to <br><br>microscopic plants? (1mk) <br><br>**11 Describe**how the mammalian ear is adapted to perform its functions. (20mks) <br><br>182 12. a) Describe how the structure of the eye is adapted to its function. b) rectified. <br><br>(16mks) <br><br>Identify two defects of the eye and how they can be <br><br>(4mks) <br><br>13 Differentiate between nervous and endocrine <br><br>communication in animals (3mks) <br><br>14. The diagram below represents a section through the <br><br>mammalian ear. Study it and answer the questions that follow. <br><br><br><br>(a) Name the structures labeled H and J <br><br>(2mks) <br><br>(b) State how the structures labeled H, M and N are adapted to their functions (c) State what would happen if the structure labeled K was completely damage (1mk) (d) Name the fluid contained in structure N <br><br>(3mks) <br><br>(1mk) <br><br>(e) Apart from hearing, state the other role performed by the human ear (1mk) <br><br>15 The following experiment was set up in a chamber made from two connected Petri dishes. Housefly maggots were introduced at the centre of the chamber, so the maggots could move to either Petri dish A or B as shown below. <br><br>(a)**Name**the type of response being investigated in the set up. (1mk) <br><br>(b)**State**the survival value of the response named in (a) above. (1mk) <br><br>183 (c)**Give**the role of calcium chloride in the experiment above. (1mk) <br><br>16 (a)**What**is accommodation? (1mk) <br><br>(b)**Describe**the sequence of events that occur in the eye <br><br>for one to be able to see clearly <br><br>(i) a distant object <br><br>(4mks) <br><br> (ii) if one moved from a dim lit room to bright light. (3mks) **MARKING SCHEME STIMULUS AND RESPONSE** **REVISION QUESTIONS** 1 (a) Motor neuron/Motor nerve cell; <br><br>(b) (i) cell body is terminally situated/located at the end of the axon; <br><br>(ii) Arrow should point away from the cell body <br><br>2. (a) A-Synaptic cleft B- Mitochondria <br><br>(b) Contains the transmitter substance/ Acetylcholine. <br><br>**3.** seedling / plants; <br><br>**a)**Show the effect of unilateral light on growth of <br><br>(1mk) <br><br>**b)** source light; <br><br>**(i)**Curvature of the tip of the shoot toward the <br><br> Auxins / IAA/ Growth harmones; produced by the apical bud; move away from light / move to the dark side; causing faster elongation; hence curvature; <br><br>**(ii)**<br><br>**c)**<br><br>In the roots / radicle higher concentration of auxins / IAA inhibits growth; hence the upper side with less auxins grows faster than the lower side; (hence curvature downwards) <br><br>(2mks) <br><br>4. Phototropisms; for maximum photosynthesis; Allows for leaf mosaic; Chemotropism; -Growth curvature in response to contact/ hard surface; <br><br>-enables plant shoots to grow and get light <br><br> -Make plants with weak stems to get support on large <br><br>plants /trees; this makes then to <br><br> reach and get light for maximum photosynthesis; <br><br>Geotropism; -Growth curvature in response to gravity; enables plant roots to grow deep into the soil to Maximum support/ anchorage; <br><br>Hydrotropism; - Growth curvature in response to moisture / water; <br><br>- Enable plant roots to grow and find water in <br><br>the soil; water is then used as a raw material During photolysis stage; Chemotropism; -Growth curvature in response to chemical concentration gradient; <br><br>- Enables pollen tubes to grow down the style and into the ovary for fertilization to occur in plants flowers; <br><br>Thermo tropism; -Growth curvature in response to temperature changes; <br><br> -Enables some plants to grow to where they can acquire optimum temperature for effective plant processes; e.g. (Sunflower orientates towards the directions of the sun. <br><br>5 (a) A- B-Cell body <br><br>Dendrites <br><br>(b) <br><br>- Has long axon to conduct impulses from CNs to effectors / muscles / glands; - Axon enclosed with myelin sheath with nodes of ranvies to enhance speed of impulse conduction. <br><br>- Has dendrites which receive impulses from <br><br>adjacent neurones. <br><br>(c) S.N - Cell body has no dendrites -Cell body has dendrites - Cell body at a point along nerve fibre; -Cell body located at the top of nerve fiber; 6 a) <br><br>- Hearing / detection of sound; Body balance / posture; <br><br>(2marks.) b) <br><br>(i) C- Ear canal / External auditory meetas; (ii) G- Semi Circular canals; (iii) F- Auditory nerve; <br><br>(3marks) <br><br>c) (i) Equalise air pressure between middle ear <br><br>and outer ear / prevent damage of ear drum; <br><br>(1mark) (ii) Cochlea/ E; <br><br>(1mark) d) (1mark) a) 7. i) <br><br>Sensory neurons / afferent neurone ii) Cell body located off the axon <br><br>b) N- Axon <br><br>P- Cell body Q- Myelin Sheath Schwann cell R- c) N- Transmission of impulse <br><br>Q- Insulation / speed up impulse transmission. <br><br>8 a) Long sightedness / Hypermetropia ; <br><br>1 mk) <br><br>b) Short eye ball; <br><br>Weak lens (any one) ;1 mks <br><br>c) Wearing of convex lens / conveying lenses; 1 mk <br><br>rj if a(i) is wrong <br><br>9 a) 1- Sensory neurone / Afferent neurone <br><br>2- Relay neurone 3- Motor neurone/ efferent neurone <br><br>/ intermediate neurone <br><br>3 mks <br><br>b) 3 from 2 and 1 : c) Grey matter 1 mks Impulse reaching the dendrites end of relay / Neurone 2 causes the synaptic vesicles, releases acetylcholine / transmitter substances; into the synaptic cleft;the acetylcholine / transmitter chemical diffuses across the cleft; and causes the depolarization of the motor neuron/ neurone <br><br> Check on the diagram arrows show points towards neurone <br><br>1 mk (i) Name the type of response (1mk) <br><br>**10 Thigmotropism/Haptotropism;**<br><br>(ii) Explain how the response named in (i) <br><br>above occurs. (3mks) <br><br>**Contact with support; causes migration of auxins to the** **outside; causing faster growth on the side away from** **contact surface; (Causing dendrils to curl around the** **support);**<br><br>***NB (a) (ii) is tied to (i)*** (iii) What is the importance of tactic responses to <br><br>microscopic plants? (1mk) <br><br>**Escape injurious stimuli/seek favourable** **habitat**<br><br>***Rej. Seek mate and obtain food***<br><br>11. Describe how the mammalian ear is adapted to perform its functions. (20mks) <br><br> The pinna is flap made of skin and cartilage; for collection and concentration of sound waves; Auditory canal/meatus is a tube lined with hairs which trap solid particles like dust; It has wax secreting cells; that secrete wax for trapping solids and insects entering the ear; <br><br> The eardrum/tympanic membrane is thin with double <br><br>layer of epidermis; It vibrates translating sound waves into sound vibrations; Sound vibrations are transmitted to ear ossicles; <br><br> Ear ossicles are malleus, incus and stapes; they <br><br>amplify and transmit vibrations to the oral window; The oval window is a thin membrane which transmits <br><br>sound vibrations to the fluid of the inner ear; perilymph and Endolymph; <br><br> Eustachian tube connects middle ear with pharynx equalizing air pressure in the ear with atmospheric pressure; to prevent distortion of the eardrum; The cochlea is highly coiled tube with system of canals (and sensory cells) to occupy a small space/increase the surface area for accommodating many sensory cells to detect sounds vibrations; and generate impulses transmitted to the brain; <br><br> Auditory nerve transmits nerve impulses to the brain <br><br>for interpretation; <br><br> Semicircular canals are tubular cavities containing <br><br>fluid; <br><br> The canals are arranged at right angles to each other in the three planes of spaces; to detect changes in position of the body; the canals have ampulla: utriculus and sacculus; to detect position of body in relation to gravity; <br><br> Utriculus has otoliths attached to sensory cells which generate impulses which are then transmitted to the brain through the auditory nerve; <br><br> The perilymph and endolymph fluid in the inner ear <br><br>absorb mechanical shock/transmit sound vibrations/protect delicate parts; Total 25 max 20 marks a) <br><br>12 enter eye <br><br>i) Conjunctiva transparent allow light to <br><br>ii) Cornea transparent / curved allow light / refracts light <br><br>entering eye; <br><br>iii) Aqueous / vitreous humour clear / allow light pass / <br><br>refract light, hydrostatic pressure <br><br>Maintain shape of eyeball. Contains sugars / proteins / <br><br>salts provide nutrients to eye. <br><br>iv) Iris contractile controls light intensity / amount of <br><br>light entering eye; v) Ciliary body glandular secretes humuor vi) Ciliary muscle contractile controls curvature of lens; vii) Suspensory ligament fibrous holds lens in position viii) Lens transparent / Biconvex allow light go through to retina / refract light / focus light. <br><br>ix) Retina rods - rhodopsin for dim light vision; <br><br>- Iodopsin for bright light vision <br><br> x) Fovea centralis high concentration of cones for accurate vision xi) Choroid layer blood vessels pigmented nutrition <br><br> for - reduce light reflection / absorb stray light <br><br> xii) Sclera fibrous protection / give eye shape; xiii) Optical nerves sensory neurone transmit impulse from retina to brain. xiv) External eye muscle contractile move eyeball within socket xv) Blind spot cone and rods absent no image is perceived <br><br>**Correction**<br><br> b) i) Short sightedness; lens <br><br>biconcave / diverging <br><br>ii) Long sightedness; iii) Astigmatism; iv) Squinting; converging lens / convex lens use of cylindrical lens (any 2 surgery <br><br>identify correction 4mks) <br><br>13. **communication**<br><br>**Nervous communication** **Endocrine** Response <br><br>- High speed of transmission- Low speed of <br><br>transmission; <br><br>- Rapid response - Impulse transmitted through neurone - Hormones <br><br>- Response delayed <br><br>transmitted in blood <br><br>- Responses specific and localized to one - <br><br>Responses affects several parts of the <br><br> Target organ body; <br><br>Note: Comparison should come out clearly to award. <br><br>14. a) H Eustachian tube; <br><br>J Semi-circular canals; <br><br>b) H Tube open/ connection to the pharynx and to the <br><br>middle ear/ opens during swallowing/ yawning and vomiting to equalize the air pressure in the middle ear with the atmospheric air pressure; <br><br> M (pinna) curved/ funnel shaped to receive or <br><br>collect and direct sound waves into the ear; <br><br>N (cochlea) long/highly coiled/ spiral in form to <br><br>increase surface area for sound Perception; <br><br>- Has sensory hairs/ cells which convert sound <br><br>vibrations to impulses/ generate impulses; <br><br>- Has endolymph to transmit vibrations; <br><br>***Mark one for each structure.*** ***Rej. If the adaptation is not tied to function.***<br><br>c) Total deafness; d) Endolymph; e) Balance; acc body balance/ posture. 15 (a) Tactic response; <br><br>(b) Move away from a harsh environment/move to favorable environment; <br><br>(c) To absorb any moisture from Petri dish A/OWTTE <br><br>16***.(a)***A reflex mechanism/ability of the eye to adjust to bring an image from near or far object into sharp focus on the retina; ***(b)***Circular muscles of the iris contract; while the radial muscles relax; Ciliary muscles relax; increasing tension on suspensory ligaments; lens become thinner increasing the focal length; image focused onto the retina; **SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT IN PLANTS AND** **ANIMALS**<br><br>***Support***is the ability of organisms to bear their weight and maintain their body forms. It involves holding body parts in their position and allow for movement. <br><br>***Movement***is the displacement of parts of the body of an organism e.g. growth movements in plants and limbs in animals. <br><br>***Locomotion***is movement of the whole organisms. <br><br>**Support and Movement in Plants**<br><br> This can be at cell level e.g. gametes in bryophytes and Pteridophytes or at organ level in tropic and nastic responses. <br><br>**Importance of Movement in Plants** i. Enable plants to obtain resources such as sunlight, water <br><br>and nutrients due to tropic and nastic responses. ii. Enhances fertilization in bryophytes and Pteridophytes iii. Enhance fertilization in flowering plants by growth of <br><br>pollen tube towards the embryo sac. <br><br>iv. Helps plants to escape harmful stimuli such as high <br><br>temperature <br><br>**Importance of Support in Plants** i. Hold flowers in position for pollination to occur. ii. Help plants to withstand forces of the environment such as <br><br>gravity and air currents. iii. Fruits are held in appropriate position for dispersal to <br><br>occur. Increase the efficiency of photosynthesis as the leaves are firm and arranged in mosaic pattern for maximum absorption of light and carbon (iv) oxide. <br><br>iv. <br><br>**Arrangement of Tissues in Plants** **Diagrams** ***Parenchyma.***The cells are spherical or elongated. They are <br><br>unspecialized cells forming the packing tissues. When turgid, they help in providing support in herbaceous plants. <br><br>***Collenchyma.***Its underneath the epidermis. They are similar in appearance to parenchyma and they contain living protoplasm. They have deposition of cellulose to provide mechanical support. They are mainly found in young leaves and stems. <br><br>***Sclerenchyma.***They appear as long fibres in stems. Cells are dead and they have lignin. Mainly found in stems and midrib of leaves. The walls are pitted to allow exchange of substances between cells. <br><br>***Xylem vessels and Tracheids.***Xylem vessels are long tube like structures with lignified walls used for transporting water and mineral salts and also give plant mechanical support. Tracheids are long cells with tapering ends whose walls are lignified to give the plant mechanical support. Both xylem vessels ant tracheids are made of dead cells manly present in woody stems. <br><br>***Tendrils and Climbing stems.***Some herbaceous plants <br><br>support themselves by use of tendrils e.g. pumpkins, garden peas etc. Others obtain support by twinning round other hard objects such as stem of passion fruit, morning glory etc. <br><br>***Spines and Thorns.***Some plants use spines and thorns to <br><br>attach to solid objects for support e.g. in rose. **Practical Activity 3**<br><br>**To Observe Wilting in Plants** **Support and Movement in Animals**<br><br> Animals have a firm and rigid framework for support called <br><br>the skeleton. <br><br>**Importance of Movement in Animals**<br><br>1. Enable searching of food, mate and shelter. 2. Move to avoid predators. 3. To colonize new areas 4. Move from areas with unfavourable conditions such as fire, <br><br>earthquakes, flood etc. **Types and Function of Skeletons**<br><br>***1. Hydrostatic skeleton*** It is found in soft bodied animals such as the earthworm. ***2. Exoskeleton*** It is made of the external covering found in arthropods. Its made of waterproof cuticle which contains the protein <br><br>Chitin secreted by the epidermal cells. <br><br>**Functions of the Exoskeleton** i. Reduces water loss ii. Protection against microbial infections and mechanical <br><br>injury <br><br>iii. Support body tissues and organs. iv. Provide point for attachment of muscles allowing <br><br>locomotion to take place. <br><br>v. Enhance flight in insects by means of wings which are the <br><br>flattened parts of the exoskeleton. <br><br>vi. Enhance walking in insects using jointed appendages. *NB/.*<br><br>*1. Exoskeleton has a disadvantage as it limits growth.* *To overcome this limitation it is periodically shed through* *moulting (ecdysis).* *2. Insects that jump or hop have powerful hind limbs. The* *femur of the hind limb has powerful antagonistic muscles.*<br><br>**Diagrams** ***3 Endoskeleton.*** It is found in all vertebrates. Muscles are external to the hard framework. It is made of living tissues either cartilage or bone which <br><br>increase in size as the animal grows and therefore need not to be shed as in exoskeleton. <br><br>**Functions of the Endoskeleton** i. Supports the animals body ii. Gives the body its shape iii. Protects inner delicate organs such as the lungs, heart, liver <br><br>etc from mechanical injury e.g. ribs. <br><br>iv. Provide surface for muscle attachment facilitating <br><br>movement. <br><br>v. Production of blood cells i.e. the long and short bones vi. Acts as a reservoir of calcium and phosphate ions in the <br><br>body <br><br>**Locomotion in Finned Fish (Tilapia)** **Diagrams** ***Practical Activity 5*** ***Practical Activity 6***<br><br>**How a finned fish is adapted to locomotion in water** 1. Streamlined body/ tapered anteriorly and posteriorly; to <br><br>minimize water resistance; <br><br>2. Inflexible head; to maintain forward thrust; <br><br>3. Overlapping scales facing posterior end; to bring about less <br><br>resistance; Overlapping of scales also prevents wetting of the skin; <br><br>4. Slimy/oily substance to moisten scales; hence reduce <br><br>resistance between water and fish; <br><br>5. Swim bladder; air filled cavity which controls/ brings <br><br>buoyancy; and depth at which it swims; <br><br>6. Flexible backbone /series of vertebrae with Myotomes/ <br><br>muscles blocks; which contract and relax alternately bringing about thrust/force; which propels fish forwards; <br><br>7. Pectoral and pelvic fins (paired fins); which bring about <br><br>balancing effect; braking; and changing direction; they also control pitching i.e. control upward and downward movement; <br><br>8. Dorsal fin, caudal fin and anal fin (unpaired fins); to increase vertical surface area; and therefore prevent rolling from side to side; and yawing; <br><br>9. Tail fins/caudal fins that are long and flexible; for steering/ <br><br>more force/ thrust; <br><br>10. Lateral line has sensory cells; which enables to perceive vibrations; hence can locate objects so that it escapes / changes direction; **Support and Movement in Mammals** ***Diagram of a human and rabbit skeleton***<br><br>The skeleton is divided into: <br><br> Axial (skull, sternum, ribcage and vertebral column.) Appendicular ( consists of girdles and the limbs attached to <br><br>them) **Axial Skeleton** **1. Skull** Made up of many bones fused together to form the <br><br>cranium. <br><br> The bones are joined together forming immovable joins <br><br>called**Sutures**. <br><br> Cranium encloses and protects the brain, olfactory organs, <br><br>the eyes, middle and inner ear. <br><br> Facial skeleton has a fixed upper jaw called maxilla and a <br><br>movable lower jaw known as the mandible. <br><br> At the posterior end, there are two smooth rounded <br><br>projections called occipital condyles. These articulate with the first bone of the vertebral column (atlas) forming a hinge joint. This joint permits nodding of the head. 2.**Ribcage and sternum** Ribcage encloses the thoracic cavity protecting delicate <br><br>organs such as the lungs and heart. <br><br> Cage is made up of ribs that articulate with vertebral <br><br>column at the back and sternum to the front. <br><br> In birds, the sternum is modified to form the keel which <br><br>gives a large surface area for attachment of flight muscles. <br><br> Ribcage and sternum help during breathing because they <br><br>offer the surface for attachment of the intercostals muscles. <br><br>3.**Vertebral column** Consists of bones called vertebrae that are separated from <br><br>each other by cartilage called inter-vertebral discs. <br><br> The discs absorb shock and reduce friction. It also makes <br><br>the vertebral column flexible. <br><br> There are five types of vertebrae in the vertebral column; **1. Cervical vertebrae** **2. Thoracic vertebra** **3. Lumbar vertebrae** **4. Sacral vertebrae** **5. Caudal vertebrae**<br><br>All the vertebrae have a common basic plan. **Structure of a Vertebra** Each vertebra is made up of the following parts. i.)**Centrum (body).**It supports the weight of the vertebra and the weight of the entire vertebral column.. ii.)**Neural arch.**It encloses the neural canal. iii.)**Neural spine.**Provides surface for muscle and ligament <br><br>attachment. <br><br>iv.)**Neural canal.**It protects the spinal cord which passes <br><br>through it. <br><br>v.)**Transverse processes.**Provides surface for muscle and <br><br>ligament attachment. <br><br>vi.)**Zygapophysis (facets).**These are smooth patches for <br><br>articulation with the other vertebrae. (The one in front and the other one behind). The front facets are called**Pre**- **Zygapophysis**while the back pair facets are called**Post-** **Zygapophysis**<br><br>**Diagram**<br><br>**1) Cervical vertebrae** a) Atlas (First cervical vertebra) **Distinctive features.** **i.)**No Centrum ii.) Broad and flat transverse processes. iii.) Has**vertebraterial canal**in each transverse process for <br><br>vertebral arteries to pass through. <br><br>iv.) Front facets are large and grooved to articulate with condyles of the skull to allow nodding on the head. <br><br>v.) Neural spine is very small. **Diagram**<br><br>**Functions**<br><br>**i.)**Protect the spinal cord. **ii.)**Provide surface for muscle attachment. **iii.)**Allows head to nod. b) Axis (second) **Distinctive features.**<br><br>i.) Centrum prolonged to from the**odontoid**process. ii.) Has**vertebraterial canal**in each transverse process for <br><br>vertebral arteries to pass. <br><br>iii.) Small wing like transverse processes. iv.) Wide neural canal. **Functions**<br><br>i.) Protects the spinal cord. ii.) Allows the head to rotate. Odontoid process forms a peg <br><br>which fits into the neural canal of the atlas. <br><br>iii.) Provide surface for muscle attachment **Diagram** c) The other cervical vertebrae. **Distinctive features** i.) Short neural spine ii.) Transverse process divided and broad. iii.) Has**vertebraterial canal**in each transverse process for vertebral arteries to pass through. <br><br>iv.) Wide centrum <br><br>**Diagram**<br><br>**Functions**<br><br>i.) Provide surface for attachment of neck muscle. ii.) Protect the spinal cord. iii.) Supports the weight of the head. **2) Thoracic vertebrae** **Distinctive features**<br><br>i.) Long neural spine pointing backwards. ii.) Large centrum. iii.) Short transverse processes. iv.)**Tubercular facets**on each transverse for articulation <br><br>with**tuberculum**of the rib. v.) Two pairs of**capitular demi-facets**for articulation with <br><br>**capitulum**of the rib. <br><br>**Diagram** **Functions**<br><br>i.) Helps to form the rib cage. ii.) Provides articulation for one end of each rib. iii.) Protects the spinal cord. iv.) Provides surface for muscle attachment. **3) Lumbar vertebrae** **Distinctive features** **i.)**Large broad centrum to offer support. **ii.)**Broad neural spine. **iii.)**Broad and long transverse processes. **iv.)**Have extra processes like**metapophysis, anapophysis and**<br><br>**hypapophysis**. <br><br>**Functions** i.) Protects the spinal cord. ii.) Provides surface for muscle attachment. iii.) Protect and support the heavy organs in the abdominal <br><br>cavity. <br><br>iv.) Supports the heavy weight of the upper part of the body. <br><br>4)**Sacral vertebrae** **Distinctive features** 1. All sacral vertebrae fused to form sacrum 2. Transverse processes of first sacral vertebra large and wing <br><br>like for articulation with pelvic girdle 3. Pairs of holes on the lower surface for the spinal nerves to <br><br>pass through. <br><br>4. Sacrum is broader on the front side and narrow towards the <br><br>tail. <br><br>***Functions***<br><br>1. Protects alimentary canal on dorsal side. 2. Provides attachment to hip girdle 3. Protects the spinal cord 4. Provides attachment for the muscles <br><br>**Diagram** **Diagram**<br><br>**Biology Form 1-2 Work Revision** 1. A student set up materials in an experiment as shown below. <br><br>**Sugar** **solution** **m**<br><br>**Fresh** **potato**<br><br>**Boiled**<br><br>**potato**<br><br>**Water** (b) If the experiment set up was left over-night, state <br><br>observation in the set up A and B. (2mks) (c) Account for the observations in each set up. <br><br> (3mks) <br><br> (d) If another experiment C was set such that nothing is placed in the potato cup, state and explain the results that would have (2mks) been obtained. 2. An experiment was carried out to investigate, haemolysis <br><br>of human cells. The red blood cells were placed in different concentration of sodium chloride solution. The percentage of haemolysed cells was determined. The results were shown in the table below. <br><br>Salt conc. (g/100cm3) Red blood cells haemolysed % <br><br>0.33 0.36 0.38 0.39 0.42 0.44 0.48 <br><br>100 91 82 (a) (i) On the grid provided plot a graph of haemolysed red blood cells against salt concentration. (6mks (ii) At what concentration of salt solution was the proportion of haemolysed cells equal to non-haemolysed cells? (1mk) (iii) State the percentage of red blood cells haemolysed at salt concentration of 0.45. (1mk) (b) Account for the results obtained at: (i)0.33% salt concentration <br><br> (3mks) <br><br> (ii) 0.48% salt concentration <br><br> (3mks) <br><br> (c) What would happen to the red blood cells if they were placed in 0.50% salt solution. (d) Explain what would happen to onion cells if they were placed in distilled water. (3mks) 3. Explain how various environmental factors affect the rate of transpiration in plants. 4. <br><br> (3mks) <br><br> (20mks) <br><br>(a) State the meaning of the following terms. (i) Digestion (2mks) (ii) Ingestion (2mks) (b) Describe the process through which a piece of ugali undergoes in man from the time of ingestion up to the time of absorption. (16mks) <br><br>6. The diagram below represents a unit of gaseous exchange in man. Study it carefully and answer the questions that follow. <br><br><br><br>**B** **A** <br><br> **G H G** **D**<br><br> <br><br>**E**<br><br> <br><br>a) Name the blood vessel that brings blood to the lungs and <br><br>the vessel which takes blood away from the lungs. <br><br> (2mks) <br><br>b) Name the structure above. (1mk) c) Label**A**and**E.**<br><br>(2mks) <br><br>198 d) In what form is carbon (IV) oxide transported in structure <br><br>labeled**E**. (1mk) <br><br>e) Name the gas**G**. (1mk) <br><br>6. Gastrin is a hormone produced by mammals. (a) (i) Where is the hormone produced? <br><br> (1mk) <br><br> (ii) What is the function of gastrin? <br><br> (1mk) <br><br>(b) What stimulateds the production of gastrin. <br><br> (1mk) <br><br> (c) The diagram below shows part of the human intestine. <br><br><br><br>i) and**B**<br><br>Identify the parts labeled**A**<br><br> (1mk <br><br>(ii) To which circulatory system does the part labeled**B**<br><br>belong. d) State any**two**adaptations of the human large intestine to (2mks) its function. 7. The diagram below represents part of a xylem tissue. <br><br>(1mk) <br><br>a) (i) Name the <br><br>parts labeled**P**and**Q** (2mks) <br><br> (ii) Give the function of the part labeled**P**. <br><br>(1mks) <br><br>b) State the function of the phloem tissue. <br><br> (1mk) <br><br> c) (i) State how the functioning of the phloem tissue is affected if the companion cell is destroyed. (1mk) <br><br>(ii) Give a reason for your answer. <br><br> (1mk <br><br>d) State any**two**structural differences between phloem and (2mks) xylem tissues. <br><br>199 8. In an experiment to determine the effect of exercise on the <br><br>concentration of lactic acid in blood, the following data was obtained. Study the data and use it to answer the questions that follow. The lactic acid concentration was measured before, during <br><br>and after the exercise. **Time** **minutes** **Lactic acid** **conc.** **(arbituary** **units)** a) Using a suitable scale, plot a graph of the concentration of lactic acid against time. (6mks) b) From the graph you have drawn determine (i) The period of exercise . Explain. <br><br>**0** **10 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100**<br><br>**0.5 0.5 5 13 12 8 6 4 3 2 1 0.9**<br><br> (2mks) <br><br>(ii) The time when oxygen debt occurred Explain. <br><br> (2mks) <br><br> (iii) The duration it took to pay back the oxygen debt.Explain (2msk) <br><br>c) On the same set of axes plot a hypothetical curve for oxygen intake during the experiment period of 90 minutes. <br><br> (2mks) <br><br>d) Why does lactic acid level usually continue to rise in the <br><br>blood after exercise ceases. (2mks) <br><br>e) Suggest the**two**importance of anaerobic respiration to animals. (2mks) <br><br>d) What is oxygen debt? <br><br>(2mks) <br><br>9. What is the role of the liver in the maintance of a constant level of materials in the body. 10.The diagram below represents a simple respiratory pathway in cells <br><br> (20mks) a) Name the process marked**X**and**Y.** (2mks) <br><br> b) State**two**differences between process**X**and**Y.**<br><br> (2mks) <br><br> c) State the name of substance B and condition under which it (2mks) is formed. d) Explain how body size affects the rate of respiration in (2mks) animals. 11. The diagram below represent the structure of a nephron. Study it and answer the questions that follow. <br><br>**X** **C** **C**<br><br> a) (i) State the physiological process by which solutes are selectively re-absorbed back into blood at the part labelled**B.**<br><br> (1mk) <br><br> (ii) How is the part labeled B adapted to carry out the physiological process named in 3**(a) (i)**above. <br><br> (1mk) <br><br>b) In which part of the kidney is the part labelled**A**abundantly found. c) On the diagram above , indicate the direction of flow of blood using arrows at the part labelled**C.**(1mk) e) State the functions carried out by the following hormones in the functioning of the nephron. (i)Aldosterone. (1mk) <br><br> (1mk) <br><br>(ii)Anti diuretic hormone. <br><br> (1mk) <br><br>12. The data below shows the rate of photosynthesis at different temperature in attached leaves of three East African plants. (Crotolaria, Gynandropsis and Amaranthus species) respectively which were grown outside with the same illustration while water and carbon (IV) oxide are not limiting factors in this experiment. Rate of photosynthesis was expressed interms of carbon (IV) oxide uptake in mg/mm2/hr at various temperatures as tabulated below. <br><br>**Rate of photosynthesis (mg/mm2/hr)**<br><br>**Temperature** **oC**<br><br>**Gynandropsis** **sp** - 22 50 60 80 85 80 73 66 2 **Crotolaris** **sp** 20 40 49 64 48 45 42 31 15 - **Amaranthus** **sp** - 10 27 42 55 54 50 45 40 11 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 a) Represent the results graphically (rate of photosynthesis against temperature) b) Using the graph in (a) above indicate optimum temperature for the Gynandropsis and Amaranthus species. <br><br> (2mks) <br><br> Gynandropsis Amaranthus c) Give a reason why Gynandaropsis and Amaranthus could not function photosynthetically at 5oC. (1mk) d) What are the possible ecological habitats for the following plants. (2mks) (i) Amaranthus (ii) Crotolaria e) At what temperature was the amount of carbon (IV) oxide around the leaf of Gynandropsis highest? <br><br> (1mk) <br><br>f) What raw material is required in the light stage of photosynthesis. g) Name the parts of chloroplasts in which the following stages of photosynthesis take place. (2mks) (i) Light stage (ii) Dark stage <br><br> (1mk) h) State**one**structural similarity and difference between chloroplast and mitochondria. Similarity Difference i)What is the compensation point of photosynthesis? <br><br> (2mks) <br><br> (1mk) <br><br>13 (a) Explain why plants lack elaborate excretory organs like those found in animals. (b) Name**five**methods of excretion in plants. <br><br> (3mks) <br><br> (5mks) <br><br> (c) State any**six**excretory products in plants and give economic uses. 14. During a laboratory investigation, a scientist extracted gastric juice from the mammalian stomach. He used it to carry out tests on a food sample B which was suspected to contain proteins. He divided the food sample B into three portions and treated them as below. <br><br>(12mks) <br><br>I. On the 1st portion of B, he added Gastric juice and mixed them thoroughly before adding sodium hydroxide followed with copper (II) sulphate drop by drop. <br><br> II. On the 2nd portion of B, he added boiled gastric juice and mixed them thoroughly before adding sodium hydroxide followed with copper (II) sulphate drop by drop. III. On the 3rd portion of B, he added Gastric juice, sodium bi-carbonate and mixed them thoroughl before adding sodium hydroxide followed with copper (II) sulphate drop by drop. a) State the observations he made in each set up. <br><br>(3mks) <br><br>- 1st portion - 2nd portion - 3rd portion <br><br> b) Why was the experiment on the 1st portion included in the tests? c) Name the property of the chemical being investigated in (1mk) these tests. d) Account for the observations made in 2 (a) above. <br><br> (1mk) <br><br> (3mks) <br><br>15. The diagram below illustrates circulation in certain organs of the mammalian body. <br><br><br><br>**Heart**<br><br>**Small** **Intestines** **B**<br><br>**A** **Liver** **C**<br><br>203 a) Identify the blood vessels represented by A, B and C. <br><br> (3mks) <br><br> b) Explain why blood from the small intestines goes to the liver before it goes to any other organ of the body. <br><br> (2mks) <br><br> c) Compare the blood in vessels B and C. <br><br> (1mk) <br><br> d) Outline how a glucose molecule in vessel A finally reaches the heart. ***1***6. The table below shows how the internal temperature two animals X and Y varied with the external temperature. The temperature was measured regularly and recorded for 12 hours in a day. Study the table and answer the questions that follow. <br><br> (2mks) a) Using the same grid, draw graphs of external temperature, and internal temperature of animals X and Y (Y-axes) against time (X-axes). <br><br> (7mks) <br><br> b) Account for the variation of internal and external temperatures for the animals X and Y. (2mks) c) Identify the classification of organisms whose internal temperature varies as X and Y d) Explain**two**ways used by organism Y to make its internal temperature vary as shown despite of changes in external temperature. (4mks) 18 a) Give the functions of the skin in organisms. (6mks) <br><br>(2mks) <br><br> b) How is the mammalian skin modified to enable it perform its functions? 19. The diagram below shows how gaseous exchange occurs across the gills in fish. <br><br> (l4mks) (i) Give the term used to describe this flow. <br><br>(1 Mark) <br><br> (ii) Explain the advantage of the above flow named in a(i) above. <br><br>(2 Marks) (b) What difference would be observed if water and blood flows across the gills in the same direction? (2 Marks) <br><br> (c) In which structures in the gills does gaseous exchange take place? (1 Mark) (d) Name**two**organs in man which display the flow system named in a(i). (2 Marks) <br><br>20. An experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of different concentrations of Sodium Chloride on human red blood cells. Equal volumes of blood were added to equal volumes of salt solutions of different concentrations. The results were as shown below:- Set up <br><br>Sodium Chloride concentration <br><br>Shape of red blood cells at the of end experiment Normal Swollen <br><br>Number of red blood cells at the of end experiment No change in number Fewer number <br><br>A B 0.9% 0.3% <br><br>in a) If the experiment was repeated with 1.4% Sodium Chloride solution, state the results you would expect with reference to:- (i) Number of red blood cells. (1 Mark) <br><br> (ii) Appearance of red blood cells when viewed under the (1 Mark microscope. Account for the fewer number of red blood cells in 0.3% Sodium Chloride salt solution. c) Give the biological term which can be used to describe 0.9% Sodium chloride solution.(1 Mark) d) Define plasmolysis. <br><br>(3 Marks) <br><br>(1 Mark) B- Remain the same; <br><br>iii) A Surrounding the cube is a region with high <br><br>concentration of water molecules while in the crystals, there are very few water molecules; The sugar crystals exert on Osmosis pressure by Osmosis water molecules move across the potato tissue, which acts as a semi-permeable membrane. The level rises; <br><br>sugar <br><br> B- No change since boiling denatures the membrane <br><br>structure of potato cells; <br><br>iv) C- No water moves into the potato cup/remains the <br><br>same; since there is no concentration gradient; 2(a) i) Graph. <br><br>ii) 0.402 0.01 iii) 11% 1%. <br><br>b) i) All cells have been haemolysed; cells contains one hypertonic to salt solution; water enters cells by osmosis; cells swell and eventually burst. <br><br>ii) No cells were haemolysed; cell contents were isotonic the cell was equal <br><br>to salt solutions (aments of water entering to that leaving the cell); no net movement of water into cells; <br><br>c) The cells would become crenated; the cell contents would be hypotonic to salt solutions; water would leave cells by osmosis; membranes would shrink. d) Contents of Onion epidermal cells would be hypertonic to water; water would enter cells by Osmosis; cells would become turgid; 3. transpiration; high temperature increases the atmosphere to hold water and moisture; also heat increase internal temperature of the leaf *4 accept converse*<br><br> -**Temperature;-**High temperature faster rate of <br><br>capacity of **- Atmospheric pressure;**Low atmospheric pressure, high <br><br>rate of transpiration 2 <br><br>**- Humidity;**Low humidity higher rate of transpiration; low humidity increases the saturation defiant; hence water moves form leaves to drier atmosphere; 4 <br><br>**- Wind;**When it is windy the rate of transpiration is higher; wind sweeps away vapour that has accumulated at the surface of leaf; increasing saturation deficit; hence faster rate of transpiration 5 <br><br>**- Light intensity;**High light intensity faster rate of <br><br>transpiration high light intensity increase hence stomata opens; 4 <br><br>photosynthesis rate **- Amount of water in soil;**More water in the soil <br><br>increases the rate of transpiration; it wets the xylem is wet throughout);*3* *Max 20* 4. a)***Define digestion and ingestion.***<br><br>xylem (ensure <br><br>i) Digestion- It is break down of complex insoluble; food substance into simple soluble food substance; ii) Ingestion- is introduction of food through the mouth <br><br>into the digestive system; <br><br>***b) Describe the digestion of Ugali.*** - <br><br>Digestion of ugali begins in the mouth; ugali is chewed by the teeth to increase large surface area for action of salivary amylase/ptyalin; The food mixes with saliva produced by salivary glands; <br><br>- Saliva contains mucus and enzyme ptyalin. Mucus moistens, softens and lubricates the food; ptyalin speeds up the conversion of starch to maltose; ugali is made into bolus in the mouth; <br><br>- The bolus moves along <br><br>the oescophagus and prestalsis/by contraction and relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles into the stomach; - The digestion continues until ugali become acidic contain since carbohydrase/carbohydrate digesting enzymes no digestion of ugali takes place here. <br><br>the stomach <br><br>- Ugali now moves into duodenum by peristalsis in form of acidic chime; where it mixes with the bile the juice from liver and pancreatic from pancreases; bile being alkaline neutralizes the stomach acid; and provides a suitable alkaline medium for the enzymes to act on carbohydrates; - Pancreatic juice contains three enzymes out of the which enzyme amylase speeds conversion of starch to maltose; <br><br>- When food reaches the ileum; it mixes with intestinal juice which contains several enzymes. Maltase speeds up conversion of maltose to glucose; <br><br>- Lactose which speeds up conversion of lactose to glucose and galactose; sucrase which speeds up conversion of sucrose into fructose and glucose; <br><br>- Absorption glucose, <br><br>the end product of all carbohydrates diffuses through the epithelium of villi and capillary walls and enters into blood stream and is carried to the liver via hepatic portal veins; <br><br>- Assimilation- in the liver excess glucose is converted <br><br>into glycogen and stored; <br><br>- - The rest of the glucose is carried by the blood tissues where is oxidized during tissue respiration to release energy; (*21 max 18* *mks Total 20mks)*<br><br>(a) - Pulmonary artery - Pulmonary vein (b) Alveolus (c)**A**- cavity of alveolus **E** Red blood cell (d) Hydrogen carbonate ions; Carbamino haemoglobin; (a) (i) Walls of stomach; (ii) Stimulates the secretion / production of gastric juice; <br><br>(b) Presence of food in the stomach; **B** Lacteal; (c)**A** Blood capillaries; (d) - Produces plenty of mucus to lubricate <br><br>coarse/indigestible material during peristalsis; <br><br> - Wide human accommodates /store indigestible food - Elongate to increase surface are for absorption of <br><br>water. <br><br> - has muscles to facilitate peristalsis when they contract; (a) (i)**P** Tracheids **Q** pits (ii)**P**- water conducting elements of xylem (b) Function of phloem translocation/ transport of organic <br><br>7. <br><br>substances from the leaves to the of the plant; <br><br>(c) (i) Translocation of food will not occur acc. Slow <br><br>translocation <br><br> (ii) Reason it contains a lot of mitochondria which <br><br>provide energy for translocation; <br><br>(d) cytoplasmic strands 4) Lack lignin deposits <br><br>8. <br><br>(a) Photocopy scale 1m Labeling axes 1 Plotting 2m Curves 2m (curves must be labeled) rej. Dotted <br><br>line for curves <br><br>**A GRAPH OF LACTIC ACID CONCENTRATION** **AGAINST TIME**<br><br><br><br>(b) (i) 10-15 minutes ; period of rapid increase in lactic acid <br><br>concentration (2mks) <br><br> (ii) 10-20 seconds : period when lactic acid level starts <br><br>to increase; (2mks) <br><br> (iii) 75minutes i.e. from 25th minutes to the 100minutes, this is the time lactic cid took to decrease from the highest level to normal; (2mks) <br><br>(c) It would have the same basic shape; but would peak <br><br>slightly ahead of the lactic acid curve in time; <br><br>(e) Because it is still diffusing out of the muscles, where it <br><br>was made a few minutes earlier; <br><br>(e) Allows for energy production even cases of oxygen deficiency; thus enables animals to survive active exercise and to inhabit even in areas with limited oxygen supply; <br><br>(f) Oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen to get rid of the lactic acid; that has accumulated due to anaerobic respiration; (2mks) <br><br>209 9. Regulation of blood sugar level; under the influence of insulin; and glucagons (hormones). When there is excess sugar; the hormone insulin stimulate/causes liver cell to convert it to glycogen; some converted to fats/lipids for storage; <br><br> When the blood sugar level is below normal: the hormone glucagon causes liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose; Regulation of amino acids; excess amino acids; are deaminated; by the liver (cells) leading to formation of urea; which is transported by the blood to the kidney; for elimination; Production of heat: the liver is involved in the thermoregulation due to many metabolic, activities; taking place in the liver cells a lot of heat is generated which is distributed to the entire/whole body; Detoxication of toxic substances; (such as drugs and <br><br>hydroxide peroxide) <br><br> Elimination of haemoglobin; and formation of bile; breakdown worn out red blood cells; the bile salts (sodium tyrochocolate and sodium glycocholate; in the bile eEMULSIFYfats (in the duodenum) Storage of blood in its veins; thus regulating the volume of blood circulating in the body <br><br> Elimination of sex hormones after they have performed their function/work; storage of vitamin AD and B12 some mineral salts; thus regulating their levels in the blood TOTAL 23 MAX 20 <br><br>10. (a) X - glycolysis Y Krebs cycle <br><br>(b) <br><br>**Process X** - occurs in cytoplasm - independent of oxygen - produces less energy - raw material is glucose - End products are energy, **Process Y** - occurs in mitochondria - Is oxygen dependent - produces more energy - Raw material is pyruvate - End products are energy, <br><br>CO2, lactic acid or ethanol CO2 and water (c) lactic acid; under anaerobic conditions (d) small body size leads to alarge surface area to volume <br><br>ratio; hence more loss of heat to the environment; leading to increased rate of respiration to replace the lost heat; 11. (a) (i)Active transport/diffusion Tied (ii) Numerous Mitochondria in its wall to generate energy/microvilli/coiling increase surface area/thin epithelium for quick diffusion. (b) Cortex (c) on the diagram (d) plasma proteins; Blood cells; accept specific examples e.g. albumins, red blood cells; (e) (i) Regulate re-absorption of Sodium salts; <br><br>(ii) Regulate re-absorption of water <br><br>12. (a) Allocation of marks on graph (b) Gynandropsis opt To = 30oC Amaranthus opt. to = 25oC (c)At 5oC, the enzymes that catalyse the process of <br><br>photosynthesis are inactivated. <br><br>(d) Amaranthus Terrestrial; Crotolaria terrestrial; (e) 50oC; (f) water; (g)(i) Granum; (ii) Stroma (h) Similarity: Both have double membrane; 1mk Both <br><br>have fluid filled matrix; Difference : inner membrane of mitochondrion is folded to form cristae while inner membrane of chloroplast is smooth; <br><br> - chloroplast is biconcave shaped while mitochondria is oval/sausage shaped (any 1x1=1mk) <br><br>(i) Point at which the rate of photosynthesis equals to the <br><br>rate of respiration. 13. (a) plants wastes accumulate slowly; - plants produce less toxic wastes; - some excretory products are recycled by plants e.g. <br><br>CO2, SO2) <br><br>- plant tissues are tolerant to toxic wastes; - plant wastes are stored in temporary structures <br><br>which fall off e.g. leaves (any 3x1=3mks) (b) Diffusion; <br><br>- Transpiration; - Exudation; - Deposition of wastes/ leaf fall/ flower fall/ storage in <br><br>bark; <br><br>- Recycling; - Guttation ; (any 5x1=5mks) <br><br>(c) <br><br>**Excretory** **products**<br><br>**Uses** 1. Caffeine; 2. Popain; 3. Tannin; 4. Nicotine; 5. Latex; 6. Quinine; 7. Atropine; 8. Morphine; 9. Colchine; 10. Cocai <br><br>Body stimulant; Meat tenderizer; Leather tanning; Stimulant; insecticide; Manufacture of tyre/rubber products; Anti-malarial drugs; Increase heart beat; dilate eye pupil; Cancer treatment; Used in genetics to induce polypoidy; Anesthesia/painkiller/stimul ant; Pain killer; Stimulant; (Any 6x2=12mks) <br><br>ne; <br><br>11. Cann <br><br>abis; <br><br>12. Khat/ <br><br>miraa; 14. (a) 1st portion. - Blue; colour was observed 2nd portion Purple; colour was observed 3rd portion Purple; colour was observed <br><br> (b) A control experiment; (c) Proteins are highly sensitive to temperature and pH changes; (*award if either temp of pH is stated singly*) (d) peptones; <br><br>1st portion Enzyme pepsin broke down proteins into <br><br>2nd portion Enzyme pepsin works in acidic medium; (*not*<br><br>*in basic medium*) 15. (a)**A** Hepartic portal vein; **B** Hepartic vein; <br><br>**C** Hepartic artery; (b) So that any toxic substances absorbed together with <br><br>food nutrients from the ileum be detoxified; <br><br>- So that food substances e.g. glucose, amino acids can be <br><br>regulated. Only the required quantity of glucose is left in circulation as excess is either stored as glycogen, fat and excess may be respired. Excess amino acids are deaminated; <br><br>(c)**B** Deoxygenated **C**- Oxygenated (d) From the small intestines, it is transported to the liver through Hepartic portal vein; (It is then transported to the heart through the hepartic vein; 16. (a**) graph** (b)**X** Lacks internal mechanisms to regulate its internal <br><br>temperature <br><br>**Y** Has internal means to regulate its internal temperature. hence able to maintain it within narrow range <br><br>(c)**X** Poikilotherm (d) Blood vessels vasodilate when temperature is higher <br><br>**Y** Endotherm <br><br>than norm to allow for heat loss from blood through radiation, evaporation, etc; when temperature is lower, blood vessels constrict radiation, evaporation etc; - When temperature is higher, lies flat to allow for heat loss from the body since insulation layer of air is removed; when temperature is lower, hair strands erect to hold air which insulates the body against heat loss through radiation, evaporation etc. <br><br>to prevent loss of heat from blood through <br><br>17. (a) Higher temperature; increases the kinetic energy; of <br><br>water molecules which makes water turn into vapour on the leaf surfaces faster and hence increase rate of transpiration <br><br> Higher light intensity; influences maximum opening of stomata which increases the surface area; over which transpiration occurs maximumly <br><br> Wind; carries away moisture around the plant and create a higher saturation deficit; which then increases the rate of water loss/transpiration in plants. <br><br> Higher relative humidity; reduces saturation deficit; which <br><br>causes lowering of water loss/transpiration in plants. Higher amount of water in the soil; makes the plant to <br><br>absorb excess water which increases the need for the plant to get rid of it through transpiration faster; <br><br> If the leaf is broader and has numerous larger open stomata; the surface area over which water loss occurs is increased; causing increase in the rate of transpiration. <br><br>(*award max. 12mks*) <br><br>18. (a) It**protects**the underlying tissues against mechanical injury, UV-light rays and entry of pathogens; (*Rej. germs*) <br><br> As**an excretory organs**, it enables organisms to eliminate <br><br>excess water, ions and traces of urea; <br><br> As a**sensory organ,**it enables the organisms to be aware of deviations in pressure, touch and temperature from the external environment; <br><br> It is a**thermoregulator**such that it enables the body to lose excess heat to lower its temperature back to norm or may enable the organisms to store it s heat if the temperature is lower and hence raise it back to the norm; It takes part in**osmoregulation**by enabling the body fluids <br><br>to get rid of excess water or excess ions; <br><br> It takes part in the regulation of the pH of body fluids by enabling the body to get rid of either Hydrogen ions or bi- carbonate ions; <br><br>(b) Presence of the cornified layer; which tough and has keratin to enable it protect the underlying tissues from mechanical injury; It alsos has sebum; which is antiseptic and enables it to prtect the ody against entry of pathogesn. Presence of melanin; enables it to protect the underlying tissues against damage by t UV-light radiations. It has sweat glands with secretory cells; which absorb <br><br>excess water, excess ions and traces fo urea from blood and secrete them into the sweat duct; <br><br> Has the sweat pores; which open son the skin surface to allow for elimination of sweat containing excess water, excess ions and traces of urea; <br><br> It has nerve endings; which enables it to detect any deviations in temperature, pressure and contact/touch; It has hair follicles; which stand erect when temperature is lower than normal to reduce heat loss from the body or lie flat to enable to body lose excess heat and lower temperature back to the norm when the internal temperature is higher; <br><br> Has blood vessels; which vasodilate when temperature is higher than norm to enable the organisms lose than the norm to reduce heat loss from the body; i) Counter current system; <br><br>19. a) ii) Maintain a diffusion gradient so that there is maximum uptake of oxygen; continue diffusing into blood and Carbon (iv) oxide into water; b) Parallel flow lower diffusion gradient; so that less oxygen <br><br>diffuse into blood/low rate of gaseous exchange <br><br>c) Gill filaments d) Placenta Kidney 20 a) i) Remain the same <br><br>ii) Crenated <br><br>b) The solution is hypotonic to red blood cells hence the cells <br><br>grains water; by osmosis; swelling until they burst. <br><br>c) Isotonic solution d) Plasmolysis the process by which plant cells loss water by <br><br>Osmosis shrink and become flaccid. <br><br>**BIOLOGY DIAGRAMS**<br><br><br><br>215 <br><br>218 <br><br>219 <br><br>220 <br><br>221 <br><br>M <br><br>V W <br><br>N Z <br><br>222 <br><br>223 <br><br>224 <br><br>225 <br><br>R P <br><br>Companion Cell <br><br>Q <br><br>**A**<br><br>**B**<br><br>226 **TOPICAL QUESTIONS FOR BIOLOGY**<br><br>**FORM I TOPICS**<br><br>**1. a) Define biology**<br><br>-the study of life/living things b)**List the branches of biology** - Zoology (study of animals) - Botany (study of plants) - Microbiology (study of microorganisms) c)**Explain the importance of biology** - helps to solve environmental problems - Helps to learn scientific skills - For entry into other professions/careers - To apply knowledge to everyday life situations - To classify organisms into their right groups - understanding living organisms d)**State the characteristics of living organisms** - feeding/nutrition - Growth and development - respiration (to produce energy) - sensitivity/irritation/response - excretion (getting rid of metabolic waste material) - movement/locomotion - reproduction **e) State the main differences between plants and animals** **Animals** **Plants** No chlorophyll Give parental care to young Plants dont care for their <br><br>Contain chlorophyll <br><br>young <br><br>**2. a) i) What is a hand lens?** - Convex lens mounted on a frame and used to magnify <br><br>small objects for viewing. **ii) How is a hand lens used?** - place the lens a short distance from the eye - Bring the object to be viewed near the lens until an <br><br>enlarged and clear image can be seen. <br><br>**ii) When is a hand lens used?**<br><br>- For reasonably sized objects such as insect wing, leg, <br><br>flower parts. <br><br>- Cannot be used for small objects such as cells, stomata. <br><br>**iv) Explain how to calculate drawing magnification** - drawing magnification equals to length of drawing divided by length of object or image length divided by actual length i.e. length of drawing or image length <br><br> Length of object actual length <br><br>**b) i) what is classification?** - Orderly arrangement of living organisms into various groups according to their similarities **ii) List the external features used to classify plants**<br><br>- rhizoids(e.g. mosses) - frond (e.g. ferns) - roots e.g. taproot, fibrous roots, modified roots - flowers - leaves - buds - seeds **iii) List the external features used to classify animals**<br><br>- horns e.g. cattle, goat, sheep, deer, gazelle etc - hooves e.g. cattle, sheep, donkey - mammary glands e.g. cattle, dog, sheep, cat - hair e.g. human, cat - Shell e.g. snail, Tortoise - spines e.g. hedge hog, porcupine <br><br>**c) Give the reasons why classification is important** **-**Placing/grouping living organisms into correct groups called taxa - Identification - arrange information about living organisms into orderly and sequential manner i.e. it is easy to study organisms in groups -helps in understanding evolutionary relationships - monitoring disappearance and appearance of organisms i.e. predict characteristics of organisms **d) i) Name the taxonomic units of classification in** **descending order** - Kingdom (largest unit) - Phylum (animals)/division (plants) - Class - Order <br><br>- Family - Genus - Species(smallest unit) <br><br>**ii) What is a species?**<br><br>- all organisms which can interbreed and give rise to fertile <br><br>(viable) offspring <br><br>**iii) Name the major kingdoms used in classification** -monera -protoctista/protista -fungi -plantae -animalia **e) i) Define the term binomial nomenclature** - a scientific system of naming organisms using the generic/genus and specific/species names - e.g. for humans, Homo sapiens **ii) State the principles followed during binomial** **nomenclature**<br><br>- the first (generic) name should begin with a capital letter <br><br>while the rest are small letters <br><br>- the two names are printed in italics and if handwritten <br><br>should be underlined each separately <br><br>**iii) Give the advantages of using binomial nomenclature** - no confusion about which organism is referred to - names are internationally accepted regardless of language - shows evolutionary relationship hence easy to understand - useful in naming many species unlike use of common <br><br>names <br><br>**iv) Name the types of classification**<br><br>- traditional (using common names) - scientific(using binomial nomenclature) 3.**a) i) Define the term cell** - it is the basic unit of organization of an organism i.e. the <br><br>basic functional and structural unit of an organism. **ii) What is cell biology?**<br><br>- study of structure and functioning of a cell - also called cytology **b)i) What is a microscope?** - an instrument used to magnify objects and make them appear bigger. **ii) Name the types of microscope**<br><br>- the light microscope - the electron microscope <br><br>iii)**State the purpose of using a light microscope**<br><br>- it magnifies and reveals the structure details of tiny objects <br><br>such as the cell, that cannot be seen by the human eye directly <br><br>- <br><br>**iv) Draw a labeled sketch of a light microscope**<br><br><br><br>**v) State the functions of the labeled parts** a.)**Eyepiece**used to look through and to magnify the object b.)**Course adjustment knob**raises or lowers body tube and focuses object roughly c.)**Fine adjustment knob raises**or lowers body tube by small distances to bring image into fine focus d.)**objective lens** brings image into focus and also magnifies object/image <br><br>**stage**is a platform where object or specimen on slide is <br><br>placed <br><br>**mirror**reflects light through condenser and directs it to <br><br>objective lens <br><br>**clips**hold glass slide in position **body tube**holds eyepiece and revolving nose piece which <br><br>has objective lenses <br><br>**limb**or base support whole instrument **arm**for holding when carrying instrument <br><br>230 **revolving nose piece**holds objective lens in place enabling <br><br>change from one objective lens to another **e) i) Explain the procedure followed when using a** **microscope** - put the microscope on the bench with the stage facing away from you (viewer) - turn the lower power objective to click in line with the eyepiece - Ensure that the diaphragm/iris is fully open - Adjust the mirror until the stage is illuminated with enough light - Place the slide containing the specimen on the stage for magnification - Draw the image and indicate magnification of the drawing. **ii) State the precautions that are necessary when handling a** **microscope**<br><br> always use two hands when carrying it never place a microscope too close to the edge of the <br><br>bench or table <br><br> do not touch the mirror and lens with wet or dirty hands clean dirty lenses using a special lens cleaning cloth clean other parts using a soft cloth or tissue paper low power objective must click into position before and <br><br>after use. <br><br> Do not wet any part of the microscope Clean and store well after use <br><br>**d) i) What is magnification?** - The power of making an image larger **ii) Give the formula used to calculate magnification in a light** **microscope** **iii) Give the reasons for each of the following steps when** **preparing a cross-section of a stem or leaf for examination** **under the microscope** **cutting very thin sections**<br><br> thin sections allow light to pass through making it easy to <br><br>observe the tissue <br><br>**Using a sharp razor blade during the cutting**<br><br> sharp blade does not damage, deform, destroy or distort the <br><br>surface of cell or tissue <br><br> it makes thin sections **Placing sections in water**<br><br> to maintain turgidity hence maintain shape of cell it prevents drying of the section <br><br>**Staining the sections with iodine before observing**<br><br> To make chloroplasts, starch containing structures, granules <br><br>or plastids distinct. <br><br>**e) i) List the parts of a cell that can be seen under a light** **microscope**<br><br>a cell membrane <br><br> b cytoplasm c cell wall e nucleus d vacuole <br><br><br><br>**ii) Draw the general structure of a plant and animal cell** **iii) List the parts of a cell that can be seen under an** **electronic microscope and state the functions of each part.** **Cell wall**<br><br> found in plant cells in addition to cell membrane made of cellulose which makes the plant tough allows gases, water and other substances to pass through <br><br>**Cell membrane**<br><br> permeable/selective to control movement of materials in <br><br>and out of cells <br><br> bound/encloses the cell contents also called plasma membrane or plasmallema <br><br>**Cytoplasm**<br><br> fluid medium where chemical reactions occur also where cell organelles are suspended <br><br>**Nucleus**<br><br> controls cell activities <br><br>**Nucleolus**<br><br> synthesizes DNA <br><br>**Vacuole**<br><br>232 sacs filled with fluid called cell sap large in plants but small in animals act as reservoirs for food and harmful wastes which would <br><br>otherwise interfere with the metabolism in cytoplasm <br><br>**Lysosomes**<br><br> store hydrolytic enzymes destroy worn out cell organelles, cells, pathogens digestion of food in unicellular organisms autolysis **Golgi apparatus**<br><br> processing/packaging of synthesized materials transporting/secretion of packaged materials/cell materials <br><br>e.g. glycoproteins and mucus <br><br> production of lysosomes <br><br>**Ribosomes**<br><br> where protein synthesis takes place <br><br>**Mitochondrion**<br><br> synthesis of ATP/energy <br><br>**Chloroplasts**<br><br> where photosynthesis takes place <br><br>**Endoplasmic reticulum**<br><br> transport of cell secretions can be rough or smooth <br><br>**iv) State the functions of cell sap**<br><br> stores chemical substances, sugar, salts <br><br> maintains shape of the cell/provides mechanical strength plays a role in osmoregulation by creating an osmotic <br><br>gradient that brings about movement of water <br><br>**e) Compare plant and animal cells**<br><br> plant cells have chloroplasts lacking in animals animal cells have many small vacuoles while plant cells have a large central vacuole <br><br> plant cell have cellulose cell walls lacking in animal cells cytoplasm in plant cell is in the periphery but in animal cell <br><br>it is centrally placed <br><br> plants store starch, oil and protein while animals store gats <br><br>and glycogen <br><br> animal cells have centrioles which plant cells do not have <br><br>**f) Explain the meaning of each of the following**<br><br>**i) Cell**<br><br>- Basic unit of organization in an organism - Specialized animal cells include sperm, ovum muscle Specialized plant cells include epidermal, guard cell and palisade cell **ii) Tissue**<br><br> these are cells of a particular type grouped together to <br><br>perform a certain function <br><br> animal tissues include epithelium, blood, nerves, muscle, <br><br>skeletal and connective tissues <br><br> plant tissues include epidermal, photosynthetic, vascular, <br><br>strengthening tissues <br><br>**iii) Organ**<br><br> tissues combine together to form organs an organ is a complex structure with a particular function animal examples include heart, liver, kidney, lungs, brain, <br><br>blood vessels, muscles, skeleton <br><br> Plant organs include leaves, roots, flowers, and stem. <br><br>**iv) Organ system**<br><br> organs are grouped together to form systems also called <br><br>organ systems <br><br> animal systems include excretory, digestive, respiratory, <br><br>nervous, circulatory, endocrine(hormones/glands), skeletal systems <br><br> plant systems include transport system <br><br>**g) i) Name the structures which are present in plant cells but** **absent in animal cells** - Chloroplast - Cell wall **ii) Name the structures which are present in animal cells but** **absent in plant cells** Lysosomes Centrioles Pinocytic vesicles **h) Explain how to estimate cell size** **i) Materials**<br><br> cell sizes are measured in units known as micrometers (my) required is a transparent ruler marked in millimeters 1m = 1 mm <br><br>1000 focus so that the millimeter marks can be seen as thick dark <br><br>lines <br><br> estimate the diameter of field of view by counting the one millimeter spaces between the first mark and the last one across the field of view as shown below <br><br><br><br> the diameter of the field of view above is estimated as 3.2 <br><br>mm <br><br> convert the diameter of the field of view from millimeters <br><br>to micrometers i.e. 3. <br><br> Estimate the fraction of the field of view occupied by the cell. This is done by estimating the number of cells places end to end that would fill the diameter of the field of view as shown below <br><br> in the figure above, it is estimated that approximately six <br><br>cells will occupy the diameter of the field of view therefore, one cell will occupy of the field of view its diameter is calculated as times the diameter of the <br><br>field of view <br><br>**i) In a drawing of a giraffe, the height of the head** **from the ground was recorded as 10cm. the drawing also** **showed a magnification of 0.02. calculate the actual height of** **the giraffe**<br><br>Drawing height = 10cm = 500cm Magnification i) <br><br> 0.02 <br><br>**In a class experiment to estimate sizes of cells a** **student observed and obtained millimeter marks on** **the field of view of a microscope as shown in the** **diagram below**. <br><br>235 Millimeter marks <br><br>- If the student counted 40 cells on the diameter of the field of view, what was the approximate size of the each cell in micrometers? Diameter of field of view = 3 x 1000 = 75 m Number of cells 40 <br><br>**ii) Under which of the following light microscope**<br><br>**magnifications would one see a larger part of the** **specimen? X40 or x400? Give a reason**<br><br> x40 Smaller magnification gives a wider field of view hence a <br><br>larger part seen. <br><br>**e.)** the study of the functions of a cell in relation to their <br><br>**a) i) Define cell physiology**<br><br>structure <br><br>**ii) State the functions of the cell** exchange of materials between the cell and the external <br><br>environment <br><br> physiological reactions e.g. photosynthesis production of energy through mitochondria **b) i) Describe the structure of cell membrane** - made up of three layers - Lipid portion sandwiched between two protein layers - Lipid portion enhances penetration of oil soluble substances Pores present to facilitate inward and outward movement of water soluble substances <br><br>**iii) Give the properties of cell membrane** semi-permeable sensitive to changes in temperature and pH Possesses electric charges. **c) i) What is diffusion?**<br><br> movement of substances/molecules/particles/ions from a <br><br>region of high concentration to a region of low concentration (until equilibrium is reached) <br><br>**iii) State the factors affecting diffusion** diffusion gradient/concentration gradient surface area to volume ratio temperature size of molecules state of the diffusing substance thickness of membrane and tissues **iii) Explain the roles of diffusion in living organisms**<br><br> gaseous exchange absorption of digested food in intestines movement of salts in plants movement of materials between blood capillaries and <br><br>tissues <br><br> removal of waste materials from bodies of small organisms air movement in intercellular spaces in plants <br><br>**iv) Suggest an experiment to demonstrate diffusion** to a beaker of water, drop crystals of potassium <br><br>permanganate or copper sulphate <br><br> leave to stand in a place without disturbing observe the spreading of molecules liquid is coloured uniformly due to diffusion <br><br>**d) i) What is osmosis?**<br><br> Movement of water or solvent molecules from a <br><br>dilute/hypotonic solution to a more concentrated/hypertonic solution across a semi-permeable membrane. <br><br>**OR**<br><br> movement of solvent molecules from a region of their <br><br>higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration through a semi-permeable membrane <br><br>**ii) State the factors affecting osmosis**<br><br> concentration of the solution concentration gradient temperature **iv) Explain the roles of osmosis in living organisms** helps to draw water into roots of plants helps in the passage of water from one living cell to another <br><br>in the plant <br><br> helps to keep plant cells turgid increasing support Helps in opening and closing of stomata. Folding of leaves in***Mimosa pudica***when touched Feeding in insectivorous plants **v) A group of students set up an experiment to**<br><br>**investigate a certain physiological process. The set up** **is as shown in the diagram below.**<br><br> 237 After some time they observed that the level of sugar had risen. What was the physiological process under investigation? <br><br> Osmosis <br><br>**Why was there a rise in the level of sugar solution?**<br><br> sugar solution is more concentrated than cell sap osmosis those cells become more concentrated and therefore draw <br><br>water from neighbouring cells <br><br> this process continues until the cells in contact with the <br><br>water in the container draw it up causing a rise in the level of the sugar solution <br><br>**Suggest the results that the students would obtain if they** **repeated the experiment using cooked potato** The level of sugar solution will not rise. <br><br>**What is the reason for your suggestion?**<br><br> boiling kills/destroys cells making them osmotically <br><br>inactive <br><br>**vi) Explain the following terms**<br><br>**Hypnotic**<br><br> a solution whose concentration is lower than that of the cell <br><br>**Isotonic**<br><br> a solution whose concentration is the same as that of the <br><br>cell **Hypertonic**<br><br> a solution whose concentration is higher than that of the <br><br>cell <br><br>**Turgor pressure**<br><br> As a cell gains water, its vacuole enlarges and exerts an <br><br>outward pressure called turgor pressure. <br><br><br><br>238 **Plasmolysis**<br><br> if a plant is placed in a hypotonic solution if loses water the protoplasm shrinks to an extent that it pulls away from <br><br>the cellulose cell wall <br><br><br><br>**Wilting**<br><br> when a plant is turgid it can stand upright however, if the cells lose a lot of water, turgidity is reduced the plant then droops because the cells are flaccid the plant is said to wilt <br><br>**Haemolysis**<br><br> if red blood cells are placed in distilled water, the cells take <br><br>up water by osmosis, swell and burst <br><br> this is because it does not have any mechanism like the <br><br>cellulose cell wall to prevent overstretching nor any means of removing excess water this is called haemolysis <br><br>**e) A form one student placed red blood cells in different salt** **concentrations and obtained the following results:-** There was a gain (+) no change (0 zero) and a loss (-) in the volume of the cells as show below:- <br><br>239 **Briefly explain the results of the experiment**<br><br> in the first solution , red blood cell absorbed water by <br><br>osmosis, swell and burst (haemolysis) hence the solution is hypotonic <br><br> in the second solution, there was no change in size or structure as it was isotonic hence no osmotic gradient in the third solution the red blood cell lost water to shrink hence became crenated as the solution was hypotonic to the cell cytoplasm. <br><br>**f) i) What is active transport?**<br><br> movement of molecules and ions against a concentration <br><br>gradient <br><br> the substances move from a lower to a higher concentration <br><br>gradient by use of energy <br><br>**ii) State the factors affecting active transport**<br><br> oxygen concentration temperature change in pH glucose concentration enzyme inhibitors **iii) Why is oxygen important in the process of active** **transport?** - Oxygen is required for respiration, which produces energy necessary for the process to occur. **2.0 ) the factors that affect the rates of the following process** **in living organisms.**<br><br>a.) **DIFFUSION.**<br><br>**- Diffusion gradient**which refers to the difference in concentration of molecules between the region of high concentration and the region of low concentration. Increasing the concentration gradient causes an increase in rate of diffusion and vice versa. **-Surface area to volume ratio .**is the ratio of total surface area exposed by an organism compared to its body volume. Small sized living organisms have a large surface area to volume ratio. The larger the surface area to volume ratio ,the high the rate of diffusion and vice versa. Small organisms like amoeba and paramecium can hence rely on diffusion for transport of substances into and within its body and removal of waste products **-thickness of membranes.**Molecules take longer to diffuse across thick membranes than across thin membranes hence the thin the membrane the higher the rate of diffusion. **-Temperature.**Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of diffusing molecules making them to spread faster. Increasing temperature increases the rate of diffusion and vice versa **-size of molecules/molecular weight.**Small sized molecules/molecules of low molecular weight move/diffuse faster hence the rate of diffusion is high where the molecules involved are small or have low molecular weight and vice versa**.** **B.)OSMOSIS** **-Temperature.**Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of water molecules making them to spread faster. Increasing temperature increases the rate of osmosis and vice versa **-concentration gradient/diffusion pressure deficit.**Refers to the difference in concentration on either side of a semi- permeable membrane. The higher the osmotic pressure difference the higher the rate of osmosis. **C.) ACTIVE TRANSPORT** **OXYGEN CONCENTRATION.**It is required for respiration/to oxidize respiratory substrates to release energy required for active transport. an increase in oxygen concentration causes a simultaneous increase to the rate of active transport upto a certain level. **PH**Enzymes being protein in nature are PH specific. Extreme change in PH affect the rate of respiration which is controlled by enzymes and may denature the enzymes reducing the rate of active transport. -**GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION.**is the main respiratory substrate for energy production. An increase in glucose concentration in cells increase the rate of respiration and hence the rate of active transport is increased upto a certain optimum level beyond which any additional increase in glucose concentration has no effect. **TEMPERATURE.**The process of respiration by which energy for active transport is generated is controlled by enzymes. Enzymes work best at temperatures of between 350c- 400c,usually called optimum temperature ranges. At very low temperatures enzymes are inactive lowering the rate of respiration hence low rates of active transport . increase in temperature above optimum ( above 400c)denatures enzymes slowing down respiration and ac tive transport until it finally stops. **ENZYMES INHIBITORS.**They are substances which slow down (by competing with the enzyme for the active sites in the substrate) or stop ( by blocking the active sites of the enzyme) the activity/funtioning of enzymes .this slows down or stops respiration and so is active transport. **CONCENTRATION OF CARRIER MOLECULES IN THE** **CELL MEMBRANE.**They are substances that bind to the ions being transported actively and carrying them across the membrane . increase in concentration of carrier molecules increases the rate of active transport upto a certain level and vice versa. 4.) Explain briefly the role of osmosis in living tissues. In plants: Osmosis facilitates the absorption of water from the soil by plant roots, water is required for the process of photosynthesis. Turgidity of cells contributes to support in herbaceous plants and helps plant to maintain shape. Helps in closing and opening of stomata regulating the process of gaseous exchange and transpiration. It facilitates feeding in insectivorous plants like venus fly trap. In animals: Enables reabsorption of water from the kidney tubules back to blood stream facilitating the process of osmoregulation. It enables organisms in fresh water bodies like amoeba to absorb water. it is applied in food preservation. 5.) explain what happens when plant and animal cells are put in hypotonic and hypertonic solutions. <br><br>**a.**i)**plant cells in hypotonic solution.**<br><br>The concentration of the plant cell sap is hypertonic to the solution/water medium. the cell draws in water by osmosis through the cell wall, cell membrane into the cell cytoplasm. Water enters the cell vacuole by osmosis; it enlarges and exerts an outward pressure on the cell wall called turgor pressure. Increased turgor pressure pushes the cell cytoplasm against the cell wall until the cell wall cannot stretch any further. The cell becomes firm or rigid and is said to be turgid. As the cell wall is being stretched outwards, it develops a resistant inwards pressure that is equal and opposite to the turgor pressure and this is called wall pressure. ii.)**Plant cells in hypertonic solution.** The plant cell sap is hypotonic to the solution medium. Water molecules are drawn out of the plant cells by osmosis into the hypertonic solution through the semi-permiable membrane of the plant cells. As a result the plant cell will start to shrink/less rigid and become flabby. The cell membrane/plasma membrane is pulled away from the cell wall and the cell is said to be flaccid. this process by which a plant cell lose water, shrink and become flaccid is called plasmolysis. However the shape of the plant cell is maintained by the tough rigid cellulose cell wall which prevents crenation in plant cells. b.i)**Animal cells in hypotonic solution.** The concentration of water in the cytoplasm of the plant cells is hypertonic to the solution medium in the test. Water molecules are then drawn into the animal cell cytoplasm from the surrounding medium by osmosis through the semipermiable membrane. the cell swells as water is drawn into them by osmosis .as water continues to enter into the cell,the weak animal cell membrane bursts a process called lysis. in red blood cells this process is called haemolysis. However in unicellular organisms like amoeba and paramecium,bursting of their cells does not take place because they have specialized organelles called contractile vacuoles for removal of exces water out of their bodies/cells. **ii.) Animal cells in hypertonic solution.** The concentration of the animal cells cell cytoplasm is hypotonic to the solution medium in the test. the surrounding hypertonic solution will draw water out of the animal cells by osmosis through the semi-permeable membrane. Continued loss of water causes the cells to be smaller in size and their membranes become wrinkled. This process will continue until the concentration of the cell sap and the surrounding medium is equal i.e isotonic.the process by which animal cells lose water and shrink is called crenation. 6.)**Explain briefly the role of active transport in living** **organisms.** It is involved in active reabsorption of glucose and mineral salts in kidney tubules during formation of urine. it enables the absorption of digested food from the alimentary canal/small intestines into the blood stream. Excretion of waste products from body cells for eventual removal. Involved in transmission of nerve impulses within the nerve cells through the sodium pump which maintains a balance between sodium and potassium ions. It facilitates accumulation of substances in the body cells to offset osmotic pressure of organisms in dry and marine environment allowing them to absorb water by osmosis and avoid desiccation. In plants it enables plant roots to absorb water from the soil against the concentration gradient. Its involved in translocation of manufactured food in the phloem tissue within the plant body. Its involved in the opening and closing of the stomata through the sodium-potassium pump mechanism. **iv) Outline the roles of active transport in living organisms**<br><br> mineral salt intake by plants selective reabsorption of glucose and some salts by kidney <br><br>tubules <br><br> absorption of digested good by small intestines excretion of waste products from body cells reabsorption of useful materials in the blood stream or at <br><br>the tissue fluid <br><br> sodium pump mechanism in the nerve cells/neurons **f.) a) i) Define nutrition** the process by which living organisms obtain and <br><br>assimilate nutrients <br><br>**ii) State the importance of nutrition**<br><br> for respiration to get energy for growth for development to repair and replace worn out and damaged parts and tissues <br><br>**b) Differentiate the various modes of feeding**<br><br>**i) Autotrophism** manufacturing food from simple organic substances types are photosynthesis and chemosynthesis **ii) Heterotrophism** obtaining food from autotrophes and other organic <br><br>substances <br><br> types are holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic **g.)** the process by which green plants build up organic <br><br>**a) i) Define photosynthesis**<br><br>compounds from carbon IV oxide and water in the presence of sunlight <br><br>**ii. State the importance of photosynthesis** formation of sugars/glucose which is a source of energy purification of air(CO2 is used, O2 is released) storage of energy to be used later in respiration stores energy in wood, coal, oil to be used later to run <br><br>industries <br><br>**Structural adaptation of the leaf to its function**<br><br><br><br>The leaf has a broad and flattened lamina to provide a large surface area for trapping optimum light for photosynthesis and allow maximum gaseous exchange. The leaf epidermis is thin ( one cell thick) to reduce the distance across which diffusion of carbon (iv) oxide gas to palisade cells and oxygen gas from palisade cells takes place. The leaf has numerous stomata that allows easy diffusion of gases into and out of the palisade tissue. The leaf cuticle and epidermis are transparent to allow easy penetration of light to the photosynthetic tissue. The palisade cells are numerous,elongated and contain numerous chloroplasts to trapping optimum light for photosynthesis. The palisade tissue is just beneath the upper epidermis exposing them to trap optimum light for photosynthesis. The leaf has numerous leaf veins consisting of a.) xylem vessels and tracheids for transporting water and dissolved mineral salts from the soil to the photosynthetic tissue b.) phloem tissue for translocation of of manufactured food from the leaf to storage organs and other parts of the plant . <br><br>245 Numerous and large air spaces in the spongy mesopyl layer for optimum gaseous exchange with the photosynthetic tissue. Phylotaxy which is regular arrangement of leaves on the stem minimizes overshadowing and overlapping exposing all leaves to light for photosynthesis. The prominent midrib and leaf veins reduces chances of rolling of leaves maintaining a large surface area for trapping optimum light for photosynthesis. <br><br><br><br>**C) Describe the structure and function of chloroplast**<br><br>**i)** **Structure**<br><br>246 **ii) Function** structure in which photosynthesis takes place **iii) Adaptations** has numerous/many grana to provide large surface area for <br><br>packing many chlorophyll pigments <br><br> have numerous chlorophyll pigments which trap <br><br>sunlight/light for photosynthesis <br><br> has stroma/third matrix which contain certain enzymes that <br><br>catalyze photosynthetic reactions <br><br>**d) i) Give a word equation for photosynthesis** Carbon (iv)Oxide + water sunlight sugar + oxygen NB 6CO2 +6H2O C6H1206 + 6O2 **.) Describe briefly the process of photosynthesis in plants.** The process of photosynthesis takes place in green plants allowing them to make their own food. The process is controlled by enzymes and involves a series of reactions that take place in chloroplasts. The raw materials required are water and carbon (iv) oxide.the process takes place in two consecutive stages i.e **Light reaction stage** Its also called the light dependent stage as it requires light energy . the reactions take place in the granna of the chloroplast. light energy from the sun is trapped by chlorophyll in the chloroplast and converted into chemical energy. This energy splits water molecules into hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms a process is called photolysis. The oxygen atoms are released as aby product or used up in the process of respiration. The hydrogen ions formed are used in the dark stage of photosynthesis. Water hydrogen ions + oxygen atoms 2H2O 4H+ + o2 g Some of the light enrgy is used to combine a molecule called adenosine diphosphate(ADP) with a phosphate group to form the rich energy molecules called adenosine Tri-Phosphate(ATP) ADP + P ATP **Dark reaction stage** Its also called the light independent stage of photosynthesis since light is not required because it can take place both in presence and absence of light. the reactions are controlled by enzymes. the hydrogen atoms released in the light stage are combined with carbon(iv)oxide to form simple sugars mainly glucose. The process uses energy from ATP. This is reffered to as carbon (iv) oxide fixation. The reactions take place in the stroma of chloroplast. The excess glucose is converted into starch or lipids for storage. The general process of photosynthesis can be summarized by the following word and chemical equitions. Water + carbon (iv) oxide light & chlorophyll glucose + oxygen 6H2o + 6co2 C6H12O6 + 6O2 **9.) Factors that cause high rate of photosynthesis.** High water availability in the soil. Water a raw material for photosynthesis is split in presence of light to provide the hydrogen ions required in carbon (iv) fixation. When water is readily available more hydrogen ions are produced hence high rate of photosynthesis. High light intensity. Light splits water molecules to hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms. Increasing light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis up to a certain level beyond which other factors become limiting and rate of photosynthesis becomes constant. rate <br><br> of photosynthesis Day length. Long day length especially at high latitudes (temperate regions) provides more light for photosynthesis causing an increase in the rate of photosynthesis. Light quality. The preferred wavelengths for photosynthesis range between 400nm-700nm. the rate of photosynthesis is higher in red and blue light and lower in all other types of light. Concentration of carbon (iv) oxide. Its a raw material required to combine with hydrogen ions to form simple carbohydrate molecules. Increasing the concentration of carbon (iv) oxide increases the rate of photosynthesis up to an optimum level beyond which other factors limit the rate of photosynthesis. **f) Give the differences between the light and dark reactions** **during photosynthesis** **Light reactions** **Dark reactions**<br><br> occurs in grana **h.)** substances which make up cells, tissues and organs of the <br><br> occurs in stroma <br><br>**a) i) What are chemicals of life?**<br><br>living system <br><br> they combine to form organic compounds <br><br>**ii) What are organic compounds?**<br><br> compounds that contain the element carbon **iii) List the organic compounds** proteins carbohydrates lipids(fats and oils) vitamins enzymes nucleic acids(DNA and RNA) <br><br>**b) i) What are carbohydrates?** - Compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen - The elements are in the ratio of I carbon: 2 hydrogen: 1 oxygen **ii) Name the groups of carbohydrates**<br><br> monosaccharides (simple carbohydrates) e.g. glucose, <br><br>fructose and galactose <br><br> disaccharides ( formed when two monosaccharides <br><br>combine) e.g. maltose, sucrose, lactose <br><br> polysaccharides (composed of many monosaccharides and <br><br>disaccharides) e.g. starch, glycogen, cellulose <br><br>**iv) State the general functions of carbohydrates** production of chemical energy storage of starch(plants) and glycogen (animals) commercial uses e.g. manufacture of paper, textiles **c) i) what are proteins?**<br><br> compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and in addition nitrogen, and sometimes sulphur and or phosphorus <br><br> building blocks are called amino acids <br><br>**ii) Name the types of amino acids**<br><br> essential amino acids which must be supplied in food since <br><br>they body cannot synthesize them <br><br> Non-essential amino acids which body can synthesize. **iv) State the classes of proteins** first class proteins which supply all the essential amino <br><br>acids <br><br> second class proteins which lack at least one amino acid **v) Give the functions of proteins** structural compounds e.g. muscles, hair, hooves, and <br><br>feathers <br><br> as enzymes e.g. pepsin, trypsin hormones e.g. insulin and glucagons antibodies part of haemoglobin molecule actin and myosin in muscles collagen in bones and cartilage pigments in rods and cones for coordination components of blood i.e. plasma proteins <br><br>**d ) i) What are lipids** - Fats and oils - They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen - However, they contain a higher proportion of carbon and hydrogen but less oxygen that in carbohydrates **ii) Name the types of lipids** oils(liquid under room temperature) fats (solid under room temperature) **iii) What are the building blocks of lipids?**<br><br> fatty acids and glycerol **v) State the functions of lipids** production of energy source of metabolic water structural compound **e) i) What are enzymes?**<br><br> a chemical compound, protein in nature, which acts as a <br><br>biological catalyst <br><br>**ii) State the properties of enzymes** are highly specific in nature they are not used up during chemical reactions work within specific range of temperature work within specific range of pH enzyme controlled reactions are reversible **iii) State the factors that affect enzyme action**<br><br> temperature substrate concentration pH of the medium enzyme concentration presence of inhibitors and co-factors **v) Name the types of enzyme inhibitors** competitive inhibitors non- competitive inhibitors **vi) What are the functions of enzymes?** enable cellular reactions to take place at a reasonably faster <br><br>rate <br><br> Control cell reactions therefore no violent incidences occur <br><br>in cells that might burn them. <br><br>**i.) a) Explain the various types of heterotrophic nutrition** **i) Holozoic** Mode of feeding by animals where solid complex food <br><br>substances are ingested, digested and egested. <br><br>**ii) Saprophytism** feeding on dead organic matter **iii) Parasitism** feeding from another organism but not killing it **iv) Symbiosis** an association in which organisms of different species <br><br>derive mutual benefit from one another <br><br>**b) Differentiate between omnivorous, carnivorous and** **herbivorous modes of nutrition** **i) Herbivorous** herbivores feed exclusively on vegetation **ii) Omnivorous** omnivores are animals which feed partially on plant <br><br>materials and partially on flesh e.g pigs <br><br>**iii) Carnivorous** Carnivores feed on flesh alone e.g. lion <br><br>**c) i) What is dentition?**<br><br> Refers to the number, arrangement and kind of teeth in an <br><br>animal **ii) Distinguish between the terms homodont and heterodont** homodont have same kind , type, shape and size of teeth which perform similar function e.g. fish, reptiles and amphibians <br><br> Heterodont have different kind, type, shape and size of <br><br>teeth which perform different functions as those found in mammals. <br><br>**iv) Name the types of teeth found in mammals** Incisors Canines Pre-molars Molars <br><br>**d) Describe the adaptations and functions of various types of** **mammalian teeth**<br><br><br><br>**Incisors** chisel shaped/wedge shaped found in the front of the <br><br>buccal cavity used for cutting **i) Canines** next to incisors very sharp and pointed located at the sides of jaws used for tearing food **ii) Premolars** next to canines but before <br><br>molars <br><br> have cusps and ridges on <br><br>their surface <br><br> used for crushing and grinding **iii) Molars** found at the back of the jaw have cusps and ridges on their surface absent in young mammals but appear later when permanent <br><br>teeth grow <br><br> used for grinding and crushing <br><br>**e) i)Draw a labeled diagram to represent internal structure** **of a mammalian tooth.**<br><br>252 **ii) State the functions of the labeled structures labeled** **Dentine**<br><br> main constituent of teeth like bone in structure but contains no cells <br><br>**Enamel**<br><br> protects tooth from mechanical/physical injury the hard covering of the exposed part of teeth <br><br>**Crown**<br><br> portion of tooth above the gum covered with dentine <br><br>**Root**<br><br> part imbedded in the jaw below the gum covered by substances called cement cement is hard and bone-like <br><br>**Cement**<br><br> bone-like substance covering root and enamel of <br><br>mammalian tooth <br><br>**Neck**<br><br> region at the same level with the gum forms a junction between the crown and root covered by enamel <br><br>**Pulp cavity**<br><br> at centre of tooth within dentine has blood vessels for transporting nutrients/food and gases has nerves for sensitivity **f) i) What is dental formula?**<br><br> formula indicating the number of each kind of teeth for a <br><br>given species of mammal only half the jaw is included the number in the upper jaw of one side is written above <br><br>that in the lower jaw of one side <br><br> the categories of teeth are given in the order incisors, <br><br> herbivore e.g. sheep I 0 Omnivore e.g. human I . c1 <br><br>/3, c 0 <br><br>/1, pm , m3/3 = 30 /3 = 32 /1, pm2/2, m 3 <br><br>**iii) How would one use dental formula to identify the** **following?** **Herbivores**<br><br> presence of diastema/gap between incisors and premolars free movement of tongue absence of incisors in upper jaw absence of canines presence of hard pad closely packed molars <br><br><br><br>**Carnivore**<br><br> presence of canines presence of carnassial teeth presence of incisors in upper jaw/absence of diastema/gap <br><br>between incisor and premolar <br><br>**iv) State the functions of the following structures in**<br><br>**mammals**<br><br>**Carnassials**<br><br> tearing flesh from bones <br><br>Pad of gum <br><br> provides grasping surface for lower incisors <br><br>**g) Name the common dental diseases**<br><br> dental caries periodontal (pyorrhea and gingivitis) **j.) a) i) What is digestion?** breakdown of complex food particles by enzymes to simple <br><br>substances which can be absorbed <br><br>**ii) Explain the types of digestion** **Intercellular**<br><br>254 Digestion that takes place in food vacuoles inside cells. <br><br>**Extra cellular**<br><br> digestion that takes place outside cells e.g. in the digestive <br><br>tract <br><br>**b) i) Draw human digestive system**<br><br><br><br>255 <br><br>**ii) Describe the process of digestion in the various parts of** **the human digestive system** **Mouth**<br><br> contains teeth for chewing has tongue for mixing food with saliva has salivary glands for chemical digestion, secretion of <br><br>enzymes and mucus secretion <br><br> starch is acted on by salivary amylase enzymes to produce <br><br>maltose <br><br> the tongue rolls food into a bolus which is carried into the <br><br>stomach by peristalsis <br><br> peristalsis is movement of food along the gut by waves of <br><br>contraction <br><br> it facilitates rapid digestion due to its mixing action <br><br>**Oesophagus**<br><br> also called gullet <br><br>256 forms a passage for food by peristalsis connects the mouth to the stomach <br><br>**Stomach**<br><br> has gastric glands which secrete gastric juices these juices contain hydrochloric acid(HCL), mucus, and <br><br>the enzymes pepsin, rennin and lipase <br><br> HCL produces an acidic medium for enzyme action Proteins are acted upon by pepsin to produce peptides Caseinogen is acted upon by rennin to produce casein Fats are acted upon by lipase to produce fatty acids and <br><br>glycerol <br><br> Mucus lubricates the stomach and prevents autolysis of <br><br>stomach (mucus protects stomach) <br><br>**Duodenum**<br><br> the first u-shaped part of the small intestine food in the stomach is now in a semi-liquid form called <br><br>chime <br><br> chime leaves the stomach by peristalsis into the duodenum there, the liver produces bile pigments, bile salts and <br><br>sodium hydrogen carbonate <br><br> the stomach is usually alkaline to neutralize chime which is <br><br>acidic <br><br> bile salts emulsify fats bile comes from the gall bladder through the bile duct sodium hydrogen carbonate provides the correct pH/alkaline <br><br> pancreatic juices are released by pancreas into the <br><br>duodenum <br><br> the juices contain trypsin, chemotrypsin, amylase, lipase <br><br>and protease <br><br> proteins are acted upon by trypsin to form polypeptides and <br><br>amino acids <br><br> starch is broken down to maltose by amylase <br><br>**Ileum** - produces intestinal juices - Intestinal juice contains maltase, sucrase, lactase, erepsin, lipase, and several other peptidases - Maltose is broken down to glucose and galactose by lactase - Sucrose is acted upon by sucrase to glucose Polypeptides are broken down into amino acids by erepsin - Mucus secretion is to protect the ileum wall from digestion/autolysis **Colon** - Commonly called the large intestine - Wider than the ileum - has several mucus-producing cells Highly folded for water absorption - Also prepares food for egestion - egestion is the process by which the insoluble parts of food are discharged from the body in form of faeces. **Rectum** - Muscular and enlarged - it produces mucus - used for storage and removal of faeces **Anus** - found at the exterior end of the rectum The rectum opens into the anus - The anus has anal sphincter to control egestion - Anus is used for egestion of faeces **c) Explain how mammalian intestines are adapted to** **perform their function** - The mammalian intestines are relatively long and coiled. This allows food enough time and increases surface area for digestion and absorption of products of digestion - The intestinal lumen (inner wall) has projections called villi to increase surface area for absorption - The villi have projections called micro-villi which lead to further increase of surface area for absorption - The walls have glands which secrete enzymes for digestion e.g. maltase, sucrase, lactase, peptidase and enterokinase. - Goblet cells (mucus secreting cells or glands) produce mucus which protects the intestinal wall from being digested and reduces friction. - Intestines have openings of ducts which allow bile, a pancreatic juice into the lumen - The intestines have circular and longitudinal muscles whose contraction and relaxation (peristalsis) leads to mixing of food with enzymes (juices) helps push food along the gut. - The intestines are well supplied with blood vessels that supply oxygen and remove digested food. - Intestines have lacteal vessels for transport of lipids (fats and oils) - Intestines have thin epithelium to facilitate fast/rapid absorption/diffusion **d) What is the function of hydrochloric acid in digestion?** - kills bacteria - activates trypsinogen to trypsin which digests proteins to peptones and peptones to soluble amino acids - provides acidic medium for gastric enzymes **e) i) What is assimilation?** - The process by which digested food is taken up by cells and used in the body for various purposes. **ii) State the uses of digested food in the bodies of animals** - Protection - Repair - Growth - Energy production **f) Name the types of food substances in the food that do not** **undergo digestion in human digestive system**<br><br> mineral salts water roughage vitamins **k.)** **Explain the importance of the following food**<br><br>**substances in human nutrition**<br><br>**Vitamins** are organic chemical compounds essential for a healthy <br><br>body <br><br> are obtained from fresh fruits and vegetables some are synthesized in the body e.g. vitamin K they are destroyed by overcooking food they protect the body against diseases, play regulatory <br><br>mechanisms in the body and act as co-enzymes <br><br> insufficient amounts lead to deficiency diseases e.g. rickets, <br><br>scurvy, beriberi **a) Mineral salts** are important in organic compounds containing elements <br><br>which are essential for normal body metabolism <br><br> those required in large quantities are called macro-nutrients while those required in small quantities are called micro- nutrients or trace elements <br><br> They are used in bone and teeth formation. In osmotic <br><br>balance and neurotransmission <br><br> insufficient amounts lead to anaemia, rickets, goiter Excess amounts lead to high blood pressure, and dental <br><br>disorders. **b) Roughage** composed of cellulose and plant fibers digested by cellulose contained by gut microorganisms provides grip essential for peristalsis lack of roughage leads to slow movement of food leading <br><br>to constipation <br><br> roughage adds bulk to food for peristalsis to take place **c) Water** used in transport in the body, universal solvent, hydrolysis insufficient leads to dehydration **l.) Explain the factors that determine energy requirements**<br><br>**in humans**<br><br>**a) Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)** this is the energy required when the body is completely at <br><br>rest <br><br> used to carry out breathing, heartbeat, circulation of blood <br><br>and other basic reactions <br><br> also used in maintaining body temperature at constant all movements or physical work e.g. walking, eating <br><br>required more energy. <br><br>**b) Occupation** means activity occurring everyday everyday activity determines energy requirement People doing heavy work like digging require more energy <br><br>than office workers. <br><br>**c) Age** children carry out many activities and also have more cell <br><br>division than adults <br><br> their BMR is therefore higher than for adults as they grow older, they become less active and their energy requirements decrease <br><br>**d) Body size** small bodied people have a large surface area to volume <br><br>ratio <br><br> their bodies lose more heat energy to the surrounding they therefore require more energy-giving foods this is the opposite for big bodied people **e) Sex** most males are more muscular than females they also do heavier work than females hence require more <br><br>energy <br><br> females do lighter work hence require less energy **f) Climate** Observation Conclusion - colour changes to blue black/dark blue - colour changes to Green to yellow to orange to brown to red - colour changes to Green to yellow to orange to brown to red -- colour changes to purple/violet DCPIP decolorized - translucent mark - white emulsions <br><br>Present <br><br>Present <br><br>Present **FORM TWO TOPICS**<br><br>**1. a) i) Define transport**<br><br> movement of substances from one part of the body to <br><br>another <br><br>**ii) Explain the necessity of transport in plants and animals** make nutrients move from one point to another movement of respiratory gases i.e. oxygen and carbon IV <br><br>oxide <br><br> elimination of metabolic wastes <br><br> movement of hormones movement of water movement of salts movement of enzymes <br><br>**b) i) Describe the structure and function of root hair**<br><br> root hairs are found near the root tip they are cells with elongated finger-like projections which <br><br>are in contact with soil particles <br><br> they are permeable to water and mineral salts hence are <br><br>used to absorb water and mineral salts <br><br> There large number offers a large surface area for <br><br>absorption of water and mineral salts. <br><br>**ii) State ways in which the root hairs are adapted to their** **functions**<br><br> the root hair is long/narrow/numerous to increase surface <br><br>area for absorption of water and mineral salts <br><br> many mitochondria in cytoplasm to supply energy for <br><br>active transport of mineral salts <br><br> are thin walled to speed up rate of absorption of water and <br><br>mineral salts <br><br>**c) i) Compare the internal structure of a dicotyledonous root** **and a monocotyledonous root** **Dicot root**<br><br><br><br>**Monocot root**<br><br>**ii) State the similarities and differences between a** **dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous root** **Similarities**<br><br>262 both used for anchorage and absorption of water and <br><br>mineral salts <br><br> both have root hairs, epidermis, pericycle, cortex, <br><br>endodermis and vascular bundles (xylem and phloem) <br><br> both may be used to store food/storage organs <br><br>**Differences** Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous <br><br> phloem and xylem are arranged in ring form alternately pith present <br><br> phloem lies between radial rays of central xylem(star shaped) <br><br> pith absent <br><br>i**ii) Compare the internal structure of a monocotyledonous** **and dicotyledonous stem** Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous <br><br><br><br>**v) Give the similarities and differences between a** **monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous stem**<br><br>**Similarities**<br><br> both are used for protection both conduct water, salts and food both have epidermis, cortex, pericycle and vascular bundles <br><br>**Differences** Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous <br><br> vascular bundles are many and scattered some have hollow pith <br><br> vascular bundles are few and arranged in a concentric ring near the epidermis <br><br>or pith is absent no cambium layer therefore cannot undergo secondary growth <br><br> pith large and well <br><br>developed <br><br> presence of cambium therefore undergoes secondary growth cortex has several layers of cells <br><br> very little cortex <br><br>263 has root hairs no cuticle xylem and phloem no root hairs cuticle present xylem and phloem <br><br>arranged alternately in xylem, the small arranged on the same radii <br><br> in xylem, the smallest vessels are towards the inside <br><br>vessels are towards the outside <br><br> cortex is the widest <br><br> pith is the widest tissue c**) i) Name the transport structures of a flowering plant**<br><br>tissue <br><br> xylem vessels and tracheids transport water and mineral <br><br>salts from the soil <br><br> Phloem vessels translocate manufactured food from leaves <br><br>to other parts of the body. <br><br>**ii) State the ways in which xylem vessels are adapted to their** **function**<br><br> lignified/thickened to prevent collapsing narrow to facilitate capillary no cross walls for continuous flow/column of water have bordered pits for lateral movement of water **d) i) Why do flowering plants need water?** photosynthesis transport turgidity which helps in plant support solvent i.e. medium for chemical reactions cooling effect during transpiration seed germination <br><br>**ii) Describe the movement of water from the soil to the** **leaves of a tall plant** Soil <br><br> water exists as a thin film in the soil, between soil particles the concentration of cell sap of root hair is greater than that of the surrounding solution in the soil, thus drawing the water molecules across the cell wall and cell membrane into the root hair by osmosis <br><br> water drawn into the root hair cell dilutes the cell sap <br><br>making it less concentrated than that in the adjacent cortex cells of the root due to osmotic gradient water moves from the root hair cells into the cortex by osmosis, from cell to cell by osmosis, across the endodermis by active transport into xylem vessels of the root that conduct water into xylem vessels of the stem into xylem vessels of the leaves <br><br>Stem <br><br> Once in the stem water moves up the plant aided by the <br><br>narrowness of the xylem vessels (capillary), root pressure, attraction of water molecules to each other (cohesion). Attraction of water molecules to the walls (adhesion) <br><br> from the stem water enters the xylem of leaves water moves in the xylem vessels of the stem in a <br><br>continuous (uninterrupted) water column up to the tree leaves <br><br>Leaves <br><br> once in the leaves water moves into the mesophyll cells by <br><br>osmosis <br><br> as water vaporizes from the spongy mesophyll cells their sap becomes more concentrated than the adjacent cells <br><br> as the result water flows into the cell from other <br><br>surrounding cells which in turn takes in water from xylem vessels within the leaf veins this creates a pull(suction force) called transpiration pull <br><br>that pulls a stream of water from xylem vessels in the stem and roots <br><br> The transpiration pull maintains a continuous column of <br><br>water from the roots to the leaves. <br><br>**iii) Name the process by which mineral salts enter into a** **plant**<br><br> active transport diffusion **vi) Explain the forces that make water and mineral salts**<br><br>**move through a plant**<br><br> mineral salts are taken up due to diffusion because of the <br><br>concentration gradient between the mineral ions in sap and those in soil solution <br><br> active transport involves energy in form of ATP due to respiration which forces mineral salts through a plant against a concentration gradient <br><br> water moves by osmosis through a semi-permeable membrane of root hairs and between cells of stem <br><br> in stem water moves by cohesion(attraction of water <br><br>molecules to each other) <br><br> it also moves by adhesion(attraction of water molecules to <br><br>walls) <br><br> capillarity is due to narrowness of xylem vessels transpiration pull occurs when water vapour evaporates <br><br>from sub-stomatal chambers into the air <br><br> root pressure is a force that pushes water up the stem from <br><br>the roots and causes guttation /exudation <br><br>**vii) Explain the uptake of mineral salts by plants** plants require mineral salts for metabolism and proper <br><br>functioning of their bodies <br><br> mineral salts are taken up from the soil into the root hairs in form of solution by active transport which requires energy active transport involves substances called carriers taken up together with water and are then carried to the stems and leaves <br><br> the main process involved in uptake and movement of <br><br>mineral salts is active transport <br><br>**e) i) What is transpiration?** loss of water from plant to the atmosphere <br><br>**ii) Name the sites through which transpiration takes place in** **a plant**<br><br> stomata (stomatal transpiration) lenticels (lenticular transpiration) cuticle(cuticular transpiration) **iii) State the importance of transpiration to plants**<br><br> cooling the plant transport of water transport of mineral salts excretion of excess water from plants excess transpiration causes wilting **v) Explain the structural factors that affect the rate of**<br><br>**transpiration in plants**<br><br> number of stomata i.e. the more the stomata the higher the <br><br>rate and vice versa <br><br> turgidity of the guard cells which control the opening and closing of stomata when they are open transpiration rate is high <br><br> size of leaves where the larger the surface area the higher <br><br>the rate of transpiration leaf fall leads to lower rate of transpiration and also drying <br><br>of leaves reduces rate of transpiration <br><br> Thin cuticle reduces distance through which water <br><br>vaporizes hence increase transpiration rate. Absence of cuticle also increase rate of transpiration <br><br>**vi) explain the environmental factors that affect rate of**<br><br>**transpiration in plants**<br><br> high temperature increases rate of transpiration and low <br><br>temperature reduces the rate <br><br> humidity when high increases rate and when low reduces <br><br>the rate <br><br> transpiration rate is higher in moving air (wind) than in still <br><br>air <br><br> high light intensity increases internal temperature hence <br><br>higher rate of evaporation leading to higher rate of transpiration <br><br> availability of water in the soil leads to more absorption <br><br>hence more loss to the atmosphere <br><br> atmospheric pressure when high leads to more evaporation <br><br>and when low leads to low rate evaporation of water <br><br>**vii) State the structural differences between xylem vessels**<br><br>**and sieve tubes**<br><br> sieve tubes have cross wall while xylem vessels have none xylem vessels are lignified while sieve tubes are not Sieve tubes have cytoplasm elements while xylem vessels <br><br>have none. <br><br>**viii) State the adaptations of plants which enable them to** **reduce water loss**<br><br> thick waxy cuticle reduced leaf size/thorns/spines shedding of leaves Sunken stomata. Water vapour accumulates in the depression of stomata lowering the water vapour concentration gradient leading to lower rate of evaporation <br><br> rolling of leaves **ix) State the factors that cause increase in the rate of**<br><br>**transpiration from leaves**<br><br> increased light intensity low relative humidity temperature **x) Explain how drooping of leaves on a hot sunny day is**<br><br>**advantageous to a plant** reduces surface area exposed to sun reducing cuticular <br><br>transpiration <br><br>**f) Explain how aquatic and terrestrial plants are adapted**<br><br>**to deal with problems of transpiration**<br><br>a. Mesophytes <br><br> they grow in soils with enough water water loss is perfectly balanced by absorption of more from <br><br>the soil <br><br> no special adaptations b. Xerophytes <br><br> they grow in dry conditions root grow very deep to absorb water succulent/fleshy leaves to store water few stomata which are sunken thickened waxy cuticle leaves are hairy and often folding some leaves are needle-like/spines or scales leaf surfaces are reduced i.e. small leaves all these adaptations are to reduce water loss <br><br>c. Hydrophytes <br><br> plants that grow in water presence of sclereids leaves are broad leaves have many stomata on upper side only (none on the <br><br>lower surface) <br><br> some leaves float on water absence or reduced leaf cuticle large air spaces some leaves are submerged poorly developed or reduced vascular bundles **g) i) What is translocation** transfer of manufactured food substances to the parts where they are required <br><br>ii)**Name the tissue which is responsible for translocation of** **manufactured food in flowering plants**<br><br> phloem tissue <br><br>**iii) Name the processes that bring about the translocation of** **manufactured food** -active transport Diffusion Mass flow Cytoplasmic streaming **iv) Draw a labeled diagram to represent phloem tissue**<br><br><br><br>**vi) State the functions of the labeled structures**<br><br>**cytoplasmic strands**<br><br> translocation **Companion cell**<br><br> supply nutrients to sieve tube element supply energy for translocation regulates activities of tube cells/elements <br><br>**Sieve tubes element**<br><br> conduct food down the stem **vii) name the compounds that are translocated in phloem** sugars amino acids hormones e.g auxins oils/lipids resins vitamins **Describe an experiment you would carry out in order to** **demon-strate that phloem transports manufactured food** **substances in a plant** a. Ringing experiment cut a ring in the bark including the phloem from the stem of <br><br>a woody plant <br><br> phloem is found next to or just beneath the bark observe daily for some time(more than three weeks) a swelling of the bark appears above the ring this is due to accumulation of food from leaves <br><br>269 the bark of a second similar plant is removed carefully <br><br>leaving the phloem intact a swelling does not appear **ii) Use the radioactive tracers**<br><br> plant is exposed to carbon containing radio-active carbon <br><br>C14 <br><br> C14 is found in the end products of photosynthesis It is finally detected in phloem C14 is found to move in both directions **iii) Collecting exudate from stylets of aphids**<br><br> aphids feed on certain plant phloem using their stylets aphid mouthparts are dissected using a sharp razor exudates from the mouthparts are collected and then <br><br>analyzed <br><br> sucrose is found to be a major component of the exudates this proves that phloem translocates manufactured food <br><br>substances <br><br>**h) Describe an experiment you would carry out to**<br><br>**demonstrate that xylem transports water**<br><br>i. Either cut a stem of a young plant or twig of a tree under water or else uproot a young herbaceous plant and wash the soil <br><br>gently <br><br> put some water in a beaker and add a dye i.e. eosin or red ink and place the cut stem or young plant in a beaker leave for time e.g. between 20 minutes and one hour cut a thin section of stem or leaf mount it on a slide and examine under a microscope observe and note the distribution of the dye or ink the dye appears only in the xylem vessels ii. OR use radio-active tracers, C14 in form of carbon ring a plant then put it in a container containing radio- active phosphorous solution <br><br> The radio-active phosphorus is later detected in the leaves. **2. a) i)List the components of animal transport**<br><br>**systems**<br><br> system of blood vessels in which materials are circulated <br><br>round the body <br><br> blood, a fluid medium which contains dissolved substances <br><br>and cells the heart, a pumping mechanism which keeps blood in <br><br>circulation <br><br>**ii) Distinguish between closed and open circulatory systems** closed system has blood vessels through which blood <br><br>moves eg vertebrates <br><br> open system has no blood vessels hence blood is in direct <br><br>contact with tissues e.g arthropoda <br><br>**iii) What are the advantages of the closed circulatory** **system over open circulatory system?** Closed system has continuous vessels hence able to <br><br>generate high pressure <br><br> Circulates blood over longer distance Circulates blood at a faster rate Efficient transport of nutrients and waste products Animals are more active <br><br>**iv) Distinguish between single circulatory system and double** **circulatory system** **Single circulatory**<br><br> blood passes through the heart once in a complete circuit of <br><br>the body **Double circulation** -blood enters the heart twice in a complete circulation - Pulmonary circulation from the heart to lungs and back - Systemic circulation from the heart to body systems and back **b) i) describe the general layout of the transport system in** **mammals**<br><br> blood which is a fluid tissue of the body carrying food <br><br>substances, oxygen, carbon IV oxide and metabolic wastes arteries which are elastic tubes carrying blood from the <br><br>heart to cells <br><br> veins which are blood vessels carrying blood away from <br><br>the cells to the heart <br><br> capillaries which are extremely numerous and are microscopic channels connecting arteries to veins **ii) Describe the structure and function of the mammalian** **heart**<br><br> the heart is a four-chambered hollow muscle located in the <br><br>thoracic cavity <br><br> it consists of two small receiving chambers, the <br><br>atria(auricles) and two larger pumping chambers, the auricles <br><br>272 <br><br> the left ventricles is the most powerful and has the thickest <br><br>walls <br><br> this is because it is the chamber which pumps blood <br><br>throughout the body <br><br> each time it contracts, blood is forced out into the elastic <br><br>arteries(aorta) <br><br> blood moves on to the capillaries from capillaries blood moves to veins and back to the heart <br><br>through the vena cava <br><br>273 from vena cava it enters into right auricle which contracts <br><br>and pumps blood into the right ventricle <br><br> right ventricle pumps blood into the lungs through the <br><br>pulmonary artery <br><br> blood releases carbon IV oxide to lungs and picks oxygen <br><br>then returns to left auricle <br><br> left auricle pumps blood into left ventricle left ventricle then pumps blood into the aorta and into <br><br>arteries, starting the process all over again <br><br> both auricles contract simultaneously while both **iii) Explain how the mammalian heart is adapted to** **performing its functions**<br><br> the heart is made of muscles that contract and relax <br><br>synchronously without requiring nervous stimulation <br><br> nerve supply however, determine contraction strength and <br><br>frequency <br><br> the heart is divided into four chambers The right atrium is connected to the right auricle. It <br><br>receives blood from the whole body. <br><br> The blood is pumped from the left atrium to the right <br><br>ventricle <br><br> To avoid flow back into the right atrium, a valve is present <br><br>between the two chambers the tricuspid valve <br><br> The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs This is facilitated by the presence of pulmonary artery A valve is also present to avoid blood flowing back from the pulmonary artery to the right ventricle <br><br> Blood from the lungs enters the heart through the <br><br>pulmonary vein into the left atrium. <br><br> When the left atrium contracts, blood flows into the left <br><br>ventricle <br><br> Blood will not flow back into the left atrium because of the <br><br>presence of bicuspid valve(mitral) <br><br> The left ventricle is connected with the aorta and when it <br><br>contracts, blood flows into the aorta for distribution into the whole body <br><br> The heart muscle surrounding the left ventricle is thicker than that surrounding the right ventricle to be able to generate enough pressure to push blood to the whole body A pace-maker is present in the heart muscle to initiate and <br><br>synchronise contractions. For the heart muscle to be well nourished and be provided with enough oxygen and carbon IV oxide removal, it is supplied with blood by the coronary arteries and drained by the coronary veins <br><br>**iv) Explain why blood leaving the lungs may not be fully** **oxygenated**<br><br> under ventilation of the lungs blockage of alveoli (air sacs) high cardiac frequency i.e. high rate of pumping of blood in <br><br>the heart <br><br>**e) Describe the structure and functions of the blood vessels**<br><br>**i. Arteries** carry away blood from the heart carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery which <br><br>takes blood from the heart to lungs for oxygen <br><br> have thick, muscular walls are elastic have narrow lumen all these adaptations are required to withstand high pressure <br><br>caused by heartbeat <br><br>**ii. Capillaries** link arterioles and venules to arteries and veins small in diameter to increase pressure resistance for <br><br>materials to filter out <br><br> thin walled as they consist of a single layer of cells to allow <br><br>diffusion of substances e.g leucocytes to tissues thin walled to allow presence of intercellular spaces large number i.e. numerous to provide a large surface area for exchange of materials <br><br> have sphincter muscles at the junction of the arterioles and <br><br>capillaries to control movement of blood into them lie close to the body for easy exchange of materials **iii. Veins** carry blood back to the heart all carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary vein that <br><br>carries blood from the heart to lungs <br><br> have thinner walls than arteries have valves to prevent backflow of blood have wide lumen **g) i) State the ways in which the composition of blood in**<br><br>**the pulmonary arterioles differs from that in the** **pulmonary venules** Pulmonary arterioles deoxygenated high carbon IV oxide low oxygen more nutrients <br><br>**ii) Give the reasons why pressure of blood is greater in the** **arterioles than I the veins of mammals**<br><br> blood is pumped to the arteries by the heart at high pressure blood pressure in veins is reduced by capillary resistance arteries have narrow lumen which maintains high <br><br>pressure/veins have wide lumen which reduces pressure arteries have more/thicker muscular walls which generate pressure/veins have less/thinner muscular walls which reduce pressure <br><br>**iii) Name the common heart diseases in humans**<br><br> thrombosis antheroma arteriosclerosis varicose veins cerebral vascular thrombosis **h) i) State the functions of mammalian blood** transport of substances defense against diseases clotting temperature regulation <br><br>**ii) Describe how mammalian blood components carry out** **their functions** **Plasma**<br><br> transport dissolved food substances like glucose, amino <br><br>acids, fatty acids and glycerol from small intestines to liver and other body tissues <br><br> transports hormones, enzymes from secretory glands to tissues when required <br><br> transports carbon IV oxide to lungs and urea from tissues to <br><br>the kidneys distributes heat bathes the tissues allowing for exchange of materials contains protein fibrinogen and pro-thrombin which take <br><br>part in blood clotting **Red blood cells (Erythrocytes)**<br><br> transports oxygen from the lungs to body tissues in form of <br><br>haemoglobin transport carbon IV oxide from body tissues to the lungs in <br><br>form of bicarbonates **White blood cells (leucocytes)**<br><br> engulf foreign bodies produce antibodies for defense against disease produce antitoxins which neutralize bacterial toxins <br><br>**Blood platelets (thrombocytes)**<br><br> produce an enzyme called thrombokinase/thromboplastin <br><br>necessary for blood clotting <br><br> prevents loss of blood, water and mineral salts <br><br>**iii) State the ways in which the red blood cells are adapted to** **their functions**<br><br> many per unit volume hence carry more oxygen and carbon <br><br>IV oxide <br><br> biconcave in shape to provide large surface area for <br><br>absorption of oxygen and carbon IV oxide <br><br> absence of nucleolus hence more haemoglobin to carry <br><br>sufficient oxygen and carbon IV oxide <br><br> alter shape to be able to pass through the narrow lumen of capillaries to deliver or supply oxygen and carry away carbon IV oxide <br><br> have haemoglobin with high affinity for uptake of oxygen <br><br>and carbon IV oxide <br><br>**iv) State the structural differences between a red blood cell** **and a white blood cell.** Red blood cells white blood cells **Explain how oxygen and carbon Iv oxide are transported in** **the blood** **Oxygen**<br><br> oxygen concentration is higher in lungs(alveoli) that in <br><br>blood <br><br> oxygen in the alveoli dissolves in the film of moisture and diffuses through thin epithelial and capillary walls into plasma and red blood cells <br><br> the oxygen combines with haemoglobin to form <br><br>oxyhaemoglobin <br><br> blood then becomes oxygenated blood from lungs then travels to all body tissues where the <br><br>oxyhaemoglobin breaks down to form oxygen and haemoglobin <br><br> haemoglobin is transported back to the lungs to collect <br><br>more oxygen while the oxygen in capillaries diffuses into body cells for respiration <br><br> respiration produces carbon IV oxide <br><br>**Carbon IV oxide**<br><br> carbon IV oxide produced during respiration diffuses out of <br><br>cells into blood plasma and red blood cells due to concentration gradient <br><br> carbon IV oxide and water form carbonic acid carbamino <br><br>compounds with haemoglobin <br><br> in the presence of carboxyl anhydrase enzyme, hydrogen <br><br>carbonate is carried in blood to the lungs <br><br> in the lungs the hydrogen carbonate dissociates to liberate carbon IV oxide which diffuses into alveolar cavity due to concentration gradient <br><br> from alveolar space carbon IV oxide is expelled during <br><br>expiration <br><br>**Most carbon IV oxide is transported from tissues to lungs** **within the red blood cells and not in the blood plasma. Give** **the advantages of this mode of transport.**<br><br>- PH of blood is not altered/homeostasis is maintained - Within the red blood cell is an enzyme, carbonic anhyrase which helps in fast loading(combining) and offloading of carbon Iv oxide **i) i) what is blood clotting?** process in which blood components clump together to <br><br>prevent loss of blood from an injured/cut vessel **ii) Name a protein, vitamin, an enzyme and a mineral** **element involved in blood clotting** Protein fibrinogen/prothrombin Vitamin - k/quinine Enzyme thrombokinase/thromboplatin/thrombin Mineral element calcium **iii) Describe the blood clotting process**<br><br> enzyme thromboplastin produced in the platelets of <br><br>damaged tissues converts plasma protein prothrombin into thrombin in the presence of calcium ions <br><br> thrombin converts another plasma protein fibrogen into <br><br>fibrin in the presence of vitamin K <br><br> fibrin is insoluble fibrin forms fibres which form a meshwork that forms a <br><br>clot <br><br> prothrombin thromboplastin thrombin <br><br>calcium ion <br><br>Fibrinogen thrombin fibrin clot <br><br>vitamin K <br><br>**iv) State the role of blood clotting on wounds** prevents blood/body fluids from being lost conserves water and salts prevents entry of microorganisms/pathogens regulates body temperature enables wound to heal faster <br><br>**v) Explain why blood flowing in blood vessels does not** **normally clot** - Presence of anticoagulant in blood **j) i. list the major types of human blood groups** O, with neither B nor A antigen AB, with both A and B antigens A, with type A antigen B, with type B antigen **iii. explain the meaning of :** **Universal donor** a person who can donate blood to any other blood group <br><br>without agglutination/clumping <br><br> this is usually blood group O however this person cannot receive blood from other blood <br><br>groups except group O <br><br>**Universal recipient** can receive blood from all blood groups without <br><br>agglutination <br><br> this is usually blood group AB however, can only donate blood to group AB <br><br>**iii) What is the difference between rhesus positive and** **Rhesus negative blood samples?**<br><br> rhesus positive blood has the Rhesus (Rh) antigen rhesus negative lacks the Rhesus antigen <br><br>**vi) What is blood transfusion?** - Introduction of blood from one person to another **v) Under what conditions would blood transfusion be** **necessary in people?** during accidents during surgery in hospitals bleeding mothers when giving birth **vi) How can low blood volume be brought back to** **normal?** transfusion taking fluids eating iron rich food/taking iron tablets **How may excessive bleeding result in death?** Anaemia/low blood volume/loss of iron/low red blood cells <br><br>count/low haemoglobin leading to low oxygen, loss of nutrients and dehydration. <br><br>**State the precautions that must be taken before blood** **transfusion** blood must be disease free sterilized equipment must be used blood of the recipient and that of the donor must b compatible to both ABO and rhesus factor <br><br> Fresh blood must be used. <br><br>**j) i) What is immunity?** - Resistance to disease by organisms **ii) Distinguish between natural and acquired immunity**<br><br> natural immunity is inherited/transmitted from parent to <br><br>offspring/inborn/innate <br><br> Acquired immunity is developed after suffering from a <br><br>disease or through vaccination. <br><br>**iii) What are allergic reactions?**<br><br> Excessive sensitivity and reaction of an individual to certain substances in environment e.g. dust, pollen, perfumes, smoke etc. **vi) How does an allergic reaction occur?** the substances act as antigens an antigen-antibody reaction occurs on surface of cells the cells release a substance called histamine the histamine causes irritation, itching and may stimulate <br><br>nasal discharge <br><br>**vii) State the role of vaccination against certain diseases**<br><br> protect body against infectious diseases prevent spread/transmission of certain diseases diseases for which vaccination is given include <br><br>tuberculosis, poliomylitis,measles, whooping cough, diphtheria <br><br>**3. a) i) What is gaseous exchange?**<br><br> The continous exchange of oxygen and carbon Iv oxide <br><br>between the organism and environment. <br><br>**ii) Why is gaseous exchange important to organisms?** to supply oxygen necessary for energy production to remove carbon IV oxide produced during respiration To remove water vapour. <br><br>**b) i) name the structure used for gaseous exchange by plants**<br><br> stomatal pores/stomata lenticels cuticle pneumatophores **ii) Briefly describe the structure of stomata** are minute pores found in leaf epidermis each consists of a slit-like opening Each is bordered by two large, bean-shaped guard cells. Guard cells contain chloroplasts, unlike the other epidermal <br><br>cells which enable photosynthesis to occur <br><br> Inner walls of guard cells are thicker than the outer cells <br><br>**iii) State the factors which affect stomatal opening**<br><br> water which when low stomata close and when high <br><br>stomata keeps open <br><br> light as stomata open in bright light and close in darkness temperature <br><br>**iv) Name the theories suggesting the mechanism of opening** **and closing of stomata**<br><br> interconversion of starch and sugar pH theory mineral ion concentration **v) Describe the mechanism of opening and closing of stomata**<br><br> stomata close at night and open during daytime This comes about due to changes in turgidity as a result of <br><br>pH changes in guard cells. <br><br> In the dark carbon Iv oxide accumulates in the intercellular <br><br>spaces <br><br> This raises concentration of carbonic acid The pH drops (pH lowered) Enzymes convert sugar into starch in guard cells Osmotic pressure in guard cells is lowered Water moves out of guard cells by osmosis making cells <br><br>lose turgidity hence become flaccid <br><br> The stomata close During day time there is photosynthesis hence the <br><br>production of sugar, carbon IV oxide concentration is lowered, pH increases, guard cells become turgid causing stomata to open. <br><br> During the day potassium ions concentrate in guard cells, raising their osmotic pressure and causes then to open In the night the concentration of potassium ions decreases increasing osmotic pressure in guard cells therefore causes stomata to open. <br><br>**vii) What is the advantage of having stomata open**<br><br>**during daytime and having them closed at night?** opening in the daytime allows diffusion of carbon IV into <br><br>the leaf for photosynthesis to take place and allows diffusion of oxygen out of the leaf <br><br> transpiration also takes place, thus cooling the leaf and <br><br>facilitating uptake of water and mineral slats <br><br> Closing in the night is to conserve water in the plant <br><br>especially when there is not enough water available in the soil. **c) i) State the ways in which leaves of plants are adapted to** **gaseous exchange**<br><br> presence of stomata for faster gaseous exchange intercellular spaces/air spaces in the leaf for <br><br>movement/circulation of air <br><br> film of moisture around the surface of cells for easy <br><br>diffusion <br><br> broad/flattened shape to increase surface area thin lamina to reduce distance of diffusion <br><br> exposed to air for easy diffusion <br><br>**ii) Describe how gaseous exchange takes place in terrestrial** **plants**<br><br> Gaseous exchange takes place in spongy mesophyll During the day air diffuses into large air spaces of spongy <br><br>mesophyll through stomata <br><br> The carbon iv oxide in the air diffuses into the <br><br>photosynthesis oxygen is produced <br><br> Some of the oxygen diffuses out of the leaf through stomata During the night air diffuses out of air spaces of spongy <br><br>mesophyll <br><br> The air dissolves into film of moisture The oxygen in the air diffuses into cells and is used in respiration during which carbon iv oxide is produced <br><br> The carbon iv oxide diffuses out of the leaf through stomata <br><br>due to diffusion/concentration gradient <br><br> At night carbon iv oxide accumulates in the leaf since <br><br>photosynthesis does not take place <br><br> Some gaseous exchange also takes place through cuticle Gaseous exchange occurs through epidermis of young <br><br>leaves and stems <br><br> The cork cells at lenticels are loosely packed Gaseous exchange takes place between cork and <br><br>atmosphere within the loosely packed cells **iii) State the ways in which floating leaves of aquatic**<br><br>**plants are adapted to gaseous exchange**<br><br> stomata found only on upper dermis to allow efficient <br><br>gaseous exchange <br><br> presence to aerenchyma tissues/large air spaces to enable it <br><br>float/buoyancy/storage of air <br><br> absence of cuticle to enhance gaseous exchange **iv) How is aerenchyma tissue adapted to its function?** has large airspaces which store gases/for gaseous <br><br>exchange/buoyancy <br><br>**v) Explain stomatal distribution in plants of different**<br><br>**habitats**<br><br> land plants have their stomata mainly on the lower side to reduce water loss but if on both sides then upper side has very few <br><br> water plants, floaters, have stomata on upper side to <br><br>enhance water loss in dry areas, plants have leaves with sunken stomata to <br><br>reduce water loss by transpiration <br><br> Plants in wet areas have stomata equally distributed on both <br><br>sides. <br><br>**d) i) List the types of respiratory surfaces of animals**<br><br> cell membrane in unicellular organisms e.g. amoeba gills in fish tracheal system skin, buccal cavity and lungs in amphibians lings in mammals <br><br>**ii) State the characteristics of respiratory surfaces in animals**<br><br> moist thin walled/thin membrane/thin surface Highly/richly vascularised/numerous blood vessels/well <br><br>supplied with blood vessels. <br><br> Large surface area <br><br>**iii) Describe gaseous exchange in protozoa**<br><br> example is amoeba small and have large surface area oxygen diffuses into the organism and carbon IV oxide <br><br>diffuses out into water <br><br> simple diffusion of gases is enough to meet its respiratory <br><br>requirements <br><br>**e) i) Make a labeled drawing of a fish gill**<br><br><br><br>**ii) How is a fish gill adapted to its function?** large surface area due to many filaments extensive vascularisation due to capillaries, for gaseous <br><br>exchange <br><br> thin filaments to facilitate diffusion of gases presence of rakers to filter solid particles gill bar is bony, hard and firm to support the filaments and <br><br>rakers and for attachment of filaments and rakers <br><br>**iii) Discuss gaseous exchange in bony fish**<br><br> example is tilapia <br><br>284 the mouth opens and the floor of the mouth is lowered so that the volume in the mouth is increased and pressure is lowered <br><br> water then enters into the mouth cavity the mouth is closed and the floor of the mouth raised so that <br><br>the volume is reduced <br><br> this raises the pressure, forcing water over gills and out <br><br>through the operculum <br><br> As water passes over the gills oxygen diffuses due to <br><br>concentration gradient (partial pressure) into the blood stream. <br><br> In the body tissues, carbon IV oxide diffuses into the blood (due to concentration gradient, and is transported to the gills and diffuses out into the water. <br><br>**iv) What is counter-flow system?**<br><br> Where water in which the fish lives flows in opposite <br><br>direction across the gill. <br><br>**vi) What is the advantage of counter-flow system?** maintains a diffusion gradient so that there is maximum <br><br>uptake of oxygen <br><br> oxygen continues diffusing into blood and carbon iv oxide <br><br>into water <br><br>**f) i) Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in** **terrestrial insects**<br><br> example is cockroach air in the atmosphere contains oxygen air is drawn into the body of the insect through the spiracles due to movement of abdominal muscles <br><br> these movements cause the opening of spiracles air moves through the trachea to tracheoles oxygen moves from the tracheoles into body cells by <br><br>diffusion due to concentration gradient <br><br> carbon iv oxide in the tissues diffuses into tracheoles due to <br><br>concentration gradient <br><br> From tracheoles carbon IV oxide moves into trachea and <br><br>out through the spiracles into the air. <br><br>**ii) State how traceholes are adapted to gaseous exchange**<br><br> thin walls of tracheoles moist surface large surface area due to numerous tracheoles <br><br>**g) i) What is breathing?** Any process which speeds up the rate of gaseous exchange <br><br>between an animal and its surrounding. <br><br>**ii) Name the structures in humans that are used in gaseous** **exchange** nose larynx epiglottis trachea lungs pleural membrane pleural cavity diaphragm muscles <br><br>**iii) Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in a** **mammal** Breathing in <br><br> external intercostals muscles contract while internal <br><br>intercostals muscles relax, raising the ribcage upwards and outwards <br><br> muscles of the diaphragm contract hence it flattens the volume of the thoracic cavity increases while pressure <br><br>decreases <br><br> higher air pressure in the atmosphere forces air into lungs <br><br>through the nose <br><br>Breathing out <br><br> external intercostals muscles relax while internal intercostals muscles contract, moving the ribcage downwards and inwards <br><br> muscles of the diaphragm relax hence the diaphragm <br><br>assumes dome shape <br><br> the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases while pressure <br><br>increases <br><br> the higher pressure forces air out of the lungs through the <br><br>nose **iv) Explain how mammalian lungs are adapted to gaseous** **exchange**<br><br> large number of alveoli that increase surface area moist inner surface of alveoli for dissolving oxygen/gases <br><br>to facilitate exchange of gases through alveolar cavities and blood <br><br> thin walls of alveoli to allow efficient/faster diffusion of <br><br>gases rich capillary/blood supply on alveolar surface to transport oxygen away from the lungs and carbon IV oxide to the lungs <br><br>**v) Name the features of alveoli that adapt them to their** **function**<br><br> have large surface area/spherical shaped numerous/many to increase surface area one cell thick moist surface for air to diffuse highly vascularised/numerous capillaries **vii) How is the trachea of a mammal suited to its**<br><br>**function?**<br><br> has a ring of cartilage which keeps it open at all times cilia that move mucus/particles to the top of the trachea i.e. <br><br>into larynx for removal <br><br> mucus to trap dust, solid particles and microorganisms hollow for passage of air viii)**State the advantages of breathing through the nose**<br><br>**rather than through the**mouth <br><br> nose has hairs to filter solid particles it has mucus lining to trap dust particles the nose has cells sensitive to smell for survival it warms the air before it reaches the lungs **ix) Give the conditions under which the carbon iv oxide**<br><br>**level rises above normal in** **mammalian blood** vigorous exercise emotions/stress disease infection **x) Explain the physiological changes that occur in the** **body to lower the carbon iv oxide level back to** **normal when it rises**<br><br> heartbeat/cardiac frequency increases to pump blood faster carbon iv oxide from the tissues and supply more oxygen ventilation rate/rate and depth of breathing increases to take more oxygen and remove carbon iv oxide from the lungs <br><br> arterioles to take in more oxygen and remove carbon iv <br><br>oxide from the lungs <br><br> arterioles dilate leading to faster flow of blood to and from <br><br>body tissues <br><br>**h) i)Describe the factors which control the rate of breathing** **in humans** breathing movements usually occur unconsciously it is controlled by the medulla oblongata part of the brain <br><br>situated at the breathing centre medullar oblongata is in the brain respiratory centre transmits impulses to the diaphragm <br><br>through phrenic nerves <br><br> carbon iv oxide concentration in the blood determines the <br><br>breathing rate <br><br> if carbon iv oxide is less, the brain is triggered to decrease <br><br>breathing rate <br><br> cardiac frequency decreases and the arterioles constrict therefore carbon iv oxide level is raised this brings back to normal level of breathing and carbon iv <br><br>oxide level increases/is more the brain is triggered to increase breathing rate <br><br> cardiac frequency is increased there is vasodilation of arterioles carbon iv oxide level falls therefore the normal level is attained and carbon iv oxide is <br><br>removed faster <br><br>**ii) Name the respirator diseases**<br><br> asthma bronchitis whooping cough pneumonia tuberculosis <br><br>**4. a) i) Define respiration**<br><br> the oxidation/breakdown of food within cells to release <br><br>energy <br><br>**ii) Explain the significance of respiration in living organisms**<br><br> it yields energy (ATP) this energy enables organisms to move, grow, excrete and <br><br>reproduce <br><br>iii) Where does respiration take place? <br><br> in the mitochondria <br><br>**b) i) Draw and label a mitochondrion**<br><br> 288 <br><br>**ii) State the most important function of mitochondria**<br><br> to produce Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which is the <br><br>energy source of the whole cell <br><br>**iii) Give the functions of the labeled parts** **Outer membrane**<br><br> controls what enters and what leaves mitochondrion <br><br>**Cristae**<br><br> also called inner membrane increase surface are for attachment of enzymes this is where cellular oxidation reactions occur <br><br>**Matrix**<br><br> enzymes are located here other reactions occur here <br><br>**c) Explain the roles of enzymes in respiration**<br><br> they catalyse reactions i.e. speed up respiration <br><br>**d) i) What is aerobic respiration**<br><br> respiration in the presence of oxygen <br><br>**ii) Give a word equation for aerobic respiration**<br><br> glucose + oxygen - water + carbon iv oxide + energy <br><br>**iii) What are the end products of aerobic respiration?**<br><br> energy carbon iv oxide water <br><br>**e) i) What is anaerobic respiration** occurs in the absence of oxygen <br><br>289 e.g. yeast and certain bacteria release energy in the absence <br><br>of oxygen <br><br>**ii) What are obligate anaerobes?**<br><br> are completely independent of oxygen <br><br>**iii) What are facultative anaerobes?**<br><br> can survive both in the presence and absence of oxygen also called partial anaerobes <br><br>**iv) State the word equation representing anaerobic** **respiration in plants** - Glucose ethanol + carbon iv oxide + energy **v) Name the end products of anaerobic respiration in plants**<br><br> alcohol/ethanol carbon iv oxide energy <br><br>**g) i) Give a word equation of anaerobic respiration in** **animals** - Glucose lactic acid + energy **ii) Name the end products of respiration in animals when** **there is insufficient oxygen supply**<br><br> lactic acid energy <br><br>**iii) Why is there a high rate of lactic acid production during** **exercise?**<br><br> the demand for oxygen is more than supply leading to <br><br>anaerobic respiration <br><br>**iv) Why does lactic acid level reduce after exercise?**<br><br> lactic acid is oxidized to form carbon iv oxide and water some is converted to glucose some is converted into glycogen **v) State why accumulation of lactic acid during vigorous** **exercise lead to an increase in heartbeat**<br><br> lactic acid is poisonous to tissues and must be removed to increase supply of oxygen to tissues **State the economic importance of anaerobic respiration** brewing of alcohol biogas production compost manure formation silage formation baking bread production of dairy products fermentation of milk sewage treatment **h) i) What is respiratory quotient(RQ)?**<br><br> ration of carbon IV oxide produced to oxygen consumed <br><br>RQ = volume of CO2 produced <br><br> Volume of oxygen consumed <br><br>**ii) Why are respiratory quotient important**<br><br> their calculation assists in identifying the kind of substrate <br><br>being used in respiration <br><br>**iii) Name the respiratory substrates**<br><br> carbohydrates fats proteins <br><br>**iv) Why does anaerobic respiration of a given substrate yield** **a smaller amount of energy than aerobic respiration?** - Some energy locked up in intermediate products like ethanol in plants and lactic acid in animals <br><br> substrate is completely oxidized in aerobic respiration <br><br>**iv) Explain the disadvantages of anaerobic respiration**<br><br> Less energy produced in anaerobic respiration since food is <br><br>partially oxidized while in aerobic respiration food is completely oxidized. <br><br> Some metabolic wastes accumulate in cells affecting <br><br>cellular functions <br><br> Ethanol produced in plants poisons the tissues while lactic acid produced in animals causes muscle fatigue/muscle cramp and may stop muscle contraction <br><br> Such intermediate wastes are not produced in aerobic <br><br>respiration <br><br>**v) Mention the types of experiments carried out for** **respiration** germinating seeds which yield energy in form of heat animals produced heat when they respire yeast cells respire to produce heat <br><br>**5. a) i) Define the following terms** **Excretion**<br><br> the process by which organisms get rid of waste products which result from chemical process which occur in living cells **Secretion**<br><br> the process by which organisms produce substances which <br><br>are useful to the body, by glands <br><br>**Egestion**<br><br> removal of indigestive materials from the body <br><br>**Homeostasis**<br><br> maintenance of constant internal environment <br><br>**ii) Explain why excretion is necessary in plants and animals** -products of excretion are usually harmful while some are toxic - if allowed to accumulate in the cells they would destroy tissues and interfere with normal metabolism - They are therefore removed through excretion **b) i) Describe how excretion takes place in green plants** carbon IV oxide, oxygen and water diffuse through the <br><br>stomata, lenticels and hydathodes <br><br> some toxic wastes are converted into non-toxic substances these are deposited in certain tissues of the plant or stored <br><br>in aging structures <br><br> resins and tannins are exuded through the bark of stem or <br><br>lost during leaf fall <br><br>**ii) Why do plants lack complex excretory structures like** **those of animals?**<br><br> plants have lower rates of metabolism plants excrete non-poisonous products derived from <br><br>carbohydrate metabolism unlike animals which produce toxic wastes derived from protein metabolism <br><br> plants re-use some of their wastes like nitrogenous wastes <br><br>used in protein synthesis <br><br> plants store waste products in roots, fruits and leaves **ii) State the excretory products of plants and some of their** **uses to humans**<br><br>**caffeine**from tea and coffee is used in medicine and as a <br><br>stimulant which is harmful to humans <br><br>**quinine**used for treating malaria **cocaine**derived from leaves of cocoa plant used as a <br><br>stimulant by addicts or as a local anesthesia, also causes damage to the brain, may cause addiction if not well used and is an illegal drug **Nicotine**got from leaves of tobacco plant stimulates the central nervous, may cause addiction if much is used or consumed. It is used to make cigarettes, cigars and is poisonous. It is a precursor of lung cancer **Cannabis sative(**bhang) is used to make drugs **Gum**derived from glues is used for sticking substances <br><br>and making certain jellies <br><br>***Rubber***, a product of latex, got from rubber plant is sued to <br><br>make tyres and synthetic fibres <br><br>**Morphine**from opium poppy plant is a narcotic and illegal <br><br>drug as it causes addiction <br><br>**Khat and miraa**are used as stimulants **Colchicines**used in inducing polyploidy, cancer therapy, <br><br>treatment of gouts in small quantities <br><br>**Papain**used as meat tenderizer <br><br>**c) i) Describe excretion in unicellular organisms** -examples are amoeba and paramecium -They have to remove waste products such as carbon IV oxide and nitrogenous substances e.g urea and ammonia - These diffuse from the body surface into the surrounding water - Diffusion is due to large surface area **ii) List excretory organs and products of mammals**<br><br> kidney excretes urea, water and salts skin excretes water, slats and urea lungs excrete carbon IV oxide and water liver excretes bile salts **d)i) Draw and label a mammalian skin**<br><br><br><br>**ii) Explain how the mammalian skin is adapted to its** **functions**<br><br> the skin is made up of dermis and epidermis <br><br>**Epidermis**<br><br> it is made up of three layers the outermost layer, cornified layer is made up of dead cells that prevent entry of microorganisms, prevent physical damage and dessication <br><br> granular layer made of living cells gives rise to cornified <br><br>layer <br><br> malpighian layer is made up of actively dividing cells that give rise to new epidermal cells/granular layer it contains melanin that protects the body against ultra violet rays(radiations) <br><br>**Dermis**<br><br> has several components Has sweat gland which produce sweat through sweat pores on the skin and the sweat evaporates cooling the body by lowering body temperature. When it is cold, no sweat is produced, conserving water <br><br> sweat contains water, sodium chloride, uric acid and urea <br><br>hence the skin acts as an excretory organ <br><br> Has hair. The hair stands erect to trap air when temperature is low to reduce loss/insulation. It lies flat to allow heat loss when temperature is high. <br><br>294 Has nerve endings which are sensitive to stimuli such as <br><br>heat, cold, pain, pressure and touch <br><br> Has subcutaneous fat/adipose fat that insulates the body <br><br>against heat loss <br><br> Has arteries and capillaries (blood vessels) that supply food <br><br>and oxygen and remove excretory products. Arterioles vasodilate when temperatures are high to lose heat by radiation, and convention. Arterioles constrict when temperatures are low to conserve heat i.e. reduce heat loss Has sebaceous glands which secrete sebum, and antiseptic and water repellant that prevents drying and cracking the skin by making the skin supple **e) What is the role of lungs in excretion?**<br><br> during respiration oxygen is used up in the body cells to <br><br>produce energy <br><br> carbon IV oxide is produced as a by-product the carbon IV oxide must be eliminated from the body elimination is through the lungs also, water vapour is formed and must be removed this removal is through the lungs the lung is therefore considered as an excretory organ as it removes carbon IV oxide and water vapour which are by- products of respiration **f) State the functions of the liver** **i. Excretion**<br><br> in this function the liver is aided by the kidney deamination i.e. excess amino acids converted into urea and <br><br>uric acid which is transported to skin and kidney for removal <br><br> detoxification where harmful substances are converted into harmless ones in the liver and transported to kidneys for removal <br><br> breakdown of worn out blood cells and haemoglobin and the residue excreted through the kidney to give urine a yellow tinge <br><br> Breakdown of sex hormones after they have performed their function and the wasted are released through the kidney and bile. <br><br>**ii) Homeostasis**<br><br> regulation of blood glucose the normal amount of glucose in blood is about 90mg/100 <br><br> increase in blood sugar is detected by cells of the pancreas <br><br>which secrete insulin <br><br> insulin stimulates the liver to convert excess glucose to <br><br>glycogen <br><br> further excess glucose is converted to fats until the normal <br><br>blood sugar level is attained <br><br> Excess glucose is oxidized to carbon IV oxide, water and <br><br>energy. Excess glucose is also used in respiration decrease in blood sugar level below normal level is <br><br>detected by the pancreas, which secretes glucagon which stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to glucose until the normal sugar level is attained <br><br> fats, amino acids are converted to glucose it also leads to reduced oxidation of glucose <br><br>**Deamination**<br><br> excess amino acids are deaminated by the removal of <br><br>amino group <br><br> the amino group is converted to ammonia ammonia combines with carbon IV oxide to form urea urea is excreted in urine through the kidney <br><br>**Detoxification**<br><br> poisonous substances are converted to less harmful <br><br>compounds **Thermal regulation**<br><br> maintenance of body temperature heat is generated in the liver by chemical activities the heat is distributed <br><br>**g) i) Draw a labeled diagram of mammalian nephrone**<br><br><br><br>296 <br><br>**ii) Describe how the human kidney functions**<br><br> the afferent arterioles, which is a branch of the renal artery, <br><br>supplies blood to the glomerulus <br><br> the afferent arteriole has a wider diameter than the efferent <br><br>arteriole <br><br> this difference in diameter of afferent and efferent vessels <br><br>causes high pressure leading to ultra filtration <br><br> the walls of the blood capillaries are one cell thick hence <br><br>glucose, amino acids, vitamins, hormones, salts, cratinine, urea and water filter into Bowmans capsule to form glomerular filtrate <br><br> white blood cells, red blood cells, plasma proteins (such as globulin) and platelets are too large to pass through the capillary walls hence remain in blood capillary <br><br> the filtrate flows into proximal convoluted tubule where amino acids, vitamins and all glucose are selectively reabsorbed back into the blood stream <br><br> many mitochondria provide energy for reabsorption of <br><br>these substances against a concentration gradient by active transport <br><br> the glomerular filtrate flows into the loop of Henle <br><br>297 water in the descending loop moves by osmosis into the <br><br>blood capillaries <br><br> sodium chloride is actively pumped from the ascending arm <br><br>of the loop of Henle into the blood capillaries <br><br> the glomerular filatrate flows into the distal convoluted <br><br>tubule <br><br> water and salts are reabsorbed from distal convoluted <br><br>tubule into blood capillaries <br><br> the glomerular filtrate flows into collecting tubule (duct) from where more water is reabsorbed into blood stream <br><br> antiduretic hormone influences the amount of water reabsorbed depending on osmotic pressure of blood <br><br> the glomerular filtrate from collecting duct, now referred to as urine, is emptied into pelvis and ureter into bladder and out of body through urethra <br><br> urine consists of excess water, slats and nitrogenous wastes **iii) State the adaptations of proximal convoluted tubule to its** **function**<br><br> folded to increase surface area for absorption thin epithelium to reduce distance of diffusion micro-villi on inner lining to increase surface area for <br><br>absorption <br><br> folded to reduce speed of flow for efficient absorption numerous mitochondira to provide energy for reabsorption dense capillary network to transport reabsorbed products **iv) Name the common kidney diseases**<br><br> nephritis kidney stones(renal calculi cystitis oedema kidney failure <br><br>**6. a) i) Why is homeostatic control necessary?**<br><br> this provides a constant internal environment so that the cells of the body have the optimum (best) condition for their survival <br><br>**ii) What is internal environment?**<br><br> immediate surrounding of body cells refers to tissue fluid within an organism <br><br>**b) i) Why is constant body temperature maintained by** **mammals?**<br><br> most enzymes in the body function within a narrow range <br><br>of temperature high temperature denatures enzymes low temperature inactivates and inhibits enzymes <br><br>i**i) Explain the advantage gained by possessing a constant** **body temperature**<br><br> animals remain active despite fluctuations in environmental <br><br>temperature <br><br> higher chances of survival in various environments ie they <br><br>colonize various environments <br><br> chemical processes in their body continues at an optimum <br><br>rate <br><br>**iii) How do mammals regulate body temperature?**<br><br> the body temperature of a mammal is kept constant to maintain this temperature the mammal must be able to <br><br>balance its heat loss against the heat gain <br><br> body temperature is controlled by the hypothalamus, a <br><br>specialized part of the brain <br><br> changes in the temperature within the body and the surrounding are detected by the hypothalamus <br><br> it transmits impulses to the skin and the blood stream in <br><br>response to temperature changes <br><br> hypothalamus acts as a thermostat for the body a mammal loses heat by breathing out, urine, feaces, skin <br><br>by radiation and by evaporation of sweat. <br><br> A mammal generates heat by the activity of its muscles, by general metabolism in respiration, or chemical activities In hot conditions the hypothalamus stimulates responses that increase heat loss from the body hence lowering the body temperature <br><br> Such responses include sweating, vasodilation, keeping its hair flat on the surface of skin and reduction of metabolic rate <br><br> In cold conditions the hypothalamus stimulates responses that generate heat gain in the body and reduce heat loss to the environment <br><br> Such responses include shivering, vasoconstriction, raising its hair to trap a layer of air around the skin because still air is a good insulator of heat and by generation of heat by increasing metabolic rate. <br><br>**iv) Why does body temperature of a healthy person rise up** **to 37oC on a hot humid day?** sweat evaporation is reduced hence cooling is less therefore more heat is retained in the body causing temperature to rise <br><br>**v) Name the structures in the human body that detect** **external temperature changes**<br><br> temperature receptors (end bulb corpuscles e.g. bulb of <br><br>Krause (warmth) and organ of Ruffinni (cold) <br><br> heat (thermal) receptors <br><br>**vi) State the advantages that organisms with small surface** **area to volume ratio experience over those with larger**<br><br> heat loss slow hence their body temperature can increase to <br><br>intolerable levels <br><br> Heat gain from surrounding slower hence may remain <br><br>inactive for a long time. <br><br> Need specialized and complex transport system and also <br><br>gaseous exchange system <br><br>**Explain why individuals with smaller sizes require more** **energy per unit body weight than those with larger sizes.** surface area to volume ratio is higher in smaller individuals than larger ones, therefore smaller heat is lost faster by smaller ones than larger ones <br><br> they therefore require more energy per unit body weight to <br><br>maintain body temperature **c) i) What is the meaning of osmoregulation?**<br><br> mechanism which regulates osmotic pressure of internal <br><br>environment of an organism <br><br> the regulation/maintenance of salt/solute-water balance of <br><br>an internal environment <br><br>**ii) State the importance of osmoregulation** - Maintenance of constant level of water and slats (osmotic pressure) for optimum/suitable conditions for metabolism suitable for cellular functions **iii) State the ways by which desert mammals conserve water**<br><br> fewer glomeruli longer loop of Henle excretion of dry feaces or concentrated urine hump for fat to be metabolized to give metabolic water for <br><br>use <br><br> nocturnal, burrowing, aestivate or hibernate sweat glands few or absent more ADH (vasopressin) iv**) Explain why some desert animals excrete uric acid rather** **than water**<br><br> uric acid is less toxic than ammonia, hence elimination of uric acid requires less water than ammonia therefore more water conserved <br><br> uric acid being less toxic is safer to excrete where there is <br><br>less water/desert <br><br>v**) Explain why eating a meal with too much salt leads to** **production of a small volume of concentrated urine**<br><br> the concentration of salts in the blood rises leading to production of more ADH hence higher rate of water reabsorption by kidney tubules <br><br>**vi) Explain how marine fish regulate their osmotic pressure** swallow plenty of sea water to increase amount of water in <br><br>the body <br><br> have chloride excretory cells in their gills to remove excess <br><br>salts <br><br> eliminate nitrogenous wastes in form of trimethalamine <br><br>oxide which requires little water for elimination <br><br> few/small glomeruli thus slow filtration rate in the kidneys retain nitrogenous wastes in form of urea to raise osmotic <br><br>pressure of body fluids <br><br>**d) i) What is the biological significance of maintaining a** **relatively constant sugar level in a human body?**<br><br> body cells are surrounded by tissue fluids that are isotonic/same osmotic pressure as cytoplasm <br><br> if sugar level is high/hypertonic, cell will lose water by <br><br>osmosis to the surrounding, thus increasing the concentration of the contents <br><br> this changes the physiology of the cell if the blood sugar is lower than the normal, the cytoplasm gains water by osmosis, diluting the cell contents, thus altering the physiology of the cell **ii) Discuss the role of the following hormones in blood sugar** **control** **Insulin**<br><br> insulin is produced when there is increase in blood sugar <br><br>concentration <br><br> it converts glucose to glycogen which is in the liver or <br><br>muscle thus lowering sugar level <br><br>**Glucagon** when glucose level decreases glucagon is produced, which causes the breakdown of glycogen to glucose thus raising blood sugar level <br><br>**e) Explain the part played by antidiuretic hormone in** **homeostasis**<br><br> Produced when there is less water (high osmotic pressure above normal level of salt concentration) in the blood. It acts on kidney tubules (nephron) thus increasing water <br><br>reabsorption from tubules to the blood stream, thus restoring osmotic pressure <br><br> When there is more water(lower osmotic pressure) or <br><br>decreased salt concentration in blood, little or no ADH is produced, less water reabsorbed hence water loss in urine (more dilute urine) hence raising the osmotic pressure in body fluids/blood <br><br>**f) What is the role of blood clotting in homeostasis?**<br><br> when a blood vessel is cut, there is exposure of blood <br><br>platelets to the air <br><br> this triggers fibrinogen to be converted to fibrin the fibrin forms a clot that prevents body fluids e.g. blood <br><br>from being lost <br><br> therefore the clot conserves water and salts in the body **g) Describe the role of the following hormones in** **homeostasis**<br><br>**i. Aldosterone**<br><br> concerned with regulation of ionic balance secreted by the cortex of adrenal glands it increases sodium ion uptake by the gut and promotes the reabsorption of sodium ions (and therefore water) in the kidneys) <br><br> this is accompanied by elimination of potassium ions this raises the overall level of sodium and lowers the <br><br>overall level of potassium in the blood <br><br> as sodium ions are absorbed in the blood, chlorine ions follow so as to neutralize the effect of sodium ions <br><br> the production of aldosterone is regulated by the <br><br>concentration of sodium ions which has an inhibiting effect, and a fall in sodium ions has a stimulating effect on the adrenal cortex <br><br> the flow of aldosterone is stimulated by the adreno-cortic- tropic hormone (ACTH) produced in the anterior of the pituitary gland <br><br> however, the main method of control is dependent on the fact that adrenal cortex itself is somehow sensitive to the relative concentration of potassium and sodium in the blood <br><br>**ii. Adrenaline**<br><br> produced by adrenal glands in high concentrations, it increases hydrolysis of glycogen <br><br>and increases blood sugar <br><br> it is usually released in emergency cases to increase <br><br>glucose level for respiration <br><br> this releases energy for the emergency <br><br>**h) i) Distinuish between diabetes mellitus and diabetes** **insipidus**<br><br> diabetes mellitus is a condition resulting from insufficient <br><br>production of insulin causing hyperglucaemia and presence of glucose in urine <br><br> diabetes insipidus is a condition whereby less or no <br><br>antidiuretic hormone is secreted hence a high volume of water is passed out in urine in a condition called diuresis **ii) How can high blood sugar level in a person be controlled?**<br><br> administer insulin <br><br>**iii) Why does glucose not normally appear in urine even** **though it is filtered in the mammalian Bowmans capsule?** glucose molecules are actively reabsorbed in the proximal <br><br>convoluted tubules <br><br>**iv) When is glycogen which is stored in the liver converted** **into glucose and released into the blood?** after activity/when blood sugar (glucose) falls below <br><br>normal <br><br> when glucagon stimulates the liver/when glucagon is produced after strenuous/vigorous activity during starvation <br><br>**v) How would one find out from a sample of urine whether a** **person is suffering from diabetes mellitus?** test or react urine in Benedicts solution positive result i.e. orange or red precipitate Positive result is an indication of diabetes mellitus. **FORM III TOPICS**<br><br>**1. a) i) What is meant by the term binomial**<br><br>**nomenclature?**<br><br> scientific system of naming organisms using the generic(genus) and specific (species) names <br><br>**ii) State briefly the general principles of classification of** **living organisms**<br><br> scientific names must be in Latin or should be latinised family names are formed by adding the suffix idea to the stem of the genus e.g. the genus Rana become Ranaidea <br><br> generic names should be a single unique name <br><br>**b) State the main characteristics of the five kingdoms of** **organisms**<br><br>**i. Monera** e.g. bacteria unicellular (single celled) prokaryotic (genetic material not surrounded by membrane) cell wall without cellulose lack most organelles small in size (microscopic) <br><br>**ii. Protista(protoctista)**<br><br> single celled(unicellular) eukaryotic (most cell organelles present) when cell walls are present have no cellulose e.g. protozoa and algae usually microscopic **iii. Fungi**<br><br> have hyphae (which form mycelia) absence of chlorophyll have rhizoids (lack roots, leaves, stem) have spore forming structures (sporangia) e.g. mucor, rhizopus **iv. Plantae** most are green/contain chlorophyll autotrophic/feed by photosynthesis cells have cellulose cell walls respond slowly to stimuli (tropism) lack locomotion (are stationary) indefinite growth (at meristems) lack specialized excretory structures **v. Animalia** cells do not have cell walls most carry out locomotion heterotrophic fast response to stimuli (tactic) have specialized excretory structures **c) Describe the economic importance of:**<br><br>**i. Fungi** some cause decay to our food some cause diseases to humans and animals e.g. ringworms may be used as food e.g. mushrooms, yeast some are used in production of antibiotics e.g. penicillin, <br><br>chloromycin, streptomycin <br><br> yeast is used in brewing industry, baking and source of <br><br>vitamin B <br><br> many cause diseases to our crops e.g. late blight important in recycling nutrients in soil since they cause <br><br>decay of organic matter <br><br> mycorrhizal association in forest development may help in <br><br>water intake/absorption help in nitrogen fixation **Bacteria** are useful in the manufacture of antibiotics silage formation, fermentation of cheese, butter, milk yoghurt curing of tea, tobacco and retting flax formation of vitamin B12 and K enzymes such as amylase and invertase hormones such as insulin vinegar, acetic acid, lactic acid, citric acid in septic tanks and modern sewage works make use of bacteria <br><br> biogas production saprophytic bacteria are used in compost decomposition or <br><br>cause decay <br><br> symbiotic bacteria are used in compost decomposition or <br><br>cause decay <br><br> symbiotic bacteria in herbivores/ruminants help in <br><br>digestion <br><br> some diseases in animals/humans and plants are caused by <br><br>bacteria <br><br> many bacteria cause food spoilage/decay <br><br> nitrifying and nitrogen fixing bacteria increase soil <br><br>fertility/make nitrates available <br><br> denitrifying bacteria reduce soil fertility/convert nitrates <br><br>into nitrogen/reduce nitrates <br><br>**d) State the main characteristics of the following division of** **kingdom plantae** **i. Bryophyte** e.g. mosses and liverworts presence of rhizoids lack of vascular tissues (lack phloem and xylem) body parts not differentiated into root, stem, leaves capsule or seta gametophyte generation dominant. **ii. Pteridophyta** e.g. ferns has true roots, stems and leaves fond with sori on under-surface vascular tissues present sporophyte generation is dominant **iii. Spermatophyte** photosynthetic well differentiated into roots, stems and leaves well developed vascular system seed bearing plants <br><br>**e) Name sub-divisions of spermatophyte and state the** **characteristics of each class**<br><br>**i. Gymnospermae (cornifers)** naked seeds (exposed are all woody trees reproduce by means of cones show xerophytic characteristics xylem have tracheids but lack vessels phloem lacks companion cells single fertilization pollen lands directly on ovules **ii. Angiospermae (flowering plants)** reproduce by flowers seeds enclosed (in fruits) flowers bisexual hence double fertilization herbaceous pollen grains land on stigma of pistil xylem contains vessels phloem contains companion cells ovules contained in ovary **iii. Name the classes and state characteristics of**<br><br>**angiospermae**<br><br>**Dicotyledonae**<br><br> two seed leaves network venation of leaves regularly arranged vascular bundles tap root system broad leaves secondary growth occurs <br><br>**Monocotyledonae** one seed leaf parallel venation of leaves irregularly arranged vascular bundles fibrous root system narrow leaves sheath like leaf stalk (petiole) no secondary growth <br><br>**iv) State the importance of plants**<br><br> balancing carbon IV oxide and oxygen in the atmosphere <br><br>during photosynthesis and respiration <br><br> influence water cycle reduce soil erosion by bind soil particles together useful products e.g. food, medicine, timber, paper and <br><br>clothing <br><br> habitat ( e.g. forests and grassland) for animals which may <br><br>also be tourist attraction <br><br> earn money from sales of products aesthetic value/beauty e.g. flowers, shade/shelter, live <br><br>fences, windbreaks <br><br> Some are harmful e.g. poisons, weeds, injurious (stinging nettles, thorns), water hyacinth. <br><br>**f) i) Give the general characteristics of phylum arthropoda**<br><br> jointed appendages presence of exoskeleton triploblastic and coelomate segmented body bilateral symmetry (similar halves) **ii. State the characteristics of the following classes of**<br><br>**arthropoda** **Diplopoda**<br><br> the millipedes two pairs of legs per segment many segments terrestrial habitat body cylindrical and long herbivorous one pair of antennae <br><br>**Chilopoda**<br><br> the centipedes one pair of legs per segment many segments terrestrial habitat body long and ventro-dorsally flattened carnivorous last pair of legs pointing backwards with poison claws <br><br>called maxillipedes one pair of antennae <br><br>**Insecta**<br><br> three body parts i.e. head thorax, abdomen six legs/three pairs of legs a pair of compound eyes presence of wings a pair of antennae <br><br>**Crustacean**<br><br> two body parts segmented body have pincers (modified legs) to catch prey have hard exoskeleton a pair of compound eyes <br><br>**Arachnida**<br><br> body divided into two parts( abdomen and cephalothorax) simple eyes eight legs (four pairs of legs) <br><br>**iii) State the economic importance of insects** **Beneficial effects** food supply important in food chains pollinators biological control of pests and other organisms aesthetic value contribute to decomposition e.g. litter feeders like beetles <br><br>**Harmful effects**<br><br> pests vectors dirt and disease carriers injurious e.g. stings and bites <br><br>**g) i) State the general characteristics of chordate**<br><br> notochord dorsal slits (pharyngeal cleft during development) bilateral symmetry triploblastic (three layer body-ectoderm, mesoderm and <br><br>endoderm) <br><br> clear cut head formation multilayered epidermis post anal tail closed circulatory system segmented muscle blocks(myotomes) single pair of gonads <br><br>**Give the characteristics of the following classes of chordate** **Pisces**<br><br> presence of fins for locomotion two chambered heart presence of overlapping scales presence of gills or operculum for gaseous exchange presence of lateral line for protection streamlined body poikilothermic (body temperature varies with that of <br><br>environment) <br><br>**Amphibian**<br><br> partially live in fresh water and partially on land poikilothermic pentadactylous with two pairs of limbs webbed feet for locomotion in water body streamlined heart is three chambered moist skin for gaseous exchange <br><br> skin is dry oviparous (lay eggs) no pinna (external ear) three chambered heart 9crocodile has four chambers) skin not glandular no mammary glands <br><br>**Aves**<br><br> the birds homoeothermic (constant body temperature) four chambered heart streamlined body for locomotion in air skin dry and covered by feathers scales on legs hollow bones oviparous (lay eggs) mouths modified into beaks <br><br>**Mammalian**<br><br> hair on the body homoeothermic viviparous (give birth to live young) except a few have mammary glands glandular skin e.g. sweat glands, sebaceous glands four chambered heart pinna (external ear) two pairs of pentadactyl limbs presence of diaphragm have salivary glands **i) i) What is a dichotomous key?** A biological device (tool) which enables one to identify an organism by progressively opting between two alternative observable characteristics <br><br>**ii. State the necessity of using a dichotomous key** used to identify organisms quickly and accurately by following the statements in the key we are able to identify each organism on the basis of a characteristic which is not to be found in other specimens <br><br>**iii. List the rules followed in constructing a**<br><br>**dichotomous key** use observable characteristics only start with major characteristics, placing organisms into two <br><br>groups at each stage use a single characteristics at a time use contrasting characteristics at each stage e.g 1(a) short, <br><br>1(b) tall <br><br> avoid repeating the same characteristics <br><br>**iv) Describe the procedure of using a dichotomous key.** **Make a list of major features of the characteristics to be** **identified**<br><br> look at the features of similarities look at the features of differences between the organisms we can then be able to identify the organisms by <br><br>distinguishing one from another <br><br> the key uses a method of elimination by following statements that are correct only for the organism **iv You are provided with a specimen kale leaf. Use the** **dichotomous key below to identify the taxonomic group to** **which the specimen belongs. Show the steps (number and** **letter) in the key that you followed to arrive at the identify of** **the specimen** 1 a) leaf broad b) leaf narrow go to 2 Araicaria 2 a) leaf parallel veined b) leaf net-veined 3 a) leaf with one lobe (simple) b) leaf with many lobes (compound) Grevellea Kalanchoa 4 a) leaf fleshy go to 5 b) leaf not fleshy 5 a) leaf petiole modified to form sheath b) leaf petiole not modified to form sheath Brassica 6 a) leaf purple b) leaf green steps 1a, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5b Identify Brassica v)**You have been provided with four animals labeled K** **(mature adult housefly), L (mature adult grasshopper,** **M(maize flour beetle) and N(worker termite) use the** **dichotomous key below to identify the specimens. Write** **down in the correct order, the steps (number and letter) in** **the key that you followed to arrive at your answer.** Dichotomous key 1 a) animal with wings b) animal without wings 2 a) with two pairs of wings <br><br>Cynodon <br><br>go to 3 go to 4 <br><br>go to 6 <br><br>go to 2 <br><br>go to 7 go to 3 b) with one pair of wings 3 a) with membranous wings b) hind pair of membranous wings 4 a) with long abdomen b) medium sized abdomen 5 a) wings with coloured scales b) wings without scales 6 a) forewings hard and shell-like b) forewings hard but not shell-like 7 a) body horizontally flattened b) body laterally flattened **Identify the orders o the various specimens as per the table** **below** **Specimen** K-housefly L- grasshopper M- beetle M-termite <br><br>Diptera go to 4 <br><br>go to 6 <br><br>Odontata <br><br>go to 5 Lepidoptera hymenoptera coleopteran <br><br>Orthoptera <br><br>Isoptera Symphonoptera <br><br>**Order** Diptera Orthoptera Coleoptera Isoptera **Steps followed** 1a,2b 1a, 2a, 3b, 6b 1a, 2a, 3b, 6a 1b, 7a **2 a) Define the following ecological terms**<br><br>**i. Ecology**<br><br> study of the interrelationships between organisms and their <br><br>environment <br><br>**ii. Environment**<br><br> surrounding of the organism i.e. biotic or a biotic factors <br><br>**iii. Habitat**<br><br> A specific locality (home) of a living organism with a set of <br><br>factors (conditions) in which an organism lives. <br><br>**iv. Ecological niche**<br><br> Role of an organism in its habitat e.g. feeding relationship <br><br>**v. Population**<br><br> Number (group) of organisms of a species occupying a <br><br>given habitat <br><br>**vi. Community**<br><br> Refers to different species of (plants and animals) organisms in a given habitat (area) co-existing or interacting (living) with each other and the environment in which they live <br><br>**vii. Ecosystem**<br><br> A community of organisms interacting with one another <br><br>and the environment in which they live <br><br>**viii. Biosphere** The earth and its atmosphere where living organisms are <br><br>found <br><br>**ix. Autecology**<br><br> Study of a single (individual) species of plants or animals within a community, ecosystem, habitat or environment. <br><br>**x. Synecology**<br><br> Study of natural communities (plants and animals) or <br><br>populations interacting within an ecosystem. <br><br>**xi. Carrying capacity**<br><br> maximum number of organisms an area can support <br><br>without being depleted <br><br>**xii. Biome**<br><br> geographical area with particular climatic conditions and <br><br>flora and fauna <br><br> it constitutes many ecosystems <br><br>**xiii. Biomass**<br><br> dry weight (mass) of a living organism in a given area units of measurement are kg/m2/year <br><br>**b) i) What are abiotic factors?**<br><br> non-living components of the ecosystem <br><br>**ii) Explain how abiotic factors affect living organisms** **Wind**<br><br> this influences rate of water evaporation from organisms therefore it affects distribution of organisms e.g. wind increases rate of transpiration and evaporation of water from the soil <br><br> wind is an agent of soil erosion, may break and uproot trees may aid in the formation of sand dunes which can form habitats for some desert plants wind disperses fruits, seeds, spores wind forms waves in lakes and oceans which enhances <br><br>aeration of water which replenishes oxygen concentration necessary for life <br><br> wind is an agent of pollination <br><br>**Temperature**<br><br> influences rate of enzyme action in photosynthesis and <br><br>other metabolic reactions in plants and animals <br><br> organisms function within a narrow range of temperature it affects distribution of organisms changes in temperature affect rate of photosynthesis and <br><br>biochemical reactions e.g. metabolism and enzyme reaction <br><br> temperature increases rate of transpiration **Light**<br><br> needed by green plants and photosynthetic bacteria which <br><br>are primary producers <br><br> animals depend on plants directly or indirectly for food main source of light is the sun light is necessary for synthesis of vitamin D in certain <br><br>animals <br><br> some plants need light for flowering seeds like lettuce need light for germination <br><br>**Humidity**<br><br> amount of water vapour held by the air affects the rate at which water is lost from organisms body <br><br>by evaporation and stomatal transpiration <br><br> when humidity is low the rate of transpiration increases humidity influences distribution of organisms <br><br>**PH**<br><br> each plant requires a specific PH in which to grow (acidic, <br><br>neutral or alkalinic) <br><br> pH affects enzyme reaction in metabolism <br><br>**Salinity**<br><br> some ions are needed for plant and animal nutrition osmoregulation implants and animals is affected by salinity <br><br>**Topography**<br><br> altitude affects light, atmospheric pressure and light Slope influences surface runoff, wind erosion, etc. mountains affect distribution of organisms which differs in <br><br>leeward side and windward side <br><br> mountains affect distribution of organisms which differ on <br><br>lowlands and on highlands <br><br> mountains also form physical barriers to migration of organism and may cause isolation of species <br><br> background may offer camouflage to some organisms <br><br>hence protection from enemies <br><br>**Rainfall (water) or precipitation**<br><br> amount and distribution of rainfall affect vegetation type this consequently affects distribution of animals e.g. polar region water frozen hence only well adapted organisms survive <br><br> fewer organisms found in deserts where rainfall is less Water is required for seed germination, raw material for <br><br>photosynthesis, solvent for mineral salts. Provides turgidity for plant support, medium for transport, disperses fruits, seeds and spores <br><br>**Pressure**<br><br> the weight atmosphere exerts upon the earth varies with altitude 9the higher the altitude the less the <br><br>pressure <br><br> this variation implies change in density which directly <br><br>means less oxygen for respiration and less carbon iv oxide for photosynthesis and this affects distribution of organisms <br><br>**Mineral salts (trace elements)**<br><br> these affect distribution of plants in the soil plants thrive best where elements are available Plants living in soil deficient in a particular element must <br><br>have special methods of obtaining it. <br><br> They harbor nitrogen fixing bacteria and others have <br><br>carnivorous habit <br><br> Plant distribution influences animal distribution <br><br>**c) i) What are biotic factors?**<br><br> refers to living organisms in an area biotic environment of an organism constitutes all organisms around it, which it relates or interacts with in various ways <br><br>**ii) Give examples of biotic factors affecting ecosystems**<br><br> feeding relationships predation competition diseases and pests human activities <br><br>**d) Discuss how the various biotic factors affect living** **organisms**<br><br>**i. Competition** organisms compete with one another for food, light, water, mates and shelter <br><br> organisms must live together for competition for available <br><br>resources <br><br> those which cannot cope either structurally or behaviorally <br><br>will migrate or die <br><br> those remaining, due to better adaptations will increase in <br><br>population <br><br> competition between members of the same species is called <br><br>intra-specific competition e.g. for mates <br><br> Competition between members of different species is inter <br><br>specific competition e.g. for food and space. **ii. Predation** this is predator-prey relationship predator feeds on prey hence both control the others <br><br>population <br><br> Distribution of predator and prey is important as predator <br><br>cannot survive without prey <br><br> It there is no predator the prey will increase in population beyond carrying capacity hence die due to environment depletion **iii. Parasitism** an association where an organism lives in or on another <br><br>living organism obtaining food(and other benefits) from it, causing harm to it (without necessary killing it) <br><br> parasites may kill host they deprive host of food make host weak by introducing diseases make reproductive ability of host low hence host becomes <br><br>susceptible to predation **iv. Diseases and parasites** make organisms weak and susceptible to predation kill organisms and reduce their population **v. Symbiotic** and association of organisms of different species where <br><br>both benefit from the association i.e. there is mutual benefit <br><br>**vi. Human activities** these are human factors which have an influence on the <br><br>biosphere <br><br> examples are road construction, industrialization, <br><br>deforestation, agriculture, pollution, poaching, fishing conservation, population control affect ecosystem and balance of nature **Saprophytism** saprophytes are organisms which obtain organic matter in solution from dead and decaying tissues of plants and animals <br><br> they include saprophytic bacteria and fungi they make available carbon, nitrogen and other elements <br><br>form dead to living organisms <br><br> they are useful in recycling nutrients in nature <br><br>**e)i) What is nitrogen cycle?**<br><br> The process by which nitrogen in the air is made available <br><br>plants and animals and eventually returns to the air. **ii) Draw a simplified diagram representing the nitrogen** **cycle**<br><br><br><br>**iii) Describe the nitrogen cycle**<br><br> during thunderstorms/lightning nitrogen gas combines with <br><br>oxygen to form nitrogen oxides <br><br> nitrogen oxides dissolve in water to form nitric acid acid is deposited in the soil by rain nitric acid combines with chemical substances to form <br><br>nitrates or nitric acid dissociates to form nitrates which are absorbed by plants <br><br> symbiotic bacteria (Rhizobium) which are found in root nodules of leguminous plants fix free nitrogen to nitrates <br><br> free living bacteria (clostridium and Azotobacter) fix <br><br>nitrogen to nitrates <br><br> nostoc algae (Anabaema chlorella) fix nitrogen to nitrates plants use nitrates to form plant proteins animals feed on plants and convert plant proteins into <br><br>animal proteins <br><br> plants and animals die and are decomposed by putrefying <br><br>bacteria, fungi(saprophytes) <br><br> decomposing plants, animals and nitrogenous wastes release ammonia which is converted to nitrites by Nitrosomonas and nitrococcus bacteria <br><br> nitrites are converted to nitrates by nitrobacter bacteria nitrates in the soil can be converted to free nitrogen (denitrification) by some fungi, pseudomonas and theobaccilus bacteria generally called denitrifying bacteria <br><br>**iii. Nitrogen in the atmosphere cannot be directly** **utilized by plants. State two ways by which this** **nitrogen is made available for plant use**<br><br> fixation by microorganisms (Rhixobium, Axotobacter) fixation by electrical discharge in atmosphere i.e. <br><br>conversion by thunderstorm or lightning <br><br>317 **f) i) Describe how energy flows from the sun through the** **various trophic levels in an ecosystem**<br><br> energy from the sun is trapped by green plants during photosynthesis, producing chemical energy9food or carbohydrates <br><br> green plants are producers and occupy the first trophic level green plants are eaten by herbivores called primary producers as they occupy the second trophic level <br><br> herbivores are eaten by carnivores, secondary consumers, <br><br>which occupy the third trophic level <br><br> when organisms 9plant and animals) die, fungi and bacteria which are saprophytic organisms feed on them thus causing them to decompose into simple substances e.g. mineral salts <br><br> these organisms are called decomposers and detrivores decomposer feed on dead organic matter hence cause decomposition and decay which releases nutrients for plants, linking biotic and a biotic components at all levels energy is lost through respiration <br><br>**Give the reasons for loss of energy from one trophic level to** **another in a food chain**<br><br> insufficient utilization of food resources(wastage) e.g by <br><br>defalcation <br><br> through respiration through excretion e.g. urination and sweating <br><br>**Why are green plants referred to as primary producers in an** **ecosystem?** - They utilize the energy from the sun to manufacture food for themselves and for subsequent trophic level (consumers) and other organisms vi**. Explain the following terms giving suitable examples** **Food chain**<br><br> a nutritional sequence between producers and consumers through which energy flows in a straight line i.e. linear representation of feeding relationship between different organisms in an ecosystem <br><br> if one consumer or the producer is removed the food chain <br><br>is broken <br><br> arrow points to the direction of energy flow e.g. green plant <br><br>herbivore carnivore decomposer <br><br><br><br>**Food web**<br><br>318 complex feeding relationship where a consumer feeds on more than one type of food while several herbivores feed on one type of plant <br><br> it is an interrelationship of many food chains consumers are usually fewer than producers to ensure <br><br>survival of both <br><br><br><br>**Pyramid of numbers**<br><br> this is a diagrammatic representation of numbers of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain usually there are more producers than consumers hence producers herbivores carnivore the reason for the pyramid is because herbivores feed on many plants (producers) as carnivores feed on many herbivores <br><br> sometimes this may not be true e.g. when many caterpillars <br><br>feed on one tree or parasites on a herbivore this gives an inverted pyramid of numbers <br><br>**Pyramid of biomass**<br><br> refers to diagrammatic representation total dry weight of organisms at different trophic levels in a food chain <br><br> producers have greater biomass than any level of <br><br>consumers progressively <br><br> size of organisms in successive e trophic levels increases amount of individuals decreases in successive levels <br><br>**Account for the decrease of biomass in the successive trophic** **levels**<br><br>319 fixed energy which supports living matter decreases at each successive trophic level since energy is lost by respiration and indigested (unconverted) materials hence less biomass supported at each level <br><br>**h) i) Describe the three characteristics of a population** **growth**<br><br> increase in numbers decrease in numbers/growth rate change in numbers <br><br>**Dispersion**<br><br> spread or distribution of organisms in a habitat <br><br>**Density**<br><br> the number of individuals per unit area <br><br>**ii) Explain how the following methods are used to estimate** **population of organisms** **quadrat method**<br><br> identify the study area throw or mark out the quadrat in the area of study at <br><br>random <br><br> identify or label the various species of plants in the quadrat count plants of each species record the numbers repeat the process work out the average per quadrat for each species calculate the total number of different species in the area or <br><br>calculate the population for the total area of habitat <br><br>**Line transect**<br><br> a string is stretched along an identified area all plants touching the string are counted <br><br>**Belt transect**<br><br> preliminary study of the study area to estimate size or make a sketch map <br><br> two parallel lines (strings or ropes) running for a <br><br>determined distance and width <br><br> count the number of organisms in the transect calculate the area covered by the transect calculate the number of organisms being investigated per <br><br>unit area <br><br> repeat this process at least three times in other parts of the <br><br>study area <br><br> find the mean number of organisms per unit area from all <br><br>the belt transects from this figure calculate the total population of the desired <br><br>organisms in the study area. <br><br>**Capture-recapture method** e.g. grasshoppers or fish capture the grasshoppers count and mark using permanent ink record release and allow time recapture and count the marked and unmarked total population is equal to the number of marked and <br><br>unmarked grasshoppers in the second sample multiplied by the number of marked grasshoppers in the first sample divided by number of grasshoppers marked in the second sample that were recaptured <br><br>**2. a) Describe the adaptations of plants to various**<br><br>**habitats**<br><br>**i. Xerophytes** grow in areas with scarcity of water roots grow deeply and extensively (widely spread) to <br><br>ensure access to water <br><br> thick succulent stems, roots and leaves for water storage photosynthetic stems take place of leaves which would lose <br><br>a lot of water <br><br> Leaves are needle-like (reduced to spines), scaly, have <br><br>sunken stomata. Some have curled (rolled) leaves. Some have thick waxy cuticle, reduced number of stomata to reduce water loss by transpiration some shed leaves during dry season to reduce water loss presence of thorns for protection short life cycle to ensure survival reversed stomatal rhythm **ii. Hyrophytes**<br><br> grow in places with plenty of water(waterlogged) aerenchyma a tissue (airspaces) and large intercellular spaces and long fibrous roots for buoyancy (floating in water) <br><br> poorly developed support tissues (sclerenchyma) because <br><br>water provides the necessary support <br><br> upper epidermis of leaves have more stomata than lower epidermis for gaseous exchange or for increased rate of transpiration <br><br> poorly developed conducting tissues (xylem and phloem) <br><br>because plants obtain water by diffusion <br><br>**iii. Mesophytes**<br><br> grow in well watered soils (common plants) no special adaptations, but depending on particular habitat, <br><br>may have some adaptations <br><br> in forests they grow fast, tall to capture light. Have <br><br>climbers while some are adapted to carry out photosynthesis in low light intensities (those that form undergrowth) <br><br> in places with adequate water they form broad leaves, thin <br><br>cuticle and many stomata on both leaf surfaces in direr regions they possess more stomata on the lower leaf <br><br> surface and are deep rooted roots for support drip off rain water <br><br>some are shallow rooted and develop buttress and prop <br><br>**iv. Halophytes**<br><br> plants that grow in very salty soil where the salt concentration is higher than that in the plant <br><br> have root cells which concentrate a lot of salts in them and <br><br>enable then to take in water by osmosis <br><br> succulent roots to store water have pneumatophores (breathing roots) to take in oxygen some have buttress roots for support secrete excess salt by use of salt glands have large airspaces in leaves and stems for buoyancy and to store air <br><br> capable of photosynthesis at low light intensities e.g. mangrove <br><br>**b) i) What is pollution?**<br><br> any process which leads to adverse or harmful changes in <br><br>the environment <br><br>**ii) Explain the various human activities that have caused** **pollution** **Causes and effects of air pollution**<br><br> sulphur iv oxide, hydrogen sulphide, chlorine, oxides of nitrogen produced by industries, sewage, decomposing organic matter and fumes affect gaseous exchange, makes acid rain and damage plant leaves <br><br> aerosols, herbicides, insecticides (agrochemicals), paint spays, acaricides and CFCs sprayed to control diseases, pests and weeds affect respiratory organs of animals. The chemicals are residual and persistent (not easily broken down) and bring depletion of the ozone layer <br><br> smoke and fumes produced in areas with heavy industries, motor vehicles, fires which burn fuel, oil, wood and coal cause carbon ii oxide, poisoning affect respiratory systems and affect visibility <br><br> particles in smoke and fumes settle on leaves and stop <br><br>photosynthesis <br><br> carbon iv oxide causes green house effect which causes <br><br>temperature inversion as a result of heating the lower layers of atmosphere <br><br> sound and noise produced incessantly by machines, <br><br>aeroplanes and heavy vehicles affect hearing in animals dust from cement factories, quarries, dust roads settles on <br><br>leaves limiting photosynthesis <br><br> removal of vegetation interferes with carbon cycle radio-active emissions from nuclear reactors, mines and <br><br>bombs cause cancer, mutations and death. **Control of air pollution**<br><br> use of lead free petrol in motor vehicles, air craft, <br><br>aeroplanes and petroleum engines uses of smokeless fuels and electricity filtration, dissolution and use of chemicals to remove <br><br>harmful gases <br><br> factories should be erected far away from residential areas use of tall chimneys reduce volume or intensity of sound e.g. by use of ear <br><br>muffs <br><br> concords should fly at higher altitudes and aeroplanes to <br><br>fly high up <br><br>**State the causes, effects and methods of controlling and** **prop roots for support water pollution** **Causes and effects**<br><br> agrochemicals e.g. fertilizers cause eutrophication leading <br><br>to increase in animal population <br><br> Silting makes water surfaces shallow and silt clogs stomata <br><br>and gills of fish reducing rates of photosynthesis and gaseous exchange. It also leads to reduction of algae which causes reduction of consumers i.e. animal population industrial and domestic wastes contain toxic materials which kill producers and other organism while oily substances in wastes may clog gills of fish and may change pH of water oxygen solubility is also reduced by oily surfaces <br><br> Untreated sewage and effluents where decomposition or organic matter in sewage reduces oxygen supply and sewage provides food for bacteria increasing their population and demand for oxygen thus depriving fish of oxygen. <br><br> Human feaces causes eutrophication, carbon IV oxide <br><br>produced by decomposition of faecal matter changes pH of water interferes with photosynthesis and may clog fish gills or block light penetration which interferes with producers thereby decreasing productivity. <br><br> Dumping of chemicals from industries with toxic pollutants <br><br>which kill organisms <br><br> Spillage of oil and chemicals block oxygen and kill <br><br>organisms <br><br> Discharge of water from industries into water body where high temperatures reduce amount of oxygen in the water causing organism to suffocate and die <br><br> Untreated sewage may lead to outbreak of epidemics <br><br>**Control of water pollution** -pollution caused by domestic effluents may be controlled by treating domestic waste, using biotechnology, banning the use of phosphate-based detergents, using plastic pipes instead of those made from lead, recycling gabbage, using biodegradable detergents. Pollution caused by industrial waste may be controlled by treating/cooling industrial waste, carrying out environmental impact assessment before establishing industries Oil spillage may be controlled by cleaning spilled oil biotechnology and penalizing the industry individual or companies which cause oil spills/water pollution Pollution caused by agrochemicals may be controlled by using mechanical control of weeds, biological control of weeds and pests, biodegradable organic fertilizer herbicides, insecticides pesticides, organic farming educate farmers on the use of correct amount of agrochemicals silting may be controlled by appropriate farming practices, contour farming, reafforestation, building gabions and terracing <br><br>**iv) State the causes /effects and control methods of soil** **pollution** **Causes and effects**<br><br> Air pollutants e.g. sulphur IV oxide fumes from sulphuric acid with rain water. The acid rain alters soil pH therefore affecting plants that cannot tolerate acidic soil most aerosols sprayed to control pests and diseases <br><br>precipitate in the soil and are taken up by plants which make its concentration many times higher, increasing the toxicity in the plants which absorb them <br><br> petroleum products due to spillage by oil tankers making it impossible for plant roots to obtain oxygen in oil saturated soils, therefore plants are killed <br><br> agrochemicals and inorganic fertilizers contain heavy <br><br>metals that are not used up by plants and eventually soil microorganisms cannot inhabit the soils <br><br> organic matter slows down, life ceases and soil becomes <br><br>exhausted <br><br> community, household wastes and industrial wastes disposal is a major problem in big towns and cities. commodities packaged in metal tins, rubber, plastic containers, scrap metal, glass bottles, different types of paper are nuisance to the environment, rendering it useless for agricultural purposes **Control of soil pollution**<br><br> use of organic farming techniques biological control of pests, diseases, parasites recycling of non-degradable containers or burying them <br><br>safely after use <br><br> controlled burning of garbage treatment of human and industrial waste for safe disposal avoid spilling chemicals and oil when used <br><br>**v) Define biological control give suitable examples**<br><br> using a living organism to regulate, control or reduce the <br><br>population of another organism e.g beetles to feed on water hyacinth, fish to feed on mosquito larvae. <br><br>**vi) What is eutrophication?**<br><br> enrichment of water bodies with nutrients due to discharge <br><br>of sewage leading to rapid growth of surface plants **viii) What are the effects of eutrophication?** enrichment of water bodies with nutrients due to discharge <br><br>of sewage leading to rapid growth of surface plants <br><br>**vii) What are the effects of eutrophication?** - The plants block light from reaching plants underneath hence no photosynthesis The plants die and decompose leading to lack of oxygen hence animals also die **c) Describe the symptoms, mode of transmission and control** **of cholera, typhoid malaria and amoebic dysentery in** **humans** **Disease Causative**<br><br>**Transmissio** **n** Contaminate d food or water Spread by flies form faeces **Symptom** **s** Intestinal pain Diarrhea Vomiting Dehydrati on <br><br>**Control**<br><br>**agent** Cholera Vibrio <br><br>Proper hygiene e.g. boiling drinking water Vaccination proper sanitati on vaccina tion <br><br>cholerae(bac terium) <br><br>Typhoid Salmonella <br><br> contami nated food or water spread by flies from faeces <br><br>typhi (bacterium) fever rashe s diarr hea + bloo d from bowe ls - fever Joint pains Vomiting Headache Anaemia <br><br> killing mosqui to killing the mosqui to larvae drainin <br><br>g stagnan t water clearin g bushes treatme nt sleep under mosqui to net sanitati on person al hygien e cook food well treatme nt using drugs <br><br>Amoebi c dysenter y (amoebi asis) <br><br>Entamoeba hystolytica (bacterium) <br><br>- contaminated food or water due to improper disposal of faeces - intestinal pain Diarrhea Vomiting Dehydrati on <br><br>**d) Discuss Ascaris lumbricoides under the following sub-** **headings**<br><br>**i. Mode of transmission** through ingestion of contaminated food live in intestines **ii. Effects of parasite on the host** inflammation of lungs pneumonia produce toxic substances intestinal obstruction **iii. Adaptations** thick cuticle which protects it against digestion lays many eggs to ensure survival mouthparts for sucking partly digested food lack of elaborate alimentary canal tolerant to low oxygen concentration two hosts to ensure survival eggs have protective cover to ensure survival in adverse <br><br>environments <br><br>**iv. Control and prevention** proper sanitation wash hand after defaecation and before eating <br><br>**e) Discuss schistosoma under the following sub-headings**<br><br>**i. Mode of transmission** through contaminated water in swamps, etc **ii. Effects on host** bleeding in lungs blood stained urine unthriftiness **iii. Adaptations** has two hosts to increase chances of survival eggs have a hook like structure which raptures the walls of <br><br>intestine or bladder <br><br> lay large number of eggs to ensure survival larvae have a sucker for attachment on human skin which it <br><br>digests <br><br> larva has a tail which it swims with in search of host in <br><br>water <br><br> prolonged association between male and female to ensure <br><br>that fertilization takes place <br><br> adults can tolerate low oxygen concentration (in the animal <br><br>tissues) <br><br> adult worm secretes chemicals against antibodies larvae and eggs (have glands that) secrete lytic enzymes to <br><br>soften the tissues that ease penetration <br><br> larvae are encysted so as to survive adverse conditions **iv) Control and prevention**<br><br> proper use of toilet facilities boiling water before use avoid bathing/washing in infected water Use of molluscicides (chemicals that kill snails/biological <br><br>control/clearing water weeds on which snails feed. <br><br> Drainage of stagnant water <br><br>**3.**Wearing gum/rubber boots <br><br>**a) i) What is reproduction?**<br><br> process by which living organisms give rise to new <br><br>members of their own species which resemble the parents <br><br>**ii) Why is reproduction important?**<br><br> for continuity of species/ to ensure survival of species maintaining life of species replace dead individuals <br><br>**iii) Name the types of reproduction** sexual which involves fusion of male and female gametes asexual in which no gametes are involved but parts of a <br><br>mature organism develops into new individuals <br><br>**b) i) What is cell division?**<br><br> process by which cells are formed from pre-existing cells <br><br>**ii) What are chromosomes?**<br><br> Threadlike structures found in nucleus of a cell. The units called genes Genes are factors that cause inheritance or determine <br><br>characteristics of offspring <br><br>**c) i) What is mitosis?**<br><br> A type of cell division that occurs during growth leading to <br><br>increase in number of cells <br><br> all cells maintain the same chromosome constitution i.e. the <br><br>diploid state <br><br>**ii) Describe the five stages of mitosis** **Interphase**<br><br><br><br> replication of organelles duplication of DNA production of energy (ATP) for cell division <br><br>**Prophase**<br><br> stage of dehydration chromosomes shorten and thicken chromosome replicates into two chromatids chromatids joined at centromere formation of spindle fibers <br><br>**Metaphase**<br><br> chromosomes move to equator (early metaphase) chromosomes line up at the equator homologous chromosomes do not associate <br><br>329 <br><br>**Anaphase**<br><br> chromatids separate move to opposite ends (poles) of the cell <br><br>Telophase <br><br> chromatids reach the poles formation of two daughter cells occurs i.e. cytoplasmic <br><br>division <br><br>**ii) State the significance of mitosis**<br><br> ensures each daughter cell has same number and kinds of <br><br>chromosomes as daughter cells <br><br> gives rise to new cells (responsible for growth) <br><br>**d) i) What is meiosis?**<br><br> division of diploid cells to form gametes which are haploid <br><br>**ii) State the significance of meiosis**<br><br> gives rise to gametes source of variation <br><br>**iii) Give a summary of the stages of meiosis** **First meiotic division** **Interphase**<br><br> cell is in non-dividing condition <br><br>330 chromosomes appear threadlike <br><br><br><br>**Prophase I**<br><br> chromatic material shorten and thicken double stranded chromosomes appear (bivalent) double stranded chromosomes pair and twist round each <br><br>other (synapsis) <br><br> point of contact of chromosomes is called chiasma <br><br>**Metaphase I**<br><br> paired homologous chromosomes line up at the equator <br><br>**Anaphase I**<br><br> paired homologous chromosomes move to the poles <br><br>**Telophase I**<br><br> paired homologous chromosomes reach the poles two new nuclei are formed <br><br>**Second meiotic division** **Prophase II**<br><br> chromosomes shorten, thicken and become visible, stage of dehydration <br><br>**Metaphase II**<br><br> movement of chromosomes to equator <br><br>331 <br><br>**Anaphase II** -chromatids of each chromosome separate to the poles <br><br>**Telophase II**<br><br> reach the poles four haploid daughter cells are formed <br><br>**iv) Give the similarities between mitosis and meiosis**<br><br> both take part in cells both involve division (cell multiplication) <br><br>**v) What are the differences between mitosis and meiosis?** **Mitosis** **Meiosis**<br><br> maintenance of reduction/halving of <br><br>chromosome number (diploid) <br><br>chromosomes (haploid occurs in reproductive cells/gonads/produces gametes <br><br> takes place in somatic <br><br>cells/growth <br><br> no crossing over/no crossing over takes <br><br>variations <br><br>place/variation occurs results into 4 daughter results into 2 daughter <br><br>cells <br><br>cells there is no pairing/no <br><br>synapsis/no bivalent formed paring/synapsis/bivalen t <br><br> a one division process <br><br> a two division process of four stages each of four stages <br><br>**d) i) What is asexual reproduction**<br><br> formation of new individuals as a result of the fusion of <br><br>two gametes <br><br> fusion is called fertilization <br><br>332 **ii) What is the significance of sexual reproduction in living** **organisms?**<br><br> leads to genetic variation e.g. cross breeding which gives <br><br>rise to hybrids <br><br>**iii) State the advantages of sexual reproduction**<br><br> genetic variation greater adaptability to environment by offspring few bad or good traits inherited/retained greater amount of dispersal is possible may result in stronger offspring <br><br>**iv) Give the disadvantages of sexual reproduction**<br><br> less certainty in egg and sperm meeting low rate of survival sex-linked diseases easily transmitted <br><br>**e) i) What is asexual reproduction?**<br><br> formation of new organisms without fusion of gametes occurs with only one parent parts of organism develop into new individual **ii) State the advantages of asexual reproduction** retention of useful characteristics/genes/traits offspring establish faster/shorter life cycle better chances of survival because of suitable environment <br><br>**iii) Give the disadvantages of asexual reproduction**<br><br> lack of genetic variation lowered resistance to disease loss of hybrid vigor competition for resources due to overcrowding **iv) Explain how reproduction occurs by the following** **methods of asexual reproduction** **Sporulation**<br><br> formation of spores spores are small haploid cells produced by plants spores give rise to new haploid organisms includes moulds, ferns, bryophytes, pteridophytes <br><br>**Budding**<br><br> where an outgrowth arises from a parent and drops off to <br><br>develop into a new organisms <br><br> hereditary material in the daughter cell and parent are <br><br>exactly the same <br><br> occurs in organisms such as hydra, jelly fish, sea anemones, <br><br>yeast and some fungi <br><br>**Binary fission** a cell splits into two new cells of equal size each daughter cell grows into anew organism Occurs in organisms such as amoeba, euglena, <br><br>paramecium, some fungi and bacteria. <br><br>**f) i) What is a flower?**<br><br> this is the reproductive structure which bears the <br><br>reproductive parts of a plant it produces seeds and fruits <br><br>**ii) Draw a longitudinal section of a labeled diagram of a** **flower**<br><br><br><br>**iii) Give the functions of the parts of a flower** **Receptacle**<br><br> expanded end of stalk which bears floral parts <br><br>**Calyx**<br><br> consists of sepals usually green protect flower in bud <br><br>**Corolla**<br><br> consist of petals often colored or scented to attract insects <br><br>**Androecium**<br><br> male part of flower consist of stamens each stamen consists of an anther containing pollen sacs another produces pollen grains which contain male gametes <br><br>**Gynaecium**<br><br> female part of flower consists of one or more carpels each carpel contains one or more ovules in an ovary style bearing a stigma extends from ovary ovary contains female gametes which when fertilized <br><br>become seeds <br><br>**iv) What is inflorescence?**<br><br> a group of flowers borne on the same branch (main stalk) <br><br>v**) Explain the meaning of the following terms which** **describe flowers** **Hermaphrodite**<br><br>334 one with both stamen and carpel most flowers are hermaphrodite/bisexual <br><br>**Unisexual**<br><br> have only one of carpel or stamen i.e. either male or female <br><br>**Carpelate**<br><br> also called pistilate contains only carpels hence a female flower <br><br>**Staminate**<br><br> also called male flower contains only stamens <br><br>**Dioecious plants**<br><br> have pistilate and staminate flowers on different plants e.g. <br><br>pawpaw **Monoecius plants**<br><br> have pistilate and staminate on one plant however, pistilate and staminate occur at different plants <br><br>e.g. maize <br><br>**Complete flower**<br><br> Has all four parts i.e. Calyx, corolla, androecium and <br><br>gynoecium **Incomplete flower**<br><br> does not have all four parts at least one is missing <br><br>**vi) Explain the meaning of the following types of ovary** **Superior**<br><br> ovary occurs above other floral parts on the receptacle <br><br>**Inferior (epigynous)**<br><br> other floral parts arise above ovary on the receptacle <br><br>**g) i) What is pollination?**<br><br> transfer of pollen grains from anther of a stamen to stigma <br><br>of a flower <br><br>**ii) Explain the types of pollination**<br><br> self pollination takes place when mature pollen grains of a <br><br>flower fall on the stigma of the same flower <br><br> cross pollination takes place when pollen grains of a flower fall on the stigma of another flower of the same species <br><br>**iii) State the advantages of pollination**<br><br> healthy offspring leads to variation greater chances of dispersal **iv) List the agents of pollination**<br><br> wind water insects <br><br>**v) How are flowers adapted to wind and insect pollination?** **Insect pollinated flowers (entomophilus)**<br><br> are scented to attract insects have stick stigma for pollen grains to stick on are brightly coloured to attract insects presence of nectar to attract insects have nectar guides to guide insects to the nectarines have nectarines to secrete nectar stigma/ anthers located inside the flower/tubal/funnel <br><br>shaped corolla to increase chances of contact by insects sticky/spiny/spiky pollen grains which stick on the body of <br><br>insects and on stigma <br><br> large/conspicuous flowers easily seen by/attract insects anthers firmly attached to the filament for insects to brush <br><br>against them <br><br> landing platform to ensure contact with anthers and stigma mimicry to attract (male) insects **Wind pollinated flower (anemophilus)**<br><br> anthers/stigma hang outside the flower to increase chances <br><br>of pollination <br><br> the style/filament is long to expose stigma/anthers stigma is hairy/feathery/branched to increase surface area <br><br>over which pollen grains land/to trap pollen grains <br><br> pollen grains are smooth/dry/light/small to be easily carried <br><br>by wind <br><br> large amount of pollen grains to increase chances of <br><br>pollination <br><br> anthers loosely attached to filaments to enable them to <br><br>sway to release pollen grains <br><br> pollen grains may have structures which contain air to <br><br>increase buoyancy <br><br> flowers have long stalks holding them out in the wind **vi) State the ways in which plants prevent self-pollination**<br><br> protandry(anthers/stamens mature first) protagyny (pistils mature first) monoecism (where male and female parts are on same plant <br><br>but different parts) dioecism(where male and female parts are on different <br><br>plants) <br><br> incompatibility (self sterility) heterostyly (styles at different heights) <br><br>**vii) Give the characteristics that ensure cross pollination** **takes place in flowering plants**<br><br> presence of special structures that attract agents of <br><br>pollination <br><br> protandry/dichogamy protagyny/dichogamy monoecism self sterility heterostyly **viii State the advantages of cross pollination** hybrid vigour less prone to diseases promotes genetic variation greater evolutionary potential <br><br>**h) i) What is fertilization?** - Fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote **ii) Describe how fertilization takes place in a flower**<br><br> this follows pollination pollen grain is deposited on the stigma pollen grain sticks to the surface of the stigma the surface of the stigma produces a chemical substance which stimulates the pollen grain to produce a pollen tube/to germinate <br><br> the pollen tube grows through the style tissues on which it <br><br>feeds until it enters the ovary <br><br> the generative nucleus divides into two giving two male nuclei <br><br> embryo sac contains eight nuclei i.e. two synergids, egg <br><br>cell, two polar nuclei and three antipodal cells the pollen tube enters the embryo sac through the <br><br>micropyle and one of the male nucleus fuses with the egg cell/ovum to form a zygote <br><br> the other male nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei to form the triploid nuclei/endosperm)food storage used by developing embryo) <br><br> the pollen tube nucleus in the pollen tube disintergrates <br><br>soon afterwards <br><br> this process is referred to as double fertilization <br><br> zygote grows into an embryo containing plumule, radicle <br><br>and cotyledons <br><br><br><br>**iii) What is double fertilization?**<br><br> there are two male nuclei entering embryo sac one fuses with the ovum to form a zygote, while the other <br><br>fuses with the polar nuclei to form a triploid primary endosperm nucleus <br><br> therefore there are two fusions at fertilization **iv) Name the changes that Occur in a flower after** **fertilization**<br><br> petals, stamen, calyx and style wither ovary wall changes into pericarp intergument changes into seed coat/testa zygote changes into embryo (by mitosis) primary endosperm nucleus changes into endosperm whole ovule changes into seed ovary develops and grows into fruit(under the influence of <br><br>gibberrellic hormone) <br><br>**j) i) Distinguish between a fruit and a seed** a fruit is a fertilized ovary and has two scars a seed is a fertilized ovule and has one scar <br><br>**ii) How is a seed formed?**<br><br> after fertilization, zygote grows into an embryo, primary <br><br>endosperm nucleus developed into endosperm, interguments harden to form testa, hence the whole ovule becomes the seed <br><br> the seed loses water to become drier the seed has plumule, radicle, seed leaves called <br><br>cotyledons, a microphyle and a scar <br><br>**iii) Draw a labeled diagram of a seed**<br><br>338 **iv) Describe the main parts of a seed** **Testa**<br><br> also called seed coat a tough outer covering which protects the seed from <br><br>insects, bacteria etc <br><br> segment is the membrane inside the testa <br><br>**Hilum**<br><br> a scar spot where the seed was attached to the fruit or pod <br><br>**Micropyle**<br><br> small hole through which water and air enter the seed <br><br>**Radicle**<br><br> embryonic root grows into the shoot system <br><br>**Cotyledons**<br><br> embryonic leaves store food for the germinating seed i.e. for plumule and <br><br>radicle <br><br> when plumule and radicle grow, they use food stored in the <br><br>cotyledon <br><br> in some seeds food is stored in the endosperm <br><br>**v) Draw a labeled diagram of a fruit**<br><br><br><br>**vi) How is a fruit formed?**<br><br> one of the organs that remains on the plant after pollination <br><br>and fertilization is the ovary <br><br> within the ovary, the developing embryo produces special <br><br>chemical substances that stimulate the young ovary <br><br> these substances also signal the start of the formation of the <br><br>fruit, which is a mature ovary <br><br> the fruit may contain one or more seeds during fruit formation the ovary increases in size while <br><br>ripening or maturing <br><br> a true fruit is formed from the ovary of a flower after <br><br>fertilization <br><br>339 it has two scars(style scar and stalk scar) and contains seeds some seeds are not formed from the ovary of a flower some other parts of a flower develop to form a fruit such fruits are called false fruits <br><br>**vii) Explain the importance of fruits in the survival of plants** protect the seed against dessication, predators and adverse <br><br>conditions <br><br> aid in seed dispersal by attracting agents of dispersal stores food for the plant vii.**Distinguish between parthenogenesis and**<br><br>parthenocarpy <br><br> parthenogenesis is development of new animals from <br><br>unfertilized eggs <br><br> parthenocarpy is development of a fruit without <br><br>fertilization <br><br>**iv) State the differences between a seed**and fruit **Seed** **Fruit**<br><br> fertilized ovule attached to placenta through funicle fertilized ovary attached to branch through a stalk <br><br> one scar called hilum has seed coat/testa seed wall <br><br> two scars (style scar <br><br>and stalk scar) <br><br> has fruit wall/pericarp fruit wall is undifferentiated <br><br>differentiated <br><br>**j. i) What is placentation?**<br><br> arrangement of ovules within the plant ovary <br><br>**ii) Explain the following types of placentation** **Marginal**<br><br><br><br> placenta appears as one ridge on ovary wall ovules are attached to placenta in rows e.g. peas in a pod <br><br>**Basal**<br><br> placenta formed at the base of the ovary with numerous <br><br>ovules attached to it <br><br>340 **Parietal**<br><br><br><br> edges of carpels fuse together dividing walls disappear, leaving one loculus have numerous seeds e.g. passion fruit placenta of each carpel appears as ridges on ovary wall <br><br>**Axile**<br><br> edges of carpels fuse <br><br>together to form a single central placenta <br><br> numerous ovules arranged on placenta ovary divided into a number of loculi by walls of the carpel <br><br>e.g. <br><br>**Free central placentation**<br><br> edges of carpels fuse together dividing was disappears leaving one loculus placenta appears at base of ovary has numerous ovules **k) i) How are fruits grouped?** **Simple fruits** formed from a single flower or one ovary e.g. mango <br><br>**Aggregate fruits**<br><br> consists a group of ovaries that appear on a common <br><br>receptacle e.g. strawberry <br><br>**Multiple (compound) fruits**<br><br> formed from several flowers whose ovaries fuse together <br><br>after fertilization <br><br>341 form a bunch e.g. pineapple, figs are always false fruits **ii) What are succulent fruits?** also called fleshy fruits all or part of pericarp (fruit wall) becomes juicy <br><br>**iii) Give types of juicy fruits** **-Berry**<br><br><br><br> has many seeds whole pericarp is succulent e.g. orange, tomato, pawpaw <br><br>**Drupe**<br><br> only one seed pericarp divided into three layers i.e. epicarp, <br><br>mesocarp(juicy) and endocarp(hard) <br><br> e.g. mango and coconut <br><br>**Pome**<br><br> juicy part is swollen receptacle is usually a false fruit example is a pear **iv) What are dry fruits?**<br><br> have a pericarp that is dry, hard and woody either dehiscent or indehiscent called dry because they are not succulent <br><br>**v) What are dehiscent fruits?**<br><br> split open when ripe to release seeds contain many seeds <br><br>**vi) Give types of dehiscent fruits** **Legumes**<br><br> split along two edges are usually pods e.g. beans, peas, crotolaria <br><br>**Follicle**<br><br> split on one side only e.g. Sodom apple <br><br>342 **Capsule**<br><br> has several lines of weakness/sutures open in many places e.g. castor oil, cotton <br><br>**vii) What are indehiscent fruits?**<br><br> non-splitting fruits usually one seeded only **ix) Give main types of indehiscent fruits**<br><br>**Nut**<br><br> pericarp woody, hard and thick e.g. cashew <br><br>**Achene**<br><br> has thin, tough pericarp e.g. sunflower **l) i) What is seed and fruit dispersal?** spreading of seeds and fruits away from parents so as to settle where conditions are suitable for their germination <br><br>**ii) Why is dispersal of seeds and fruits necessary?**<br><br> prevent overcrowding reduces competition for space, nutrients and light colonization of new areas is made possible to increase chances of survival to prevent inbreeding to avoid extinction due to over competition for the <br><br>necessities <br><br>**iii) Explain how seeds and fruits are adapted to various** **methods of dispersal** **Adaptations for wind dispersal**<br><br> they have wings, feathers or hair-like structures to increase <br><br>surface area for wind to carry them easily/buoyancy seeds/fruits are loosely attached on the stalks so that they <br><br>can easily be released and carried away by wing <br><br> seeds/fruits are generally light and small sized to be easily <br><br>carried by wind <br><br> some seeds/fruits have parachute-like structures to be easily <br><br>carried b wind <br><br> some have censor mechanism where seeds and fruits are <br><br>borne on long stalks that are loosely attached which allows swaying so that movements of capsule by wind releases the seeds <br><br>**Water dispersal seeds**<br><br> seed/ mesocarp has air spaces thus light/buoyant to float <br><br>hence carried by water <br><br> they have waterproof cover and tough pericarp protects <br><br>seeds from getting soaked fibrous and spongy mesocarp to easily float <br><br>**Animal dispersal seeds**<br><br> presence of hooks for attachment to animals thus carried to <br><br>other parts <br><br> fruits are brightly coloured, succulent and scented to attract <br><br>animals <br><br> seed coats are hard and resistant to digestive enzymes hence seeds are dropped away from mother plant large in size or borne on clusters to be easily seen <br><br>**Self dispersal/explosive** self opening seeds they have lines of weakness called sutures for violent opening thus scattering seeds away from parent plant <br><br>**5. a) i) Distinguish between external and internal**<br><br>**fertilization in animals**<br><br> in external fertilization fusion of the male and female <br><br>gametes takes place outside the body of the female e.g. amphibians and fish <br><br> in internal fertilization union of gametes occurs inside the <br><br>body of the female <br><br>**ii) State the advantages and disadvantages of external** **fertilization** **Advantages**<br><br> large numbers produced therefore many offspring per <br><br>breeding season <br><br> female does not suffer gestation stress mother does not need to care for the young except in a few <br><br>species <br><br> the surviving individuals are highly selected for better survival <br><br>**Disadvantages**<br><br> many predators surround the eggs before and after <br><br>fertilization <br><br> fewer chances of fertilization/a lot of gametes wasted embryo development at mercy of environment large numbers of female gametes are required therefore <br><br>female gets much exhausted <br><br>**iii) State the advantages and disadvantages of internal** **fertilization** **Disadvantages**<br><br> number of gametes fewer hence less number of offspring less adapted for sudden change of environment after birth <br><br> in mammals females suffer gestation stress <br><br>**Advantages**<br><br> more chances of fertilization fewer predators of oval/fertilized egg protected in females <br><br>body <br><br> stable internal environment fewer gametes required <br><br>**iii) Give a reason why it is necessary for frogs to lay many** **eggs**<br><br> to increase chances of survival/fertilization **iv) Compare external and internal fertilization** **External** **Internal**<br><br> occurs in water outside the bodies of animals <br><br> occurs inside the body of the female animal fewer eggs released <br><br> many eggs are laid usually less contact between male and female <br><br>from ovary <br><br> very close contact in form of copulation between male and female both fertilized eggs exposed to danger <br><br> Fertilized eggs are <br><br>enclosed hence highly protected inside females body. <br><br>**b) i) Draw and label the human male reproductive system**<br><br><br><br>345 <br><br>**ii) Describe how the mammalian male reproductive system is** **adapted to perform its functions** **Penis**<br><br> is highly vascularised/spongy has a sensitive glands becomes erect to allow entry into the vagina <br><br>**Scrotum**<br><br> contains the testes outside the body on whose walls the <br><br>process of spermatogenesis takes place <br><br> the process is favored by lower temperature it contains sertoli cells which nourish sperms until they are <br><br>mature **Epididymis**<br><br> long and coiled for the purpose of sperm storage <br><br>**Vas deferens** muscular upon contraction pushes sperms out and allows ejaculation <br><br>**Gametes**<br><br>346 produced in large numbers to increase chances of <br><br>fertilization <br><br> the sperms have a tail for swimming/large number of <br><br>mitochondria to provide energy/allow swimming to reach the egg **Accessory glands**<br><br> are seminal vesicle, Cowpers gland and prostate gland they produce seminal fluid to provide a medium/ nutrients <br><br>for sperms to swim <br><br>**iii) How is the sperm adapted to perform its function?** acrosomes contain enzymes to digest egg membrane nucleus contains genetic material mitochondria produce energy to move the tail back and <br><br>forth <br><br> the lashing movement of the tail enables the sperm to move/propulsion in fluid medium towards the egg <br><br> it is streamlined for faster/easier movement/swimming to <br><br>meet the egg <br><br>**c) i) Draw and label the human female reproductive system**<br><br><br><br>347 <br><br>348 <br><br>349 **ii) Describe how the various structures of the human female** **reproductive system are adapted to their function** **Ovaries**<br><br> have several graafian follicles that develop and burst open <br><br>to release/produce mature ova <br><br> secretes sex hormones)oestrogen) which initiate/control <br><br>development of secondary sexual characteristics <br><br> produce hormones oestrogen and progesterone which prepare the uterus for implantation and subsequent nourishment of the embryo <br><br>**Oviducts (fallopian tube)**<br><br> are thin narrow and tubular to increase flowing speed of <br><br>semen containing sperms <br><br> are funnel shaped on the end next to ovary which enables <br><br>them to receive the ovum <br><br> their lining contains cilia which propel the ovum towards <br><br>the uterus <br><br> has peristaltic muscles that enable movement of zygote/ovum to the uterus for implantation <br><br> is fairly long to increase surface area for fertilization <br><br>**Uterus**<br><br> is muscular for protection of developing embryo has elastic wall that allows growth and development of <br><br>foetus/embryo <br><br> has a highly vascularised endometrium that provides nutrients/gaseous exchange to developing embryo <br><br>**Cervix** has valves that close the lower end of the uterus to ensure <br><br>continued pregnancy during gestation period <br><br> is capable of dilating has narrow entrance/neck-like entrance to uterus that <br><br>enables quick swimming of sperms to uterus <br><br> has suction mechanism that draws up/pulls sperms into <br><br>uterus <br><br> has a W shape that fits well with the glands of the penis <br><br>to ensure sperms are deposited at the right point <br><br>**Vagina**<br><br> is elastic and muscular to enable good accommodation or penetration of the penis thus proper deposition of sperms and for easy parturition allows menstrual flow <br><br> has sensitive labial walls which secrete/produce lubricating <br><br>substances that ensure/enable/facilitate good coition capable of considerable enlargement, due to elastic muscles, to accommodate baby during parturition <br><br>**Clitoris**<br><br> has sensitive cells for orgasm <br><br>**iii) Explain how the ovum is adapted to its function**<br><br> nucleus contains genetic material ventelline membrane encloses plasma membrane which <br><br>encloses yolky cytoplasm <br><br> yolky cytoplasm provides nourishment jelly coat protects ovum against dehydration <br><br>**iv) Explain the differences between sperm and ovum** **Sperm** **Ovum**<br><br> long with a tail and <br><br> spherical large stationary a lot of food stored in yolky cytoplasm lacks acrosome a lot of cytoplasm <br><br>head small locomotory stores little food has acrosome (tip with <br><br>lytic enzymes) <br><br> nucleus prominent but cytoplasm negligible <br><br>**d) i) Explain the process of fertilization**<br><br> a process whereby the egg and sperm are brought together <br><br>and fuse to form a zygote occurs in the fallopian tube after copulation sperm head penetrates the outer coat of the ovum while the <br><br>tail remains outside <br><br> penetration is due to reaction of acrosome acrosome digests the vitelline membrane thereafter a zygote is formed zygote which is diploid undergoes rapid cell division to <br><br>form a mass of cells called blastocyst <br><br> after fertilization a membrane forms around the ovum to <br><br>prevent further entry of sperms <br><br> blastocyst eventually develops into an embryo <br><br>352 <br><br>**i) Explain the process of implantation**<br><br> this is the embedding and attaching of the embryo in the <br><br>uterine wall/endometrium <br><br> implantation marks the beginning of pregnancy sometimes implantation occurs in the oviduct wall which is abnormal and results in ectopic pregnancy which is fatal <br><br> the outer wall of the blastocyst develops fingerlike projections which project into the uterine wall for attachment <br><br> the projections are called villi <br><br>353 the villi and endometrium develop into an organ that is <br><br>called the placenta <br><br> the embryo is attached to the placenta through a cord called <br><br>the umbilical cord <br><br><br><br>**iii)**<br><br>354 <br><br>**State the functions of umbilical cord**<br><br> it contains blood vessels umbilical artery, iliac arteries and <br><br>umbilical veins) <br><br> it joins the placenta to the embryo passage for nutrients from the mother passage of excretory substances from foetus to mother for <br><br>final discharge gaseous exchange passage of antibodies from mother to foetus, for protection <br><br>of foetus against diseases **iv) State the role of placenta**<br><br> exchange of gases between mother and foetus exchange of nutrients and nitrogenous wastes anchorage/attachment of foetus produces hormones (oestrogen and progesterone) <br><br>**e) i) What is gestation period?**<br><br> time taken from fertilization to birth/pregnancy <br><br>**ii) Explain the functions of the membranes associated with** **placenta** **Chorion**<br><br> surrounds the embryo has fingerlike projections that attach embryo to the uterus <br><br>**Amnion**<br><br> contains amniotic fluid fluid surrounds embryo <br><br>355 protects embryo from mechanical injury by acting as shock <br><br>absorbers <br><br> fluid also protects embryo from dehydration distributes pressure equally over embryo <br><br>**Yolk sac**<br><br> surround the yolk produces blood cells for embryo until its own liver is able <br><br>to perform the task <br><br>**Allantois**<br><br> present only for a short time removes and store waste material it eventually becomes the umbilical cord <br><br>**iii) Explain the events that take place to facilitate parturition**<br><br> near birth the placenta produces less progesterone oxytocin hormone is produced by posterior lobe of pituitary <br><br>gland <br><br> because progesterone level has decreased the uterus <br><br>becomes sensitive to oxytocin <br><br> oxytocin causes the contraction of the uterus (myometrium) these contractions are called labour pains just before parturition the head turns downwards the contractions eventually push the baby through the <br><br>vagina <br><br> amnion breaks and amniotic fluid is released oxytocin dilates the cervix foetus is expelled through cervix with head coming out first finally the whole infant comes out the umbilical cord is cut and the placenta is expelled as afterbirth <br><br>**iv) State the reasons why later in pregnancy the ovary will b** **e removed without disturbing the pregnancy**<br><br> corpus luteum in the ovary secretes progesterone which maintains pregnancy and development of foetus after conception <br><br> after four months pregnancy is maintained by progesterone <br><br>from the placenta <br><br>**f) i) What are secondary sexual characteristics** - Characteristics (physiological and anatomical) that start developing at puberty due to the influence of male and female hormones **ii) State the main secondary changes in Boys**<br><br> deepening of the voice <br><br> growth of hair on face, pubic part, chest, legs penis and testes become bigger muscular development sperm production begins at puberty and may continue <br><br>throughout life <br><br>**Girls**<br><br> growth of hair on pubic part and armpits widening/enlargement of hips development of breasts menstrual cycle starts as ovaries mature body acquires extra fat <br><br>**iii) Describe the role of hormones in secondary sexual** **characteristics inBoys** **Follicle stimulation hormone (FSH)**<br><br> from pituitary stimulates production of androgens(male hormones) mainly <br><br>testosterone by testis <br><br>**Testosterone**<br><br> secondary sexual characteristics <br><br>**Girls** **FHS**<br><br> from pituitary development of follicles stimulates oestrogen production by ovary <br><br>**LH**<br><br> from pituitary ovulation stimulates release of progesterone by ovary <br><br>**Oestrogen**<br><br> stimulates release of LH secondary sexual characteristics <br><br>**Progesterone**<br><br> also from placenta sustains pregnancy as it inhibits prolactin and oxytocin <br><br>during pregnancy <br><br>**Prolactin** **ii) Describe the role of hormones in the human menstrual** **cycle**<br><br> it is controlled by sex hormones which are responsible for <br><br>the onset of secondary sexual characteristics and also control of the menstrual cycle <br><br> the onset is signaled by discharge of blood/menses 14 days <br><br>following the start of menstruation <br><br> anterior lobe of pituitary gland secretes follicle stimulating <br><br>hormone(FSH) <br><br> Follicle stimulating hormone causes graafian follicle to develop in the ovary. It also stimulates tissues of the ovary/wall (theca) to secrete oestrogen <br><br> oestrogen causes repair/healing of uterine wall oestrogen stimulates anterior lobe of pituitary to produce <br><br>luteinising hormonge (LH) <br><br> LH causes ovulation. It also causes graafian follicle to <br><br>change into corpus luteum. LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progesterone <br><br> Progesterone causes proliferation/thickening of uterine wall Oesterogen/progesterone inhibits the production of FSH by anterior lobe of pituitary, thus no more follicles develop and oestrogen production reduces <br><br> In the next two weeks progesterone level rises and inhibits <br><br>production of LH from anterior lobe of pituitary <br><br> The corpus lutetium stops secreting progesterone and <br><br>menstruation occurs when the level of progesterone drops <br><br> Anterior lobe of pituitary starts secreting FSH again. <br><br>**iii) What is menopause?**<br><br> end of ovulation in women occurs after age of 45 years does not occur in males <br><br>**h) Explain the symptoms, methods of transmitting and** **prevention (control) of the following sexually transmitted** **diseases** **i) Gonorrhea** - caused by a bacterium called*Neisseria gonorrhea* - transmitted through sexual intercourse, - infects urethra and vaginal tract (epithelia) - Symptoms include pain, discharge of mucus and bad smell (females) - Effects include sterility, heart diseases, blindness of foetus and arthritis - Treatment by antibiotics - Control and prevention by proper sexual conduct **ii) Herpes**<br><br> notably*Herpes simplex*and*H. genitalis* caused by virus which attacks genitalia symptoms are painful sores in genitalia, skin lesions transmitted in saliva, sexual intercourse and injection by <br><br>drug addicts no treatment <br><br>**iii) Syphilis**<br><br> caused by bacterium called*Treponema palladium* symptoms are painless wounds in genitalia attack genitalia, nervous system, lips treated by antibiotics <br><br>**iv) Trichomoniasis**<br><br> caused by plasmodium called*Trichomonas* attacks reproductive tract symptoms are itching and discharge of pus from the <br><br>genitals <br><br> treated by antibiotics <br><br>**v) Hepatitis** - Viral disease Affects the liver Transmitted through sexual intercourse No known treatment **vi) Candidiasis**<br><br> caused by fungus called*Candida albicans* transmitted through sexual intercourse symptoms include itching urethra, and vaginal discharge <br><br>(odourless) <br><br> controlled by personal hygiene, early treatment and <br><br>responsible sexual behavior <br><br>**vii) HIV/AIDS**<br><br> caused by HIV virus transmitted by sexual intercourse, blood transfusion, sharing piercing instruments from infected mother to foetus, infant and baby <br><br> symptoms include fever, swollen lymph nodes, night sweating, cough, weight loss, fatigue, loss of appetite, diarrhea, headache, a opportunistic infections and tumors <br><br> Control by responsible sexual behaviour, education, <br><br>screening blood for transfusion and using sterile piercing instruments. <br><br>**6. a) Define the terms**<br><br>**i) Growth** an irreversible change in size of a cell, organ or whole <br><br>organism <br><br> growth is due to synthesis of protoplasm or extracellular <br><br>substances <br><br>**ii) Development** refers to a series of changes which an organism goes <br><br>through in its lie cycle <br><br> during development both qualitative and quantitative <br><br>changes take place(involves differentiation) <br><br>**iii) Differentiation** refers to changes in which the cells of the body undergo and become specialised to perform specific functions <br><br>**b) i) Differentiate growth in plants and animals** **Plants** **Animals**<br><br> confined to shoots/root <br><br> occurs all over the body(intercalary) different parts grow at <br><br>tips (apical) <br><br> have definite growth regions(meristems) <br><br>different rates(allometric) maximum growth on maturity(definite) <br><br> often <br><br>indefinite/continuous <br><br> growth results in <br><br> no branching affected by nutrients <br><br>branching <br><br> affected by light, <br><br>auxins, hormones and temperature **ii) List the processes involved in growth**<br><br> assimilation cell enlargement cell division(by mitosis) **iv) List the parameters used to measure growth** height/length dry weight number of individuals volume leaf area of plant <br><br>**iv) Name the patterns of growth in organisms**<br><br>- allometric and isometric <br><br>- limited and unlimited - discontinuous growth <br><br>**c) i) Name the different types of growth curves**<br><br>- sigmoid curve(normal growth curve) - intermittent growth curve <br><br>**ii) Draw a sigmoid growth curve and explain its different** **phases/stages**<br><br><br><br>**A-lag phase** - Slow growth rate at first Organism adapting to the environment **B-exponential phase**<br><br>- organisms already adapted - first growth due to birth rate that is higher than death rate <br><br>**C- Stationery phase (plateau)** - Birth rate equals death rate (equilibrium) Lack of nutrients, accumulation of toxic waste products **D-phase of decline**<br><br>- due to depletion of nutrients, accumulation of toxic wastes, <br><br>lack of space <br><br>- some individuals old hence not reproducing - death rate higher than birth rate <br><br>**iii) Draw an intermittent curve and explain the various** **stages**<br><br>A-growth B-no growth C- moulting/ecdysis <br><br>- seen in arthropods - growth in in arthropods is intermittent(takes place during some time only because their hard cuticles (exoskeleton) does not expand to cause growth <br><br>- the cuticle must be shed off first to allow further growth - the shedding is called ecdysis or moulting <br><br>361 - when moulting has taken place animal grows but growth <br><br>stops when the exoskeleton hardens again <br><br>**d) i) What is seed dormancy?**<br><br>- A state where a viable seed is incapable of germinating <br><br>when all conditions are favourable. <br><br>**ii) State the biological importance of seed dormancy**<br><br>- gives embryo time to reach maturity - gives time for dispersal - allows plant to survive adverse conditions **iii) State the factors which cause seed dormancy** **Internal factors**<br><br>- presence of abscisic acid/ABA/ presence of germination <br><br>inhibitors <br><br>- embryo not fully developed - absence of hormones/enzymes/inactivity of hormones/enzymes/gibberellins/cytokinins <br><br>- impermeability of seed coat <br><br>**External factors**<br><br>- unsuitable temperature - absence of light - lack of oxygen - lack of oxygen - lack of water <br><br>**iv) Give the conditions necessary to break seed dormancy** - scarification/scratching to make seed coat impermeable - vernalisation/cold treatment in some seeds like wheat - burning/nicking/expose to heat e.g. wattle seeds - destruction of germination inhibitors **e) i) What is seed germination?**<br><br>- process by which a seed develops in a seedling <br><br>**ii) What is viability**<br><br>- ability of a seed to germinate <br><br>**iii) Discuss the various conditions necessary for the** **germination of seeds** **Water**<br><br>- medium for enzymatic activity - hydrolysis of food into simpler substances - medium of transport - softens the seed - acts as a solvent <br><br>**Air**<br><br>- in form of oxygen <br><br>- oxygen is used for respiration/oxidation of food to release <br><br>energy <br><br>**Suitable (optimum) temperature**<br><br>- activates enzymes involved in mobilization of food <br><br>reserves <br><br>**Enzymes**<br><br>- breakdown and subsequent oxidation of food - conservation of hydrolyzed food products into new plant <br><br>tissues <br><br>**Viability**<br><br>- only viable seed are able to germinate and grow <br><br>**iv) Name and describe the types of germination** **Epigeal**<br><br><br><br>cotyledons are brought above the ground level during germination due to elongation of hypocotyls <br><br>**Hypogeal**<br><br>- the cotyledons remain below the surface during <br><br>germination due to elongation of epicotyl e.g. maize **v) Name the part of the bean seed that elongates to bring** **about epigeal germination** hypocotyl **vi) Account for the loss in dry weight of cotyledons in a** **germinating bean seed**<br><br>- food stored is mobilized/used up for respiration and growth <br><br>**vii) Describe the physiological changes that occur in a seed** **during germination**<br><br>- in presence of oxygen, optimum temperature and water, food reserves in the seed are hydrolysed or broken down into soluble diffusible form by enzymes - soluble food diffuses to the growing embryo - oils and carbohydrates provide energy - simple sugars converted to cellulose to form cell wall <br><br>363 - amino acids make protoplasm - seed develops plumule and radicle hence germinates **viii) Explain the biological significance of cotyledons being** **brought above the ground in epigeal germination**<br><br>- cotyledons have inadequate food - they are brought above the ground to acquire chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis before the formation of foliage leaves to supplement food supply required for growth during germination <br><br>**f) i) Distinguish between primary and secondary growth** **Primary growth**<br><br>- occurs at the apical (shoot and tip) apices regions where <br><br>meristematic cells occur <br><br>- causes plant elongation since cells divide by mitosis <br><br>**Secondary growth** -occurs at the cambium meristems Increases width (girth) of the stem **ii) What are meristems**<br><br>- dividing cells - meristem means they are dividing <br><br>**iii) State the characteristics of meristematic cells**<br><br>- dense cytoplasm - thin cell walls - absence of vacuoles/cell sap <br><br>**iv) State the location and function of the following** **meristematic tissues** **Apical meristem**<br><br>- located at tips of roots and shoots - increase length of stem and roots/primary growth **Intercalary meristem**<br><br>- found at bases of internodes - responsible for elongation of internodes and increase in leaf <br><br>sheath in grasses <br><br>**Lateral meristems**<br><br>- found near the periphery of stem and root - responsible for secondary growth/growth in girth of stem <br><br>and root/lateral growth <br><br>- called cambium and constitute vascular and cork cambium <br><br>**v) Describe primary growth**<br><br>- occurs at tips of shoots and roots in the meristematic tissues <br><br>of apical meristem <br><br>- at the apex there is a zone of cell division/mitosis - cells elongate at elongation zone <br><br>- the elongated cells differentiate at the region of differentiation resulting in increase in size <br><br>- in the stems meristems give rise to leaf premodia which <br><br>envelop the apex to form a bud <br><br>- the bud protects the delicate inner cells - in roots the meristem is protected by root cap - after cells differentiate the form permanent tissues <br><br>**vi) Describe secondary growth in plants** - also called secondary thickening - only occurs in dicotyledonous plants that have cambium - monocotyledonous plants do not undergo secondary growth <br><br>because they lack intervascular cambium <br><br>- cambium cells divide to produce more cells on either side <br><br>of the cambium <br><br>- cells produced to the inside become secondary cambium - cells produced to the outside become secondary phloem - division of cambium cells occurs yearly producing new <br><br>rings of secondary phloem and secondary xylem each year <br><br>- intervascular cambium(cambium between vascular <br><br>bundles) divide to form secondary parenchyma, thereby increasing growth of medullary rays <br><br>- much more xylem is formed than phloem, thus pushing <br><br>phloem and cambium ring outward <br><br>- the rate of secondary growth is depended on seasons(rains) resulting in annual rings <br><br>- cork cambium is located beneath epidermis ad is <br><br>responsible for secondary thickening of the bark of perennial plants <br><br>- cork cambium divides to form new cork(bark) tissues to <br><br>accommodate increased growth on outside and secondary cortex on the inside <br><br>- Cork cells (cells of the bark) are loosely parked at some <br><br>points to form lenticels for gaseous exchange. **vii) State the significance of secondary growth**<br><br>- increase girth or circumference of trees - annual rings which show seasonal growth can be used to <br><br>tell the age of trees <br><br>**g) i) Describe one method which can be used to measure the** **average growth rate of a single leaf of a plant** **EITHER**<br><br>- chose/identify a young leaf(just unfolded) - use the same leaf throughout - measure (total) length of (whole) leaf <br><br>- record - repeat at regular intervals until no more change <br><br>occurs/constant length <br><br>- average rate of growth is equal to total increase in length <br><br>divided by the period taken to achieve full length <br><br>Average rate of growth = total increase in length <br><br> period taken to achieve full length <br><br>**OR**<br><br>- choose/identify a young leaf(just unfolded) - use the same leaf throughout - trace the outline on a graph paper and work out the area - record - repeat at regular intervals until regular area - average rate of growth equals to total increase in area divided by the period of time taken to achieve full area <br><br>Average rate of growth = total increase in area <br><br> period of time taken to achieve final area <br><br>**i) Describe how the growth of a root can be determined** **Materials**<br><br>- fine thread, marking ink, germinating bean seedlings, <br><br>blotting paper, ruler marked in millimeters, pins, cork, a boiling tube and moist cotton wool <br><br>**Procedure**<br><br>- dry seedlings using blotting paper - place inside against the ruler marked in mm - dip the fine thread in waterproof ink - mark the radicle at equal intervals - pin the seedling to the cork - suspend the seedling into the boiling tube containing moist cotton wool <br><br>- allow the seedling to grow for two days/some time observe the intervals with the marks - record your observations the widest intervals are found in the region just behind the tip indicating/showing region of greatest growth <br><br>**iii) A boy hammered a nail in the bark of a tree at a height of** **1.5metres above the ground.** **Four years later, the nail was found at the same height** **although the tree had grown 3 meters taller. Explain the** **above observation** The nail was hammered at a point where vertical growth had stopped/further growth was confined to increase in width/diameter. Vertical growth is confined to tips/apex/vertical apical meristem **h) i) Describe the role of hormones in growth and** **development of plants** indole acetic acid/IAA/ auxins Cell division/increase in cell division Tropic responses Cell elongation/increases in ell elongation Development of abscision layer Growth of ovaries into fruits/parthenocarpy/initiates flowers Inhibits growth of lateral buds/produces apical dominance Stimulates adventitious/lateral roots Gibberellins (Gibberellic acid/GA3 Promote cell elongation/rapid cell division/increase in length of the internodes Promote fruit formation without fertilization/parthenocarpy Reduces root growth Breaks seed dormancy/promotes germination **Cytokinnins (Kinnins/Kinnetin/Zeatin)**<br><br>- breaks dormancy - promotes flowering - promotes cell division - stabilizes protein and chlorophyll - promotes root formation on a shoot - low concentration encourages leaf senses - normal concentration increases cell enlargement in leaves - stimulates lateral bud development <br><br>**Ethylene (ethynelC2H4)** - accelerates ripening in fruits - encourages fruit fall/leaf fall - induces thickening in stern/inhibits stem elongation - promotes flowering (in pineapples) - promotes germination in certain seeds <br><br>**Abscisic acid (ABA) abscisin hormone/dormin)**<br><br>- causes bud dormancy - encourages fruit/leaf fall - high concentration causes closing of stomata - causes seed dormancy - inhibits cell elongation <br><br>**Traumatin**<br><br>- heals wounds by callous formation <br><br>**Florigen**<br><br>- promotes flowering <br><br>**ii) State the applications of plant hormones in agriculture** - induce root growth in stem cuttings - selective weed killers - encourage sprouting of lateral buds - breaking seed dormancy - induce parthenocarpy - accelerate ripening of fruits - promote flowering - cause dormancy <br><br>**iii) Explain apical dominance**<br><br>- a phenomenon whereby production of auxins by a growing <br><br>apical bud of a shoot inhibits growth of lateral buds - this inhibition is due to high concentration of auxins <br><br>(indoleacetic acid/IAA) in apical bud <br><br>- removal of terminal/apical bud causes development and <br><br>sprouting of several buds which later develop into branches <br><br>- applied in pruning coffee, tea and hedges - this leads to more yield <br><br>**iv) Describe the role of hormones in the growth and** **development of animal** **somatotrophin (growth hormones)**<br><br>- from anterior pituitary - promotes cell division - overproduction causes gigantism - underproduction causes dwarfism <br><br>**Thyroxine**<br><br>- promotes growth and metamorphosis - underproduction leads to a child becoming a cretin <br><br>(mentally retarted) <br><br>**Androgens**<br><br>- in males - growth of male reproductive organs **Oestrogen**<br><br>- in females - growth of female reproductive organs <br><br>**Ecdysone**<br><br>- in arthropods - moulting (ecdysis) <br><br>**t) i) What is metamorphosis?**<br><br>- change in form during which there are changes in structure <br><br>and function in body of organism <br><br>- prepares organism for life in a different habitat radical changes in the body during the life cycle of an organism called holometabolous development <br><br> example is egg larva pupa adult (imago) occurs in animals such as butterfly and bee <br><br><br><br>**iii) What is the significance of each of the four stages in** **complete metamorphosis?** **Larval stage**<br><br>- feeding takes place - larva is quite different from adult - larva sheds its cuticle (exoskeleton) several times to emerge <br><br>as pupa <br><br>- dispersal stage avoids overcrowding <br><br>**Pupa**<br><br>- enclosed in a case called puparium (cocoon) - no feeding - organ formation takes place <br><br>**Adult**<br><br>- emerges from puparium - reproductive stage of the life cycle **iv) Describe incomplete metamorphosis** - called hemimetabolous development - changes are gradual - eggs develop into nymphs which develop into adults - nymph resembles adult but are sexually immature - a nymph moults several times as some parts develop before <br><br>it becomes an adult <br><br>- stage of development between one moult and another is <br><br>called instar <br><br>- occurs in insects such as locust and cockroach <br><br>**v) Name the hormones that control metamorphosis in insects**<br><br>- brain hormone responsible for moulting because it <br><br>simulates production of ecdyson (moulting hormone) <br><br>- ecdysone(moulting hormone) causes moulting - juvenile hormone causes moulting in larvae <br><br>369 **vi) State the advantages of metamorphosis in the life of** **insects**<br><br>- the adult and larvae exploit different niches - do not compete for food - pupa cam survive adverse pupa can survive adverse <br><br>conditions eg-feeding stage <br><br>- dispersal prevents overcrowding **FORM IV TOPICS**<br><br>**1. a) i) Define the term genetics** the study of heredity(inheritance) and variation or study of mechanisms by which characteristics are passed from parents to offspring <br><br>**iii) List some characteristics which are inherited**<br><br> size height/length colour/type shape yield <br><br>**iii) State the importance of genetics**<br><br> helps to explain differences between organisms of the same <br><br>species <br><br> helps to explain the transmission of characters from <br><br>generation to generation improvement in livestock improvement in crops can be used to treat some difficult diseases **b) i) Explain the meaning of the following terms** **Heredity**<br><br> the resemblance among individuals related by descent transmission of traits from parents to offspring <br><br>**Trait**<br><br> also called character A character of the organism e.g. type of ear, colour of eyes, <br><br>height, yield etc. <br><br>**Gene**<br><br> unit of inheritance it is the heredity factor which transmits traits from parents <br><br>to offspring <br><br> genes are located at fixed points on chromosomes each point is called a locus (loci) **Allele**<br><br> genes can exist in a series of alternative forms at a <br><br>particular locus <br><br> allele refers to alternative forms of genes controlling a <br><br>particular characteristic <br><br>**Chromosomes**<br><br> threadlike structures found in nuclei of all plants and <br><br>animals <br><br> they carry genes which are hereditary materials they consist of substances called DNA and proteins called <br><br>histosones <br><br>**DNA**<br><br> deoxyribonucleic acid substances that make up chromosomes double helix(strand) molecule that contains genes DNA consists of nucleotides A nucleotide consists of an inorganic phosphate, ribose <br><br>sugar and a base <br><br> There are four bases in a DNA molecule i.e. Adenine(A), <br><br>guanine(G), thymine(T) and cystosine (C) <br><br> Ribose sugar has four bases attached to it i.e. adenine, <br><br>cystosine, guanine and thymine <br><br> Adenine pairs with thymine while guanine pairs with <br><br>cystosine <br><br> Nucleotide initiates and controls protein synthesis <br><br>**ii) List the types of chromosomes**<br><br> somatic (body) chromosomes also called autosomes sex chromosomes (related to reproduction) **c) i) What is variation?**<br><br> sequence of differences occurring among individuals of the <br><br>same species <br><br>**ii) State the causes of variation in organisms**<br><br> random assortment of genes during meiosis crossing over fertilization doubling of chromosome numbers(mutation) environmental conditions **iii) Name the types of variation**<br><br> Continuous variation (differences not clear cut) e.g. height, <br><br>length, weight, skin colour, intelligence etc. They are quantitative and show intermediates discontinuous variation(differences are clear cut) e.g. <br><br>ability to roll tongue, ABO blood grouping system, RH factor, patterns of fingerprints, and ability to taste PTC. They are qualitative and have no intermediates <br><br>**iv) Explain the following terms** **Acquired characteristics**<br><br> they are as a result of adaptations due to the environment <br><br>and are not inherited **Inherited characteristics**<br><br> are passed down to offspring during sexual reproduction <br><br>**Genotype**<br><br> genetic constitution of an individual/genetic makeup <br><br>**Phenotype**<br><br> characteristics of an individual observed or discernible by <br><br>other means i.e. observable character <br><br>**Dominant gene (character)**<br><br> expressed in the phenotype when homozygous or <br><br>heterozygous <br><br>**Recessive gene**<br><br> only expressed in homozygous state <br><br>**Homozygous**<br><br> when two alleles are identical e.g. LL,ll <br><br>**Heterozygous**<br><br> when two alleles are different at a particular locus e.g. Ll <br><br>**F1 and F2**<br><br> F1 means first filial generation i.e. the first generation <br><br>produced when two varieties can be crossed <br><br> F2 means second generation i.e. product of offspring or from F1 generation <br><br>**d) i) Explain Mendels first law of inheritance**<br><br> also called law of segregation it states that genes are responsible for the development of <br><br>individual characters <br><br> these characters are transmitted individually without any <br><br>alterations <br><br> Only one character from a contrasting pair can be carried in <br><br>a gamete, hence only one character can be inherited. <br><br>**ii) Give an example of this law**<br><br> In an experiment, Drosophila (fruit fly) with long wings <br><br>were crossed with those having short wings. Assume letter L denotes gene for wing size. The gene for long wings is dominant to that for short wings the genes for dominant are LL and for recessive ll. State the expected results for the first cross <br><br>**iii) What is monohybrid inheritance?**<br><br> when inheritance of one character is studied one at a time <br><br>e.g. wing size only <br><br> the F2 generation (when selfed) always gives a phenotypic ratio of 3:1 and a genotypic ratio of 1:2:1 in a complete dominance <br><br>**v) What is complete dominance?** refers to where only one dominant character is expressed <br><br>while the other character which is recessive is not expressed in the heterozygous state e.g. the case of wing size above <br><br>**e) i) What is meant by co dominance?**<br><br> When genes produce independent effects when <br><br>heterozygous/none of the genes is dominant over the other/where two or more alleles does not show complete dominance/recessiveness due to the failure of any allele to be dominate in a heterozygous condition. <br><br>**ii) Give an example of co dominance** In a certain plant species, some individual plants may have only white, red or pink flowers. In an experiment a plant with white flowers was crossed with a parent with red flowers. Show results of F1 generation. Use letter R for red gene and W for white gene. **If the plants form F1 were selfed, work out the phenotype** **ratio for the F2 generation** Phenotypic ratio 1red:2pink:1white Genotypic ratio 1:2:1 **f) i) What is a test cross?** - A cross between an individual showing a character for a dominant gene(that is homozygous or heterozygous) with a homozygous recessive individual **OR** a cross between individual(organism) of unknown genotype <br><br>with a homozygous recessive individual **ii) State the importance of a test cross in genetics**<br><br> helps in determining the genetic constitution/genotype of <br><br>an organism <br><br>**iii) What are multiple alleles?**<br><br> a set of more than two alleles that may determine a <br><br>character example is blood group which can be determined by any <br><br>two of three alleles i.e. A,B and O <br><br>**iv) Explain the inheritance of ABO blood groups**<br><br> in humans blood groups are determined by three alleles i.e. <br><br>A,B and O <br><br> it is only possible to have two genes at a time genes A and B are co-dominant while gene O is recessive <br><br>to genes A and B <br><br>**Give a worked example using parents with heterozygous** **blood groups AO and BO**<br><br>**vi) Explain the inheritance of Rhesus factor (Rh) in**<br><br>**human beings**<br><br> in humans blood is either Rh positive or Rh negative people who have Rh antigen are Rh(+ve) while those <br><br>without Rh antigen in their blood are Rh(-ve) <br><br> Rh(+ve) is due to a dominant gene while the recessive gene <br><br>causes lack of Rh factor. When a person who is homozygous dominant marries a person who is homozygous recessive the result is as shown below Let the gene for dominant Rh factor be R while gene for recessive be r <br><br>**vii) How is sex determined in human beings?** there are two sex chromosomes in humans, x and y males are xy and females are xx in females all ova have x chromosome in males 50% of sperms contain x chromosomes while 50% of sperms contain y chromosome <br><br> when a sperm containing x chromosome fuses with an <br><br>ovum this results into a girl <br><br> when a sperm containing y chromosome fuses with an <br><br>ovum the result is a boy an example is given below <br><br>**g) i) What does the term linkage mean?** - These are genes which occur together on a chromosome and are passed to offspring without being separated **ii) Define the term sex-linked genes**<br><br> genes carried in the sex chromosome that are transmitted <br><br>along with genes that determine sex **iii) What is meant by the term sex linkage?** genes are located on the sex chromosome they are transmitted along with those that determine sex <br><br>**iv) Name the sex-linked traits in humans** colour blindness haemophilia Hairy ears. pinna, nose Baldness Duchene muscular dystrophy (DMD) muscular wasting <br><br>**v) Give an example of a sex linked trait in humans on:** **Y Chromosome**<br><br> tuft of hair sprouting from pinna/baldness <br><br>**X Chromosome**<br><br> colour blindness/haemophilia <br><br>**vi) In humans red-green colour blindness is caused by a** **recessive gene C, which is sex-linked. A normal man married** **to a carrier woman transmits the trait to his children. Show** **the possible genotypes of the children.** Let C represent the gene for normal colour vision (dominant) Let c represent the gene for colour blindness Parental phenotype Norman man x carrier woman <br><br>**viii) State the importance of sex linkage** possible to determine sex of day old chicks **ix) Haemophilia is due to a recessive gene. The gene is**<br><br>**sex-linked and located on the x chromosome. The** **figure below shows sworn offspring from** **phenotypically normal parents**<br><br>What are the parental genotypes? <br><br> XY and XhX <br><br>Work out the genotypes of the offspring **h) i) What is mutation?** sudden change in the structure of DNA at a particular <br><br>locus/chromosome/gen **ii) Describe how mutations arise**<br><br> mutations arise due to alterations in normal number of <br><br>chromosomes <br><br> change in a portion of a chromosome affecting one or more <br><br>genes <br><br> by chromosomal aberration e.g. <br><br>dleltion/duplication/substitution/inversion/translocation/cro ssing over <br><br> caused by mutagenic agents e.g. radiation (x-rays, ultra violet light, gamma rays) and chemicals e.g. mustard gas/colchicines <br><br>**iii) State the factors that may cause mutation**<br><br> these are chemicals and radiations **Radiations** X-rays Ultra violet rays **Chemicals** - colchicines Cyclamate Mustard gas Nitrous acid behaves like guanine Acridone orange DNA Formaldehyde **iv) State the characteristics of mutations** arise suddenly are unpredictable random generally rare may breed true some are desirable while others are lethal <br><br>**Effects**<br><br>gene/chromosome alteration <br><br>structural distortion of DNA <br><br>**Effect**<br><br>prevents spindle formation chromosome aberrations <br><br>chromosomes aberrations adenine in DNA is deaminated so <br><br>addition and removal of bases of <br><br>**v) Explain chromosomal mutation** - Change in nature, structure or number of chromosomes **vi) Explain how the following types of chromosomal** **mutations occur** **Duplication**<br><br> a section of a chromosome is repeated/replicates therefore genes are repeated <br><br>**Inversion**<br><br> occurs when chromatids break at 2 places and when <br><br>rejoining the middle piece rotates and joins in an inverted position <br><br>**Deletion**<br><br> portion of a chromosome is left out after it breaks off alters number and sequence of genes <br><br>**Translocation**<br><br> occurs when a section of a chromatid breaks off and becomes attached to another chromatid of another chromosome <br><br> increased yields/hybrid vigour//heterosis resistance to pests early maturity resistance to drought resistance to diseases <br><br>**vii) What are gene mutations**? <br><br> an alteration in the structure of a gene **vii) Explain how the following occur during gene**<br><br>**mutation**<br><br>**Deletio**n <br><br> some bases/nucleotides of a gene are removed <br><br>**Inversion**<br><br> the order of some bases/nucleotides of a gene is reversed <br><br>**Insertion**<br><br> addition of a base between two existing bases <br><br>**Substitution**<br><br> a portion of a gene is replaced by a new portion viii)**Name the disorders in humans caused by gene**<br><br>**mutation**<br><br> albinism sickle cell anaemia achondroplasia/chondordystorphic dwarfism haemophilia colour blindness phenylketonuria **I. State the practical applications of genetics** **i. Breeding programmes (research)**<br><br> high yielding/hybrid vigour/heterosis resistance to diseases resistance to drought/salinity early maturing <br><br>**ii. Genetic engineering**<br><br> genetic manipulation to produce desired characteristics **iii. Law**<br><br>- legal questions of paternity knowledge of blood groups or blood transfusion iv) Genetic counseling <br><br> aimed at reducing harmful traits e.g. albinism, congenital <br><br>idiots, colour blindness e.t.c <br><br>**v) Others** - Pre-sex determination Understanding human evolution and origin of other species. **2. a) i) Explain the meaning of evolution** a gradual change in living organisms from simple life <br><br>forms to more complex forms over a long period of time. **ii) Differentiate organic evolution from chemical evolution as** **theories of origin of life**<br><br> organic evolution refers to the emergence of present forms of organisms gradually from pre-existing forms (some of which no longer exist) <br><br> chemical evolution explains the origin of life as having <br><br>occurred when simple chemical compounds reacted to form the simplest life forms **iii) What is special creation?**<br><br> maintains that the whole universe and all living organisms came into being due to the act of a supernatural being <br><br>**b) Discuss the various kinds of evidence for evolution**<br><br>**i) Fossils** fossils are remains of organisms preserved in naturally <br><br>occurring materials for many years <br><br> they give evidence of types of plants/animals that existed at <br><br>certain geological age/long ago/millions of years ago gives evidence of morphological/anatomical/structural <br><br>changes that have taken place over a long period of time e.g. human skull, leg of horse **ii) Comparative anatomy** gives evidence of relationship among organisms/gives <br><br>evidence of a common ancestry of a group of organisms organisms have similar structures/organs performing the <br><br>same function e.g. digestive system/ urinary system/nervous system/vestigial structures and vertebrate heart <br><br>**Divergence**where the basic structural form is modified to serve different functions e.g. vertebrate forelimb/beak structure in birds/birds feet/parts of a flower. These are called homologous structures <br><br>**homologous structures**have a common embryonic origin but are modified to perform different functions e.g. the pentadactyl limb <br><br>**adaptive radiation**is a situation where organism have a homologous structure with common embryonic origin which is modified to perform different functions to adapt organisms to different ecological niches/habitats e.g. beaks of Darwinian finches(birds) **Convergence**is where different structures are modified to <br><br>perform a similar function e.g. wings of birds and insects/eyes of humans and octopuses. These are called analogous structures <br><br>**Vestigial structures**are greatly reduced in size and have ceased to function e.g. human appendix/caecium/coccix in humans, wings of kiwi (flightless bird), presence of hind limb pad in python, halters in insects, human hair nictitating membrane in human eye, human ear muscle, pelvic girdle in whale and third digit of wing of bird. <br><br>**iii) Comparative embryology** some embryos of different animals appear very similar thus showing relationship and possibility of a common ancestry <br><br> e.g. different classes of vertebrates larvae of annelida and <br><br>mollusca are similar (tocophere) <br><br>**iv) Comparative serology/physiology** these show biochemical and immunological comparisons of <br><br>blood groups/components to show immunological similarities of tissues therefore showing relatedness of different organisms <br><br> e.g. antigen antibody reactions, human blood groups/Rh <br><br>factor reveal some phylogenic relationship among organisms/common ancestry **v) Geographical distribution** organisms differ in various geographical regions present continents are thought to have been a large land mass joined together/pangea/Eurasia/Gondwanaland present continents drifted apart from one land <br><br>mass/continental drift <br><br> as a result of continental drift isolation of organisms occurred bring about different patterns of evolution <br><br> organisms in each continent evolved along different lines hence emergence of new species/divergence/convergence <br><br>**Examples**<br><br> marsupials in Australia illama, jaguar, panther in S. America lion, camel in Africa tiger in Asia **vi) Cell biology (cytology)** structures and functioning of cells are similar occurrence of organelles e.g. mitochondria in all cells/both <br><br>plant and animal cells these point at a common ancestry <br><br>**c) i) State the evolutionary characteristics that adopt human** **beings to the environment** - Brain - Eyes - Upright posture/bipedal locomotion - prehensible arm/hand - Speech **ii) State the ways in which Homo sapiens differs from Homo** **habilis**<br><br> standing upright/erect posture intellectual capacity/higher thinking capacity/bigger <br><br>brain/higher brain capacity <br><br> communication through language/speech **d) i) Explain Larmarcks theory of evolution**<br><br>- Inheritance of acquired characteristics/environment induces <br><br>production of a favorable trait which is then inherited <br><br>**ii) Explain why Lamarcks theory of evolution is not** **accepted by biologists today**<br><br>- evidence does not support Lamarcks theory - acquired characteristics are not inherited/inherited characteristics are found in reproductive cells only <br><br>**iii) Explain Darwins theory of evolution**<br><br>- inheritance of genetically acquired characteristics - a character happens to appear spontaneously which gives <br><br>advantage to an organism therefore adapted then inherited through natural selection **e) i) What is natural selection?** - Organisms with certain characteristics are favoured by the environment Such organisms tend to survive and produce viable offspring Others not favored are eliminated from subsequent generations **ii) With examples, explain how natural selection takes place** - organism with certain characteristics are favored by their environment <br><br>- such organisms tend to survive and produce viable <br><br>offspring <br><br>- others not favored are eliminated from subsequent <br><br>generations <br><br>- as the environmental conditions change the survival value of a character may alter with time so that characteristics which were favored may no longer have advantage and other characters may then become favorable <br><br>- if a favorable character is inherited, then offspring produce <br><br>generations which are better adapted to survive in a population <br><br>- more offspring are produced than can survive which results <br><br>in struggle for survival <br><br>- the fittest survive <br><br>**iii) State the advantages of natural selection to organisms**<br><br>- assist to eliminate disadvantageous <br><br>characteristics/perpetuates advantageous characteristics - allows better adapted organisms to survive adverse changes in the environment/less adapted organisms are eliminated <br><br>**iv) State the ways in which sexual reproduction is important** **in the evolution of plants and animals**<br><br>- brings about useful variations/desirable characters - variations make offspring better adapted for survival/more <br><br>resistant to diseases <br><br>- may lead to origin of new species <br><br>**v) Explain the significance of mutation in evolution** - Mutation bring about variation which can be inherited - Some of these variations are advantageous to the organism - Others are disadvantageous - The advantageous variations favour the organism to compete better in the struggle for survival - This results into a more adapted organism to its environment or new species/varieties - Those with disadvantageous characters will be discriminated against therefore eliminated from the population/death/perish **vi) Plain why it is only mutations in genes of gametes that** **influence evolution** - gametes form the new offspring <br><br>**vii) How would you prove that evolution is still taking place?** - resistance of organism to antibiotics, pesticides and drugs - new varieties of bacteria are resistant to certain antibiotics <br><br>such as penicillin <br><br>- houseflies and mosquitoes are resistant to DDT **vii) Explain why some bacteria develop resistance to a**<br><br>**drug after they have bee subjected to it for some time**<br><br>- bacteria mutates/develops a new strain/chemical composition is altered hence is able to produce enzymes/chemicals which degrade the drug rendering it non-susceptible to the drug <br><br>- the new strain is favoured by selection pressure/ natural <br><br>selection **f) How has industrial melaninism i.e. peppered moth** **contributed towards the mechanism of evolution** - This is an example of natural selection - The peppered moth exists in two distinct forms, the speckled white form (normal form) and a melanic form (the black/dark) - They usually rest on leaves and barks of trees that offer camouflage for protection - Originally the speckled white form predominated the unpolluted area of England - This colouration offered protection against predatory birds - Due to industrial pollution tree barks have blackened with soot - The white form underwent mutation - A black variety/mutant emerged suddenly by mutation - It had selective advantage over the white forms that were predated upon in the industrial areas - The speckled white form is abundant in areas without soot/smoke **3. a) i) Define irritability, stimulus and response irritability** -also called sensitivity - Responsiveness to change in environment **Stimulus** A change in the environment of organism which causes change in organisms activity **Response**<br><br>- change in activity of an organism caused by a stimulus **ii) State importance of irritability to living organisms**<br><br>- Adjusting to environmental conditions. <br><br>Sensitive/defect/responding <br><br>**iii) List the examples of external stimuli to organisms** - air/oxygen (aero) - light(photo) - osmotic pressure (osmo) - current (Rheo) - chemical concentration (chemo) - \water/moisture (hydro) - Touch/contact (hapto/thigmo) - Gravity/soil (geo) - Temperature (thermo) <br><br>**b) i) What are tactic responses?**<br><br>- response in which whole organism or its motile parts move <br><br>e.g. gamete <br><br>**ii) What causes tactic responses?**<br><br>- caused by unidirectional stimulus <br><br>- usually doesnt involve growth - response is either positive or negative - named according to source of stimulus - e.g phototaxis, aerotaxis, chemotaxis <br><br>**iii) State the importance of tactic response to:** **Members of kingdom protista**<br><br>- move towards favorable environment/move away from <br><br>unfavorable environment - move towards their prey/food <br><br>Microscopic plants - escape injurious stimuli/seek favorable habitats <br><br>**iv) Name the type of response exhibited by:** Euglena when they swim towards the source of light <br><br>- phototaxis - sperms when they swim towards the ovum - chemotaxis **v) State the advantages of tactic responses to organisms** - to avoid unfavorable environment/injurious stimuli - escape from predators - to seek favorable environment - to seek for food/prey **c) i) Define the term tropism**<br><br>- growth movement of plants in response to external <br><br>unilateral/unidirectional stimuli <br><br>**ii) Explain the various types of tropism in plants** **Phototropism**<br><br>- growth movements of plant shoots in response to unilateral <br><br>sources of light <br><br>- the tip of the shoots produce auxins down the shoot - light causes auxins to migrate to outer side/darker side causing growth on the side away from light hence growth curvature towards source of light roots are negatively phototrophic <br><br>**Geotropism**<br><br>- response of roots/parts of a plant to the direction of force of <br><br>gravity <br><br>- auxins grow towards the direction of force of gravity <br><br>causing positive geotropism in roots while shoot grows away from force of gravity (negatively geotrophic) <br><br>**Thimotropism/Haptotropism**<br><br>- growth response of plant when in contact with an object <br><br>- contact with support causes migration of auxins to outer side causing faster growth on the side away from contact surface <br><br>- this causes tendrils/stem to twin around a support <br><br>**Hydrotropism**<br><br>- growth movement of roots in response to unilateral source <br><br>of water/moisture <br><br>- the root grows towards the source of water/ positively hydrotropic while leaves are negatively hydrotropic <br><br>**chemotropism**<br><br>- growth movement of parts of plant to unilateral source of <br><br>chemicals <br><br>- the chemicals form a gradient between two regions e.g. pollen tube growing towards the ovary through the style **iii) State the ways in which tropisms are important to plants** - expose leaves/shoots in positions for maximum absorption <br><br>of sunlight for photosynthesis <br><br>- enables roots of plants to seek/look/search for water - enables plant stems/tendrils to obtain mechanical support <br><br>especially those that lack woody stems <br><br>- enables roots to grow deep into the soil for anchorage - enables pollen tube grow to embryo sac to facilitate <br><br>fertilization <br><br>**iv) Explain the differences between tropic and tactic** **responses** **Tropisms** **Taxes**<br><br>- growth curvature in <br><br>- locomotory response - fast - external influence <br><br>response <br><br>- slow - influenced by hormones <br><br>**d) The diagram below represents growing seedlings which** **were subjected to unilateral light at the beginning of an** **experiment**<br><br><br><br>R <br><br>**i)** - P will bend/grow towards light <br><br>**State the results of P, Q and R after 5 days**<br><br>384 - Q will remain straight/have little or no growth - R will remain/grow straight/grow upwards **ii) Account for your results in (i) above**<br><br>P- Growth substance/growth hormone/IAA/auxin are produced by the stem tip <br><br>- they move (downwards and get distributed) to the side <br><br>away from light where they cause rapid/more growth/cell division/elongation that results in bending <br><br>Q- Source of auxin has been removed R- The auxins cannot be affected by light because the tip has been covered <br><br>**iii) If the tin foil were removed from the tip of seedling R,**<br><br>**what results would be observed after two days**<br><br>- it will bend/grow towards light **iv) State the expected results after 3 day is if the box**<br><br>**were removed**<br><br>- all seedlings will grow straight/upwards <br><br>e)**In an experiment to investigate a certain aspect of plant** **response, a seedling was placed horizontally as shown in** **diagram I below. After seven days the appearance of the** **seedling was as shown in diagram 2** **Account for the curvature of the shoot and root after the** **seven days**<br><br>**Shoot** **i)** - auxins accumulate on the lower side of the seedling due to <br><br>gravity <br><br>- high concentration of auxins in shoot stimulates faster <br><br>growth causing more elongation on the lower side than the upper side hence curvature occurs upwards <br><br>**ii) Root** - the high concentration of auxins inhibits growth hence the upper side with less auxins grows faster than the lower side therefore the curvature occurs downwards **f) What is etiolation?**<br><br>- phenomenon exhibited by plants when grown in darkness - such plants are pale yellow due to absence of chlorophyll, <br><br>have small leaves, long stems/hypocotyle and slender stems <br><br>- plants exhibit etiolation to reach light/obtain light - this is a survival response **3. a) i) What is coordination in animals** **ii) Name the main systems for coordination in animals** - Nervous system/sensory system - Endocrine (hormonal system) **iii) List the components of the mammalian sensory system** - Central nervous system (CNS), brain & spinal cord - Peripheral nervous system (PNS) cranial and spinal nerves - Sense organs - Autonomic nervous system (ANS) nerve fibers and ganglia **iv).Explain the terms receptors, conductors and effectors** - Receptors are structures that detect stimuli i.e. sense organs - Conductors transmit impulses from receptors to effectors e.g. neurons - Effectors are the responding parts e.g. muscles, glands **v) What are the functions of the central nervous system?** - provides a fast means of communication between receptors and effectors - coordinates the activities of the body **vi) State the differences between somatic and autonomic** **systems of peripheral nervous system** - Somatic is concerned with controlling the conscious or voluntary actions of the body i.e. skin, bones, joints and skeletal muscles - the autonomic (automatic) nervous system controls involuntary actions of internal organs, digestive system, blood vessels, cardiac muscles and glandular products. **b) i) What is a neurone?** <br><br>**ii) Name the parts of a typical neurone and state the** **functions of each part**<br><br> cell body/centron contains nucleus and cytoplasm axon transmits impulses away from cell body dendrites relays impulses across adjacent neurons myelin sheath insulates axon and speeds up transmission of <br><br>impulses <br><br> schwan cells forms myelin sheath and aid in nutrition and <br><br>regeneration of axon <br><br> node of ranvier occur between schwan cells, where axon is <br><br>not covered, speeds up impulse transmission <br><br> nissils granules contain mitochondria that provide cell body <br><br>with energy for metabolic process <br><br>i)**Describe the structure and function of a motor**<br><br>**neurone**<br><br> motor neurone relays impulses from CNS (brain/spinal <br><br>cord) to effectors ( muscles/glands) <br><br>**ii) Describe the structure and function of sensory**<br><br>**neurone**<br><br> sensory neurone relays impulses from receptors (sense <br><br>organs) to CNS <br><br>387 <br><br>**iii) State structural differences between motor and**<br><br>**sensory neurons**<br><br> Cell body in motor neurone is terminal (at the end) and <br><br>inside central nervous system. <br><br> Cell body in sensory neurone is terminal but has axon at <br><br>both ends (bipolar) <br><br>**iv) Describe the structure and function of a relay**<br><br>**neurone**<br><br> also called <br><br>intermediate/internuncial/associate/connector/interneurone <br><br> locate inside central nervous system and spinal cord usually lack myelin sheath <br><br>**c) State the functions of the major parts of the human brain**<br><br>388 <br><br>**i) Cerebrum**<br><br> called forebrain occupies most of the brain consists of four lobes each with specific function temporal lobe controls taste smell hearing learning and <br><br>memory <br><br> partial lobe controls sensory output and touch occipital lobe controls vision, motor output and speech frontal lobe controls personality, learning thought and <br><br>speech <br><br> also has parts called thalamus and hypothalamus thalamus helps to sort sensory information hypothalamus controls hunger, heartbeat body temperature <br><br>and aggression <br><br>**ii) Mid brain**<br><br> quite small in humans relay centre for audio and visual information also involves in some sight, hearing and orientation <br><br>responses **i) Hind brain** consists of cellebral and medulla oblongata cerebellum is responsible for coordinating impulses, <br><br>posture and balance, motor coordination and muscle tone <br><br>389 medulla oblongata controls heartbeat, blood pressure <br><br>breathing rate, coughing and sneezing <br><br>**a) i) What is reflex action?** an automatic response to an external stimulus e.g. sneezing <br><br>or withdrawing hand from a hot object <br><br>**ii) Describe a reflex action that will lead to the withdrawal of** **a hand from a hot object**<br><br> Receptors in the skin respond to stimuli. Are stimulated an impulse is transmitted through the sensory neurone, across a synapse to the central nervous system (white matter), through the relay neurone into grey matter, then to the motor neurone and finally to the effect muscle which contracts <br><br> the hand is then withdrawn <br><br><br><br>**iii) Explain how an impulse is transmitted across the synapse** **(gap)**<br><br> impulse initiates release of transmitter substance acetylcholine at the end of the sensory neurone <br><br> acetylcholine diffuses across the synapse and generates an <br><br>impulse in the next neurone <br><br>**ii) Briefly describe the transmission of a nervous** **impulse across a neuro-muscular junction** impulse arrives at synoptic knob and causes vesicle to <br><br>move to the pre-synaptic membrane <br><br> vesicle discharges transmitter substance into synaptic cleft transmitter substance/acetylcholine diffuses across the cleft <br><br>and attaches to post-synaptic membrane <br><br> the membrane is depolarized, generating the action <br><br>potential <br><br>**iii) What are the functions of a synapse?** allows transmission of nerve impulses from neurone to <br><br>neurone <br><br> ensures nerve impulses travel in only one direction <br><br>390 in the brain they store information/memory **b) i) What is a conditioned reflex?** A response caused by a unilateral stimulus (associated <br><br>stimulus) which substitutes the normal stimulus <br><br>**ii) Explain a conditioned reflex**<br><br> it is automatic it involves the spinal cord it is usually learned e.g. writing, cycling, dancing it involves the interaction of highly specialized centers of the brain with a large number of neurone necessary to bring about conditioning <br><br> example is experiments carried out by Pavlov using dogs **iii) Compare a simple reflex action with a conditioned reflex** **Simple reflex**<br><br>**Conditioned reflex** dependent on experience independent of experience <br><br> one stimulus to evoke both substitute and <br><br>response <br><br>original reflex evoke response some sensory and <br><br> sensory component replaced but motor remains unchanged <br><br>motor neurons used <br><br> reflex is simple <br><br> reflex is modified <br><br>**c) i) What are endocrine glands?** ductless glands that produce hormones in animals hormones are chemical substances which help to coordinate <br><br>the functions of the body <br><br>ii**) State the functions of hormones in animals**<br><br> regulate growth and development control behavior during breeding proper functioning of cells regulate metabolic activities **iii) Name the main endocrine glands, their secretions and** **functions in the human body** Gland Thyroid Hormone Thyroxine <br><br>Functions Increases rate of metabolism Regulates calcium and phosphate levels Regulate growth of <br><br>Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone <br><br>Pituitary Hormone growth body <br><br>Gonadotrophic hormone Stimulates the <br><br>development of male and female sex organs Stimulates secretion of milk after child birth - proper functioning of thyroid gland/thyroxine production - stimulates release of adrenal cortex hormone <br><br>Lactogenic hormone (prolactin) <br><br>Thyrotropic hormone(TSH) <br><br>Oxytocin regulates <br><br>blood pressure <br><br> stimulates smooth muscles stimulates <br><br>contraction of uterus during childbirth aids in flow of milk from mammary glands causes <br><br>Follicle stimulating hormone(FSH) <br><br>maturation of egg in females <br><br> stimulates sperm production in males - regulates water balance by kidneys for emergency prepares body to cope up with stress - maintains balance Aldosterone <br><br> supplements <br><br>sex hormones produced by gonads promotes <br><br>development of sexual characteristics regulates level of sugar in blood <br><br> enables liver to store sugar regulates level of sugar in blood <br><br> causes sexual secondary characteristics in females <br><br> prepares uterus for pregnancy growth of <br><br>mucus lining of uterus maintains <br><br>uterus during pregnancy <br><br>Testes causes <br><br>secondary sexual characteristics in males stimulates release of gastric juice <br><br>Stomach cells <br><br> stimulate release of pancreatic juice <br><br>**iv) Give the differences between nervous and endocrine** **(hormonal) communication**<br><br>Nervous Response confined to effector organs (localized targets) Response less rapid Speed of response is rapid Hormones transferred Nervous impulse thro\\ugh nerves/nerve cell/neurons through blood Duration of response is short Persist for long Speed of transmission is rapid Transmission is electrical <br><br>Hormonal (endocrine) Response more widespread (various targets) <br><br>Speed of transmission is slower Transmission is chemical **v) State the effects of over secretion and under secretion of** **adrenaline and thyroxine in humans**<br><br>Hormone Adrenaline <br><br>Over secretion Under secretion <br><br> thin toneless muscles high blood pressure weak bones obesity early onset of <br><br> low blood pressure inability to <br><br>withstand stress <br><br> fatigue muscular weakness muscle wasting increased dark <br><br>sexual development <br><br>pigmentation of skin <br><br>Thyroxine increased cretinism(retarded **g) i) Define the following terms** **Drug** a substance that causes a change in body function <br><br>**Drug abuse**<br><br> indiscriminate use of drugs without minding their side <br><br>effects <br><br> misuse or wrong use of drugs <br><br>**ii) State the types of drugs, examples and side effects** **Sedatives**<br><br> also called depressant a drug that decreases the action of the central nervous <br><br>system <br><br> reduce anxiety, and tension, induce sleep and act as muscle <br><br>relaxants <br><br> when abused they cause withdrawal effects such as anxiety, <br><br>delirium and death <br><br> includes barbiturates, other sedatives, tranquilizers and <br><br>alcohol **Pain-killers**<br><br> suppress centers of pain in the brain <br><br>**Hallucinogens**<br><br> given to people with hallucination or mentally ill patients to <br><br>calm then down <br><br> when abused they lead to a feeling of confusion, agitation, depression and violent behavior that can lead to murder or suicide <br><br> examples include valium, LSD, bhang, narcotics and <br><br>cannabis **Stimulants**<br><br> drugs that temporarily increase the action of the central <br><br>nervous system <br><br> they create a feeling of alertness, wakefulness, a sense of <br><br>self confidence and well being <br><br> used to decrease fatigue and mild depression when abused they cause feelings of persecution, <br><br>hallucination and addiction <br><br> include amphetamines, cocaine, caffeine, miraa and <br><br>nicotine <br><br>**iii) State the general effects of drug abuse on human health**<br><br> damage to body organs e.g. liver cirrhosis drug addiction impaired judgment resulting in clumsiness socio-economic problems e.g. crime, loss of jobs, divorce, <br><br>prostitution, HIV/AIDS <br><br> may cause poor health <br><br>**h) i) List the special sense organs in mammals and the major** **function of each** - Eye for sight - Ear for hearing and balance - Nose for smell - Skin for touch, temperature detection, pain detection <br><br>**iii) How is the human eye adapted to its function?**<br><br><br><br> conjunctiva is thin/transparent/tough to allow light to pass <br><br>through/to protect the eye <br><br>396 Sclerotic layer is made up of (collagen) fibers/fibrous. It <br><br>maintains shape of the eyeball/protects the eye <br><br> cornea is transparent/curved thus refracts light rays/allows <br><br>light to pass through <br><br> Choroid is a layer of tissue with black pigment/dark pigment. Prevents internal reflection of light in the eye/contains blood vessels that supply oxygen/nutrients/remove (metabolic) wastes from the eye <br><br> retina has cones/rods for bright colour vision/low light <br><br>vision <br><br> yellow spot has a high concentration of cones for accurate <br><br>vision/visual acuity <br><br> Blind spot has no cones and rods. Place where optic nerve <br><br>leaves/enters the eye <br><br> optic nerve has (sensory) nerve fibers for transmission of <br><br>impulses to the brain (for interpretation) <br><br> Lens is biconvex/made up of elastic material/transparent. Adjust focus on far or near objects allow light to pass through/for refraction of light rays <br><br> ciliary body is made up of muscle fibers/glandular which <br><br>contract/relax to change shape <br><br> suspensory ligaments are inelastic to hold lens in position/attach it to ciliary body <br><br> iris(is the coloured part of the eye it) has radial and circular <br><br>muscles which control size of pupil <br><br> pupil is the small hole at the centre of iris through which <br><br>light passes into the eye <br><br> aqueous humor is a fluid through which oxygen/nutrients <br><br>pass to the cornea/lens/maintains shape of the eyeball/refracts light rays <br><br> vitreous humor is a fluid which maintains shape of <br><br>eye/refracts light rays <br><br>**iii) What is accommodation of the eye?**<br><br> ability of the eye to adjust to bring an image from a near or <br><br>far object into sharp focus on the retina <br><br>iv)**Explain how an eye viewing a near object adjusts to** **viewing a far object**<br><br> ciliary muscles relax suspensory ligaments become taut/tight lens decreases curvature/becomes thinner radial muscles relax circular muscles contract <br><br> size of pupil decreases to reduce amount of light v)**What changes occur in the eye if it changes from** **observing an object at a distance to one at a closer range?** - ciliary muscles contract - Tension in suspensory ligaments reduces/relax/ slackens - Lens bulges/thickens/increases curvature - Radial muscles contract - Circular muscles relax - Size of pupil becomes large to allow in more light. <br><br>**viii) State the changes which would take place in the eye if** **a person in a dark room had lights switched on**<br><br> circular muscles contract and radial muscles relax pupil becomes small to allow less light into the eye **ix) Explain how the eye forms an image** the mammalian eye works like a camera light rays enter the cornea pass through the pupil, aqueous <br><br>humor, lens and vireous humor <br><br> light rays are refracted by the aqueous and humor and <br><br>lenses <br><br> finally light falls on the retina to form an image the image is real and inverted and smaller than object, back <br><br>to front/reversed <br><br> Retina forms a fine image when light rays reach it. x)**Name the defects of the eye and state how they can be** **corrected**<br><br>**Short sight (Myopia)**<br><br> eye cannot focus on far objects image is formed in front of the retina because light rays <br><br>converge in front of retina <br><br> the lens is too thick, curve and eyeball too long corrected by wearing concave/biconcave/lenses these lenses diverge light rays onto retina <br><br>**Long sight (Hypermetropia)**<br><br> eye lenses are unable to focus because they are flat, thin and weak hence unable to focus image on the retina they are unable to accommodate/change the focal length near image is formed behind the retina but a distant one is <br><br>correctly focused on the retina <br><br> corrected by wearing convex/biconvex/converging lenses <br><br>**Presbyopia**<br><br> occurs in old age hence called old sight caused due to loss of elasticity of lenses, weakness of <br><br>ciliary muscles hence lack of focus of light rays <br><br>399 this causes long sight corrected by wearing biconvex/convex/converging lenses <br><br>**Squinting**<br><br> eyeballs are uncoordinated/do not turn at the same time eye muscles move in different directions this makes accommodation and focusing difficult corrected through surgery <br><br>**Astigmatism**<br><br> surface of cornea is uneven leads to weak focus of light raise on retina corrected by using cylindrical lenses/lenses with combined <br><br>curvature <br><br>**xi) State the advantages of having two eyes in human**<br><br>**beings**<br><br> stereoscopic vision gives a wider angle of binocular vision if one is damaged human is not blinded **I i) What are the functions of the human ear?**<br><br> hearing balancing **iv) How are the structures of the human ear suited to**<br><br>**perform the function of hearing?**<br><br><br><br>400 shape of the external ear/pinna allows collection of sound <br><br>waves and channels them down the auditory canal/auditory mateus <br><br> auditory canal is a tube that concentrates and directs sound <br><br>waves to tympanic membrane/ tympanum/eardrum <br><br> Eardrum is thin and tight. It sets into <br><br>vibration/vibrates/converts sound waves into vibrations the vibrations are transmitted to the ear ossicles/malleus, <br><br>incus and stapes that amplify the sound vibrations the vibrations are then transmitted to the fennestra <br><br>ovalis/oval window <br><br> Oval window is a membrane which amplifies/transmits <br><br>vibrations to the fluids (perilymph and endolymph) then to cochlea. <br><br> The cochlea is coiled to occupy a small space and accommodate a large number of sensory cells The sensory cells/hairs (in the cochlea) are set into <br><br>vibrations/stimulated producing nerve impulses in the auditory nerve <br><br> Impulses in the auditory nerve are transmitted to the brain <br><br>for interpretation for hearing <br><br> Eustachian tube connects the inner ear to the throat. It <br><br>equalizes air pressure in the middle ear with the atmospheric air pressure (in outer ear) Fennestra rotundus/round window <br><br>dissipates/discharges/discards vibrations from inner ear to middle ear <br><br>**iii) Explain how the structure of the human ear performs the** **function of balancing**<br><br> there are three semi-circular <br><br>canals/utriculus/succulus/vestibular apparatus arranged in planes at right angles to each other <br><br> at the end of each canal is a swelling called ampulla which <br><br>contains receptors <br><br> the movement of the head causes movement of the <br><br>fluid/endolymph in at least one canal <br><br> the fluid movement causes stimulation of the <br><br>receptors/sensory hairs <br><br> sensory impulses are generated the auditory nerve transmits the impulses to the brain for interpretation for the position of body/posture/balance **iv) State what would happen if the auditory nerve was** **completely damaged**<br><br> deafness loss of body balance impulse not transmitted to the brain **7. a) i) What is support?**<br><br> to support is to carry part of the weight/mass of an <br><br>organism <br><br>**ii) What is locomotion?**<br><br> progressive change in the position of an organism **iii) State the importance of support systems in living** **organisms**<br><br> they provide a framework for the body of organisms and <br><br>help to determine their shape <br><br> provide land animals with means for support to their <br><br>weights against gravity <br><br> organs are attached to the skeleton for support and stability <br><br>to avoid entanglement and crushing each other <br><br> they protect very important and delicate organs whether <br><br>inside or outside the body e.g. eyes, heart <br><br> in large plants the rigid trunks of trees support the greater <br><br>mass of leaves and fruits <br><br>**iv) State the importance of locomotion in animals**<br><br> in search of food search for mates escaping predators <br><br>**b) i) Name the tissues in higher plants that provide** **mechanical support** sclerenchyma collenchyma (not lignified) xylem/tracheids and vessels **ii) State the importance of support in plants**<br><br> exposing the surface area of leaf to sunlight for <br><br>photosynthesis <br><br> ensure flowers are exposed to pollination agents expose fruits and seeds to agents of dispersal to resist breakages due to their own weight and that of other <br><br>organisms <br><br> for proper transport and translocation of materials <br><br>**iii) Name the types of plant stems**<br><br> herbaceous e.g. shrubs woody e.g. trees <br><br> weak stems in creepers, twining plants and plants bearing <br><br>tendrils <br><br>**iv) Name the tissues in plants that are strengthened with** **lignin**<br><br> sclerenchyma xylem vessels/tracheids/xylem <br><br>**v) What makes young herbaceous plants remain upright?**<br><br> turgidity presence of collenchyma <br><br>**vi) State the ways by which plants compensate for lack of** **ability to move from one place to another**<br><br> ability to pollinate response to nastic and tropic movement ability to exploit localized nutrients ability to disperse seed or fruit propagation <br><br>c)**i) Explain the ways in which erect posture is maintained in** **a weak herbaceous stem** - This is the function of turgidity and presence of collencyma Cells take in water and become turgid **ii) Explain how support in plants is achieved**<br><br> Turgor pressure due to absorption of water keeps cells firm <br><br>hence hold herbaceous plants upright <br><br> collenchyma and clerenchyma tissues are closely packed in <br><br>stem and roots to provide support <br><br> inelastic cuticle on epidermis is covered by a waxy layer hence keeping shape of plant and setting inward pressure against turgid cells and this causes a force to hold plant upright <br><br> xylem vessels and tracheids are lignified to provide support <br><br>to stems, roots and leaves <br><br> climbing plants obtain mechanical support from other <br><br>plants and objects <br><br> they have climbing structures like tendrils which hold on to <br><br>other objects <br><br>**d) i) Give the reasons why support is necessary in animals**<br><br> for attachment of muscles For attachment of other body organs to protect delicate body organs to maintain body shape/form to enable movement/locomotion <br><br>**ii) Why is movement necessary in animals?**<br><br> enables animals to search for food <br><br> enables animals to search for shelter enables animals to escape predators/harmful conditions enables animals to search for water enables animals to search for mates enables animals to search for breeding sites **e) i) Name the organ used for support by animals** - Skeleton **ii) Name the different types of skeletons in animals, giving an** **example of an animal for each type of skeleton named**<br><br> exoskeleton e.g. arthropoda (crab, insect) endoskeleton e.g. chordata (cat, fish) <br><br>**iii) State the difference between exoskeleton and** **endoskeleton**<br><br> endoskeleton is a rigid framework covered by body tissues <br><br>of an animal <br><br> exoskeleton is a rigid framework found on the surface of an <br><br>animal <br><br>**iv) State the advantages of having an exoskeleton**<br><br> supports/protects delicate inner parts water proof/prevents drying up of body provided surface for muscle attachment <br><br>**v) Explain the importance of having an endoskeleton**<br><br> support the body give body its shape protect delicate organs e.g. skull, brain, ribs used in locomotion e.g. bones serve as levers red blood cells are formed in bone marrow minerals are stored in bones e.g. calcium and phosphorus **f) i) Explain how a fish is adapted to living in water** streamlined body for easy movement in water swim bladder controls depth of swimming fins for movement, balance, direction and stability gills for gaseous exchange in water presence of lateral line to sense vibrations scales provide protection colour which offers camouflage against predators **ii) Explain how a finned fish is adapted to locomotion in** **water**<br><br> streamlined body to reduce resistance/friction )to swim <br><br>smoothly) <br><br> the vertebral column consists of a series of vertebrae held <br><br>together loosely so that it is flexible myotomes/muscles associated with vertebral column <br><br>produce movement <br><br> the sideways and backwards thrust of the tail and body <br><br>against water results in resistance of water pushing the fish sideways and forwards in a direction opposed to thrust <br><br> heat not flexible so as to maintain forward thrust presence of fins help in propulsion/balance/paired fins <br><br>(pectoral and pelvic) for controlling pitch and slow down movement/unpaired fins (dorsal, ventral, anal) for yawing and rolling (caudal) for swimming/propulsion and steering/change of direction <br><br> presence of swim bladder to make fish buoyant scales tip towards the back to provide smooth surface body covered with mucus to reduce friction flattened surface for easy floating <br><br>**g) i) Name the main parts of the vertebral column giving the** **types of bones found in each part** **Axial skeleton**<br><br> forms the main axis of the body formed by the skull, sternum, ribs and vertebrae <br><br>**Appendicular skeleton**<br><br> composed of limbs and girdles the forelimbs are connected to the trunk by the pectoral <br><br>girdles (shoulder bones) hind limbs are connected to the pelvic girdle (hips) bones are scapular, clavicle, humerus, ulna, femur, tibia, <br><br>fibula, metacarpals, carpals, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges, ilium, ischium and pubis **ii) What are the vertebrae?**<br><br> bones of the vertebral column <br><br>**iii) State the functions of the vertebral column**<br><br> gives flexibility absorbs shock protects spinal cord supports weight of body provide surface for muscle attachment between the vertebrae are soft discs which offer cushioning <br><br>called interverterbral discs <br><br>**iv) State the general characteristics of vertebrae**<br><br> have solid structure called centrum to support weight of <br><br>body has transverse process lateral to centrum for muscle <br><br>attachment <br><br> neural spine is dorsal to centrum and provides surface area <br><br>for muscle attachment <br><br> neural canal a passage for spinal cord and offers protection <br><br>to it <br><br> has facets for articulation with other vertebrae neural arch encloses neural canal <br><br><br><br>406 <br><br>**v) Name the bones of the vertebral column** - Cervical vertebra - Thoracic vertebra - Lumbar vertebra - Sacral vertebra - Caudal vertebra <br><br>407 <br><br>**vi) Describe how the various vertebrae are adapted to their** **functions** **Bone** Skull <br><br>**Structure** **Function**<br><br> cranium and jaw bones attachmen t of jaws <br><br> made of several bones joined together large box called cranium and smaller paired boxes for eyes, ears, nose, jaws has large <br><br> protect <br><br>brain and other delicate parts <br><br>hole called foramen magnum for the passage of spinal <br><br>408 cord <br><br> ring shaped no Centrum broad, flat transverse processes vertebrateria l canal for passage of vertebral artery facet for <br><br>articulation of condyles of skull <br><br> adontoid peg <br><br>projects from Centrum <br><br> large <br><br>flattened neural spine vertebrasteri al canal <br><br> small <br><br>transverse process short neural <br><br>spine branched transverse process for neck muscles vertebrateria l canals wide neural <br><br>canal long <br><br>backward pointing neural spine transverse <br><br>process that points sideways facets for <br><br>articulation of ribs notch for <br><br>spinal nerves to pass through short neural <br><br>spine long <br><br>transverse process pointing towards abdomen <br><br> large <br><br>Centrum <br><br> extra <br><br>processes e.g. prezygapoph ysis, hypapophysi s, anapophysis, metapophysi s <br><br> fused bones to form sacrum <br><br> well <br><br>developed transverse process of first vertebra vertebrateria l canals short neural <br><br>spine **vii) Describe the bones that form the appendicular skeleton** **Structure** **Bone** Pectoral girdle scapular (shoulder bone) <br><br>**Function** Support Muscle attachment Articulates with humerus <br><br> Broad i.e. <br><br>Flattened blade glenoid cavity to articulate with humerus <br><br> metacromion/acro mion for muscle attachment hard to provide <br><br>support socket with <br><br>cartilage/smooth surface to reduce friction <br><br>Humerus long shaft for moveme <br><br>muscle attachment nt <br><br> round head to articulate with glenoid cavity muscle attachm ent <br><br> trochlea for <br><br>articulation with ulna <br><br> olecranon fosa to <br><br>prevent arm bending the other way Ulna and radius <br><br> ulna longer and on side of little finger has sigmoid notch and olecranon process to form hinge joint with humerus <br><br> moveme <br><br>nt <br><br> muscle attachm ents <br><br> radius is smaller and lies along thumb side and does not join ulna allows articulation with wrist bones <br><br>Pelvic girdle(hip bone) composed of three moveme <br><br>fused bones (ilium, ischium, pubis) <br><br>nt <br><br> muscle attachm ent support absorbs pressure exerted by ground when animal moves <br><br> upper end fused to <br><br>sacrum <br><br> lower end has acetabalum for articulation with femur <br><br> has abturator foramen for passage of nerves and blood vessels <br><br>412 rounded head to fit in acetabulum of pelvis <br><br> projections called trochanter for attachment of thigh muscles condyles at lower <br><br>end for articulation with tibi <br><br> patella that covers knee and prevents leg from bending backwards <br><br>Tibia and fibula tibia is longer than moveme <br><br>fibula nt <br><br> tibia is outer bone and fibula is inner bone muscle attachm ent <br><br> tibia lies on side of large toe <br><br> fibula is fused to tibia (on outer side) <br><br>**8. a) What is a joint?** the point where bones meet **ii) State the functions of joints**<br><br> provide a point of articulation between bones <br><br>**iii) Name the main types of joints**<br><br> immovable joints e.g. skull, pelvic girdles and sacrum slightly movable joints e.g. between vertebrae Freely movable joints e.g. knee, elbow <br><br>**iv) Give the features of movable joints**<br><br> ends of bones covered with articular cartilage ends bound by capsules of ligaments have joint cavity filled with lubricating fluid called synovial fluid secreted by synovial membrane <br><br> they are called synovial joints <br><br>**b) Describe the synovial joints**<br><br>**iv) Ball and socket** allow movement in all planes /directions i.e. 360o rounded end of bone fits into a rounded cavity in another <br><br>bone <br><br> e.g. shoulder joint and hip joint <br><br><br><br>**v) Hinge joint** convex surface of one bone fits into the concave surface of <br><br>another bone <br><br> this allows movement in only one plane/direction 180o e.g. elbow joint and knee joint <br><br>**vi) Pivot joint** allows rotation e.g. where atlas pivots on olecranon process <br><br>of axis <br><br>**c) i) What is synovial fluid?**<br><br> lubricating fluid produced by synovial membrane at <br><br>movable joints <br><br>**ii) State the functions of synovial fluid**<br><br> absorbs shock reduces friction/gives lubrication nourishment distributes pressure **d) Explain the following terms** **v) Ligament** connective tissue joining one bone to another **vi) Cartilage** supporting soft tissue found at joints they cushion the bones and absorb shock **vii) Tendon** tissue that connects muscle to bones <br><br>**9. Muscles**<br><br>414 **e) i) What is a muscle?** fleshy part of body composed of long cells enclosed in a sheath specialized cells capable of contracting <br><br>**ii) State the functions of muscles**<br><br> cover the skeleton provide shape contract and relax to enable body to move **f) Describe the structure and function of various types of**<br><br>**muscles**<br><br>**i)** also called voluntary/striated/stripped muscles they are attached to skeleton they consist of striated, multinucleated, ling fibers and are <br><br>**skeletal muscles**<br><br>cylindrical shaped <br><br> found on legs, arms, eyes, neck where they cause <br><br>movement <br><br>**ii)** also called smooth/visceral/unstriated/unstripped their movement is not controlled by the will they are unstriated, nucleated, short fibred and spindle <br><br>**Involuntary muscles**<br><br>shaped <br><br> are found in alimentary canal, blood vessels, secretory glands, other tubular visceral organs, bladder, uterus, urinary tract, reproductive system, respiratory tract, ciliary body, iris <br><br>**iii) Cardiac muscles** also called myocardium found in the walls of the heart are not under control of the will composed of long cylindrical cells with special junctions myogenic i.e. generate their own contraction they are not fatigued their function is contraction of the heart to pump blood **g) Explain how muscles cause movement of the human** **arm**<br><br> the muscles which bring about these movements are called <br><br>biceps and triceps <br><br> biceps are attached to scapula and radius for bending triceps are attached to scapula, humerus and ulna for <br><br>stretching when the biceps contracts, it pulls the radius (forearm) and <br><br>the hand bends <br><br> the triceps relaxes at the same time when the triceps contracts and biceps relaxes(extends) the <br><br>arm is stretched <br><br> biceps flexes the arm (flexor) and triceps extend(extensor <br><br>muscle) the arm <br><br>**h) i) State the structural differences between skeletal**<br><br>**muscles e.g. biceps and smooth muscles e.g. gut muscle**<br><br>**Skeletal (biceps)**<br><br>**Smooth (gut) muscle** uninucleated unstriated short muscle fibers spindle shaped multinucleated striated/stripped long muscle fibers block/cylindrical <br><br>**ii) Name the cartilage found between the bones of the** **vertebral column**<br><br> intervertebral disc **iv) What are the functions of the cartilage named in (d)**<br><br>**ii) above**<br><br> acts as a cushion/absorbs shock reduces friction flexibility of vertebral column |
# # **BIOLOGY FORM ONE NOTES ** ### **INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY ** **What is Biology? ** Biology is the branch of science that deals with the study of living things. In Greek, Bios means life while Logos means knowledge. **Branches of biology ** There are two main branches: 1. Botany: Study of plants 2. Zoology: Study of animals **The others include: ** 1. Ecology: Study of living things in their surroundings. 2. Genetics: The study of inheritance and variation. 3. Entomology : Study of insects 4. Parasitology: Study of parasites 5. Taxonomy: Study of classification of organisms 6. Microbiology: Study of microscopic organisms 7. Anatomy: S tudy of structure of cells 8. Cytology: Study of cells 9. Biochemistry: Study of chemical changes inside living organisms **Name at least six other smaller branches of biology (6 marks). ** **Importance of Biology ** 1. Solving environmental problems e.g. Food shortage, poor health services, pollution, misuse of environmental resources etc. 2. Choice of careers e.g. Medicine, Agriculture, public health, Veterinary, Animal husbandry, Horticulture, Dentistry etc. 3. Acquiring scientific skills e.g. observing, identifying, recording, classification, measuring, analyzing, evaluating etc. 4. International co-operation e.g. Development of HIV\AIDS vaccine, fight against severe Acute respiratory Syndrome (SARS), fight to save ozone layer from depletion, management of resources through international depletion. 1 ----- ### **Others ** Help on study of other subjects Learn what living things are made up of and their bodies work Acquire knowledge about plant and animal diseases and their treatment. Know the effects of our bodies on drug and substance abuse and can kill. Learn about HIV\AIDS diseases and other viral diseases e.g. its treatmentbalanced diets, proper hygiene, spreading, sexual behavior, cultural practices etc. **List five professional occupations that require the study of biology. ** **(5 marks) ** **Characteristics of living things; ** ### 1. Nutrition: Process by which living things acquire and utilize nutrients: plants photosynthesize; animals feed on already manufactured foods. 2. Respiration: energy-producing process occurring in all the cells of living things. 3. Gaseous Exchange: where living things take in air (oxygen) and give out air(carbon iv oxide) across respiratory surfaces. 4. Excretion: Process by which waste or harmful materials resulting from chemical reactions within cells of living things are eliminated. Excess of such materials poison living things. 5. Growth and Development: Growth is the irreversible increase in size and Mass.Essential for body function . Development Irreversible change in complexity of the structure of living things. 6. Reproduction: Process by which living things give rise to new individuals of the same kind. 7. Irritability: Is the ability of living things to perceive changes in their surroundings and respond to them appropriately. E.g. reaction to changes in temperature, humidity, light, pressure and to the presence of certain chemicals. 8. Movement: Change in position by either a part or the whole living thing. Locomotion Progressive change in position by the 2 ----- ### whole living thing. In animals, movement include; swimming, walking, running, flying. In plants, closing of leaves, folding of leaves, closing of flowers, growing of shoots towards light etc. **Question** **1. List four uses of energy obtained from the process of ** **respiration. (4 marks). ** **2. List six characteristics of living things (6 marks). ** **Collection of specimens ** **Apparatus used ** 1. Sweep net: for catching flying insects. 2. Fish net: For trapping small fish and other small water animals. 3. Pooter: For sucking small animals from rock surfaces and tree barks. 4. Bait trap: For attracting and trapping small animals e.g. rats. 5. Pit fall trap: For catching crawling animals. 6. Pair of forceps: picking up small crawling animals e.g. stinging insects. 7. Specimen bottles: keeping collected specimen. Larger ### specimens require large bottles. 8. The magnifying lens: Instrument used to enlarge objects. Lenses are found in microscope and the hand lens (magnifier). Its frame is marked e.g. x8 or x10indicating how much larger will be the image compared to object. **Precautions during Collection and Observation of specimens ** ### Collect only the number of specimen you need. Do not harm the specimens during the capture or collection exercise. Handle dangerous or injurious specimens with care e.g. stinging plants or insects i.e. use forceps or hand gloves. The teacher will immobilize highly mobile animals. (diethyl ether, formalin, chloroform) Do not destroy the natural habitat of the specimens. Practical activity 2 3 ----- ### Practical activity 3 **Co mparison between plants and animals ** |Plants|Animals| |---|---| |1. Green in colour( have chlorophyll)|1. Lack chlorophyll thus feed on readymade food.| |2. Their cells have cellulose cell walls.|2. Cells lack cellulose cell walls.| |3. Respond slowly to changes in the environment.|3. Respond quickly.| |4. Lack specialized excretory organs.|4. Have complex excretory organs.| |5. Do not move about.|5. Move about in search of food and water.| |6. Growth occurs in shoot and root tips.(apical growth)|6.Growth occurs in all body parts9intercalary growth).| ### **Revision questions ** **CLASSIFICATION I ** **INTRODUCTION ** Living things are also known as living organisms. Organisms (forms of life) have distinguishing characteristics and therefore are grouped. **The Magnifying lens ** -Is used for enlarging small objects. **(Diagram) ** **Procedure of its use ** Place the object on the bench. Move the hand lens from the object to the eye. An enlarged image is seen. Drawing magnification = Length of the drawing/ drawing Length Length of the object/Actual Length 4 ----- ### ** (Diagram) ** **External features of plants and animals** **External features of plants ** i) Rhizoids as in moss plant. ii) Fronds in ferns. iii) Roots, stems, leave, flowers, seeds, fruits, and cones in higher ### plants. **External features of animals ** i) Tentacles in hydra ii) Feathers in birds iii) Shells in snails iv) Wings in birds v) Fur and hair in mammals vi) Scales and fins in fish vii) Proglotids in tapeworms viii) Mammary glands in mammals ix) Locomotory Structures e.g. limbs in insects x) Body pigmentation **Practical activity 1 ** **To collect and observe animal specimens** **To collect and observe plant specimens ** **What is classification? ** -I s an area of biology that deals with the grouping of living organisms according to their structure. Organisms with similar structures are put under one group referred to as a taxontaxa (plural). The groupings also consider evolutionary relationships (phylogeny) since all living organisms had a common origin at one time. TaxonomyScience of classification. TaxonomistBiologist who studies taxonomy. **Need for classification. ** **Reasons ** 5 ----- ### 1. To identify living organisms into their correct groups for reference and study 2. To bring together living organisms with similar characteristics but separate those with different features. 3. To arrange information of living organisms in an orderly manner. This avoids chaos and confusion. 4. To understand the evolutionary relationship between different organisms **Taxonomic Units ** Are groups (taxa) into which organisms are placed as a matter of convenience. Groups are based on observable characteristics common in the group. In a classification scheme (taxonomic units or groups, a hierarchy of groups are recognized starting with the first largest and highest group; the Kingdom to the smallest and lowest unit; the species . There are 7 ma jor taxonomic units. ** SPECIES ** **The Kingdom** There are five Kingdoms of living organisms, namely: 1. Kingdom Monera : bacteria 2. Kingdom protoctista : algae, protozoa, amoeba, paramecium 3. Kingdom Fungi : Moulds, Yeast, Mushrooms 4. Kingdom Plantae : Moss plants, ferns, maize, garden pea, pine, meru oak, bean etc. 5. Kingdom Animalia : hydra, tapeworms, bees, human beings etc. 6 ----- ### A kingdom is divided into Phyla in animals or divisions in plants and sorts out organisms based on body plan and form. Plan is the adaptation to a special way of life. The Class is further divided into small groups; Orders using structural features. Orders are divided into families using structural features, then Families into Genera (singular genus) based on recent common ancestral features that are less adaptive. Genus is divided into species i.e. kind of plant, or animal. Down the hierarchy, the number of organisms in each group decreases but their similarities increases. The Species group members naturally interbreed to produce fertile off springs. Minor differences are exhibited in the species groups e.g. on colour of the skin in human beings and varieties of plants. The groups of the species are termed to as varieties, races or strains. |Classification o|of A human bein|ng and a maize plant|apers| |---|---|---|---| |Taxonomic unit|Human being|maize|bean Pa Past and s,| |kingdom|Animalia|plantae|plantae Exam,| |Phylum or division|Chordata|Angiospermaphyta|Angiospermae Notes KCSE e| |class|Mammalia|monocotyledonae|Dicotyledonae fre For| |order|Primates|Graminales|Rosales| |family|Hominidae|Graminaceae|Leguminosae| |genus|homo|zea|Phaseolus| |species|sapiens|mays|Vulgaris| Scientific name Homo sapiens Zea mays *phaseolus vulgaris * **Scientific Naming Of Living Organisms ** P resent naming was developed by carolus Linnaeus 18 [th] c, where organisms were given 2 names in Latin language. Living organisms have their scientific names and common names i.e. local or vernacular names. 7 ----- ### . Scientific naming uses the double naming system Binomial system In binomial system, an organism is given both the genus and species name. Binomial nomenclature (Double naming system)-Is the assigning of scientific names to living organisms governed by a definite set of rules recognized internationally. **Principles of binomial nomenclature ** a) The first, genus name, should begin with a capital letter and the second name, species, should begin or written in small letters e.g. Lion---- Panthera leo Leopard ----- Panthera pardus Domestic dog ----- Canis farmiliaris Human being--- Homo sapiens Maize plant--- Zea mays Lion and Leopard are closely related ---Same genus but distantly relateddifferent species. ### b) The scientific names must be printed in italics in textbooks and where hand written to be underlined e.g. Panthera leo. c) The specific name (species) is frequently written with the name of ### the scientist who first adequately described and named the organism e.g. Phaseolus vulgaris i.e. Vulgaris is the scientist who described and named the bean plant. d) Biologists should give a Latinized name for a newly described animal or plant species where Latin name is missing e.g. Meladogyne kikuyuensis Is a scientific name of a nematode from kikuyu. Aloe kilifiensis --- A member of Aloeceae family from Kilifi discovery. Garinsoga parviflora waweruensis --- a member of Macdonald eye family discovered by Waweru. **Study Question 1 ** **Co mplete the table below ** |Taxon|Lion|Domestic dog|Garden pea|Napier grass| |---|---|---|---|---| |kingdom||||| 8 ----- |Phylum/division|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5| |---|---|---|---|---| |class||||| |order||||| |family||||| |genus||||| |species||||| ### Scientific name --------------------- ------------------------ -- --------------------- ------------------------ **Revision Questions: ** **CLASSIFICATION 1 ** Review of the magnification lens Calculating Magnification External characteristics of plants and animals **Diversity of Living Organisms ** Organisms with similar characteristics are placed under one group called taxon (taxa). The science of classification is known as taxonomy . Biologists who study taxonomy are called taxonomists . **Need For Classification ** 1. Help in identifying living organisms into their correct groups for reference. 2. It brings together organisms with similar characteristics and separates those with different features. 3. Help to organize information about living organisms in an orderly manner avoiding any confusion. 4. Help to understand the evolutionary relationship between different living organisms. **Historical Background of Classification ** Long time ago classification was artificial where living things were classified as either plants or animals. Plants were classified as herbs, shrubs and trees. Animals were further divided into carnivores, herbivores and omnivores. 9 ----- ### Today modern classification uses evolutionary relationships between living organisms. **Taxonomic Units of Classification ** This refers to the groups into which living organisms are placed in classification. These units start from the first largest and highest group ( kingdom ) to the smallest and lowest unit ( species ). There are seven taxonomic units as shown below. ### **1. Kingdom ** Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) initially introduced the two kingdom system of classification. However many new life forms have been discovered which are neither animals nor plants. This has led to a more accepted classification system that adopts five kingdoms. These are; ### **i.) Monera .eg bacteria ** **ii.) Protoctista e.g algae and protozoa ** **iii.) Fungi e.g. mushrooms, moulds and yeast. ** **iv.) Plantae e.g. maize, ferns and all types of trees. ** **v.) Animalia e.g. man, cow tapeworm, flies etc. ** Kingdom is further divided into several phyla in animals or divisions in plants. **2. Phylum (phyla) or Division in plants. ** It is the second largest and further divided into classes. **3. Class ** Each class is divided into several orders . **4. Order ** 10 ----- ### **. ** Orders are divided into smaller groups called families **5. Family ** Family is divided into several Genera. ### **6. Genus ** Here members are closely related. It is further divided into the species. **7. Species ** This is the smallest unit of classification. *Species is defined as a group of organisms whose members naturally * **interbreed .** * to produce fertile offsprings* Members of a given species have small differences such as skin colour, height etc. ***Classification of Man and Maize plant. ( Table 2.1 KLB Bk *** ***1) *** **Scientific Naming of Living Organisms. ** ### Today organisms are given two names in Latin language. This was developed by Carolus Linnaeus. Latin language was used because it was widely spoken during his ### time. and the In scientific naming, an organism is given the genus . **species name** This double naming system is known as Binomia l system (two name System) **Binomial Nomenclature. ** This is the double naming system of organisms where organisms are name and the name. assigned two names i.e. the generic specific In binomial nomenclature the following rules are observed. i.) Generic name is written first followed by the specific name. First letter in the generic name is in capital and the rest are in small letters. Specific name is written in small letters. ii.) The two names are underlined separately when handwritten or italicised when printed. iii.) Newly discovered species must be given Latinized names. iv.) Specific name is frequently written with the name of the scientist who first adequately described and named the organism. 11 ----- ### **Examples ** **Revision Questions ** **CELL PHYSIOLOGY ** This is the study of the functions of cell structures. **Membrane Structure and Properties ** A membrane is a surface structure which encloses the cell and ### organelles. Membranes regulate the flow of materials into out of the cell or organelle. Examples of membranes: cell membrane, tonoplast (membrane surrounding the vacuole), nuclear membrane, mitochondrial membrane, chloroplast membrane etc. **The Cell Membrane** It has three layers, two protein layers and a phos-pholipid layer ### sandwiched in between the two. **Diagram ** **Properties of Cell Membrane ** 1. Semi-permeability. It has small pores allowing for the passage of molecules of small size into and out of the cell. Cell Wall however allows all materials to pass through it hence it is referred to as being Permeable . 2. Sensitivity to Changes in Temperature and pH Extreme temperature and pH affects the cell membrane since it has some protein layers. Such changes alter the structure of the membrane affecting its normal functioning. 3. Possession of Electric Charges it has both the negative and positive charges helping the cell to detect changes in the environment. These charges also affect the manner in which substances move in and out of the cell **Physiological Processes ** The ability of the cell to control the movement of substances in and out of the cell is achieved through physiological processes such as . **Diffusion, Osmosis and Active Transport** 12 ----- ### **Diffusion ** *This is a process by which particles move from a region of high * *concentration to a region of low concentration .* **Practical Activity 1 ** **To demonstrate diffusion using potassium permanganate (VII) ** The difference in concentration of particles between the region of high concentration and the region of low concentration is known as the diffusion gradient. **Role of Diffusion in Living Organisms ** ### **1. Absorption of Materials ** Mineral salts in the soil enter the root by diffusion since their concentration in the soil is greater than in the root hair cells. Digested food (glucose and amino acids) diffuse across the wall ### of the ileum into the blood for transport to rest of the body. **2. Gaseous Exchange in Plants and Animals ** In both plants and animals, respiratory gases (oxygen and Carbon (IV) oxide) are exchanged through simple diffusion depending on their concentration gradient. **3. Excretion of Nitrogenous Wastes ** **4. Transport of Manufactured Food form Leaves to other Plant ** **Parts. ** **5.** **Factors Affecting Diffusion ** **a) Diffusion Gradient ** A greater diffusion gradient between two points increases the rate of diffusion. **b) Surface Area to Volume Ratio ** The higher the ratio the greater the rate of diffusion and the lower the ratio the lower the rate. This means that small organisms expose a large surface area to the surrounding compared to large organisms. Small organisms therefore depend on diffusion as a means of transport of foods, respiratory gases and waste products. **Diagrams ** 13 ----- ### **c) Thickness of Membranes and Tissues ** The thicker the membrane the lower the rate of diffusion because the distance covered by the diffusing molecules is greater. The thinner the membrane, the faster the rate. Size of the Molecules Small and light molecules diffuse faster than large and heavy molecules. **d) Temperature ** Increase in temperature increases the energy content in molecules causing them to move faster. **Osmosis** ### *This is the process where solvent molecules (water) move from a * *lowly concentrated solution (dilute) to a highly concentrated * solution across a . ***semi-permeable membrane*** **Diagram fig 4.6 ** The highly concentrated solution is known as Hypertonic ### Solution . . The lowly concentrated solution is called Hypotonic solution Solution of the same concentration are said to be Isotonic . Osmosis is a special type of diffusion because it involves the movement of solvent (water) molecules from their region of high concentration to region of low concentration across a semi permeable membrane. **Practical activity 2 ** **Practical activity 3 ** **Osmotic Pressure ** This is the pressure which needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of water across a semi permeable membrane. This is the pressure needed to nullify osmosis. Osmotic pressure is measured using the osmometer. **Osmotic Potential ** This is the measure of the pressure a solution would develop to withdraw water molecules from pure water when separated by a semi permeable membrane. 14 ----- ### **Water Relations in Animals ** Cell membrane of the animal cell is semi permeable just like the dialysis/visking tubing. Cytoplasm contains dissolved sugars and salts in solution form. If an animal cell e.g. a red blood cell is placed in distilled water (hypotonic solution), water flows in by osmosis. The cell would swell up and eventually burst because the cell ### membrane is weak. The bursting of the red blood cell when . placed in hypotonic solution is called Haemolysis If a similar red blood cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water is drawn out of the cell by osmosis. The cell will shrink by a process called Crenation . Body fluids surrounding the cells must therefore have same ### concentration as to that which is found inside the cell. **Diagrams ** **Water Relations in Plants ** When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution it gains water ### by osmosis and distends outwards. As the cell gains more water, its vacuole enlarges and exerts an outward pressure called turgor pressure. As more water is drawn . in, the cell becomes firm and rigid and is said to be turgid The cell wall in plant cell is rigid and prevents the cell from ### bursting unlike the case in animal cells. The cell wall develops a resistant pressure that pushes towards the inside. This pressure is equal and opposite the turgor pressure and is called wall pressure. **Diagrams ** When a plant cell is placed in hypertonic solution, water molecules move out of the cell into the solution by osmosis. The cell shrinks and becomes flaccid . If the cell continues to lose more water, plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall towards the center. 15 ----- ### The process through which plant cells lose water, shrink and become flaccid is called plasmolysis. Plasmolysis can be reversed by placing a flaccid cell in distilled water and this process is called deplasmolysis. **Study Question 5 ** **Practical Activity 4 ** **Wilting ** When plants lose water through evaporation and transpiration, ### cells lose turgidity, shrink and the plant droops . This is called **wilting.** If water supply from the soil is inadequate, plants do not recover hence permanent wilting. **Study Question 6 ** **Role of Osmosis in Organisms ** ### **1. Absorption of water from the soil ** Root hair cells of plants absorb water from the soil by osmosis. **2. Support ** Cells of herbaceous plants, which are less woody, absorb ### water, become turgid hence support. **3. Opening and closing of the stomata ** During the day, guard cells synthesize glucose, draw in water, become turgid hence open the stomata. During the night, they lose turgidity since there is no photosynthesis. As a result, they shrink thus closing the stomata. **4. Feeding in insectivorous plants ** These plants are able to change their turgor pressure on the leaves which close trapping insects which are digested to provide the plant with nitrogen. 5. Osmoregulation In the kidney tubules, water is reabsorbed back to the body by osmosis. 16 ----- ### **Factors Affecting Osmosis** i.) Concentration of Solutions and Concentration Gradient. The greater the concentration gradient between two points, the faster the rate of osmosis. *ii.) Optimum Temperature as long as it does not destroy the * *semi-permeability of the membrane. * **Active Transport ** This is the process that moves substances across cell membranes against a concentration gradient. This process requires energy to move these substances across ### cell membranes and involves carriers. Substances such as amino acids, sugar and many ions are taken in by living organisms through active transport. **Role of Active Transport ** i.) Re-absorption of sugars and useful substances by the kidney ii.) Absorption of some mineral salts by plant roots iii.) Absorption of digested food from the alimentary canal into the blood stream iv.) Accumulation of substances in the body to offset osmotic imbalance in arid and saline environment v.) Excretion of waste products from body cells **Factors Affecting Active Transport. ** i.) Oxygen concentration. ii.) Change in pH. iii.) Glucose concentration. iv.) Temperature. v.) Enzyme inhibitors. NB/ Any factor affecting energy production affect the rate of active transport. **Revision Questions. ** **Cell Specialization, Tissues, Organs and Organ Systems ** **1. Cell specialization ** This is where cells are modified to perform specific functions. Such cells are said to be specialized. 17 ----- ### Examples include the sperm cell which has tail for swimming and the root hair cell which is extended creating large surface area for water absorption. **2. Tissues. ** These are cells of a particular type that are grouped together to ### perform the same function. **Animal tissues include; ** - Epithelial tissue which is a thin continuous layer of cells for lining and protection of internal and external surfaces. - Skeletal it is a bundle of elongated cells with fibres that can contract. Its contraction and relaxation brings about movement. - Blood tissue this is a fluid containing red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. It transports many substances and protects the body against infections. 18 ----- ### - Connective tissue made up of strong fibres that connect other tissues and organs holding them together. **Plant tissues include:** - Epidermal tissue of a plant this is a single layer of cells ### protecting the inner tissues of the plant. - Palisade tissue this is a group of cells rich in chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. They absorb light energy during photosynthesis. - Parenchyma tissue it is made thin walled irregularly shaped cells. They store water and food. - Vascular bundle consists of the xylem and phloem. Xylem conducts water and mineral salts while phloem conducts food substances. 19 ----- ### **3. Organs ** Many tissues become specialized and grouped together to . perform a functional unit called the organ Examples of organs in plants include; roots, leaves, flowers and stem. In animals they include heart, lungs, kidney, brain, stomach and the liver. **4. Organ systems. ** This is made of several organs whose functions are coordinated and synchronized to realize an effective action is called an organ system . Examples include; digestive, circulatory, **. ** excretory, respiratory, reproductive and nervous system |Revision Questions MICROSCOPE Microscope Parts & Function Parts of the Microscope|Col2|Col3| |---|---|---| ||1. Eyepiece|Contains a magnifying lens that focuses the image from the objective into your eye.| ||2. Course Adjust|For focusing under low magnification| ||3. Fine Adjust|For focusing under high magnification or low| ||4. Low Power Objective|For large specimens or overview| 20 ----- |Col1|5. High Power Objective|For detailed viewing or small specimens| |---|---|---| ||6. Specimen on glass slide|What you want to look at| ||7. Stage|Supports specimen in correct location to lens| ||8. Condenser|Focuses the light on specimen| ||9. Diaphragm (iris or disc)|Regulates amount of light and contrast| ||10. Light Source|Illuminates the specimen for viewing| ### **Handling and Care of the Microscope ** The following rule should be observed: ### 1. Use both hand when carrying the microscope. One hand should hold the base and the other holds the limb. 2. Never place the microscope too close to the edge of the bench. 3. Do not touch the mirror and the lenses with the fingers. 4. Clean dirty lenses using soft tissue. 5. Clean other parts using a soft cloth. 6. Do not wet any part of the microscope. 21 ----- ### 7. Make sure the low power clicks into position in line with the eye piece before and after use. 8. Always store the microscope in a safe place free from dust and moisture. **Using the Microscope ** 1. Place microscope on the bench with the stage facing away from you. 2. Turn the low power objective lens until it clicks into position. 3. Ensure the diaphragm is fully open. 4. Look through the eyepiece with one eye. Adjust the mirror to ensure maximum light can pass through. 5. Place the slide containing the specimen on the stage and clip it ### into position. Make sure the slide is at the centre of the field of view. 6. Again look through the eyepiece while adjusting the mirror to ensure maximum light reach the specimen. 7. Use the coarse adjustment knob to bring the low power objective lens to the lowest point. While viewing through the eyepiece, turn the coarse adjustment knob gently until the specimen comes into focus. 8. Use the fine adjustment knob to bring the image into sharp focus. 9. Make a drawing of what you see. 10. For higher magnification, turn the medium power into position and adjust the focus using the coarse knob. Use the fine adjustment knob for sharper focus. 11. For even large magnifications, turn the high power objective lens into position. In this case use only the fine adjustment knob to bring details into sharper focus. **Magnification ** Magnification of the object viewed under the microscope is calculated by; **Magnification = Eye Piece Lens Magnification X Objective ** **Lens Magnification. ** 22 ----- ### If the eyepiece lens has the magnification of x5 and the low ### power objective lens has a magnification of x10, the total magnification is 5x10=50. **Study Question 1 ** **Fill the table below. ** |Eye piece lens maginification|Objective lens magnification|Total magnification| |---|---|---| |X5|X4|| |X10|X5|| |X10||X100| ||X40|X600| |X10|X100|| ### **Practical Activity 1 ** **Cell Structures as Seen Under the Light Microscope ** The following cell organelles can be seen under the light microscope. - Cell wall. - Cell membrane - Cytoplasm - Nucleus - Vacuole. - Chloroplasts. **Diagrams- plant and animal cells ** **The Electron Microscope. ** It is more powerful than the light microscope. It can magnify up to 500,000 times and has high resolving power. The high resolving power of the electron microscope enables it to separate objects which lie close to one another. Electron microscope uses a beam of electrons instead of light to illuminate the object. **Study Question 2 ** **Practical Activity 2 ** **Cell Structures as Seen Under the Electron Microscope ** 23 ----- ### **Diagrams Plant and Animal Cells ** **The Cell Organelles ** ***i) Cell membrane (Plasma Membrane). *** It has three layers i.e. one layer of phospho-lipid layer sandwiched between two protein layers. It is flexible with pores and ahs the following main functions. ### a) Encloses all the cell contents. b) It allows selective movement of substances into and out of the cell since it is semi-permeable. **Diagram ** ***ii) Cytoplasm *** It is s fluid medium in which chemical reactions take place. It has some movement called cytoplasmic streaming. It contains organelles, starch, glycogen, fat droplets and other dissolved substances. ***iii) Nucleus *** It has double membrane called the nuclear membrane. The membrane has pores allowing passage of materials into and out of the cell. Nucleus has a fluid called nucleoplasm in which the nucleolus and chromatin are suspended. Nucleolus manufactures ribosomes while chromatin contains the hereditary material. ***iv) Mitochondria(Mitochondrion) *** . They are sausage shaped and are the respiratory sites Mitochondrion has two membranes. Inner membrane is greatly folded into cristae to increase the surface area for respiration. Cells that require a lot of energy have large number of mitochondria e.g. muscle cell, sperm cell, kidney cell etc. **Diagram ** ***v) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) *** 24 ----- ### Some endoplasmic reticulums have granules called Ribosomes on their surfaces hence referred to as rough endoplasmic reticulum. Others do not contain ribosomes hence the name smooth . ***endoplasmic reticulum*** Rough endoplasmic reticulum transport proteins while the smooth endoplasmic reticulum transports lipids. **Diagrams ** ***vi) Ribosomes *** They are spherical in shape and form the site for protein . ***synthesis*** ***vii) Lysosomes *** They contain lytic enzymes which break down large molecules, ### destroy worn out organelles or even the entire cell. ***viii) Golgi Bodies (Golgi apparatus) *** Their function is to package and transport glyco-proteins. They are also associated with secretion of synthesized proteins and . *** carbohydrates*** **Diagram ** ***ix) Centrioles *** They are rod shaped structures that are used in cell division and in ### the formation of . ***cilia and flagella*** Plant cells lack the Centrioles. ***x) Chloroplasts *** They are egg shaped and contain two membranes. Chloroplast has chlorophyll which traps light energy to be used during photosynthesis. ***xi) Vacuoles *** This are sacs filled with a fluid called cell sap. Animal cells contain small vacuoles while plant cells have large vacuoles. Sap vacuoles store sugars and salts. Food vacuole store and digest food while contractile vacuoles excrete unwanted materials from the cell. ***xii) Cell wall *** 25 ----- ### It is a rigid outer cover of the plant cells made of cellulose . It gives the plant cell a definite shape while providing and . ***mechanical support protection*** Cell wall also allows water, gases and other materials to pass through it. **Study Question 3 ** **Differences between Plant and Animal Cells ** **Preparation of Temporary Slides ** **Practical Activity 3 ** **Estimation of Cell Sizes. ** **NUTRITION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS ** **Nutrition** This is the process by which organisms obtain and Assimilate nutrients. There are two modes of nutrition; Autotrophism and ### **Heterotrophism.** ** Autotrophism ** This is where living organism manufacture its own complex food substances from simple substances such as carbon (iv) oxide, water, light or chemical energy. Where sunlight is used as a source of energy, the process is referred to as . **photosynthesis** Photo means light while synthesis means to make. Some none green plants make their own food using energy obtained from certain chemicals through a process called **chemosynthesis.** Organisms that make their own food are referred to as . **autotrophs** **Heterotrophism** 26 ----- ### This is where organisms take in complex food materials such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats obtained from bodies of plants and animals. Organisms that feed on already manufactured foods are called . **Heterotrophs** **Autotrophism ** **External Structure of a Leaf** A leaf is a flattened organ which is attached to the stem or a branch of a plant. **Diagrams ** **Parts of a leaf** Lamina: This is the flat surface. It is green in colour and contain the photosynthetic tissue. Midrib: This is a thick structure running through the middle of the leaf Veins: They arise from the midrib to forming an extensive network of veins. Leaf Apex: This is the tip of the leaf and usually it is pointed. Petiole: It attaches the leaf to the stem or branch. In some monocotyledonous plants the leaves are attached to the stem by the leaf sheath. **Practical Activity 1: To examine the External Features of a ** **Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous leaf ** **Study Question 1 ** **Internal Structure of a Leaf** Internal structure of the leaf is composed of the following parts. *i.) Cuticle. * It is a thin waterproof and transparent layer that coats the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf. It reduces excess water loss and protects the inner tissue of the plant against mechanical injury. It also prevents entry of disease causing micro organisms. Since it is transparent, it allows penetration of light for photosynthesis. *ii.) Epidermis. * 27 ----- ### It is a one cell thick tissue on both the upper and lower leaf surfaces. It secretes the cuticle and also protects the inner tissues from mechanical damage and prevents entry of pathogens. . Epidermal cells have no chloroplast except the guard cells Guard cells are special bean shaped cells. They have chloroplast and are able to carry out photosynthesis hence controlling the opening and closing of the stomata. Air moves into and out of the leaf through the stomata. *iii.) Palisade layer. * This is layer of cells located beneath the upper epidermis. It is made of cylindrical shaped cells closely packed together. ### They have numerous chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. Their position and arrangement enables them to receive maximum light. *iv.) Spongy Mesophyll Layer. * This is below the palisade layer. The cells are irregularly shaped and loosely packed creating large air spaces in between them. The air spaces allow gases to diffuse in between the cells. They contain fewer chloroplasts as compared to the palisade cells. *v.) Leaf Veins. * Each vein is a vascular bundle consisting of xylem and phloem. Xylem conducts water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves while the phloem translocates manufactured food from the leaves to the rest of the plant. ----- ### **Study Question 2 ** **Adaptations of Leaves to Photosynthesis. ** 1. Broad and flat lamina to increase surface area of Carbon (IV) oxide and sunlight absorption. 2. Thin transparent cuticle and upper epidermis; to allow easier penetration of light to photosynthetic cells; 3. Thin; for faster diffusion of gases; 4. Palisade cells placed next to the upper surface; to trap maximum ### light for photosynthesis; 5. Palisade cells with numerous chloroplasts; to trap maximum amount of light for photosynthesis; 6. Large/ intercellular air spaces in the spongy mesophyll layer; for ### storage of Carbon (IV) oxide for easier gaseous exchange; 7. Waxy water proof cuticle; to reduce water loss sand reflect excess light; 8. Leaf mosaic/ non-overlapping leaves; for maximum exposure to light; 9. Guard cells, modified cells to open and close stomata; to control amount of water loss from the leaf and allows gaseous exchange; 10. Leaves have leaf veins; xylem to conduct water to photosynthetic cells, Phloem to translocate products of photosynthesis to other parts of plant; **The Chloroplast** They are disc shaped organelles found in the cytoplasm of plant cells. Each chloroplast has a double membrane; the inner and outer membrane. Chloroplasts are made of layers of membranes called lamellae contained in a fluid matrix called stroma . Several lamellae come together to form the granum (grana). Granum contains chlorophyll molecules and other photosynthetic . ***pigments*** 29 ----- ### The stroma contains enzymes that speed up the rate of photosynthesis. **Practical Activity 2: To Observe Distribution of Stomata ** **Study Question 3. ** **The Process of Photosynthesis ** The raw materials for photosynthesis are; water and carbon (IV) ### oxide. The process however requires the presence of sunlight energy and chlorophyll pigment. The products of photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen. The process can be summarized using an equation as shown below. **6H 2 O + 6CO 2 ----------> C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2** Water + Carbon (IV) oxide Glucose + Oxygen. **The above chemical equation translates as: ** **Six molecules of water plus six molecules of carbon (IV) Oxide ** **produce one molecule of sugar plus six molecules of oxygen** The process of photosynthesis is however more complex than ### shown in the above equation and can be divided into two stage; the light and dark stages. **Light stage (Light Dependent Stage) ** - Occurs in the grana containing chlorophyll which traps / absorbs **.** sun light energy - This Energy is used to split water molecules into hydrogen ion and oxygen gas. - This process is called photolysis of water and is shown below. 30 |LIGHT ENERGY|Col2|Col3| |---|---|---| ||CHLOROPHYLL|| ----- ### **(Water) Hydrogen atom Oxygen ** - Hydrogen atoms produced here enter into the dark stage. - Oxygen gas removed through stomata or is used for respiration within the plant ; - Some Light energy is used in Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) formation; ATP an energy rich compound. - ATP is later used in the dark stage. **Dark stage. (Light Independent Stage)** - Carbon (IV) oxide combines with hydrogen atoms to form glucose/simple carbohydrate. - This is called Carbon (IV) Oxide fixation. **+ ** **Carbon (IV) oxide Hydrogen Atom Simple ** **Carbohydrate ** **CO 2 + 4H C 6 H 12 O 6** - This stage takes place in the stroma and proceeds whether light is present or not. - ATP Energy from light stage is used to provide the required energy in this reaction ; - Simple sugars formed are used for respiration to provide energy or are converted to storable forms e.g lipids, proteins, starch, cellulose, etc. **Study Question 4 ** **Practical Activity 3: To Investigate the Presence of Starch in a ** **Leaf. ** **Study Question 5 ** **Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis** *i.) Light Intensity. * Increase in light intensity increase the rate of photosynthesis up to a certain level where it slows down and finally levels off. Very bright sunshine may damage the plant tissues due to high amount of ultra violet light. Light quality or light wavelength also affects the rate of photosynthesis. 31 ----- ### Red and blue wavelengths of light are required by most plants for photosynthesis. Rate of Photosynthesis ### Range of optimum light intensity ***Light intensity *** *ii.) Carbon (IV) oxide concentration * Increase in Carbon (IV) oxide concentration increases the rate of photosynthesis linearly up to a certain level after which it slows down and levels off. Rate of Photosynthesis ### Range of optimum CO 2 concentration 32 ----- ### ***Carbon (IV) oxide concentration *** *iii.) Temperature * Photosynthesis is an enzyme controlled process, therefore ### increase in temperature increase the rate of photosynthesis up to the optimum temperature. Increase in temperature beyond the optimum decreases the rate sharply as the enzymes become denatured. *iv.) Water * Plants need water for photosynthesis. Hydrogen atoms required ### in the dark stage during Carbon (IV) oxide fixation are derived from water during photolysis. **Study Question 6 ** **Practical Activity 4: To Investigate Factors Necessary for ** **Photosynthesis. ** **a) Light ** **Study Question 7 ** **b) Carbon (IV) oxide. ** **Study Question 8 ** **c) Chlorophyll. ** **Study Question 9 ** **Study Question 10 ** **Practical Activity 5: To Investigate the Gas Produced During ** **Photosynthesis. ** **Study Question 11 ** 33 ----- ### **Chemical Compounds Which Constitute Living Organisms ** Cells, tissues and organs are made of chemicals which are ### referred to as . ***chemicals of life*** The study of chemical compounds found in living organisms and . reactions in which they take part is called Biochemistry Chemicals of life include carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. **a) Carbohydrates ** They are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of 1:2:1 respectively. Carbohydrates have a general formula of (CH 2 O) n where n represents the number of carbon atoms in a molecule of carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are divided into three groups; Monosaccharides, ### **Disaccharides and Polysaccharides. ** **i) Monosaccharides ** They are the simplest carbohydrates and have a general chemical formula of (CH 2 O) n where n = 6. Their chemical formular is therefore C 6 H 12 O 6 . They include; glucose, fructose, galactose etc. **Properties of Monosaccharides ** i) They are soluble in water to form sweet tasting solutions. ii) They are crystalissable. iii) They have the reducing property where they reduce copper sulphate in Benedicts solution to red copper (I) oxide. **Functions ** i) They are oxidized to release energy during respiration. ii) When condensed together, they form polysaccharides such as starch, cellulose or glycogen. **ii) Disaccharides** They are formed by linking two Monosaccharide molecules through the process of condensation where a molecule of water is liberated. ***Condensation *** 34 ----- ### **Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide ** **Disaccharide + Water. ** **C 6 H 12 O 6 + C 6 H 12 O 6 C 6 H 22 O 11** ### **+ H 2 O** ***Examples *** **Glucose + Glucose Maltose + ** **Water. ** **Glucose + Fructose Sucrose + ** **Water ** **Glucose + Galactose Lactose** **+ Water. ** The type of disaccharide formed depends on the monosaccharide units that condense together. **Properties of Disaccharides** i) Soluble in water to form sweet tasting solutions ii) They are non reducing sugars . Some such as the maltose can reduce copper sulphate in Benedicts solution when heated together and are therefore referred to as complex reducing . ***sugars*** iii) They are readily broken into their constituent monosaccharide molecules in a process known as Hydrolysis in the presence of water. ***Hydrolysis *** **Disaccharide + Water ** **Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide ** ** C 6 H 22 O 11 + H 2 O Hydrolysis** **C 6 H 12 O 6 + C 6 H 12 O 6** **Sucrose + Water Hydrolysis ** **Glucose + Fructose ** **Lactose + Water Hydrolysis ** **Glucose + Galactose ** **Maltose + Water Hydrolysis.** **Glucose + Glucose. ** 35 ----- ### Naturally disaccharides are hydrolyzed by enzymes. In the laboratory, hydrolysis is achieved by boiling them in dilute Hydrochloric acid. **Functions ** They are hydrolyzed by enzymes into monosaccharides which are then oxidized to produce energy. iii) Polysaccharides. They are made of many monosaccharide molecules hence are long and more complex. They have a general formula of (C 6 H 10 O 5 ) n ; where the value of n **. ** is a very large number **Examples of polysaccharides ** **i) Starch ** It is present as stored food in plant tissues e.g. maize, wheat, potatoes, rice etc. **ii) Cellulose ** This is the component of the cell wall in plants. Cellulose gives ### the plant cells their definite shape. **iii) Glycogen ** This is the form in which carbohydrates are stored in animal tissues. Excess glucose is converted into glycogen for storage in the liver. **Properties of Polysaccharides** i) All are insoluble in water. ii) Do not have a sweet taste hence are referred to as non-sugars. **Study Question 12 ** **Practical Activity 6: To Carry out Food Tests for ** **Carbohydrates ** **i) Starch ** **ii) Reducing sugars ** **iii) Non Reducing Sugars** **b) Lipids ** These are the fats and oils. Fats are found in animals while oils are found in plants. Oils are liquid while the fats are solid at room temperature. 36 ----- ### They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen just like the carbohydrates. However they contain fewer number of oxygen atoms than in carbohydrates. Lipids are made up of three fatty acid molecules and one molecule of Glycerol. The nature of a lipid formed, depends on the fatty acids it contains. Glycerol remains the same in all lipids. **Diagram ** Complex lipids are formed through condensation of many lipid molecules just like in carbohydrates. Examples of complex lipids include; phospholipids, waxes, steroids and cholesterol. Presence of lipids in a food sample is detected using the grease ### . ***spot test or emulsion test*** **Properties of Lipids ** 1. When fats are heated they change into liquid while oils solidify under low temperature. 2. Both fats and oils are insoluble in water. They however dissolve in organic solvents such as alcohol to form emulsions and suspensions. 3. Lipids are inert hence can be stored in the tissues of organisms. **Functions of Lipids ** **i) Source of energy ** They give almost twice as much energy as the Monosaccharides. **ii) Source of metabolic water ** When oxidized, lipids release more water than Monosaccharides. Such water is referred to as metabolic water . **iii) Structural compounds ** Lipids are constituents of plasma membrane and protoplasm. **iv) Heat insulation ** Fats are deposited under the skin of animals forming the adipose tissue which acts as a heat insulator. Mammals in the temperate regions have thick adipose tissue to greatly reduced heat loss. 37 ----- ### Thick adipose tissue in aquatic animals helps them to be buoyant in water. **v) Protection ** Fat is deposited around the major organs such as kidney, heart etc where they act as shock absorber. Wax in plant cuticles reduces excessive water loss. **Study Question 13 ** **Practical Activity 7: testing for the Presence of Lipids ** **i) The Grease Spot ** **ii) The Emulsion Test ** **c) Proteins ** Like carbohydrates and lipids, proteins are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In addition they contain nitrogen and sometimes phosphorous . ***and sulphur*** Some proteins such as haemoglobin contain other elements such as iron. Proteins are made up of small units called amino acids. There are about 20 different types of amino acids. All amino acids contain the amino group (-NH 2 ) which consists of hydrogen and nitrogen. Two amino acids combine to form a dipeptide molecule through the process of condensation. The bond between two amino acids is called peptide Bond . Many amino acids join together to form a long protein chain called . **polypeptide chain** The type and sequence of amino acids contained in such a chain determine the uniqueness of the protein being formed. **Properties of Proteins** i.) They dissolve in water to form colloidal suspensions (not true solutions) where particles remain suspended in water. ii.) They are denatured by temperatures above 40 [0] C. Heat alters the structure of the protein molecule. Chemicals such as detergents, acids, bases and organic solvents also denature proteins. 38 ----- ### iii.) They are amphoteric whereby they have both acidic and basic properties. This property enables them to combine with non-protein compounds to form conjugated proteins such as mucus, and haemoglobin. In mucus the non protein compound is a carbohydrate while in haemoglobin, iron is a non protein. **Functions of Proteins ** i.) Structural Functions Proteins make the framework of living systems e.g. plasma membrane, connective tissues, muscle fibres, hair, nails, hooves, skeletal materials etc. ii.) Metabolic Regulators These are divided into two ***a) Enzymes*** Enzymes are organic catalysts which speed up the rate of ### metabolic reactions such as respiration, photosynthesis, digestion etc. ***b) Hormones *** They are chemical messengers which regulate many body processes such as growth, reproduction, amount of sugars, salts and water in the blood etc. iii.) Source of Energy Under extreme starvation, proteins are broken down to release ### energy. **Study question 14 ** **Practical Activity 8 ** **To Test for Proteins ** **Enzymes ** They are organic catalysts which are protein in nature. They speed up or slow down the rate of chemical reactions in the body without themselves being used up. They are divided into two; *a) Extracellular Enzymes * Extracellular enzymes are produced within the cells but are used outside the cells which produce them e.g. the digestive enzymes. 39 ----- ### *b) Intracellular Enzymes* They are secreted and used within the cells which produce them e.g. the respiratory enzymes. **Naming of the Enzyme** ### There are two methods on naming enzymes; **i) Trivial Naming ** Enzymes are given names of persons who discovered them. The names end in -in such as pepsin, trypsin ptyalin etc. ii) Use of suffix ase This is the modern method of naming. The suffix ase is added to the substrate (type of food) or the reaction the enzyme catalyzes. |Example 1|Col2| |---|---| |Substrate|Enzyme| |Carbohydrate|Carbohydrase| |Starch e.g. amylose|Amylase| |Sucrose|Sucrase| |Maltose|Maltase| |Protein|Protease| |Lipid|Lipase| |Example 2|Col2| |---|---| |Reaction|Enzyme| |Hydrolysis|Hydrolase| |Oxidation|Oxidase| |Reduction|Reductase| **Properties of Enzymes ** 1. They are protein in nature hence are affected by changes in temperature and pH. 2. They are substrate specific. 3. They are efficient in small amounts as they are not affected by the reactions they catalyze. They can be used again and again. 4. They are catalysts that speed up the rate cellular reactions and are not used up in the reactions they catalyses. 5. Most of the enzyme controlled reactions are reversible. 40 ----- ### **Factors Affecting the Rate of Enzyme Controlled Reactions** i.) Temperature Enzymes are sensitive to changes in temperature and pH since they are protein in nature. Enzymes work best within a narrow range of temperature called the optimum temperature. Above the optimum temperature, reaction decreases sharply as the enzymes are denatured. Most enzymes have optimum temperature between 35-40 [o] C. Very low temperature inactivates the enzymes hence decrease ### rate of reaction. ***Diagrams *** ii.) pH Most enzymes have a pH of close to 7. Some however work best in acidic pH e.g. pepsin while others work best in alkaline conditions. As pH changes from the optimum, enzyme activity decreases. Extreme acidity or alkalinity denatures most enzymes. ***Diagrams *** iii.) Specificity Enzymes are specific in nature where a particular enzyme acts on a particular specific substrate. For example, sucrose works on sucrose and not any other substrate. iv.) Substrate Concentration and Enzyme Concentration. When substrate concentration increases, the rate of enzyme reaction also increases upto a certain level. Further increase does not increase the rate of reaction as all the active sites of an enzyme are occupied. When enzyme molecules are increased, the rate of reaction increases proportionally. ***Diagrams *** v.) Enzyme Co-factors and Co-enzymes 41 ----- ### Co-factors are non protein substances which activates enzymes. They are required in small quantities and they include metallic ions such as those of iron, magnesium, zinc, copper etc. Some are vitamins. Co-enzymes are non protein molecules that work in association with particular enzymes. Most co-enzymes are derived from vitamins. vi.) Enzyme Inhibitors Inhibitors compete with the normal substrate for the active sites and they take up the active site of the enzyme permanently. There are two types of inhibitors; **a) Competitive Inhibitors** These are chemicals closely related to normal substrate and they ### compete for active sites with the normal substrate. They slow down the rate of reaction. **b) Non Competitive Inhibitors** They do not compete with the substrate. They combine permanently with enzyme molecules thus blocking the active sites. They include poisons such as cyanides, mercury and silver- arsenic compounds. **Importance of Enzymes ** Enzymes speed up the rate of cellular reactions and also control them. This way, they help prevent violent reactions in the cells. **Study Question 15 ** **Practical Activity 9 ** **Study Question 16 ** **Study Question 17 ** **Practical Activity 10 ** 42 ----- ## **FORM TWO BIOLOGY NOTES ** ### **EXCRETION AND HOMEOSTASIS ** Excretion -Process by which living organisms separate and eliminate ### waste products formed during metabolic processes from the body. They include; carbon IV oxide, excess water and mineral salts, nitrogenous wastes etc. accumulation of these substances may become toxic to cells. Homeostasis -This is the maintenance of internal environment of cells under constant conditions E.g. temperature, osmotic pressure, blood sugar and chemical constituents. . - Egestion This is the removal of undigested and indigestible materials from the alimentary Canal of animals. Secretion . - This is the release of certain useful substances produced by cells e.g. hormones, Enzymes, sebum, saliva and mucus. **Excretion in Plants ** Plants do not have complex organs for excretion because; i. There is very little accumulation of toxic wastes such as ### nitrogenous wastes. ii. Some waste products are re-used in the same plant such as Co 2, oxygen and water. iii. Some of these gases are removed by simple diffusion through the stomata and lenticels. iv. Some plants store wastes in their tissues in non-toxic forms such as nicotine, caffeine, tannins, resins, quinine, morphine etc. **Economic Importance of Plant Excretory Products ** i. Tannins They are deposited in dead tissues of wood and barks of trees e.g. in acacia and wattle tree. Tannin is used to treat leather. ii. Caffeine it is stored in coffee berries and tea leaves. It is used as a stimulant. iii. Quinine it is stored in the leaves of aloe and bark of cinchona tree. It is used in the treatment of malaria. 43 ----- ### iv. Cocaine it is obtained from the leaves of coca plant and is used as an anesthetic. v. Cannabis found in the leaves and flowers of Cannabis sativa (bhang). It is used to manufacture some drugs. vi. Nicotine found in leaves of tobacco plant and is used in the manufacture of insecticides and narcotic drugs. It also manufactures cigarettes. vii. Rubber it is made from latex of rubber plant. It is used in shoe industry and manufacture of chewing gum. viii. Colchicines it is used in plant breeding and treating of cancer. ix. Pappain - it is obtained from raw paw paw and it is used as a meat tenderizer. x. Khat/miraa its chewed and acts as a mild stimulant. **Excretion and Homeostasis in Unicellular Organisms** ### Most simple organisms such as the protozoa (amoeba and paramecium) live in aquatic environment. They depend mainly on diffusion as the means of excretion. Their bodies have a large surface area to volume ratio providing a ### large surface area for gaseous exchange and excretion to take place by simple diffusion. Waste products diffuse from the cytoplasm where they are highly concentrated across the cell membrane into the surrounding water where their concentration is low. The organisms also use the contractile vacuole to achieve excretion. Amoeba and paramecium live in an aquatic environment that is hypotonic to their body fluids. Water therefore tends to move into their cytoplasm by osmosis. The excess water and dissolved chemicals accumulate in the contractile vacuole which releases them to the surrounding water. **Diagram ** **Excretion in Mammals ** Mammals have an elaborate excretory system since their bodies are complex. 44 ----- ### The main excretory organs in mammals include; lungs, skin, kidneys and the liver. **A Structure and Function of the Mammalian Skin** Skin is the largest body organ covering the whole body surface. **It has the following functions. ** i. Protection of the underlying tissues from entry of micro- organisms, physical damage and ultra violet rays from the sun. ii. Regulation of body temperature. iii. Excretion of salts, excess water and traces of urea. iv. Reception of stimuli such as heat, cold, pain, touch and pressure. v. Synthesis of vitamin D. vi. Storage of fats. **Diagram ** The skin is made up of two layers; a) Epidermis (upper and outer layer) b) The dermis (inner layer) a) Epidermis (upper and outer layer) It is made up of three other layers; i. Cornfield layer. ii. Granular layer. iii. Malphigian layer. ### i. Cornifield layer The Cornifield layer of the epidermis consist of dead cells which ### form a tough outer coat; that protects the skin against mechanical damage, bacterial infection and water loss; ii. Granular layer Its the middle layer of the epidermis and is made up of living cells that give rise to the Cornifield layer. iii. Malphigian layer Malphigian layer consists of actively dividing cells that contain fine granules of melanin; that prevents the skin against ultraviolet light rays from the sun; melanin gives the skin its colour. b) The Dermis ( inner layer ) 45 ----- ### It is thicker than the epidermis and consists of the following structures; 1) Sebaceous glands produce an oily secretion sebum which give ### hair its water repelling property; that keeps the epidermis supple and prevents it from dying Sebum also prevents bacterial attack due to its antiseptic property; 2) Has blood vessels; that dilate and contract; In hot conditions, they dilate; increasing blood flow near the skin surface enhancing blood flow near the skin surface; minimizing heat loss; Blood vessels supply nutrients and oxygen to skin tissues and also remove waste products and carbon IV oxide. 3) Has Hair follicle ;hairs stand during cold weather thus trapping a ### layer of air which prevents heat loss; In hot weather they lie close to the skin surface; to enhance heat loss to the atmosphere. 4) Have many sensory neurons which detects environmental changes; increasing sensitivity of the skins. 5) Has subcutaneous layer ; contains fat which acts as a heat- insulating layer and a fuel storage. 6) Lymphatic vessels ; they drain excess tissue fluid. 7) Sweat glands ; are involved in temperature regulation through loss of excess heat by the evaporating water. Sweat also excretes excess water, mineral salts, urea and lactic acid. **B The Lungs ** They are involved with the removal of carbon VI oxide which is released by cells during their metabolism. Carbon IV oxide would be toxic if it was left to accumulate in the tissues. **C Structure and Function of the Kidney ** ***Diagram fig. 4.3; generalized urinary system of a mammal (page 88 *** ***KLB) *** Mammals have a pair of kidneys which are bean shaped and dark red in colour. 46 ----- ### The kidneys are surrounded by a layer of fat which cushions them against mechanical injury. Above each kidney are the adrenal glands which secrete hormones. Renal artery supplies blood to the kidneys and the renal vein removes the blood. Ureter transports urine from the kidney to the bladder which temporarily stores the urine. The mammalian kidney has three distinct regions; cortex, medulla and pelvis. ***Diagram fig. 4.4(a) and 4.4(b) (page 89 KLB)*** **Cortex** It is the outermost region and is dark red in colour. **Medulla** It is red in colour and extends to form conical structures called ### pyramids. Pyramids open up into the pelvis. **Pelvis** Its white in colour and narrows down to form the Ureter. The human kidney contains urinary tubules called the nephrons. **Nephron ** It is the basic functional unit of the kidney. Each nephron is made up two main parts; Renal tubule Glomerulus. ***Diagram fig. 4.6. The structure of the kidney nephron *** 47 ----- **X** ### The renal tubule has 5 main parts. ### 1. Bowmans capsule 2. Proximal convoluted tubule 3. Loop of Henle 4. Distal convoluted tubule 5. Collecting tubule **1. Bowmans capsule** It is a thin walled and cup shaped structure which contains the ### glomeruli. Glomerulus is a fine network of blood capillaries enclosed by the Bowmans capsule. It is made the afferent and efferent arterioles. Blood entering the kidney via the renal artery is rich in nitrogenous wastes such as urea. Also it has dissolved food substances, plasma proteins, mineral ions, hormones and oxygen. Afferent arteriole entering the Glomerulus is wider than the efferent arteriole leaving it. This creates extremely high pressure in the Glomerulus coupled with the fact that renal artery branches directly from the aorta where blood is at high pressure. ***Diagram: structure of the nephron*** 48 ----- ### Due to the high pressure in the glomeruli, the liquid part of the blood and dissolved substances of low molecular sizes including urea, glucose, salts and amino acids are forced out of the Glomerulus into the cavity of the Bowmans capsule. The large sized molecules in the plasma such as proteins and blood cells are not filtered out. This is because the capillary walls of the Glomerulus and bow mans capsule have very small pores. This process is known as ultra-filtration and the filtrate formed is called glomerular filtrate. The filtrate then enters the proximal convoluted tubule. ***Diagram of ultra-filtration at the Glomerulus *** ### **2. Proximal convoluted tubule** As the filtrate flows along the renal tubules, most of the filtered substances in the glomerular filtrate useful to the body are selectively reabsorbed back into the blood. The following substances are actively reabsorbed using energy in the proximal convoluted tubule; All glucose, Amino acids ***and Mineral salts.*** The proximal convoluted tubule is adapted in the following ways for efficient re-absorption of these substances. i) Presence of mitochondria in the cells lining to provide with energy required ii) Cells of the tubule have micro-cilli (infoldings) which increase surface area for re-absorption. iii) Tubule is long and coiled to increase the surface area. iv) Coiling of the tubule reduces the speed of flow of filtrate giving more time for efficient re-absorption. v) Tubule is well supplied with blood capillaries. **3. Loop of Henle** This is where particularly sodium chloride is actively reabsorbed into the blood. Loop of Henle has counter current flow between the flow of filtrate and the flow of blood i.e. the filtrate and blood flow in opposite directions. 49 ----- ### The hormone Aldosterone secreted by the adrenal glands regulate the absorption of sodium salts. Low content of sodium salts in the blood stimulates adrenal glands to secret more Aldosterone hormone and therefore more salts are reabsorbed from the filtrate. **4. Distal convoluted tubule** When the filtrate reaches here, some water is reabsorbed into the blood by osmosis. This is made possible by the following; - Active intake of sodium salt into the blood at the loop of ### Henle increases the osmotic potential of the blood. - The antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secreted by the pituitary gland. ADH increases the permeability of the tubule and blood capillaries to water When there is excess water in the body there is less production ### of ADH and less water is reabsorbed hence production of large amounts of dilute urine. If the body has lost a lot of water such as through sweating, this raises the osmotic pressure of blood. Pituitary gland releases more ADH which increases permeability of the kidney tubules to water. More water is reabsorbed hence production of little but concentrated urine. The distal convoluted tubule has large surface area, it is has a wall that is one cell thick and is surrounded by may blood capillaries. **5. Collecting tubule** The filtrate in the collecting tubule becomes the urine and moves to the collecting duct. Urine flows into the pelvis via the pyramids and is finally emptied into the urinary bladder through the ureter. About 1-2 litres of urine are formed in a day. About 250ml of urine in the urinary bladder initiates the urge to urinate. The sphincter muscles relax and urine pass. **Urine Co mposition ** 50 ----- ### |Col1|Composition.| |---|---| |Water|95%| |Urea|2%| |Uric acid|0.03%| |Creatine|0.1%| |Salts|1.4%| |Ammonia|0.04%| |Proteins|0%| |Glucose|0%| The quantity and concentration of the urine in animals is affected by i) Physiological adaptations. ii) Habitat of an organism e.g. terrestrial, desert or aquatic. iii) Structural adaptations of the animals e.g. a desert rat has ### long kidney tubules to increase water reabsorption. **Study Questions. . ** |Comparison Between Aquatic and|d Desert Animals nd Past| |---|---| |Fresh Water Animals|Desert Animals. an ms,| |i) Have many glomeruli to increase ultrafiltration.|Few glomeruli to reduce Exa Notes, ultrafiltration. SE| |ii) Short loop oh Henle to reduce water reabsorption.|Long kidney tubules to increase KC free water reabsorption. For| |iii) Produce large quantity of dilute urine.|Produce small quantity of concentrated urine.| ### **Comparison of Composition of urine with that of Glomerular ** **Filt rate and Blood Plasma. ** |Substance|% Composition of;|Col3|Col4| |---|---|---|---| ||Plasma|Glomerular Filtrate.|urine| |Urea|0.03|0.03|2.0| |Uric acid|0.005|0.005|0.03| |Ammonia|0.001|0.001|0.004| |Glucose|0.1|0.1|0| 51 ----- |Amino acids|0.05|0.05|0| |---|---|---|---| |Mineral salts|0.70|0.70|1.4| |Blood proteins.|8.00|0|0| ### **Functions of the kidney include:** i) Excretion. ii) Osmoregulation. iii) Ionic balance. iv) Regulation of PH **Kidney Diseases** *i) Nephritis * This is the inflammation of the glomerulus of the kidney. It is caused by bacteria or infections such as small pox and measles. **Symptoms ** Headaches and vomiting Fever Passing coloured urine Presence of proteins in urine **Treatment ** Use of antibiotics ii) Use of just adequate amounts of salts and proteins in diets *Kidney stones * **Causes ** Lack of vitamins such as vitamin A and inadequate intake of water Chemical salts in urine that crystallize to form hard stones. **Symptoms** Increased frequency in passing out urine Pain and soreness in the upper backside Difficulty in passing out urine Fever **Control & Treatment** Seeking medical assistance 52 ----- ### Taking a balanced diet with adequate amount of water and vitamins Dialysis or artificial washing out of the wastes Use of laser beam to disintegrate the stones Kidney transplant *iii) Kidney failure * This is the failure of the kidney to perform as a result of a ### drop in blood pressure due to heart failure, haemorrhage or shock. If failure is due to other causes, the condition can be corrected by; - Kidney dialysis - Kidney transplant *iv) Albiminuria (Proteins in Urine). * ### This is also called Proteinuria Capillaries of the glomerulus lose their ability to be selective and start allowing blood proteins to pass through into the kidney tubules. These proteins are released in urine. **D The Liver and its Structure** This is the second largest excretory organ after the skin. It receives blood from two blood vessels; the hepatic portal ***vein from the alimentary canal and hepatic artery from *** the aorta . **Homeostatic Functions of the Liver ** 53 ----- ### ***Regulation of blood sugar level *** Excess glucose is converted to glycogen ;and stored in the liver under the influence of the hormone insulin secreted by the pancreas. Another hormone called glucagon; stimulates the conversion of glycogen to glucose; when there is shortage of glucose in the body; Glucagon is also secreted by the pancreas ***1. Deamination *** The liver breaks down excess amino acids; The amino group is removed as ammonia which is toxic; Ammonia is changed into urea which is less toxic in the ### . *ornithine cycle* H 2 0 Ammonia Carbon iv Urea Water (Toxic) Oxide (less toxic) The remaining carbon skeleton oxidized to carbon IV oxide ### and water; this process leads to release of energy. The carbon skeleton may be converted to glucose to be used during respiration; ***2. Detoxification *** Toxic substances are made harmless in the liver e.g. Ammonia from the process of deamination is converted in the liver into urea; which is less toxic. Bacterial toxins are converted to less toxic substances by liver cells; Hydrogen peroxide produced by respiring cells is broken down into water and oxygen which are harmless by the enzyme catalase found in the liver. ### + Oxygen 54 ----- ### (H 2 O 2 ) (H 2 O) (O 2 ) ***3. Regulation of plasma proteins *** The liver produces most of the proteins found in blood; fibrinogen and prothrombin which play a role in blood clotting. Albumin and globulins are also produced by the liver. Globulins act as antibodies;. Albumin contributes to the maintenance of osmotic pressure in the body; Non essential amino acids are synthesized by the liver; ***4. Storage of vitamins A, B,D,E and K and mineral salts *** ### The liver store vitamins A, B, D, E and K. Iron released from the breakdownof erythrocytes is stored in the liver cells; in the form of a compound called ferritin. The liver therefore is a good source of these vitamins and iron; ***5. Heat production (Thermoregulation) *** ### The various metabolic activities of the liver lead to release of heat energy; This energy is distributed by the blood to other parts of the body hence contributing to maintenance of constant body temperature; ***6. Inactivation of hormones and drugs *** After performing their functions, hormones and drugs are chemically modified to inactive compounds; The by-products are eliminated through the kidneys and faeces and via bile; ***7. Storage of blood *** The large size and high capacity for contraction and expansion of its veins enables the liver to hold a large volume of blood; It therefore regulates the volume of blood in the general circulation depending on the bodys requirements ; ***8. Regulation of cholesterol and fat metabolism *** When carbohydrates are in short supply in the body, fats in different parts of the body are mobilized and taken to the liver; The fats are oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide and water with the production of energy or modified and sent to tissues for oxidation; ***9. Manufacture of red blood cells in foetus. *** **Liver Diseases and Disorders ** 55 ----- ### **1. Liver Cirrhosis ** This is the hardening of the liver tissues due to death of liver cells. This is caused by ingestion of toxic chemicals such as alcohol. Bacteria, viruses and parasites such as liver flukes can also cause the disease. **Control ** ### Avoid excess alcohol. Avoid fatty diets. Low salt intake **2. Hepatitis ** This is a viral disease causing inflammation of the liver. It is transmitted through contaminated food, milk and ### water. . There are two types of hepatitis; Hepatitis A and B **3. Jaundice ** This is characterized by the yellowing of the skin due to ### the failure of the liver to excrete bile. **Homeostasis** This is the maintenance of internal environment of cells under constant Conditions E.g. temperature, osmotic pressure, blood sugar and chemical constituents. **Principles of Homeostasis ** Various body systems such as circulatory, excretory, endocrine (hormonal) and nervous work in a coordinated way to bring about homeostasis. These systems work on a feedback mechanisms. There are **. ** two types of feedback mechanisms a) Negative Feedback Mechanism When a factor in the body such as temperature or blood sugar level falls below normal or rises above the normal, it is detected and corrected via the negative feedback mechanism. Such an action is through: 56 ----- ### *i) An increase in the level if it is dropping* *ii) A decrease in the level if it is increasing* This restores the condition to the normal. **Further Excess ** ** Positive feed back ** **Normal** **(Set Point)** ### **(Negative ** **Feedback) ** **Normal (Set** **Point)** ### **(Negative ** **feedback) ** |Corrective Mechanism Deficiency|Corrective Mechanism| |---|---| |Deficiency|| ** Positive feedback ** **Further deficiency ** ### b) Positive Feedback Mechanism In positive feedback mechanism, a change below or above the normal is not corrected. *The following are some of the factors regulated through * *homeostasis. * 57 ----- ### *Temperature * *Osmoregulation (water and salt balance) * *Ionic content regulation * *Blood sugar regulation * **a) Temperature Regulation. (Thermoregulation) ** Hypothalamus of the brain is the thermoregulatory center. It also controls other homeostatic processes such as Osmoregulation, and blood sugar level. **Skin and Thermoregulation ** The skin is adapted in the following ways to effect thermoregulation; ***1. It has Hair shaft; *** Connected to erector pili muscles ; In low Temperature Erector pili muscle contract raising hair shaft erect **;** Hair traps air which insulates the body/poor conductor of heat.; In high temperature, the Erector pili muscle relax and extends ; Hair shaft lies on the skin **;** Little or no air is trapped ; Skin loses heat through convection /conduction /radiation ; ***1. Blood vessels *** In High temperature they vasodilate ; More blood flows near skin surface ; Heat is lost through conduction /convection/ radiation ; In Low temperature they Vasoconstrict ; Little blood flows near the skin ; Less heat or ho heat lost through conduction/convection/ radiation **;** **Diagrams ** 3 ) Sweat gland and In High temperature, Sweating occurs and ( evaporates) Carries latent heat of vaporization; cooling the body ; 4) Has subcutaneous layer ; contains fat which acts as a heat- insulating layer. Organisms in cold areas have thick subcutaneous layer for heat insulation. 58 ----- ### **Homoiotherms and Poikilotherms** **Homoiotherms (Endotherms)** They are the animals whose body temperature is maintained at a constant body temperature despite the wide fluctuations in the temperature of the external environment e.g. birds and mammals. **Poikilotherms (Ectotherms) ** These are organisms with variable body temperature according ### to the temperature of the local atmosphere e.g. in organisms such as reptiles, amphibians, insects, and fish. . **Methods of Regulating Body Temperature in Animals** i) Metabolic activities of the Body, such as shivering to raise body temperature. ii) Insulatory mechanisms such as dilation or constriction of blood vessels, hair movement etc. iii) Behavioral activities such as clustering together, burrowing, basking, hibernation, aestivation, putting on warm clothes etc. iv) Presence of adaptive features such as hair/fur, subcutaneous tissue etc. Hibernation is where animals go into deep sleep for long period of time due to cold. Aestivation is where animals go into deep sleep due to dry and harsh conditions. ***Differen c es Between Homoiotherms and Poikilotherms. *** |Poikilotherms|Homoiotherms| |---|---| |i) They are sluggish under cold conditions.|i) They remain active even under cold conditions.| |ii) They hibernate to avoid death by freezing under very cold conditions.|ii) Only the small animals hibernate because they have large surface area to volume ratio hence lose a lot of heat.| |iii) They aestivate under very hot conditions.|iii) They do not aestivate because they can maintain constant body| 59 ----- |Col1|temperature.| |---|---| |iv) They are easy prey to predators due to their hibernation and aestivation.|iv) Not easy to prey because they active always.| |v) Require less food because they get heat from the environment to warm their bodies.|v) Require more food because they use it to generate heat for maintaining the temperature constant.| ### **b) Osmoregulation (Water and Salt Balance). ** ### The osmotic pressure of the body fluids must be kept at a constant so as to have a favourable environment for the normal functioning of cells. This is determined by the relative amounts of water and solutes (salts) in the body fluids. If the osmotic pressure of these fluids falls below that of the ### cells, the cells take in water by osmosis, swell and may burst. If the osmotic pressure of thee fluids was higher than that of the cells, the cells would lose water and shrink. The hypothalamus and the Pituitary gland are involved in Osmoregulation in the following ways; i) When the osmotic pressure of the blood rises due to dehydration, the hypothalamus is stimulated and sends an impulse to the pituitary gland which secretes the Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) or Vasopressin into the blood. ADH increases permeability of the kidney tubules to water. More water is reabsorbed, osmotic pressure of the blood falls hence production of little but concentrated urine. ii) When osmotic pressure of the blood falls due to excess water in the body there is less production of ADH and less water is reabsorbed hence production of large amounts of dilute urine. **Diabetes Insipidus ** This is a condition whereby large quantities of dilute urine are produced when the pituitary gland fails to produce ADH or 60 ----- ### produces it in inadequate amounts. This condition is also known as Diuresis. **c) Regulation of Ionic Content ** Important ions must be regulated within narrow ranges for efficient functioning of the cells. Ions are involved in processes such as respiration, protein synthesis, muscle contraction etc. The level of sodium ions is regulated by a hormone called Aldosterone produced by the adrenal glands. When the level of sodium ions is low in the blood, more Aldosterone is released which stimulates reabsorption of sodium ions into the blood. If sodium ions concentration in the blood rises above the ### optimum level, adrenal glands produce less Aldosterone into the blood and less amounts of sodium ions are reabsorbed. d) Regulation of Blood Sugar Level . All sugars such as galactose, lactose and fructose are converted to glucose. Glucose is broken down to release energy and excess is ### converted into glycogen and stored in the liver or converted into fats as stored as adipose tissue. Some glucose flows in general circulation of blood and is maintained within a narrow range of 90-100mg per 100cm [3] of blood. The pancreas produces two hormones Insulin and Glucagon ### that are responsible for blood sugar regulation. When there is excess sugar in the blood, insulin is produced and regulates the blood sugar level by the following; i) Converts excess glucose into glycogen for storage. ii) Inhibits conversion of glycogen to glucose. iii) Converts glucose into fats. iv) Increases breakdown of glucose to release energy. When the level of the blood sugar falls, glucagon is secreted and corrects the situation by the following; i) Increases the breakdown of glycogen into glucose. 61 ----- ### ii) Increases the conversion of fats and proteins into glucose. iii) Inhibits the conversion of glucose into energy. NB/. The hormone adrenaline produced by the adrenal glands also *has homeostatic effect on glucose. * *It is released during emergencies to avail glucose for fight or flight.* **Diabetes Mellitus (Sugar Disease) ** This is due to a deficiency in insulin secretion from the pancreas. This leads to very high levels of sugar in the blood that cannot be utilised by cells hence eliminated by kidney in urine. **Symptoms ** Presence of glucose in urine Loss of body weight due to breakdown of fats and proteins Chronic starvation Thirst sensation. **Control ** Insulin injection into the blood stream Avoid foods rich in sugars. Avoid excessive intake of alcohol. **Question ** Explain why insulin is not administered orally (through the mouth) 62 ----- Corrective mechanism, the liver; i) Converts excess glucose into glycogen for storage. ii) Inhibits conversion of glycogen to glucose. iii) Converts glucose into fats. iv) Increases breakdown of glucose to release **Rise** energy. **Fall** Normal glucose Level. 90mg/100ml blood Normal glucose level 90mg/100ml blood **Fall** Corrective mechanism, the liver; **Rise** i) Increases the breakdown of glycogen into glucose. ii) Increases the conversion of fats and proteins into glucose. iii) Inhibits the conversion of glucose into energy. ### ***Revision questions *** **Gaseous Exchange ** This is the process by which respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon IV oxide) are passed across the respiratory surface. Gases are exchanged depending on their concentration gradient. In simple organisms such as amoeba, diffusion is enough to bring about gaseous exchange. CO 2 diffuses out into the surrounding water while oxygen diffuses from the water across the plasma membrane into the amoeba. **Diagram ** 63 ----- ### **Importance of Gaseous Exchange ** 1. Promote oxygen intake for respiration. 2. Facilitate carbon IV oxide removal from the body as a metabolic waste product. **Gaseous Exchange in Plants** During the day, green plants take in carbon IV for photosynthesis. Oxygen is given out as a byproduct of photosynthesis and is released into the atmosphere. **Examples of respiratory Surfaces in Plants ** ### Stomata in leaves Roots e.g. pneumatophores Lenticels in woody stems **Structure and Function of the Stomata ** They are tiny openings on the leaf surfaces. They are made up of two guard cells. Guard cells are the only epidermal cells containing chloroplasts. They regulate the opening and closing of the stomata. **Adaptations of Guard Cells** i) They are bean shaped/sausage shaped. ii) Contain chloroplast hence can photosynthesize. iii) Inner walls are thicker while outer wall is thin to facilitate the opening and closing of stomata. **Diagram ** **Mechanism of Opening and Closing of Stomata** There are three theories that try to explain how the stomata open and close. i) Photosynthetic theory ii) Starch Sugar inter-conversion Theory. (effect of changes in pH of guard cells) iii) Potassium Ion Theory. **i) Photosynthetic theory ** During the day, guard cells photosynthesize forming glucose. This glucose increases the osmotic pressure in the guard cells. Guard cells draw in water from the neighbouring epidermal cells and become turgid. 64 ----- ### The stoma opens. During the night, there is no photosynthesis due to absence of light. Glucose is converted into starch lowering the osmotic pressure in the guard cells. Guard cells lose water and become flaccid closing the stomata. **ii) Starch Sugar inter-conversion Theory. (effect of changes ** ### **in pH of guard cells) ** This is under the influence of pH in the guard cells. During the day CO 2 is used up during photosynthesis raising the pH in the guard cells. In this high pH, enzymes convert more starch into glucose. Osmotic pressure of the guard cells increases and water enters into them, making them turgid hence opening the stomata. During the night, there is no photosynthesis. The level of CO 2 ### increases lowering the pH. Enzymes become inactivated and starch is not converted into glucose. Osmotic pressure of guard cells falls making them to lose water ### by osmosis. Guard cells become flaccid and stoma closes. **Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Plants ** Oxygen diffuses from the atmosphere where it is more concentrated into the plant. CO 2 diffuses out as a metabolic waste product along a concentration gradient into the atmosphere. **a) Gaseous Exchange through the Stomata ** Stomata are modified in number of ways depending on the habitat of the plant. Xerophytes: These are plants adapted to life in dry areas. They have less number of stomata that are small in size. Stomata may be sunken, hairy and in some they open during the night and close during the day. Hydrophytes: These are the aquatic plants (water Plants) 65 ----- ### They have many stomata that are large in size and mainly found on the upper leaf surface. Hydrophytes have the aerenchyma tissue with large air spaces to store air for gaseous exchange. **Diagrams ** Mesophytes : They are plants growing in areas with adequate amounts of water. They have a fairly large number of stomata found on both leaf ### surfaces. **b) Gaseous Exchange through the Lenticels ** They are openings found on woody stems and they are made of loosely packed cells. They allow gaseous exchange between the inside of the plant and ### the outside by diffusion. Actual gaseous exchange occurs on some moist cells under the lenticels. **Diagram ** **c) Gaseous Exchange through the Roots ** Plants like the mangroves growing in muddy salty waters have specialized aerial breathing roots called pneumatophores. Pneumatophores rise above the salty water to facilitate gaseous exchange. **Gaseous Exchange in Animals ** **Types and Characteristics of Respiratory Surface ** Different animals have different respiratory surfaces depending ### on the animals size, activity and the environment in which it operates as shown below. 66 ----- ### |1. Cell Membrane.|Water|Amoeba| |---|---|---| |2. Gill Filaments|Water|Fish| |3. Tracheoles|Air|Insects| |4. Alveoli/Lungs|Air|Mammals| |||Birds| |||Frogs| |||Reptiles| |5. Skin|Water|Frog| ||Air|Earthworm| |6. Buccal Cavity|Air|Frog| The respiratory surface is the basic unit of any breathing system upon which actual gaseous exchange occurs by diffusion. Respiratory surfaces have the following main characteristics. *i) Must have a large surface area. * *ii) Must be moist to allow gases to diffuse in solution form. * *iii) Have a dense network of blood capillaries for efficient * *gaseous exchange. * iv) Have a thin membrane to reduce the diffusion distance . **Gaseous Exchange in Insects ** Insects have their gaseous exchange system made of many air tubes forming the tracheal system. ### Tracheal system is made up of spiracles and Tracheoles. Spiracles are external openings found on both sides of the abdomen and thorax. Spiracles have valves to control their opening and closing. They also have hairs to prevent excessive water loss from the body tissue. Spiracles open into tubes called trachea. Trachea is reinforced with spiral bands of chitin to keep them open. Trachea subdivides into finer air tubes called Tracheoles. Tracheoles are in direct contact with body tissues and organs and they supply individual cells with oxygen. 67 ----- ### Tracheoles do not have bands of chitin and therefore they allow gaseous exchange across their thin moist walls. **Diagram** **Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in the Tracheal System of an ** **Insect ** Air is drawn into and out of the tracheal system by muscular ### movement of the abdominal wall. When spiracle valves are open, air is drawn into the tracheal system. The valves close and air is forced along the system by muscle movement. Oxygen diffuses into the tissue fluid and into the cells. CO2 diffuses out of the cells and into the tissue fluid then into the ### tracheal system. **Gaseous Exchange in Fish** The breathing system of the fish consists of the following; `o` **Mouth (buccal) cavity. ** o Gills. `o` **Opercular cavity. ** `o` **Operculum.** Gills are made of a long curved bone called the gill bar. Gill filaments arise from one side of the gill bar. They are many ### and suspend freely in water providing a large surface area for gaseous exchange. Gill rakers arise from the other side of the gill bar. They are teeth like and they prevent solids present in water from damaging the delicate gill filaments. Blood vessels enter the gill bar and branch into the gill filaments as blood capillaries. Operculum is found on either side of the body near the head and it also protects the delicate gills. **Diagram ** **Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in the Gills of a Bony Fish ** 68 ----- ### Floor of the mouth cavity is lowered increasing the volume of the mouth cavity but lowering the pressure. Water flows into the mouth cavity and the operculum closes. Operculum on either side bulge outwards without opening. This increases volume in the gill cavity but the pressure drops. Water containing dissolved oxygen flows from the mouth cavity to the gill chamber over the gills. The mouth closes and the floor of the mouth cavity is raised. The remaining water in the mouth is forced to flow towards the gill chamber. Oxygen diffuses from the water into the blood through the thin ### walls of the gill filaments. It combines with haemoglobin for transportation to all body parts. CO 2 diffuses from the blood into the flowing water. To ensure maximum gaseous exchange, the water flowing over the gills and the blood in the gills flows in opposite directions. This is called counter current flow system and it ensures that at all ### the points, concentration of oxygen is always higher in the water than in the blood. **Diagram ** If the water and blood were flowing in the same direction, gaseous exchange will not be that effective. Where the oxygen is 50% in water, there is no concentration gradient because blood also has 50% oxygen concentration. **Diagram ** **Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Amphibians ** Amphibians live on both land and water and therefore exhibit the following methods of gaseous exchange. 1. Gaseous exchange through the lining of the buccal cavity 2. Gaseous exchange through the lungs 3. Gaseous exchange through the skin **a) Gaseous exchange through the mouth (buccal) cavity ** 69 ----- ### Air is taken in or expelled from the mouth cavity by raising and lowering of the floor mouth. Lining of the mouth cavity is moist to dissolves oxygen. There is a rich supply of blood capillaries under the lining of the mouth cavity. Oxygen diffuses into the blood and is carried by haemoglobin to all parts of the body. Carbon IV oxide from the tissues is brought by the blood to the ### mouth cavity where diffuses out. **Gaseous exchange through the lungs** The frog has two lungs which are connected to the buccal cavity. T he inner lining of the lungs is moist, thin and is richly supplied with blood capillaries. During inspiration, the floor of the mouth cavity is lowered and ### nostrils are open. Air rushes through the open nostrils into the mouth cavity. Nostrils close and the floor of the mouth cavity is raised. This reduces the volume and increase the pressure in the mouth cavity forcing air into the lungs. Carbon IV oxide from the tissues diffuse into the lung while the ### oxygen from the lungs diffuses into the tissues. **b) Gaseous exchange through the skin ** Frogs have a thinner and moist skin than the toads. There is large network of blood capillaries below the skin to carry the respiratory gases. Oxygen from the air and water diffuse through the skin into the blood stream. Carbon IV oxide diffuses out of the blood capillaries through the moist skin into the surrounding water and air. **Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Mammals** The following structures are involved in gaseous exchange in mammals; - **Nose (Nostrils) ** - **Larynx ** 70 ----- ### - **Trachea ** - **Chest cavity (ribs and intercostals muscles) ** - . **Diaphragm** **a) Nose ** It has two openings called nostrils which let in air into the air passages. As air moves in the passages, it is warmed and moistened The lining of the nasal cavity has also the sense organs for smell. **b) Larynx ** It is located on top of the trachea It is called the voice box. It controls the pitch of the voice. **c) Trachea ** It is a tube made of rings of cartilage which prevents it from collapsing during breathing. Inside it is lined with ciliated epithelium. Cilia beat in waves and move mucus and foreign particles away from the lungs towards the pharynx. As the trachea enters the lungs, it divides into two branches called Bronchi (Bronchus). **d) Lungs ** They are found in the chest cavity and they are enclosed by a double membrane called the pleural membrane. The space between the membranes is called the pleural cavity. Pleural cavity is filled with pleural fluid which reduces friction making the lungs to move freely in the chest cavity during breathing. **Diagrams ** In the lungs each bronchus divides into small tubes called bronchioles. Bronchioles branch further to form air sacs called alveoli (alveolus) Alveolus is covered by a fine network of blood capillaries. 71 ----- ### **The mechanism of breathing ** Breathing is achieved by changes in the volume and air pressure of the thoracic cavity. Thoracic cavity is enclosed by ribs. Ribs are covered by intercostals muscles. The diaphragm is a muscular sheet of tissue below the chest cavity. It curves upwards in the form of a dome shape. Breathing mechanism involves two processes. a) Inspiration (Inhalation) i.e. breathing in. b) Expiration (Exhalation) i.e. breathing out. **Inspiration (Inhalation) i.e. breathing ** ### This occurs when the volume of thoracic cavity increases and the pressure decreases. External intercostals muscles contract while the internal ### intercostals muscles relax. Ribs are pulled upwards and outwards. Diaphragm flattens increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity while decreasing the pressure inside it. Air rushes into the lungs through the nose and trachea inflating the lungs. **Diagrams page 62 ** **Expiration (Exhalation) i.e. breathing out** Volume of thoracic cavity decreases while pressure increases. This is brought about by the following; External intercostals muscles relax while internal ones contract. Ribs move downwards and inwards. Diaphragm relaxes and regains its original dome shape. Volume of the thoracic cavity decrease and pressure increases. Air is forced out of the lungs through the air passages to the atmosphere. **Gaseous exchange in the alveolus ** Alveoli and blood capillaries are made of very thin walls. 72 ----- ### The wall of the alveolus is covered b a film of moisture which dissolves oxygen in the inhaled air. Oxygen diffuses through the epithelium of the alveolus, the capillary wall and through the cell membrane of the red blood cells. In the red blood cells it combines with haemoglobin. Carbon (iv) oxide is more concentrated in the blood capillaries ### than in the alveoli. It therefore diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli. Water vapour also passes out of the blood by the same process. **Diagram page 64 KLB ** **Percent a** **ge composition of gases in inhaled and exhaled air ** |Gas|% in inhaled air.|% in exhaled air| |---|---|---| |Oxygen|20|16.9| |Carbon (iv) oxide|0.03|4.0| |Nitrogen and other gases|79.97|79.97| **Regulation of Breathing ** . This is controlled by a part of the brain called Medulla oblongata 73 ----- ### **Factors affecting the rate of breathing in humans ** **1. Exercise ** Breathing rate increases during vigorous activity. **2. Age ** Younger people have a faster breathing because their bodies have more energy demand. 3. Emotions Things like anxiety, fear and fright increases the breathing rate. ### **4. Temperature ** Relatively high temperatures increase the rate of breathing. However, very high temperatures reduce the breathing rate. **5. Health ** If there is fever (high body temperature), the breathing rate increases. Some respiratory diseases however, make breathing difficult. **Lung Volumes ** *i) Lung capacity * This is the total amount of air the lungs can hold when completely filled. The lungs of an adult have a capacity of about 5,500cm [3] *ii) Tidal volume * This is the amount of air taken in and out of the lungs during normal breathing. Tidal volume is about 500cm [3] *iii) Inspiratory reserve volume * This is an additional volume attained after having a forced inhalation in addition to the tidal volume. It is about 2000cm [3] *iv) Inspiratory capacity * This is the tidal volume +Inspiratory reserve volume. *v) Expiratory reserve volume * This is air removed after a forced exhalation. It can be up to 1,300cm3 *vi) Vital capacity * This is the deepest possible exhalation. This air can only be forcibly pushed out of the lungs. *vii) Residual volume * 74 ----- ### This is the air that normally remains in the lungs after the deepest exhalation. It is normally about 1,500cm [3 ] **Diagram ** **Diseases of the Respiratory System** i) Asthma It is caused by: Allergens such as pollen grains, certain foods and drugs Infections of the lungs by bacteria and viruses **Symptoms ** Difficulty in breathing Wheezing sound when breathing **Treatment and Control** Avoiding the causative agents Injection of drugs and oral application of pills Spraying directly into the bronchial tubes with a muscle relaxant ii) Bronchitis There are two types; Acute and Chronic **Symptoms ** Production of thick greenish or yellowish sputum Difficulty in breathing Difficulty in walking and sleeping **Treatment ** Seeking early medical assistance iii) Whooping cough It is caused by a bacterium called Bordetella pertussis. ***Symptoms *** Prolonged coughing and vomiting Conjuctival haemorrhage (bleeding) Convulsions and coma Severe pneumonia in the bronchioles Ulcers and heart complications 75 ----- ### Emaciation due to repeated vomiting **Treatment ** Use of antibiotics Use of a balanced diet on patients **Control ** Children immunization at early age iv) Pneumonia It is caused by a bacterial called Streptococcus pneumoniae **Symptoms ** Coughing Fever Chest pains Deposits of fluids in the lungs **Treatment ** Use of antibiotics such as penicillin and sulphonamides **Control** Avoid overcrowding. Good ventilation in living houses v) Pulmonary Tuberculosis **. ** It is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis **Symptoms ** Weight loss Coughing with blood stained sputum. Fever **Treatment ** Use of antibiotics such as streptomycin **Control ** Pasteurization of milk Immunization using BCG (Bacille Calmette Guerin) Use of radiography (X-Ray) vi) Lung cancer Cancer is uncontrolled cell growth in the body causing tumours. **Some general causes** Smoking 76 ----- ### Inhalation of cancer causing substances such as asbestos Exposure to radiations such as X-rays, radioactive substances such as uranium and substances that alter the genetic composition of the cell such as mustard gas **Treatment and control ** Surgery to remove the tumour Radiotherapy Chemotherapy Use of some drugs Not smoking **Revision Questions ** **RESPIRATION** Process by which food substances are chemically broken down in living cells to release energy, carbon (iv) oxide, water or alcohol. Respiration takes place mainly in the mitochondria. It has two membranes, inner and outer. Inner membrane is folded into projections called cristae. Cristae provide a large surface area for respiratory enzymes. Respiratory enzymes are bound to the cristae. **Diagram ** **Practical Activity 1 ** . **To investigate the gas given off when food is burnt** **Types of Respiration ** **Aerobic Respiration ** **Anaerobic Respiration. ** **Aerobic Respiration ** Process by which food substances such as glucose are broken down in the presence of oxygen to release energy, water and carbon (IV) oxide. The energy is stored in the form of a chemical substance called Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). This energy is released in small quantities since a lot of heat energy would burn the body cells. Respiratory Enzymes 77 ----- ### C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + Energy (ATP) Respiration takes place in two phases with each phase consisting of series of reactions. **First Phase (Glycolysis)** . in This takes place in the cell cytoplasm Oxygen is not required this stage. Glucose is broken down into a 3 carbon compound called Pyruvic acid through a process called glycolysis. . In glycolysis one molecule of glucose gives 2 molecules of ATP In absence of oxygen Pyruvic acid is broken down into lactic acid in animals and into alcohol (ethanol) in plants. ethanol ethanol + ### **Second phase (Krebs Cycle) ** This takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria and involves a . series of enzyme controlled reactions that require oxygen Pyruvic acid formed in the first phase is oxidized by oxygen in a series of enzymatic reactions (Krebs cycle) into energy, water and carbon (IV) oxide. . In this phase one molecule of glucose gives 38 molecules of ATP 78 ----- glucoseglucose # (CH3C0COOH)(CH3C0COOH)pyruvic acidpyruvic acid ++ pyruvic acidpyruvic acid (C(C 66 HH 1212 OO 66 ))enzyme controlled reactions in cytoplasm OxygenOxygen (6O(6O 22 )) enzyme controlled enzyme controlled reactions in reactions in mitochondriamitochondria Carbon (iv) oxideCarbon (iv) oxide (6CO(6CO 22 ))+ energyenergy water water ### **++** (ATP)(ATP) (H(H 22 O)O) water water (ATP)(ATP) ### The following conditions are required in this phase; i. Cells must be provided with glucose/food. ii. Oxygen must be present. iii. Respiratory enzymes must be present to catalyse the reaction. ### iv. Temperature must be favourable for efficient functioning of enzymes. v. End products of the reaction (energy, water and carbon (iv) oxide) must be constantly removed from the mitochondrion. ***Practical Activity 2 *** **. ** ***To investigate heat production in germinating seeds*** **Anaerobic Respiration in Plants and Animals ** This is the process by which food substances are broken down in the absence of oxygen to release energy. The glucose is not completely broken down hence less energy is given out. In plants glucose is broken down into energy, carbon (iv) oxide and ethanol (alcohol). **Glucose Ethanol + Energy. + Carbon (iv) ** **oxide ** **(C 6 H 12 O 6 ) (2C 2 H 5 OH) (ATP) (CO 2 ) ** . Anaerobic respiration in plants is also referred to as fermentation 79 ----- ### In animals glucose is broken down into energy and lactic acid **Glucose Lactic acid + Energy. ** **(C 6 H 12 O 6 ) (2C 3 H 6 O 3 ) (ATP) ** **Oxygen Debt ** This is oxygen required to get rid of the lactic acid that accumulates in the body tissues when the oxygen supply is less than required. Accumulation of lactic acid causes fatigue and muscle crumps. Oxygen debt is paid back by breathing more quickly and more ### deeply in order to increase oxygen supply such as during recovery period after a race when a person pants. When paying back the oxygen debt, lactic acid is oxidized to energy, water and carbon (iv) oxide or it is taken to the liver and converted into glycogen. **Application of Anaerobic Respiration ** ### i. Baking industry ii. Beer brewing and distillery industry. iii. Dairy industry in the production of yoghurt and cheese. iv. Production of vinegar citric acid, oxalic acid, butyric acid and some drugs. v. Production of power alcohol which is used as a substitute for petrol. vi. Silage making. vii. Biogas production. viii. Making compost manure ### **Practical Activity 3 ** **To investigate gas produced during fermentation. ** **Comparison between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration ** |Aerobic Respiration|Anaerobic Respiration.| |---|---| |i. Oxygen is required|Oxygen not required| |ii. High amount of energy is released as one molecule of glucose yields 38 ATP molecules (2880 KJ)|Low amount of energy is released as one molecule of glucose yields 2 ATP molecules (210 KJ)| |iii. There is complete|There is incomplete breakdown| 80 ----- |breakdown of the substrate into carbon (iv) oxide and water.|of substrate hence lactic acid or alcohols are produced.| |---|---| |iv. End products are energy, water and carbon (iv) oxide|End products are energy, alcohol in plants and lactic acid in animals.| |v. Water molecules are produced.|Water molecules are not produced.| |vi. Over a short period of time, energy is not released faster|Over short period of time, energy is released faster.| |vii. Occurs in the cytoplasm and in the mitochondrion.|Occurs only in the cell cytoplasm.| ### **Respiratory Substrates ** ### These are energy rich foods which when oxidized release energy. They include; i. Carbohydrates They are the main source of energy mainly in the form of simple sugars such as glucose, fructose and galactose. They produce about 17KJ (2898/mole) per gram when completely oxidized. ii. Fats They produce more energy than carbohydrates or proteins. One gram of fats yields about 38 KJ of energy when completely oxidized. They are however not the main substrate because they are not very soluble in water hence not easily transported to the sites of respiration. It also requires more oxygen to oxidize one gram of fats than one gram of glucose. iii. Proteins They are not normally used in respiration unless in cases of extreme starvation. One gram of proteins yields 22KJ of energy when completely oxidized. 81 ----- ### **Assignment ** *Where do plants and animals get the following from; * - *Carbohydrates. * - *Fats * - *Proteins * **Respiratory Quotient (RQ) and its Significance ** RQ is the ratio showing the relationship between the amounts of ### carbon (iv) oxide used against the amount of oxygen used in respiration. ###### ( ) ### = RQ ###### ( ) ###### ### RQ varies with the type of substrate being oxidized. For example carbohydrates have a RQ of 1.0 when fully oxidized, fats have 0.7 and proteins have 0.9. RQ can therefore be used to indicate the type of substrate being ### oxidized and also whether aerobic respiration or anaerobic respiration is taking place. RQ is also affected by factors such as age, health of the organism and the temperature. **Factors Affecting the Rate of Respiration** i. Oxygen concentration. When the amount of oxygen increases, the respiration rate also increases. Decrease in oxygen concentration will lead to decreased respiration rate. ii. Substrate concentration. Increase in sugar concentration increases respiration and vice versa. iii. Hormones. Presence of some hormones such as adrenaline and thyroxine in the body increases the rate of respiration. iv. Surface area to volume ratio (Body size). If the SA/volume ratio is high, the organism would lose more heat energy. As more heat is lost to the surrounding more is required to replace the lost energy hence more respiration. v. Age. Young people require more energy because their cells are actively dividing hence respiration rate is higher in them than in older people. 82 ----- ### vi. Occupation. People engaged in heavier tasks have higher rate of respiration. vii. Sex. Generally males have faster respiration rate than females due to presence of more muscles in their bodies. viii. Basal metabolic rate. This is the energy required to maintain normal body functions such breathing, heartbeat, blood circulation etc while at rest. **Revision Questions ** ## **FORM THREE BIOLOGY NOTES ** ### **ECOLOGYECOLOGY ** ***Introduction *** Ecology is the study of the interrelationships of organisms to each other and to their environment (biotic and Abiotic factors). Autecology ; study of single species within a community and how it relates with both the biotic and Abiotic factors. Synecology. This is the study of many different species of organisms interacting among themselves within an ecosystem. Ecology helps to address the following issues. Sustainable food production Pollution control Natural resources conservation Pest and disease control Population control Eco-tourism Prediction of adverse weather conditions ***Concepts of ecology *** Biosphere/ecosphere. This is the part of the earth and atmosphere inhabited by living organisms. Habitat. This is a specific locality with a particular set of conditions where an organism lives. Habitats can be terrestrial or aquatic. 83 ----- ### Ecological niche. This is the position occupied by an organism in a habitat. It includes the physical space where an organism is found and its role in the habitat. Population. This refers to all members of a given species in particular habitat. Community. This refers to all organisms belonging to different species interacting in the same habitat. Many populations make up a community. Ecosystem. This is a natural unit made of biotic and Abiotic ### factors whose interactions lead to a self sustaining system. E.g. a tropical rain forest, a small pond etc. Biomass. This is the total dry weight of living organisms at a particular Trophic (feeding) level or per unit area. Carrying capacity. This is the maximum number of organisms ### an area can comfortably support without depletion of the available resources. E.g. the maximum number of cows a pasture land can comfortably hold without overgrazing. **Study Question 1 ** **Factors in an Ecosystem ** **They are divided into two: ** 1. Abiotic factors or the non living factors 2. Biotic or the living factors ***Abiotic Factors *** Light. This is required by plants and photosynthetic bacteria to manufacture food. The sun is the source of light energy. Light intensity and quality (wavelength) affects the rate of photosynthesis, flowering and germination in plants, while in animals it affects migration, hibernation and reproduction. Light intensity is measured using a Photographic Light meter while a Seechi disc measures light penetration in water. Atmospheric pressure. Variation in atmospheric pressure affects the availability of oxygen and carbon (IV) dioxide in the atmosphere. These two gases in turn affect the distribution of 84 ----- ### living organisms. Low atmospheric pressure increases the rate of transpiration. Barometer is used to measure it. Humidity. This is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. It affects the rate of water loss from plants and animals surfaces through transpiration and sweating respectively. The higher the humidity the lower the rate of loss and vice versa. It is measured using the hygrometer. Salinity. This refers to the salt concentration of the water. This divides the aquatic environment into marine, estuarine and fresh water . Only organisms with adaptable osmoregulatory features can comfortably occupy such habitats. In estuaries, there are fluctuations of salt concentrations at different times. When the sea tide is low, the salt concentrations are low due to the greater diluting effect of the fresh water being discharged. High tide raises the salt level. Estuarine organisms must therefore be adapted to cope with such wide salt variations. Wind. This is moving air. It increases the rate of water loss from ### organisms affecting their distribution. It also influences rain formation. It helps in formation of sand dunes in deserts which become habitats for the growth of deserts plants. Its an agent of seed and fruit dispersal Temperature. This affects the distribution of organisms in any habitat. Very low temperature may inactivate enzymes while very high temperatures denature them. Temperature varies due to seasons, altitude, and latitude and diurnally in hot deserts. **pH (hydrogen ion concentration.) ** ### This is the measure of acidity or alkalinity of water in aquatic habitats or soil solution. This influences the distribution of plants and animals in soil and aquatic habitats. Different organisms have different pH requirements. pH is determined using the pH meter. **Study Question 2 ** **Practical Activity 1 ** **Study Question 3 ** **Biotic Inter-Relationships ** ** Competition ** 85 ----- ### Living organisms compete for resources such as nutrients, space, light and mates. There are two types of competition. i.) Inter-specific competition. This is the competition between ### individuals of different species for the same resources. For example. An experiment6 was carried out on two closely related species of paramecia- Paramecium caudatum and Paramecium aurelia. It was observed that when each species is grown separately in controlled cultures with constant food supply, they show normal population growth. When they are grown together in the same culture, thre is competition and Paramecium caudatum is eliminated. See graphs. *Paramecium aurelia* *Paramecium caudatum.* ### However, closely related species can live together without competition. For example, when Paramecium caudatum and Paramecium bursoria are grown in the same culture, there is no competition because each species occupies a different part of the culture. Similarly, browsers and grazers can occupy same habitat without competition because they feed at different levels of the same plants. For example, the zebras eat the softer shoots, followed by the 86 ----- ### wild beasts, and the gazelles which eat the fibrous left over of the same grass. **Study Question 4 ** ii.) Intra-specific competition. This is the competition between ### members of the same species for the same resources. When there is competition the best adapted organisms survive while the less adapted ones may die or be forced to migrate. Predation This is the relationship where one organism kills another for food and feed on it either as a whole or a part of it. The predator is the one which kills while the prey is the one being killed for food. Predators have various adaptations to enable them to be efficient in capturing the prey. These include; ### Sharp eyesight as in eagles, kites and hawk Fast flight, Modified beaks Strong jaws with carnassials teeth as in leopards and lions. Large claws on strong forelimbs. Colour camouflage such as the spotted pattern of the leopard blends well with the background colour of the bushes and trees. Moving against the wind while stalking the prey. Preys also have structural and behavioural adaptations. These include: Swift movement e.g. the antelope and gazelle Camouflage e.g. in gazelles and stripes of the zebra. Large eyes on the sides of the head to giving them a wide field of view Confrontational display in porcupine *NB/. When the number of the prey increases that of the predators also * *increases. An increase in the number of predators leads to a decrease * *in the population of the prey. This decrease in prey population leads to * *a fall in predator population which in turn gives space for the increase * *in the population of the prey. This is the basis of biological control. * *See the graph below. * 87 ----- **Time** ### Parasitism This is the relationship where an organism [parasite ] obtains nutrients from another live organism [host] without killing it. The parasite obtains food and shelter from the host causing some harmful effects. Parasites may weaken the host and also transmit diseases which may kill their host thus reducing their number an d distribution. There are two types of parasites; Ecto-parasites Endo-parasites **Study Question 5 ** **Symbiosis ** This is an association between two of different species in which both benefit. For example the association of colon bacteria with humans and other animals, especially plant-eating animals, the ox-pecker bird and the ox etc. The Rhizobium bacteria help the leguminous plants to fix nitrogen while the bacteria obtain shelter and carbohydrates from the plants. Diagram **Saprophytism ** This is where organisms obtain nutrients from dead organisms causing decomposition hence releasing nutrients into the ecosystem. Saprophytes include the bacteria and fungi. **The Nitrogen Cycle ** This refers to the cycling of nitrogen and its compounds in the natural environment. 88 ----- ### Although nitrogen is abundant in the atmosphere as nitrogen gas, it cannot be utilised by plants. It has to be converted into a form that can be absorbed by plants through a process called nitrogen **fixation.** Nitrogen fixation is done in two ways; Biological fixation . This can occur in two forms 1. Nitrogen fixation by symbiotic bacteria such as ### **. ** Rhizobium spp They are found in the root nodules of legumes. They convert nitrogen gas into ammonia which is then converted into nitrates for plant utilisation. 2. Nitrogen fixation by free living bacteria e.g. Clostridium, Azotobacter, and some algae such as Anabaena, chlorella ***and Nostoc.*** Non-Biological nitrogen fixation . This is done by lightning. During thunderstorms, lightning energy combines atmospheric nitrogen gas with oxygen to form nitrous and nitric acid. These are then converted into nitrates. Plants absorb nitrates and convert them into plant proteins. Animals feed on these plants and obtain the proteins. They are then digested into amino acids and become assimilated into animal proteins. When living organisms die, saprophytic bacteria and fungi break ### **. ** Rhizobium spp They are found in the root nodules of legumes. They convert nitrogen gas into ammonia which is then converted into nitrates for plant utilisation. 2. Nitrogen fixation by free living bacteria e.g. Clostridium, ### During thunderstorms, lightning energy combines atmospheric nitrogen gas with oxygen to form nitrous and nitric acid. These are then converted into nitrates. Plants absorb nitrates and convert them into plant proteins. ### down the proteins in their bodies into ammonia. Nitrifying bacteria convert this ammonia into nitrates thorough a process called nitrification. Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus convert ammonia into nitrites and Nitrobacter convert nitrites into Nitrates. Some soil micro organisms such as Pseudomonas denitrificans & Thiobacillus denitrificans utilise the oxygen in the nitrates reducing it to nitrites, ammonia and eventually into nitrogen gas. This is called de-nitrification. This reduces the amount of nitrogen available to plants but it frees the nitrogen so that it becomes available for the cycle to continue. **Diagram ** 89 ----- ### **Practical activity 2 ** **Study question 6 ** **Energy Flow in an Ecosystem ** The sun is the natural source of energy. This energy is transferred to the following feeding levels; Producers Primary consumers Secondary consumers Tertiary consumers Quaternary consumers These feeding levels are called Trophic levels **Decomposers** They break down organic materials into simple substances which are made available for re-use by other organisms. Decomposers are mainly fungi and bacteria. **Food Chains ** This is the representation of energy flow from a producer to other organisms linearly. Green plants are eaten by herbivores which are eaten by carnivores. Producers Primary consumers Secondary consumers Tertiary consumers Quaternary consumers Some energy is lost as it is moved from one trophic level to the next. This is through respiration, defecation, excretion and in form of heat. **Fig. 2.7 ** **Examples ** When the decomposers are included in a food chain, they are placed at the end. **Study Question 7 ** **Food Webs ** These are several interconnected food chains. Simple food chains rarely exist since in any ecosystem, many populations interact. **Examples ** **Study Question 8 ** 90 ----- ### **Ecological Pyramids ** These give a simplified representation of feeding relationships and energy flow in an ecosystem. They are of three types. **Pyramid of numbers** **Pyramid of biomass** **Pyramid of energy** **Pyramid of Numbers ** There is a progress decrease in the number of organisms as one move from the producers all the way to the quaternary consumers. Producers have the greatest number followed in a decreasing order by primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary consumers. ### **Construction of Pyramid of Numbers ** i.) Use data provided or collected. ii.) From the data, identify and draw the most suitable food chain. iii.) Indicate the numbers at each trophic level in the food chain. iv.) Choose a suitable scale for the data. v.) Using the chosen scale draw a horizontal rectangular bar to represent the number of the producers as the base of the pyramid. 91 ----- ### vi.) Progressively draw horizontal bars of the other trophic levels in their ascending order. *Ensure that the width of the bars is uniform. * **Study Question 9 ** **Interpretation of Pyramid of Numbers ** Generally the body size of organisms increases at each trophic ### level from the base to the apex of the pyramid as their number decreases. At each trophic level much energy is lost through respiration, excretion, sweating, defecation etc. therefore less energy is transmitted to the succeeding trophic level. Fewer organisms can therefore be supported. Inverted pyramid of numbers also exist. For example where one ### mango tree supports several monkeys each being fed on by several fleas. #### Fleas Monkeys ### **Pyramid of Biomass** Biomass of an organism is its constant dry weight. In an ecosystem, the producers have the highest biomass followed in decreasing order by primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary consumers. 2 [0 ] Consumer Primary Consumer Producer ### **Study Question 10 ** **Practical activity 3 ** 92 ----- ### **Study Question 11 ** **Population ** Populations change in size, structure and organisation. **Characteristics of a population. ** Density. This is the number of individuals per unit area. E.g. 50 . gazelles per Km [2] Dispersion. This is the distribution or spread of organisms in a ### habitat. Population growth. This refers to the rate of increase in numbers. **Population Estimation Methods ** Usually a representative sample is used to estimate the population of organism in a big habitat. A sample is a small number of individuals taken from the habitat that is a representative of the whole population. The following methods are used when sampling. ### Quadrat method. Line transect. Belt transect. Capture-recapture method. **Adaptations of plants to various Habitats ** An adaptation is a change to suit environment: the development of physical, physiological or behavioural characteristics that allow organisms to survive and reproduce in their habitats. There are four main groups of plants namely; Xerophytes. Mesophytes. Hydrophytes. Halophytes. **Xerophytes ** These are plants adapted to survive in the dry habitats. These habitats have the following characteristics. i.) Unpredictable and poorly distributed rainfall between 250- 350mm per year. ii.) Very high day temperatures and very low night temperatures hence high diurnal temperature range. 93 ----- ### iii.) They are very windy. iv.) Low humidity. **Adaptations of Xerophytes ** i.) Shedding of leaves during the dry season to reduce the surface exposed to transpiration. ii.) Reduced leaves in size such as in pine or modified into spines as in cactus. This reduces the surface area over which transpiration occurs. iii.) Leaves have a thick waxy cuticle to reduce the rate of transpiration. iv.) Some store water in large parenchyma cells contained in succulent stems and leaves. v.) Some have reversed stomatal rhythm. vi.) Sunken stomata vii.) Folded leaves reduced the surface area. viii.) Reduced number of stomata ### ix.) Some have deep roots to absorb water from deep in the soil. Others have superficial roots growing horizontally close to the surface to absorb water after a light **Mesophytes ** These are plants growing in well watered areas. Such habitats have the following general characteristics. ### Adequate rainfall; 950-1800mm that is well distributed throughout the year. Relatively high humidity Thick clouds Moderate to high temperatures Shallow water table Less windy **Adaptations of Mesophytes ** They show various adaptations depending on where they grow. Some of these adaptations are for reduction of water loss, others for increased water, loss and some are also adapted to light conditions. ***Forest Ecosystem *** i.) Vegetation grows fast to compete for light. 94 ----- ### ii.) Trees grow very tall to compete for light. iii.) Some develop buttress roots or prop roots for extra support such as the Ficus natalensis. iv.) Climbers such as lianas support themselves on stems of tall trees to reach light. v.) Epiphytes support themselves on the branches of tall trees. vi.) Others are adapted to carry out photosynthesis under low light intensity by having many chloroplasts that are sensitive to low light intensity. vii.) They show leaf mosaic pattern to minimise overlapping ### enhancing trapping of light for photosynthesis. Those in areas with a lot of water have broad leaves, thin cuticle *and many stomata on both surfaces to encourage high rate of * *transpiration. * *Those in dry areas have waxy and shiny cuticle to reflect light. * ### *Others are deep rooted to obtain water from deep in the soil. * **Hydrophytes ** These are plants growing in fresh water either partially or wholly. Such habitats have the following general characteristics. Low concentration of dissolved gases such as oxygen Presence of waves and currents Inadequate light in water **Adaptations of hydrophytes ** i.) Broad leaves with maximum number of stomata on upper leaf surface providing a large surface are for transpiration. ii.) They have a large air filled tissue called aerenchyma tissue. The air reduces the density hence creating buoyancy to the plants and also aids in gaseous exchange. iii.) Submerged ones have dissected leaves to offer large surface area for light absorption required during photosynthesis. iv.) They have chloroplasts sensitive to low light intensity. v.) They have poorly developed leaves and lack the root hairs to reduce water absorption vi.) Flowers are raised above the water to allow for pollination. 95 ----- ### **Diagrams ** **Halophytes ** These are plants which are able to tolerate very salty conditions in soil and marine water. Such habitats have the following general characteristics. High concentration of mineral salts Low concentration of dissolved gases Low light intensity in marine water Presence of waves and currents in marine water **Adaptations of Halophytes ** i.) They root cells which concentrate a lot of salts to enable them to absorb water by osmosis. ii.) Some have salt glands that secrete excess salts. iii.) Many have water storage tissues. ### iv.) Some like the mangroves have breathing roots called pneumatophores. These rise above the water surface to obtain oxygen from the atmosphere. v.) Mangroves growing on mud flats have buttress roots for support. vi.) Submerged halophytes are adapted to photosynthesise under low ### light intensity. vii.) Their fruits are adapted for dispersal by having aerenchymatous tissue for air storage to make them buoyant. **CLASSIFICATION II ** Classification, in biology is the identification, naming, and grouping of organisms into a formal system based on similarities such as internal and external anatomy, physiological functions, genetic makeup, or evolutionary history. **Study Question 1 ** **General Principles of Classification ** Organisms that have similar and common features are grouped together while those that have different features are grouped separately. Taxonomy is the study of grouping of organisms according to their relationship. There are seven major taxonomic units (taxa). 96 ----- ### Kingdom Phylum (phyla) or Division in plants Class Order Family Genus Species As you move from the kingdom to the species the differences decrease as the similarities increases. Species is a group of organisms that can freely interbreed to give rise to viable/fertile offsprings. Sometime members of different species may interbreed to give an offspring which is sterile . E.g. a donkey and a horse can interbreed to give rise to a mule which is infertile. **Binomial Nomenclature ** This is the double naming system of organisms where organisms are name and the name. assigned two names i.e. the generic specific **Examples** In binomial nomenclature the following rules are observed. v.) Generic name is written first followed by the specific name. vi.) First letter in the generic name is in capital and the rest are in small letters. vii.) Specific name is written in small letters. viii.) The two names are underlined separately when handwritten or italicised when printed. **Study Question 2 ** **The Five Kingdoms of Classification ** Carolus Linnaeus initially introduced the two kingdom system of classification. However many new life forms have been discovered which are neither animals nor plants. This has led to a more accepted classification system that adopts five kingdoms. These are; Monera Protoctista Fungi Plantae 97 ----- ### Animalia. **Fig. 1.2 ** **1. Kingdom Monera ** The kingdom is made up of mainly the bacteria e.g. nitrobacter, azotobacter. Vibrio cholerae etc. **General characteristics ** i.) They are unicellular and microscopic. Some are single cells while others are in colonies. They have different body shapes. Fig. 1.4 ii.) Most are heterotrophic, feeding either saprophytically or parasitically. Some are autotrophic. iii.) They are prokaryotic i.e. their nuclear material is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane. iv.) They have few organelles which are not membrane bound. They ### dont have mitochondria. v.) They have a cell wall though not made of cellulose. vi.) They reproduce asexually mainly through binary fission. vii.) Most of them respire an-aerobically but some respire aerobically. viii.) Most of them move by use of flagella. **Diagrams ** **Study question 3 ** **2. Kingdom Protoctista ** Examples include paramecium, amoeba, plasmodium, chlamydomonas, euglena, spirogyra, and trypanosome. **General characteristics ** i.) They are eukaryotic whereby their nuclei is bound by a nuclear membrane. ii.) Some are heterotrophic while others are autotrophic. iii.) They have may organelles including mitochondria all of which are membrane bound. iv.) They have different body forms; some are unicellular or colonial while others are multicellular. v.) Reproduction is mainly asexual by fission, fragmentation or sporulation. Some reproduce sexually by conjugation. 98 ----- ### vi.) They are mobile and move by means of cilia, flagella or pseudopodia. vii.) Some may have specialised structures that perform specific functions such as contractile vacuole for osmoregulation. ### **Diagrams Diagrams ** **Practical Activities 1 and 2Practical Activities 1 and 2 ** **3. Kingdom Fungi** **Examples ** Saprophytic ones include mushrooms, toadstools, bread moulds, penicilia, yeast etc. Parasitic ones cause plant diseases such as wheat rust, potato and tomato blight and animal diseases such as athletes foot and ringworm. ### **Practical ActivitPractical Activities 3ies 3 ** **General characteristics ** i.) They are eukaryotic. ii.) Most have cell walls made of chitin but a few have cellulose cell ### walls. iii.) They store food particles in their cytoplasm in the form of glycogen or oil droplets but not starch. iv.) The basic unit is the hyphae . Hyphae are thin filaments and many . of them make up structures called mycelium v.) Fungi have neither the chloroplasts nor the chlorophyll. They feed on already manufactured food. Hyphae act as the roots and are sent into the food material to obtain nutrients. In saprophytic fungi the hyphae are referred to as rhizoids and in parasitic ones as haustoria . vi.) They reproduce sexually (fusion of nuclei in hyphal branches) and asexually (spores and budding). **Examples Examples ** **Study Question 4Study Question 4 ** 99 ----- ### **4. Kingdom Plantae4. Kingdom Plantae ** **Study question 5 ** **General Characteristics ** i.) They are eukaryotic and multicellular. ii.) In most their body is differentiated into leaves, stem and roots. iii.) They reproduce both sexually and asexually. iv.) Their cells have cellulose cell walls v.) They have photosynthetic pigment hence are autotrophic. vi.) Majority have a transport system vii.) They show alternation of generation. The kingdom Plantae is divided into three main divisions. Bryophyta. Pteridophyta. Spermatophyta. **A. Division Bryophyta ** These are the mosses and the liverworts. **General Characteristics ** i.) The lack the vascular system ii.) Contain chlorophyll and are therefore photosynthetic. iii.) They have rhizoids for anchorage and water and mineral salts absorption. iv.) They show alternation of generations. v.) Fertilisation depends of availability of water. Male gametes are produced by the antheridia and female gametes by the ***archegonia.*** vi.) They grow on damp substratum such as walls, rocks and marshes. vii.) They are thalloid as in liverworts or differentiated into simple leaf like and stem like structures as in mosses. . **Diagrams** **B. Division Pteridophyta ** This includes ferns and horsetails. They are more advanced compared to the bryophytes. 100 ----- ### **General Characteristics ** i.) They have leaves, stems and roots but no flowers. ii.) They are photosynthetic. iii.) They have a clearly defined vascular system made of xylem and phloem. iv.) They have compound leaves with leaflets called pinna. v.) On the lower side of mature leaves are the spores bearing structures (sporangia) which occur in groups called sori ( sorus- singular ). see diagram. vi.) They show alternation of generations where the sporophyte (fern plant) is the dominant one while the gametophyte is a heart shaped structure called Prothallus . See diagram. vii.) They have sexual reproduction which is dependent of water. **Study Question 6 Study Question 6 ** **Practical Activity 4 Practical Activity 4 ** **Study Question 7 Study Question 7 ** ### **Practical Activity 5Practical Activity 5 ** **C. Division Spermatophyta** This comprises of all the seed bearing plants. **General Characteristics ** i.) They contain chloroplasts hence are photosynthetic. ii.) The plant body is differentiated into roots, stems, leaves and seed ### bearing structures. iii.) Vascular system is highly developed with xylem tissue consisting of both xylem vessels and tracheids. iv.) Sexual reproduction is well defined. v.) Seeds are produced after fertilisation. vi.) They show alternation of generation. The division Spermatophyta is made up of two main subdivisions i.e. **Gymnospermaphyta** **Angiospermaphyta** **Gymnospermaphyta** **General Characteristics ** 101 ----- ### They bear male and female cones. After fertilisation seeds are borne on the female cones and they are naked i.e. they are not enclosed in a fruit wall. They show xerophytic characteristics such as needle like leaves, rolled leaves, thick waxy cuticle and sunken stomata. Phloem doesnt contain companion cells and xylem mainly consists of tracheids. This subdivision has three main classes. Coniferales Cycadales Ginkgoales **i) Class Coniferales ** These include all the common gymnosperms. They are found in areas of little water. They have small needle-shaped leaves with waxy cuticle. They have cones and most of them are ever green. Male cones are in form of clusters at the base of the terminal bud . Female cones are on lateral buds of young shoots and they ### contain naked seeds. **Diagrams. ** **ii) Class Cycadales** They resemble the palm trees by appearance. They have long compound leaves which are clustered at the apex of a thick short un-branched stem. They bear cones at the apex of the trunk. **iii) Class Ginkgoales** Members here are very rare. They include the Ginkgo biloba of China. They are deciduous with fan like leaves. **Angiospermaphyta** **General characteristics ** Are usually bisexual and flower bearing. 102 ----- ### Seeds are enclosed in an ovary which develops into a fruit. Xylem has tracheids and vessels while the phloem has companion cells. They have double fertilisation. This subdivision is divided into two classes. ### **Monocotyledonae. examples ** | Dicotyledonae. examples|Col2| |---|---| |Class Monocotyledonae|Class Dicotyledonae.| | They have seeds with one cotyledon.| Have two cotyledons.| | They have narrow-long leaves with parallel venation.| Broad leaves with reticulate Teacher.co.ke/ venation.| | Most of their leaves have a modified petiole to form a leaf sheath.| Leaves have distinct petioles. https:// Visit Papers st| | Their stems have scattered vascular bundle.| Vascular bundles are arranged Pa and to form a concentric ring. xams,| | Pith is usually absent.| Pith is present. Notes, E| | Vascular cambium is usually absent hence no secondary growth.| Vascular cambium is present KCSE hence there is secondary free For growth.| | They have a fibrous root system| They have a tap root system| | Floral parts are in threes or in multiples of three.| Floral parts are in fours, fives or their multiples.| | In the root vascular bundles are arranged in a ring with phloem and xylem alternating.| In roots, the xylem is centrally placed and star shaped with the phloem alternating with the arms of the xylem.| ### **Study question 8 ** 103 ----- ### **Practical activity 6 ** **ix.) Kingdom Animalia ** **Study Question 9 ** **General characteristics ** i.) Most show locomotion but a few are sessile ii.) Most reproduce sexually and a few asexually iii.) They are eukaryotic and multicellular iv.) All are heterotrophic ### v.) Their cells have no cell walls Kingdom Animalia has nine phyla but only two will be discussed i.e. Arthropoda and chordata. **Phylum Arthropoda ** **Practical Activity 7 ** **General Characteristics** ### i.) They are segmented. ii.) They are bilaterally symmetrical. iii.) They have open circulatory system where blood flows in open cavities called haemocoel. iv.) Head is well developed with eyes, sensory structures and a fairly ### developed brain. v.) Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system which opens through the spiracles to the outside. Some aquatic ones use gills. vi.) Reproduction is mostly sexual with internal fertilization. They ### have different sexes. vii.) They have jointed appendages hence the name arthropoda. viii.) They have a body covered with exoskeleton made of chitin. This provides a surface for muscle attachment. It is shed periodically . to allow growth through a process called moulting ix.) Most have their body divided into head, thorax and abdomen. In some, the head and the thorax are fused to form Cephalothorax . The thorax and the abdomen are all segmented. The phylum arthropoda is divided into five classes. Crustacea Chilopoda Diplopoda 104 ----- ### Arachnida. Insecta. Different members of the phylum are placed to their respective classes based on; Number of limbs Presence and number of antennae Number of body parts. **1. Class Crustacea ** Examples. Daphnia, crayfish. Crab and prawn. **General Characteristics** i.) Head and thorax are fused to form cephalothorax. ii.) They have two pairs of antennae. iii.) They have between five and twenty pairs of limbs modified for different functions e.g. locomotion defence and feeding. iv.) They have a pair of compound eyes. v.) Gaseous exchange is through the gills. vi.) They have three pairs of mouth parts made of one pair of mandibles (lower) and two pairs of maxillae (upper). **2. Class Chilopoda ** These are the centipedes. **Diagram ** **General Characteristics** i.) Body is divided into two parts, the head and the trunk. ii.) The body is dorsa-ventrally flattened. iii.) Body is made up of 15 or more segments. iv.) Head has a pair of simple eyes. v.) Each segment has a pair of walking legs. vi.) Head has a pair of antennae. vii.) Have poison claws n the head and are therefore carnivorous. viii.) Have a tracheal system for gaseous exchange. ix.) Have separate sexes. 105 ----- ### **3. Class Diplopoda ** These are the millipedes. **Diagram ** **General Characteristics** i.) They have cylindrical body. ii.) Have three body parts, head, and thorax and body trunk. iii.) They have two clumps of many simple eyes. iv.) They have no poison claws and are therefore herbivorous. v.) Heads has a pair of short antennae and mandibles. vi.) Each body segment has a pair of spiracles for breathing. vii.) Body has between 9-100 segments. viii.) Each segment has two pairs of walking legs except the first thoracic segment. **4. Class Arachnida ** These include the scorpions, spiders, ticks and mites. **Diagrams ** **General Characteristics** ### i.) Body has two parts, cephalothorax and abdomen. ii.) Cephalothorax has two chelicerae which produce poison to paralyse the prey. iii.) Cephalothorax has four pairs of walking legs each having seven ### joints. iv.) At the end of each leg are two toothed claws. v.) Cephalothorax has eight simple eyes. vi.) Most have lung books for gaseous exchange, some use gill books or tracheal system. vii.) They have no antennae but have a pair of pedipalps which are sensitive to touch. **5. Class Insecta ** 106 ----- ### They include grasshoppers, bees, houseflies, butterflies, termites, beetles etc. Insects form half the population of animals on earth. They occupy all habitats i.e. air, water, and land. Their food is varied such as plant tissues, animal fluids, dead animals and excretions of animals making them to be found almost everywhere on earth. **General Characteristics** i.) Body is divided into three parts, head, thorax and abdomen. ii.) Thorax is made up of three segments with three pairs of legs. Some have one or two pairs of wings on the thorax. iii.) Head has one pair of antennae. iv.) They undergo complete or incomplete metamorphosis. ### v.) Excretion is through the malpighian tubules which remove uric acid. vi.) Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system but they breathe ### through the spiracles. vii.) The head a pair of compound eyes and several simple eyes. viii.) Abdomen is made up of 11 or fewer segments. The terminal segments are modified for reproduction. ix.) Mouth parts consist of the mandibles, maxillae and labium. The mouth parts are modified according to their feeding habits such as sucking, biting, chewing etc. **Assignment ** . **Discuss the economic importance of arthropods** **Study Question 10 ** **Practical Activity ** **Phylum Chordata ** Chordate, common name for animals of the phylum Chordata, which includes vertebrates as well as some invertebrates that possess, at least for some time in their lives, a stiff rod called a notochord lying above the gut. About 43,700 living species are known, making the chordates the third largest animal phylum. In animals such as the Amphioxus the notochord persists but in others it is replaced at later stages of development by the vertebral column. 107 ----- ### Members in this phylum inhabit both aquatic (marine and fresh water) and terrestrial (burrowers and arboreal) environments. **General Characteristics ** i.) Members have a notochord at some stage of their development. ii.) They are bilaterally symmetrical. iii.) Heart is ventrally placed. Blood flows from the heart through the arteries and gets back to the heart through the veins. iv.) They have a post anal tail although it is greatly reduced in some. v.) They have an endoskeleton. vi.) They have a closed circulatory system. vii.) They have visceral clefts where in fish they become the gills in higher chordates they are only present in the embryo. viii.) They have a tubular dorsal nerve cord. It develops anteriorly into brain and posteriorly as the spinal cord. Spinal cord is enclosed by the vertebral column. ix.) They have segmented muscle blocks called myotomes on either side of the body. The main classes of the phylum chordata are; Pisces Amphibia Reptilia. Aves. Mammalia **Pisces ** **Diagram ** These are the fishes. They include those with a skeleton made of cartilage e.g. shark and those with a bony skeleton such as the tilapia, Nile perch, lung fish, dog fish, and cat fish etc. **General Characteristics ** i.) The move by fins ii.) Bodies are covered with scales iii.) Have gills for gaseous exchange in water. iv.) They dont have a middle or inner ear. v.) They have streamlined bodies. 108 ----- ### vi.) They have a lateral line for sensitivity. vii.) Their heart has two main chambers i.e. the auricle and the ventricle. viii.) They are poikilothermic/ectothermic. ix.) Eyes are covered by a nictating membrane. ### **Amphibia ** They include the toads, newts, salamanders and frogs. The toad is the most advanced amphibian. Its skin is less moist and therefore uses the lungs more for gaseous exchange. They therefore stay mostly on land and only return to the ponds during reproduction. **Diagrams** **General Characteristics ** i.) They have a double circulatory system. ii.) They have a three chambered heart with two atria and one ### ventricle. iii.) Fertilisation is external and they breed in water. iv.) Gaseous exchange is through the skin, lungs and gills. v.) They have two eyes and an eardrum behind the eyes. vi.) They are ectothermic. vii.) They have 4 well developed limbs. The hind limbs are more ### muscular than the forelimbs. **Reptilia ** Examples include tortoise, turtles, snakes, crocodiles, lizards and chameleons. **General Characteristics ** i.) They are ectothermic. ii.) They have a well developed lung for gaseous exchange. iii.) They have double circulatory system with the heart having three chambers i.e. two atria and a partially divided ventricle. Crocodiles however have a four chambered heart. iv.) The body is covered with a dry scaly skin reducing desiccation. v.) Some have four limbs while others dont have any limbs such as the snakes. 109 ----- ### vi.) Fertilisation is internal. They lay eggs with a leathery shell to avoid desiccation. Some species of chameleons give birth to young ones. Aves Examples include doves, chicken, hawks, eagles and turkeys. They are terrestrial and arboreal while some have been adapted for aquatic life. **General Characteristics ** i.) Bodies are covered with feathers for in insulation. ii.) They have beaks. iii.) They internal auditory canal/ meatus iv.) Fertilisation is internal and they lay hard calcareous eggs. v.) They have lungs for gaseous exchange. vi.) They have air sacs which store air in them reducing their body density for flight. vii.) They are endothermic. viii.) They have hollow bones. ix.) They have scales on their hind limbs. x.) They have double circulatory system with a four chambered heart. xi.) The sternum is enlarged to form keel for attachment of flight ### muscles. Mammalia **Study Question 11 ** Some are arboreal such as the tree squirrels, and some monkeys. Some are terrestrial either on the surface of the earth or in ### tunnels. Some are aquatic such as the dolphins and whales. **General Characteristics** i.) They have double circulatory system ii.) They have mammary glands hence the name Mammalia. iii.) Their body is usually covered with fur or hair. iv.) They have two eternal ears (pinna) v.) They have sweat glands. vi.) They have lungs for gaseous exchange. 110 ----- ### vii.) They have four limbs. viii.) They have a diaphragm which separates the body cavity into thoracic and abdominal cavities.. ix.) The brain is highly developed. x.) They have seven cervical vertebrae at their neck. xi.) They are endothermic. xii.) They have heterodont type of dentition where the teeth are ### differentiated into four types, incisors, canines, pre-molars and molars. The number varies in relation to feeding habits. **Although most mammals give birth to live young ones, some ** **are egg laying such as the duck billed platypus. After ** **hatching, the young ones are fed on milk. ** **Practical Activity 9 ** **Practical Activity 10. ** **The Dichotomous Key ** The word dichotomous means separating into two. I.e. Separation of different or contradictory things: a separation into two divisions that differ widely from or contradict each other. As you move down the key you progress from general characteristics to more specific characteristics. The last single choice reveals the identity of the unknown organism. **Rules Used in Constructing a Dichotomous Key** ### i.) Use morphological features as far as possible. ii.) Start with the major characteristics and proceed to lesser variations that separate the organisms into smaller groups. E.g. in leaves start with type of leaf i.e. simple or compound. iii.) Select a single characteristic at a time and identify it by a number such as. Type of leaf Type of venation iv.) Use identical forms of words for the two contrasting statements e.g. 1. a) leaf simple. b) Leaf compound 111 ----- ### 2. a) Leaf net veined. b) Leaf parallel veined. v.) The statements should always be written in positive form. Where a negative statement cannot be avoided, the first statement must be in the positive form e.g. a) Animal with wings b) Animal without wings vi.) Avoid overlapping statements or generalisations such as Short plants Tall plants Be very specific in your description such as Plant I metre tall and above. Plant 15cm to 60cm tall. **Some common Features Used For Identification. ** In animals i.) Locomotory structures (legs, wings and fins) ii.) Antennae, presence and number iii.) Presence and type of eyes iv.) Number of body parts ### v.) Body segmentation vi.) Type of skeleton present vii.) Feeding structures viii.) Presence of hair, fur, scales or feathers on the body **In plants ** |Part of plant|Some characteristics.| |---|---| |Leaf| Phylotaxy Leaf type Leaf venation Margin Lamina Colour| |Flower| Inflorescence Flower shape| 112 ----- |Col1| Number of floral| |---|---| |Stem| Type of stem( woody, herbaceous or fleshy) Shape (rectangular or cylindrical) Texture of the stem (smooth or spiny/thorny)| |Roots| Root system (taproot or fibrous) Storage roots.| || r.co.ke/| ### **Summary of the Five Kingdoms. ** **Practical Activities. ** **Revision Questions. ** **REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS ** This is the process by which mature individuals produce offsprings. There are two types of reproduction. **1) Sexual reproduction which involves male and female ** **gametes ** Diagram **2) Asexual reproduction where no gametes are involved. ** Diagram **Importance of Reproduction ** **1) Procreation ** This ensures that a species does not become extinct. **2) Quality improvement ** Reproduction allows for mixing of genetic materials bringing about variations. These variations are important tools in the refinement of quality of offsprings. 113 ----- ### **Cell Division ** Life in all living things start as a single cell as a spore or as a zygote. The cells have to divide further to give rise to make cells. Cell division starts with division of the nucleus (chromosome) and then the cytoplasm. **Chromosomes** ### These are microscopic thread like structure within cells that carries the molecule deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)the hereditary material that influences the development and characteristics of each organism. Each chromosome is made up of two parallel strands called **chromatids.** Chromatids are joined together at one point by the centromere . **Diagram ** Each cell has a fixed number of chromosomes e.g. each human body cell has 46 chromosomes. Chromosomes occur in pairs in the nucleus. A member of each ### pair is called homologous chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes are similar in appearance, size, and shape but their genetic constitution may be different. Genes are found along the length of the chromosomes. Genes are very tiny and made up of a chemical substance called ### DNA (De oxy Ribonucleic Acid) DNA determines the characteristics of the offspring. **There are two types of cell division ** **i) Mitosis ** ii) Meiosis **Mitosis ** In this type of cell division, each cell divides into two daughter cells each having the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Mitosis occurs in series of stages i.e. **i) Interphase ** 114 ----- ### **ii) Prophase ** **iii) Metaphase. ** **iv) Anaphase ** v) Telophase . 1) Interphase During this stage the following activities take place within the cell in preparation of the division. Synthesis of new cell organelles such as ribosomes, centrioles, mitochondria and Golgi apparatus. Multiplication of genetic material so that each daughter cell will ### have same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Build up of enough energy stores in form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) during respiration. This energy is important to see the cell through the process of division. At this stage the chromosomes are not clearly visible. ### **Diagrams ** 2) Prophase The following events take place in this stage. ### Centrioles separate and move to opposite poles of the cells. Spindle fibres begin to form Nuclear membrane begins to break down and nucleolus disappears. Chromosomes thicken and shorten and they can be stained easily ### hence become visible. **Diagram ** **3)Metaphase ** Nuclear membrane disappears and chromosomes are free in the cytoplasm. Spindle fibres lengthen and attach to the centrioles at both poles. Chromosomes align themselves at the equator and are attached to the spindle fibres by their centromere. **Diagram ** **3) Anaphase ** 115 ----- ### Chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite poles. This is brought about by the shortening of the spindle fibres. Spindle fibres begin to disappear. In animal cells, cell membrane begins to constrict towards the end of anaphase. **Diagram ** 4) Telophase Chromatids collect together at the two opposite poles of the ### spindle. Nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromatids and are now referred to as chromosomes. Cytoplasm divides into two hence the formation of two daughter ### cells. Chromosomes become less distinct. *In animal cells, division of cytoplasm is by constriction of cell * *membrane. * *In plant cells, a cell plate forms within the cytoplasm and grows to * *separate the cell into two. * **Diagrams ** Significance of Mitosis i) Forms basis for asexual reproduction e.g. budding and spore formation. ii) Causes cell growth when the cells formed increase in number and size. iii) Ensures genetic constitution of the offspring is the same as the parents. iv) Replaces damaged and dead cells in the body. **Meiosis ** This involves two divisions of the parental cell resulting into four daughter cells. First meiotic cell division involves the separation of the homologous chromosomes. It is referred to as Reduction division because the numbers of chromosomes are reduced by half. 116 ----- ### In the second stage, the sister chromatids are separated and it is referred to as Equatorial division Each daughter cell has half the number of chromosomes (haploid n) as the parent cell. This takes place in the reproductive organs of animals (testis and ovary) and plants (anthers and ovary). Meiosis is divided into same series of stages as in mitosis. The phases are given names as in mitosis but each is followed by I or II. **First Meiotic Division ** ** Interphase I ** The cell prepares for division by the following. Replication of chromosomes. Synthesis of new cell organelles. Build up of energy. ** Prophase I** ### Nucleolus disappears. Centrioles move to opposite poles. Chromosomes shorten and thicken becoming more visible. Homologous chromosomes lie side by side in the process of synapsis forming pairs called bivalents. Homologous chromosomes may become coiled around each other ### with their chromatids remaining in contact at points called *chiasmata.* NB/. During chiasma formation homologous chromosomes may exchange genetic material during crossing over. These genetic exchanges are important because they bring about variations in offsprings. **Metaphase.I ** Nuclear membrane disappears. Homologous chromosomes as a bivalent move to the equator of the cell. Spindle fibres are fully formed and get attached to the chromosomes at the centromere. 117 ----- ### Homologous chromosomes orientate towards different poles. **Diagram** **Anaphase I** Homologous chromosomes separate and migrate to the opposite poles with their centromeres leading. This is brought about by the shortening of the spindle fibres. ** Diagram ** **Telophase I ** ### Cell divides across the middle when the chromosomes reach the poles. At the end of meiosis I homologous chromosomes are separated. **Diagram ** Second Meiotic Division . In this stage the sister chromatids are separated from each other. **Interphase II ** Cells go into a short interphase. **Prophase II ** Chromosomes become shorter and thicker. New spindle fibres are formed. **Metaphase.II ** Chromosomes align at the equator of the cell. Spindle fibres attach to their centromeres. Chromosomes orientate themselves towards the opposite poles. **Anaphase II ** Sister chromatids separate from each other. Spindle fibres shorten pulling them to the opposite poles. **Telophase II ** Spindle fibres disappears Nucleolus reappears and nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromatids. Chromatids uncoil and become threadlike. Cytoplasm divides. Four cells are formed (tetrad). Each cell has haploid (n) number of chromosomes. 118 ----- ### **Significance of Meiosis** 1. Gamete formation (sperms and ova) forming basis for sexual reproduction 2. Provides opportunities for genetic variations during crossing over **Similarities between mitosis and meiosis ** ### 1. Both take place in plants and animals. 2. Both involve division (multiplication) of cells. **Differen c es between meiosis and mitosis** |Meiosis|Mitosis.| |---|---| |1. Homologous chromosomes associate with each other.|No association of homologous chromosomes| |2. Takes place in 2 nuclear divisions.|Takes place in one nuclear division.| |3. 4 daughter cells are produced each haploid (n)|2 daughter cells are produced each diploid (2n)| |4. Occurs in reproductive organs leading to gamete formation.|Occurs in somatic (body) cells leading to growth.| |5. Chiasma formation takes place leading to crossing over hence variation|No chiasma formation therefore no crossing over hence no variation.| ### **Asexual Reproduction ** ### This is the production of offsprings from a single organism without fusion of gametes. This type of reproduction involves mitosis. **Types of Asexual Reproduction** **1. Binary fission in amoeba, plasmodium and bacteria ** **2. Sporulation in rhizopus ** **3. Budding in yeasts ** **1. Binary fission in amoeba** When there is enough food and favourable temperature and pH, a mature amoeba divides into two. 119 ----- ### During binary division, in amoeba, internal reorganization of molecules necessary for structural construction takes place. Nucleus first divides mitotically (Karyogamy) into two followed by the division of the cytoplasm (Cytogamy) **Diagrams ** **2. Sporulation in Rhizopus ** This is the formation of spores in substrates like the bread to form ### bread moulds A spore is a microscopic reproductive unit which contains a nucleus and a small amount of cytoplasm. Spores are produced by bacteria, most fungi, mosses and ferns. Rhizopus has a vegetative body called the mycelium. . Mycelium is made up of many branched threads called hyphae Horizontal hyphae are called stolons . . Vertically growing ones are called sporangiophore Tips of sporangiophore swell up to form the sporangia ### . ***(sporangium)*** Sporangia are the spore bearing structures. When fully mature, sporangium wall burst releasing the spores. If spores land on a suitable medium, they germinate and develop into other rhizopus. Rhizopus uses structures called rhizoids for anchorage and to ### obtain nutrients from the substrate. **Diagrams ** ** Budding in Yeast** Under favourable conditions such as plenty of sugar, moisture, oxygen and optimum temperature, the yeast cell reproduces asexually by budding. A projection of bud forms on the parent cell. Nucleus divides into two. One nuclei moves into the new bud. Bud grows in size and forms new cell organelles. Later the bud separates off. **Diagrams ** 120 ----- ### **Sexual Reproduction in Plants** ### In flowering plants the flower is the reproductive organ. **Structure and Function of a Flower** A flower is made up of a flower stalk (pedicel) and a receptacle. Attached to the receptacle are four groups of floral structures i.e. i) Calyx (sepals) ii) Corolla/petals iii) Androecium male parts iv) Gynoecium female parts **i) Calyx (sepals) ** Made up of the sepals which are usually green. If sepals are fused they form gamosepalous calyx. If they are free, they form polysepalous calyx. Calyx protects the inner parts of the flower especially during bud ### development. Some flowers have sepal like structures below the calyx called the . ***epicalyx*** **ii) Corolla/petals ** Its made up of the petals which are brightly coloured, large and ### conspicuous especially in insect pollinated flowers. If fused gamopetalous. If free polypetalous **iii) Androecium male parts** Made up of one or more stamens Satmen is made up of the filament and anthers. Another has four pollen sacs containing pollen grains. Pollen grains contain the male gametes. **Diagrams ** **iv) Gynoecium female parts** It may contain one or more carpels A carpel consists of the ovary, the style and the stigma. Ovary contains the ovules. 121 ----- ### Ovaries are described as epigynous, hypogynous or perigynous ### depending on the place they occur in the flower. **i) Epigynous (inferior) ovary ** Ovary is located within the receptacle. All other floral parts occur above it such as in the apple flowers. **Diagram ** **ii) Hypogynous (superior) ovary ** Ovary is above the receptacle and other floral parts such as in hibiscus. **Diagram ** **iii) Perigynous ovary** The receptacle surrounds the carpel. All other floral parts arise around the ovary such as in roses. **Diagram ** The gynoecia can also be grouped into different types dependi.ng on the number of carpels present i.e. monocarpous or syncarpous. **Monocarpous Gynoecium ** It has only one carpel e.g. in beans. **Diagram ** **Polycarpous Gynoecium** It has two or more carpels. It is divided into two. ### **a) Apocarpous gynoecium ** The carpels are free e.g in roses and bryophyllum. **Diagrams ** b) Syncarpous gynoecium The carpels are fused together such as in hibiscus. **Diagrams ** **Terms Used in Describing a Flower** i) Complete flower has all the four floral parts; calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium. ii) Incomplete flower has one or two floral parts missing. iii) Unisexual flower a flower with only one of the reproductive parts either male or female flower. iv) Staminate flower male flower. v) Pistillate flower female flower. 122 ----- ### vi) Monoecious plant bears both male and female parts of the flower. vii) Dioecious plants - the plant is either male or female e.g. in paw paw. viii) Hermaphrodite or bisexual flower has both the male and female parts. ix) Regular or actinomorphic flower a flower that can be ### divided into tow similar halves by any vertical section passing through the center i.e. radial symmetry such as in morning glory. x) Irregular or zygomorphic flower can be divided into two similar halves on one particular plane only i.e. bilateral symmetry e.g. in clotalaria. xi) Pedicillate flower- flower with a stalk. xii) Solitary flower are flowers occurring singly. xiii) Inflorescence flowers that grow in clusters. xiv) Essential parts of the flower are the androecium and ### gynoecium. xv) Non essential floral parts are the calyx and corolla. **Pollination ** This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. **Types of Pollination ** i) Self pollination . Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower. ii) Cross Pollination transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower but of the same species. **Agents of Pollination** Insect Wind **Adaptations of Insect Pollinated Flowers (Entomophilous) ** i) Flowers are large, conspicuous with brightly coloured petals and inflorescence to attract insects. ii) Flowers are scented and produce nectar to attract insects. 123 ----- ### iii) Pollen grains are relatively large, heavy, rough or sticky so as to stick on to the body of the sticks. iv) They have small and firmly attached anthers to a firm filament. v) Stigmas are small, sticky and contained within the flower. This ensures that pollen grains from the body of an insect stick onto it. vi) Flowers have a tubular or funnel shaped corolla, landing platforms and honey guides. **Adaptations of Wind Pollinated Flowers (Anemophilous) ** **e.g. maize and other grasses ** i) Small flowers with inconspicuous petals, bracts or inflorescence. ii) Flower structure is simple and flowers have no particular shape. iii) Stigmas are long, feathery and hang outside the flower to trap pollen grains. iv) Pollen grains are small, smooth and light to be easily carried by the wind. v) Flowers are not scented and lack nectar. vi) Anthers are large and loosely attached to a flexible filament to ### be easily released when the wind blows. **Diagram of a grass flower ** **Stigma** |Col1|Anther| |---|---| ||Filament| ||| ### **Features and Mechanisms Hindering Self Pollination and Self ** **Fertilization ** **Stigma** ### i) Heterostyly condition whre the stigma na d style have different arrangements e.g. coconut flowers have shorter 124 ----- ### stamens than pistils hence pollen grains from the anthers cannot reach the stigma. ***Diagram *** ii) Self sterility or incompatibility condition where pollen grains of a flower fail to germinate if they land on the stigma of the same flower. iii) Protogyny and Protandry condition where either male parts of a flower mature before the female ones. Protandry stamen mature before the stigma e.g.in sunflower. Protogyny stigma matures before the anthers mature e.g. in maize. iv) Dioecious plants and presence of features that promote cross pollination such as brightly coloured petals which attract insects hence cross pollination. **Fertilization in Flowering Plants ** Fertilization in plants is the fusion of the male and female nuclei in the embryo sac. ### Male gamete is contained in the pollen grain produced in the anther. ***Diagram*** Female gamete (egg cell) is found in ovules contained in the embryo sac. 125 ----- ### **Process of Fertilization ** Integuments funicle Pedicel Egg cell Synegids Embryo sac ### - Pollen grains land stick to the stigma and germinates to form pollen tube, which grows through the tissue of the style towards the ovary - The generative nucleus undergoes mitosis, forming 2 male ### nuclei - The pollen tube gets into the embryo sac through the micropyle; pollen tube nucleus disintegrates, creating a passage for the male nuclei. - The egg cell fuses with one of the two male nuclei to form a diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes mitosis to form an embryo - The two polar nuclei fuse with the second male nucleus to form a triploid nucleus. - The triploid nucleus forms the endosperm. The two con current fertilization incidents are collectively referred to as double fertilization **Seed and Fruit Development ** - Some changes occur to the ovary, ovule and the entire flower after fertilization. - Calyx dries and falls off or may persist. - Petals and stamens wither and fall off. 126 ----- ### **Development of the Seed ** - Zygote undergoes mitotic division to become the embryo (plumule and radicle) and one or two cotyledons. - Primary endosperm nucleus develops into the endosperm. - Ovule forms the seeds. - Ovary develops into a fruit. - Integuments become the seed coat (testa). - Testa has got a scar (hilum) which is the attachment point to the placenta. - A seed a tiny opening called the micropyle which allows water into the seed during germination. - Water is withdrawn from the seed from about 80% to 15% by mass making the seed dry and hard. **Development of Fruits ** ### - A fruit is a fully grown fertilized ovary containing fully developed seeds. - This is brought about by the hormones gibberellins and occurs after fertilization. - As the ovules develop into seeds, the rest of the ovary develops into the fruit wall or the pericarp. - Pericarp has two scars indicating the points of attachment to the style and to the receptacle. - Pericarp has three layers; epicarp/exocarp (outer most), mesocarp (middle) and the endocarp (innermost). 127 ----- ### - In some fruits such as pineapples and bananas fruit formation . takes place without fertilization. This is called parthenocarpy - False fruits are formed when other parts of the flower such as the receptacle enlarge and enclose the ovary e.g. in pineapples, apple, straw berry and cashew nut. **Classification of Fruits** berry e.g tomato berry e.g tomato & orange& orange succulent fruitssucculent fruits drupe e.g mango drupe e.g mango and coconut and coconut schizocarp e.g schizocarp e.g castorcastor fruits fruits dehiscent dehiscent dry fruitsdry fruits indehiscent indehiscent ### **Succulent fruits ** They are divided into berry and drupe. 128 legume e.g. legume e.g. beansbeans capsule e.g. capsule e.g. poppypoppy nuts e.g. nuts e.g. macadamiamacadamia caryopsis e.g caryopsis e.g maizemaize cypsela e.g black cypsela e.g black jackjack ----- ### Berry has a succulent pericarp divided into epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp e.g. orange, tomato, passion fruit, melon, paw paw etc. **Diagram ** Drupe they have a thin epicarp, fleshy or fibrous mesocarp and a very hard endocarp enclosing the seeds. In mango the fleshy edible part is the mesocarp while in coconut the mesocarp is a fibrous cover just before the hard endocarp. **Diagram ** **Dry Fruits** - They are divided into dehiscent and indehiscent. **Dry Dehiscent fruit** They dehisce to release their seeds. They are divided into; 1. Legume e.g beans ***Diagram *** 2. Capsule e.g poppy ***Diagram *** 3. Schizocarp e.g. castor. ***Diagram *** **Dry indehiscent fruits ** - These do not dehisce. - They include; 1. Caryopsis - pericarp and seed coat are fused together to form a thin covering round the seed e.g. maize. **Diagram ** 2. Cypsela - its a one seeded e.g. the blackjack. **Diagram ** 3. Nut the pericarp becomes hard and woody and it is separate from the seed coat e.g. macadamia. **Diagram ** **Placentation ** - This is the arrangement of the ovules in an ovary. They include; 129 ----- ### 1. . *Marginal Placentation* - Ovules are attached to the placenta in a row e.g. peas in a pod. **Diagram ** *2. Basal placentation * - Placenta is formed at the base of the ovary. Ovules are attached to it sunflower and sweet pepper. **Diagram ** *3. Axile Placentation * - The edges of the carpels fuse together to form a central placenta ### in the axile. - Ovules are arranged on the placenta. - The ovary is divided into a number of loculi by the walls of the carpel e.g. in orange **Diagram ** *4. Parietal Placentation * ### - Edges of the carpels fuse together and dividing walls disappear leaving a loculus. - Placentas from each carpel appear as a ridge on the ovary wall and have numerous ovules on them e.g. in paw paw. **Diagram ** *5. Free central placentation * - Edges of carpels fuse together and the dividing walls disappear leaving one loculus. - Placenta appears at the center and have numerous ovules on it e.g. in primrose **Diagram ** **Adaptations of Fruits to Various Agents of Dispersal ** a) Water dispersal - Such seeds and fruits enclose air in them to lower their density for buoyancy; - They are fibrous/ spongy to lower the density for buoyancy; - Have impermeable seed coat or epicarp to prevent water from entering during flotation so as to avoid rotting; 130 ----- ### - The seeds can remain viable while in water and only germinate while on a suitable medium; b) Wind dispersal - They are light; and small; to be easily carried by wind currents due to lower density; - Have developed extension (Parachute like structures and ### Wing like structures) which create a larger surface area; so as to be kept afloat in wind currents e.g. sonchus and jacaranda - In some a Perforated capsule is usually loosely attached to a long stalk which is swayed away by wind scattering seeds; c) Animal dispersal ### - Brightly colored to attract animals - Fleshy to attract animals; e.g. mangoes, passion fruits, oranges, tomatoes etc. - aromatic /scented to attract animals; - The seed coats are hard and resistant to digestive enzymes; the seeds are therefore dropped away in feaces/droppings e.g. passion fruit and tomatoes. - Some have hook like structures to attach on animals fur e.g. blackjack d) Self dispersal - They have weak lines (sutures) on the fruit wall (pod), along which they burst open to release seeds, which get scattered away from the parent plant e.g. in legumes such as peas and beans. **SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS ** This involves gamete fusion. The male produces the male gamete (sperms) and the female produces the female gamete (ovum/ova). The gametes are produced in special organs called gonads i.e. the testes and ovaries. 131 ----- ### The sperm fuses with the ovum to form a zygote through a process called fertilisation the gametes are haploid and the zygote is diploid. Fertilisation may be internal or external. **External Fertilisation in Amphibians ** The female lays eggs and the male sheds sperms on them (to fertilise them). This is only possible in water. Many eggs are released to increase the chances of survival since bacteria and other organisms can eat fertilised eggs. Eggs are also in long strands of slippery jelly like substance, ### which offer the eggs protection. This substance separates the eggs from each other allowing for good aeration. It also attaches the eggs to water plants and makes them buoyant. **Internal Fertilisation ** This occurs in reptiles, birds and mammals where fertilisation occurs within the body of the female. Sperms are introduced into the females body. Few eggs are produced because there are high chances of fertilisation and the gametes/zygote receive further protection. In most mammals, some chameleons and some snakes the fertilised eggs develop into young ones within the body of the female. They give birth to young ones. **Study Question 8 ** **Reproduction in Mammals ** Mammals have internal fertilization where eggs are laid or develop within the females body in the uterus. The egg laying mammals (monotremes) they are said to be *oviparous such as the platypus.* 132 ----- ### **Platypus ** The duck-billed platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus, found only in eastern Australia, belongs to an unusual group of egg-laying mammals called monotremes. It lives in streams, rivers, and occasionally lakes. The duck-billed platypus feeds on bottom- dwelling aquatic insect larvae, which it finds by probing the streambed with its pliable, sensitive bill. In marsupials such as the kangaroo the zygote does not develop fully within the uterus but completes development in the pouch. **Mother Kangaroo and Baby ** Kangaroos are a type of mammal called a marsupial. Baby marsupials are unable to survive on their own when they are born, so they must live in a pouch on their mothers belly. A newborn kangaroo, called a joey, stays in its mothers pouch for about six months, where it feeds on her milk. The ability to give birth to young ones as in placental mammals is called viviparity. Mammals have mammary glands, which produce milk on which the young ones are fed. Parental care is highly developed in mammals. 133 ----- ### **Reproduction in Human beings ** **Structure and Function of The male Reproductive System ** **Male Reproductive System ** The organs of the male reproductive system enable a man to have sexual intercourse and to fertilize female sex cells (eggs) with sperm. The gonads, called testicles, produce sperm. Sperm pass through a long duct called the vas deferens to the seminal vesicles, a pair of sacs that lies behind the bladder. These sacs produce seminal fluid, which mixes with sperm to produce semen. Semen leaves the seminal vesicles and travels through the prostate gland, which produces additional secretions that are added to semen. During male orgasm the penis ejaculates semen. ### Testes are found outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotal *sac.* This position provides a cooler environment for sperm production since sperms develop best at lower temperature than that of the body. Testis is made up of highly coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules whose inner lining has actively dividing cells which give rise to sperms. Between the seminiferous tubules are interstitial cells, which produce the male hormones (androgens). 134 ----- ### **Internal View of Male Reproductive System ** The reproductive anatomy of the male human is largely external. Beginning at puberty, sperm are produced within seminiferous tubules of the testicles, a pair of glands that reside in a pouch called the scrotum. The external location of the scrotum keeps the temperature of sperm slightly below body temperature, which is necessary for their healthy development and survival. From each testicle, sperm migrate to a long, coiled tube known as the epididymis, where they are stored for one to three weeks until they mature. Also located outside the body is the penis, the erectile organ responsible for the excretion of urine and the transfer of sperm to the vagina of the female. Just before ejaculation during sexual arousal, mature sperm travel from the epididymis, a coiled tube behind each testicle, through a long duct called the vas deferens. Sperm leave the body in semen, a fluid produced by the seminal vesicles. Seminiferous tubules unite to form the epididymis, which is about 6m long and highly coiled. It stores the sperms. Its connected to the sperm duct/vas deferens. Sperm duct connects the epididymis to the urethra, which is the ejaculatory duct. Seminal vesicles provide an alkaline fluid, which contains nutrients for the sperms. 135 ----- ### Prostate gland secretes an alkaline substance to neutralise the vaginal fluids. It also activates the sperms. Cowpers glands secrete an alkaline fluid that neutralizes the acidity along the urethra. **All these fluids combine with the spermatozoa to form the ** **semen.** Since the urethra serves both passage of urine and semen it is said to be urino-genital in function. The penis is erectile and made of spongy tissue, muscle and blood vessels. Once erect, the penis is able to penetrate the vagina in order to deposit sperms into the females reproductive tract. **Study question 9 and Practical.Study question 9 and Practical. ** . **Structure and Function of The Female Reproductive System** **Diagram** ### The internal sex organs of the female consist of the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes (or oviducts), and ovaries. The vagina is a flexible tube-shaped organ that is the passageway between the uterus and the opening in the vulva. Because during birth the baby travels from the uterus through the vagina, the vagina is also known as the birth canal. The woman's menstrual flow comes out of the uterus and through the vagina. When a man and a woman engage in vaginal intercourse, the penis is inserted into the vagina. The cervix is located at the bottom of the uterus and includes the opening between the vagina and the uterus. It secretes a plug of mucus, which prevents entry of pathogens into the uterus during pregnancy. The uterus is a muscular organ that has an inner lining (endometrium) richly supplied with blood vessels and glands. During pregnancy, the uterus holds and nourishes the developing foetus. 136 ----- ### Although the uterus is normally about the size of a fist, during pregnancy it is capable of stretching to accommodate a fully developed foetus, which is typically about 50 cm (about 20 in) long and weighs about 3.5 kg (about 7.5 lbs). The uterine muscles also produce the strong contractions of labour. At the top of the uterus are the pair of fallopian tubes (oviduct) that lead to the ovaries. The two ovaries produce eggs, or ova (the female sex cells that ### can become fertilized), and female sex hormones, primarily oestrogen and progesterone. The fallopian tubes have finger like projections at the ends near the ovaries that sweep the egg into the fallopian tube after it is released from the ovaries. Movement of ovum is also aided by the smooth muscles of the ### oviduct. If sperm are present in the fallopian tube, fertilization (conception) may occur and the fertilized egg will be swept into the uterus by cilia (hair like projections inside the fallopian tube). ### **Practical ** **The Human Sperm ** Are formed in the seminiferous tubules of testes by meiosis. Final products of meiosis enter the sertoli cells where they are nourished and undergo maturation. Mature sperms leave for epididymis where they are stored. A mature sperm has an ovoid head, short neck, middle piece and a tail. **Diagram ** Head has a large nucleus carrying the genetic material, which is haploid (n). 137 ----- ### At the tip of the head there is the acrosome containing lytic enzymes. These enzymes digest the wall of ova. The short neck contains centrioles. Middle piece has a large number of mitochondria, which provide with the energy required for propulsion of the sperm to reach the ova. The tail propels the sperm forward by its side-to-side lashing action. **Formation of The Ova ** ### In females egg formation begins in the ovary of the foetus before birth unlike in males where production of sperms starts at puberty. At birth there are about 70,000 potential egg cells in the ovaries ### of a baby girl. A layer of ovary cells called primary follicles, which provide them with nourishment, encloses them. Only about 500 of them develop into ova during puberty. During ### puberty the primary follicles grow to become Graafian follicle . At ovulation, the Graafian follicle bursts open to release a mature ovum surrounded by a layer of cells. **Diagram ** A mature ovum is spherical in shape with a diameter of about 0.2 mm. It has a large haploid nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane. Nucleus is within the cytoplasm enclosed by the plasma membrane . Vitelline membrane surrounds the plasma membrane. **Study Question 11 ** 138 ----- ### **Fertilisation ** Process where the nucleus of a male gamete fuses with the nucleus of a female gamete to form a zygote. This takes place in the upper part of he oviduct after copulation. Sperms are drawn up by suction through the cervix into the uterus. They swim up to the oviduct using their tails. Very many sperms are released but only one is required to fertilise the ovum. The ovum releases chemical substances, which are neutralised by ### those released by the acrosome. When the ovum comes into contact with the egg the acrosome bursts releasing lytic enzymes, which dissolve the egg membranes. The acrosome turns inside out forming a filament, which is used to penetrate the eggs. **Diagrams ** The Vitelline membrane undergoes a change, which stops any ### other sperm from entering the ovum. Once inside the cytoplasm the head bursts to release the male nucleus, which then fuses with the female nucleus to form a diploid zygote. After ovulation the ovum can remain viable for 8-24 hours before it dies. The sperm can remain viable for 2-3 days in the female reproductive tract. **Study Question 12 ** **Implantation ** This is the attachment of the blastocyst to the walls of the uterus by the villi. 139 ----- ### After fertilisation, the zygote undergoes various mitotic divisions as it moves down the oviduct. Its movement is aided by cilia in the oviduct and by the contractions of the smooth muscles lining the oviduct. By the time it reaches the uterus it has formed a hollow structure of cells called blastocyst. Movement of the zygote from the oviduct to the time it is implanted takes about 7 days. **Diagrams ** Sometime the zygote may fail to move down to the uterus and gets implanted into the walls of the oviduct. This condition is referred to as . **ectopic pregnancy** ### **Formation of Placenta ** During implantation the blastocyst differentiates into three layers, chorion, amnion and allantois. ### **Diagram ** Chorion is the outermost and it has finger like projections called ### chorionic villi . These villi grow into the endometrium. During the early stages of embryo development, villi form the sites for material exchange between the embryo and maternal blood vessels. Amnion surrounds the embryo forming an amniotic cavity. Amniotic cavity contains the amniotic fluid, which suspends the foetus providing it with support. It also acts as a shock absorber hence protecting it against mechanical injury. **The chorionic villi, allantois and the endometrium form the ** **placenta.** The embryo is attached to the placenta by a tube called the umbilical cord . When the placenta is fully formed, the embryo becomes the foetus at about three months of pregnancy. 140 ----- ### **The Role of The Placenta ** This is a temporary organ found only in placental mammals. It is the only organ in animals composed of cells derived from two different organisms; the foetus and the mother. It facilitates the transfer of nutrients and metabolic waste products between the mother and the foetus. It selectively allows some materials to pass through and not others. Refer to the table below ### Drugs, alcohol and some chemicals from cigarette smoke pass through the placenta. Pregnant mothers should therefore not take alcohol or smoke excessively. There is no direct connection between the foetal blood system and ### that of the mother. If the two systems were directly connected, the delicate blood vessels of the foetus would burst due the higher pressure in the maternal circulatory system. Exchange of materials occurs across the sinus in the uterine wall and the capillary system of foetus across intercellular space by diffusion. **Diagram** **Study question 13 ** During pregnancy, placenta takes over the role of producing hormones oestrogen and progesterone. ### ***Major functions of oestrogen and progesterone during pregnan cy *** |Oestrogen|Progesterone.| |---|---| |i.) Growth of mammary glands ii.) Inhibits FSH release. iii.) Inhibits prolactin release. iv.) Prevent infection in|i.) Growth of mammary glands. ii.) Inhibits FSH release iii.) Inhibits prolactin release. iv.) Inhibits contraction of| 141 ----- |v|uterus v.) Increase size of the uterine muscle cells. vi.) Increase ATP and creatine phosphate formation. ii.) Increases sensitivity of myometrium to oxytocin.|Col3|myometrium.|Col5| |---|---|---|---|---| |What is allowed to pass through the placenta||What is not allowed to pass through the placenta||| |From the mother to the foetus. i.) Oxygen ii.) Vitamins iii.) Mineral salts iv.) Hormones v.) Water vi.) Antibodies and antigens. ii.) Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol. From the foetus to the mother i.) Carbon (iv) oxide. ii.) Nitrogenous wastes.||i.) All blood cells. ii.) Plasma proteins. iii.) Most bacteria.||| ### **Gestation Period ** ### This is the period between conception and birth. This varies in different animals. E.g. mice 22 days Rabbits, 30 days Man, 9 months Elephants, 18 month 142 ----- ### When the human embryo is two weeks old, allantois, chorion and amnion have already formed. Embryo then differentiates into tissues and organs. By the end of the third month, the heart and blood vessels are fully developed. Spinal cord and the head region, which includes the eyes and the nose, are also well developed. Limbs show early signs of development. By the end of 6 months the alveoli and nose are well developed. Foetal movement can as well be felt. By the end of the nine months, the foetus head is directly above the cervix. By now all the organs and systems are fully developed. If birth occurs before completion of 6 months, this is called miscarriage and the baby cannot survive. If the foetal development is interfered with either physically or chemically such that the foetus is released, this is called abortion. If birth occurs after 7 months but before term, this is called premature birth . Such babies are raised in incubators and they do survive. Pregnant mothers must have a balanced diet. Calcium, proteins, phosphates and iron should be abundant in her diet. Calcium and phosphorous are needed for bone formation while iron is for haemoglobin formation. Pregnant mother should visit antenatal clinic. **Birth/Parturition ** Maternal posterior pituitary gland releases hormone oxytocin. Progesterone level goes down. Oxytocin stimulates contraction of the myometrium. Oxytocin is released in waves during labour. This provides the force required to expel the foetus from the uterus. The cervix dilates, the amnion and chorion rupture releasing the amniotic fluid. The uterus starts contacting from the top downwards pushing the foetus downwards head first through the widened cervix and the birth canal. After birth, the umbilical cord is ligatured/cut to separate the baby from the placenta. Placenta is expelled later after birth. 143 ----- ### Then newborn baby takes in the first breath, lungs expand and become functional. The respiratory role of the placenta is taken over by the lungs. **Diagrams** **Caesarean delivery ** This is the surgical incision of the abdominal and uterine walls for delivery to be achieved. This is done where there are complications ns such that the foetus cannot pass through the birth canal. **Parental care ** The newborn baby is given food and protection. Placental mammals feed their young ones on milk. Milk is produced by the mammary glands under the influence of lactogenic hormones e.g. prolactin. Mothers milk is the best as it contains all the nutrients needed for the growth and development of the body. For the first 3 days, colostrum is produced which contain antibodies, which provide natural defence to the foetus against diseases. Milk is deficient of iron. The baby relies on iron stored in its liver during gestation. Milk let down is an example of a reflex action. The prevailing environment as shown below influences it either positively or negatively. **Milk production in various environments** |Positive Environment|Negative Environment| |---|---| | Sucking at the breast, smell of the baby or crying of the baby trigger milk let down. Hypothalamus relays impulses to pituitary gland which releases hormone oxytocin Oxytocin reaches the breasts and causes alveoli to contract forcing milk into the ducts.| Milk let down may be inhibited or blocked if the breastfeeding mother experiences embarrassment, fatigue or anxiety.| 144 ----- ### **Assignment ** **Child labour ** **Role of Hormones in Human Reproduction ** **Secondary sexual characteristics ** These are physiological, structural and mental changes associated with masculinity and femininity. They are controlled by oestrogen in females and androgens in males. They occur at puberty. **Secondary sexual characteristics in males ** Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release gonadotrophic hormones i.e. FSH and LH. FSH stimulates sperm synthesis. LH is also known as Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH) and it stimulates interstitial cells to release Androgens mostly Testosterone. It stimulates the onset of secondary sexual characteristics mostly at the age of 14. These include; i.) Deepening of voice ii.) Growth of hair in pubic parts and armpit region iii.) Appearance of beards iv.) Body becomes masculine v.) Testes enlarge and begin to produce sperms **Secondary sexual characteristics in females** In females they start at early age 10-12 years. They include, i.) Development of mammary glands ii.) Growth of hair in pubic parts and armpit region iii.) Enlargement of the pelvic girdle and widening of the hips iv.) Body becomes feminine. v.) Ovaries mature and start releasing eggs under the influence of FSH and LH hence ovulation and menses. 145 ----- ### Unlike in males, the production of gonadotrophic hormones is not continuous. It is produced periodically in cycles. **Menstrual Cycle** **Menstruation ** An average menstrual cycle begins with three to five days of menstruation, the shedding of the uterine lining, during which hormone levels are low. At the end of menstruation, pituitary gland secrets FSH which has two functions. It stimulates new Graafian follicles to develop in the ovary and stimulates the ovary to secrete the hormone oestrogen. Oestrogen brings about repair and healing of the endometrium, which is destroyed during menstruation. Oestrogen accumulates to levels, which stimulate the release of LH. LH stimulates the maturity of Graafian follicle. The mature Graafian follicle releases the ovum into the fallopian tube. This is called Ovulation and occurs on the 14 [th] day. The empty Graafian follicle forms the corpus luteum, an endocrine body that secretes progesterone. LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete hormone progesterone. This hormone stimulates thickening and increased blood supply to the endometrium preparing the endometrium for implantation. If fertilization takes place, the level of progesterone increases and thus inhibits FSH from stimulating the maturation of another Graafian follicle. If fertilization does not take place, the corpus luteum dies and progesterone hormone levels fall. Without hormonal support, the uterine lining disintegrates and discharges, beginning a new menstrual period and cycle. This cycle lasts for 28 days in human beings. 146 ----- ### **Assignment ** **Sanitary Health ** **Menopause ** STI **Advantages of Asexual reproduction ** i.) Good qualities from the parents are retained since there is no variation. ii.) There is faster maturation. iii.) Its independent of processes such as pollination, fertilisation and fruit and seed dispersal iv.) New offsprings are able to obtain nourishment from their parents and are therefore able to survive under unsuitable conditions. v.) There is no wastage of a large number of offsprings . ***Disadvantages *** i.) Reduction in strength and vigour in offsprings. ii.) Undesired qualities are easily inherited. iii.) Due to faster maturation there are chances of overcrowding and competition. iv.) Offsprings may not withstand changing environmental conditions due to lack of variation. **Advantages of sexual reproduction ** i.) There is hybrid vigour due to mixing of genetic material. ii.) There is high adaptability iii.) Variation form basis for evolutionary changes. **Disadvantages ** i.) May produce individuals with undesirable qualities. ii.) Method is dependent of union of gametes and therefore may not take place if the two organisms are isolated **Revision Questions ** ## **BIOLOGY FORM FOUR NOTES ** ### **THE EYE ** The mammalian eye is spherical; fluid filled and has three layers; Outer layer or sclera Middle layer or choroid Inner layer or retina **Adaptations of the eye ** **Part Properties Functions ** 147 ----- |1. Sclera|Tough, white opaque layer.| Protects delicate inner parts of the eye. Maintain shape of the eye.| |---|---|---| |2. Cornea|Transparent and front layer of the sclera.| Allow light into the eye. Refract light entering the eye| |3. Conjunctiva|Thin and transparent layer before the cornea.| Allow light into the eye. Protects the cornea.| |4. Choroid|Have cells that have melanin, arteries & veins| Provide nourishment to the eye. Pigment prevents reflection of light within the eyeball.| |5. Ciliary body|Have thin rings of thickened tissue arising from choroids.| Produce the aqueous https://Teacher.co.ke/ humour Visit| |6. Ciliary muscle|Have circular and radial muscles which are antagonistic.| Muscles alter the Papers tension of suspensory Past and ligaments. Exams, Notes, E| |7. Suspensory ligaments.|fibrous| Alter the shape of the KCS free lens. For| |8. Pupil|Hole at the center of iris.| Regulates the amount of light entering the eye.| |9. Iris|Contain melanin, circular and radial muscles.| Give the eye its colour. Regulates the amount of light entering the eye| |10. Lens|Transparent, biconvex and elastic structure. Found behind pupil.| Refracts light onto retina. Involved in accommodation of the eye. Separates the aqueous| 148 ----- |Col1|Col2|humor from vitreous humor.| |---|---|---| |11. Aqueous/ Vitreous humor|Transparent fluids| allow light pass / refract light, Hydrostatic pressure maintain shape of eyeball. Contains sugars / proteins / salts provide nutrients to eye.| |12. Retina|Contains photoreceptors (Cones & Rods) and blood vessels.| Rods are sensitive to low light intensity and detect black and white and more in nocturnal animals. Have photochemical pigment called rhodopsin. https://Teacher.co.ke/ Cones are sensitive to high light intensity, detect colour and Visit present in large Papers numbers in diurnal Past animals. Have and Exams, photochemical pigment Notes, called iodopsin. E| |13. Fovea centralis|Contain mainly the cones.| Its the most sensitive KCS free part of the retina. For Image is formed here.| |14. Blind- spot|Has no photoreceptors| Optic nerve leaves the retina. Blood vessels emerge here to nourish the eye.| |15. Optic nerve|Made of nerve fibres| Transmits nerve impulses to the brain for interpretation.| |16. Lachrym al gland|Secrete tears| Tears moisten the cornea and washout foreign particles. Tears have antiseptic effect.| |17. Nictitatin|Transparent| Draw across the eye| 149 ----- |g membrane|membrane in birds, reptiles and fish.|cleaning and protecting it.| |---|---|---| |18. External eye muscles|Contractile| move eyeball within socket| |19. others - externally-|| orbit- protective eye lids-protect the eye by closing Eye lashes-prevent entry of small foreign particles. Eye brows-prevent dust & sweat from entering eye.| ### **Image formation and interpretation ** Light from an object is refracted by cornea, aqueous humour, the lens, through the vitreous humour and focused on the yellow spot of the retina. Image formed is recorded as real, inverted and small. Photoreceptors are stimulated and generate a nerve impulse which is transmitted by the optic nerve to the cerebrum of the brain for interpretation. In the brain the image is interpreted as real, upright and normal. Images from the right eye are interpreted by the left hemisphere of cerebrum while those from the left eye by the right hemisphere. **Diagram pages 100 KLB ** **Binocular vision or Stereoscopic Vision ** This is the ability of both eyes to look straight ahead but see the same scene from a slightly different angle. The eyes' visual fields overlap in the center, and the brain merges these images to create a sense of depth important for judging distance. Humans and other mammals have stereoscopic vision. Birds, fish, and snakes have monocular vision in which each eye sees a separate image covering a wide area on each side of the head. s **Advantage** 1. Larger field of view 2. Provide much accurate assessment of distance, height or depth of objects. 150 ----- ### 3. Damage to one eye is compensated by the other 4. Cancels the effect of blind spot **Accommodation of The Eye ** This is the refraction of light in order to fall on the fovea centralis (yellow spot) for clear focus of image regardless of the distance of the object. **Accommodation of a close object ** Ciliary muscles contract thereby relaxing the tension on suspensory ligaments. Curvature of the lens increases. The close objects are greatly refracted by the lens focusing them on the retina. **Diagram ** **Accommodation of a distant object ** Ciliary muscles relax increasing the tension on suspensory ligaments. The lens is stretched decreasing its curvature i.e. lens become thinner. Light rays from the object are less refracted and focused on the retina. ** Diagram ** **Control of Light Entering the Eye ** ***1. Bright Light *** Circular muscles of iris contract and the radial muscles relax. Diameter of pupil decrease and less light enters. This protects retina from damage by too much light. **Diagram ** ***2. Dim Light. *** Circular muscles relax and radial muscles contract. Diameter of pupil increase and more light enters the eye. This allows in enough light to stimulate photoreceptors on the retina. **Diagram ** **Defects of the Eye ** **1. Short sightedness(Myopia)** This is the ability to view near objects clearly but distant objects are blurred. 151 ----- ### This is due to a long eyeball and image is formed before the retina. **Correction ** Wearing concave (Diverging lens) **Diagram ** **2. Long sightedness (Hypermetropia)** This is the ability to view distant objects clearly but near objects are blurred. This is due to a short eyeball and image is formed behind the retina. **Correction ** Wearing convex (converging lens) **Diagram ** **3. Astigmatism** The curvature of the cornea is uneven hence the image is formed on different planes. Its corrected by wearing cylindrical lens. **4. Squintedness** Eyeballs face different directions due to defective muscles which move the eye left and right. Corrected surgically **5. Old sight (Presbyopia) ** **6. Cataracts** **7. Colour blindness** **THE EAR ** **Functions of the ear ** 1. Hearing 2. Maintaining body balance and posture **Diagram ** **Adaptations of the ear to its Functions ** The ear is divided into: **1. Outer ear ** Pinna. - Pinna is funnel shaped to direct sound waves into auditory canal; - its large to offer large surface area for collection of sound waves; *Auditory meatus/canal* - Tube that directs sound waves to ear drum. - Lined with hairs to trap solid particles. - Lined with wax secreting cells to trap dust. 152 ----- ### - Wax also maintains flexibility of the eardrum. **2. Middle ear. Its air filled ** *Tympanic membrane/ear drum.* - Its a thin tough membrane. - It transforms sound waves into vibrations. Ossicles - . They are three bones; malleus, incus and stapes - They receive vibrations from tympanic membrane and amplify them then transmit them to the oval window. Eustachian tube - Connects middle ear and pharynx. - Equalizes pressure between the middle ear and outer ear preventing distortion of the ear drum. Oval window - Picks vibrations from the ossicles and transmit them to inner ear. Round window - Bring back vibrations from the inner into the middle ear. **3. Inner ear. Its fluid filled ** Cochlea - Its responsible for hearing - Its filled with endolymph and perilymph - Highly coiled to occupy a small space ; and increase surface area ; for accommodation of many sensory cells - Vibrations from oval window are transmitted to perilymph which vibrates - Sensory cells are stimulated by these vibrations to generate nerve impulses which are transmitted to the brain for interpretation. **Diagram ** Semi circular canals - Has semi circular canals which are at right angles to each other - Each canal has a swelling called ampulla at one end containing sensory cells. - Contains endolymph 153 ----- ### - Movement of endolymph in canal helps to detect changes in position of the body and maintain body balance posture in relation to head movement. **Diagram ** Vestibule - Has utriculus and sacculus that have sensory cells. - It maintains body balance posture in relation to gravity. NB/ Auditory nerve transmits nerve impulses to the brain for interpretations. **Deffects of the Ear** Deafness Vertigo Tinnitus **GENETICSGENETICS ** This is the study of inheritance and variation. ***Terms used in genetics *** 1. Inheritance ; transmission of characteristics from the parents to the offsprings 2. Variation; possession of characteristics different from those of the parents and other offsprings. 3. DNA ; De-oxyribonucleic acid 4. RNA ; Ribonucleic acid 5. Monohybrid inheritance ; inheritance of one characteristic controlled by one pair of hereditary factors e.g. Tallness 6. Dihybrid inheritance ; inheritance of two characteristics at the same time e.g. colour and Texture/shape in the garden pea plant 7. Dominance; ability of a trait to only express itself 8. Recessiveness; a trait that only expresses itself when in homozygous state. 9. Heterozygosity ; presence of two dissimilar members of an allele e.g. Rr, Tt etc. 10. Homozygosity ; presence of two similar of an allele e.g. TT, RR, tt, rr etc. 11. Allele ; one pair of genes which occupy corresponding loci/positions in homologous chromosomes 154 ----- ### 12. Phenotype - the physical appearance of an individual or organism. Its influenced by the genotype and environment. 13. Genotype - the genetic constitution of an organism. Its purely genetical. 14. F1 generation (first filial generation) - are the offsprings that represent the first generation of organisms or individuals under study. 15. F2 generation (second filial generation) - these are offsprings obtained after self crossing the F1 gen. 16. Incomplete dominance/ co-dominance - a condition where no allele is dominant over the other. The phenotype of the offspring is intermediate between that of the parents. 17. Multiple allelism - are characteristics determined by more than two variant forms of a single gene e.g. inheritance of the Blood groups in man (ABO) 18. Test cross / back cross - its a crossing involving a homozygous recessive to determine the genotype of an organism. 19. Mutation- these are spontaneous changes in the individuals genetic makeup. **Concepts of Variation ** Variation refers to observable differences among living organisms. **Types of variation ** 1. Discontinuous variation in this type of variation, there are distinct and definite groups of individuals with no intermediate forms. E.g. sex either male or female, blood groups- one can only belong to one of the four blood groups A,B,AB,O ability to role the tongue Presence of long hair in the nose and on the ear pinna. Presence of a free or attached ear lobe. *All these traits are controlled by one or two major genes. These * *traits are not influenced by the environment * 2. Continuous variation this variation has a wide range of differences for the same characteristic from one extreme to the other e.g. Height Skin colour/pigmentation 155 ----- ### Weight Length of internodes Number of leaves, fruits on a tree etc Finger prints *When these traits are plotted on a graph a normal distribution * *curve is obtained. * Number of individuals Height in cm ### **A normal distribution curve of heights ** *This type of variation is brought about by the interaction of both * *the genetic environmental factors. * E.g. a plant with genes for tallness may fail to grow tall due to climate and poor soils. **Practical Activity 1 ** Tongue rolling Finger prints Height ***Causes of variation *** 1. Gamete formation during gamete formation two processes contribute to variation. These are Independent assortment - during metaphase I of meiotic division, homologous chromosomes come together in pairs and segregate into daughter cells independently of each other. This independent assortment produces a variety of different gametes. The total number of combinations is given by 2 [n ] where n is the haploid number of chromosomes. In man n = 23 hence 2 [n ] = 2 [23] which is equal to 8,388,608. Crossing over during the prophase I of meiotic cell division. I.e. when homologous chromosomes break and rejoin at certain points called chiasmata. 2. Fertilization during fertilization parental genes ca come together in different combinations. Therefore desirable 156 ----- ### and undesirable qualities of parents can be combined in the offsprings. 3. Mutation - these are spontaneous changes in the genetic makeup of an organism. Mutation brings about changes in the living organisms. ***The Chromosome *** Each chromosome is made up of two parallel strands called chromatids. Each pair of chromatids is connected at a point by the centromere. Chromosomes contain the hereditary material called the genes. All cells including the sperms and ova have chromosomes. Chromosomes are present in the nucleus and are only visible under the microscope during cell division mitosis and meiosis. There is a definite number of chromosomes in each cell for every species of animal or plant. E.g. in man somatic cells (body cells) have 46 chromosomes while the sex cells/gametes have 23 chromosomes. During fertilization fusion of the sperm- 23 chromosomes and the ova - 23 chromosomes restores the 46 chromosomes to form a diploid zygote. ***Chromosomal num ber s i n different organisms *** |Organism|Number of chromosomes|Col3| |---|---|---| ||Somatic cells 2n|Gametes - n| |Sheep (Ovis auries)|56|28| |Cow (Bos Taurus)|60|30| |Fruit-fly (Drosophila melanogaster)|8|4| |Maize (Zea mays)|20|10| |Wheat(Triticum vulgare)|14|7| |Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)|12|6| |Man ( Homo sapiens)|46|23| ### **Practical Activity 2 ** Chromosomal behaviour during mitosis Chromosomal behaviour in meiosis **GENES AND DNAGENES AND DNA ** Genes occupy specific positions on the chromosomes called the *gene loci( gene locus) * The gene is a chemical in nature. The genes are in the form of a nucleic acid molecule called De-oxyribonucleic acid (DNA). In 157 ----- ### 1953 two Biologists Francis Crick and James Watson worked out the structure of the DNA. DNA was found to be composed of three different components; 1. A five carbon sugar-pentose 2. phosphate molecule 3. nitrogenous base There are four types of the nitrogenous base; ### Adenine N Guanine G Thymine- G Cytosine C A combination the pentose sugar, a phosphate molecule and a nitrogenous base forms a nucleotide. *I.e. * Phosphate Pentose Base sugar ### DNA structure contains several nucleotides fused together to form long chains called DNA strands. Two parallel strands twist on one another forming a double helix structure. Adenine always combines with Thymine and Cytosine with Guanine. Phosphate Pentose sugar Base ### **Diagram ** ***Role of DNA *** Stores genetic information in a coded form Enables transfer of genetic information unchanged to daughter cells through replication Translates the genetic information into the characteristics of an organism through protein synthesis **DNA REPLICATIONDNA REPLICATION ** During cell division both daughter cells arising from mitotic division have the same genetic constitution as the parent cell. DNA in the parent cell must therefore duplicate accurately before the cell divides. The process through which a DNA molecule forms an exact is called . *Replica DNA replication* The two strands forming the double helix separates like a zipper . Each parallel strand becomes a template that specifies the base sequence of a new complimentary strand. Through the action of 158 ----- ### replicating enzymes, free nucleotides take up positions along the template strands. The specificity of the base pairing ensures that only complimentary bases link together with those on the template strands. I.e. G-C and A-T. Covalent bonds are formed between the nucleotides resulting in the formation of a new DNA strand. The template and the new DNA strand the undergo coiling to form a double helix. In this way, two identical DNA molecules are formed from the original single molecule. Each of the new DNA molecules gets incorporated into one of the two nuclei formed just prior to the separation of the daughter cells. **Diagram ** ***Role of the DNA in protein synthesis *** The sequence of bases along the DNA strand acts as the alphabet and determines the sequence of amino acids when they join to form a polypeptide chain. Protein synthesis takes place in ribosomes found in the cytoplasm. Since the DNA molecules are confined in the nucleus, there has to be a way of communicating the DNA information to the ribosomes where actual protein synthesis occurs. The cell therefore has a special molecule called the Ribonucleic acid (RNA). Its role is to carry genetic information from the DNA to the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. Its referred to as messenger RNA (mRNA). RNA is formed from the DNA strands. During formation of the mRNA a section of the DNA strands acts as the template strand. The double helix of the DNA unzips and free nucleotides align themselves opposite the template. The base sequence of the template strand is copied onto a new strand. In RNA, Thymine is replaced by another base called Uracil (U) The transfer of DNA sequence on the mRNA strand is referred to as Transcription. **Diagram ** After its formation the mRNA leaves the nucleus with instructions from the DNA about the kind of protein to be synthesised by the cell. This information is in the form of base 159 ----- ### triplets known as Codons which code for a particular amino acid of a protein molecule e.g. AAA-phenylalanine TTT-lysine CAA- valine CTA- aspartic acid Differences between DNA and RNA |DNA|RNA| |---|---| |1. Has De-ox ribose sugar|Has ribose sugar| |2. Double stranded|Single stranded| |3. Confined in the nucleus|Found in nucleus and cytoplasm| |4. Have organic bases as cytosine, guanine, adenine and thymine.|Has organic bases as cytosine, guanine, adenine and uracil| ### **THE FIRST LAW OF HEREDITYTHE FIRST LAW OF HEREDITY ** **MENDELS EXPERIMENTS ** An Austrian monk known as Mendel is considered to be the father of genetics. He carried out various breeding experiments and observed variations in different characteristics of the garden pea. The characteristics include: Height of the stems- tall or dwarf Texture of the seed coat- smooth or wrinkled Colour of the seeds- yellow or green Texture of the ponds Colour of the flowers- white or purple Position of the flower- axial or terminal He selected a group of dwarf plants and self pollinated them by dusting mature pollen grains onto the stigmas of the same plant. He collected the resulting seeds and planted them. He noted that these seeds grew into dwarf plants only. He repeated the experiment for several generations and obtained the same results. In another experiment, Mendel selected tall plants and self- pollinated them. He planted the resulting seeds and observed that they grew into a mixture of tall and dwarf plants. He took seeds from the tall offsprings only and repeated the experiment for many generations until he obtained only tall plants. This way he was able to obtain a pure line of tall garden peas and a pure line of dwarf garden peas. 160 ----- ### He then cross-pollinated pure bred tall garden pea s with the pure bred dwarf variety. He planted the resulting seeds and he observed that all the offsprings were tall plants. **Diagram ** He further crossed two of these tall offsprings and planted the resulting seeds. Mendel observed that this second generation consisted of a mixture of tall and dwarf plants. After counting these plants he noted that the ratio of tall to dwarf plants was approximately 3:1 respectively. He observed that this ratio was always obtained when crosses were made between the non-pure breeds of tall plants. **Diagrams ** Mendel concluded that the traits of an organism are determined by hereditary factors which occur in pairs. Only one of pair of such factors can be represented in a single gamete. This later became Mendels First Law, The Law of Segregation At this time Mendel had no idea of genes and so he called them factors. He postulated that these factors are found on the chromosomes and are passed from the parents to the offsprings via gametes. ***Reasons behind Mendels success *** 1. He used favourable materials i.e. the garden pea plant which is normally self pollinated. This made it easy for him to employ cross pollination at will. 2. the pea plant he used had several contrasting traits 3. His study was focused on particular traits while those before him had been attempting to determine wholesome heredity of each organism. 4. He kept accurate data on all his experiments and fro the analysis of this data he was able to formulate definite hypothesis. ***Mendel chose the garden pea plant because of the following *** ***reasons *** Plant had many contrasting traits e.g. flower colours, seed coat texture, length of the stems etc. Plant is normally self pollinated but cross pollination can be employed t will. Plant matures relatively fast Plant produces many seeds that can be planted to produce many offsprings 161 ----- ### ***Monohybrid Inheritance *** This is the inheritance of one trait like height in the garden pea plant that is controlled by a single pair of hereditary factors (genes) contributed by both parents. Genes occur in pairs on chromosomes and such gene pairs are known as alleles. The genetic constitution of an organism is called the Genotype while the physical appearance is known as the Phenotype. The genotype of an organism is represented using paired letter symbols. Capital letters represents the dominant gene while small letters represent the recessive gene. ***Genetic Cross *** Components of a genetic cross Parental phenotypes The parental genotype the crossing X should be shown here. The gametes and should be circled. The fusion process or fertilization. The filial generation genotypes *NB. The conventional symbol for male is and that of female is* *** *** ***Example 1 *** During gamete formation in the dwarf plat, each gene in the pair segregates into different gametes. When the female and male fuse during fertilization, the offspring produced contain the same number of genes as in each parent. The inheritance of dwarf ness in the pea plant can be illustrated diagrammatically by the following genetic cross Diagram ***Example 2 *** Similarly the pair of genes in the pure breed tall plants will segregate into different gametes during gametogenesis. When self fertilised the resulting seeds will have half the number of genes from each parent i.e. **Diagram ** ***Example 3 *** When the purebred tall plant is crossed with dwarf plants, the resulting seeds grow into tall plants only. These offsprings represent the first generation (F1 gen) 162 ----- ### **Diagram. ** In the genetic cross above, the male plant is tall and the female plant is dwarf. If the cross is reversed so that the female is tall and the male a dwarf, this is referred to as a reciprocal cross . The F1 results will be the same for either cross. **Diagram ** ***Example 4 *** When the F1 offsprings are self pollinated, they produce offsprings which that grow into a mixture of tall and dwarf plants. These offsprings are known as the F2 gen. **Diagram ** A Punnet Square can also be used to work out genetic crosses e.g. Parental phenotype tall tall Parental genotype Tt X Tt Gametes T t T t | |T|t| |---|---|---| |T t|TT Tt|Tt Tt| ### **When the allelic genes are identical, as in TT and tt, the ** **condition is known as homozygous . An individual ** with such a condition is known as a homozygote. When the allelic genes are not identical as in Tt, the condition is referred to as heterozygous . An individual with such a genotype is referred to as a heterozygote . An individual with genotype Tt, T i s dominant over t. will be physically tall because the gene The allele t is recessive . A dominant gene expresses itself in both the homozygous (TT) and heterozygous (Tt) states while a recessive gene only expresses itself I its homozygous state (tt). TT is therefore referred to as homozygous dominant and tt is homozygous recessive. The ratio 3 tall: 1 dwarf, in the F2 gen is characteristic of monohybrid inheritance where one gene is completely dominant over the other. This is referred to as complete dominance. The monohybrid crosses are based on Mendels first law, The law of Segregation which states the characteristics of an organism are determined by internal factors which occurs in 163 ----- ### pairs. Only one of a pair of such factors can be represented in a single gamete. Diagram - the process of segregation ***Ratios and Probability *** The 3:1 ratio in monohybrid inheritance can be represented in the form of probability. When a large number of heterozygous garden pea plants are selfed, the probability of getting tall plants is or 75% and that of dwarf will be or 25%. **Diagram ** NB. The inheritance of characteristics involves probability. The chance that a particular gamete will fuse with another is a random occurrence, in genetics this done by showing all possible fusions. **Practical Activity 3 and 4 ** Tossing a coin To demonstrate random fusion of gametes in monohybrid inheritance. Similar monohybrid inheritance results as those of Mendel have been obtained by using the fruit fly ( Drosophila melanogaster) the insect has many observable characteristics that are contrasting such as, Wing length long wing dominant over vestigial wing Eye colour red eyes dominant over white eyes Size of the abdomen broad abdomen dominant over narrow abdomen Body colour grey body colour dominant over black body colour. ***Assignment *** Using appropriate letters work out the following crosses with respect to the fruit fly Cross between a purebred long winged and a vestigial winged Cross between two long winged heterozygotes Cross between a red eyed heterozygote and a white eyed fruit fly. The fruit fly is suitable for genetic study because of the following reasons. 1. The female lays very many eggs hence increasing the sample size for study. 164 ----- ### 2. Have many observable characteristics that are distinct and contrasting. 3. It is easily bred in the laboratory with minimum requirements. 4. It has a short generation time 10-14 days. Therefore many generations can be studied in a short period of time. 5. Offsprings can be crossed with their parents at will (backcrossing) 6. Flies are safe to handle because they do not transmit any known human diseases. *Study Question 10 * **Practical Activity 5 ** Breeding fruit flies. ***Incomplete Dominance (Co-dominance) *** In Mendels experiments with garden pea p[plants, the genes determining the various traits were clearly dominant or recessive. However in some species, alleles determining several contrasting traits do not have a clear cut dominant-recessive relationship. This implies that neither of the alleles is completely dominant over the other. Heterozygous individuals are phenotypically different from either of the parents. Mostly the phenotype of the heterozygous offspring is intermediate between that of the parents. This *.* phenomenon is called Incomplete Dominance Examples of incomplete dominance. 1. I nheritance of flower colour in the 4 oclock plant ( Mirabilis Jalapa ). If a true breeding plant producing red flowers is crossed with a true breeding plant producing white flowers, all the F1 offsprings will have pink flowers. When the F1 plants are self pollinated, they yield red flowered, pink flowered and white flowered offspring at a ratio of 1:2:1 respectively. **Diagrams ** 2. Incomplete dominance in short horn cattle . Mating red and white shorthorn cattle yields Roan light Red) calves due to presence of both red and white hairs. A mating between two roan coloured shorthorns yields a mixture of red, roan and white coloured calves at a ratio of 1:2:1 respectively. 165 ----- ### **Diagrams ** *Study Question 12 * **Inheritance of the Blood groups (Multiple allelism) ** In all the kinds of inheritance discussed so far, each phenotypic characteristic is determined by 2 variant forms of a single gene located at a specific locus on the homologous chromosome. However some characteristics are determined by more than two variant forms of a single gene. This phenomenon is referred to as multiple allelism and the genes involved are called multiple alleles . E.g. in the ABO blood groups in humans, there are three genes involved and they are responsible for the presence of antigen types on the red blood cells. These are gene A responsible for the presence of antigen A, gene B for antigen B and gene O responsible for absence of antigens on the red blood cells. ***co-*** Genes A and B have equal degree of dominance i.e. are dominant . They both express themselves when present together as in the blood group AB. Genes A and B are dominant over gene O. Gene O is recessive and only expresses itself in the homozygous condition. The genotypes for the four blood groups in the ABO system are therefore, ### **i.e. ** |Blood group (Phenotype)|Genotype|Antigens| |---|---|---| |A|AA, AO|A| |B|BB,BO|B| |AB|AB|A and B| |O|OO|O- Zero| AA or AO-Blood group A BB or BO blood group B AB blood group AB OO blood group O A marriage between a man of blood group A and a woman of blood group B will produce children of all the four blood groups if both parents are heterozygous. Diagram Marriage between a man of genotype AA (blood group A) and Woman of genotype BB (blood group B) results in all the offsprings having blood AB. 166 ----- ### Diagram. ***Assignment *** Work out the following crosses Both parents with blood group O Heterozygous blood group A and blood group O *Study Question 13 * ***Inheritance of the Rhesus factor *** In man the possession of Rhesus antigens makes one Rh+ and this is dominant over Rhve. If blood from a Rhesus positive person is transfused into a rhesus negative person, this induces antibodies against the Rhesus factor of the donor. This causes agglutination of red blood cells of the recipient. If a Rh-ve woman is married to a Rhe+ve, when she becomes pregnant, the child will be Rh+ve. Rhesus antigens cross the placenta into the mothers blood stream. This stimulates the mothers immune system to produce Rhesus antibodies. When these antibodies get into the foetal circulation, an antigen- antibody reaction takes place and the red blood cells of the foetus are destroyed (Haemolysed). During the second pregnancy, the amount of Rhesus antibodies are more and cause a lot of damage to the foetuss red blood cells resulting to death. This is called Haemolytic Disease of the ***Newborn or Erythroblastosis foetalis.*** ***Determining Unknown Genotypes *** This can be done in two ways. 1. Carrying out a Test Cross A test cross is a cross between an individual of unknown genotype with an individual of a recessive genotype. A test cross where an offspring is crossed with one of its parents is called a **Back Cross. ** In garden pea plants the gene that determines red flowers is dominant over that which determines white flowers. A plant with red flowers may either be homozygous (RR) or heterozygous (Rr) for this characteristic. To establish its correct genotype it is crossed with a homozygous recessive plant i.e. a white flowered one (rr) If all their offsprings bear red flowers then this indicates that the red flowered plant is homozygous or its from a pure line. 167 ----- ### **Diagram ** If the offsprings bear a mixture of red and white flowers in the ratio of 1:1, this indicates that the red flowered plant was heterozygous. **Diagram ** **Selfing ** Unknown genotypes can also be determined by carrying out selfing experiments. For example, a phenotypically tall plant is either homozygous (TT) or heterozygous (Tt) for this trait. If selfed and all its offsprings are tall, the parental genotype is TT that is homozygous dominant. **Diagram ** But if after selfing both tall and dwarf offsprings are produced in the ratio 3:1 respectively, then the parental genotype is heterozygous (Tt). **Diagram ** ***Sex Determination *** The sex of an organism is a genetically determined characteristic. Cells of most organisms contain a pair of chromosomes called sex chromosomes in addition to the ordinary chromosomes. In man there are 46 chromosomes (23 pairs of homologous chromosomes in everybody cell). The genes determining whether a child becomes a female or a male are located on the specific pair of sex chromosomes called the X and the Y named after their shapes. The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are called Autosomes. Autosomes are responsible for other inheritable traits. A male human being carries the XY chromosome i.e. he is ***Heterogametic*** The female carries the XX chromosomes i.e. . ***Homogametic*** After meiosis in a male the spermatozoon can either carry the X or Y chromosome while the female ova contain only the X chromosome. The sex of a child is a matter of chance and depends only on whether a spermatozoon that fertilizes the ovum carries X or Y chromosome. There is therefore a 50% chance that fertilization can result in either XY (B oy) o r XX (G irl ) i .e. 168 ----- |(XY)|Col2|Col3| |---|---|---| |X Y|XX XY|XX XY| ### **I.e. 2 girls: 2 Boys ** In terms of probability, the chance that a boy or a girl is produced in a family is . NB/ in birds the female is XY heterogametic and the male is XX . *homogametic* In some insects, the female is XX and the male is XO with the Y chromosome absent. In the fruit fly ( Drosophila melanogaster) sex determination is as exactly as in man, i.e. male XY and Female XX. ***Linkage *** An organism has a large number of traits controlled by many different genes. Because the number of chromosomes is limited, each gene cannot be located on its own chromosome. Therefore chromosomes must accommodate many genes each controlling particular characteristics. Those genes located on the same chromosome are called linked Genes. All the linked genes constitute a linkage group. Linked gene are inherited together and do not segregate/separate during meiosis. They are therefore transmitted into the same gamete. **Diagram ** If genes Q, R and T are linked, then all the three pairs of genes are accommodated on a homologous pair of chromosome. In Drosophila sp, it has been found that the genes for wing length, abdomen size and body colour are located on the same chromosome. Therefore these characteristics are usually inherited together. ***Sex-linked Genes *** *sex-* All the genes located on the sex chromosomes are said to be linked . They are therefore transmitted together with those that determine the sex. In Drosophila melanogaster, the gene, which determine eye colour, is located on the X chromosome. However the corresponding allele on the Y chromosome is absent. This is because most sex-lined genes are carried on the X chromosome whereas the Y chromosome carries very few genes and is almost empty. In humans there are few genes located on the Y chromosome, which control traits that are exclusively found in males. These 169 ----- ### are, Premature baldness and tufts of hair in the in the inner ***pinna and in the nose.*** Diagrams. The characteristics controlled by genes located on the X chromosome include Colour blindness and Haemophilia. These characteristics can arise in either male or females. ***Colour blindness *** This is the inability to distinguish Red and Green colours by some people. This trait is linked to the X chromosome. The gene that determines normal colour vision is dominant over that for colour blindness. A marriage between a colour-blind man and a woman homozygous for normal colour vision results in their daughters being carriers but with normal colour vision. The daughters are said to be carriers because they are heterozygous and colour blindness is suppressed/masked by the dominant gene for colour vision. All the sons are of the two parents are however normal. This is illustrated below. Let N represent the gene for normal colour vision and n represent gene for colour blindness. Since the gene is linked to X chromosome, its alleles are represented as X [N] and X [n] . |Colour blind male ( XnY) Normal Woman (XNXN)|Xn|Y| |---|---|---| |XN|XNXn|XNY| |XN|XNXn|XNY| ### All the daughters are carriers- X [N] X [n ] All the sons have normal colour vision-X [N] Y If a carrier daughter from the above parents married a normal man, some of their sons will suffer from colour blindness while the daughters will either be carriers or homozygous for normal colour v i s i o n as s h ow n be l ow. 170 ----- |(XNXn) Normal male (XNY)|Col2|Col3| |---|---|---| |XN Y|XNXN XNY|XNXn XnY| ### **Offsprings are; X [N] X [N ] -Daughter with normal colour ** **vision ** X [N] X [n ] -Carrier Daughter X [N] Y -Son with normal colour vision X [n] Y -Colour blind son. The above examples show that the gene for colour blindness is passed from mother to sons. This is because the only X chromosome a man inherits is from the mother. If the X chromosome carries the gene for the trait, then this gene will be expressed since allele on the Y is absent. Therefore there are more male sufferers in a population compared to females. ### Females only suffer when in homozygous condition of the recessive gene. Inheritance of colour blindness through several generations can be clearly illustrated using a pedigree. A pedigree is a record in table form showing the distribution of one or more traits in different generations of related individuals. *Fig. 1.24 * ***Haemophilia *** This is another sex-linked trait where the blood of the sufferer takes abnormally long time to clot. There is prolonged breeding in the event of a cut hence the term Bleeders Disease . A recessive gene on the X chromosome causes haemophilia. If a normal man is married to a carrier woman for haemophilia, there is a probability of that if their child is a boy will be a haemophiliac and if a daughter, she will be a carrier. None of the daughters of the couple will be haemophiliacs. Let H represent the gene for normal blood clotting and h to represen t ge n e f o r h ae m op hili a i .e. 171 ----- |(XHY)|Col2|Col3| |---|---|---| |XH Y|XHXH XHY|XHXh XhY| ### ** Their offsprings will be; -X [H] X [H ] -Normal daughter ** X [H] X [h] -Carrier daughter X [H] Y -Normal son X [h] Y -Haemophiliac son. ### *Study question 14 * Apart from carrying the sex-linked traits, the X chromosome in the females and the Y in males bring about the development of both the primary and secondary sexual characteristics. At puberty, secondary sexual characteristics in females include breast enlargement, widening of the hips, and growth of pubic hair and onset of menstrual cycle. The X chromosome controls these. In males, they include growth of pubic hair and beard, deepening of the voice, widening of the shoulders etc. ***Effects of Crossing Over on Linked Genes *** Some of the linked genes separate and are transmitted on different chromosomes. This happens during crossing over (prophase I of meiosis) when sections of chromatids of a bivalent intertwine and may break off. Some of these sections get rejoined to different chromatids thus separating genes that were previously linked. The fusion of such gametes containing chromatids whose genes have changed places produces new combinations (recombinants). Crossing over results in chromosomal mutations, which in turn cause variations. **Diagrams ** ***Mutations *** Mutation is brought about by spontaneous changes in the individuals genetic makeup. Mutations are normally due to recessive genes most of which are transmitted in the usual Mendelian fashion. Therefore they are quite rare. Individuals with mutations are referred to as mutants . Mutation can be induced by certain factors. Such factors are called Mutagens. They include, Exposure to Gamma rays Ultra violet light 172 ----- ### Colchicine Mustard gas *NB: Mutations occurring in gametes are more important than * *those in somatic cells. Mutational changes are the basis of * *discontinuous variation in population. * ***Types of Mutations *** 1. Chromosomal mutation 2. Gene mutation Chromosomal Mutations This involves the change in the structure or the number of chromosomes. During crossing over in meiosis homologous chromosomes intertwine at points called chiasmata. These points are later broken creating various opportunities for changes on the chromatids. There are five types of chromosome mutations ( chromosome aberrations). Deletion Duplication Inversion Translocation Non-disjunction ***Deletion *** This occurs when some sections of chromatids break off and fail to recombine. They are therefore completely lost and the genetic material they contain is said to be deleted out. Most deletions are lethal since the offspring may lose genes responsible for the synthesis of some vital protein molecules. Diagrams ***Duplication *** In this case a section of chromatids replicates and adds an extra length to itself. Duplication can produce serious effects depending on the chromosome sections involved. Diagrams ***Inversion *** In this case a chromatid breaks at two points. When rejoining, the middle piece rotates and joins in an inverted position. This reverses the gene sequence along the chromatid. This might bring together genes whose combined effects are advantageous or dis-advantageous. **Diagrams ** 173 ----- ### ***Translocation *** This occurs when a section of one chromatid breaks off and becomes attached to another chromatid but of a non-homologous pair. Translocation therefore involves the movement of genes from one non-homologous chromosome to another. **Diagrams ** ***Non-disjunction *** This leads to addition or loss of one or more whole chromosomes. If it occurs at anaphase of the first meiotic division, two homologous chromosomes fail to segregate and they move into the same gamete cell. If it happens at anaphase of the second meiotic division, sister chromatids fail to segregate. This results in half the gametes containing two of the same chromosome while the others have none. Diagrams Non-Disjunction causes the following 1. Downss Syndrome : this is where there is an extra somatic chromosome number 21. such individuals have; Slit eye appearance Reduced resistance to infections Mentally deficient Thick tongue Cardiac malfunctions Short body with thick fingers NB/ these conditions are common among children born of mothers above 40 years old. 2. Klinefelters Syndrome: in this case individuals have an extra sex chromosome. Such individuals have a total of 47 chromosomes in their cells i.e. XXY (male) and XXX (female). This occurs as a result of non-disjunction during spermatogenesis or oogenesis. The symptoms of Klinefelters syndrome are Infertility in males due to lack of sperm production Under developed testes Reduced facial hair in males Very tall with signs of obesity 174 ----- ### ***Diagrams *** 3. Turners syndrome: This is where an individual lacks one sex chromosome hence there are 45 chromosomes (XO or YO). 4. Polyploidy: sometimes during meiosis chromosomes might undergo non-disjunction. This results in half the number of gametes having two of each type of chromosome i.e. diploid the rest having none. If the resulting diploid gamete fuses with a normal haploid gamete a triploid zygote is formed. If two diploid gametes fuse, a tetraploid individual is obtained. This is what is called polyploidy. Polyploidy is rare in animals but common in plants where its considered to be advantageous. Polyploidy increases yields, early maturity and resistance to pests and diseases. It can be artificially induced using a chemical called colchicine, which prevents spindle formation during mitosis leading to a cell with double the number of chromosomes (4n). **Gene Mutation ** This involves a change in the structure of a gene. Gene mutations are also referred to as point mutations. A gene mutation arises as a result of a change in the chemical nature of the gene. The change may involve some alterations in the DNA molecule. A change in the DNA molecule is passed onto the m-RNA. This alters the sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. This may result in unintended protein molecules being synthesised, which may be lethal. Types of gene mutations; Insertion Substitution Inversion Deletion ***Insertion *** This is the addition of an extra base onto the existing DNA strand. Diagram By this insertion no polypeptide chain is formed as it were intended. ***Deletion *** This is the removal of a gene portion. If the base Thymine is deleted from its position as indicated below, the base sequence becomes altered at this point. 175 ----- ### This results in the wrong proteins being synthesised. **Diagrams ** ***Substitution *** This is the replacement of a portion of the gene with a new portion. If Adenine is substituted by Guanine on a DNA strand, the base sequence is altered at this particular portion. Diagrams ***Inversion *** If a portion of the DNA strand is rotated through 180 [0 ] that portion is said to be inverted as shown below. This alters the base sequence at this point. Diagrams ***Study Questions *** **Disorders Due to Gene Mutations ** Such disorders include albinism, sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia, colour blindness and chondrodystrophic dwarfism. 1. Albinism This a condition where the synthesis of skin pigment called melanin fails. The victim has a light skin, white hair and pink eyes. Such a person is referred to as an Albino. Melanin is derived from two amino acids Phenylalanine and Tyrosine. Melanin is synthesised through a series of reactions controlled by a specific gene. Gene A is responsible for presence of melanin and a is ***aa*** responsible for its absence. Gene in homozygous state blocks in one or two places in the synthesis of melanin hence no melanin is formed. This occurs as a result of one enzyme (Tyronase) failing to be formed in the presence of the recessive gene. A person with genotype AA has normal skin pigmentation. One with genotype Aa is a carrier and has normal skin pigmentation. In a family an albino can be born under three conditions only. If both parents are albinos If one of the parents is an albino and the other a carrier If both parents are carriers ***Assignment *** Work out crosses in each case. What is the probability of getting an albino child in each case? 176 ----- ### 2. Sickle Cell Anaemia This is a gene mutation as a result of substitution. Normal haemoglobin Hb A consists of two polypeptide chains. In the sickle cell condition, one amino acid called glutamic acid is substituted by another amino acid called valine in each of the two-polypeptide chains of the haemoglobin molecule. The resulting haemoglobin is known as Haemoglobin S Hb S and is different from the Hb A in several ways. |Comparison between Hb A and|Hb S| |---|---| |Normal haemoglobin (Hb A)|Defective Haemoglobin (Hb S)| |1. A position in each polypeptide chain is occupied by glutamic acid|The same position is occupied by valine in each polypeptide chain| |2. Does not easily crystallise in low oxygen concentration|Easily crystallises in low oxygen concentration| |3. The haemoglobin is efficient in oxygen loading and transportation|Not efficient in oxygen loading and transportation| |4. The red blood cells are biconcave in shape|Red blood cells are sickle shaped (crescent shape)| ### Sickle cell anaemia is therefore the condition where the victim is homozygous for the defective gene that directs the synthesis of haemoglobin S. Most of the victims red blood cells are sickle shaped and the person frequently experiences oxygen shortage to the body tissues. Such a person cannot carry out strenuous physical exercises. ### Many sickle cell victims die young due to insufficient oxygen supply to body tissues. In the heterozygous condition, less than half the number of the red blood cells is sickle shaped. The rest are normal and efficient in oxygen transport. This is referred to as sickle cell trait . An individual with the sickle cell trait experiences a mild case of anaemia but leads a normal life. **Inheritance of Sickle Cell Anaemia ** If a man with sickle cell trait marries a normal woman, the probability that any of the offspring will carry the sickle cell trait is . If both parents are carriers the probability of getting an offspring with sickle cell anaemia is . 177 ----- ### 3. Haemophilia : This condition where the blood takes abnormally long time to clot. A haemophilic gene that prevents the production of the clotting factors causes the condition. 4. Colour blindness: There are different forms of colour blindness. The most common one is the red-green colour blindness. In this case an individual is unable to distinguish between red and green colours. *NB. Most disadvantageous genes are recessive. Very few are * *dominant e.g. the gene for chondrodystrophic dwarfism * **Study Question 16 ** ***Effect of Environment on Heredity *** The genotype and the environment influence the development of an individual. In animals genetically identical individuals reared under different environments will appear different than those reared under very different conditions. Consider identical twins. ***Practical Applications of Genetics *** `o` Plants and animal breeding o Blood transfusion `o` Genetic counselling `o` Genetic engineering 1. Plants and Animal Breeding Man chooses those plants and animals with the desirable qualities. This is referred to as artificial selection. Inbreeding or *.* crossbreeding does this Inbreeding however increases the chances of undesirable genes whereas crossbreeding increases heterozygosity with the offsprings having better performance than both parents. This is referred to as hybrid vigour e.g. a cross between Boran and Hereford. Polyploidy has also been used in planting. The original wheat had a diploid number of 14 chromosomes but the commercial wheat has either 28 or 42 (tetraploid-4n or hexaploid-6n). Examples of characteristics, which have been selected in agriculture. 1. Resistance to diseases e.g. cassava resistant to cassava mosaic, coffee variety resistant to CBD. 2. Early maturity in animals and plants. 3. Adaptations to various conditions e.g. rainfall, temperature etc. 4. Ease of harvesting e.g. in coffee and bananas where dwarf varieties have been developed 5. Increased productive season e.g. in chicken 178 ----- ### 6. Higher productivity 7. Production of flowers such as roses for their colour and aroma. **2) Blood Transfusion ** Before blood is given to a recipient, blood typing is first done. This is done to ensure compatibility between the donor and the recipient. Blood typing also can be used to solve disputed parentage. However the most recent technique in establishing parentage is the DNA matching. **3) Genetic Counselling ** This is the provision of information and advice on genetically inherited disorders to individuals. The individual is given such advice to enable him or her make the best choice. Examples of disorders for which genetic counselling may be done include Sickle cell anaemia Haemophilia Albinism Erythroblastosis foetalis Colour blindness Klinefelters syndrome In order to confirm the disorder the doctors can do the following Physical examination e.g. Lack of breasts in Turners syndrome. Laboratory tests e.g. blood tests to confirm sickle cell anaemia Amniocentesis for chromosomal abnormalities in foetus Family history may be used to determine possible inheritance of the disorder e.g. haemophilia. Genetic screening of the defective gene in the population **4) Genetic Engineering ** This deals with identification of a desirable gene, altering, isolating and transferring it from one living organism to another. **STIMULUS AND RESPONSE REVISION QUESTI-ONS** 1. The diagrams below repents a nerve cell 179 ----- ### a) Identify the nerve cell. (1mark) (b) (i) Give a reason for your answer in (a) above (1mark) (ii) Show by use of an arrow the direction of flow of the nerve impulses. (1mark) 2. Below is a diagram showing parts of a synapse observe and other the questions that follow. (a) Name the parts labeled: A, B. (2mks) (b) What is the role of part labeled C . (1mk) 3. A student set up an experiment as shown in the diagram below. Light Box with black paint ### The set up was left for 4 days. a) What was the aim of the experiment. ( 1mk) b) i) State the expected results after 4 days. ( 1mk) ii) Account for the results you have stated in ( b) (i) above. ( 4mks) c) In another experiment, a student placed a seedling horizontally on moist cotton wool. Later the shoot grew upwards while the Radicle grew downwards. Explain why the radicle showed a downward curvature. ( 2mks ) 180 ----- ### 4. Describe how different types of tropisms adapt plants for survival in their habitats. (20mks) 5. Diagram below shows the structure of motor neuron. (2mks) (b) State three adaptations that enable the neurone to carry out its functions efficiently. (3mks) (c) State two features that would distinguish sensory neurone from the above neurone. (2mks) 6. The diagram below shows the structure of its human ear. F ### a) State the functions of the ear. (2mks) b) Give the names of the structure labelled C,G and F. (3mks) c) (i) What is the function of the structure labeled H? (1mk) (ii) Name the structure in the ear that detects sound waves. (1mk) d) In which structure of the ear is the velocity of the sound waves fastest? (1mk) 7. nerv The diagram below represents a P e cell. Study it and answer the questions that follow. a) (i) Identify the cell (1mk) (ii) Give a reason for your answer in a (i) above (1mk) 181 ----- ### b) Name the parts labelled N, P, Q and R. (4mks) c) State the functions of the parts labelled N and Q. (2mks) 8. Use the diagram below to answer the questions that follow a) (i) Name the eye defect represented above (1 mk) (ii) What is the cause of this defect (1 mk) (iii)How can the defect you have named (a) (i) be corrected? (1 mk) 9 The diagram below shows three different types of neurones along a reflex arc a) Identify the neuron labelled 1,2 and 3 (3 mks) b) Using arrows show the direction of impulse transmission on the diagram (1 mk) c) Name the part of the spinal cord where the cell bodies of neurone 2 and 3 are located (1mk) d) Describe the transmission impulse across the part labelled P (3 mks) 10 A response exhibited by a certain plant tendril is illustrated below (i) Name the type of response (1mk) (ii) Explain how the response named in (i) above occurs. (3mks) (iii) What is the importance of tactic responses to microscopic plants? (1mk) 11 Describe how the mammalian ear is adapted to perform its functions. (20mks) 182 ----- ### 12. a) Describe how the structure of the eye is adapted to its function. (16mks) b) Identify two defects of the eye and how they can be rectified. (4mks) 13 Differentiate between nervous and endocrine communication in animals (3mks) 14. The diagram below represents a section through the mammalian ear. Study it and answer the questions that follow. (a) Name the structures labeled H and J (2mks) (b) State how the structures labeled H, M and N are adapted to their functions (3mks) (c) State what would happen if the structure labeled K was completely damage (1mk) (d) Name the fluid contained in structure N (1mk) (e) Apart from hearing, state the other role performed by the human ear (1mk) 15 The following experiment was set up in a chamber made from two connected Petri dishes. Housefly maggots were introduced at the centre of the chamber, so the maggots could move to either Petri dish A or B as shown below. (a) Name the type of response being investigated in the set up. (1mk) (b) State the survival value of the response named in (a) above. (1mk) 183 ----- ### (c) Give the role of calcium chloride in the experiment above. (1mk) 16 (a) What is accommodation? (1mk) (b) Describe the sequence of events that occur in the eye for one to be able to see clearly (i) a distant object (4mks) (ii) if one moved from a dim lit room to bright light. (3mks) **MARKING SCHEME STIMULUS AND RESPONSE ** **REVISION QUESTIONS ** 1 (a) Motor neuron/Motor nerve cell; (b) (i) cell body is terminally situated/located at the end of the axon; (ii) Arrow should point away from the cell body 2. (a) A-Synaptic cleft B- Mitochondria (b) Contains the transmitter substance/ Acetylcholine. 3. a) Show the effect of unilateral light on growth of seedling / plants; (1mk) b) (i) Curvature of the tip of the shoot toward the source light; (ii) Auxins / IAA/ Growth harmones; produced by the apical bud; move away from light / move to the dark side; causing faster elongation; hence curvature; c) In the roots / radicle higher concentration of auxins / IAA inhibits growth; hence the upper side with less auxins grows faster than the lower side; (hence curvature downwards) (2mks) 4. Phototropisms; -enables plant shoots to grow and get light for maximum photosynthesis; Allows for leaf mosaic; Chemotropism; -Growth curvature in response to contact/ hard surface; -Make plants with weak stems to get support on large plants /trees; this makes then to reach and get light for maximum photosynthesis; Geotropism; -Growth curvature in response to gravity; enables plant roots to grow deep into the soil 184 ----- ### to Maximum support/ anchorage; Hydrotropism; - Growth curvature in response to moisture / water; - Enable plant roots to grow and find water in the soil; water is then used as a raw material During photolysis stage; Chemotropism; -Growth curvature in response to chemical concentration gradient; - Enables pollen tubes to grow down the style and into the ovary for fertilization to occur in plants flowers; Thermo tropism; -Growth curvature in response to temperature changes; -Enables some plants to grow to where they can acquire optimum temperature for effective plant processes; e.g. (Sunflower orientates towards the directions of the sun. 5 (a) A- Dendrites B-Cell body (b) - Has long axon to conduct impulses from CNs to effectors / muscles / glands; - Axon enclosed with myelin sheath with nodes of ranvies to enhance speed of impulse conduction. - Has dendrites which receive impulses from adjacent neurones. |(c)|Col2| |---|---| |S.N|M.N| |- Cell body has no dendrites|-Cell body has dendrites| |- Cell body at a point along nerve fibre;|-Cell body located at the top of nerve fiber;| ### 6 a) - Hearing / detection of sound; Body balance / posture; (2marks.) b) (i) C- Ear canal / External auditory meetas; (ii) G- Semi Circular canals; (iii) F- Auditory nerve; (3marks) c) (i) Equalise air pressure between middle ear and outer ear / prevent damage of ear drum; (1mark) 185 ----- ### (ii) Cochlea/ E; (1mark) d) - Ear ossicles / D; (1mark) 7. a) i) Sensory neurons / afferent neurone ii) Cell body located off the axon b) N- Axon P- Cell body Q- Myelin Sheath R- Schwann cell c) N- Transmission of impulse Q- Insulation / speed up impulse transmission. 8 a) Long sightedness / Hypermetropia ; 1 mk) b) Short eye ball; Weak lens (any one) ;1 mks c) Wearing of convex lens / conveying lenses; 1 mk rj if a(i) is wrong 9 a) 1- Sensory neurone / Afferent neurone 2- Relay neurone / intermediate neurone 3- Motor neurone/ efferent neurone 3 mks b) Check on the diagram arrows show points towards neurone 3 from 2 and 1 : 1 mk c) Grey matter 1 mks d) Impulse reaching the dendrites end of relay / Neurone 2 causes the synaptic vesicles, releases acetylcholine / transmitter substances ; into the synaptic cleft ;the acetylcholine / transmitter chemical diffuses across the cleft ; and causes the depolarization of the motor neuron/ neurone (i)Name the type of response (1mk) **10 Thigmotropism/Haptotropism;** (ii) Explain how the response named in (i) above occurs. (3mks) **Contact with support; causes migration of auxins to the ** **outside; causing faster growth on the side away from ** **contact surface; (Causing dendrils to curl around the ** **support); ** ***NB (a) (ii) is tied to (i) *** 186 ----- ### (iii) What is the importance of tactic responses to microscopic plants? (1mk) **Escape injurious stimuli/seek favourable ** **habitat ** ***Rej. Seek mate and obtain food *** 11. Describe how the mammalian ear is adapted to perform its functions. (20mks) The pinna is flap made of skin and cartilage; for collection and concentration of sound waves; Auditory canal/meatus is a tube lined with hairs which trap solid particles like dust; It has wax secreting cells; that secrete wax for trapping solids and insects entering the ear; The eardrum/tympanic membrane is thin with double layer of epidermis; It vibrates translating sound waves into sound vibrations; Sound vibrations are transmitted to ear ossicles; Ear ossicles are malleus, incus and stapes; they amplify and transmit vibrations to the oral window; The oval window is a thin membrane which transmits sound vibrations to the fluid of the inner ear; perilymph and Endolymph; Eustachian tube connects middle ear with pharynx equalizing air pressure in the ear with atmospheric pressure; to prevent distortion of the eardrum; The cochlea is highly coiled tube with system of canals (and sensory cells) to occupy a small space/increase the surface area for accommodating many sensory cells to detect sounds vibrations; and generate impulses transmitted to the brain; Auditory nerve transmits nerve impulses to the brain for interpretation; Semicircular canals are tubular cavities containing fluid; The canals are arranged at right angles to each other in the three planes of spaces; to detect changes in position of the body; the canals have ampulla: utriculus and sacculus; to detect position of body in relation to gravity; Utriculus has otoliths attached to sensory cells which generate impulses which are then transmitted to the brain through the auditory nerve; 187 ----- ### The perilymph and endolymph fluid in the inner ear absorb mechanical shock/transmit sound vibrations/protect delicate parts; Total 25 max 20 marks 12 a) i) Conjunctiva transparent allow light to enter eye ii) Cornea transparent / curved allow light / refracts light entering eye; iii) Aqueous / vitreous humour clear / allow light pass / refract light, hydrostatic pressure Maintain shape of eyeball. Contains sugars / proteins / salts provide nutrients to eye. iv) Iris contractile controls light intensity / amount of light entering eye; v) Ciliary body glandular secretes humuor vi) Ciliary muscle contractile controls curvature of lens; vii) Suspensory ligament fibrous holds lens in position viii) Lens transparent / Biconvex allow light go through to retina / refract light / focus light. ix) Retina rods - rhodopsin for dim light vision; - Iodopsin for bright light vision x) Fovea centralis high concentration of cones for accurate vision xi) Choroid layer blood vessels pigmented for nutrition - reduce light reflection / absorb stray light xii) Sclera fibrous protection / give eye shape; xiii) Optical nerves sensory neurone transmit impulse from retina to brain. xiv) External eye muscle contractile move eyeball within socket xv) Blind spot cone and rods absent no image is perceived **Correction ** b) i) Short sightedness; biconcave / diverging lens ii) Long sightedness; converging lens / convex lens iii) Astigmatism; use of cylindrical lens iv) Squinting; surgery (any 2 identify correction 4mks) 13. Nervous communication Endocrine **communication** 188 ----- ### - Nerve impulse to evoke a response - Chemical substance/ hormone to evoke Response - High speed of transmission- Low speed of transmission; - Rapid response - Response delayed - Impulse transmitted through neurone - Hormones transmitted in blood - - Responses specific and localized to one Responses affects several parts of the Target organ body; Note: Comparison should come out clearly to award. 14. a) H Eustachian tube; J Semi-circular canals; b) H Tube open/ connection to the pharynx and to the middle ear/ opens during swallowing/ yawning and vomiting to equalize the air pressure in the middle ear with the atmospheric air pressure; M (pinna) curved/ funnel shaped to receive or collect and direct sound waves into the ear; N (cochlea) long/highly coiled/ spiral in form to increase surface area for sound Perception; - Has sensory hairs/ cells which convert sound vibrations to impulses/ generate impulses; - Has endolymph to transmit vibrations; ***Mark one for each structure. *** ***Rej. If the adaptation is not tied to function. *** c) Total deafness; d) Endolymph; e) Balance; acc body balance/ posture. 15 (a) Tactic response; (b) Move away from a harsh environment/move to favorable environment; (c) To absorb any moisture from Petri dish A/OWTTE 16 .(a) A reflex mechanism/ability of the eye to adjust to bring an image from near or far object into sharp focus on the retina; (b) Circular muscles of the iris contract; while the radial muscles relax; Ciliary muscles relax; increasing tension on suspensory ligaments; lens become thinner increasing the focal length; image focused onto the retina; 189 ----- ### (ii) Circular muscles of the iris contract; pupil constrict/become smaller; and allows enough light for (sharp) image to be focused onto the retina; **SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT IN PLANTS AND ** **ANIMALS ** Support is the ability of organisms to bear their weight and maintain their body forms. It involves holding body parts in their position and allow for movement. Movement is the displacement of parts of the body of an organism e.g. growth movements in plants and limbs in animals. Locomotion is movement of the whole organisms. **Support and Movement in Plants ** This can be at cell level e.g. gametes in bryophytes and Pteridophytes or at organ level in tropic and nastic responses. **Importance of Movement in Plants** i. Enable plants to obtain resources such as sunlight, water and nutrients due to tropic and nastic responses. ii. Enhances fertilization in bryophytes and Pteridophytes iii. Enhance fertilization in flowering plants by growth of pollen tube towards the embryo sac. iv. Helps plants to escape harmful stimuli such as high temperature **Importance of Support in Plants** i. Hold flowers in position for pollination to occur. ii. Help plants to withstand forces of the environment such as gravity and air currents. iii. Fruits are held in appropriate position for dispersal to occur. iv. Increase the efficiency of photosynthesis as the leaves are firm and arranged in mosaic pattern for maximum absorption of light and carbon (iv) oxide. **Arrangement of Tissues in Plants ** **Diagrams ** Parenchyma. The cells are spherical or elongated. They are unspecialized cells forming the packing tissues. When turgid, they help in providing support in herbaceous plants. Collenchyma. Its underneath the epidermis. They are similar in appearance to parenchyma and they contain 190 ----- ### living protoplasm. They have deposition of cellulose to provide mechanical support. They are mainly found in young leaves and stems. Sclerenchyma. They appear as long fibres in stems. Cells are dead and they have lignin. Mainly found in stems and midrib of leaves. The walls are pitted to allow exchange of substances between cells. Xylem vessels and Tracheids. Xylem vessels are long tube like structures with lignified walls used for transporting water and mineral salts and also give plant mechanical support. Tracheids are long cells with tapering ends whose walls are lignified to give the plant mechanical support. Both xylem vessels ant tracheids are made of dead cells manly present in woody stems. Tendrils and Climbing stems. Some herbaceous plants support themselves by use of tendrils e.g. pumpkins, garden peas etc. Others obtain support by twinning round other hard objects such as stem of passion fruit, morning glory etc. Spines and Thorns. Some plants use spines and thorns to attach to solid objects for support e.g. in rose. **Practical Activity 3 ** **To Observe Wilting in Plants ** **Support and Movement in Animals ** Animals have a firm and rigid framework for support called the skeleton. **Importance of Movement in Animals ** 1. Enable searching of food, mate and shelter. 2. Move to avoid predators. 3. To colonize new areas 4. Move from areas with unfavourable conditions such as fire, earthquakes, flood etc. **Types and Function of Skeletons ** ***1. Hydrostatic skeleton *** It is found in soft bodied animals such as the earthworm. ***2. Exoskeleton *** It is made of the external covering found in arthropods. Its made of waterproof cuticle which contains the protein Chitin secreted by the epidermal cells. **Functions of the Exoskeleton ** i. Reduces water loss 191 ----- ### ii. Protection against microbial infections and mechanical injury iii. Support body tissues and organs. iv. Provide point for attachment of muscles allowing locomotion to take place. v. Enhance flight in insects by means of wings which are the flattened parts of the exoskeleton. vi. Enhance walking in insects using jointed appendages. *NB/. 1. Exoskeleton has a disadvantage as it limits growth. * *To overcome this limitation it is periodically shed through * *moulting (ecdysis). * *2. Insects that jump or hop have powerful hind limbs. The * *femur of the hind limb has powerful antagonistic muscles. * **Diagrams ** ***3 Endoskeleton. *** It is found in all vertebrates. Muscles are external to the hard framework. It is made of living tissues either cartilage or bone which increase in size as the animal grows and therefore need not to be shed as in exoskeleton. **Functions of the Endoskeleton ** i. Supports the animals body ii. Gives the body its shape iii. Protects inner delicate organs such as the lungs, heart, liver etc from mechanical injury e.g. ribs. iv. Provide surface for muscle attachment facilitating movement. v. Production of blood cells i.e. the long and short bones vi. Acts as a reservoir of calcium and phosphate ions in the body **Locomotion in Finned Fish (Tilapia) ** **Diagrams ** ***Practical Activity 5 *** ***Practical Activity 6 *** **How a finned fish is adapted to locomotion in water** 1. Streamlined body/ tapered anteriorly and posteriorly; to minimize water resistance; 2. Inflexible head; to maintain forward thrust; 192 ----- ### 3. Overlapping scales facing posterior end; to bring about less resistance; Overlapping of scales also prevents wetting of the skin; 4. Slimy/oily substance to moisten scales; hence reduce resistance between water and fish; 5. Swim bladder; air filled cavity which controls/ brings buoyancy; and depth at which it swims; 6. Flexible backbone /series of vertebrae with Myotomes/ muscles blocks; which contract and relax alternately bringing about thrust/force; which propels fish forwards; 7. Pectoral and pelvic fins (paired fins); which bring about balancing effect; braking; and changing direction; they also control pitching i.e. control upward and downward movement; 8. Dorsal fin, caudal fin and anal fin (unpaired fins); to increase vertical surface area; and therefore prevent rolling from side to side; and yawing; 9. Tail fins/caudal fins that are long and flexible; for steering/ more force/ thrust; 10. Lateral line has sensory cells; which enables to perceive vibrations; hence can locate objects so that it escapes / changes direction; **Support and Movement in Mammals ** ***Diagram of a human and rabbit skeleton *** The skeleton is divided into: Axial (skull, sternum, ribcage and vertebral column.) Appendicular ( consists of girdles and the limbs attached to them) **Axial Skeleton** **1. Skull ** Made up of many bones fused together to form the cranium. The bones are joined together forming immovable joins called Sutures . Cranium encloses and protects the brain, olfactory organs, the eyes, middle and inner ear. Facial skeleton has a fixed upper jaw called maxilla and a movable lower jaw known as the mandible. At the posterior end, there are two smooth rounded projections called occipital condyles. These articulate with the first bone of the vertebral column (atlas) forming a hinge joint. 193 ----- ### This joint permits nodding of the head. 2. Ribcage and sternum Ribcage encloses the thoracic cavity protecting delicate organs such as the lungs and heart. Cage is made up of ribs that articulate with vertebral column at the back and sternum to the front. In birds, the sternum is modified to form the keel which gives a large surface area for attachment of flight muscles. Ribcage and sternum help during breathing because they offer the surface for attachment of the intercostals muscles. 3. Vertebral column Consists of bones called vertebrae that are separated from each other by cartilage called inter-vertebral discs. The discs absorb shock and reduce friction. It also makes the vertebral column flexible. There are five types of vertebrae in the vertebral column; **1. Cervical vertebrae ** **2. Thoracic vertebra ** **3. Lumbar vertebrae ** **4. Sacral vertebrae ** **5. Caudal vertebrae ** All the vertebrae have a common basic plan. **Structure of a Vertebra ** Each vertebra is made up of the following parts. i.) Centrum (body). It supports the weight of the vertebra and the weight of the entire vertebral column.. ii.) Neural arch. It encloses the neural canal. iii.) Neural spine. Provides surface for muscle and ligament attachment. iv.) Neural canal. It protects the spinal cord which passes through it. v.) Transverse processes. Provides surface for muscle and ligament attachment. vi.) Zygapophysis (facets). These are smooth patches for articulation with the other vertebrae. (The one in front and - the other one behind). The front facets are called Pre Zygapophysis while the back pair facets are called Post- **Zygapophysis** **Diagram ** **1) Cervical vertebrae ** a) Atlas (First cervical vertebra) Distinctive features. i.) No Centrum 194 ----- ### ii.) Broad and flat transverse processes. iii.) Has vertebraterial canal in each transverse process for vertebral arteries to pass through. iv.) Front facets are large and grooved to articulate with condyles of the skull to allow nodding on the head. v.) Neural spine is very small. **Diagram ** Functions i.) Protect the spinal cord. ii.) Provide surface for muscle attachment. iii.) Allows head to nod. b) Axis (second) Distinctive features. i.) Centrum prolonged to from the odontoid process. ii.) Has vertebraterial canal in each transverse process for vertebral arteries to pass. iii.) Small wing like transverse processes. iv.) Wide neural canal. Functions i.) Protects the spinal cord. ii.) Allows the head to rotate. Odontoid process forms a peg which fits into the neural canal of the atlas. iii.) Provide surface for muscle attachment **Diagram ** c) The other cervical vertebrae. Distinctive features i.) Short neural spine ii.) Transverse process divided and broad. iii.) Has vertebraterial canal in each transverse process for vertebral arteries to pass through. iv.) Wide centrum **Diagram ** Functions i.) Provide surface for attachment of neck muscle. ii.) Protect the spinal cord. iii.) Supports the weight of the head. **2) Thoracic vertebrae ** Distinctive features i.) Long neural spine pointing backwards. ii.) Large centrum. iii.) Short transverse processes. iv.) Tubercular facets on each transverse for articulation with tuberculum of the rib. 195 ----- ### v.) Two pairs of capitular demi-facets for articulation with capitulum of the rib. **Diagram ** Functions i.) Helps to form the rib cage. ii.) Provides articulation for one end of each rib. iii.) Protects the spinal cord. iv.) Provides surface for muscle attachment. **3) Lumbar vertebrae ** Distinctive features i.) Large broad centrum to offer support. ii.) Broad neural spine. iii.) Broad and long transverse processes. iv.) Have extra processes like metapophysis, anapophysis and . **hypapophysis** Functions i.) Protects the spinal cord. ii.) Provides surface for muscle attachment. iii.) Protect and support the heavy organs in the abdominal cavity. iv.) Supports the heavy weight of the upper part of the body. 4) Sacral vertebraeSacral vertebrae Distinctive features 1. All sacral vertebrae fused to form sacrum 2. Transverse processes of first sacral vertebra large and wing like for articulation with pelvic girdle 3. Pairs of holes on the lower surface for the spinal nerves to pass through. 4. Sacrum is broader on the front side and narrow towards the tail. ***Functions *** 1. Protects alimentary canal on dorsal side. 2. Provides attachment to hip girdle 3. Protects the spinal cord 4. Provides attachment for the muscles **Diagram ** **5. Caudal vertebrae ** Distinctive features 1. Very small in size 2. No neural canal 196 ----- ### **Functions ** 1. Provides attachment for tail muscles 2. Helps in the movement of the tail **Diagram ** ### **Biology Form 1-2 Work Revision ** 1. A student set up materials in an experiment as shown **Sugar** ### below. **solution** **Boiled** ### (a) State the physiological process being investigated. (1mk) (b) If the experiment set up was left over-night, state observation in the set up A and B. (2mks) (c) Account for the observations in each set up. (3mks) (d) If another experiment C was set such that nothing is placed in the potato cup, state and explain the results that would have been obtained. (2mks) 2. An experiment was carried out to investigate, haemolysis of human cells. The red blood cells were placed in different concentration of sodium chloride solution. The percentage of haemolysed cells was determined. The results were s hown in the table below. |Salt conc. (g/100cm3)|0.33|0.36|0.38|0.39|0.42|0.44|0.48| |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| |Red blood cells haemolysed %|100|91|82|69|30|15|0| ### (a) (i) On the grid provided plot a graph of haemolysed red blood cells against salt concentration. (6mks (ii) At what concentration of salt solution was the proportion of haemolysed cells equal to non-haemolysed cells? (1mk) (iii) State the percentage of red blood cells haemolysed at salt concentration of 0.45. (1mk) (b) Account for the results obtained at: 197 ----- ### (i)0.33% salt concentration (3mks) (ii) 0.48% salt concentration (3mks) (c) What would happen to the red blood cells if they were placed in 0.50% salt solution. (3mks) (d) Explain what would happen to onion cells if they were placed in distilled water. (3mks) 3. Explain how various environmental factors affect the rate of transpiration in plants. (20mks) 4. (a) State the meaning of the following terms. (i) Digestion (2mks) (ii) Ingestion (2mks) (b) Describe the process through which a piece of ugali undergoes in man from the time of ingestion up to the time of absorption. (16mks) 6. The diagram below represents a unit of gaseous exchange in man. Study it carefully and answer the questions that follow. **B** **E** ### a) Name the blood vessel that brings blood to the lungs and the vessel which takes blood away from the lungs. (2mks) b) Name the structure above. (1mk) c) Label A and E. (2mks) 198 ----- ### d) In what form is carbon (IV) oxide transported in structure labeled E . (1mk) e) Name the gas G . (1mk) 6. Gastrin is a hormone produced by mammals. (a) (i) Where is the hormone produced? (1mk) (ii) What is the function of gastrin? (1mk) (b) What stimulateds the production of gastrin. (1mk) (c) The diagram below shows part of the human intestine. and B (1mk (ii) To which circulatory system does the part labeled B belong. (1mk) d) State any two adaptations of the human large intestine to its function. (2mks) 7. The diagram below represents part of a xylem tissue. (2mks) P . (ii) Give the function of the part labeled (1mks) b) State the function of the phloem tissue. (1mk) c) (i) State how the functioning of the phloem tissue is affected if the companion cell is destroyed. (1mk) (ii) Give a reason for your answer. (1mk d) State any two structural differences between phloem and xylem tissues. (2mks) 199 ----- ### 8. In an experiment to determine the effect of exercise on the concentration of lactic acid in blood, the following data was obtained. Study the data and use it to answer the questions that follow. The lactic acid concentration was measured before, during and after the exercise. |Time minutes|0|10|20|25|30|40|50|60|70|80|90|100| |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| |Lactic acid conc. (arbituary units)|0.5|0.5|5|13|12|8|6|4|3|2|1|0.9| ### a) Using a suitable scale, plot a graph of the concentration of lactic acid against time. (6mks) b) From the graph you have drawn determine (i) The period of exercise . Explain. (2mks) (ii) The time when oxygen debt occurred Explain. (2mks) (iii) The duration it took to pay back the oxygen debt.Explain (2msk) c) On the same set of axes plot a hypothetical curve for oxygen intake during the experiment period of 90 minutes. (2mks) d) Why does lactic acid level usually continue to rise in the blood after exercise ceases. (2mks) e) Suggest the two importance of anaerobic respiration to animals. (2mks) d) What is oxygen debt? (2mks) 9. What is the role of the liver in the maintance of a constant level of materials in the body. (20mks) 10.The diagram below represents a simple respiratory pathway in cells Glucose Plants Ethanol + CO 2 + 210kJ Process X Substance A Substance B + 150kJ K, L, and M 200 ----- ### a) Name the process marked X and Y. (2mks) b) State two differences between process X and Y. (2mks) c) State the name of substance B and condition under which it is formed. (2mks) d) Explain how body size affects the rate of respiration in animals. (2mks) 11. The diagram below represent the structure of a nephron. Study it and answer the questions that follow. **X** **B** **A** **D** **C** **C** ### a) (i) State the physiological process by which solutes are selectively re-absorbed back into blood at the part labelled B. (1mk) (ii) How is the part labeled B adapted to carry out the physiological process named in 3 (a) (i) above. (1mk) b) In which part of the kidney is the part labelled A abundantly found. (1mk) c) On the diagram above, indicate the direction of flow of blood using arrows at the part labelled C. (1mk) e) State the functions carried out by the following hormones in the functioning of the nephron. (i)Aldosterone. (1mk) (ii)Anti diuretic hormone. (1mk) 12. The data below shows the rate of photosynthesis at different temperature in attached leaves of three East African plants. (Crotolaria, Gynandropsis and Amaranthus species) respectively which were grown outside with the same illustration while water and carbon (IV) oxide are not limiting factors in this experiment. **X** **B** **A** **D** **C** **C** 201 ----- ### Rate of photosynthesis was expressed interms of carbon (IV) oxide uptake in mg/mm [2] /hr at various temperatures as tabulated belo w. |Temperature oC|Rate of photosynthesis (mg/mm2/hr)|Col3|Col4| |---|---|---|---| ||Gynandropsis sp|Crotolaris sp|Amaranthus sp| |5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50|- 22 50 60 80 85 80 73 66 2|20 40 49 64 48 45 42 31 15 -|- 10 27 42 55 54 50 45 40 11| ### a) Represent the results graphically (rate of photosynthesis against temperature) b) Using the graph in (a) above indicate optimum temperature for the Gynandropsis and Amaranthus species. (2mks) Gynandropsis Amaranthus c) Give a reason why Gynandaropsis and Amaranthus could not function photosynthetically at 5 [o] C. (1mk) d) What are the possible ecological habitats for the following plants. (2mks) (i) Amaranthus (ii) Crotolaria e) At what temperature was the amount of carbon (IV) oxide around the leaf of Gynandropsis highest? (1mk) f) What raw material is required in the light stage of photosynthesis. (1mk) g) Name the parts of chloroplasts in which the following stages of photosynthesis take place. (2mks) (i) Light stage (ii) Dark stage 202 ----- ### h) State one structural similarity and difference between chloroplast and mitochondria. (2mks) Similarity Difference i)What is the compensation point of photosynthesis? (1mk) 13 (a) Explain why plants lack elaborate excretory organs like those found in animals. (3mks) (b) Name five methods of excretion in plants. (5mks) (c) State any six excretory products in plants and give economic uses. (12mks) 14. During a laboratory investigation, a scientist extracted gastric juice from the mammalian stomach. He used it to carry out tests on a food sample B which was suspected to contain proteins. He divided the food sample B into three portions and treated them as below. I. On the 1 [st] portion of B, he added Gastric juice and mixed them thoroughly before adding sodium hydroxide followed with copper (II) sulphate drop by drop. II. On the 2 [nd] portion of B, he added boiled gastric juice and mixed them thoroughly before adding sodium hydroxide followed with copper (II) sulphate drop by drop. III. On the 3 [rd] portion of B, he added Gastric juice, sodium bi-carbonate and mixed them thoroughl before adding sodium hydroxide followed with copper (II) sulphate drop by drop. a) State the observations he made in each set up. (3mks) - 1 [st] portion - 2 [nd] portion - 3 [rd] portion b) Why was the experiment on the 1 [st] portion included in the tests? (1mk) c) Name the property of the chemical being investigated in these tests. (1mk) d) Account for the observations made in 2 (a) above. (3mks) 15. The diagram below illustrates circulation in certain organs of the mammalian body. 203 ----- ### a) Identify the blood vessels represented by A, B and C. (3mks) b) Explain why blood from the small intestines goes to the liver before it goes to any other organ of the body. (2mks) c) Compare the blood in vessels B and C. (1mk) d) Outline how a glucose molecule in vessel A finally reaches the heart. (2mks) 1 6. The table below shows how the internal temperature two animals X and Y varied with the external temperature. The temperature was measured regularly and recorded for 12 hours in a day. Study the table and answer the questions that follow. a) Using the same grid, draw graphs of external temperature, and internal temperature of animals X and Y (Y-axes) against time (X-axes). (7mks) b) Account for the variation of internal and external temperatures for the animals X and Y. (2mks) c) Identify the classification of organisms whose internal temperature varies as X and Y (2mks) d) Explain two ways used by organism Y to make its internal temperature vary as shown despite of changes in external temperature. (4mks) 18 a) Give the functions of the skin in organisms. (6mks) b) How is the mammalian skin modified to enable it perform its functions? (l4mks) 19. The diagram below shows how gaseous exchange occurs across the gills in fish. **Water** ### (a) According to the diagram water and blood flow in opposite direction across the gills. **Blood Cells** **Water** 204 ----- ### (i) Give the term used to describe this flow. (1 Mark) (ii) Explain the advantage of the above flow named in a(i) above. (2 Marks) (b) What difference would be observed if water and blood flows across the gills in the same direction? (2 Marks) (c) In which structures in the gills does gaseous exchange take place? (1 Mark) (d) Name two organs in man which display the flow system named in a(i). (2 Marks) 20. An experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of different concentrations of Sodium Chloride on human red blood cells. Equal volumes of blood were added to equal volumes of salt solutions of different concentrations. The results were as - s hown below: |Set up|Sodium Chloride concentration|Shape of red blood cells at the end of experiment|Number of red blood cells at the end of experiment| |---|---|---|---| |A B|0.9% 0.3%|Normal Swollen|No change in number Fewer in number| ### a) If the experiment was repeated with 1.4% Sodium Chloride solution, state the results you would expect with reference to:- (i) Number of red blood cells. (1 Mark) (ii) Appearance of red blood cells when viewed under the microscope. (1 Mark Account for the fewer number of red blood cells in 0.3% Sodium Chloride salt solution. (3 Marks) c) Give the biological term which can be used to describe 0.9% Sodium chloride solution.(1 Mark) d) Define plasmolysis. (1 Mark) **Marking Scheme ** 1. i) Osmosis. ii) A solution in potato cup increases. Level of water in the beaker decrease; 205 ----- ### B- Remain the same; iii) A Surrounding the cube is a region with high concentration of water molecules while in the sugar crystals, there are very few water molecules; The sugar crystals exert on Osmosis pressure by Osmosis water molecules move across the potato tissue, which acts as a semi-permeable membrane. The level rises; B- No change since boiling denatures the membrane structure of potato cells; iv) C- No water moves into the potato cup/remains the same; since there is no concentration gradient; 2(a) i) Graph. ii) 0.402 0.01 iii) 11% 1%. b) i) All cells have been haemolysed; cells contains one hypertonic to salt solution; water enters cells by osmosis; cells swell and eventually burst. ii) No cells were haemolysed; cell contents were isotonic to salt solutions (aments of water entering the cell was equal to that leaving the cell); no net movement of water into cells; c) The cells would become crenated; the cell contents would be hypotonic to salt solutions; water would leave cells by osmosis; membranes would shrink. d) Contents of Onion epidermal cells would be hypertonic to water; water would enter cells by Osmosis; cells would become turgid; 3. - Temperature;- High temperature faster rate of transpiration; high temperature increases the capacity of atmosphere to hold water and moisture; also heat increase internal temperature of the leaf hence water evaporation; *4 accept converse* - Atmospheric pressure; Low atmospheric pressure, high rate of transpiration 2 - Humidity; Low humidity higher rate of transpiration; low humidity increases the saturation defiant; hence water moves form leaves to drier atmosphere; 4 - Wind; When it is windy the rate of transpiration is higher; wind sweeps away vapour that has accumulated at the surface of leaf; increasing saturation deficit; hence faster rate of transpiration 5 - Light intensity; High light intensity faster rate of transpiration high light intensity increase photosynthesis rate hence stomata opens; 4 206 ----- ### - Amount of water in soil; More water in the soil increases the rate of transpiration; it wets the xylem (ensure xylem is wet throughout); 3 *Max 20* 4. a) Define digestion and ingestion. i) Digestion- It is break down of complex insoluble; food substance into simple soluble food substance; ii) Ingestion- is introduction of food through the mouth into the digestive system; ***b) Describe the digestion of Ugali. *** - Digestion of ugali begins in the mouth; ugali is chewed by the teeth to increase large surface area for action of salivary amylase/ptyalin; The food mixes with saliva produced by salivary glands; - Saliva contains mucus and enzyme ptyalin. Mucus moistens, softens and lubricates the food; ptyalin speeds up the conversion of starch to maltose; ugali is made into bolus in the mouth; - The bolus moves along the oescophagus and prestalsis/by contraction and relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles into the stomach; - The digestion continues until ugali become acidic since the stomach does not contain carbohydrase/carbohydrate digesting enzymes no digestion of ugali takes place here. - Ugali now moves into duodenum by peristalsis in form of acidic chime; where it mixes with the bile from the liver and pancreatic juice from the pancreases; bile being alkaline neutralizes the stomach acid; and provides a suitable alkaline medium for the enzymes to act on carbohydrates; - Pancreatic juice contains three enzymes out of the which enzyme amylase speeds conversion of starch to maltose; - When food reaches the ileum; it mixes with intestinal juice which contains several enzymes. Maltase speeds up conversion of maltose to glucose; - Lactose which speeds up conversion of lactose to glucose and galactose; sucrase which speeds up conversion of sucrose into fructose and glucose; - Absorption glucose, the end product of all carbohydrates diffuses through the epithelium of villi 207 ----- ### and capillary walls and enters into blood stream and is carried to the liver via hepatic portal veins; - Assimilation- in the liver excess glucose is converted into glycogen and stored; - - The rest of the glucose is carried by the blood tissues where is oxidized during tissue respiration to *21 max 18 * release energy; ( *mks Total 20mks)* 5. (a) - Pulmonary artery - Pulmonary vein (b) Alveolus (c) A - cavity of alveolus E Red blood cell (d) Hydrogen carbonate ions; Carbamino haemoglobin; 6. (a) (i) Walls of stomach; (ii) Stimulates the secretion / production of gastric juice; (b) Presence of food in the stomach; (c) A Blood capillaries; B Lacteal; (d) - Produces plenty of mucus to lubricate coarse/indigestible material during peristalsis; - Wide human accommodates /store indigestible food - Elongate to increase surface are for absorption of water. - has muscles to facilitate peristalsis when they contract; 7. (a) (i) P Tracheids Q pits (ii) P - water conducting elements of xylem (b) Function of phloem translocation/ transport of organic substances from the leaves to the of the plant; (c) (i) Translocation of food will not occur acc. Slow translocation (ii) Reason it contains a lot of mitochondria which provide energy for translocation; (d) |Phloem|Xylem| |---|---| |1) Made of living cells 2) Have companion cells 3) Have|- made of dead cells - lack companion cells - lack cytoplasmic strands - have lignin deposits; (any 2x1=2mks)| 208 ----- ### 8. (a) Photocopy scale 1m Labeling axes 1 Plotting 2m Curves 2m (curves must be labeled) rej. Dotted line for curves **A GRAPH OF LACTIC ACID CONCENTRATION ** **AGAINST TIME ** (b) (i) 10-15 minutes ; period of rapid increase in lactic acid concentration (2mks) (ii) 10-20 seconds : period when lactic acid level starts to increase; (2mks) (iii) 75minutes i.e. from 25 [th] minutes to the 100minutes, this is the time lactic cid took to decrease from the highest level to normal; (2mks) (c) It would have the same basic shape; but would peak slightly ahead of the lactic acid curve in time; (e) Because it is still diffusing out of the muscles, where it was made a few minutes earlier; (e) Allows for energy production even cases of oxygen deficiency; thus enables animals to survive active exercise and to inhabit even in areas with limited oxygen supply; (f) Oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen to get rid of the lactic acid; that has accumulated due to anaerobic respiration; (2mks) 209 ----- ### 9. Regulation of blood sugar level; under the influence of insulin; and glucagons (hormones). When there is excess sugar; the hormone insulin stimulate/causes liver cell to convert it to glycogen; some converted to fats/lipids for storage; When the blood sugar level is below normal: the hormone glucagon causes liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose; Regulation of amino acids; excess amino acids; are deaminated; by the liver (cells) leading to formation of urea; which is transported by the blood to the kidney; for elimination; Production of heat: the liver is involved in the thermoregulation due to many metabolic, activities; taking place in the liver cells a lot of heat is generated which is distributed to the entire/whole body; Detoxication of toxic substances; (such as drugs and hydroxide peroxide) Elimination of haemoglobin; and formation of bile; breakdown worn out red blood cells; the bile salts (sodium tyrochocolate and sodium glycocholate; in the bile eEMULSIFYfats (in the duodenum) Storage of blood in its veins; thus regulating the volume of blood circulating in the body ### Elimination of sex hormones after they have performed their function/work; storage of vitamin AD and B 12 some mineral salts; thus regulating their levels in the blood TOTAL 23 MAX 20 10. (a) X - glycolysis Y Krebs cycle (b) |Process X|Process Y| |---|---| |- occurs in cytoplasm - independent of oxygen - produces less energy - raw material is glucose - End products are energy, CO, lactic acid or ethanol 2|- occurs in mitochondria - Is oxygen dependent - produces more energy - Raw material is pyruvate - End products are energy, CO and water 2| (c) lactic acid; under anaerobic conditions (d) small body size leads to alarge surface area to volume ratio; hence more loss of heat to the environment; leading to increased rate of respiration to replace the lost heat; 11. (a) (i)Active transport/diffusion 210 ----- ### Tied (ii) Numerous Mitochondria in its wall to generate energy/microvilli/coiling increase surface area/thin epithelium for quick diffusion. (b) Cortex (c) on the diagram (d) plasma proteins; Blood cells; accept specific examples e.g. albumins, red blood cells; (e) (i) Regulate re-absorption of Sodium salts; (ii) Regulate re-absorption of water 12. (a) Allocation of marks on graph (b) Gynandropsis opt To = 30 [o] C Amaranthus opt. to = 25 [o] C (c)At 5 [o] C, the enzymes that catalyse the process of photosynthesis are inactivated. (d) Amaranthus Terrestrial; Crotolaria terrestrial; (e) 50 [o] C; (f) water; (g)(i) Granum; (ii) Stroma (h) Similarity: Both have double membrane; 1mk Both have fluid filled matrix; Difference : inner membrane of mitochondrion is folded to form cristae while inner membrane of chloroplast is smooth; - chloroplast is biconcave shaped while mitochondria is oval/sausage shaped (any 1x1=1mk) (i) Point at which the rate of photosynthesis equals to the rate of respiration. 13. (a) plants wastes accumulate slowly; - plants produce less toxic wastes; - some excretory products are recycled by plants e.g. CO 2, SO 2 ) - plant tissues are tolerant to toxic wastes; - plant wastes are stored in temporary structures which fall off e.g. leaves (any 3x1=3mks) (b) Diffusion; - Transpiration; - Exudation; - Deposition of wastes/ leaf fall/ flower fall/ storage in bark; - Recycling; - Guttation ; (any 5x1=5mks) (c) 211 ----- ### 14. (a) 1 [st] portion. - Blue; colour was observed 2 [nd] portion Purple; colour was observed 3 [rd] portion Purple; colour was observed (b) A control experiment; (c) Proteins are highly sensitive to temperature and pH changes; ( award if either temp of pH is stated singly ) (d) 1 [st] portion Enzyme pepsin broke down proteins into peptones; 2 [nd] portion Enzyme pepsin works in acidic medium; ( not in basic medium ) 15. (a) A Hepartic portal vein; B Hepartic vein; C Hepartic artery; (b) So that any toxic substances absorbed together with food nutrients from the ileum be detoxified; - So that food substances e.g. glucose, amino acids can be regulated. Only the required quantity of glucose is left in circulation as excess is either stored as glycogen, fat and excess may be respired. Excess amino acids are deaminated; (c) B Deoxygenated C - Oxygenated (d) From the small intestines, it is transported to the liver through Hepartic portal vein; (It is then transported to the heart through the hepartic vein; 16. (a ) graph 212 ----- ### (b) X Lacks internal mechanisms to regulate its internal temperature Y Has internal means to regulate its internal temperature. hence able to maintain it within narrow range (c) X Poikilotherm Y Endotherm (d) Blood vessels vasodilate when temperature is higher than norm to allow for heat loss from blood through radiation, evaporation, etc; when temperature is lower, blood vessels constrict to prevent loss of heat from blood through radiation, evaporation etc; - When temperature is higher, lies flat to allow for heat loss from the body since insulation layer of air is removed; when temperature is lower, hair strands erect to hold air which insulates the body against heat loss through radiation, evaporation etc. 17. (a) Higher temperature; increases the kinetic energy; of water molecules which makes water turn into vapour on the leaf surfaces faster and hence increase rate of transpiration Higher light intensity; influences maximum opening of stomata which increases the surface area; over which transpiration occurs maximumly Wind; carries away moisture around the plant and create a higher saturation deficit; which then increases the rate of water loss/transpiration in plants. Higher relative humidity; reduces saturation deficit; which causes lowering of water loss/transpiration in plants. Higher amount of water in the soil; makes the plant to absorb excess water which increases the need for the plant to get rid of it through transpiration faster; If the leaf is broader and has numerous larger open stomata; the surface area over which water loss occurs is increased; causing increase in the rate of transpiration. ( award max. 12mks ) 18. (a) It protects the underlying tissues against mechanical injury, UV-light rays and entry of pathogens; ( Rej. germs ) As an excretory organs, it enables organisms to eliminate excess water, ions and traces of urea; As a sensory organ, it enables the organisms to be aware of deviations in pressure, touch and temperature from the external environment; It is a thermoregulator such that it enables the body to lose excess heat to lower its temperature back to norm or 213 ----- ### may enable the organisms to store it s heat if the temperature is lower and hence raise it back to the norm; It takes part in osmoregulation by enabling the body fluids to get rid of excess water or excess ions; It takes part in the regulation of the pH of body fluids by enabling the body to get rid of either Hydrogen ions or bi- carbonate ions; (b) Presence of the cornified layer; which tough and has keratin to enable it protect the underlying tissues from mechanical injury; It alsos has sebum; which is antiseptic and enables it to prtect the ody against entry of pathogesn. Presence of melanin; enables it to protect the underlying tissues against damage by t UV-light radiations. It has sweat glands with secretory cells; which absorb excess water, excess ions and traces fo urea from blood and secrete them into the sweat duct; Has the sweat pores; which open son the skin surface to allow for elimination of sweat containing excess water, excess ions and traces of urea; It has nerve endings; which enables it to detect any deviations in temperature, pressure and contact/touch; It has hair follicles; which stand erect when temperature is lower than normal to reduce heat loss from the body or lie flat to enable to body lose excess heat and lower temperature back to the norm when the internal temperature is higher; Has blood vessels; which vasodilate when temperature is higher than norm to enable the organisms lose than the norm to reduce heat loss from the body; 19. a) i) Counter current system; ii) Maintain a diffusion gradient so that there is maximum uptake of oxygen; continue diffusing into blood and Carbon (iv) oxide into water; b) Parallel flow lower diffusion gradient; so that less oxygen diffuse into blood/low rate of gaseous exchange c) Gill filaments d) Placenta Kidney 20 a) i) Remain the same ii) Crenated b) The solution is hypotonic to red blood cells hence the cells grains water; by osmosis; swelling until they burst. c) Isotonic solution 214 ----- ### d) Plasmolysis the process by which plant cells loss water by Osmosis shrink and become flaccid. ## **BIOLOGY DIAGRAMS ** 215 ----- Distilled water Starch and glucose solution Visking tubing Boiling tube 216 ----- 217 ----- 218 ----- 219 ----- 220 ----- 221 ----- 222 ----- 223 ----- 224 ----- 225 ----- Companion Cell R **B** 226 ----- ## **TOPICAL QUESTIONS FOR BIOLOGY ** ### **FORM I TOPICS ** ### **1. a) Define biology ** -the study of life/living things b) List the branches of biology - Zoology (study of animals) - Botany (study of plants) - Microbiology (study of microorganisms) c) Explain the importance of biology - helps to solve environmental problems - Helps to learn scientific skills - For entry into other professions/careers - To apply knowledge to everyday life situations - To classify organisms into their right groups - understanding living organisms d) State the characteristics of living organisms - feeding/nutrition - Growth and development - respiration (to produce energy) - sensitivity/irritation/response - excretion (getting rid of metabolic waste material) - movement/locomotion - reproduction **e) State the main differences between plants and animals ** |Animals|Plants| |---|---| |Specialized excretory organs|No specialized excretory organs| |Respond to stimulus quickly|Slow respond to stimulus| |All body parts grow equally(intercalary)|Grow at shoot tip and root tip only| |Move around to look for food|Stationery| |Heterotrophic|Autotrophic| |Cells have no cell walls|Cells have cell wall made of cellulose| ||| 227 ----- |No chlorophyll|Contain chlorophyll| |---|---| |Give parental care to young|Plants dont care for their young| ### **2. a) i) What is a hand lens? ** - Convex lens mounted on a frame and used to magnify small objects for viewing. **ii) How is a hand lens used? ** - place the lens a short distance from the eye - Bring the object to be viewed near the lens until an enlarged and clear image can be seen. **ii) When is a hand lens used? ** - For reasonably sized objects such as insect wing, leg, flower parts. - Cannot be used for small objects such as cells, stomata. **iv) Explain how to calculate drawing magnification ** - drawing magnification equals to length of drawing divided by length of object or image length divided by actual length i.e. length of drawing or image length Length of object actual length **b) i) what is classification? ** - Orderly arrangement of living organisms into various groups according to their similarities **ii) List the external features used to classify plants ** - rhizoids(e.g. mosses) - frond (e.g. ferns) - roots e.g. taproot, fibrous roots, modified roots - flowers - leaves - buds - seeds **iii) List the external features used to classify animals ** - horns e.g. cattle, goat, sheep, deer, gazelle etc - hooves e.g. cattle, sheep, donkey - mammary glands e.g. cattle, dog, sheep, cat - hair e.g. human, cat - Shell e.g. snail, Tortoise - spines e.g. hedge hog, porcupine **c) Give the reasons why classification is important ** **-** Placing/grouping living organisms into correct groups called taxa - Identification - arrange information about living organisms into orderly and sequential manner i.e. it is easy to study organisms in groups 228 ----- ### -helps in understanding evolutionary relationships - monitoring disappearance and appearance of organisms i.e. predict characteristics of organisms **d) i) Name the taxonomic units of classification in ** **descending order ** - Kingdom (largest unit) - Phylum (animals)/division (plants) - Class - Order - Family - Genus - Species(smallest unit) **ii) What is a species? ** - all organisms which can interbreed and give rise to fertile (viable) offspring **iii) Name the major kingdoms used in classification ** -monera -protoctista/protista -fungi -plantae -animalia **e) i) Define the term binomial nomenclature ** - a scientific system of naming organisms using the generic/genus and specific/species names - e.g. for humans, Homo sapiens **ii) State the principles followed during binomial ** **nomenclature ** - the first (generic) name should begin with a capital letter while the rest are small letters - the two names are printed in italics and if handwritten should be underlined each separately **iii) Give the advantages of using binomial nomenclature ** - no confusion about which organism is referred to - names are internationally accepted regardless of language - shows evolutionary relationship hence easy to understand - useful in naming many species unlike use of common names **iv) Name the types of classification ** - traditional (using common names) - scientific(using binomial nomenclature) 3. a) i) Define the term cell - it is the basic unit of organization of an organism i.e. the basic functional and structural unit of an organism. 229 ----- ### **ii) What is cell biology? ** - study of structure and functioning of a cell - also called cytology **b)i) What is a microscope? ** - an instrument used to magnify objects and make them appear bigger. **ii) Name the types of microscope ** - the light microscope - the electron microscope iii) State the purpose of using a light microscope - it magnifies and reveals the structure details of tiny objects such as the cell, that cannot be seen by the human eye directly - **iv) Draw a labeled sketch of a light microscope ** **v) State the functions of the labeled parts ** a.) Eyepiece used to look through and to magnify the object b.) Course adjustment knob raises or lowers body tube and focuses object roughly c.) Fine adjustment knob raises or lowers body tube by small distances to bring image into fine focus d.) objective lens brings image into focus and also magnifies object/image stage is a platform where object or specimen on slide is placed mirror reflects light through condenser and directs it to objective lens clips hold glass slide in position body tube holds eyepiece and revolving nose piece which has objective lenses limb or base support whole instrument arm for holding when carrying instrument 230 ----- ### revolving nose piece holds objective lens in place enabling change from one objective lens to another **e) i) Explain the procedure followed when using a ** **microscope ** - put the microscope on the bench with the stage facing away from you (viewer) - turn the lower power objective to click in line with the eyepiece - Ensure that the diaphragm/iris is fully open - Adjust the mirror until the stage is illuminated with enough light - Place the slide containing the specimen on the stage for magnification - Draw the image and indicate magnification of the drawing. **ii) State the precautions that are necessary when handling a ** **microscope ** always use two hands when carrying it never place a microscope too close to the edge of the bench or table do not touch the mirror and lens with wet or dirty hands clean dirty lenses using a special lens cleaning cloth clean other parts using a soft cloth or tissue paper low power objective must click into position before and after use. Do not wet any part of the microscope Clean and store well after use **d) i) What is magnification? ** - The power of making an image larger **ii) Give the formula used to calculate magnification in a light ** **microscope ** eyepiece lens magnification x objective lens magnification **iii) Give the reasons for each of the following steps when ** **preparing a cross-section of a stem or leaf for examination ** **under the microscope ** **cutting very thin sections ** thin sections allow light to pass through making it easy to observe the tissue **Using a sharp razor blade during the cutting ** sharp blade does not damage, deform, destroy or distort the surface of cell or tissue it makes thin sections 231 ----- ### **Placing sections in water ** to maintain turgidity hence maintain shape of cell it prevents drying of the section **Staining the sections with iodine before observing ** To make chloroplasts, starch containing structures, granules or plastids distinct. **e) i) List the parts of a cell that can be seen under a light ** **microscope ** a cell membrane b cytoplasm c cell wall e nucleus d vacuole **ii) Draw the general structure of a plant and animal cell ** **iii) List the parts of a cell that can be seen under an ** **electronic microscope and state the functions of each part. ** **Cell wall ** found in plant cells in addition to cell membrane made of cellulose which makes the plant tough allows gases, water and other substances to pass through **Cell membrane ** permeable/selective to control movement of materials in and out of cells bound/encloses the cell contents also called plasma membrane or plasmallema **Cytoplasm ** fluid medium where chemical reactions occur also where cell organelles are suspended **Nucleus ** controls cell activities **Nucleolus ** synthesizes DNA **Vacuole ** 232 ----- ### sacs filled with fluid called cell sap large in plants but small in animals act as reservoirs for food and harmful wastes which would otherwise interfere with the metabolism in cytoplasm **Lysosomes ** store hydrolytic enzymes destroy worn out cell organelles, cells, pathogens digestion of food in unicellular organisms autolysis **Golgi apparatus ** processing/packaging of synthesized materials transporting/secretion of packaged materials/cell materials e.g. glycoproteins and mucus production of lysosomes **Ribosomes ** where protein synthesis takes place **Mitochondrion ** synthesis of ATP/energy **Chloroplasts ** where photosynthesis takes place **Endoplasmic reticulum ** transport of cell secretions can be rough or smooth **iv) State the functions of cell sap ** stores chemical substances, sugar, salts maintains shape of the cell/provides mechanical strength plays a role in osmoregulation by creating an osmotic gradient that brings about movement of water **e) Compare plant and animal cells ** plant cells have chloroplasts lacking in animals animal cells have many small vacuoles while plant cells have a large central vacuole plant cell have cellulose cell walls lacking in animal cells cytoplasm in plant cell is in the periphery but in animal cell it is centrally placed plants store starch, oil and protein while animals store gats and glycogen animal cells have centrioles which plant cells do not have **f) Explain the meaning of each of the following ** **i) Cell ** - Basic unit of organization in an organism - Specialized animal cells include sperm, ovum muscle 233 ----- ### Specialized plant cells include epidermal, guard cell and palisade cell **ii) Tissue ** these are cells of a particular type grouped together to perform a certain function animal tissues include epithelium, blood, nerves, muscle, skeletal and connective tissues plant tissues include epidermal, photosynthetic, vascular, strengthening tissues **iii) Organ ** tissues combine together to form organs an organ is a complex structure with a particular function animal examples include heart, liver, kidney, lungs, brain, blood vessels, muscles, skeleton Plant organs include leaves, roots, flowers, and stem. **iv) Organ system ** organs are grouped together to form systems also called organ systems animal systems include excretory, digestive, respiratory, nervous, circulatory, endocrine(hormones/glands), skeletal systems plant systems include transport system **g) i) Name the structures which are present in plant cells but ** **absent in animal cells ** - Chloroplast - Cell wall **ii) Name the structures which are present in animal cells but ** **absent in plant cells ** Lysosomes Centrioles Pinocytic vesicles **h) Explain how to estimate cell size ** **i) Materials ** cell sizes are measured in units known as micrometers (my) required is a transparent ruler marked in millimeters 1m = 1 mm 1000 **ii) Procedure ** - Click to low power place transparent ruler with its millimeter marks on the stage 234 ----- ### focus so that the millimeter marks can be seen as thick dark lines estimate the diameter of field of view by counting the one millimeter spaces between the first mark and the last one across the field of view as shown below the diameter of the field of view above is estimated as 3.2 mm convert the diameter of the field of view from millimeters to micrometers i.e. 3. Estimate the fraction of the field of view occupied by the cell. This is done by estimating the number of cells places end to end that would fill the diameter of the field of view as shown below in the figure above, it is estimated that approximately six cells will occupy the diameter of the field of view therefore, one cell will occupy of the field of view its diameter is calculated as times the diameter of the field of view **i) In a drawing of a giraffe, the height of the head ** **from the ground was recorded as 10cm. the drawing also ** **showed a magnification of 0.02. calculate the actual height of ** **the giraffe ** Drawing height = 10cm = 500cm Magnification 0.02 i) In a class experiment to estimate sizes of cells a **student observed and obtained millimeter marks on ** **the field of view of a microscope as shown in the ** . **diagram below** 235 ----- ### Millimeter marks - If the student counted 40 cells on the diameter of the field of view, what was the approximate size of the each cell in micrometers? Diameter of field of view = 3 x 1000 = 75 m Number of cells 40 **ii) Under which of the following light microscope ** **magnifications would one see a larger part of the ** **specimen? X40 or x400? Give a reason ** x40 Smaller magnification gives a wider field of view hence a larger part seen. **e.) a) i) Define cell physiology ** the study of the functions of a cell in relation to their structure **ii) State the functions of the cell ** exchange of materials between the cell and the external environment physiological reactions e.g. photosynthesis production of energy through mitochondria **b) i) Describe the structure of cell membrane ** - made up of three layers - Lipid portion sandwiched between two protein layers - Lipid portion enhances penetration of oil soluble substances Pores present to facilitate inward and outward movement of water soluble substances **iii) Give the properties of cell membrane ** semi-permeable sensitive to changes in temperature and pH Possesses electric charges. **c) i) What is diffusion? ** movement of substances/molecules/particles/ions from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration (until equilibrium is reached) **iii) State the factors affecting diffusion ** diffusion gradient/concentration gradient surface area to volume ratio temperature size of molecules state of the diffusing substance thickness of membrane and tissues 236 ----- ### **iii) Explain the roles of diffusion in living organisms ** gaseous exchange absorption of digested food in intestines movement of salts in plants movement of materials between blood capillaries and tissues removal of waste materials from bodies of small organisms air movement in intercellular spaces in plants **iv) Suggest an experiment to demonstrate diffusion ** to a beaker of water, drop crystals of potassium permanganate or copper sulphate leave to stand in a place without disturbing observe the spreading of molecules liquid is coloured uniformly due to diffusion **d) i) What is osmosis? ** Movement of water or solvent molecules from a dilute/hypotonic solution to a more concentrated/hypertonic solution across a semi-permeable membrane. **OR ** movement of solvent molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration through a semi-permeable membrane **ii) State the factors affecting osmosis ** concentration of the solution concentration gradient temperature **iv) Explain the roles of osmosis in living organisms ** helps to draw water into roots of plants helps in the passage of water from one living cell to another in the plant helps to keep plant cells turgid increasing support Helps in opening and closing of stomata. Folding of leaves in Mimosa pudica when touched Feeding in insectivorous plants **v) A group of students set up an experiment to ** **investigate a certain physiological process. The set up ** **is as shown in the diagram below. ** ----- ### After some time they observed that the level of sugar had risen. What was the physiological process under investigation? Osmosis **Why was there a rise in the level of sugar solution? ** sugar solution is more concentrated than cell sap osmosis those cells become more concentrated and therefore draw water from neighbouring cells this process continues until the cells in contact with the water in the container draw it up causing a rise in the level of the sugar solution **Suggest the results that the students would obtain if they ** **repeated the experiment using cooked potato ** The level of sugar solution will not rise. **What is the reason for your suggestion? ** boiling kills/destroys cells making them osmotically inactive **vi) Explain the following terms ** **Hypnotic ** a solution whose concentration is lower than that of the cell **Isotonic ** a solution whose concentration is the same as that of the cell **Hypertonic ** a solution whose concentration is higher than that of the cell **Turgor pressure ** As a cell gains water, its vacuole enlarges and exerts an outward pressure called turgor pressure. 238 ----- ### **Plasmolysis ** if a plant is placed in a hypotonic solution if loses water the protoplasm shrinks to an extent that it pulls away from the cellulose cell wall **Wilting ** when a plant is turgid it can stand upright however, if the cells lose a lot of water, turgidity is reduced the plant then droops because the cells are flaccid the plant is said to wilt **Haemolysis ** if red blood cells are placed in distilled water, the cells take up water by osmosis, swell and burst this is because it does not have any mechanism like the cellulose cell wall to prevent overstretching nor any means of removing excess water this is called haemolysis **e) A form one student placed red blood cells in different salt ** **concentrations and obtained the following results:- ** There was a gain (+) no change (0 zero) and a loss (-) in the volume of the cells as show below: 239 ----- ### **Briefly explain the results of the experiment ** in the first solution, red blood cell absorbed water by osmosis, swell and burst (haemolysis) hence the solution is hypotonic in the second solution, there was no change in size or structure as it was isotonic hence no osmotic gradient in the third solution the red blood cell lost water to shrink hence became crenated as the solution was hypotonic to the cell cytoplasm. **f) i) What is active transport? ** movement of molecules and ions against a concentration gradient the substances move from a lower to a higher concentration gradient by use of energy **ii) State the factors affecting active transport ** oxygen concentration temperature change in pH glucose concentration enzyme inhibitors **iii) Why is oxygen important in the process of active ** **transport? ** - Oxygen is required for respiration, which produces energy necessary for the process to occur. **2.0 ) the factors that affect the rates of the following process ** **in living organisms. ** a.) DIFFUSION. - Diffusion gradient which refers to the difference in concentration of molecules between the region of high concentration and the region of low concentration. Increasing the concentration gradient causes an increase in rate of diffusion and vice versa. -Surface area to volume ratio . is the ratio of total surface area exposed by an organism compared to its body volume. Small sized living organisms have a large surface area to volume ratio. The larger the surface area to volume ratio,the high the rate of diffusion and vice versa. Small organisms like amoeba and paramecium can hence rely on diffusion for transport of substances into and within its body and removal of waste products 240 ----- ### -thickness of membranes. Molecules take longer to diffuse across thick membranes than across thin membranes hence the thin the membrane the higher the rate of diffusion. -Temperature. Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of diffusing molecules making them to spread faster. Increasing temperature increases the rate of diffusion and vice versa -size of molecules/molecular weight. Small sized molecules/molecules of low molecular weight move/diffuse faster hence the rate of diffusion is high where the molecules **. ** involved are small or have low molecular weight and vice versa ** B.)OSMOSIS ** -Temperature. Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of water molecules making them to spread faster. Increasing temperature increases the rate of osmosis and vice versa -concentration gradient/diffusion pressure deficit. Refers to the difference in concentration on either side of a semi- permeable membrane. The higher the osmotic pressure difference the higher the rate of osmosis. **C.) ACTIVE TRANSPORT ** OXYGEN CONCENTRATION. It is required for respiration/to oxidize respiratory substrates to release energy required for active transport. an increase in oxygen concentration causes a simultaneous increase to the rate of active transport upto a certain level. P [H ] Enzymes being protein in nature are P [H ] specific. Extreme change in P [H ] affect the rate of respiration which is controlled by enzymes and may denature the enzymes reducing the rate of active transport. - GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION. is the main respiratory substrate for energy production. An increase in glucose concentration in cells increase the rate of respiration and hence the rate of active transport is increased upto a certain optimum level beyond which any additional increase in glucose concentration has no effect. TEMPERATURE. The process of respiration by which energy for active transport is generated is controlled by enzymes. c- Enzymes work best at temperatures of between 35 [0] 40 [0] c,usually called optimum temperature ranges. At very low temperatures enzymes are inactive lowering the rate of respiration hence low rates of active transport . increase in temperature above optimum ( above 40 [0] c)denatures enzymes 241 ----- ### slowing down respiration and ac tive transport until it finally stops. ENZYMES INHIBITORS. They are substances which slow down (by competing with the enzyme for the active sites in the substrate) or stop ( by blocking the active sites of the enzyme) the activity/funtioning of enzymes .this slows down or stops respiration and so is active transport. **CONCENTRATION OF CARRIER MOLECULES IN THE ** CELL MEMBRANE. They are substances that bind to the ions being transported actively and carrying them across the membrane . increase in concentration of carrier molecules increases the rate of active transport upto a certain level and vice versa. 4.) Explain briefly the role of osmosis in living tissues. In plants: Osmosis facilitates the absorption of water from the soil by plant roots, water is required for the process of photosynthesis. Turgidity of cells contributes to support in herbaceous plants and helps plant to maintain shape. Helps in closing and opening of stomata regulating the process of gaseous exchange and transpiration. It facilitates feeding in insectivorous plants like venus fly trap. In animals: Enables reabsorption of water from the kidney tubules back to blood stream facilitating the process of osmoregulation. It enables organisms in fresh water bodies like amoeba to absorb water. it is applied in food preservation. 5.) explain what happens when plant and animal cells are put in hypotonic and hypertonic solutions. a. i) plant cells in hypotonic solution. The concentration of the plant cell sap is hypertonic to the solution/water medium. the cell draws in water by osmosis through the cell wall, cell membrane into the cell cytoplasm. Water enters the cell vacuole by osmosis; it enlarges and exerts an outward pressure on the cell wall called turgor pressure. Increased turgor pressure pushes the cell cytoplasm against the cell wall until the cell wall cannot stretch any further. The cell becomes firm or rigid and is said to be turgid. As the cell wall is being stretched outwards, it develops a resistant inwards pressure that is equal and opposite to the turgor pressure and this is called wall pressure. 242 ----- ### ii.) Plant cells in hypertonic solution. The plant cell sap is hypotonic to the solution medium. Water molecules are drawn out of the plant cells by osmosis into the hypertonic solution through the semi-permiable membrane of the plant cells. As a result the plant cell will start to shrink/less rigid and become flabby. The cell membrane/plasma membrane is pulled away from the cell wall and the cell is said to be flaccid. this process by which a plant cell lose water, shrink and become flaccid is called plasmolysis. However the shape of the plant cell is maintained by the tough rigid cellulose cell wall which prevents crenation in plant cells. b.i) Animal cells in hypotonic solution. The concentration of water in the cytoplasm of the plant cells is hypertonic to the solution medium in the test. Water molecules are then drawn into the animal cell cytoplasm from the surrounding medium by osmosis through the semipermiable membrane. the cell swells as water is drawn into them by osmosis .as water continues to enter into the cell,the weak animal cell membrane bursts a process called lysis. in red blood cells this process is called haemolysis. However in unicellular organisms like amoeba and paramecium,bursting of their cells does not take place because they have specialized organelles called contractile vacuoles for removal of exces water out of their bodies/cells. **ii.) Animal cells in hypertonic solution. ** The concentration of the animal cells cell cytoplasm is hypotonic to the solution medium in the test. the surrounding hypertonic solution will draw water out of the animal cells by osmosis through the semi-permeable membrane. Continued loss of water causes the cells to be smaller in size and their membranes become wrinkled. This process will continue until the concentration of the cell sap and the surrounding medium is equal i.e isotonic.the process by which animal cells lose water and shrink is called crenation. 6.) Explain briefly the role of active transport in living **organisms. ** It is involved in active reabsorption of glucose and mineral salts in kidney tubules during formation of urine. it enables the absorption of digested food from the alimentary canal/small intestines into the blood stream. Excretion of waste products from body cells for eventual removal. Involved in transmission 243 ----- ### of nerve impulses within the nerve cells through the sodium pump which maintains a balance between sodium and potassium ions. It facilitates accumulation of substances in the body cells to offset osmotic pressure of organisms in dry and marine environment allowing them to absorb water by osmosis and avoid desiccation. In plants it enables plant roots to absorb water from the soil against the concentration gradient. Its involved in translocation of manufactured food in the phloem tissue within the plant body. Its involved in the opening and closing of the stomata through the sodium-potassium pump mechanism. **iv) Outline the roles of active transport in living organisms ** mineral salt intake by plants selective reabsorption of glucose and some salts by kidney tubules absorption of digested good by small intestines excretion of waste products from body cells reabsorption of useful materials in the blood stream or at the tissue fluid sodium pump mechanism in the nerve cells/neurons **f.)a) i) Define nutrition ** the process by which living organisms obtain and assimilate nutrients **ii) State the importance of nutrition ** for respiration to get energy for growth for development to repair and replace worn out and damaged parts and tissues **b) Differentiate the various modes of feeding ** **i) Autotrophism ** manufacturing food from simple organic substances types are photosynthesis and chemosynthesis **ii) Heterotrophism ** obtaining food from autotrophes and other organic substances types are holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic **g.) a) i) Define photosynthesis ** the process by which green plants build up organic compounds from carbon IV oxide and water in the presence of sunlight **ii. State the importance of photosynthesis ** formation of sugars/glucose which is a source of energy 244 ----- ### purification of air(CO2 is used, O2 is released) storage of energy to be used later in respiration stores energy in wood, coal, oil to be used later to run industries **Structural adaptation of the leaf to its function ** The leaf has a broad and flattened lamina to provide a large surface area for trapping optimum light for photosynthesis and allow maximum gaseous exchange. The leaf epidermis is thin ( one cell thick) to reduce the distance across which diffusion of carbon (iv) oxide gas to palisade cells and oxygen gas from palisade cells takes place. The leaf has numerous stomata that allows easy diffusion of gases into and out of the palisade tissue. The leaf cuticle and epidermis are transparent to allow easy penetration of light to the photosynthetic tissue. The palisade cells are numerous,elongated and contain numerous chloroplasts to trapping optimum light for photosynthesis. The palisade tissue is just beneath the upper epidermis exposing them to trap optimum light for photosynthesis. The leaf has numerous leaf veins consisting of a.) xylem vessels and tracheids for transporting water and dissolved mineral salts from the soil to the photosynthetic tissue b.) phloem tissue for translocation of of manufactured food from the leaf to storage organs and other parts of the plant . 245 ----- ### Numerous and large air spaces in the spongy mesopyl layer for optimum gaseous exchange with the photosynthetic tissue. Phylotaxy which is regular arrangement of leaves on the stem minimizes overshadowing and overlapping exposing all leaves to light for photosynthesis. The prominent midrib and leaf veins reduces chances of rolling of leaves maintaining a large surface area for trapping optimum light for photosynthesis. **C) Describe the structure and function of chloroplast ** **i) Structure ** ----- ### **ii) Function ** structure in which photosynthesis takes place **iii) Adaptations ** has numerous/many grana to provide large surface area for packing many chlorophyll pigments have numerous chlorophyll pigments which trap sunlight/light for photosynthesis has stroma/third matrix which contain certain enzymes that catalyze photosynthetic reactions **d) i) Give a word equation for photosynthesis ** Carbon (iv)Oxide + water sunlight sugar + oxygen Chlorophyll NB 6CO 2 +6H 2 O C 6 H 12 0 6 + 6O 2 **.) Describe briefly the process of photosynthesis in plants. ** The process of photosynthesis takes place in green plants allowing them to make their own food. The process is controlled by enzymes and involves a series of reactions that take place in chloroplasts. The raw materials required are water and carbon (iv) oxide.the process takes place in two consecutive stages i.e **Light reaction stage ** Its also called the light dependent stage as it requires light energy . the reactions take place in the granna of the chloroplast. light energy from the sun is trapped by chlorophyll in the chloroplast and converted into chemical energy. This energy splits water molecules into hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms a process is called photolysis. The oxygen atoms are released as aby product or used up in the process of respiration. The hydrogen ions formed are used in the dark stage of photosynthesis. Water hydrogen ions + oxygen atoms 2H 2 O 4H [+ ] + o 2 g Some of the light enrgy is used to combine a molecule called adenosine diphosphate(ADP) with a phosphate group to form the rich energy molecules called adenosine Tri-Phosphate(ATP) ADP + P ATP **Dark reaction stage ** Its also called the light independent stage of photosynthesis since light is not required because it can take place both in presence and absence of light. the reactions are controlled by enzymes. the hydrogen atoms released in the light stage are 247 ----- ### combined with carbon(iv)oxide to form simple sugars mainly glucose. The process uses energy from ATP. This is reffered to as carbon (iv) oxide fixation. The reactions take place in the stroma of chloroplast. The excess glucose is converted into starch or lipids for storage. The general process of photosynthesis can be summarized by the following word and chemical equitions. Water + carbon (iv) oxide [light & chlorophyll ] glucose + oxygen 6H 2 o + 6co 2 C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 **9.) Factors that cause high rate of photosynthesis. ** High water availability in the soil. Water a raw material for photosynthesis is split in presence of light to provide the hydrogen ions required in carbon (iv) fixation. When water is readily available more hydrogen ions are produced hence high rate of photosynthesis. High light intensity. Light splits water molecules to hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms. Increasing light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis up to a certain level beyond which other factors become limiting and rate of photosynthesis becomes constant. rate of photosynthesis Increasing light intensity Day length. Long day length especially at high latitudes (temperate regions) provides more light for photosynthesis causing an increase in the rate of photosynthesis. Light quality. The preferred wavelengths for photosynthesis range between 400nm-700nm. the rate of photosynthesis is higher in red and blue light and lower in all other types of light. Concentration of carbon (iv) oxide. Its a raw material required to combine with hydrogen ions to form simple carbohydrate molecules. Increasing the concentration of carbon (iv) oxide increases the rate of photosynthesis up to an optimum level beyond which other factors limit the rate of photosynthesis. 248 ----- ### rate of photosynthesis concentration of co 2 **f) Give the differences between the light and dark reactions ** |during photosynthesis|Col2| |---|---| |Light reactions|Dark reactions| | occurs in grana| occurs in stroma| **h.) a) i) What are chemicals of life? ** substances which make up cells, tissues and organs of the living system they combine to form organic compounds **ii) What are organic compounds? ** compounds that contain the element carbon **iii) List the organic compounds ** proteins carbohydrates lipids(fats and oils) vitamins enzymes nucleic acids(DNA and RNA) **b) i) What are carbohydrates? ** - Compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen - The elements are in the ratio of I carbon: 2 hydrogen: 1 oxygen **ii) Name the groups of carbohydrates ** monosaccharides (simple carbohydrates) e.g. glucose, fructose and galactose disaccharides ( formed when two monosaccharides combine) e.g. maltose, sucrose, lactose polysaccharides (composed of many monosaccharides and disaccharides) e.g. starch, glycogen, cellulose **iv) State the general functions of carbohydrates ** production of chemical energy storage of starch(plants) and glycogen (animals) commercial uses e.g. manufacture of paper, textiles 249 ----- ### **c) i) what are proteins? ** compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and in addition nitrogen, and sometimes sulphur and or phosphorus building blocks are called amino acids **ii) Name the types of amino acids ** essential amino acids which must be supplied in food since they body cannot synthesize them Non-essential amino acids which body can synthesize. **iv) State the classes of proteins ** first class proteins which supply all the essential amino acids second class proteins which lack at least one amino acid **v) Give the functions of proteins ** structural compounds e.g. muscles, hair, hooves, and feathers as enzymes e.g. pepsin, trypsin hormones e.g. insulin and glucagons antibodies part of haemoglobin molecule actin and myosin in muscles collagen in bones and cartilage pigments in rods and cones for coordination components of blood i.e. plasma proteins **d ) i) What are lipids ** - Fats and oils - They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen - However, they contain a higher proportion of carbon and hydrogen but less oxygen that in carbohydrates **ii) Name the types of lipids ** oils(liquid under room temperature) fats (solid under room temperature) **iii) What are the building blocks of lipids? ** fatty acids and glycerol **v) State the functions of lipids ** production of energy source of metabolic water structural compound **e) i) What are enzymes? ** a chemical compound, protein in nature, which acts as a biological catalyst **ii) State the properties of enzymes ** 250 ----- ### are highly specific in nature they are not used up during chemical reactions work within specific range of temperature work within specific range of pH enzyme controlled reactions are reversible **iii) State the factors that affect enzyme action ** temperature substrate concentration pH of the medium enzyme concentration presence of inhibitors and co-factors **v) Name the types of enzyme inhibitors ** competitive inhibitors non- competitive inhibitors **vi) What are the functions of enzymes? ** enable cellular reactions to take place at a reasonably faster rate Control cell reactions therefore no violent incidences occur in cells that might burn them. **i.) a) Explain the various types of heterotrophic nutrition ** **i) Holozoic ** Mode of feeding by animals where solid complex food substances are ingested, digested and egested. **ii) Saprophytism ** feeding on dead organic matter **iii) Parasitism ** feeding from another organism but not killing it **iv) Symbiosis ** an association in which organisms of different species derive mutual benefit from one another **b) Differentiate between omnivorous, carnivorous and ** **herbivorous modes of nutrition ** **i) Herbivorous ** herbivores feed exclusively on vegetation **ii) Omnivorous ** omnivores are animals which feed partially on plant materials and partially on flesh e.g pigs **iii) Carnivorous ** Carnivores feed on flesh alone e.g. lion **c) i) What is dentition? ** Refers to the number, arrangement and kind of teeth in an animal 251 ----- ### **ii) Distinguish between the terms homodont and heterodont ** homodont have same kind, type, shape and size of teeth which perform similar function e.g. fish, reptiles and amphibians Heterodont have different kind, type, shape and size of teeth which perform different functions as those found in mammals. **iv) Name the types of teeth found in mammals ** Incisors Canines Pre-molars Molars **d) Describe the adaptations and functions of various types of ** **mammalian teeth ** **Incisors ** chisel shaped/wedge shaped found in the front of the buccal cavity used for cutting **i) Canines ** next to incisors very sharp and pointed located at the sides of jaws used for tearing food **ii) Premolars ** next to canines but before molars have cusps and ridges on their surface used for crushing and grinding **iii) Molars ** found at the back of the jaw have cusps and ridges on their surface absent in young mammals but appear later when permanent teeth grow used for grinding and crushing **e) i)Draw a labeled diagram to represent internal structure ** **of a mammalian tooth. ** 252 ----- ### **ii) State the functions of the labeled structures labeled ** **Dentine ** main constituent of teeth like bone in structure but contains no cells **Enamel ** protects tooth from mechanical/physical injury the hard covering of the exposed part of teeth **Crown ** portion of tooth above the gum covered with dentine **Root ** part imbedded in the jaw below the gum covered by substances called cement cement is hard and bone-like **Cement ** bone-like substance covering root and enamel of mammalian tooth **Neck ** region at the same level with the gum forms a junction between the crown and root covered by enamel **Pulp cavity ** at centre of tooth within dentine has blood vessels for transporting nutrients/food and gases has nerves for sensitivity **f) i) What is dental formula? ** formula indicating the number of each kind of teeth for a given species of mammal only half the jaw is included the number in the upper jaw of one side is written above that in the lower jaw of one side the categories of teeth are given in the order incisors, canines, pre-molars, molars **ii) Give examples of dentition in named mammals ** carnivore e.g. dog i [2] / 3, c [ 1] / 1, pm [2] / 3, m [2] / 3 = 42 253 ----- ### herbivore e.g. sheep I [0] /3, c [ 0] /1, pm [2] / 3, m [3] / 3 = 30 Omnivore e.g. human I [2] / 2 . c [1] /1, pm [2] / 2, m [ 3] /3 = 32 **iii) How would one use dental formula to identify the ** **following? ** **Herbivores ** presence of diastema/gap between incisors and premolars free movement of tongue absence of incisors in upper jaw absence of canines presence of hard pad closely packed molars **Carnivore ** presence of canines presence of carnassial teeth presence of incisors in upper jaw/absence of diastema/gap between incisor and premolar **iv) State the functions of the following structures in ** **mammals ** **Carnassials ** tearing flesh from bones Pad of gum provides grasping surface for lower incisors **g) Name the common dental diseases ** dental caries periodontal (pyorrhea and gingivitis) **j.)a) i) What is digestion? ** breakdown of complex food particles by enzymes to simple substances which can be absorbed **ii) Explain the types of digestion ** **Intercellular ** 254 ----- ### Digestion that takes place in food vacuoles inside cells. **Extra cellular ** digestion that takes place outside cells e.g. in the digestive tract **b) i) Draw human digestive system ** 255 ----- ### **ii) Describe the process of digestion in the various parts of ** **the human digestive system** **Mouth ** contains teeth for chewing has tongue for mixing food with saliva has salivary glands for chemical digestion, secretion of enzymes and mucus secretion starch is acted on by salivary amylase enzymes to produce maltose the tongue rolls food into a bolus which is carried into the stomach by peristalsis peristalsis is movement of food along the gut by waves of contraction it facilitates rapid digestion due to its mixing action **Oesophagus ** also called gullet 256 ----- ### forms a passage for food by peristalsis connects the mouth to the stomach **Stomach ** has gastric glands which secrete gastric juices these juices contain hydrochloric acid(HCL), mucus, and the enzymes pepsin, rennin and lipase HCL produces an acidic medium for enzyme action Proteins are acted upon by pepsin to produce peptides Caseinogen is acted upon by rennin to produce casein Fats are acted upon by lipase to produce fatty acids and glycerol Mucus lubricates the stomach and prevents autolysis of stomach (mucus protects stomach) **Duodenum ** the first u-shaped part of the small intestine food in the stomach is now in a semi-liquid form called chime chime leaves the stomach by peristalsis into the duodenum there, the liver produces bile pigments, bile salts and sodium hydrogen carbonate the stomach is usually alkaline to neutralize chime which is acidic bile salts emulsify fats bile comes from the gall bladder through the bile duct sodium hydrogen carbonate provides the correct pH/alkaline pancreatic juices are released by pancreas into the duodenum the juices contain trypsin, chemotrypsin, amylase, lipase and protease proteins are acted upon by trypsin to form polypeptides and amino acids starch is broken down to maltose by amylase **Ileum ** - produces intestinal juices - Intestinal juice contains maltase, sucrase, lactase, erepsin, lipase, and several other peptidases - Maltose is broken down to glucose and galactose by lactase - Sucrose is acted upon by sucrase to glucose Polypeptides are broken down into amino acids by erepsin - Mucus secretion is to protect the ileum wall from digestion/autolysis 257 ----- ### **Colon ** - Commonly called the large intestine - Wider than the ileum - has several mucus-producing cells Highly folded for water absorption - Also prepares food for egestion - egestion is the process by which the insoluble parts of food are discharged from the body in form of faeces. **Rectum ** - Muscular and enlarged - it produces mucus - used for storage and removal of faeces **Anus ** - found at the exterior end of the rectum The rectum opens into the anus - The anus has anal sphincter to control egestion - Anus is used for egestion of faeces **c) Explain how mammalian intestines are adapted to ** **perform their function ** - The mammalian intestines are relatively long and coiled. This allows food enough time and increases surface area for digestion and absorption of products of digestion - The intestinal lumen (inner wall) has projections called villi to increase surface area for absorption - The villi have projections called micro-villi which lead to further increase of surface area for absorption - The walls have glands which secrete enzymes for digestion e.g. maltase, sucrase, lactase, peptidase and enterokinase. - Goblet cells (mucus secreting cells or glands) produce mucus which protects the intestinal wall from being digested and reduces friction. - Intestines have openings of ducts which allow bile, a pancreatic juice into the lumen - The intestines have circular and longitudinal muscles whose contraction and relaxation (peristalsis) leads to mixing of food with enzymes (juices) helps push food along the gut. - The intestines are well supplied with blood vessels that supply oxygen and remove digested food. - Intestines have lacteal vessels for transport of lipids (fats and oils) - Intestines have thin epithelium to facilitate fast/rapid absorption/diffusion **d) What is the function of hydrochloric acid in digestion? ** 258 ----- ### - kills bacteria - activates trypsinogen to trypsin which digests proteins to peptones and peptones to soluble amino acids - provides acidic medium for gastric enzymes **e) i) What is assimilation? ** - The process by which digested food is taken up by cells and used in the body for various purposes. **ii) State the uses of digested food in the bodies of animals ** - Protection - Repair - Growth - Energy production **f) Name the types of food substances in the food that do not ** **undergo digestion in human digestive system ** mineral salts water roughage vitamins **k.) Explain the importance of the following food ** **substances in human nutrition ** **Vitamins ** are organic chemical compounds essential for a healthy body are obtained from fresh fruits and vegetables some are synthesized in the body e.g. vitamin K they are destroyed by overcooking food they protect the body against diseases, play regulatory mechanisms in the body and act as co-enzymes insufficient amounts lead to deficiency diseases e.g. rickets, scurvy, beriberi **a) Mineral salts ** are important in organic compounds containing elements which are essential for normal body metabolism those required in large quantities are called macro-nutrients while those required in small quantities are called micro- nutrients or trace elements They are used in bone and teeth formation. In osmotic balance and neurotransmission insufficient amounts lead to anaemia, rickets, goiter Excess amounts lead to high blood pressure, and dental disorders. **b) Roughage ** 259 ----- ### composed of cellulose and plant fibers digested by cellulose contained by gut microorganisms provides grip essential for peristalsis lack of roughage leads to slow movement of food leading to constipation roughage adds bulk to food for peristalsis to take place **c) Water ** used in transport in the body, universal solvent, hydrolysis insufficient leads to dehydration **l.) Explain the factors that determine energy requirements ** **in humans ** **a) Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) ** this is the energy required when the body is completely at rest used to carry out breathing, heartbeat, circulation of blood and other basic reactions also used in maintaining body temperature at constant all movements or physical work e.g. walking, eating required more energy. **b) Occupation ** means activity occurring everyday everyday activity determines energy requirement People doing heavy work like digging require more energy than office workers. **c) Age ** children carry out many activities and also have more cell division than adults their BMR is therefore higher than for adults as they grow older, they become less active and their energy requirements decrease **d) Body size ** small bodied people have a large surface area to volume ratio their bodies lose more heat energy to the surrounding they therefore require more energy-giving foods this is the opposite for big bodied people **e) Sex ** most males are more muscular than females they also do heavier work than females hence require more energy females do lighter work hence require less energy **f) Climate ** 260 ----- ### in warm climate the body requires less energy in low temperatures the body requires more energy to ### maintain body temperature **m.) Explain various tests carried out on food ** |Test|Procedure|Observation|Conclusion| |---|---|---|---| |Starch|- add iodine solution|- colour changes to blue black/dark blue|Present| |Reducing sugar|Benedicts solution heat/boil/warm in hot water bath|- colour changes to Green to yellow to orange to brown to red|Present| |Non- reducing sugar|Dilute HCL, NaHCO, 3 heat/boil, warm in hot water bath|- colour changes to Green to yellow to orange to brown to red|Present| |Proteins|1% CuSO, 4 5% NaOH|-- colour changes to purple/violet|Present| |Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)|DCPIP drop wise|DCPIP decolorized|Present| |Fats/oils (lipids)|- rub on filter paper - ethanol|- translucent mark - white emulsions|present| ### **FORM TWO TOPICS ** **1. a) i) Define transport ** movement of substances from one part of the body to another **ii) Explain the necessity of transport in plants and animals ** make nutrients move from one point to another movement of respiratory gases i.e. oxygen and carbon IV oxide elimination of metabolic wastes 261 ----- ### movement of hormones movement of water movement of salts movement of enzymes **b) i) Describe the structure and function of root hair ** root hairs are found near the root tip they are cells with elongated finger-like projections which are in contact with soil particles they are permeable to water and mineral salts hence are used to absorb water and mineral salts There large number offers a large surface area for absorption of water and mineral salts. **ii) State ways in which the root hairs are adapted to their ** **functions ** the root hair is long/narrow/numerous to increase surface area for absorption of water and mineral salts many mitochondria in cytoplasm to supply energy for active transport of mineral salts are thin walled to speed up rate of absorption of water and mineral salts **c) i) Compare the internal structure of a dicotyledonous root ** **and a monocotyledonous root ** **Dicot root ** **Monocot root ** **ii) State the similarities and differences between a ** **dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous root ** **Similarities ** 262 ----- ### both used for anchorage and absorption of water and mineral salts both have root hairs, epidermis, pericycle, cortex, endodermis and vascular bundles (xylem and phloem) both may be used to store food/storage organs |Differences|Col2| |---|---| |Monocotyledonous|Dicotyledonous| | phloem and xylem are arranged in ring form alternately pith present| phloem lies between radial rays of central xylem(star shaped) pith absent| ### i ii) Compare the internal structure of a monocotyledonous **and dicotyledonous stem ** Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous **v) Give the similarities and differences between a ** **monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous stem ** **Similarities ** ### both are used for protection both conduct water, salts and food both have epidermis, cortex, pericycle and vascular bundles |Differences|Col2| |---|---| |Monocotyledonous|Dicotyledonous| | vascular bundles are many and scattered some have hollow pith or pith is absent no cambium layer therefore cannot undergo secondary growth very little cortex| vascular bundles are few and arranged in a concentric ring near the epidermis pith large and well developed presence of cambium therefore undergoes secondary growth cortex has several layers of cells| 263 ----- ### **v) State the differences between the internal structure of ** |a root and a stem.|Col2| |---|---| |Root|Stem| | has root hairs no cuticle xylem and phloem arranged alternately in xylem, the small vessels are towards the outside cortex is the widest tissue| no root hairs cuticle present xylem and phloem arranged on the same radii in xylem, the smallest vessels are towards the inside pith is the widest tissue| ### c **) i) Name the transport structures of a flowering plant ** ### xylem vessels and tracheids transport water and mineral salts from the soil Phloem vessels translocate manufactured food from leaves to other parts of the body. **ii) State the ways in which xylem vessels are adapted to their ** **function ** lignified/thickened to prevent collapsing narrow to facilitate capillary no cross walls for continuous flow/column of water have bordered pits for lateral movement of water **d) i) Why do flowering plants need water? ** photosynthesis transport turgidity which helps in plant support solvent i.e. medium for chemical reactions cooling effect during transpiration seed germination **ii) Describe the movement of water from the soil to the ** **leaves of a tall plant ** Soil water exists as a thin film in the soil, between soil particles the concentration of cell sap of root hair is greater than that of the surrounding solution in the soil, thus drawing the water molecules across the cell wall and cell membrane into the root hair by osmosis water drawn into the root hair cell dilutes the cell sap making it less concentrated than that in the adjacent cortex cells of the root 264 ----- ### due to osmotic gradient water moves from the root hair cells into the cortex by osmosis, from cell to cell by osmosis, across the endodermis by active transport into xylem vessels of the root that conduct water into xylem vessels of the stem into xylem vessels of the leaves Stem Once in the stem water moves up the plant aided by the narrowness of the xylem vessels (capillary), root pressure, attraction of water molecules to each other (cohesion). Attraction of water molecules to the walls (adhesion) from the stem water enters the xylem of leaves water moves in the xylem vessels of the stem in a continuous (uninterrupted) water column up to the tree leaves Leaves once in the leaves water moves into the mesophyll cells by osmosis as water vaporizes from the spongy mesophyll cells their sap becomes more concentrated than the adjacent cells as the result water flows into the cell from other surrounding cells which in turn takes in water from xylem vessels within the leaf veins this creates a pull(suction force) called transpiration pull that pulls a stream of water from xylem vessels in the stem and roots The transpiration pull maintains a continuous column of water from the roots to the leaves. **iii) Name the process by which mineral salts enter into a ** **plant ** active transport diffusion **vi) Explain the forces that make water and mineral salts ** **move through a plant ** mineral salts are taken up due to diffusion because of the concentration gradient between the mineral ions in sap and those in soil solution active transport involves energy in form of ATP due to respiration which forces mineral salts through a plant against a concentration gradient water moves by osmosis through a semi-permeable membrane of root hairs and between cells of stem 265 ----- ### in stem water moves by cohesion(attraction of water molecules to each other) it also moves by adhesion(attraction of water molecules to walls) capillarity is due to narrowness of xylem vessels transpiration pull occurs when water vapour evaporates from sub-stomatal chambers into the air root pressure is a force that pushes water up the stem from the roots and causes guttation /exudation **vii) Explain the uptake of mineral salts by plants ** plants require mineral salts for metabolism and proper functioning of their bodies mineral salts are taken up from the soil into the root hairs in form of solution by active transport which requires energy active transport involves substances called carriers taken up together with water and are then carried to the stems and leaves the main process involved in uptake and movement of mineral salts is active transport **e) i) What is transpiration? ** loss of water from plant to the atmosphere **ii) Name the sites through which transpiration takes place in ** **a plant ** stomata (stomatal transpiration) lenticels (lenticular transpiration) cuticle(cuticular transpiration) **iii) State the importance of transpiration to plants ** cooling the plant transport of water transport of mineral salts excretion of excess water from plants excess transpiration causes wilting **v) Explain the structural factors that affect the rate of ** **transpiration in plants ** number of stomata i.e. the more the stomata the higher the rate and vice versa turgidity of the guard cells which control the opening and closing of stomata when they are open transpiration rate is high size of leaves where the larger the surface area the higher the rate of transpiration 266 ----- ### leaf fall leads to lower rate of transpiration and also drying of leaves reduces rate of transpiration Thin cuticle reduces distance through which water vaporizes hence increase transpiration rate. Absence of cuticle also increase rate of transpiration **vi) explain the environmental factors that affect rate of ** **transpiration in plants ** high temperature increases rate of transpiration and low temperature reduces the rate humidity when high increases rate and when low reduces the rate transpiration rate is higher in moving air (wind) than in still air high light intensity increases internal temperature hence higher rate of evaporation leading to higher rate of transpiration availability of water in the soil leads to more absorption hence more loss to the atmosphere atmospheric pressure when high leads to more evaporation and when low leads to low rate evaporation of water **vii) State the structural differences between xylem vessels ** **and sieve tubes ** sieve tubes have cross wall while xylem vessels have none xylem vessels are lignified while sieve tubes are not Sieve tubes have cytoplasm elements while xylem vessels have none. **viii) State the adaptations of plants which enable them to ** **reduce water loss ** thick waxy cuticle reduced leaf size/thorns/spines shedding of leaves Sunken stomata. Water vapour accumulates in the depression of stomata lowering the water vapour concentration gradient leading to lower rate of evaporation rolling of leaves **ix) State the factors that cause increase in the rate of ** **transpiration from leaves ** increased light intensity low relative humidity temperature **x) Explain how drooping of leaves on a hot sunny day is ** **advantageous to a plant ** 267 ----- ### reduces surface area exposed to sun reducing cuticular transpiration **f) Explain how aquatic and terrestrial plants are adapted ** **to deal with problems of transpiration ** a. Mesophytes they grow in soils with enough water water loss is perfectly balanced by absorption of more from the soil no special adaptations b. Xerophytes they grow in dry conditions root grow very deep to absorb water succulent/fleshy leaves to store water few stomata which are sunken thickened waxy cuticle leaves are hairy and often folding some leaves are needle-like/spines or scales leaf surfaces are reduced i.e. small leaves all these adaptations are to reduce water loss c. Hydrophytes plants that grow in water presence of sclereids leaves are broad leaves have many stomata on upper side only (none on the lower surface) some leaves float on water absence or reduced leaf cuticle large air spaces some leaves are submerged poorly developed or reduced vascular bundles **g) i) What is translocation ** transfer of manufactured food substances to the parts where they are required ii) Name the tissue which is responsible for translocation of **manufactured food in flowering plants ** phloem tissue **iii) Name the processes that bring about the translocation of ** **manufactured food ** -active transport Diffusion Mass flow Cytoplasmic streaming 268 ----- ### **iv) Draw a labeled diagram to represent phloem tissue ** **vi) State the functions of the labeled structures ** **cytoplasmic strands ** translocation **Companion cell ** supply nutrients to sieve tube element supply energy for translocation regulates activities of tube cells/elements **Sieve tubes element ** conduct food down the stem **vii) name the compounds that are translocated in phloem ** sugars amino acids hormones e.g auxins oils/lipids resins vitamins **Describe an experiment you would carry out in order to ** **demon-strate that phloem transports manufactured food ** **substances in a plant ** a. Ringing experiment cut a ring in the bark including the phloem from the stem of a woody plant phloem is found next to or just beneath the bark observe daily for some time(more than three weeks) a swelling of the bark appears above the ring this is due to accumulation of food from leaves 269 ----- ### the bark of a second similar plant is removed carefully leaving the phloem intact a swelling does not appear **ii) Use the radioactive tracers ** plant is exposed to carbon containing radio-active carbon C14 C14 is found in the end products of photosynthesis It is finally detected in phloem C14 is found to move in both directions **iii) Collecting exudate from stylets of aphids ** aphids feed on certain plant phloem using their stylets aphid mouthparts are dissected using a sharp razor exudates from the mouthparts are collected and then analyzed sucrose is found to be a major component of the exudates this proves that phloem translocates manufactured food substances **h) Describe an experiment you would carry out to ** **demonstrate that xylem transports water ** i. Either cut a stem of a young plant or twig of a tree under water or else uproot a young herbaceous plant and wash the soil gently put some water in a beaker and add a dye i.e. eosin or red ink and place the cut stem or young plant in a beaker leave for time e.g. between 20 minutes and one hour cut a thin section of stem or leaf mount it on a slide and examine under a microscope observe and note the distribution of the dye or ink the dye appears only in the xylem vessels ii. OR use radio-active tracers, C14 in form of carbon ring a plant then put it in a container containing radio- active phosphorous solution The radio-active phosphorus is later detected in the leaves. **2. a) i)List the components of animal transport ** **systems ** system of blood vessels in which materials are circulated round the body blood, a fluid medium which contains dissolved substances and cells 270 ----- ### the heart, a pumping mechanism which keeps blood in circulation **ii) Distinguish between closed and open circulatory systems ** closed system has blood vessels through which blood moves eg vertebrates open system has no blood vessels hence blood is in direct contact with tissues e.g arthropoda **iii) What are the advantages of the closed circulatory ** **system over open circulatory system? ** Closed system has continuous vessels hence able to generate high pressure Circulates blood over longer distance Circulates blood at a faster rate Efficient transport of nutrients and waste products Animals are more active **iv) Distinguish between single circulatory system and double ** **circulatory system ** **Single circulatory ** blood passes through the heart once in a complete circuit of the body **Double circulation ** -blood enters the heart twice in a complete circulation - Pulmonary circulation from the heart to lungs and back - Systemic circulation from the heart to body systems and back **b) i) describe the general layout of the transport system in ** **mammals ** blood which is a fluid tissue of the body carrying food substances, oxygen, carbon IV oxide and metabolic wastes arteries which are elastic tubes carrying blood from the heart to cells veins which are blood vessels carrying blood away from the cells to the heart capillaries which are extremely numerous and are microscopic channels connecting arteries to veins **ii) Describe the structure and function of the mammalian ** **heart ** the heart is a four-chambered hollow muscle located in the thoracic cavity it consists of two small receiving chambers, the atria(auricles) and two larger pumping chambers, the auricles 271 ----- 272 ----- ### the left ventricles is the most powerful and has the thickest walls this is because it is the chamber which pumps blood throughout the body each time it contracts, blood is forced out into the elastic arteries(aorta) blood moves on to the capillaries from capillaries blood moves to veins and back to the heart through the vena cava 273 ----- ### from vena cava it enters into right auricle which contracts and pumps blood into the right ventricle right ventricle pumps blood into the lungs through the pulmonary artery blood releases carbon IV oxide to lungs and picks oxygen then returns to left auricle left auricle pumps blood into left ventricle left ventricle then pumps blood into the aorta and into arteries, starting the process all over again both auricles contract simultaneously while both **iii) Explain how the mammalian heart is adapted to ** **performing its functions ** the heart is made of muscles that contract and relax synchronously without requiring nervous stimulation nerve supply however, determine contraction strength and frequency the heart is divided into four chambers The right atrium is connected to the right auricle. It receives blood from the whole body. The blood is pumped from the left atrium to the right ventricle To avoid flow back into the right atrium, a valve is present between the two chambers the tricuspid valve The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs This is facilitated by the presence of pulmonary artery A valve is also present to avoid blood flowing back from the pulmonary artery to the right ventricle Blood from the lungs enters the heart through the pulmonary vein into the left atrium. When the left atrium contracts, blood flows into the left ventricle Blood will not flow back into the left atrium because of the presence of bicuspid valve(mitral) The left ventricle is connected with the aorta and when it contracts, blood flows into the aorta for distribution into the whole body The heart muscle surrounding the left ventricle is thicker than that surrounding the right ventricle to be able to generate enough pressure to push blood to the whole body A pace-maker is present in the heart muscle to initiate and synchronise contractions. 274 ----- ### For the heart muscle to be well nourished and be provided with enough oxygen and carbon IV oxide removal, it is supplied with blood by the coronary arteries and drained by the coronary veins **iv) Explain why blood leaving the lungs may not be fully ** **oxygenated ** under ventilation of the lungs blockage of alveoli (air sacs) high cardiac frequency i.e. high rate of pumping of blood in the heart **e) Describe the structure and functions of the blood vessels ** **i. Arteries ** carry away blood from the heart carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery which takes blood from the heart to lungs for oxygen have thick, muscular walls are elastic have narrow lumen all these adaptations are required to withstand high pressure caused by heartbeat **ii. Capillaries ** link arterioles and venules to arteries and veins small in diameter to increase pressure resistance for materials to filter out thin walled as they consist of a single layer of cells to allow diffusion of substances e.g leucocytes to tissues thin walled to allow presence of intercellular spaces large number i.e. numerous to provide a large surface area for exchange of materials have sphincter muscles at the junction of the arterioles and capillaries to control movement of blood into them lie close to the body for easy exchange of materials **iii. Veins ** carry blood back to the heart all carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary vein that carries blood from the heart to lungs have thinner walls than arteries have valves to prevent backflow of blood have wide lumen **g) i) State the ways in which the composition of blood in ** **the pulmonary arterioles differs from that in the ** **pulmonary venules ** 275 ----- |Pulmonary arterioles|Pulmonary venules| |---|---| | deoxygenated high carbon IV oxide low oxygen more nutrients| oxygenated low carbon IV oxide high oxygen less nutrients| ### **ii) Give the reasons why pressure of blood is greater in the ** **arterioles than I the veins of mammals ** blood is pumped to the arteries by the heart at high pressure blood pressure in veins is reduced by capillary resistance arteries have narrow lumen which maintains high pressure/veins have wide lumen which reduces pressure arteries have more/thicker muscular walls which generate pressure/veins have less/thinner muscular walls which reduce pressure **iii) Name the common heart diseases in humans ** thrombosis antheroma arteriosclerosis varicose veins cerebral vascular thrombosis **h) i) State the functions of mammalian blood ** transport of substances defense against diseases clotting temperature regulation **ii) Describe how mammalian blood components carry out ** **their functions ** **Plasma ** transport dissolved food substances like glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol from small intestines to liver and other body tissues transports hormones, enzymes from secretory glands to tissues when required transports carbon IV oxide to lungs and urea from tissues to the kidneys distributes heat bathes the tissues allowing for exchange of materials contains protein fibrinogen and pro-thrombin which take part in blood clotting **Red blood cells (Erythrocytes) ** transports oxygen from the lungs to body tissues in form of haemoglobin 276 ----- ### transport carbon IV oxide from body tissues to the lungs in form of bicarbonates **White blood cells (leucocytes) ** engulf foreign bodies produce antibodies for defense against disease produce antitoxins which neutralize bacterial toxins **Blood platelets (thrombocytes) ** produce an enzyme called thrombokinase/thromboplastin necessary for blood clotting prevents loss of blood, water and mineral salts **iii) State the ways in which the red blood cells are adapted to ** **their functions ** many per unit volume hence carry more oxygen and carbon IV oxide biconcave in shape to provide large surface area for absorption of oxygen and carbon IV oxide absence of nucleolus hence more haemoglobin to carry sufficient oxygen and carbon IV oxide alter shape to be able to pass through the narrow lumen of capillaries to deliver or supply oxygen and carry away carbon IV oxide have haemoglobin with high affinity for uptake of oxygen and carbon IV oxide **iv) State the structural differences between a red blood cell ** **and a white blood cell. ** smaller size - larger size lacks nucleus - nucleated **v) State the functional differences between a red blood cell ** **and a white blood cell ** against harmful pathogens **vi) How does the heart increase blood flow to some parts ** **of the body during exercise ** stronger contractions faster contractions/heartbeat 277 ----- ### **Explain how oxygen and carbon Iv oxide are transported in ** **the blood ** **Oxygen ** oxygen concentration is higher in lungs(alveoli) that in blood oxygen in the alveoli dissolves in the film of moisture and diffuses through thin epithelial and capillary walls into plasma and red blood cells the oxygen combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin blood then becomes oxygenated blood from lungs then travels to all body tissues where the oxyhaemoglobin breaks down to form oxygen and haemoglobin haemoglobin is transported back to the lungs to collect more oxygen while the oxygen in capillaries diffuses into body cells for respiration respiration produces carbon IV oxide **Carbon IV oxide ** carbon IV oxide produced during respiration diffuses out of cells into blood plasma and red blood cells due to concentration gradient carbon IV oxide and water form carbonic acid carbamino compounds with haemoglobin in the presence of carboxyl anhydrase enzyme, hydrogen carbonate is carried in blood to the lungs in the lungs the hydrogen carbonate dissociates to liberate carbon IV oxide which diffuses into alveolar cavity due to concentration gradient from alveolar space carbon IV oxide is expelled during expiration **Most carbon IV oxide is transported from tissues to lungs ** **within the red blood cells and not in the blood plasma. Give ** **the advantages of this mode of transport. ** - PH of blood is not altered/homeostasis is maintained - Within the red blood cell is an enzyme, carbonic anhyrase which helps in fast loading(combining) and offloading of carbon Iv oxide **i) i) what is blood clotting? ** process in which blood components clump together to prevent loss of blood from an injured/cut vessel 278 ----- ### **ii) Name a protein, vitamin, an enzyme and a mineral ** **element involved in blood clotting ** Protein fibrinogen/prothrombin Vitamin - k/quinine Enzyme thrombokinase/thromboplatin/thrombin Mineral element calcium **iii) Describe the blood clotting process ** enzyme thromboplastin produced in the platelets of damaged tissues converts plasma protein prothrombin into thrombin in the presence of calcium ions thrombin converts another plasma protein fibrogen into fibrin in the presence of vitamin K fibrin is insoluble fibrin forms fibres which form a meshwork that forms a clot prothrombin thromboplastin thrombin calcium ion Fibrinogen thrombin fibrin clot vitamin K **iv) State the role of blood clotting on wounds ** prevents blood/body fluids from being lost conserves water and salts prevents entry of microorganisms/pathogens regulates body temperature enables wound to heal faster **v) Explain why blood flowing in blood vessels does not ** **normally clot ** - Presence of anticoagulant in blood **j) i. list the major types of human blood groups ** O, with neither B nor A antigen AB, with both A and B antigens A, with type A antigen B, with type B antigen **iii. explain the meaning of : ** **Universal donor ** a person who can donate blood to any other blood group without agglutination/clumping this is usually blood group O however this person cannot receive blood from other blood groups except group O **Universal recipient ** 279 ----- ### can receive blood from all blood groups without agglutination this is usually blood group AB however, can only donate blood to group AB **iii) What is the difference between rhesus positive and ** **Rhesus negative blood samples? ** rhesus positive blood has the Rhesus (Rh) antigen rhesus negative lacks the Rhesus antigen **vi) What is blood transfusion? ** - Introduction of blood from one person to another **v) Under what conditions would blood transfusion be ** **necessary in people? ** during accidents during surgery in hospitals bleeding mothers when giving birth **vi) How can low blood volume be brought back to ** **normal? ** transfusion taking fluids eating iron rich food/taking iron tablets **How may excessive bleeding result in death? ** Anaemia/low blood volume/loss of iron/low red blood cells count/low haemoglobin leading to low oxygen, loss of nutrients and dehydration. **State the precautions that must be taken before blood ** **transfusion ** blood must be disease free sterilized equipment must be used blood of the recipient and that of the donor must b compatible to both ABO and rhesus factor Fresh blood must be used. **j) i) What is immunity? ** - Resistance to disease by organisms **ii) Distinguish between natural and acquired immunity ** natural immunity is inherited/transmitted from parent to offspring/inborn/innate Acquired immunity is developed after suffering from a disease or through vaccination. **iii) What are allergic reactions? ** Excessive sensitivity and reaction of an individual to certain substances in environment e.g. dust, pollen, perfumes, smoke etc. 280 ----- ### **vi) How does an allergic reaction occur? ** the substances act as antigens an antigen-antibody reaction occurs on surface of cells the cells release a substance called histamine the histamine causes irritation, itching and may stimulate nasal discharge **vii) State the role of vaccination against certain diseases ** protect body against infectious diseases prevent spread/transmission of certain diseases diseases for which vaccination is given include tuberculosis, poliomylitis,measles, whooping cough, diphtheria **3. a) i) What is gaseous exchange? ** The continous exchange of oxygen and carbon Iv oxide between the organism and environment. **ii) Why is gaseous exchange important to organisms? ** to supply oxygen necessary for energy production to remove carbon IV oxide produced during respiration To remove water vapour. **b) i) name the structure used for gaseous exchange by plants ** stomatal pores/stomata lenticels cuticle pneumatophores **ii) Briefly describe the structure of stomata ** are minute pores found in leaf epidermis each consists of a slit-like opening Each is bordered by two large, bean-shaped guard cells. Guard cells contain chloroplasts, unlike the other epidermal cells which enable photosynthesis to occur Inner walls of guard cells are thicker than the outer cells **iii) State the factors which affect stomatal opening ** water which when low stomata close and when high stomata keeps open light as stomata open in bright light and close in darkness temperature **iv) Name the theories suggesting the mechanism of opening ** **and closing of stomata ** interconversion of starch and sugar pH theory mineral ion concentration 281 ----- ### **v) Describe the mechanism of opening and closing of stomata ** stomata close at night and open during daytime This comes about due to changes in turgidity as a result of pH changes in guard cells. In the dark carbon Iv oxide accumulates in the intercellular spaces This raises concentration of carbonic acid The pH drops (pH lowered) Enzymes convert sugar into starch in guard cells Osmotic pressure in guard cells is lowered Water moves out of guard cells by osmosis making cells lose turgidity hence become flaccid The stomata close During day time there is photosynthesis hence the production of sugar, carbon IV oxide concentration is lowered, pH increases, guard cells become turgid causing stomata to open. During the day potassium ions concentrate in guard cells, raising their osmotic pressure and causes then to open In the night the concentration of potassium ions decreases increasing osmotic pressure in guard cells therefore causes stomata to open. **vii) What is the advantage of having stomata open ** **during daytime and having them closed at night? ** opening in the daytime allows diffusion of carbon IV into the leaf for photosynthesis to take place and allows diffusion of oxygen out of the leaf transpiration also takes place, thus cooling the leaf and facilitating uptake of water and mineral slats Closing in the night is to conserve water in the plant especially when there is not enough water available in the soil. **c) i) State the ways in which leaves of plants are adapted to ** **gaseous exchange ** presence of stomata for faster gaseous exchange intercellular spaces/air spaces in the leaf for movement/circulation of air film of moisture around the surface of cells for easy diffusion broad/flattened shape to increase surface area thin lamina to reduce distance of diffusion 282 ----- ### exposed to air for easy diffusion **ii) Describe how gaseous exchange takes place in terrestrial ** **plants ** Gaseous exchange takes place in spongy mesophyll During the day air diffuses into large air spaces of spongy mesophyll through stomata The carbon iv oxide in the air diffuses into the photosynthesis oxygen is produced Some of the oxygen diffuses out of the leaf through stomata During the night air diffuses out of air spaces of spongy mesophyll The air dissolves into film of moisture The oxygen in the air diffuses into cells and is used in respiration during which carbon iv oxide is produced The carbon iv oxide diffuses out of the leaf through stomata due to diffusion/concentration gradient At night carbon iv oxide accumulates in the leaf since photosynthesis does not take place Some gaseous exchange also takes place through cuticle Gaseous exchange occurs through epidermis of young leaves and stems The cork cells at lenticels are loosely packed Gaseous exchange takes place between cork and atmosphere within the loosely packed cells **iii) State the ways in which floating leaves of aquatic ** **plants are adapted to gaseous exchange ** stomata found only on upper dermis to allow efficient gaseous exchange presence to aerenchyma tissues/large air spaces to enable it float/buoyancy/storage of air absence of cuticle to enhance gaseous exchange **iv) How is aerenchyma tissue adapted to its function? ** has large airspaces which store gases/for gaseous exchange/buoyancy **v) Explain stomatal distribution in plants of different ** **habitats ** land plants have their stomata mainly on the lower side to reduce water loss but if on both sides then upper side has very few water plants, floaters, have stomata on upper side to enhance water loss 283 ----- ### in dry areas, plants have leaves with sunken stomata to reduce water loss by transpiration Plants in wet areas have stomata equally distributed on both sides. **d) i) List the types of respiratory surfaces of animals ** cell membrane in unicellular organisms e.g. amoeba gills in fish tracheal system skin, buccal cavity and lungs in amphibians lings in mammals **ii) State the characteristics of respiratory surfaces in animals ** moist thin walled/thin membrane/thin surface Highly/richly vascularised/numerous blood vessels/well supplied with blood vessels. Large surface area **iii) Describe gaseous exchange in protozoa ** example is amoeba small and have large surface area oxygen diffuses into the organism and carbon IV oxide diffuses out into water simple diffusion of gases is enough to meet its respiratory requirements **e) i) Make a labeled drawing of a fish gill ** **ii) How is a fish gill adapted to its function? ** large surface area due to many filaments extensive vascularisation due to capillaries, for gaseous exchange thin filaments to facilitate diffusion of gases presence of rakers to filter solid particles gill bar is bony, hard and firm to support the filaments and rakers and for attachment of filaments and rakers **iii) Discuss gaseous exchange in bony fish ** example is tilapia 284 ----- ### the mouth opens and the floor of the mouth is lowered so that the volume in the mouth is increased and pressure is lowered water then enters into the mouth cavity the mouth is closed and the floor of the mouth raised so that the volume is reduced this raises the pressure, forcing water over gills and out through the operculum As water passes over the gills oxygen diffuses due to concentration gradient (partial pressure) into the blood stream. In the body tissues, carbon IV oxide diffuses into the blood (due to concentration gradient, and is transported to the gills and diffuses out into the water. **iv) What is counter-flow system? ** Where water in which the fish lives flows in opposite direction across the gill. **vi) What is the advantage of counter-flow system? ** maintains a diffusion gradient so that there is maximum uptake of oxygen oxygen continues diffusing into blood and carbon iv oxide into water **f) i) Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in ** **terrestrial insects ** example is cockroach air in the atmosphere contains oxygen air is drawn into the body of the insect through the spiracles due to movement of abdominal muscles these movements cause the opening of spiracles air moves through the trachea to tracheoles oxygen moves from the tracheoles into body cells by diffusion due to concentration gradient carbon iv oxide in the tissues diffuses into tracheoles due to concentration gradient From tracheoles carbon IV oxide moves into trachea and out through the spiracles into the air. **ii) State how traceholes are adapted to gaseous exchange ** thin walls of tracheoles moist surface large surface area due to numerous tracheoles **g) i) What is breathing? ** 285 ----- ### Any process which speeds up the rate of gaseous exchange between an animal and its surrounding. **ii) Name the structures in humans that are used in gaseous ** **exchange ** nose larynx epiglottis trachea lungs pleural membrane pleural cavity diaphragm muscles **iii) Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in a ** **mammal ** Breathing in external intercostals muscles contract while internal intercostals muscles relax, raising the ribcage upwards and outwards muscles of the diaphragm contract hence it flattens the volume of the thoracic cavity increases while pressure decreases higher air pressure in the atmosphere forces air into lungs through the nose Breathing out external intercostals muscles relax while internal intercostals muscles contract, moving the ribcage downwards and inwards muscles of the diaphragm relax hence the diaphragm assumes dome shape the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases while pressure increases the higher pressure forces air out of the lungs through the nose **iv) Explain how mammalian lungs are adapted to gaseous ** **exchange ** large number of alveoli that increase surface area moist inner surface of alveoli for dissolving oxygen/gases to facilitate exchange of gases through alveolar cavities and blood thin walls of alveoli to allow efficient/faster diffusion of gases 286 ----- ### rich capillary/blood supply on alveolar surface to transport oxygen away from the lungs and carbon IV oxide to the lungs **v) Name the features of alveoli that adapt them to their ** **function ** have large surface area/spherical shaped numerous/many to increase surface area one cell thick moist surface for air to diffuse highly vascularised/numerous capillaries **vii) How is the trachea of a mammal suited to its ** **function? ** has a ring of cartilage which keeps it open at all times cilia that move mucus/particles to the top of the trachea i.e. into larynx for removal mucus to trap dust, solid particles and microorganisms hollow for passage of air viii) State the advantages of breathing through the nose rather than through the mouth nose has hairs to filter solid particles it has mucus lining to trap dust particles the nose has cells sensitive to smell for survival it warms the air before it reaches the lungs **ix) Give the conditions under which the carbon iv oxide ** **level rises above normal in ** **mammalian blood ** vigorous exercise emotions/stress disease infection **x) Explain the physiological changes that occur in the ** **body to lower the carbon iv oxide level back to ** **normal when it rises ** heartbeat/cardiac frequency increases to pump blood faster carbon iv oxide from the tissues and supply more oxygen ventilation rate/rate and depth of breathing increases to take more oxygen and remove carbon iv oxide from the lungs arterioles to take in more oxygen and remove carbon iv oxide from the lungs arterioles dilate leading to faster flow of blood to and from body tissues **h) i)Describe the factors which control the rate of breathing ** **in humans ** 287 ----- ### breathing movements usually occur unconsciously it is controlled by the medulla oblongata part of the brain situated at the breathing centre medullar oblongata is in the brain respiratory centre transmits impulses to the diaphragm through phrenic nerves carbon iv oxide concentration in the blood determines the breathing rate if carbon iv oxide is less, the brain is triggered to decrease breathing rate cardiac frequency decreases and the arterioles constrict therefore carbon iv oxide level is raised this brings back to normal level of breathing and carbon iv oxide level increases/is more the brain is triggered to increase breathing rate cardiac frequency is increased there is vasodilation of arterioles carbon iv oxide level falls therefore the normal level is attained and carbon iv oxide is removed faster **ii) Name the respirator diseases ** asthma bronchitis whooping cough pneumonia tuberculosis **4. a) i) Define respiration ** the oxidation/breakdown of food within cells to release energy **ii) Explain the significance of respiration in living organisms ** it yields energy (ATP) this energy enables organisms to move, grow, excrete and reproduce iii) Where does respiration take place? in the mitochondria **b) i) Draw and label a mitochondrion ** ----- ### **ii) State the most important function of mitochondria ** to produce Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which is the energy source of the whole cell **iii) Give the functions of the labeled parts ** **Outer membrane ** controls what enters and what leaves mitochondrion **Cristae ** also called inner membrane increase surface are for attachment of enzymes this is where cellular oxidation reactions occur **Matrix ** enzymes are located here other reactions occur here **c) Explain the roles of enzymes in respiration ** they catalyse reactions i.e. speed up respiration **d) i) What is aerobic respiration ** respiration in the presence of oxygen **ii) Give a word equation for aerobic respiration ** glucose + oxygen - water + carbon iv oxide + energy **iii) What are the end products of aerobic respiration? ** energy carbon iv oxide water **e) i) What is anaerobic respiration ** occurs in the absence of oxygen 289 ----- ### e.g. yeast and certain bacteria release energy in the absence of oxygen **ii) What are obligate anaerobes? ** are completely independent of oxygen **iii) What are facultative anaerobes? ** can survive both in the presence and absence of oxygen also called partial anaerobes **iv) State the word equation representing anaerobic ** **respiration in plants ** - Glucose ethanol + carbon iv oxide + energy **v) Name the end products of anaerobic respiration in plants ** alcohol/ethanol carbon iv oxide energy **g) i) Give a word equation of anaerobic respiration in ** **animals ** - Glucose lactic acid + energy **ii) Name the end products of respiration in animals when ** **there is insufficient oxygen supply ** lactic acid energy **iii) Why is there a high rate of lactic acid production during ** **exercise? ** the demand for oxygen is more than supply leading to anaerobic respiration **iv) Why does lactic acid level reduce after exercise? ** lactic acid is oxidized to form carbon iv oxide and water some is converted to glucose some is converted into glycogen **v) State why accumulation of lactic acid during vigorous ** **exercise lead to an increase in heartbeat ** lactic acid is poisonous to tissues and must be removed to increase supply of oxygen to tissues **State the economic importance of anaerobic respiration ** brewing of alcohol biogas production compost manure formation silage formation baking bread production of dairy products fermentation of milk sewage treatment 290 ----- ### Fermentation of tea in industries **What is oxygen debt? ** amount of oxygen required to convert accumulated lactic acid to water, carbon IV oxide and energy **h) i) What is respiratory quotient(RQ)? ** ration of carbon IV oxide produced to oxygen consumed RQ = volume of CO 2 produced Volume of oxygen consumed **ii) Why are respiratory quotient important ** their calculation assists in identifying the kind of substrate being used in respiration **iii) Name the respiratory substrates ** carbohydrates fats proteins **iv) Why does anaerobic respiration of a given substrate yield ** **a smaller amount of energy than aerobic respiration? ** - Some energy locked up in intermediate products like ethanol in plants and lactic acid in animals substrate is completely oxidized in aerobic respiration **iv) Explain the disadvantages of anaerobic respiration ** Less energy produced in anaerobic respiration since food is partially oxidized while in aerobic respiration food is completely oxidized. Some metabolic wastes accumulate in cells affecting cellular functions Ethanol produced in plants poisons the tissues while lactic acid produced in animals causes muscle fatigue/muscle cramp and may stop muscle contraction Such intermediate wastes are not produced in aerobic respiration **v) Mention the types of experiments carried out for ** **respiration ** germinating seeds which yield energy in form of heat animals produced heat when they respire yeast cells respire to produce heat **5. a) i) Define the following terms ** **Excretion ** the process by which organisms get rid of waste products which result from chemical process which occur in living cells 291 ----- ### **Secretion ** the process by which organisms produce substances which are useful to the body, by glands **Egestion ** removal of indigestive materials from the body **Homeostasis ** maintenance of constant internal environment **ii) Explain why excretion is necessary in plants and animals ** -products of excretion are usually harmful while some are toxic - if allowed to accumulate in the cells they would destroy tissues and interfere with normal metabolism - They are therefore removed through excretion **b) i) Describe how excretion takes place in green plants ** carbon IV oxide, oxygen and water diffuse through the stomata, lenticels and hydathodes some toxic wastes are converted into non-toxic substances these are deposited in certain tissues of the plant or stored in aging structures resins and tannins are exuded through the bark of stem or lost during leaf fall **ii) Why do plants lack complex excretory structures like ** **those of animals? ** plants have lower rates of metabolism plants excrete non-poisonous products derived from carbohydrate metabolism unlike animals which produce toxic wastes derived from protein metabolism plants re-use some of their wastes like nitrogenous wastes used in protein synthesis plants store waste products in roots, fruits and leaves **ii) State the excretory products of plants and some of their ** **uses to humans ** caffeine from tea and coffee is used in medicine and as a stimulant which is harmful to humans quinine used for treating malaria cocaine derived from leaves of cocoa plant used as a stimulant by addicts or as a local anesthesia, also causes damage to the brain, may cause addiction if not well used and is an illegal drug Tannins derived from barks of acacia (wattle bark) trees are used to make ink and tanning (softening) of leather. 292 ----- ### Nicotine got from leaves of tobacco plant stimulates the central nervous, may cause addiction if much is used or consumed. It is used to make cigarettes, cigars and is poisonous. It is a precursor of lung cancer Cannabis sative( bhang) is used to make drugs Gum derived from glues is used for sticking substances and making certain jellies Rubber, a product of latex, got from rubber plant is sued to make tyres and synthetic fibres Morphine from opium poppy plant is a narcotic and illegal drug as it causes addiction Khat and miraa are used as stimulants Colchicines used in inducing polyploidy, cancer therapy, treatment of gouts in small quantities Papain used as meat tenderizer **c) i) Describe excretion in unicellular organisms ** -examples are amoeba and paramecium -They have to remove waste products such as carbon IV oxide and nitrogenous substances e.g urea and ammonia - These diffuse from the body surface into the surrounding water - Diffusion is due to large surface area **ii) List excretory organs and products of mammals ** kidney excretes urea, water and salts skin excretes water, slats and urea lungs excrete carbon IV oxide and water liver excretes bile salts 293 ----- ### **d)i) Draw and label a mammalian skin ** **ii) Explain how the mammalian skin is adapted to its ** **functions ** the skin is made up of dermis and epidermis **Epidermis ** it is made up of three layers the outermost layer, cornified layer is made up of dead cells that prevent entry of microorganisms, prevent physical damage and dessication granular layer made of living cells gives rise to cornified layer malpighian layer is made up of actively dividing cells that give rise to new epidermal cells/granular layer it contains melanin that protects the body against ultra violet rays(radiations) **Dermis ** has several components Has sweat gland which produce sweat through sweat pores on the skin and the sweat evaporates cooling the body by lowering body temperature. When it is cold, no sweat is produced, conserving water sweat contains water, sodium chloride, uric acid and urea hence the skin acts as an excretory organ Has hair. The hair stands erect to trap air when temperature is low to reduce loss/insulation. It lies flat to allow heat loss when temperature is high. 294 ----- ### Has nerve endings which are sensitive to stimuli such as heat, cold, pain, pressure and touch Has subcutaneous fat/adipose fat that insulates the body against heat loss Has arteries and capillaries (blood vessels) that supply food and oxygen and remove excretory products. Arterioles vasodilate when temperatures are high to lose heat by radiation, and convention. Arterioles constrict when temperatures are low to conserve heat i.e. reduce heat loss Has sebaceous glands which secrete sebum, and antiseptic and water repellant that prevents drying and cracking the skin by making the skin supple **e) What is the role of lungs in excretion? ** during respiration oxygen is used up in the body cells to produce energy carbon IV oxide is produced as a by-product the carbon IV oxide must be eliminated from the body elimination is through the lungs also, water vapour is formed and must be removed this removal is through the lungs the lung is therefore considered as an excretory organ as it removes carbon IV oxide and water vapour which are by- products of respiration **f) State the functions of the liver ** **i. Excretion ** in this function the liver is aided by the kidney deamination i.e. excess amino acids converted into urea and uric acid which is transported to skin and kidney for removal detoxification where harmful substances are converted into harmless ones in the liver and transported to kidneys for removal breakdown of worn out blood cells and haemoglobin and the residue excreted through the kidney to give urine a yellow tinge Breakdown of sex hormones after they have performed their function and the wasted are released through the kidney and bile. **ii) Homeostasis ** regulation of blood glucose the normal amount of glucose in blood is about 90mg/100 295 ----- ### increase in blood sugar is detected by cells of the pancreas which secrete insulin insulin stimulates the liver to convert excess glucose to glycogen further excess glucose is converted to fats until the normal blood sugar level is attained Excess glucose is oxidized to carbon IV oxide, water and energy. Excess glucose is also used in respiration decrease in blood sugar level below normal level is detected by the pancreas, which secretes glucagon which stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to glucose until the normal sugar level is attained fats, amino acids are converted to glucose it also leads to reduced oxidation of glucose **Deamination ** excess amino acids are deaminated by the removal of amino group the amino group is converted to ammonia ammonia combines with carbon IV oxide to form urea urea is excreted in urine through the kidney **Detoxification ** poisonous substances are converted to less harmful compounds **Thermal regulation ** maintenance of body temperature heat is generated in the liver by chemical activities the heat is distributed **g) i) Draw a labeled diagram of mammalian nephrone ** 296 ----- ### **ii) Describe how the human kidney functions ** the afferent arterioles, which is a branch of the renal artery, supplies blood to the glomerulus the afferent arteriole has a wider diameter than the efferent arteriole this difference in diameter of afferent and efferent vessels causes high pressure leading to ultra filtration the walls of the blood capillaries are one cell thick hence glucose, amino acids, vitamins, hormones, salts, cratinine, urea and water filter into Bowmans capsule to form glomerular filtrate white blood cells, red blood cells, plasma proteins (such as globulin) and platelets are too large to pass through the capillary walls hence remain in blood capillary the filtrate flows into proximal convoluted tubule where amino acids, vitamins and all glucose are selectively reabsorbed back into the blood stream many mitochondria provide energy for reabsorption of these substances against a concentration gradient by active transport the glomerular filtrate flows into the loop of Henle 297 ----- ### water in the descending loop moves by osmosis into the blood capillaries sodium chloride is actively pumped from the ascending arm of the loop of Henle into the blood capillaries the glomerular filatrate flows into the distal convoluted tubule water and salts are reabsorbed from distal convoluted tubule into blood capillaries the glomerular filtrate flows into collecting tubule (duct) from where more water is reabsorbed into blood stream antiduretic hormone influences the amount of water reabsorbed depending on osmotic pressure of blood the glomerular filtrate from collecting duct, now referred to as urine, is emptied into pelvis and ureter into bladder and out of body through urethra urine consists of excess water, slats and nitrogenous wastes **iii) State the adaptations of proximal convoluted tubule to its ** **function ** folded to increase surface area for absorption thin epithelium to reduce distance of diffusion micro-villi on inner lining to increase surface area for absorption folded to reduce speed of flow for efficient absorption numerous mitochondira to provide energy for reabsorption dense capillary network to transport reabsorbed products **iv) Name the common kidney diseases ** nephritis kidney stones(renal calculi cystitis oedema kidney failure **6. a) i) Why is homeostatic control necessary? ** this provides a constant internal environment so that the cells of the body have the optimum (best) condition for their survival **ii) What is internal environment? ** immediate surrounding of body cells refers to tissue fluid within an organism **b) i) Why is constant body temperature maintained by ** **mammals? ** most enzymes in the body function within a narrow range of temperature 298 ----- ### high temperature denatures enzymes low temperature inactivates and inhibits enzymes i i) Explain the advantage gained by possessing a constant **body temperature** animals remain active despite fluctuations in environmental temperature higher chances of survival in various environments ie they colonize various environments chemical processes in their body continues at an optimum rate **iii) How do mammals regulate body temperature? ** the body temperature of a mammal is kept constant to maintain this temperature the mammal must be able to balance its heat loss against the heat gain body temperature is controlled by the hypothalamus, a specialized part of the brain changes in the temperature within the body and the surrounding are detected by the hypothalamus it transmits impulses to the skin and the blood stream in response to temperature changes hypothalamus acts as a thermostat for the body a mammal loses heat by breathing out, urine, feaces, skin by radiation and by evaporation of sweat. A mammal generates heat by the activity of its muscles, by general metabolism in respiration, or chemical activities In hot conditions the hypothalamus stimulates responses that increase heat loss from the body hence lowering the body temperature Such responses include sweating, vasodilation, keeping its hair flat on the surface of skin and reduction of metabolic rate In cold conditions the hypothalamus stimulates responses that generate heat gain in the body and reduce heat loss to the environment Such responses include shivering, vasoconstriction, raising its hair to trap a layer of air around the skin because still air is a good insulator of heat and by generation of heat by increasing metabolic rate. **iv) Why does body temperature of a healthy person rise up ** **to 37 [o] C on a hot humid day? ** 299 ----- ### sweat evaporation is reduced hence cooling is less therefore more heat is retained in the body causing temperature to rise **v) Name the structures in the human body that detect ** **external temperature changes ** temperature receptors (end bulb corpuscles e.g. bulb of Krause (warmth) and organ of Ruffinni (cold) heat (thermal) receptors **vi) State the advantages that organisms with small surface ** **area to volume ratio experience over those with larger ** heat loss slow hence their body temperature can increase to intolerable levels Heat gain from surrounding slower hence may remain inactive for a long time. Need specialized and complex transport system and also gaseous exchange system **Explain why individuals with smaller sizes require more ** **energy per unit body weight than those with larger sizes. ** surface area to volume ratio is higher in smaller individuals than larger ones, therefore smaller heat is lost faster by smaller ones than larger ones they therefore require more energy per unit body weight to maintain body temperature **c) i) What is the meaning of osmoregulation? ** mechanism which regulates osmotic pressure of internal environment of an organism the regulation/maintenance of salt/solute-water balance of an internal environment **ii) State the importance of osmoregulation ** - Maintenance of constant level of water and slats (osmotic pressure) for optimum/suitable conditions for metabolism suitable for cellular functions **iii) State the ways by which desert mammals conserve water ** fewer glomeruli longer loop of Henle excretion of dry feaces or concentrated urine hump for fat to be metabolized to give metabolic water for use nocturnal, burrowing, aestivate or hibernate sweat glands few or absent more ADH (vasopressin) 300 ----- ### iv ) Explain why some desert animals excrete uric acid rather **than water ** uric acid is less toxic than ammonia, hence elimination of uric acid requires less water than ammonia therefore more water conserved uric acid being less toxic is safer to excrete where there is less water/desert v **) Explain why eating a meal with too much salt leads to ** **production of a small volume of concentrated urine** the concentration of salts in the blood rises leading to production of more ADH hence higher rate of water reabsorption by kidney tubules **vi) Explain how marine fish regulate their osmotic pressure ** swallow plenty of sea water to increase amount of water in the body have chloride excretory cells in their gills to remove excess salts eliminate nitrogenous wastes in form of trimethalamine oxide which requires little water for elimination few/small glomeruli thus slow filtration rate in the kidneys retain nitrogenous wastes in form of urea to raise osmotic pressure of body fluids **d) i) What is the biological significance of maintaining a ** **relatively constant sugar level in a human body? ** body cells are surrounded by tissue fluids that are isotonic/same osmotic pressure as cytoplasm if sugar level is high/hypertonic, cell will lose water by osmosis to the surrounding, thus increasing the concentration of the contents this changes the physiology of the cell if the blood sugar is lower than the normal, the cytoplasm gains water by osmosis, diluting the cell contents, thus altering the physiology of the cell **ii) Discuss the role of the following hormones in blood sugar ** **control ** **Insulin ** insulin is produced when there is increase in blood sugar concentration it converts glucose to glycogen which is in the liver or muscle thus lowering sugar level **Glucagon ** 301 ----- ### when glucose level decreases glucagon is produced, which causes the breakdown of glycogen to glucose thus raising blood sugar level **e) Explain the part played by antidiuretic hormone in ** **homeostasis ** Produced when there is less water (high osmotic pressure above normal level of salt concentration) in the blood. It acts on kidney tubules (nephron) thus increasing water reabsorption from tubules to the blood stream, thus restoring osmotic pressure When there is more water(lower osmotic pressure) or decreased salt concentration in blood, little or no ADH is produced, less water reabsorbed hence water loss in urine (more dilute urine) hence raising the osmotic pressure in body fluids/blood **f) What is the role of blood clotting in homeostasis? ** when a blood vessel is cut, there is exposure of blood platelets to the air this triggers fibrinogen to be converted to fibrin the fibrin forms a clot that prevents body fluids e.g. blood from being lost therefore the clot conserves water and salts in the body **g) Describe the role of the following hormones in ** **homeostasis ** **i. Aldosterone ** concerned with regulation of ionic balance secreted by the cortex of adrenal glands it increases sodium ion uptake by the gut and promotes the reabsorption of sodium ions (and therefore water) in the kidneys) this is accompanied by elimination of potassium ions this raises the overall level of sodium and lowers the overall level of potassium in the blood as sodium ions are absorbed in the blood, chlorine ions follow so as to neutralize the effect of sodium ions the production of aldosterone is regulated by the concentration of sodium ions which has an inhibiting effect, and a fall in sodium ions has a stimulating effect on the adrenal cortex the flow of aldosterone is stimulated by the adreno-cortic- tropic hormone (ACTH) produced in the anterior of the pituitary gland 302 ----- ### however, the main method of control is dependent on the fact that adrenal cortex itself is somehow sensitive to the relative concentration of potassium and sodium in the blood **ii. Adrenaline ** produced by adrenal glands in high concentrations, it increases hydrolysis of glycogen and increases blood sugar it is usually released in emergency cases to increase glucose level for respiration this releases energy for the emergency **h) i) Distinuish between diabetes mellitus and diabetes ** **insipidus ** diabetes mellitus is a condition resulting from insufficient production of insulin causing hyperglucaemia and presence of glucose in urine diabetes insipidus is a condition whereby less or no antidiuretic hormone is secreted hence a high volume of water is passed out in urine in a condition called diuresis **ii) How can high blood sugar level in a person be controlled? ** administer insulin **iii) Why does glucose not normally appear in urine even ** **though it is filtered in the mammalian Bowmans capsule? ** glucose molecules are actively reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubules **iv) When is glycogen which is stored in the liver converted ** **into glucose and released into the blood? ** after activity/when blood sugar (glucose) falls below normal when glucagon stimulates the liver/when glucagon is produced after strenuous/vigorous activity during starvation **v) How would one find out from a sample of urine whether a ** **person is suffering from diabetes mellitus? ** test or react urine in Benedicts solution positive result i.e. orange or red precipitate Positive result is an indication of diabetes mellitus. 303 ----- ### **FORM III TOPICS ** **1. a) i) What is meant by the term binomial ** **nomenclature? ** scientific system of naming organisms using the generic(genus) and specific (species) names **ii) State briefly the general principles of classification of ** **living organisms** scientific names must be in Latin or should be latinised family names are formed by adding the suffix idea to the stem of the genus e.g. the genus Rana become Ranaidea generic names should be a single unique name **b) State the main characteristics of the five kingdoms of ** **organisms ** **i. Monera ** e.g. bacteria unicellular (single celled) prokaryotic (genetic material not surrounded by membrane) cell wall without cellulose lack most organelles small in size (microscopic) **ii. Protista(protoctista) ** single celled(unicellular) eukaryotic (most cell organelles present) when cell walls are present have no cellulose e.g. protozoa and algae usually microscopic **iii. Fungi ** have hyphae (which form mycelia) absence of chlorophyll have rhizoids (lack roots, leaves, stem) have spore forming structures (sporangia) e.g. mucor, rhizopus **iv. Plantae ** most are green/contain chlorophyll autotrophic/feed by photosynthesis cells have cellulose cell walls respond slowly to stimuli (tropism) lack locomotion (are stationary) indefinite growth (at meristems) lack specialized excretory structures **v. Animalia ** 304 ----- ### cells do not have cell walls most carry out locomotion heterotrophic fast response to stimuli (tactic) have specialized excretory structures **c) Describe the economic importance of: ** **i. Fungi ** some cause decay to our food some cause diseases to humans and animals e.g. ringworms may be used as food e.g. mushrooms, yeast some are used in production of antibiotics e.g. penicillin, chloromycin, streptomycin yeast is used in brewing industry, baking and source of vitamin B many cause diseases to our crops e.g. late blight important in recycling nutrients in soil since they cause decay of organic matter mycorrhizal association in forest development may help in water intake/absorption help in nitrogen fixation **Bacteria ** are useful in the manufacture of antibiotics silage formation, fermentation of cheese, butter, milk yoghurt curing of tea, tobacco and retting flax formation of vitamin B12 and K enzymes such as amylase and invertase hormones such as insulin vinegar, acetic acid, lactic acid, citric acid in septic tanks and modern sewage works make use of bacteria biogas production saprophytic bacteria are used in compost decomposition or cause decay symbiotic bacteria are used in compost decomposition or cause decay symbiotic bacteria in herbivores/ruminants help in digestion some diseases in animals/humans and plants are caused by bacteria many bacteria cause food spoilage/decay 305 ----- ### nitrifying and nitrogen fixing bacteria increase soil fertility/make nitrates available denitrifying bacteria reduce soil fertility/convert nitrates into nitrogen/reduce nitrates **d) State the main characteristics of the following division of ** **kingdom plantae ** **i. Bryophyte ** e.g. mosses and liverworts presence of rhizoids lack of vascular tissues (lack phloem and xylem) body parts not differentiated into root, stem, leaves capsule or seta gametophyte generation dominant. **ii. Pteridophyta ** e.g. ferns has true roots, stems and leaves fond with sori on under-surface vascular tissues present sporophyte generation is dominant **iii. Spermatophyte ** photosynthetic well differentiated into roots, stems and leaves well developed vascular system seed bearing plants **e) Name sub-divisions of spermatophyte and state the ** **characteristics of each class ** **i. Gymnospermae (cornifers) ** naked seeds (exposed are all woody trees reproduce by means of cones show xerophytic characteristics xylem have tracheids but lack vessels phloem lacks companion cells single fertilization pollen lands directly on ovules **ii. Angiospermae (flowering plants) ** reproduce by flowers seeds enclosed (in fruits) flowers bisexual hence double fertilization herbaceous pollen grains land on stigma of pistil 306 ----- ### xylem contains vessels phloem contains companion cells ovules contained in ovary **iii. Name the classes and state characteristics of ** **angiospermae ** **Dicotyledonae ** two seed leaves network venation of leaves regularly arranged vascular bundles tap root system broad leaves secondary growth occurs **Monocotyledonae ** one seed leaf parallel venation of leaves irregularly arranged vascular bundles fibrous root system narrow leaves sheath like leaf stalk (petiole) no secondary growth **iv) State the importance of plants ** balancing carbon IV oxide and oxygen in the atmosphere during photosynthesis and respiration influence water cycle reduce soil erosion by bind soil particles together useful products e.g. food, medicine, timber, paper and clothing habitat ( e.g. forests and grassland) for animals which may also be tourist attraction earn money from sales of products aesthetic value/beauty e.g. flowers, shade/shelter, live fences, windbreaks Some are harmful e.g. poisons, weeds, injurious (stinging nettles, thorns), water hyacinth. **f) i) Give the general characteristics of phylum arthropoda ** jointed appendages presence of exoskeleton triploblastic and coelomate segmented body bilateral symmetry (similar halves) **ii. State the characteristics of the following classes of ** **arthropoda ** 307 ----- ### **Diplopoda ** the millipedes two pairs of legs per segment many segments terrestrial habitat body cylindrical and long herbivorous one pair of antennae **Chilopoda ** the centipedes one pair of legs per segment many segments terrestrial habitat body long and ventro-dorsally flattened carnivorous last pair of legs pointing backwards with poison claws called maxillipedes one pair of antennae **Insecta ** three body parts i.e. head thorax, abdomen six legs/three pairs of legs a pair of compound eyes presence of wings a pair of antennae **Crustacean ** two body parts segmented body have pincers (modified legs) to catch prey have hard exoskeleton a pair of compound eyes **Arachnida ** body divided into two parts( abdomen and cephalothorax) simple eyes eight legs (four pairs of legs) **iii) State the economic importance of insects ** ** Beneficial effects ** food supply important in food chains pollinators biological control of pests and other organisms aesthetic value 308 ----- ### contribute to decomposition e.g. litter feeders like beetles **Harmful effects ** pests vectors dirt and disease carriers injurious e.g. stings and bites **g) i) State the general characteristics of chordate ** notochord dorsal slits (pharyngeal cleft during development) bilateral symmetry triploblastic (three layer body-ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm) clear cut head formation multilayered epidermis post anal tail closed circulatory system segmented muscle blocks(myotomes) single pair of gonads **Give the characteristics of the following classes of chordate ** **Pisces ** presence of fins for locomotion two chambered heart presence of overlapping scales presence of gills or operculum for gaseous exchange presence of lateral line for protection streamlined body poikilothermic (body temperature varies with that of environment) **Amphibian ** partially live in fresh water and partially on land poikilothermic pentadactylous with two pairs of limbs webbed feet for locomotion in water body streamlined heart is three chambered moist skin for gaseous exchange **Reptilia ** scales on body poikilothermic homodont teeth except tortoise and turtle all have limbs except snakes 309 ----- ### skin is dry oviparous (lay eggs) no pinna (external ear) three chambered heart 9crocodile has four chambers) skin not glandular no mammary glands **Aves ** the birds homoeothermic (constant body temperature) four chambered heart streamlined body for locomotion in air skin dry and covered by feathers scales on legs hollow bones oviparous (lay eggs) mouths modified into beaks **Mammalian ** hair on the body homoeothermic viviparous (give birth to live young) except a few have mammary glands glandular skin e.g. sweat glands, sebaceous glands four chambered heart pinna (external ear) two pairs of pentadactyl limbs presence of diaphragm have salivary glands **i) i) What is a dichotomous key? ** A biological device (tool) which enables one to identify an organism by progressively opting between two alternative observable characteristics **ii. State the necessity of using a dichotomous key ** used to identify organisms quickly and accurately by following the statements in the key we are able to identify each organism on the basis of a characteristic which is not to be found in other specimens **iii. List the rules followed in constructing a ** **dichotomous key ** use observable characteristics only start with major characteristics, placing organisms into two groups at each stage 310 ----- ### use a single characteristics at a time use contrasting characteristics at each stage e.g 1(a) short, 1(b) tall avoid repeating the same characteristics **iv) Describe the procedure of using a dichotomous key. ** **Make a list of major features of the characteristics to be ** **identified ** look at the features of similarities look at the features of differences between the organisms we can then be able to identify the organisms by distinguishing one from another the key uses a method of elimination by following statements that are correct only for the organism **iv You are provided with a specimen kale leaf. Use the ** **dichotomous key below to identify the taxonomic group to ** **which the specimen belongs. Show the steps (number and ** **letter) in the key that you followed to arrive at the identify of ** **the specimen ** 1 a) leaf broad go to 2 b) leaf narrow Araicaria 2 a) leaf parallel veined Cynodon b) leaf net-veined go to 3 3 a) leaf with one lobe (simple) go to 4 b) leaf with many lobes (compound) Grevellea 4 a) leaf fleshy Kalanchoa b) leaf not fleshy go to 5 5 a) leaf petiole modified to form sheath go to 6 b) leaf petiole not modified to form sheath Brassica 6 a) leaf purple Tradescantia b) leaf green Commelina steps 1a, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5b Identify Brassica v) You have been provided with four animals labeled K **(mature adult housefly), L (mature adult grasshopper, ** **M(maize flour beetle) and N(worker termite) use the ** **dichotomous key below to identify the specimens. Write ** **down in the correct order, the steps (number and letter) in ** **the key that you followed to arrive at your answer. ** Dichotomous key 1 a) animal with wings go to 2 b) animal without wings go to 7 2 a) with two pairs of wings go to 3 311 ----- ### b) with one pair of wings Diptera 3 a) with membranous wings go to 4 b) hind pair of membranous wings go to 6 4 a) with long abdomen Odontata b) medium sized abdomen go to 5 5 a) wings with coloured scales Lepidoptera b) wings without scales hymenoptera 6 a) forewings hard and shell-like coleopteran b) forewings hard but not shell-like Orthoptera 7 a) body horizontally flattened Isoptera b) body laterally flattened Symphonoptera **Identify the orders o the various specimens as per the table ** |below|Col2|Col3| |---|---|---| |Specimen|Order|Steps followed| |K-housefly L- grasshopper M- beetle M-termite|Diptera Orthoptera Coleoptera Isoptera|1a,2b 1a, 2a, 3b, 6b 1a, 2a, 3b, 6a 1b, 7a| ### **2 a) Define the following ecological terms ** ### **i. Ecology ** study of the interrelationships between organisms and their environment **ii. Environment ** surrounding of the organism i.e. biotic or a biotic factors **iii. Habitat ** A specific locality (home) of a living organism with a set of factors (conditions) in which an organism lives. **iv. Ecological niche ** Role of an organism in its habitat e.g. feeding relationship **v.** **Population ** Number (group) of organisms of a species occupying a given habitat **vi. Community ** Refers to different species of (plants and animals) organisms in a given habitat (area) co-existing or interacting (living) with each other and the environment in which they live **vii. Ecosystem ** A community of organisms interacting with one another and the environment in which they live **viii. Biosphere ** 312 ----- ### The earth and its atmosphere where living organisms are found **ix. Autecology ** Study of a single (individual) species of plants or animals within a community, ecosystem, habitat or environment. **x.** **Synecology ** Study of natural communities (plants and animals) or populations interacting within an ecosystem. **xi. Carrying capacity ** maximum number of organisms an area can support without being depleted **xii. Biome ** geographical area with particular climatic conditions and flora and fauna it constitutes many ecosystems **xiii. Biomass ** dry weight (mass) of a living organism in a given area units of measurement are kg/m2/year **b) i) What are abiotic factors? ** non-living components of the ecosystem **ii) Explain how abiotic factors affect living organisms ** **Wind ** this influences rate of water evaporation from organisms therefore it affects distribution of organisms e.g. wind increases rate of transpiration and evaporation of water from the soil wind is an agent of soil erosion, may break and uproot trees may aid in the formation of sand dunes which can form habitats for some desert plants wind disperses fruits, seeds, spores wind forms waves in lakes and oceans which enhances aeration of water which replenishes oxygen concentration necessary for life wind is an agent of pollination **Temperature ** influences rate of enzyme action in photosynthesis and other metabolic reactions in plants and animals organisms function within a narrow range of temperature it affects distribution of organisms changes in temperature affect rate of photosynthesis and biochemical reactions e.g. metabolism and enzyme reaction temperature increases rate of transpiration 313 ----- ### **Light ** needed by green plants and photosynthetic bacteria which are primary producers animals depend on plants directly or indirectly for food main source of light is the sun light is necessary for synthesis of vitamin D in certain animals some plants need light for flowering seeds like lettuce need light for germination **Humidity ** amount of water vapour held by the air affects the rate at which water is lost from organisms body by evaporation and stomatal transpiration when humidity is low the rate of transpiration increases humidity influences distribution of organisms **PH ** each plant requires a specific PH in which to grow (acidic, neutral or alkalinic) pH affects enzyme reaction in metabolism **Salinity ** some ions are needed for plant and animal nutrition osmoregulation implants and animals is affected by salinity **Topography ** altitude affects light, atmospheric pressure and light Slope influences surface runoff, wind erosion, etc. mountains affect distribution of organisms which differs in leeward side and windward side mountains affect distribution of organisms which differ on lowlands and on highlands mountains also form physical barriers to migration of organism and may cause isolation of species background may offer camouflage to some organisms hence protection from enemies **Rainfall (water) or precipitation ** amount and distribution of rainfall affect vegetation type this consequently affects distribution of animals e.g. polar region water frozen hence only well adapted organisms survive fewer organisms found in deserts where rainfall is less Water is required for seed germination, raw material for photosynthesis, solvent for mineral salts. Provides turgidity 314 ----- ### for plant support, medium for transport, disperses fruits, seeds and spores **Pressure ** the weight atmosphere exerts upon the earth varies with altitude 9the higher the altitude the less the pressure this variation implies change in density which directly means less oxygen for respiration and less carbon iv oxide for photosynthesis and this affects distribution of organisms **Mineral salts (trace elements) ** these affect distribution of plants in the soil plants thrive best where elements are available Plants living in soil deficient in a particular element must have special methods of obtaining it. They harbor nitrogen fixing bacteria and others have carnivorous habit Plant distribution influences animal distribution **c) i) What are biotic factors? ** refers to living organisms in an area biotic environment of an organism constitutes all organisms around it, which it relates or interacts with in various ways **ii) Give examples of biotic factors affecting ecosystems ** feeding relationships predation competition diseases and pests human activities **d) Discuss how the various biotic factors affect living ** **organisms ** **i. Competition ** organisms compete with one another for food, light, water, mates and shelter organisms must live together for competition for available resources those which cannot cope either structurally or behaviorally will migrate or die those remaining, due to better adaptations will increase in population competition between members of the same species is called intra-specific competition e.g. for mates Competition between members of different species is inter specific competition e.g. for food and space. 315 ----- ### **ii. Predation ** this is predator-prey relationship predator feeds on prey hence both control the others population Distribution of predator and prey is important as predator cannot survive without prey It there is no predator the prey will increase in population beyond carrying capacity hence die due to environment depletion **iii. Parasitism ** an association where an organism lives in or on another living organism obtaining food(and other benefits) from it, causing harm to it (without necessary killing it) parasites may kill host they deprive host of food make host weak by introducing diseases make reproductive ability of host low hence host becomes susceptible to predation **iv. Diseases and parasites ** make organisms weak and susceptible to predation kill organisms and reduce their population **v.** **Symbiotic ** and association of organisms of different species where both benefit from the association i.e. there is mutual benefit **vi. Human activities ** these are human factors which have an influence on the biosphere examples are road construction, industrialization, deforestation, agriculture, pollution, poaching, fishing conservation, population control affect ecosystem and balance of nature **Saprophytism ** saprophytes are organisms which obtain organic matter in solution from dead and decaying tissues of plants and animals they include saprophytic bacteria and fungi they make available carbon, nitrogen and other elements form dead to living organisms they are useful in recycling nutrients in nature **e)i) What is nitrogen cycle? ** The process by which nitrogen in the air is made available plants and animals and eventually returns to the air. 316 ----- ### **ii) Draw a simplified diagram representing the nitrogen ** **cycle ** **iii) Describe the nitrogen cycle ** during thunderstorms/lightning nitrogen gas combines with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides nitrogen oxides dissolve in water to form nitric acid acid is deposited in the soil by rain nitric acid combines with chemical substances to form nitrates or nitric acid dissociates to form nitrates which are absorbed by plants symbiotic bacteria (Rhizobium) which are found in root nodules of leguminous plants fix free nitrogen to nitrates free living bacteria (clostridium and Azotobacter) fix nitrogen to nitrates nostoc algae (Anabaema chlorella) fix nitrogen to nitrates plants use nitrates to form plant proteins animals feed on plants and convert plant proteins into animal proteins plants and animals die and are decomposed by putrefying bacteria, fungi(saprophytes) decomposing plants, animals and nitrogenous wastes release ammonia which is converted to nitrites by Nitrosomonas and nitrococcus bacteria nitrites are converted to nitrates by nitrobacter bacteria nitrates in the soil can be converted to free nitrogen (denitrification) by some fungi, pseudomonas and theobaccilus bacteria generally called denitrifying bacteria **iii. Nitrogen in the atmosphere cannot be directly ** **utilized by plants. State two ways by which this ** **nitrogen is made available for plant use ** fixation by microorganisms (Rhixobium, Axotobacter) fixation by electrical discharge in atmosphere i.e. conversion by thunderstorm or lightning 317 ----- ### **f) i) Describe how energy flows from the sun through the ** **various trophic levels in an ecosystem ** energy from the sun is trapped by green plants during photosynthesis, producing chemical energy9food or carbohydrates green plants are producers and occupy the first trophic level green plants are eaten by herbivores called primary producers as they occupy the second trophic level herbivores are eaten by carnivores, secondary consumers, which occupy the third trophic level when organisms 9plant and animals) die, fungi and bacteria which are saprophytic organisms feed on them thus causing them to decompose into simple substances e.g. mineral salts these organisms are called decomposers and detrivores decomposer feed on dead organic matter hence cause decomposition and decay which releases nutrients for plants, linking biotic and a biotic components at all levels energy is lost through respiration **Give the reasons for loss of energy from one trophic level to ** **another in a food chain ** insufficient utilization of food resources(wastage) e.g by defalcation through respiration through excretion e.g. urination and sweating **Why are green plants referred to as primary producers in an ** **ecosystem? ** - They utilize the energy from the sun to manufacture food for themselves and for subsequent trophic level (consumers) and other organisms vi . Explain the following terms giving suitable examples **Food chain ** a nutritional sequence between producers and consumers through which energy flows in a straight line i.e. linear representation of feeding relationship between different organisms in an ecosystem if one consumer or the producer is removed the food chain is broken arrow points to the direction of energy flow e.g. green plant herbivore carnivore decomposer **Food web ** 318 ----- ### complex feeding relationship where a consumer feeds on more than one type of food while several herbivores feed on one type of plant it is an interrelationship of many food chains consumers are usually fewer than producers to ensure survival of both **Pyramid of numbers ** this is a diagrammatic representation of numbers of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain usually there are more producers than consumers hence producers herbivores carnivore the reason for the pyramid is because herbivores feed on many plants (producers) as carnivores feed on many herbivores sometimes this may not be true e.g. when many caterpillars feed on one tree or parasites on a herbivore this gives an inverted pyramid of numbers **Pyramid of biomass ** refers to diagrammatic representation total dry weight of organisms at different trophic levels in a food chain producers have greater biomass than any level of consumers progressively size of organisms in successive e trophic levels increases amount of individuals decreases in successive levels **Account for the decrease of biomass in the successive trophic ** **levels ** 319 ----- ### fixed energy which supports living matter decreases at each successive trophic level since energy is lost by respiration and indigested (unconverted) materials hence less biomass supported at each level **h) i) Describe the three characteristics of a population ** **growth ** increase in numbers decrease in numbers/growth rate change in numbers **Dispersion ** spread or distribution of organisms in a habitat **Density ** the number of individuals per unit area **ii) Explain how the following methods are used to estimate ** **population of organisms ** **quadrat method ** identify the study area throw or mark out the quadrat in the area of study at random identify or label the various species of plants in the quadrat count plants of each species record the numbers repeat the process work out the average per quadrat for each species calculate the total number of different species in the area or calculate the population for the total area of habitat **Line transect ** a string is stretched along an identified area all plants touching the string are counted **Belt transect ** preliminary study of the study area to estimate size or make a sketch map two parallel lines (strings or ropes) running for a determined distance and width count the number of organisms in the transect calculate the area covered by the transect calculate the number of organisms being investigated per unit area repeat this process at least three times in other parts of the study area find the mean number of organisms per unit area from all the belt transects 320 ----- ### from this figure calculate the total population of the desired organisms in the study area. **Capture-recapture method ** e.g. grasshoppers or fish capture the grasshoppers count and mark using permanent ink record release and allow time recapture and count the marked and unmarked total population is equal to the number of marked and unmarked grasshoppers in the second sample multiplied by the number of marked grasshoppers in the first sample divided by number of grasshoppers marked in the second sample that were recaptured **2. a) Describe the adaptations of plants to various ** **habitats ** **i. Xerophytes ** grow in areas with scarcity of water roots grow deeply and extensively (widely spread) to ensure access to water thick succulent stems, roots and leaves for water storage photosynthetic stems take place of leaves which would lose a lot of water Leaves are needle-like (reduced to spines), scaly, have sunken stomata. Some have curled (rolled) leaves. Some have thick waxy cuticle, reduced number of stomata to reduce water loss by transpiration some shed leaves during dry season to reduce water loss presence of thorns for protection short life cycle to ensure survival reversed stomatal rhythm **ii. Hyrophytes ** grow in places with plenty of water(waterlogged) aerenchyma a tissue (airspaces) and large intercellular spaces and long fibrous roots for buoyancy (floating in water) poorly developed support tissues (sclerenchyma) because water provides the necessary support upper epidermis of leaves have more stomata than lower epidermis for gaseous exchange or for increased rate of transpiration 321 ----- ### poorly developed conducting tissues (xylem and phloem) because plants obtain water by diffusion **iii. Mesophytes ** grow in well watered soils (common plants) no special adaptations, but depending on particular habitat, may have some adaptations in forests they grow fast, tall to capture light. Have climbers while some are adapted to carry out photosynthesis in low light intensities (those that form undergrowth) in places with adequate water they form broad leaves, thin cuticle and many stomata on both leaf surfaces in direr regions they possess more stomata on the lower leaf surface and are deep rooted some are shallow rooted and develop buttress and prop roots for support some have waxy or glossy surface to reflect sun rays and drip off rain water **iv. Halophytes ** plants that grow in very salty soil where the salt concentration is higher than that in the plant have root cells which concentrate a lot of salts in them and enable then to take in water by osmosis succulent roots to store water have pneumatophores (breathing roots) to take in oxygen some have buttress roots for support secrete excess salt by use of salt glands have large airspaces in leaves and stems for buoyancy and to store air capable of photosynthesis at low light intensities e.g. mangrove **b) i) What is pollution? ** any process which leads to adverse or harmful changes in the environment **ii) Explain the various human activities that have caused ** **pollution ** **Causes and effects of air pollution ** sulphur iv oxide, hydrogen sulphide, chlorine, oxides of nitrogen produced by industries, sewage, decomposing organic matter and fumes affect gaseous exchange, makes acid rain and damage plant leaves 322 ----- ### aerosols, herbicides, insecticides (agrochemicals), paint spays, acaricides and CFCs sprayed to control diseases, pests and weeds affect respiratory organs of animals. The chemicals are residual and persistent (not easily broken down) and bring depletion of the ozone layer smoke and fumes produced in areas with heavy industries, motor vehicles, fires which burn fuel, oil, wood and coal cause carbon ii oxide, poisoning affect respiratory systems and affect visibility particles in smoke and fumes settle on leaves and stop photosynthesis carbon iv oxide causes green house effect which causes temperature inversion as a result of heating the lower layers of atmosphere sound and noise produced incessantly by machines, aeroplanes and heavy vehicles affect hearing in animals dust from cement factories, quarries, dust roads settles on leaves limiting photosynthesis removal of vegetation interferes with carbon cycle radio-active emissions from nuclear reactors, mines and bombs cause cancer, mutations and death. **Control of air pollution ** use of lead free petrol in motor vehicles, air craft, aeroplanes and petroleum engines uses of smokeless fuels and electricity filtration, dissolution and use of chemicals to remove harmful gases factories should be erected far away from residential areas use of tall chimneys reduce volume or intensity of sound e.g. by use of ear muffs concords should fly at higher altitudes and aeroplanes to fly high up **State the causes, effects and methods of controlling and ** **prop roots for support water pollution ** **Causes and effects ** agrochemicals e.g. fertilizers cause eutrophication leading to increase in animal population Silting makes water surfaces shallow and silt clogs stomata and gills of fish reducing rates of photosynthesis and 323 ----- ### gaseous exchange. It also leads to reduction of algae which causes reduction of consumers i.e. animal population industrial and domestic wastes contain toxic materials which kill producers and other organism while oily substances in wastes may clog gills of fish and may change pH of water oxygen solubility is also reduced by oily surfaces Untreated sewage and effluents where decomposition or organic matter in sewage reduces oxygen supply and sewage provides food for bacteria increasing their population and demand for oxygen thus depriving fish of oxygen. Human feaces causes eutrophication, carbon IV oxide produced by decomposition of faecal matter changes pH of water interferes with photosynthesis and may clog fish gills or block light penetration which interferes with producers thereby decreasing productivity. Dumping of chemicals from industries with toxic pollutants which kill organisms Spillage of oil and chemicals block oxygen and kill organisms Discharge of water from industries into water body where high temperatures reduce amount of oxygen in the water causing organism to suffocate and die Untreated sewage may lead to outbreak of epidemics **Control of water pollution ** -pollution caused by domestic effluents may be controlled by treating domestic waste, using biotechnology, banning the use of phosphate-based detergents, using plastic pipes instead of those made from lead, recycling gabbage, using biodegradable detergents. Pollution caused by industrial waste may be controlled by treating/cooling industrial waste, carrying out environmental impact assessment before establishing industries Oil spillage may be controlled by cleaning spilled oil biotechnology and penalizing the industry individual or companies which cause oil spills/water pollution Pollution caused by agrochemicals may be controlled by using mechanical control of weeds, biological control of weeds and pests, biodegradable organic fertilizer herbicides, insecticides pesticides, organic farming educate farmers on the use of correct amount of agrochemicals 324 ----- ### silting may be controlled by appropriate farming practices, contour farming, reafforestation, building gabions and terracing **iv) State the causes /effects and control methods of soil ** **pollution ** **Causes and effects ** Air pollutants e.g. sulphur IV oxide fumes from sulphuric acid with rain water. The acid rain alters soil pH therefore affecting plants that cannot tolerate acidic soil most aerosols sprayed to control pests and diseases precipitate in the soil and are taken up by plants which make its concentration many times higher, increasing the toxicity in the plants which absorb them petroleum products due to spillage by oil tankers making it impossible for plant roots to obtain oxygen in oil saturated soils, therefore plants are killed agrochemicals and inorganic fertilizers contain heavy metals that are not used up by plants and eventually soil microorganisms cannot inhabit the soils organic matter slows down, life ceases and soil becomes exhausted community, household wastes and industrial wastes disposal is a major problem in big towns and cities. commodities packaged in metal tins, rubber, plastic containers, scrap metal, glass bottles, different types of paper are nuisance to the environment, rendering it useless for agricultural purposes **Control of soil pollution ** use of organic farming techniques biological control of pests, diseases, parasites recycling of non-degradable containers or burying them safely after use controlled burning of garbage treatment of human and industrial waste for safe disposal avoid spilling chemicals and oil when used **v) Define biological control give suitable examples ** using a living organism to regulate, control or reduce the population of another organism e.g beetles to feed on water hyacinth, fish to feed on mosquito larvae. **vi) What is eutrophication? ** enrichment of water bodies with nutrients due to discharge of sewage leading to rapid growth of surface plants 325 ----- ### **viii) What are the effects of eutrophication? ** enrichment of water bodies with nutrients due to discharge ### of sewage leading to rapid growth of surface plants **vii) What are the effects of eutrophication? ** - The plants block light from reaching plants underneath hence no photosynthesis The plants die and decompose leading to lack of oxygen hence animals also die **c) Describe the symptoms, mode of transmission and control ** **of cholera, typhoid malaria and amoebic dysentery in ** |humans|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5| |---|---|---|---|---| |Disease|Causative agent|Transmissio n|Symptom s|Control| |Cholera|Vibrio cholerae(bac terium)|Contaminate d food or water Spread by flies form faeces|Intestinal pain Diarrhea Vomiting Dehydrati on|Proper hygiene e.g. boiling drinking water Vaccination| |Typhoid|Salmonella typhi (bacterium)| contami nated food or water spread by flies from faeces| fever rashe s diarr hea + bloo d from bowe ls| proper sanitati on vaccina tion| |Malaria|Plasmodium (protozoa)|- bite by infected female anopheles mosquito|- fever Joint pains Vomiting Headache Anaemia| killing mosqui to killing the mosqui to larvae drainin g stagnan t water clearin| 326 ----- |Col1|Col2|Col3|Col4|g bushes treatme nt sleep under mosqui to net| |---|---|---|---|---| |Amoebi c dysenter y (amoebi asis)|Entamoeba hystolytica (bacterium)|- contaminated food or water due to improper disposal of faeces|- intestinal pain Diarrhea Vomiting Dehydrati on| sanitati on person al hygien e cook food well treatme nt using drugs| ### ** d) Discuss Ascaris lumbricoides under the following sub-** **headings ** **i. Mode of transmission ** through ingestion of contaminated food live in intestines **ii. Effects of parasite on the host ** inflammation of lungs pneumonia produce toxic substances intestinal obstruction **iii. Adaptations ** thick cuticle which protects it against digestion lays many eggs to ensure survival mouthparts for sucking partly digested food lack of elaborate alimentary canal tolerant to low oxygen concentration two hosts to ensure survival eggs have protective cover to ensure survival in adverse environments **iv. Control and prevention ** proper sanitation 327 ----- ### wash hand after defaecation and before eating **e) Discuss schistosoma under the following sub-headings ** **i. Mode of transmission ** through contaminated water in swamps, etc **ii. Effects on host ** bleeding in lungs blood stained urine unthriftiness **iii. Adaptations ** has two hosts to increase chances of survival eggs have a hook like structure which raptures the walls of intestine or bladder lay large number of eggs to ensure survival larvae have a sucker for attachment on human skin which it digests larva has a tail which it swims with in search of host in water prolonged association between male and female to ensure that fertilization takes place adults can tolerate low oxygen concentration (in the animal tissues) adult worm secretes chemicals against antibodies larvae and eggs (have glands that) secrete lytic enzymes to soften the tissues that ease penetration larvae are encysted so as to survive adverse conditions **iv) Control and prevention ** proper use of toilet facilities boiling water before use avoid bathing/washing in infected water Use of molluscicides (chemicals that kill snails/biological control/clearing water weeds on which snails feed. Drainage of stagnant water 3. Wearing gum/rubber boots **a) i) What is reproduction? ** process by which living organisms give rise to new members of their own species which resemble the parents **ii) Why is reproduction important? ** for continuity of species/ to ensure survival of species maintaining life of species replace dead individuals **iii) Name the types of reproduction ** 328 ----- ### sexual which involves fusion of male and female gametes asexual in which no gametes are involved but parts of a mature organism develops into new individuals **b) i) What is cell division? ** process by which cells are formed from pre-existing cells **ii) What are chromosomes? ** Threadlike structures found in nucleus of a cell. The units called genes Genes are factors that cause inheritance or determine characteristics of offspring **c) i) What is mitosis? ** A type of cell division that occurs during growth leading to increase in number of cells all cells maintain the same chromosome constitution i.e. the diploid state **ii) Describe the five stages of mitosis ** **Interphase ** replication of organelles duplication of DNA production of energy (ATP) for cell division **Prophase ** stage of dehydration chromosomes shorten and thicken chromosome replicates into two chromatids chromatids joined at centromere formation of spindle fibers **Metaphase ** chromosomes move to equator (early metaphase) chromosomes line up at the equator homologous chromosomes do not associate 329 ----- ### **Anaphase ** chromatids separate move to opposite ends (poles) of the cell Telophase chromatids reach the poles formation of two daughter cells occurs i.e. cytoplasmic division **ii) State the significance of mitosis ** ensures each daughter cell has same number and kinds of chromosomes as daughter cells gives rise to new cells (responsible for growth) **d) i) What is meiosis? ** division of diploid cells to form gametes which are haploid **ii) State the significance of meiosis ** gives rise to gametes source of variation **iii) Give a summary of the stages of meiosis ** **First meiotic division ** **Interphase ** cell is in non-dividing condition 330 ----- ### chromosomes appear threadlike **Prophase I ** chromatic material shorten and thicken double stranded chromosomes appear (bivalent) double stranded chromosomes pair and twist round each other (synapsis) point of contact of chromosomes is called chiasma **Metaphase I ** paired homologous chromosomes line up at the equator **Anaphase I ** paired homologous chromosomes move to the poles **Telophase I ** paired homologous chromosomes reach the poles two new nuclei are formed **Second meiotic division ** **Prophase II ** chromosomes shorten, thicken and become visible, stage of dehydration **Metaphase II ** movement of chromosomes to equator 331 ----- ### **Anaphase II ** -chromatids of each chromosome separate to the poles **Telophase II ** reach the poles four haploid daughter cells are formed **iv) Give the similarities between mitosis and meiosis ** ### both take part in cells both involve division (cell multiplication) **v) What are the differences between mitosis and meiosis?** |Mitosis|Meiosis| |---|---| | maintenance of chromosome number (diploid) takes place in somatic cells/growth no crossing over/no variations results into 2 daughter cells no pairing/no synapsis/no bivalent formed a one division process of four stages| reduction/halving of chromosomes (haploid occurs in reproductive cells/gonads/produces gametes crossing over takes place/variation occurs results into 4 daughter cells there is paring/synapsis/bivalen t a two division process of four stages each| ### **d) i) What is asexual reproduction ** formation of new individuals as a result of the fusion of two gametes fusion is called fertilization 332 ----- ### **ii) What is the significance of sexual reproduction in living ** **organisms? ** leads to genetic variation e.g. cross breeding which gives rise to hybrids **iii) State the advantages of sexual reproduction ** genetic variation greater adaptability to environment by offspring few bad or good traits inherited/retained greater amount of dispersal is possible may result in stronger offspring **iv) Give the disadvantages of sexual reproduction ** less certainty in egg and sperm meeting low rate of survival sex-linked diseases easily transmitted **e) i) What is asexual reproduction? ** formation of new organisms without fusion of gametes occurs with only one parent parts of organism develop into new individual **ii) State the advantages of asexual reproduction ** retention of useful characteristics/genes/traits offspring establish faster/shorter life cycle better chances of survival because of suitable environment **iii) Give the disadvantages of asexual reproduction ** lack of genetic variation lowered resistance to disease loss of hybrid vigor competition for resources due to overcrowding **iv) Explain how reproduction occurs by the following ** **methods of asexual reproduction ** **Sporulation ** formation of spores spores are small haploid cells produced by plants spores give rise to new haploid organisms includes moulds, ferns, bryophytes, pteridophytes **Budding ** where an outgrowth arises from a parent and drops off to develop into a new organisms hereditary material in the daughter cell and parent are exactly the same occurs in organisms such as hydra, jelly fish, sea anemones, yeast and some fungi **Binary fission ** 333 ----- ### a cell splits into two new cells of equal size each daughter cell grows into anew organism Occurs in organisms such as amoeba, euglena, paramecium, some fungi and bacteria. **f) i) What is a flower? ** this is the reproductive structure which bears the reproductive parts of a plant it produces seeds and fruits **ii) Draw a longitudinal section of a labeled diagram of a ** **flower ** **iii) Give the functions of the parts of a flower ** **Receptacle ** expanded end of stalk which bears floral parts **Calyx ** consists of sepals usually green protect flower in bud **Corolla ** consist of petals often colored or scented to attract insects **Androecium ** male part of flower consist of stamens each stamen consists of an anther containing pollen sacs another produces pollen grains which contain male gametes **Gynaecium ** female part of flower consists of one or more carpels each carpel contains one or more ovules in an ovary style bearing a stigma extends from ovary ovary contains female gametes which when fertilized become seeds **iv) What is inflorescence? ** a group of flowers borne on the same branch (main stalk) v **) Explain the meaning of the following terms which ** **describe flowers** **Hermaphrodite ** 334 ----- ### one with both stamen and carpel most flowers are hermaphrodite/bisexual **Unisexual ** have only one of carpel or stamen i.e. either male or female **Carpelate ** also called pistilate contains only carpels hence a female flower **Staminate ** also called male flower contains only stamens **Dioecious plants ** have pistilate and staminate flowers on different plants e.g. pawpaw **Monoecius plants ** have pistilate and staminate on one plant however, pistilate and staminate occur at different plants e.g. maize **Complete flower ** Has all four parts i.e. Calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium **Incomplete flower ** does not have all four parts at least one is missing **vi) Explain the meaning of the following types of ovary ** **Superior ** ovary occurs above other floral parts on the receptacle **Inferior (epigynous) ** other floral parts arise above ovary on the receptacle **g) i) What is pollination? ** transfer of pollen grains from anther of a stamen to stigma of a flower **ii) Explain the types of pollination ** self pollination takes place when mature pollen grains of a flower fall on the stigma of the same flower cross pollination takes place when pollen grains of a flower fall on the stigma of another flower of the same species **iii) State the advantages of pollination ** healthy offspring leads to variation greater chances of dispersal **iv) List the agents of pollination ** 335 ----- ### wind water insects **v) How are flowers adapted to wind and insect pollination? ** **Insect pollinated flowers (entomophilus) ** are scented to attract insects have stick stigma for pollen grains to stick on are brightly coloured to attract insects presence of nectar to attract insects have nectar guides to guide insects to the nectarines have nectarines to secrete nectar stigma/ anthers located inside the flower/tubal/funnel shaped corolla to increase chances of contact by insects sticky/spiny/spiky pollen grains which stick on the body of insects and on stigma large/conspicuous flowers easily seen by/attract insects anthers firmly attached to the filament for insects to brush against them landing platform to ensure contact with anthers and stigma mimicry to attract (male) insects **Wind pollinated flower (anemophilus) ** anthers/stigma hang outside the flower to increase chances of pollination the style/filament is long to expose stigma/anthers stigma is hairy/feathery/branched to increase surface area over which pollen grains land/to trap pollen grains pollen grains are smooth/dry/light/small to be easily carried by wind large amount of pollen grains to increase chances of pollination anthers loosely attached to filaments to enable them to sway to release pollen grains pollen grains may have structures which contain air to increase buoyancy flowers have long stalks holding them out in the wind **vi) State the ways in which plants prevent self-pollination ** protandry(anthers/stamens mature first) protagyny (pistils mature first) monoecism (where male and female parts are on same plant but different parts) 336 ----- ### dioecism(where male and female parts are on different plants) incompatibility (self sterility) heterostyly (styles at different heights) **vii) Give the characteristics that ensure cross pollination ** **takes place in flowering plants ** presence of special structures that attract agents of pollination protandry/dichogamy protagyny/dichogamy monoecism self sterility heterostyly **viii State the advantages of cross pollination ** hybrid vigour less prone to diseases promotes genetic variation greater evolutionary potential **h) i) What is fertilization? ** - Fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote **ii) Describe how fertilization takes place in a flower ** this follows pollination pollen grain is deposited on the stigma pollen grain sticks to the surface of the stigma the surface of the stigma produces a chemical substance which stimulates the pollen grain to produce a pollen tube/to germinate the pollen tube grows through the style tissues on which it feeds until it enters the ovary the generative nucleus divides into two giving two male nuclei embryo sac contains eight nuclei i.e. two synergids, egg cell, two polar nuclei and three antipodal cells the pollen tube enters the embryo sac through the micropyle and one of the male nucleus fuses with the egg cell/ovum to form a zygote the other male nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei to form the triploid nuclei/endosperm)food storage used by developing embryo) the pollen tube nucleus in the pollen tube disintergrates soon afterwards this process is referred to as double fertilization 337 ----- ### zygote grows into an embryo containing plumule, radicle and cotyledons **iii) What is double fertilization? ** there are two male nuclei entering embryo sac one fuses with the ovum to form a zygote, while the other fuses with the polar nuclei to form a triploid primary endosperm nucleus therefore there are two fusions at fertilization **iv) Name the changes that Occur in a flower after ** **fertilization ** petals, stamen, calyx and style wither ovary wall changes into pericarp intergument changes into seed coat/testa zygote changes into embryo (by mitosis) primary endosperm nucleus changes into endosperm whole ovule changes into seed ovary develops and grows into fruit(under the influence of gibberrellic hormone) **j) i) Distinguish between a fruit and a seed ** a fruit is a fertilized ovary and has two scars a seed is a fertilized ovule and has one scar **ii) How is a seed formed? ** after fertilization, zygote grows into an embryo, primary endosperm nucleus developed into endosperm, interguments harden to form testa, hence the whole ovule becomes the seed the seed loses water to become drier the seed has plumule, radicle, seed leaves called cotyledons, a microphyle and a scar **iii) Draw a labeled diagram of a seed ** 338 ----- ### **iv) Describe the main parts of a seed ** **Testa ** also called seed coat a tough outer covering which protects the seed from insects, bacteria etc segment is the membrane inside the testa **Hilum ** a scar spot where the seed was attached to the fruit or pod **Micropyle ** small hole through which water and air enter the seed **Radicle ** embryonic root grows into the shoot system **Cotyledons ** embryonic leaves store food for the germinating seed i.e. for plumule and radicle when plumule and radicle grow, they use food stored in the cotyledon in some seeds food is stored in the endosperm **v) Draw a labeled diagram of a fruit ** **vi) How is a fruit formed? ** one of the organs that remains on the plant after pollination and fertilization is the ovary within the ovary, the developing embryo produces special chemical substances that stimulate the young ovary these substances also signal the start of the formation of the fruit, which is a mature ovary the fruit may contain one or more seeds during fruit formation the ovary increases in size while ripening or maturing a true fruit is formed from the ovary of a flower after fertilization 339 ----- ### it has two scars(style scar and stalk scar) and contains seeds some seeds are not formed from the ovary of a flower some other parts of a flower develop to form a fruit such fruits are called false fruits **vii) Explain the importance of fruits in the survival of plants ** protect the seed against dessication, predators and adverse conditions aid in seed dispersal by attracting agents of dispersal stores food for the plant vii. Distinguish between parthenogenesis and parthenocarpy parthenogenesis is development of new animals from unfertilized eggs parthenocarpy is development of a fruit without ### fertilization iv) State the differences between a seed and fruit |Seed|Fruit| |---|---| | fertilized ovule attached to placenta through funicle one scar called hilum has seed coat/testa seed wall undifferentiated| fertilized ovary attached to branch through a stalk two scars (style scar and stalk scar) has fruit wall/pericarp fruit wall is differentiated| ### **j. i) What is placentation? ** arrangement of ovules within the plant ovary **ii) Explain the following types of placentation ** **Marginal ** placenta appears as one ridge on ovary wall ovules are attached to placenta in rows e.g. peas in a pod **Basal** placenta formed at the base of the ovary with numerous ovules attached to it 340 ----- ### **Parietal ** edges of carpels fuse together dividing walls disappear, leaving one loculus have numerous seeds e.g. passion fruit placenta of each carpel appears as ridges on ovary wall ** Axile ** edges of carpels fuse together to form a single central placenta numerous ovules arranged on placenta ovary divided into a number of loculi by walls of the carpel e.g. **Free central placentation ** edges of carpels fuse together dividing was disappears leaving one loculus placenta appears at base of ovary has numerous ovules **k) i) How are fruits grouped? ** **Simple fruits** formed from a single flower or one ovary e.g. mango **Aggregate fruits ** consists a group of ovaries that appear on a common receptacle e.g. strawberry **Multiple (compound) fruits ** formed from several flowers whose ovaries fuse together after fertilization 341 ----- ### form a bunch e.g. pineapple, figs are always false fruits **ii) What are succulent fruits? ** also called fleshy fruits all or part of pericarp (fruit wall) becomes juicy **iii) Give types of juicy fruits ** **-Berry ** has many seeds whole pericarp is succulent e.g. orange, tomato, pawpaw **Drupe ** only one seed pericarp divided into three layers i.e. epicarp, mesocarp(juicy) and endocarp(hard) e.g. mango and coconut **Pome ** juicy part is swollen receptacle is usually a false fruit example is a pear **iv) What are dry fruits? ** have a pericarp that is dry, hard and woody either dehiscent or indehiscent called dry because they are not succulent **v) What are dehiscent fruits? ** split open when ripe to release seeds contain many seeds **vi) Give types of dehiscent fruits ** **Legumes ** split along two edges are usually pods e.g. beans, peas, crotolaria **Follicle ** split on one side only e.g. Sodom apple 342 ----- ### **Capsule ** has several lines of weakness/sutures open in many places e.g. castor oil, cotton **vii) What are indehiscent fruits? ** non-splitting fruits usually one seeded only **ix) Give main types of indehiscent fruits ** **Nut ** pericarp woody, hard and thick e.g. cashew **Achene ** has thin, tough pericarp e.g. sunflower **l) i) What is seed and fruit dispersal? ** spreading of seeds and fruits away from parents so as to settle where conditions are suitable for their germination **ii) Why is dispersal of seeds and fruits necessary? ** prevent overcrowding reduces competition for space, nutrients and light colonization of new areas is made possible to increase chances of survival to prevent inbreeding to avoid extinction due to over competition for the necessities **iii) Explain how seeds and fruits are adapted to various ** **methods of dispersal ** **Adaptations for wind dispersal ** they have wings, feathers or hair-like structures to increase surface area for wind to carry them easily/buoyancy seeds/fruits are loosely attached on the stalks so that they can easily be released and carried away by wing seeds/fruits are generally light and small sized to be easily carried by wind some seeds/fruits have parachute-like structures to be easily carried b wind some have censor mechanism where seeds and fruits are borne on long stalks that are loosely attached which allows swaying so that movements of capsule by wind releases the seeds **Water dispersal seeds ** seed/ mesocarp has air spaces thus light/buoyant to float hence carried by water they have waterproof cover and tough pericarp protects seeds from getting soaked 343 ----- ### fibrous and spongy mesocarp to easily float **Animal dispersal seeds ** presence of hooks for attachment to animals thus carried to other parts fruits are brightly coloured, succulent and scented to attract animals seed coats are hard and resistant to digestive enzymes hence seeds are dropped away from mother plant large in size or borne on clusters to be easily seen **Self dispersal/explosive ** self opening seeds they have lines of weakness called sutures for violent opening thus scattering seeds away from parent plant **5. a) i) Distinguish between external and internal ** **fertilization in animals ** in external fertilization fusion of the male and female gametes takes place outside the body of the female e.g. amphibians and fish in internal fertilization union of gametes occurs inside the body of the female **ii) State the advantages and disadvantages of external ** **fertilization ** **Advantages ** large numbers produced therefore many offspring per breeding season female does not suffer gestation stress mother does not need to care for the young except in a few species the surviving individuals are highly selected for better survival **Disadvantages ** many predators surround the eggs before and after fertilization fewer chances of fertilization/a lot of gametes wasted embryo development at mercy of environment large numbers of female gametes are required therefore female gets much exhausted **iii) State the advantages and disadvantages of internal ** **fertilization ** **Disadvantages ** number of gametes fewer hence less number of offspring less adapted for sudden change of environment after birth 344 ----- ### in mammals females suffer gestation stress **Advantages ** more chances of fertilization fewer predators of oval/fertilized egg protected in females body stable internal environment fewer gametes required **iii) Give a reason why it is necessary for frogs to lay many ** **eggs ** ### to increase chances of survival/fertilization **iv) Compare external and internal fertilization ** |External|Internal| |---|---| | occurs in water outside the bodies of animals many eggs are laid usually less contact between male and female both fertilized eggs exposed to danger| occurs inside the body of the female animal fewer eggs released from ovary very close contact in form of copulation between male and female Fertilized eggs are enclosed hence highly protected inside females body.| ### **b) i) Draw and label the human male reproductive system ** 345 ----- ### **ii) Describe how the mammalian male reproductive system is ** **adapted to perform its functions ** **Penis ** is highly vascularised/spongy has a sensitive glands becomes erect to allow entry into the vagina **Scrotum ** contains the testes outside the body on whose walls the process of spermatogenesis takes place the process is favored by lower temperature it contains sertoli cells which nourish sperms until they are mature **Epididymis ** long and coiled for the purpose of sperm storage **Vas deferens ** muscular upon contraction pushes sperms out and allows ejaculation **Gametes ** 346 ----- ### produced in large numbers to increase chances of fertilization the sperms have a tail for swimming/large number of mitochondria to provide energy/allow swimming to reach the egg **Accessory glands ** are seminal vesicle, Cowpers gland and prostate gland they produce seminal fluid to provide a medium/ nutrients for sperms to swim **iii) How is the sperm adapted to perform its function? ** acrosomes contain enzymes to digest egg membrane nucleus contains genetic material mitochondria produce energy to move the tail back and forth the lashing movement of the tail enables the sperm to move/propulsion in fluid medium towards the egg it is streamlined for faster/easier movement/swimming to meet the egg **c) i) Draw and label the human female reproductive system ** 347 ----- 348 ----- 349 ----- ### **ii) Describe how the various structures of the human female ** **reproductive system are adapted to their function ** **Ovaries ** have several graafian follicles that develop and burst open to release/produce mature ova secretes sex hormones)oestrogen) which initiate/control development of secondary sexual characteristics produce hormones oestrogen and progesterone which prepare the uterus for implantation and subsequent nourishment of the embryo **Oviducts (fallopian tube) ** are thin narrow and tubular to increase flowing speed of semen containing sperms are funnel shaped on the end next to ovary which enables them to receive the ovum their lining contains cilia which propel the ovum towards the uterus has peristaltic muscles that enable movement of zygote/ovum to the uterus for implantation is fairly long to increase surface area for fertilization **Uterus ** is muscular for protection of developing embryo has elastic wall that allows growth and development of foetus/embryo has a highly vascularised endometrium that provides nutrients/gaseous exchange to developing embryo **Cervix ** has valves that close the lower end of the uterus to ensure continued pregnancy during gestation period is capable of dilating has narrow entrance/neck-like entrance to uterus that enables quick swimming of sperms to uterus has suction mechanism that draws up/pulls sperms into uterus has a W shape that fits well with the glands of the penis to ensure sperms are deposited at the right point **Vagina ** is elastic and muscular to enable good accommodation or penetration of the penis thus proper deposition of sperms and for easy parturition allows menstrual flow 350 ----- ### has sensitive labial walls which secrete/produce lubricating substances that ensure/enable/facilitate good coition capable of considerable enlargement, due to elastic muscles, to accommodate baby during parturition **Clitoris ** has sensitive cells for orgasm **iii) Explain how the ovum is adapted to its function ** nucleus contains genetic material ventelline membrane encloses plasma membrane which ### encloses yolky cytoplasm yolky cytoplasm provides nourishment jelly coat protects ovum against dehydration **iv) Explain the differences between sperm and ovum ** |Sperm|Ovum| |---|---| | long with a tail and head small locomotory stores little food has acrosome (tip with lytic enzymes) nucleus prominent but cytoplasm negligible| spherical large stationary a lot of food stored in yolky cytoplasm lacks acrosome a lot of cytoplasm| ### **d) i) Explain the process of fertilization ** a process whereby the egg and sperm are brought together and fuse to form a zygote occurs in the fallopian tube after copulation sperm head penetrates the outer coat of the ovum while the tail remains outside penetration is due to reaction of acrosome acrosome digests the vitelline membrane thereafter a zygote is formed zygote which is diploid undergoes rapid cell division to form a mass of cells called blastocyst after fertilization a membrane forms around the ovum to prevent further entry of sperms blastocyst eventually develops into an embryo 351 ----- 352 ----- ### **i) Explain the process of implantation ** this is the embedding and attaching of the embryo in the uterine wall/endometrium implantation marks the beginning of pregnancy sometimes implantation occurs in the oviduct wall which is abnormal and results in ectopic pregnancy which is fatal the outer wall of the blastocyst develops fingerlike projections which project into the uterine wall for attachment the projections are called villi 353 ----- ### the villi and endometrium develop into an organ that is called the placenta the embryo is attached to the placenta through a cord called the umbilical cord **iii) ** 354 ----- ### ** State the functions of umbilical cord ** it contains blood vessels umbilical artery, iliac arteries and umbilical veins) it joins the placenta to the embryo passage for nutrients from the mother passage of excretory substances from foetus to mother for final discharge gaseous exchange passage of antibodies from mother to foetus, for protection of foetus against diseases **iv) State the role of placenta ** exchange of gases between mother and foetus exchange of nutrients and nitrogenous wastes anchorage/attachment of foetus produces hormones (oestrogen and progesterone) **e) i) What is gestation period? ** time taken from fertilization to birth/pregnancy **ii) Explain the functions of the membranes associated with ** **placenta ** **Chorion ** surrounds the embryo has fingerlike projections that attach embryo to the uterus **Amnion ** contains amniotic fluid fluid surrounds embryo 355 ----- ### protects embryo from mechanical injury by acting as shock absorbers fluid also protects embryo from dehydration distributes pressure equally over embryo **Yolk sac ** surround the yolk produces blood cells for embryo until its own liver is able to perform the task **Allantois ** present only for a short time removes and store waste material it eventually becomes the umbilical cord **iii) Explain the events that take place to facilitate parturition ** near birth the placenta produces less progesterone oxytocin hormone is produced by posterior lobe of pituitary gland because progesterone level has decreased the uterus becomes sensitive to oxytocin oxytocin causes the contraction of the uterus (myometrium) these contractions are called labour pains just before parturition the head turns downwards the contractions eventually push the baby through the vagina amnion breaks and amniotic fluid is released oxytocin dilates the cervix foetus is expelled through cervix with head coming out first finally the whole infant comes out the umbilical cord is cut and the placenta is expelled as afterbirth **iv) State the reasons why later in pregnancy the ovary will b ** **e removed without disturbing the pregnancy ** corpus luteum in the ovary secretes progesterone which maintains pregnancy and development of foetus after conception after four months pregnancy is maintained by progesterone from the placenta **f) i) What are secondary sexual characteristics ** - Characteristics (physiological and anatomical) that start developing at puberty due to the influence of male and female hormones **ii) State the main secondary changes in Boys ** deepening of the voice 356 ----- ### growth of hair on face, pubic part, chest, legs penis and testes become bigger muscular development sperm production begins at puberty and may continue throughout life **Girls ** growth of hair on pubic part and armpits widening/enlargement of hips development of breasts menstrual cycle starts as ovaries mature body acquires extra fat **iii) Describe the role of hormones in secondary sexual ** **characteristics inBoys ** **Follicle stimulation hormone (FSH) ** from pituitary stimulates production of androgens(male hormones) mainly testosterone by testis **Testosterone ** secondary sexual characteristics **Girls ** **FHS ** from pituitary development of follicles stimulates oestrogen production by ovary **LH ** from pituitary ovulation stimulates release of progesterone by ovary **Oestrogen ** stimulates release of LH secondary sexual characteristics **Progesterone ** also from placenta sustains pregnancy as it inhibits prolactin and oxytocin during pregnancy **Prolactin ** milk formation **Oxytocin ** parturition milk ejection **g) i) What is menstruation? ** - vaginal discharge due to disintegration of endometrium 357 ----- ### **ii) Describe the role of hormones in the human menstrual ** **cycle ** it is controlled by sex hormones which are responsible for the onset of secondary sexual characteristics and also control of the menstrual cycle the onset is signaled by discharge of blood/menses 14 days following the start of menstruation anterior lobe of pituitary gland secretes follicle stimulating hormone(FSH) Follicle stimulating hormone causes graafian follicle to develop in the ovary. It also stimulates tissues of the ovary/wall (theca) to secrete oestrogen oestrogen causes repair/healing of uterine wall oestrogen stimulates anterior lobe of pituitary to produce luteinising hormonge (LH) LH causes ovulation. It also causes graafian follicle to change into corpus luteum. LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progesterone Progesterone causes proliferation/thickening of uterine wall Oesterogen/progesterone inhibits the production of FSH by anterior lobe of pituitary, thus no more follicles develop and oestrogen production reduces In the next two weeks progesterone level rises and inhibits production of LH from anterior lobe of pituitary The corpus lutetium stops secreting progesterone and menstruation occurs when the level of progesterone drops Anterior lobe of pituitary starts secreting FSH again. **iii) What is menopause? ** end of ovulation in women occurs after age of 45 years does not occur in males **h) Explain the symptoms, methods of transmitting and ** **prevention (control) of the following sexually transmitted ** **diseases ** **i) Gonorrhea ** - caused by a bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhea - transmitted through sexual intercourse, - infects urethra and vaginal tract (epithelia) - Symptoms include pain, discharge of mucus and bad smell (females) - Effects include sterility, heart diseases, blindness of foetus and arthritis 358 ----- ### - Treatment by antibiotics - Control and prevention by proper sexual conduct **ii) Herpes ** notably Herpes simplex and H. genitalis caused by virus which attacks genitalia symptoms are painful sores in genitalia, skin lesions transmitted in saliva, sexual intercourse and injection by drug addicts no treatment **iii) Syphilis ** caused by bacterium called Treponema palladium symptoms are painless wounds in genitalia attack genitalia, nervous system, lips treated by antibiotics **iv) Trichomoniasis ** caused by plasmodium called Trichomonas attacks reproductive tract symptoms are itching and discharge of pus from the genitals treated by antibiotics **v) Hepatitis ** - Viral disease Affects the liver Transmitted through sexual intercourse No known treatment **vi) Candidiasis ** caused by fungus called Candida albicans transmitted through sexual intercourse symptoms include itching urethra, and vaginal discharge (odourless) controlled by personal hygiene, early treatment and responsible sexual behavior **vii) HIV/AIDS ** caused by HIV virus transmitted by sexual intercourse, blood transfusion, sharing piercing instruments from infected mother to foetus, infant and baby symptoms include fever, swollen lymph nodes, night sweating, cough, weight loss, fatigue, loss of appetite, diarrhea, headache, a opportunistic infections and tumors 359 ----- ### Control by responsible sexual behaviour, education, screening blood for transfusion and using sterile piercing instruments. **6. a) Define the terms ** **i) Growth ** an irreversible change in size of a cell, organ or whole organism growth is due to synthesis of protoplasm or extracellular substances **ii) Development ** refers to a series of changes which an organism goes through in its lie cycle during development both qualitative and quantitative changes take place(involves differentiation) **iii) Differentiation ** refers to changes in which the cells of the body undergo and become specialised to perform specific functions |b) i) Differentiate growth in|plants and animals| |---|---| |Plants|Animals| | confined to shoots/root tips (apical) have definite growth regions(meristems) often indefinite/continuous growth results in branching affected by light, auxins, hormones and temperature| occurs all over the body(intercalary) different parts grow at different rates(allometric) maximum growth on maturity(definite) no branching affected by nutrients| ### **ii) List the processes involved in growth ** assimilation cell enlargement cell division(by mitosis) **iv) List the parameters used to measure growth ** height/length dry weight number of individuals volume leaf area of plant **iv) Name the patterns of growth in organisms ** - allometric and isometric 360 ----- ### - limited and unlimited - discontinuous growth **c) i) Name the different types of growth curves ** - sigmoid curve(normal growth curve) - intermittent growth curve **ii) Draw a sigmoid growth curve and explain its different ** **phases/stages ** **A-lag phase ** - Slow growth rate at first Organism adapting to the environment **B-exponential phase ** - organisms already adapted - first growth due to birth rate that is higher than death rate **C- Stationery phase (plateau) ** - Birth rate equals death rate (equilibrium) Lack of nutrients, accumulation of toxic waste products **D-phase of decline ** - due to depletion of nutrients, accumulation of toxic wastes, lack of space - some individuals old hence not reproducing - death rate higher than birth rate **iii) Draw an intermittent curve and explain the various ** **stages ** A-growth B-no growth C- moulting/ecdysis - seen in arthropods - growth in in arthropods is intermittent(takes place during some time only because their hard cuticles (exoskeleton) does not expand to cause growth - the cuticle must be shed off first to allow further growth - the shedding is called ecdysis or moulting 361 ----- ### - when moulting has taken place animal grows but growth stops when the exoskeleton hardens again **d) i) What is seed dormancy? ** - A state where a viable seed is incapable of germinating when all conditions are favourable. **ii) State the biological importance of seed dormancy ** - gives embryo time to reach maturity - gives time for dispersal - allows plant to survive adverse conditions **iii) State the factors which cause seed dormancy ** **Internal factors ** - presence of abscisic acid/ABA/ presence of germination inhibitors - embryo not fully developed - absence of hormones/enzymes/inactivity of hormones/enzymes/gibberellins/cytokinins - impermeability of seed coat **External factors ** - unsuitable temperature - absence of light - lack of oxygen - lack of oxygen - lack of water **iv) Give the conditions necessary to break seed dormancy ** - scarification/scratching to make seed coat impermeable - vernalisation/cold treatment in some seeds like wheat - burning/nicking/expose to heat e.g. wattle seeds - destruction of germination inhibitors **e) i) What is seed germination? ** - process by which a seed develops in a seedling **ii) What is viability ** - ability of a seed to germinate **iii) Discuss the various conditions necessary for the ** **germination of seeds ** **Water ** - medium for enzymatic activity - hydrolysis of food into simpler substances - medium of transport - softens the seed - acts as a solvent **Air ** - in form of oxygen 362 ----- ### - oxygen is used for respiration/oxidation of food to release energy **Suitable (optimum) temperature ** - activates enzymes involved in mobilization of food reserves **Enzymes ** - breakdown and subsequent oxidation of food - conservation of hydrolyzed food products into new plant tissues **Viability ** - only viable seed are able to germinate and grow **iv) Name and describe the types of germination ** **Epigeal ** cotyledons are brought above the ground level during germination due to elongation of hypocotyls **Hypogeal ** - the cotyledons remain below the surface during germination due to elongation of epicotyl e.g. maize **v) Name the part of the bean seed that elongates to bring ** **about epigeal germination ** hypocotyl **vi) Account for the loss in dry weight of cotyledons in a ** **germinating bean seed ** - food stored is mobilized/used up for respiration and growth **vii) Describe the physiological changes that occur in a seed ** **during germination ** - in presence of oxygen, optimum temperature and water, food reserves in the seed are hydrolysed or broken down into soluble diffusible form by enzymes - soluble food diffuses to the growing embryo - oils and carbohydrates provide energy - simple sugars converted to cellulose to form cell wall 363 ----- ### - amino acids make protoplasm - seed develops plumule and radicle hence germinates **viii) Explain the biological significance of cotyledons being ** **brought above the ground in epigeal germination ** - cotyledons have inadequate food - they are brought above the ground to acquire chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis before the formation of foliage leaves to supplement food supply required for growth during germination **f) i) Distinguish between primary and secondary growth ** **Primary growth ** - occurs at the apical (shoot and tip) apices regions where meristematic cells occur - causes plant elongation since cells divide by mitosis **Secondary growth ** -occurs at the cambium meristems Increases width (girth) of the stem **ii) What are meristems ** - dividing cells - meristem means they are dividing **iii) State the characteristics of meristematic cells ** - dense cytoplasm - thin cell walls - absence of vacuoles/cell sap **iv) State the location and function of the following ** **meristematic tissues ** **Apical meristem ** - located at tips of roots and shoots - increase length of stem and roots/primary growth **Intercalary meristem ** - found at bases of internodes - responsible for elongation of internodes and increase in leaf sheath in grasses **Lateral meristems ** - found near the periphery of stem and root - responsible for secondary growth/growth in girth of stem and root/lateral growth - called cambium and constitute vascular and cork cambium **v) Describe primary growth ** - occurs at tips of shoots and roots in the meristematic tissues of apical meristem - at the apex there is a zone of cell division/mitosis - cells elongate at elongation zone 364 ----- ### - the elongated cells differentiate at the region of differentiation resulting in increase in size - in the stems meristems give rise to leaf premodia which envelop the apex to form a bud - the bud protects the delicate inner cells - in roots the meristem is protected by root cap - after cells differentiate the form permanent tissues **vi) Describe secondary growth in plants ** - also called secondary thickening - only occurs in dicotyledonous plants that have cambium - monocotyledonous plants do not undergo secondary growth because they lack intervascular cambium - cambium cells divide to produce more cells on either side of the cambium - cells produced to the inside become secondary cambium - cells produced to the outside become secondary phloem - division of cambium cells occurs yearly producing new rings of secondary phloem and secondary xylem each year - intervascular cambium(cambium between vascular bundles) divide to form secondary parenchyma, thereby increasing growth of medullary rays - much more xylem is formed than phloem, thus pushing phloem and cambium ring outward - the rate of secondary growth is depended on seasons(rains) resulting in annual rings - cork cambium is located beneath epidermis ad is responsible for secondary thickening of the bark of perennial plants - cork cambium divides to form new cork(bark) tissues to accommodate increased growth on outside and secondary cortex on the inside - Cork cells (cells of the bark) are loosely parked at some points to form lenticels for gaseous exchange. **vii) State the significance of secondary growth ** - increase girth or circumference of trees - annual rings which show seasonal growth can be used to tell the age of trees **g) i) Describe one method which can be used to measure the ** **average growth rate of a single leaf of a plant ** **EITHER ** - chose/identify a young leaf(just unfolded) - use the same leaf throughout - measure (total) length of (whole) leaf 365 ----- ### - record - repeat at regular intervals until no more change occurs/constant length - average rate of growth is equal to total increase in length divided by the period taken to achieve full length Average rate of growth = total increase in length period taken to achieve full length **OR ** - choose/identify a young leaf(just unfolded) - use the same leaf throughout - trace the outline on a graph paper and work out the area - record - repeat at regular intervals until regular area - average rate of growth equals to total increase in area divided by the period of time taken to achieve full area Average rate of growth = total increase in area period of time taken to achieve final area **i) Describe how the growth of a root can be determined ** **Materials ** - fine thread, marking ink, germinating bean seedlings, blotting paper, ruler marked in millimeters, pins, cork, a boiling tube and moist cotton wool **Procedure ** - dry seedlings using blotting paper - place inside against the ruler marked in mm - dip the fine thread in waterproof ink - mark the radicle at equal intervals - pin the seedling to the cork - suspend the seedling into the boiling tube containing moist cotton wool - allow the seedling to grow for two days/some time observe the intervals with the marks - record your observations the widest intervals are found in the region just behind the tip indicating/showing region of greatest growth **iii) A boy hammered a nail in the bark of a tree at a height of ** **1.5metres above the ground. ** **Four years later, the nail was found at the same height ** **although the tree had grown 3 meters taller. Explain the ** **above observation ** The nail was hammered at a point where vertical growth had stopped/further growth was confined to increase in width/diameter. 366 ----- ### Vertical growth is confined to tips/apex/vertical apical meristem **h) i) Describe the role of hormones in growth and ** **development of plants ** indole acetic acid/IAA/ auxins Cell division/increase in cell division Tropic responses Cell elongation/increases in ell elongation Development of abscision layer Growth of ovaries into fruits/parthenocarpy/initiates flowers Inhibits growth of lateral buds/produces apical dominance Stimulates adventitious/lateral roots Gibberellins (Gibberellic acid/GA3 Promote cell elongation/rapid cell division/increase in length of the internodes Promote fruit formation without fertilization/parthenocarpy Reduces root growth Breaks seed dormancy/promotes germination **Cytokinnins (Kinnins/Kinnetin/Zeatin) ** - breaks dormancy - promotes flowering - promotes cell division - stabilizes protein and chlorophyll - promotes root formation on a shoot - low concentration encourages leaf senses - normal concentration increases cell enlargement in leaves - stimulates lateral bud development **Ethylene (ethynelC 2 H 4 ) ** - accelerates ripening in fruits - encourages fruit fall/leaf fall - induces thickening in stern/inhibits stem elongation - promotes flowering (in pineapples) - promotes germination in certain seeds **Abscisic acid (ABA) abscisin hormone/dormin) ** - causes bud dormancy - encourages fruit/leaf fall - high concentration causes closing of stomata - causes seed dormancy - inhibits cell elongation **Traumatin ** - heals wounds by callous formation **Florigen ** - promotes flowering **ii) State the applications of plant hormones in agriculture ** 367 ----- ### - induce root growth in stem cuttings - selective weed killers - encourage sprouting of lateral buds - breaking seed dormancy - induce parthenocarpy - accelerate ripening of fruits - promote flowering - cause dormancy **iii) Explain apical dominance ** - a phenomenon whereby production of auxins by a growing apical bud of a shoot inhibits growth of lateral buds - this inhibition is due to high concentration of auxins (indoleacetic acid/IAA) in apical bud - removal of terminal/apical bud causes development and sprouting of several buds which later develop into branches - applied in pruning coffee, tea and hedges - this leads to more yield **iv) Describe the role of hormones in the growth and ** **development of animal ** **somatotrophin (growth hormones) ** - from anterior pituitary - promotes cell division - overproduction causes gigantism - underproduction causes dwarfism **Thyroxine ** - promotes growth and metamorphosis - underproduction leads to a child becoming a cretin (mentally retarted) **Androgens ** - in males - growth of male reproductive organs **Oestrogen ** - in females - growth of female reproductive organs **Ecdysone ** - in arthropods - moulting (ecdysis) **t) i) What is metamorphosis? ** - change in form during which there are changes in structure and function in body of organism - prepares organism for life in a different habitat **ii) Explain complete metamorphosis ** 368 ----- ### radical changes in the body during the life cycle of an organism called holometabolous development example is egg larva pupa adult (imago) occurs in animals such as butterfly and bee **iii) What is the significance of each of the four stages in ** **complete metamorphosis? ** **Larval stage ** - feeding takes place - larva is quite different from adult - larva sheds its cuticle (exoskeleton) several times to emerge as pupa - dispersal stage avoids overcrowding **Pupa ** - enclosed in a case called puparium (cocoon) - no feeding - organ formation takes place **Adult ** - emerges from puparium - reproductive stage of the life cycle **iv) Describe incomplete metamorphosis ** - called hemimetabolous development - changes are gradual - eggs develop into nymphs which develop into adults - nymph resembles adult but are sexually immature - a nymph moults several times as some parts develop before it becomes an adult - stage of development between one moult and another is called instar - occurs in insects such as locust and cockroach **v) Name the hormones that control metamorphosis in insects ** - brain hormone responsible for moulting because it simulates production of ecdyson (moulting hormone) - ecdysone(moulting hormone) causes moulting - juvenile hormone causes moulting in larvae 369 ----- ### **vi) State the advantages of metamorphosis in the life of ** **insects ** - the adult and larvae exploit different niches - do not compete for food - pupa cam survive adverse pupa can survive adverse conditions eg-feeding stage - dispersal prevents overcrowding **FORM IV TOPICS ** **1. a) i) Define the term genetics ** the study of heredity(inheritance) and variation or study of mechanisms by which characteristics are passed from parents to offspring **iii) List some characteristics which are inherited ** size height/length colour/type shape yield **iii) State the importance of genetics ** helps to explain differences between organisms of the same species helps to explain the transmission of characters from generation to generation improvement in livestock improvement in crops can be used to treat some difficult diseases **b) i) Explain the meaning of the following terms ** **Heredity ** the resemblance among individuals related by descent transmission of traits from parents to offspring **Trait ** also called character A character of the organism e.g. type of ear, colour of eyes, height, yield etc. **Gene ** unit of inheritance it is the heredity factor which transmits traits from parents to offspring genes are located at fixed points on chromosomes each point is called a locus (loci) 370 ----- ### **Allele ** genes can exist in a series of alternative forms at a particular locus allele refers to alternative forms of genes controlling a particular characteristic **Chromosomes ** threadlike structures found in nuclei of all plants and animals they carry genes which are hereditary materials they consist of substances called DNA and proteins called histosones **DNA ** deoxyribonucleic acid substances that make up chromosomes double helix(strand) molecule that contains genes DNA consists of nucleotides A nucleotide consists of an inorganic phosphate, ribose sugar and a base There are four bases in a DNA molecule i.e. Adenine(A), guanine(G), thymine(T) and cystosine (C) Ribose sugar has four bases attached to it i.e. adenine, cystosine, guanine and thymine Adenine pairs with thymine while guanine pairs with cystosine Nucleotide initiates and controls protein synthesis **ii) List the types of chromosomes ** somatic (body) chromosomes also called autosomes sex chromosomes (related to reproduction) **c) i) What is variation? ** sequence of differences occurring among individuals of the same species **ii) State the causes of variation in organisms ** random assortment of genes during meiosis crossing over fertilization doubling of chromosome numbers(mutation) environmental conditions **iii) Name the types of variation ** Continuous variation (differences not clear cut) e.g. height, length, weight, skin colour, intelligence etc. They are quantitative and show intermediates 371 ----- ### discontinuous variation(differences are clear cut) e.g. ability to roll tongue, ABO blood grouping system, RH factor, patterns of fingerprints, and ability to taste PTC. They are qualitative and have no intermediates **iv) Explain the following terms ** **Acquired characteristics ** they are as a result of adaptations due to the environment and are not inherited **Inherited characteristics ** are passed down to offspring during sexual reproduction **Genotype ** genetic constitution of an individual/genetic makeup **Phenotype ** characteristics of an individual observed or discernible by other means i.e. observable character **Dominant gene (character) ** expressed in the phenotype when homozygous or heterozygous **Recessive gene ** only expressed in homozygous state **Homozygous ** when two alleles are identical e.g. LL,ll **Heterozygous ** when two alleles are different at a particular locus e.g. Ll **F1 and F2 ** F1 means first filial generation i.e. the first generation produced when two varieties can be crossed F2 means second generation i.e. product of offspring or from F1 generation **d) i) Explain Mendels first law of inheritance ** also called law of segregation it states that genes are responsible for the development of individual characters these characters are transmitted individually without any alterations Only one character from a contrasting pair can be carried in a gamete, hence only one character can be inherited. **ii) Give an example of this law ** In an experiment, Drosophila (fruit fly) with long wings were crossed with those having short wings. Assume letter L denotes gene for wing size. The gene for long wings is dominant to that for short wings 372 ----- ### the genes for dominant are LL and for recessive ll. State the expected results for the first cross **iii) What is monohybrid inheritance? ** when inheritance of one character is studied one at a time e.g. wing size only the F2 generation (when selfed) always gives a phenotypic ratio of 3:1 and a genotypic ratio of 1:2:1 in a complete dominance **v) What is complete dominance? ** refers to where only one dominant character is expressed while the other character which is recessive is not expressed in the heterozygous state e.g. the case of wing size above **e) i) What is meant by co dominance? ** When genes produce independent effects when heterozygous/none of the genes is dominant over the other/where two or more alleles does not show complete dominance/recessiveness due to the failure of any allele to be dominate in a heterozygous condition. **ii) Give an example of co dominance ** In a certain plant species, some individual plants may have only white, red or pink flowers. In an experiment a plant with white flowers was crossed with a parent with red flowers. Show results of F1 generation. Use letter R for red gene and W for white gene. **If the plants form F1 were selfed, work out the phenotype ** **ratio for the F2 generation ** Phenotypic ratio 1red:2pink:1white Genotypic ratio 1:2:1 **f) i) What is a test cross? ** - A cross between an individual showing a character for a dominant gene(that is homozygous or heterozygous) with a homozygous recessive individual **OR ** a cross between individual(organism) of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual **ii) State the importance of a test cross in genetics ** helps in determining the genetic constitution/genotype of an organism **iii) What are multiple alleles? ** a set of more than two alleles that may determine a character 373 ----- ### example is blood group which can be determined by any two of three alleles i.e. A,B and O **iv) Explain the inheritance of ABO blood groups ** in humans blood groups are determined by three alleles i.e. A,B and O it is only possible to have two genes at a time genes A and B are co-dominant while gene O is recessive to genes A and B **Give a worked example using parents with heterozygous ** **blood groups AO and BO ** **vi) Explain the inheritance of Rhesus factor (Rh) in ** **human beings ** in humans blood is either Rh positive or Rh negative people who have Rh antigen are Rh(+ve) while those without Rh antigen in their blood are Rh(-ve) Rh(+ve) is due to a dominant gene while the recessive gene causes lack of Rh factor. When a person who is homozygous dominant marries a person who is homozygous recessive the result is as shown below Let the gene for dominant Rh factor be R while gene for recessive be r **vii) How is sex determined in human beings? ** there are two sex chromosomes in humans, x and y males are xy and females are xx in females all ova have x chromosome in males 50% of sperms contain x chromosomes while 50% of sperms contain y chromosome when a sperm containing x chromosome fuses with an ovum this results into a girl when a sperm containing y chromosome fuses with an ovum the result is a boy an example is given below **g) i) What does the term linkage mean? ** - These are genes which occur together on a chromosome and are passed to offspring without being separated **ii) Define the term sex-linked genes ** genes carried in the sex chromosome that are transmitted along with genes that determine sex **iii) What is meant by the term sex linkage? ** genes are located on the sex chromosome they are transmitted along with those that determine sex **iv) Name the sex-linked traits in humans ** 374 ----- ### colour blindness haemophilia Hairy ears. pinna, nose Baldness Duchene muscular dystrophy (DMD) muscular wasting **v) Give an example of a sex linked trait in humans on: ** **Y Chromosome ** tuft of hair sprouting from pinna/baldness **X Chromosome ** colour blindness/haemophilia **vi) In humans red-green colour blindness is caused by a ** **recessive gene C, which is sex-linked. A normal man married ** **to a carrier woman transmits the trait to his children. Show ** **the possible genotypes of the children. ** Let C represent the gene for normal colour vision (dominant) Let c represent the gene for colour blindness Parental phenotype Norman man x carrier woman **viii) State the importance of sex linkage ** possible to determine sex of day old chicks **ix) Haemophilia is due to a recessive gene. The gene is ** **sex-linked and located on the x chromosome. The ** **figure below shows sworn offspring from ** **phenotypically normal parents ** What are the parental genotypes? XY and X [h] X Work out the genotypes of the offspring **h) i) What is mutation? ** sudden change in the structure of DNA at a particular locus/chromosome/gen **ii) Describe how mutations arise ** mutations arise due to alterations in normal number of chromosomes change in a portion of a chromosome affecting one or more genes by chromosomal aberration e.g. dleltion/duplication/substitution/inversion/translocation/cro ssing over caused by mutagenic agents e.g. radiation (x-rays, ultra violet light, gamma rays) and chemicals e.g. mustard gas/colchicines **iii) State the factors that may cause mutation ** these are chemicals and radiations 375 ----- ### **Radiations Effects ** X-rays gene/chromosome alteration Ultra violet rays structural distortion of DNA **Chemicals Effect ** - colchicines prevents spindle formation Cyclamate chromosome aberrations Mustard gas chromosomes aberrations Nitrous acid adenine in DNA is deaminated so behaves like guanine Acridone orange addition and removal of bases of DNA Formaldehyde **iv) State the characteristics of mutations ** arise suddenly are unpredictable random generally rare may breed true some are desirable while others are lethal **v) Explain chromosomal mutation ** - Change in nature, structure or number of chromosomes **vi) Explain how the following types of chromosomal ** **mutations occur ** **Duplication ** a section of a chromosome is repeated/replicates therefore genes are repeated **Inversion ** occurs when chromatids break at 2 places and when rejoining the middle piece rotates and joins in an inverted position **Deletion ** portion of a chromosome is left out after it breaks off alters number and sequence of genes **Translocation ** occurs when a section of a chromatid breaks off and becomes attached to another chromatid of another chromosome Non-disjuntion Failure of homologous chromosomes/sister chromatids to separate/segregate during meiosis **Polyploidy ** where number of chromosomes double or triple beneficial in plants due to the following 376 ----- ### increased yields/hybrid vigour//heterosis resistance to pests early maturity resistance to drought resistance to diseases vii) What are gene mutations ? an alteration in the structure of a gene **vii) Explain how the following occur during gene ** **mutation ** Deletio n some bases/nucleotides of a gene are removed **Inversion ** the order of some bases/nucleotides of a gene is reversed **Insertion ** addition of a base between two existing bases **Substitution ** a portion of a gene is replaced by a new portion viii) Name the disorders in humans caused by gene **mutation** albinism sickle cell anaemia achondroplasia/chondordystorphic dwarfism haemophilia colour blindness phenylketonuria **I. State the practical applications of genetics ** **i. Breeding programmes (research) ** high yielding/hybrid vigour/heterosis resistance to diseases resistance to drought/salinity early maturing **ii. Genetic engineering ** genetic manipulation to produce desired characteristics **iii. Law ** - legal questions of paternity knowledge of blood groups or blood transfusion iv) Genetic counseling aimed at reducing harmful traits e.g. albinism, congenital idiots, colour blindness e.t.c **v) Others ** - Pre-sex determination Understanding human evolution and origin of other species. 377 ----- ### **2. a) i) Explain the meaning of evolution ** a gradual change in living organisms from simple life forms to more complex forms over a long period of time. **ii) Differentiate organic evolution from chemical evolution as ** **theories of origin of life ** organic evolution refers to the emergence of present forms of organisms gradually from pre-existing forms (some of which no longer exist) chemical evolution explains the origin of life as having occurred when simple chemical compounds reacted to form the simplest life forms **iii) What is special creation? ** maintains that the whole universe and all living organisms came into being due to the act of a supernatural being **b) Discuss the various kinds of evidence for evolution ** **i) Fossils ** fossils are remains of organisms preserved in naturally occurring materials for many years they give evidence of types of plants/animals that existed at certain geological age/long ago/millions of years ago gives evidence of morphological/anatomical/structural changes that have taken place over a long period of time e.g. human skull, leg of horse **ii) Comparative anatomy ** gives evidence of relationship among organisms/gives evidence of a common ancestry of a group of organisms organisms have similar structures/organs performing the same function e.g. digestive system/ urinary system/nervous system/vestigial structures and vertebrate heart Divergence where the basic structural form is modified to serve different functions e.g. vertebrate forelimb/beak structure in birds/birds feet/parts of a flower. These are called homologous structures homologous structures have a common embryonic origin but are modified to perform different functions e.g. the pentadactyl limb adaptive radiation is a situation where organism have a homologous structure with common embryonic origin which is modified to perform different functions to adapt organisms to different ecological niches/habitats e.g. beaks of Darwinian finches(birds) 378 ----- ### Convergence is where different structures are modified to perform a similar function e.g. wings of birds and insects/eyes of humans and octopuses. These are called analogous structures Vestigial structures are greatly reduced in size and have ceased to function e.g. human appendix/caecium/coccix in humans, wings of kiwi (flightless bird), presence of hind limb pad in python, halters in insects, human hair nictitating membrane in human eye, human ear muscle, pelvic girdle in whale and third digit of wing of bird. **iii) Comparative embryology ** some embryos of different animals appear very similar thus showing relationship and possibility of a common ancestry e.g. different classes of vertebrates larvae of annelida and mollusca are similar (tocophere) **iv) Comparative serology/physiology ** these show biochemical and immunological comparisons of blood groups/components to show immunological similarities of tissues therefore showing relatedness of different organisms e.g. antigen antibody reactions, human blood groups/Rh factor reveal some phylogenic relationship among organisms/common ancestry **v) Geographical distribution ** organisms differ in various geographical regions present continents are thought to have been a large land mass joined together/pangea/Eurasia/Gondwanaland present continents drifted apart from one land mass/continental drift as a result of continental drift isolation of organisms occurred bring about different patterns of evolution organisms in each continent evolved along different lines hence emergence of new species/divergence/convergence **Examples ** marsupials in Australia illama, jaguar, panther in S. America lion, camel in Africa tiger in Asia **vi) Cell biology (cytology) ** structures and functioning of cells are similar occurrence of organelles e.g. mitochondria in all cells/both plant and animal cells 379 ----- ### these point at a common ancestry **c) i) State the evolutionary characteristics that adopt human ** **beings to the environment ** - Brain - Eyes - Upright posture/bipedal locomotion - prehensible arm/hand - Speech **ii) State the ways in which Homo sapiens differs from Homo ** **habilis ** standing upright/erect posture intellectual capacity/higher thinking capacity/bigger brain/higher brain capacity communication through language/speech **d) i) Explain Larmarcks theory of evolution ** - Inheritance of acquired characteristics/environment induces production of a favorable trait which is then inherited **ii) Explain why Lamarcks theory of evolution is not ** **accepted by biologists today ** - evidence does not support Lamarcks theory - acquired characteristics are not inherited/inherited characteristics are found in reproductive cells only **iii) Explain Darwins theory of evolution ** - inheritance of genetically acquired characteristics - a character happens to appear spontaneously which gives advantage to an organism therefore adapted then inherited through natural selection **e) i) What is natural selection? ** - Organisms with certain characteristics are favoured by the environment Such organisms tend to survive and produce viable offspring Others not favored are eliminated from subsequent generations **ii) With examples, explain how natural selection takes place ** - organism with certain characteristics are favored by their environment - such organisms tend to survive and produce viable offspring - others not favored are eliminated from subsequent generations - as the environmental conditions change the survival value of a character may alter with time so that characteristics which were favored may no longer have advantage and other characters may then become favorable 380 ----- ### - if a favorable character is inherited, then offspring produce generations which are better adapted to survive in a population - more offspring are produced than can survive which results in struggle for survival - the fittest survive **iii) State the advantages of natural selection to organisms ** - assist to eliminate disadvantageous characteristics/perpetuates advantageous characteristics - allows better adapted organisms to survive adverse changes in the environment/less adapted organisms are eliminated **iv) State the ways in which sexual reproduction is important ** **in the evolution of plants and animals ** - brings about useful variations/desirable characters - variations make offspring better adapted for survival/more resistant to diseases - may lead to origin of new species **v) Explain the significance of mutation in evolution ** - Mutation bring about variation which can be inherited - Some of these variations are advantageous to the organism - Others are disadvantageous - The advantageous variations favour the organism to compete better in the struggle for survival - This results into a more adapted organism to its environment or new species/varieties - Those with disadvantageous characters will be discriminated against therefore eliminated from the population/death/perish **vi) Plain why it is only mutations in genes of gametes that ** **influence evolution ** - gametes form the new offspring **vii) How would you prove that evolution is still taking place? ** - resistance of organism to antibiotics, pesticides and drugs - new varieties of bacteria are resistant to certain antibiotics such as penicillin - houseflies and mosquitoes are resistant to DDT **vii) Explain why some bacteria develop resistance to a ** **drug after they have bee subjected to it for some time ** - bacteria mutates/develops a new strain/chemical composition is altered hence is able to produce enzymes/chemicals which degrade the drug rendering it non-susceptible to the drug - the new strain is favoured by selection pressure/ natural selection 381 ----- ### **f) How has industrial melaninism i.e. peppered moth ** **contributed towards the mechanism of evolution ** - This is an example of natural selection - The peppered moth exists in two distinct forms, the speckled white form (normal form) and a melanic form (the black/dark) - They usually rest on leaves and barks of trees that offer camouflage for protection - Originally the speckled white form predominated the unpolluted area of England - This colouration offered protection against predatory birds - Due to industrial pollution tree barks have blackened with soot - The white form underwent mutation - A black variety/mutant emerged suddenly by mutation - It had selective advantage over the white forms that were predated upon in the industrial areas - The speckled white form is abundant in areas without soot/smoke **3. a) i) Define irritability, stimulus and response irritability ** -also called sensitivity - Responsiveness to change in environment **Stimulus ** A change in the environment of organism which causes change in organisms activity **Response ** - change in activity of an organism caused by a stimulus **ii) State importance of irritability to living organisms ** - Adjusting to environmental conditions. Sensitive/defect/responding **iii) List the examples of external stimuli to organisms ** - air/oxygen (aero) - light(photo) - osmotic pressure (osmo) - current (Rheo) - chemical concentration (chemo) - \water/moisture (hydro) - Touch/contact (hapto/thigmo) - Gravity/soil (geo) - Temperature (thermo) **b) i) What are tactic responses? ** - response in which whole organism or its motile parts move e.g. gamete **ii) What causes tactic responses? ** - caused by unidirectional stimulus 382 ----- ### - usually doesnt involve growth - response is either positive or negative - named according to source of stimulus - e.g phototaxis, aerotaxis, chemotaxis **iii) State the importance of tactic response to: ** **Members of kingdom protista ** - move towards favorable environment/move away from unfavorable environment - move towards their prey/food Microscopic plants - escape injurious stimuli/seek favorable habitats **iv) Name the type of response exhibited by: ** Euglena when they swim towards the source of light - phototaxis - sperms when they swim towards the ovum - chemotaxis **v) State the advantages of tactic responses to organisms ** - to avoid unfavorable environment/injurious stimuli - escape from predators - to seek favorable environment - to seek for food/prey **c) i) Define the term tropism ** - growth movement of plants in response to external unilateral/unidirectional stimuli **ii) Explain the various types of tropism in plants ** **Phototropism ** - growth movements of plant shoots in response to unilateral sources of light - the tip of the shoots produce auxins down the shoot - light causes auxins to migrate to outer side/darker side causing growth on the side away from light hence growth curvature towards source of light roots are negatively phototrophic **Geotropism ** - response of roots/parts of a plant to the direction of force of gravity - auxins grow towards the direction of force of gravity causing positive geotropism in roots while shoot grows away from force of gravity (negatively geotrophic) **Thimotropism/Haptotropism ** - growth response of plant when in contact with an object 383 ----- ### - contact with support causes migration of auxins to outer side causing faster growth on the side away from contact surface - this causes tendrils/stem to twin around a support **Hydrotropism ** - growth movement of roots in response to unilateral source of water/moisture - the root grows towards the source of water/ positively hydrotropic while leaves are negatively hydrotropic **chemotropism ** - growth movement of parts of plant to unilateral source of chemicals - the chemicals form a gradient between two regions e.g. pollen tube growing towards the ovary through the style **iii) State the ways in which tropisms are important to plants ** - expose leaves/shoots in positions for maximum absorption of sunlight for photosynthesis - enables roots of plants to seek/look/search for water - enables plant stems/tendrils to obtain mechanical support especially those that lack woody stems - enables roots to grow deep into the soil for anchorage - enables pollen tube grow to embryo sac to facilitate ### fertilization **iv) Explain the differences between tropic and tactic ** |responses|Col2| |---|---| |Tropisms|Taxes| |- growth curvature in response - slow - influenced by hormones|- locomotory response - fast - external influence| ### **d) The diagram below represents growing seedlings which ** **were subjected to unilateral light at the beginning of an ** **experiment ** R **i) State the results of P, Q and R after 5 days ** - P will bend/grow towards light 384 ----- ### - Q will remain straight/have little or no growth - R will remain/grow straight/grow upwards **ii) Account for your results in (i) above ** P- Growth substance/growth hormone/IAA/auxin are produced by the stem tip - they move (downwards and get distributed) to the side away from light where they cause rapid/more growth/cell division/elongation that results in bending Q- Source of auxin has been removed R- The auxins cannot be affected by light because the tip has been covered **iii) If the tin foil were removed from the tip of seedling R, ** **what results would be observed after two days ** - it will bend/grow towards light **iv) State the expected results after 3 day is if the box ** **were removed ** - all seedlings will grow straight/upwards e) In an experiment to investigate a certain aspect of plant **response, a seedling was placed horizontally as shown in ** **diagram I below. After seven days the appearance of the ** **seedling was as shown in diagram 2 ** **Account for the curvature of the shoot and root after the ** **seven days ** **i) Shoot ** - auxins accumulate on the lower side of the seedling due to gravity - high concentration of auxins in shoot stimulates faster growth causing more elongation on the lower side than the upper side hence curvature occurs upwards **ii) Root ** - the high concentration of auxins inhibits growth hence the upper side with less auxins grows faster than the lower side therefore the curvature occurs downwards **f) What is etiolation? ** - phenomenon exhibited by plants when grown in darkness - such plants are pale yellow due to absence of chlorophyll, have small leaves, long stems/hypocotyle and slender stems - plants exhibit etiolation to reach light/obtain light - this is a survival response **3. a) i) What is coordination in animals ** 385 ----- ### 4. - The linking together of all physiological activities that occur in the body so that they take place at the right time and in the correct place **ii) Name the main systems for coordination in animals ** - Nervous system/sensory system - Endocrine (hormonal system) **iii) List the components of the mammalian sensory system ** - Central nervous system (CNS), brain & spinal cord - Peripheral nervous system (PNS) cranial and spinal nerves - Sense organs - Autonomic nervous system (ANS) nerve fibers and ganglia **iv).Explain the terms receptors, conductors and effectors ** - Receptors are structures that detect stimuli i.e. sense organs - Conductors transmit impulses from receptors to effectors e.g. neurons - Effectors are the responding parts e.g. muscles, glands **v) What are the functions of the central nervous system? ** - provides a fast means of communication between receptors and effectors - coordinates the activities of the body **vi) State the differences between somatic and autonomic ** **systems of peripheral nervous system ** - Somatic is concerned with controlling the conscious or voluntary actions of the body i.e. skin, bones, joints and skeletal muscles - the autonomic (automatic) nervous system controls involuntary actions of internal organs, digestive system, blood vessels, cardiac muscles and glandular products. **b) i) What is a neurone? ** the basic unit of the nervous system also called nerve cell conducts impulses include monitor sensory and relay neurons 386 ----- ### **ii) Name the parts of a typical neurone and state the ** **functions of each part ** cell body/centron contains nucleus and cytoplasm axon transmits impulses away from cell body dendrites relays impulses across adjacent neurons myelin sheath insulates axon and speeds up transmission of impulses schwan cells forms myelin sheath and aid in nutrition and regeneration of axon node of ranvier occur between schwan cells, where axon is not covered, speeds up impulse transmission nissils granules contain mitochondria that provide cell body with energy for metabolic process i) Describe the structure and function of a motor **neurone** motor neurone relays impulses from CNS (brain/spinal cord) to effectors ( muscles/glands) **ii) Describe the structure and function of sensory ** **neurone ** sensory neurone relays impulses from receptors (sense organs) to CNS 387 ----- ### **iii) State structural differences between motor and ** **sensory neurons ** Cell body in motor neurone is terminal (at the end) and inside central nervous system. Cell body in sensory neurone is terminal but has axon at both ends (bipolar) **iv) Describe the structure and function of a relay ** **neurone ** also called intermediate/internuncial/associate/connector/interneurone locate inside central nervous system and spinal cord usually lack myelin sheath **c) State the functions of the major parts of the human brain ** 388 ----- ### **i) Cerebrum ** called forebrain occupies most of the brain consists of four lobes each with specific function temporal lobe controls taste smell hearing learning and memory partial lobe controls sensory output and touch occipital lobe controls vision, motor output and speech frontal lobe controls personality, learning thought and speech also has parts called thalamus and hypothalamus thalamus helps to sort sensory information hypothalamus controls hunger, heartbeat body temperature and aggression **ii) Mid brain ** quite small in humans relay centre for audio and visual information also involves in some sight, hearing and orientation responses **i) Hind brain ** consists of cellebral and medulla oblongata cerebellum is responsible for coordinating impulses, posture and balance, motor coordination and muscle tone 389 ----- ### medulla oblongata controls heartbeat, blood pressure breathing rate, coughing and sneezing **a) i) What is reflex action? ** an automatic response to an external stimulus e.g. sneezing or withdrawing hand from a hot object **ii) Describe a reflex action that will lead to the withdrawal of ** **a hand from a hot object ** Receptors in the skin respond to stimuli. Are stimulated an impulse is transmitted through the sensory neurone, across a synapse to the central nervous system (white matter), through the relay neurone into grey matter, then to the motor neurone and finally to the effect muscle which contracts the hand is then withdrawn **iii) Explain how an impulse is transmitted across the synapse ** **(gap) ** impulse initiates release of transmitter substance acetylcholine at the end of the sensory neurone acetylcholine diffuses across the synapse and generates an impulse in the next neurone **ii) Briefly describe the transmission of a nervous ** **impulse across a neuro-muscular junction ** impulse arrives at synoptic knob and causes vesicle to move to the pre-synaptic membrane vesicle discharges transmitter substance into synaptic cleft transmitter substance/acetylcholine diffuses across the cleft and attaches to post-synaptic membrane the membrane is depolarized, generating the action potential **iii) What are the functions of a synapse? ** allows transmission of nerve impulses from neurone to neurone ensures nerve impulses travel in only one direction 390 ----- ### in the brain they store information/memory **b) i) What is a conditioned reflex? ** A response caused by a unilateral stimulus (associated stimulus) which substitutes the normal stimulus **ii) Explain a conditioned reflex ** it is automatic it involves the spinal cord it is usually learned e.g. writing, cycling, dancing it involves the interaction of highly specialized centers of ### the brain with a large number of neurone necessary to bring about conditioning example is experiments carried out by Pavlov using dogs |iii) Compare a simple reflex|action with a conditioned ref| |---|---| |Simple reflex|Conditioned reflex| | independent of experience one stimulus to evoke response some sensory and motor neurons used reflex is simple| dependent on experience both substitute and original reflex evoke response sensory component replaced but motor remains unchanged reflex is modified| ### **c) i) What are endocrine glands? ** ductless glands that produce hormones in animals hormones are chemical substances which help to coordinate ### the functions of the body ii ) State the functions of hormones in animals regulate growth and development control behavior during breeding proper functioning of cells regulate metabolic activities **iii) Name the main endocrine glands, their secretions and ** **functions in the human body ** |Gland|Hormone|Functions| |---|---|---| |Thyroid|Thyroxine|Increases rate of metabolism| |Parathyroid|Parathyroid hormone|Regulates calcium and phosphate levels| |Pituitary|Hormone growth|Regulate growth of| 391 ----- |Col1|Col2|body| |---|---|---| ||Gonadotrophic hormone|Stimulates the development of male and female sex organs| ||Lactogenic hormone (prolactin)|Stimulates secretion of milk after child birth| ||Thyrotropic hormone(TSH)|- proper functioning of thyroid gland/thyroxine production| ||Adrenocorthicotropic hormone (ACTH)|- stimulates release of adrenal cortex hormone| ||Oxytocin| regulates blood pressure stimulates smooth muscles stimulates contraction of uterus during childbirth aids in flow of milk from mammary glands| ||Follicle stimulating hormone(FSH)| causes maturation of egg in females stimulates sperm production in males| ||Vasopressin (ADH) Antiduretic hormone|- regulates water balance by kidneys| |Adrenal|Adrenaline (epinephrine)| for emergency prepares body to cope up with stress| ||Aldosterone|- maintains balance| 392 ----- |Col1|Col2|of salt and water in blood| |---|---|---| ||Cortisone| breaks down stored proteins to amino acids aids in breakdown of adipose tissue regulates sugar level in blood prevents inflammation| ||Sex hormones| supplements sex hormones produced by gonads promotes development of sexual characteristics| |Pancrease|Insulin| regulates level of sugar in blood enables liver to store sugar| ||Glucagons| regulates level of sugar in blood| |Ovaries|Oestrogen| causes sexual secondary characteristics in females prepares uterus for pregnancy| ||Progesterone| growth of mucus lining of uterus| 393 ----- |Col1|Col2| maintains uterus during pregnancy| |---|---|---| |Testes|Androgens(testosterone)| causes secondary sexual characteristics in males| |Stomach cells|Gastrin| stimulates release of gastric juice| |Intestinal cells|Secretin| stimulate release of pancreatic juice| ### **iv) Give the differences between nervous and endocrine ** **(hormonal) communication ** |Nervous|Hormonal (endocrine)| |---|---| |Response confined to effector organs (localized targets)|Response more widespread (various targets)| |Speed of response is rapid|Response less rapid| |Nervous impulse thro\\ugh nerves/nerve cell/neurons|Hormones transferred through blood| |Duration of response is short|Persist for long| |Speed of transmission is rapid|Speed of transmission is slower| |Transmission is electrical|Transmission is chemical| ||| ### **v) State the effects of over secretion and under secretion of ** **adrenaline and thyroxine in humans ** |Hormone|Over secretion|Under secretion| |---|---|---| |Adrenaline| thin toneless muscles high blood pressure weak bones obesity early onset of sexual development| low blood pressure inability to withstand stress fatigue muscular weakness muscle wasting increased dark pigmentation of skin| |Thyroxine| increased| cretinism(retarded| 394 ----- ### **g) i) Define the following terms ** **Drug ** a substance that causes a change in body function **Drug abuse ** indiscriminate use of drugs without minding their side effects misuse or wrong use of drugs **ii) State the types of drugs, examples and side effects ** **Sedatives ** also called depressant a drug that decreases the action of the central nervous system reduce anxiety, and tension, induce sleep and act as muscle relaxants when abused they cause withdrawal effects such as anxiety, delirium and death includes barbiturates, other sedatives, tranquilizers and alcohol **Pain-killers ** suppress centers of pain in the brain **Hallucinogens ** given to people with hallucination or mentally ill patients to calm then down when abused they lead to a feeling of confusion, agitation, depression and violent behavior that can lead to murder or suicide examples include valium, LSD, bhang, narcotics and cannabis 395 ----- ### **Stimulants ** drugs that temporarily increase the action of the central nervous system they create a feeling of alertness, wakefulness, a sense of self confidence and well being used to decrease fatigue and mild depression when abused they cause feelings of persecution, hallucination and addiction include amphetamines, cocaine, caffeine, miraa and nicotine **iii) State the general effects of drug abuse on human health ** damage to body organs e.g. liver cirrhosis drug addiction impaired judgment resulting in clumsiness socio-economic problems e.g. crime, loss of jobs, divorce, prostitution, HIV/AIDS may cause poor health **h) i) List the special sense organs in mammals and the major ** **function of each ** - Eye for sight - Ear for hearing and balance - Nose for smell - Skin for touch, temperature detection, pain detection **iii) How is the human eye adapted to its function? ** conjunctiva is thin/transparent/tough to allow light to pass through/to protect the eye 396 ----- ### Sclerotic layer is made up of (collagen) fibers/fibrous. It maintains shape of the eyeball/protects the eye cornea is transparent/curved thus refracts light rays/allows light to pass through Choroid is a layer of tissue with black pigment/dark pigment. Prevents internal reflection of light in the eye/contains blood vessels that supply oxygen/nutrients/remove (metabolic) wastes from the eye retina has cones/rods for bright colour vision/low light vision yellow spot has a high concentration of cones for accurate vision/visual acuity Blind spot has no cones and rods. Place where optic nerve leaves/enters the eye optic nerve has (sensory) nerve fibers for transmission of impulses to the brain (for interpretation) Lens is biconvex/made up of elastic material/transparent. Adjust focus on far or near objects allow light to pass through/for refraction of light rays ciliary body is made up of muscle fibers/glandular which contract/relax to change shape suspensory ligaments are inelastic to hold lens in position/attach it to ciliary body iris(is the coloured part of the eye it) has radial and circular muscles which control size of pupil pupil is the small hole at the centre of iris through which light passes into the eye aqueous humor is a fluid through which oxygen/nutrients pass to the cornea/lens/maintains shape of the eyeball/refracts light rays vitreous humor is a fluid which maintains shape of eye/refracts light rays **iii) What is accommodation of the eye? ** ability of the eye to adjust to bring an image from a near or far object into sharp focus on the retina iv) Explain how an eye viewing a near object adjusts to **viewing a far object ** ciliary muscles relax suspensory ligaments become taut/tight lens decreases curvature/becomes thinner radial muscles relax circular muscles contract 397 ----- ### size of pupil decreases to reduce amount of light v) What changes occur in the eye if it changes from **observing an object at a distance to one at a closer range? ** - ciliary muscles contract - Tension in suspensory ligaments reduces/relax/ slackens - Lens bulges/thickens/increases curvature - Radial muscles contract - Circular muscles relax - Size of pupil becomes large to allow in more light. **viii) State the changes which would take place in the eye if ** **a person in a dark room had lights switched on ** circular muscles contract and radial muscles relax pupil becomes small to allow less light into the eye **ix) Explain how the eye forms an image ** the mammalian eye works like a camera light rays enter the cornea pass through the pupil, aqueous humor, lens and vireous humor light rays are refracted by the aqueous and humor and lenses finally light falls on the retina to form an image the image is real and inverted and smaller than object, back to front/reversed Retina forms a fine image when light rays reach it. x) Name the defects of the eye and state how they can be **corrected** **Short sight (Myopia) ** eye cannot focus on far objects image is formed in front of the retina because light rays converge in front of retina the lens is too thick, curve and eyeball too long corrected by wearing concave/biconcave/lenses these lenses diverge light rays onto retina 398 ----- ### **Long sight (Hypermetropia) ** eye lenses are unable to focus because they are flat, thin and weak hence unable to focus image on the retina they are unable to accommodate/change the focal length near image is formed behind the retina but a distant one is correctly focused on the retina corrected by wearing convex/biconvex/converging lenses **Presbyopia ** occurs in old age hence called old sight caused due to loss of elasticity of lenses, weakness of ciliary muscles hence lack of focus of light rays 399 ----- ### this causes long sight corrected by wearing biconvex/convex/converging lenses **Squinting ** eyeballs are uncoordinated/do not turn at the same time eye muscles move in different directions this makes accommodation and focusing difficult corrected through surgery **Astigmatism ** surface of cornea is uneven leads to weak focus of light raise on retina corrected by using cylindrical lenses/lenses with combined curvature **xi) State the advantages of having two eyes in human ** **beings ** stereoscopic vision gives a wider angle of binocular vision if one is damaged human is not blinded **I i) What are the functions of the human ear? ** hearing balancing **iv) How are the structures of the human ear suited to ** **perform the function of hearing? ** 400 ----- ### shape of the external ear/pinna allows collection of sound waves and channels them down the auditory canal/auditory mateus auditory canal is a tube that concentrates and directs sound waves to tympanic membrane/ tympanum/eardrum Eardrum is thin and tight. It sets into vibration/vibrates/converts sound waves into vibrations the vibrations are transmitted to the ear ossicles/malleus, incus and stapes that amplify the sound vibrations the vibrations are then transmitted to the fennestra ovalis/oval window Oval window is a membrane which amplifies/transmits vibrations to the fluids (perilymph and endolymph) then to cochlea. The cochlea is coiled to occupy a small space and accommodate a large number of sensory cells The sensory cells/hairs (in the cochlea) are set into vibrations/stimulated producing nerve impulses in the auditory nerve Impulses in the auditory nerve are transmitted to the brain for interpretation for hearing Eustachian tube connects the inner ear to the throat. It equalizes air pressure in the middle ear with the atmospheric air pressure (in outer ear) Fennestra rotundus/round window dissipates/discharges/discards vibrations from inner ear to middle ear **iii) Explain how the structure of the human ear performs the ** **function of balancing ** there are three semi-circular canals/utriculus/succulus/vestibular apparatus arranged in planes at right angles to each other at the end of each canal is a swelling called ampulla which contains receptors the movement of the head causes movement of the fluid/endolymph in at least one canal the fluid movement causes stimulation of the receptors/sensory hairs sensory impulses are generated the auditory nerve transmits the impulses to the brain for interpretation for the position of body/posture/balance 401 ----- ### **iv) State what would happen if the auditory nerve was ** **completely damaged ** deafness loss of body balance impulse not transmitted to the brain **7. a) i) What is support? ** to support is to carry part of the weight/mass of an organism **ii) What is locomotion? ** progressive change in the position of an organism **iii) State the importance of support systems in living ** **organisms ** they provide a framework for the body of organisms and help to determine their shape provide land animals with means for support to their weights against gravity organs are attached to the skeleton for support and stability to avoid entanglement and crushing each other they protect very important and delicate organs whether inside or outside the body e.g. eyes, heart in large plants the rigid trunks of trees support the greater mass of leaves and fruits **iv) State the importance of locomotion in animals ** in search of food search for mates escaping predators **b) i) Name the tissues in higher plants that provide ** **mechanical support ** sclerenchyma collenchyma (not lignified) xylem/tracheids and vessels **ii) State the importance of support in plants ** exposing the surface area of leaf to sunlight for photosynthesis ensure flowers are exposed to pollination agents expose fruits and seeds to agents of dispersal to resist breakages due to their own weight and that of other organisms for proper transport and translocation of materials **iii) Name the types of plant stems ** herbaceous e.g. shrubs woody e.g. trees 402 ----- ### weak stems in creepers, twining plants and plants bearing tendrils **iv) Name the tissues in plants that are strengthened with ** **lignin ** sclerenchyma xylem vessels/tracheids/xylem **v) What makes young herbaceous plants remain upright? ** turgidity presence of collenchyma **vi) State the ways by which plants compensate for lack of ** **ability to move from one place to another ** ability to pollinate response to nastic and tropic movement ability to exploit localized nutrients ability to disperse seed or fruit propagation c) i) Explain the ways in which erect posture is maintained in **a weak herbaceous stem** - This is the function of turgidity and presence of collencyma Cells take in water and become turgid **ii) Explain how support in plants is achieved ** Turgor pressure due to absorption of water keeps cells firm hence hold herbaceous plants upright collenchyma and clerenchyma tissues are closely packed in stem and roots to provide support inelastic cuticle on epidermis is covered by a waxy layer hence keeping shape of plant and setting inward pressure against turgid cells and this causes a force to hold plant upright xylem vessels and tracheids are lignified to provide support to stems, roots and leaves climbing plants obtain mechanical support from other plants and objects they have climbing structures like tendrils which hold on to other objects **d) i) Give the reasons why support is necessary in animals ** for attachment of muscles For attachment of other body organs to protect delicate body organs to maintain body shape/form to enable movement/locomotion **ii) Why is movement necessary in animals? ** enables animals to search for food 403 ----- ### enables animals to search for shelter enables animals to escape predators/harmful conditions enables animals to search for water enables animals to search for mates enables animals to search for breeding sites **e) i) Name the organ used for support by animals ** - Skeleton **ii) Name the different types of skeletons in animals, giving an ** **example of an animal for each type of skeleton named ** exoskeleton e.g. arthropoda (crab, insect) endoskeleton e.g. chordata (cat, fish) **iii) State the difference between exoskeleton and ** **endoskeleton ** endoskeleton is a rigid framework covered by body tissues of an animal exoskeleton is a rigid framework found on the surface of an animal **iv) State the advantages of having an exoskeleton ** supports/protects delicate inner parts water proof/prevents drying up of body provided surface for muscle attachment **v) Explain the importance of having an endoskeleton ** support the body give body its shape protect delicate organs e.g. skull, brain, ribs used in locomotion e.g. bones serve as levers red blood cells are formed in bone marrow minerals are stored in bones e.g. calcium and phosphorus **f) i) Explain how a fish is adapted to living in water ** streamlined body for easy movement in water swim bladder controls depth of swimming fins for movement, balance, direction and stability gills for gaseous exchange in water presence of lateral line to sense vibrations scales provide protection colour which offers camouflage against predators **ii) Explain how a finned fish is adapted to locomotion in ** **water ** streamlined body to reduce resistance/friction )to swim smoothly) the vertebral column consists of a series of vertebrae held together loosely so that it is flexible 404 ----- ### myotomes/muscles associated with vertebral column produce movement the sideways and backwards thrust of the tail and body against water results in resistance of water pushing the fish sideways and forwards in a direction opposed to thrust heat not flexible so as to maintain forward thrust presence of fins help in propulsion/balance/paired fins (pectoral and pelvic) for controlling pitch and slow down movement/unpaired fins (dorsal, ventral, anal) for yawing and rolling (caudal) for swimming/propulsion and steering/change of direction presence of swim bladder to make fish buoyant scales tip towards the back to provide smooth surface body covered with mucus to reduce friction flattened surface for easy floating **g) i) Name the main parts of the vertebral column giving the ** **types of bones found in each part ** **Axial skeleton ** forms the main axis of the body formed by the skull, sternum, ribs and vertebrae **Appendicular skeleton ** composed of limbs and girdles the forelimbs are connected to the trunk by the pectoral girdles (shoulder bones) hind limbs are connected to the pelvic girdle (hips) bones are scapular, clavicle, humerus, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpals, carpals, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges, ilium, ischium and pubis **ii) What are the vertebrae? ** bones of the vertebral column **iii) State the functions of the vertebral column ** gives flexibility absorbs shock protects spinal cord supports weight of body provide surface for muscle attachment between the vertebrae are soft discs which offer cushioning called interverterbral discs **iv) State the general characteristics of vertebrae ** have solid structure called centrum to support weight of body 405 ----- ### has transverse process lateral to centrum for muscle attachment neural spine is dorsal to centrum and provides surface area for muscle attachment neural canal a passage for spinal cord and offers protection to it has facets for articulation with other vertebrae neural arch encloses neural canal 406 ----- ### **v) Name the bones of the vertebral column ** - Cervical vertebra - Thoracic vertebra - Lumbar vertebra - Sacral vertebra - Caudal vertebra 407 ----- ### **vi) Describe how the various vertebrae are adapted to their ** |functions|Col2|Col3| |---|---|---| |Bone|Structure|Function| |Skull| cranium and jaw bones made of several bones joined together large box called cranium and smaller paired boxes for eyes, ears, nose, jaws has large hole called foramen magnum for the passage of spinal| attachmen t of jaws protect brain and other delicate parts| 408 ----- |Col1|cord|Col3| |---|---|---| |Cervical region Atlas (first cervical)| ring shaped no Centrum broad, flat transverse processes vertebrateria l canal for passage of vertebral artery facet for articulation of condyles of skull| protect spinal cord attachmen t of muscles allow nodding of head| |Axis (second cervical)| adontoid peg projects from Centrum large flattened neural spine vertebrasteri al canal small transverse process| allows head to rotate protects spinal cord provides surface for muscle attachmen t| |Cervical (others)| short neural spine branched transverse process for neck muscles vertebrateria l canals wide neural canal| support weight of head protect spinal cord neck muscle attachmen t| |Thoracid| long backward pointing neural spine| forms rib cage articulatio n with one| 409 ----- |Col1| transverse process that points sideways facets for articulation of ribs notch for spinal nerves to pass through|end of a rib protects, spinal cord muscle attachmen t| |---|---|---| |Lumbar| short neural spine long transverse process pointing towards abdomen large Centrum extra processes e.g. prezygapoph ysis, hypapophysi s, anapophysis, metapophysi s| protect organs of abdomen support upper part of body protect spinal cord muscle attachmen t| |Sacral| fused bones to form sacrum well developed transverse process of first vertebra vertebrateria l canals short neural spine| protects alimentary canal attachmen t of hip girdles protect spinal cord muscle attachmen t| 410 ----- ### **vii) Describe the bones that form the appendicular skeleton ** |Bone|Structure|Function| |---|---|---| |Pectoral girdle scapular (shoulder bone)| Broad i.e. Flattened blade glenoid cavity to articulate with humerus metacromion/acro mion for muscle attachment hard to provide support socket with cartilage/smooth surface to reduce friction|Support Muscle attachment Articulates with humerus| |Humerus| long shaft for muscle attachment round head to articulate with glenoid cavity trochlea for articulation with ulna olecranon fosa to prevent arm bending the other way| moveme nt muscle attachm ent| 411 ----- |Ulna and radius| ulna longer and on side of little finger has sigmoid notch and olecranon process to form hinge joint with humerus radius is smaller and lies along thumb side and does not join ulna allows articulation with wrist bones| moveme nt muscle attachm ents| |---|---|---| |Pelvic girdle(hip bone)| composed of three fused bones (ilium, ischium, pubis) upper end fused to sacrum lower end has acetabalum for articulation with femur has abturator foramen for passage of nerves and blood vessels| moveme nt muscle attachm ent support absorbs pressure exerted by ground when animal moves| 412 ----- |Col1|Col2|Col3| |---|---|---| |Femur| rounded head to fit in acetabulum of pelvis projections called trochanter for attachment of thigh muscles condyles at lower end for articulation with tibi patella that covers knee and prevents leg from bending backwards| moveme nt muscle attachm ent| |Tibia and fibula| tibia is longer than fibula tibia is outer bone and fibula is inner bone tibia lies on side of large toe fibula is fused to tibia (on outer side)| moveme nt muscle attachm ent| ### **8. a) What is a joint? ** the point where bones meet **ii) State the functions of joints ** provide a point of articulation between bones **iii) Name the main types of joints ** ### immovable joints e.g. skull, pelvic girdles and sacrum slightly movable joints e.g. between vertebrae Freely movable joints e.g. knee, elbow **iv) Give the features of movable joints ** ends of bones covered with articular cartilage ends bound by capsules of ligaments have joint cavity filled with lubricating fluid called synovial fluid secreted by synovial membrane they are called synovial joints **b) Describe the synovial joints ** **iv) Ball and socket ** 413 ----- ### allow movement in all planes /directions i.e. 360 [o] rounded end of bone fits into a rounded cavity in another bone e.g. shoulder joint and hip joint **v) Hinge joint ** convex surface of one bone fits into the concave surface of another bone this allows movement in only one plane/direction 180o e.g. elbow joint and knee joint **vi) Pivot joint ** allows rotation e.g. where atlas pivots on olecranon process of axis **c) i) What is synovial fluid? ** lubricating fluid produced by synovial membrane at movable joints **ii) State the functions of synovial fluid ** absorbs shock reduces friction/gives lubrication nourishment distributes pressure **d) Explain the following terms ** **v) Ligament ** connective tissue joining one bone to another **vi) Cartilage ** supporting soft tissue found at joints they cushion the bones and absorb shock **vii) Tendon ** tissue that connects muscle to bones **9. Muscles ** 414 ----- ### **e) i) What is a muscle? ** fleshy part of body composed of long cells enclosed in a sheath specialized cells capable of contracting **ii) State the functions of muscles ** cover the skeleton provide shape contract and relax to enable body to move **f) Describe the structure and function of various types of ** **muscles ** **i) skeletal muscles ** also called voluntary/striated/stripped muscles they are attached to skeleton they consist of striated, multinucleated, ling fibers and are cylindrical shaped found on legs, arms, eyes, neck where they cause movement **ii) Involuntary muscles ** also called smooth/visceral/unstriated/unstripped their movement is not controlled by the will they are unstriated, nucleated, short fibred and spindle shaped are found in alimentary canal, blood vessels, secretory glands, other tubular visceral organs, bladder, uterus, urinary tract, reproductive system, respiratory tract, ciliary body, iris **iii) Cardiac muscles ** also called myocardium found in the walls of the heart are not under control of the will composed of long cylindrical cells with special junctions myogenic i.e. generate their own contraction they are not fatigued their function is contraction of the heart to pump blood **g) Explain how muscles cause movement of the human ** **arm ** the muscles which bring about these movements are called biceps and triceps biceps are attached to scapula and radius for bending triceps are attached to scapula, humerus and ulna for stretching 415 ----- ### when the biceps contracts, it pulls the radius (forearm) and the hand bends the triceps relaxes at the same time when the triceps contracts and biceps relaxes(extends) the arm is stretched biceps flexes the arm (flexor) and triceps extend(extensor muscle) the arm **h) i) State the structural differences between skeletal ** **muscles e.g. biceps and smooth muscles e.g. gut mus cle ** |Skeletal (biceps)|Smooth (gut) muscle| |---|---| | multinucleated striated/stripped long muscle fibers block/cylindrical| uninucleated unstriated short muscle fibers spindle shaped| **ii) Name the cartilage found between the bones of the ** **vertebral column ** intervertebral disc **iv) What are the functions of the cartilage named in (d) ** **ii) above ** acts as a cushion/absorbs shock reduces friction flexibility of vertebral column **END ** 416 ----- |
**HOME** **SCIENCE** **I**<br><br>1. How 2. What can **two** you that ensure precautionary a sitting measures room is should well be ventilated? when <br><br>(3mks) <br><br>taken using paraffin as a fuel? <br><br>(2mks). 3. State 4. State 5. State 6. Care **two** **three** **two** should reasons qualities advantages taken for of and to <br><br>using good white lighting. <br><br>ceramic tiles in the kitchen? <br><br>(2mks). (3mks). <br><br>**two** ensure disadvantages over left that of foods steaming remain as a fresh. method How of can <br><br>cooking? be (2mks) (2mks). (3mks). (3mks) (1mrk) (1mrk) (1mrk) 1 mks). / 2 <br><br>be this <br><br>done? <br><br>7. State 8. Give 9. State 10.**Two** What 11. Give 12. 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(a) <br><br>After apron Grease State What Explain What <br><br>completing the has your following cookery stains <br><br>practical lesson you found that your white cotton <br><br>(i) (ii) <br><br>Coffee stain be can considered and considered on worked seam? the of the show diagrams combing the how clearly should be factors advantages the be should factors is seam commonly the are of aid the <br><br>removed. when <br><br>(5mks) (6mks) (4mks). (5mks) <br><br>(b) (c) (d) 24. French (a) <br><br>choosing dry choosing brooms cleaning. floor <br><br>and brushes? <br><br>disadvantages of <br><br>when children's <br><br>covering? <br><br>clothes. <br><br>i. ii. What <br><br>What With <br><br>advantages clear advantages (2mks) (6mks) (4mks) working with the of Nylon. <br><br>seam. <br><br>(b) are of wool (c) <br><br>Discuss maximum Of what Explain Discuss What (i) (ii) <br><br>points <br><br>you service. <br><br>would observe to ensure that your sewing machine gives <br><br>you (4mks) (4mks) (4mks) (4mks) (4mks) (4mks) have (4mks) <br><br>(d) (a) (b) (c) (d) <br><br>use **four** the points <br><br>drafting be advantages must points is done? <br><br>is rules pattern to <br><br>to observed food of remembered considered be in lumps with <br><br>tailor when ? preparing 25. left over foods. <br><br>preservation. when when it, be to served <br><br>storing serving grains. invalids. <br><br>Explain sauce A what possible mistakes are likely to **HOME** **MARKING**<br><br>**SCIENCE** **I**<br><br>**SCHEME**<br><br>**SECTION** **A.**<br><br>- Doors should <br><br>enough. large be be large should spacious. be be should not e.g. ventilation <br><br>1. <br><br>Windows Room Furniture Artificial Rooms <br><br>enough. <br><br>- - - - - <br><br>should <br><br>congested. <br><br>fans cleaned should daily. <br><br>be provided. <br><br>should be well <br><br>- - Store - - Keep <br><br>Do Lids <br><br>not <br><br>store should away away in be from from <br><br>sodas tight <br><br>bottles. fitting. foodstuffs. children's <br><br>2. <br><br>reach. <br><br>clean. Easy to - show Easily - - Attractive. wall Protect - as Last - <br><br>3. <br><br>dirt. <br><br>from they dampness. to easy long maintain. 4. <br><br>Should - Light - - Work It - It - It - contrast be be minimise enhance be <br><br>with <br><br>to to avoid distributed without efficiently in ease and decoration. <br><br>background avoid <br><br>straining on the working <br><br>eyes. <br><br>well done <br><br>shadows straining. movement. <br><br>areas. <br><br>should should should accidents interior a without glare. <br><br>5. <br><br>. *Advantages* digest - and - cooked. are <br><br>Easy Saves foods to time are <br><br>no fuel <br><br>fats <br><br>are when added food or is direct cooked heating. over a pot of boiling water in which other <br><br>- Nutrients retained as no liquid media is used. <br><br>. *Disadvantages* - A method slow - Expensive - Steamed cooking of a done if method lone. flavour. lack to tends food <br><br>food in clean containers which are covered to prevent contamination by dust and 6. - <br><br>Put flies. <br><br>Food should be cooled quickly and stored in the fridge clean cool place. - <br><br>- Should - Should Should - Should - be not be not <br><br>or firm be over unbruised. <br><br>hard. ripe <br><br>7. <br><br>or unripe. <br><br>be withered. <br><br>- To - To To - To - prevent it from from it prevent it's improve food prevent <br><br>breaking into overcooking. <br><br>pieces. 8. <br><br>appearance. from getting too greasy. <br><br>Mending - Soaking - - Removing Sorting. - <br><br>9. <br><br>stains. <br><br>10. - Boiling. <br><br>- Commercial - Boiling. <br><br>11. - Bleaching. - Commercial disinfectant e.g. Dettol. <br><br>12. - - - - To For To To neaten decoration. strengthen make <br><br>raw edges. <br><br>rouleu loops. b.- c.- Do Use not warm bleach. iron. <br><br>14. <br><br>- - To To rid get remove of any <br><br>excess dampness. <br><br>smells or odours. <br><br>15. <br><br>- - - stitches. Loop Button hole. Overcasting. <br><br>16. <br><br>- - - - - Collar - Double <br><br>Bias Frill. Lace. Facing. <br><br>binding / cross way strip. <br><br>yoke. 17. <br><br>- - - Should Should Should be not fit strong rust the <br><br>to last long <br><br>figure. <br><br>18. <br><br>- Breathing - Blocked - Wearing poisonous windpipe objects <br><br>gases. <br><br>over there <br><br>19. <br><br> - To Prevent <br><br>control <br><br>too entry much of <br><br>bleeding which can lead to death <br><br>germs. <br><br>20. <br><br>- - - Overlaid French Yoke. <br><br>seam. <br><br>seam. <br><br>21. <br><br>- - - - Choose Test to Length Colour a see of of good that zip zip brand. zip should tape smoothly of length colour and poening. of <br><br>easily. <br><br>must match fabric. <br><br>22. <br><br>A B C X Y Z - - - - - - Front Back Front Dart. Starting to Place <br><br>Bodice. Bodice. facing. <br><br>grain. Fold. **SECTION** **B.**<br><br>23.(a) (i) <br><br>- - <br><br>Wash <br><br>in Carbon <br><br>very hot water <br><br>with a may little be washing the on soda stubborn <br><br>in it. <br><br>tetrachloride used stain. (ii) <br><br>- Rub - Rub - Use salt salt wood <br><br>on and <br><br>the stain lemon or and juice in pour and same the through is stain. if very boiling as water if stain a stubborn. ash Borax way salt stain <br><br>(b) <br><br>- Bristles - Handle - Head Should - - Material should should be selected be firmly be be of smooth for of <br><br>and comfortable and <br><br>closely <br><br>set length. <br><br>on the head. <br><br>should be <br><br>slightly curved <br><br>to and they reduce use. last <br><br>damage on furniture. <br><br>the good correct quality purpose that so should long. <br><br>(c) <br><br>*Advantages* . material The - may Solution - are Solutions - are Solution - expensive. is cause damage inflammable. poisonous. <br><br>on the fabric. (d) - Should relate to the colour scheme of the room ( Harmonize with rest of the <br><br>colour) of of the <br><br>- Design Texture - of Size - - Cleaning - Amount The - corridors the the room. care money of the hard <br><br>upholstered fabric <br><br>furniture. <br><br>or material used. <br><br>and of purpose and required. available. covering for carpet e.g soft kitchen carpet and <br><br>for sitting room, bed rooms and <br><br>bathroom. <br><br>24. (a) <br><br>(i) (ii) (iii) <br><br>Narrow Neat Easy Easy and seam to to strong as edges launder. work. <br><br>with are two of concealed. <br><br>lines machining. and Tack - - Remove Fold - Tack - Stitch - stitch tacking the from the 6mm press stitching the edge tacking the from, the open line with enclosing on i.e line <br><br>edge seam outside and <br><br>the fitting 4mm. to together. <br><br>line. <br><br>trim sides raw fitting a long 6mm below <br><br>Right the <br><br>edges line completely. remove the tacking. <br><br>(b) <br><br>- - - - The The The The fibre fibre fibre fibre produce is is is is warmer to easier cheaper much than launder. buy. to <br><br>more Nylon. <br><br>stronger and hence long lasting. <br><br>(c) <br><br>- be Must - Replace - Have the - Oil <br><br>covered broken machine <br><br>when parts <br><br>to not immediately. by <br><br>in use protect it from dust. <br><br>checked regularly. <br><br>mechanic regularly. <br><br>the machine (d) <br><br>- - Money Less - - Using - No <br><br>of Development patterns as saving as wasted individual <br><br>skills. <br><br>are shopping person's and home. is measurements. correction <br><br>made for at patterns <br><br>time of <br><br>not done. <br><br>adjustment required is easy to do. <br><br>25. (a) <br><br>be - Large - - Additional replace Food - Food - - Avoid Serve - <br><br>Food <br><br>and should moisture was lost what coated be may well should be re- repeated anew food <br><br>re pieces <br><br>heated <br><br>re-cooked. not ones. small into be cut be should in added cooking. during to batter with to garnished by preparing avoid <br><br>form of gravy or stoch may be added to <br><br>prevent enhance <br><br>over it appearance. enough. <br><br>from heating. <br><br>heating to form just monotony. in (b) <br><br>- - - - May Food Preserved Preservation done be <br><br>in <br><br>season food <br><br>can can slows where be be down there preserved to transported food is be to decay. surplus. <br><br>used reach when places <br><br>(c) <br><br>- - - - - Do - Rock - Use <br><br>should They well Store in Preserve grains Place <br><br>be ventilated before containers toxic store <br><br>completely <br><br>dry. rooms. storage. <br><br>storage keep grain <br><br>on chemical check the <br><br>racks. grain the in frequently. <br><br>not <br><br>and before old stock one. <br><br>(d) (i) <br><br>- Meals Serve - Prepare, - Food - Serve - - Give - Give Food - - Avoid Follow - <br><br>should meals <br><br>be balanced. <br><br>punctually. serve palatable <br><br>cook and <br><br>hygienically. and <br><br>should attractively. small hot should strong doctors <br><br>be appetizing. <br><br>at foods and and be flavourings orders. <br><br>(ii) <br><br>Flour - - Using - Adding - - Roux not - Blending <br><br>is too <br><br>added <br><br>to much very heat hot during <br><br>fat. <br><br>cooking. <br><br>liquid <br><br>too stirring fast during <br><br>without adequate stirring. <br><br>Inadequate cooking. <br><br>well of cooked. not flour adequately done. 94226176. <br><br>Explain ) (3mks <br><br>- - - 3. Give 94226216. Dextrinisation Gelatinization Caramelization reasons Differentiate <br><br>**two** for airing <br><br>clothes a storage house (2 house between split level and a storeyed <br><br>(2mks) <br><br>94226217. the (3mks) <br><br>Explain <br><br>**three** the of ways in viscous <br><br>which blending viscose with polyester would modify <br><br>characteristics fabric. <br><br>4. State 94226218. <br><br>**two**<br><br>advantages **two** Give of causes dry of cleaning black a clothes in <br><br>(2mks ) <br><br>ring hard boiled egg <br><br>(2mks) <br><br>94226219. (2mks) 94226220. woolen (3mks) 94226221. (3mks) 94226222. (2mks) 94226223. <br><br>List down **four** nutrients found in eggs Give fabrics <br><br>**three** reasons why soaking is necessary for cotton and not for <br><br>State **three** qualities of fabric for underwear <br><br>Explain **two** points on care of the Kitchen sink <br><br>State **three** factors to consider when selecting flowers for flower <br><br>arrangement (3mks) <br><br>94226224. Give **three** pre-caution to take when cleaning plain wooden surfaces <br><br>(3mks) <br><br>94226225. one (1mk) 94226226. duties <br><br>Explain the advantage of a refrigerator with two doors as opposed to <br><br>door <br><br>Give **two** ways of saving time and energy when performing house hold <br><br>( 3mks) information <br><br>94226227. to children <br><br>(2 fastenings <br><br>mks) <br><br>94226228. <br><br>Give ) <br><br>**two** important points to bear in mind when choosing <br><br>(2mks <br><br>**SECTION** **B**<br><br>when baking <br><br>planning meals (5mks) 18. (a) <br><br>and State (b) Give **two** (i) Cracked explain reasons Swiss <br><br>**five** the points to following consider in faults <br><br>for roll (2mks ) <br><br>reamed Explain example <br><br>cake three sunken causes <br><br>at <br><br>middle malnutritional <br><br>the <br><br>(2mks) an (6 <br><br>c). of disorders and in each case give <br><br>mks) (d) Minerals perform varied and inter-related functions. Discuss <br><br>(4mks) <br><br>19 .(a) Discuss properties of cotton which make it important for hospital linen. <br><br>(8mks) <br><br>(b) Describe how to make an open seam at the side of a popline blouse <br><br>(6mks) <br><br>(zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz <br><br>our special <br><br>niece <br><br>who is occasion. **two** short Advice advantages <br><br>and plump wishes to make a two piece outfit <br><br>for (4mks) <br><br>a <br><br>(c) <br><br>Give (2mks ) Explain <br><br>of smoking on a childs outfit <br><br>20. (a) clearly <br><br>how to <br><br>remove ) <br><br>(b) State **four** points to observe a when grease stain laundering on non cotton fast Apron coloured (5mks articles <br><br>(4mks) <br><br>(zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz <br><br>our Suggest <br><br>brother living <br><br>in points <br><br>Kisumu he which is should determine <br><br>considering consider <br><br>buying a plot to build <br><br>a . house (5mks) **five**<br><br>(c) State cleaning (zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz <br><br>**four** factors the frequency of a room (4mks) <br><br>tate Discuss (b) Discuss disposal <br><br>**two**<br><br>for on one <br><br>(2mks <br><br>21. (a) <br><br>**four** **five** a on <br><br>of remedies points points garment. <br><br>static and use should fabrics care consider in ` wear brooms when <br><br>) (4mks) of (5mks) <br><br>choosing a method fullness <br><br>(zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz it ive **four** qualities of aluminium which make popular for household <br><br>utensils ) ) (4mks (5mks <br><br>(c) Suggest choice (zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz <br><br>factors which influence consumer <br><br>ive **two** uses of salt in laundry work . (2mks ) **HOMESCIENCE** **II**<br><br>**1.** - - **Reasons** To To <br><br>**for**<br><br>**folding** air already **2**<br><br>**in** **flour**<br><br>incorporate retain **(** the **2x1**<br><br>incorporated air <br><br>**=** **marks** **)**<br><br>**2.**<br><br>**Meaning** - Dextrination known <br><br>**of**<br><br>**terms** - dextrin - <br><br>When . <br><br>starch <br><br>is process when exposed is exposed to as moist <br><br>dry <br><br>it dextrinisation heat <br><br>heat changes to form <br><br>a ( swells <br><br>sugar 1mk) as <br><br>the Starch known to - Gelatinization - absorbs water <br><br>and ) burst (1mk <br><br>- Caramelisation caramelisation <br><br>- Sugars exposed to heat melts to form a caramel hence <br><br>(1mk ) <br><br>3. <br><br>**for** **Reasons** get - rid remove - **=**<br><br>**airing** **clothes**<br><br>To To **(**<br><br>of <br><br>dampness smells **)** bad **marks** **2x1** **2** house has is rooms <br><br>where <br><br>rooms of top are others <br><br>placed at individual levels of the ground . <br><br>on . <br><br>94226432. <br><br>- - Reduces it - Makes Reduces shrinkage lighter <br><br>creasing <br><br>94226433. <br><br>**Advantages** affected not maintained is is maintained **2marks)**<br><br>**of** **dry** **cleaning**<br><br>Fibres - - Colour Texture - **2x1=** **(**<br><br>7.**Black**<br><br>**ring** - Overboiling eggs Stale - cooling - Not **2** **=** **2x1** **(**<br><br>**in** **eggs**<br><br>in **marks** cold **)**<br><br>water . <br><br>8.**Nutrient**<br><br>**in** - Vitamin - Vitamin Iron - Protein - Fats - Phosphorous - **4** **(**<br><br>**eggs** A D <br><br>**** **x** **=** **2** **marks)** 9. <br><br>**Soaking** - Wool - Wool Soften - - Dirt **necessary** is weak felts cotton not <br><br>**for** when <br><br>**cotton** **and** **not** **for** **wool**<br><br>wet shrinks dirt <br><br>and for adhere **relevant** does **other** to **answer** woolen **3x1** fabrics **3** **=** as **marks** much **)**<br><br>as any other <br><br>**(any**<br><br>Not 10. - Soft - - Non - Not - Absorbent - Colour **any** **(**<br><br>bulky to the static irritating <br><br>skin <br><br>fast <br><br>**other** **3x1=** **3** **marks)**<br><br>11. <br><br>Care - - Do **(**<br><br>of Pour the hot kitchen water <br><br>sink <br><br>occasionally particles **)** not **2x1** allow **2** **=** big **marks**<br><br>down the sink <br><br>9 12. - - - Not - Do not - Clean <br><br>Selecting Fresh <br><br>flowers <br><br>strong pick foliage <br><br>scented full when bloom <br><br>94226472. <br><br>- along harsh of use expose sharp <br><br>Plain <br><br>wooden the grain abrasives hot to things. <br><br>surfaces <br><br>Scrub - - Avoid - Avoid - Do not - Avoid <br><br>water <br><br>-it sunlight discolors it direct - warps <br><br>94226473. unlike door <br><br>- one <br><br>A two door refrigerator allows the frozen food to stay undisturbed <br><br>where frequent opening affects the freezer compartment <br><br>94226474. - Use - Use - Make - correct labour use <br><br>Use <br><br>of posture saving trays of <br><br>correct and efficient tools <br><br>devices and trolleys **(** **2x1** **=** **2** **marks)**<br><br>16. - - Bold Real posters objects any other **(** **2x1** **=** **2** **marks** **)**<br><br>17. - - - - - **(**<br><br>Choice Position The Type Type <br><br>fabric <br><br>**any** fastening of of the weaver of of **other**<br><br>garment <br><br>garment **relevant** **point** **2x1** **=** **2** **mks** **)**<br><br>**SECTION** **B**<br><br>18. (a) Planning <br><br>meals capability <br><br>- Cooks - Amount - Clients - - <br><br>of money <br><br>Equipment Time **(**<br><br>available <br><br>available **5** **other** **any** **x1** **=** **5** **marks** **)**<br><br>(b) <br><br>- - - - Cracked Not Too A <br><br>Swiss <br><br>roll immediately <br><br>rolled high of temperature time baking lot <br><br>Creamed (ii) - soft Too - cooked - Not <br><br>cake sunk mixture <br><br>in the middle <br><br>10 - A lot of sugar used <br><br>c ) <br><br>**Causes** - - - - **General** Protects - - Helps in - Regulate - Helps **3x1** **(**<br><br>**of** **malnutrition**<br><br>Excessive Lack of Inability of intake nutrients body of - nutrient Anaemia, absorb Obesity Kwarshiokor - - to nutrients Anaemia, Rickets <br><br>d) <br><br>**functions** body the **of** from formation **minerals** diseases body of cells <br><br>body maintain **3** **=** processes water **)**<br><br>composition in the body <br><br>**marks**<br><br>19 <br><br>(a) **Properties** - Absorbent to - Warm the to Soft - - Withstands Easy - - Not **x** ( <br><br>**of** **cotton**<br><br>the body <br><br>skin frequent washing / strong <br><br>to affected **well** **=** **2**<br><br>launder <br><br>by <br><br>alkalis **explained**<br><br>and <br><br>acids **points**<br><br>hence can be bleached effectively <br><br>**4** **)** b) <br><br>**seam** **Making** pieces Place - () () Pin - tacking - Remove () Trim raw - e.t.c. stitch <br><br>**open** two <br><br>**.** () and () edges pieces machine () press neaten and together stitch seam () <br><br>R.S () () along Facing the Tack fitting line () on w. s ( ) <br><br>open <br><br>() machine by fold () , binding , blanket c) <br><br>**two** **Advice** - Matching and - Dark draping - Good - Not - Choose <br><br>**on**<br><br>**piece** colour <br><br>**outfit** . dainty fabric <br><br>quality the with <br><br>clinging <br><br>to fabric body vertical lines <br><br>d) <br><br>**Advantages** Style - - Can **of** features down <br><br>**smoking**<br><br>let for added width <br><br>20 <br><br>**Removal** (a) Scrape - Place - Iron - - Wash <br><br>**of**<br><br>**grease** much (1) iron in **stain** as paper (1) hot (1) blotting hot article <br><br>as <br><br>possible on from water <br><br>stain <br><br>using (1) <br><br>outside (1) towards center . <br><br>**(5marks)**<br><br>(b)**Laundering** **non**<br><br>**fast** soak. <br><br>**coloured** **articles**<br><br>- Do not <br><br>11 - Wash - Dry - Use Iron - quickly undershade iron warm w.s only **(4x1** **=** **4marks)**<br><br>c)**Points**<br><br>**on** Type Social **buying** **plot** soils of amenities <br><br>- - - Neighbourhood Security - of Slope - - Nearness **other** ( land to place **relevant** of **point** work **x1** **5** **any** **=** **5** **marks** **)**<br><br>d) <br><br>**Cleaning** - Condition - User Time - - Cleaning - Use - <br><br>**frequency** of of the available equip room ( occupants cleaning material room for and <br><br>) <br><br>available <br><br>of <br><br>the of room the Location room <br><br>e) <br><br>**Remedies** - - **of** fabric with <br><br>**clinging**<br><br>**fabric** in last underwears Use Wear softener cotton <br><br>rinse <br><br>**and**<br><br>**care** fluffs heavily the <br><br>**of** **brooms**<br><br>built 21.**(a)**<br><br>**Use** - Remove - Clean Store - - Dry in with Facing soapy between no with water two pressure head - nails the on down bristles <br><br>b) <br><br>**of** **Choice** Position - of Type - of - Age Type of - Fabric - <br><br>**method** on **of** garment <br><br>**fullness** **of** **disposal.**<br><br>fabric wearer garment <br><br>( weight ) <br><br>texture <br><br>c) <br><br>**Qualities** Shinny - Light - - Does - Good <br><br>**of** **aluminium**<br><br>appearance weight rust conductor <br><br>in not <br><br>of heat <br><br>d) <br><br>**Factors** - - Money - - Other <br><br>**which** Location <br><br>**influence** **consumer** **choice**<br><br>available <br><br>Fashion <br><br>consumers <br><br>12 Time available - <br><br>e). <br><br>**Use** **of** Fix - - Cut **salt** **in** of color mucus <br><br>**Laundry** loose colored garments <br><br>**HOMESCIENCE** **III**<br><br>**SECTION** **A**<br><br>1. What 2. Give 3. You causes **two** have mildew of polyester stain lengthening dress <br><br>(1mk) (2mks) <br><br>methods a a clings skirt to that the that problem <br><br>4. State 5. Give **two** **two**<br><br>to factors methods used. in fats of uses a stewing method as of disadvantages preventing of batter of <br><br>consider of when flour planning mixtures meals in and for each invalids case aerating give an example <br><br>raising (a) (b) 7. Give 8. State 9. Give 10. Give 11. State 12. List 13. What 14. The 15. List <br><br>agent <br><br>Give Describe **two** **four** **two** **two** **two** **four**<br><br>**three** cookery 6. <br><br>of <br><br>cooking to the diseases. <br><br>advertising skin concealed <br><br>ways of <br><br>disadvantages reasons disadvantages consider to factors contribute factors **four** patch pocket a of preparations **four**<br><br>drainage rest to for clothes fabric selecting <br><br>system after more <br><br>why <br><br>is soaking when to depends an <br><br>allowed <br><br>making 24 than childrens <br><br>before hours <br><br>use. <br><br>mks) <br><br>for garment <br><br>efficiency on <br><br>when tasks <br><br>**size** any <br><br>several factors <br><br>expectant **one** Prickly Nappy **four** **three** **four** way heat rash differences factors of ways <br><br>of protecting the <br><br>between brooms <br><br>and method when brushes of lighting which conserving <br><br>determine controlling fullness <br><br>energy has body. <br><br>become too short <br><br>Suggest two remedies for <br><br>this (3mks) (2mks) of a (2mks) (3mks) (1mk) (2mks) (2mks) (2mks) (2mks) (1 (2mks) (2mks) (2mks) <br><br>consumer <br><br>performing Give . make should household four. for mother home confinement <br><br>(2mks) <br><br>baby against each of the following <br><br>(1mk) (1mk) (2mks) (1 (4mks) <br><br>mks) <br><br>**SECTION** **B.**<br><br>20. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) State Give Give Discuss Give <br><br>and **four** **four**<br><br>explain general to points reasons for factors **four** rules to consider for blanching <br><br>to <br><br>consider mind entertaining food. vegetables <br><br>when <br><br>planning preparing meals pastries <br><br>in when preserving <br><br>bear when <br><br>**three**<br><br>**two** reasons before freezing Give Explain Explain Give State <br><br>**four**<br><br>precautionary to make importance <br><br>measures water <br><br>to take starch ventilation in sewage of wall of choice <br><br>how **four** boiling of <br><br>good disposal in house and finishes **four** **four** reasons factors why to consider (4mks) (4mks) (4mks) (6mks) (2mks) <br><br>when laundering woolen articles <br><br>(5mks) (5mks) (4mks) <br><br>a in rivers streams is prohibited (4mks) <br><br>(2mks) Explain State Discuss <br><br>how to <br><br>zip attach a of a suitable using fastener made hem underwear <br><br>edge to edge method <br><br>(1mk) (3mks) (8mks) **three** **4**<br><br>qualities <br><br>well for qualities fabrics <br><br>23. (a) (b) <br><br>Explain Explain Feed (i) Presser (ii) (iii) Stop Give Name <br><br>how the dog <br><br>to work functions French the of seam following <br><br>at the <br><br>side of machine a parts <br><br>childs petticoat (9mks) <br><br>(2mks) (2mks) (2mks) (3mks) (2mks) <br><br>foot motion <br><br>screw of of (c) (d) **three** **two** qualities methods a well graining made a dart fabric before cutting out. <br><br>**HOMESCIENCE** **MARKING**<br><br>**III**<br><br>**SCHEME**<br><br> 1. **2. Ways** - <br><br>( **1** **x** **1** **=** **1mk)** Caused **of** Adding Let Put by **lengthening** a down false a <br><br>folding **a** and **skirt**<br><br>storing damp clothes <br><br>frill the hem <br><br>hem <br><br>***(2*** ***x*** ***1*** ***=*** ***2mks)*** <br><br>**3. Remedies**<br><br>**for** dress <br><br>**static** with softener <br><br>**electricity**<br><br> Wear Put cotton in <br><br>petticoat <br><br>fabric the last rinsing water **(2** **x** **1** **=** **2mks)**<br><br>**4.**<br><br>**Planning** Easily - Fresh Adhere Not **meals** digested foods to greasy <br><br>**for** **invalids**<br><br>doctors instructions <br><br>( ***2*** ***x*** ***1*** ***=*** ***2mks)*** <br><br>5. <br><br>Chemical - - Baking Yeast Biological Air Mechanical <br><br>powder <br><br>***(*** ***2*** ***x*** ***1*** ***=*** ) ***2mks*** **(a)** **-** - **Uses** Cut Soften Add Increase <br><br>**of** short <br><br>**fats**<br><br>gluten mixtures and life <br><br>strands <br><br>flavour self <br><br>colour <br><br>***(3*** ***x*** ***1*** ***=*** ) ***3mks*** <br><br>(b) <br><br>Long casserole <br><br>slow <br><br>moist oven in method on or of top cooking a of <br><br>food. <br><br>Food ***x*** ***(1*** not is ***1mk)*** ***=*** ***1*** <br><br>allowed to boil. Done in <br><br>stove <br><br>**7. Disadvantages** Increases cost Gives Confuses **advertising** goods information due <br><br>**of** of <br><br>**to** **the** **consumer**<br><br>- - - <br><br>false <br><br>consumer to many brands advertised ***(2*** ***x*** ***1*** ***=*** ) ***2mks*** <br><br>**8.**<br><br>**Preventing** Avoid **skin** sharing **diseases** personal items <br><br>14 Sterilise Bath Eat shared regularly in rich <br><br>items <br><br>food vitamins ***(4*** ***x*** ****** ***=*** ***2mks)*** <br><br>9. <br><br>- - - Can Expensive Careless <br><br>only <br><br>be to use used install may <br><br>where there is piped water <br><br>make maintenance difficult <br><br>10. **Reasons** that that <br><br>**for** **resting**<br><br>**batter** absorb <br><br>So So starch air <br><br>grains can liquid <br><br>bubbles can escape ***(*** ***2*** ***x*** ***1*** ***=*** ***2mks)*** <br><br>11. - Water Bad <br><br>fibres <br><br>are becomes weakened slimy <br><br>smells develop **(3** **x** **** **=** **1** **** **mks)**<br><br>12. - - - - - - Strong Light Absorbent Non - Inflammable <br><br>Shrink resistance <br><br>***(4*** ***x*** ****** ***=*** ***2mks)*** <br><br>13. - - - - - Correct Having Good Correct Correct equipment plan a speed tools methods <br><br>and material <br><br>time <br><br>of working 14. <br><br>- - - - - Purpose Position Purpose of Age of Size of wearer garment <br><br>garment <br><br>***(4*** ***x*** ****** ***=*** ***2mks)*** <br><br>15. Prepare Make Clean <br><br>Inform midwives <br><br>clean transport razor <br><br>and <br><br>sterile available and <br><br>room <br><br>blade string ***(4*** ***x*** ****** ***=*** ) ***2mks*** <br><br>16. <br><br>(i) **Nappy**<br><br>**Prickly**<br><br>**heat** change <br><br>avoid <br><br>overdressing when <br><br>***(1mk)***<br><br>(ii **)** **rash** napkins used <br><br>17. - Rinse napkins thoroughly ***(1mk)***<br><br>18. Brooms Brooms Brooms Brooms have sweep have remove <br><br>long <br><br>handle areas <br><br>while while <br><br>brushes have short handle <br><br>large while brushes <br><br>small stiff remove areas bristles dirt fixed <br><br>soft bristle brushes have <br><br>loose dirt while brushes ***(4*** ***x*** ****** ***=*** ***mks)*** Type of Position Figure Weight, <br><br>garment on type <br><br>garment <br><br>texture and washability of fabric <br><br>Use Lighting Avoid Ensure Turn <br><br>daylight <br><br>as designed of light lights much to higher fittings when as suit wattage are in <br><br>possible purpose than <br><br>bulbs all off <br><br>required <br><br>clean use not 19. - <br><br>20. - - - ***(*** ***4*** ***x*** ***1*** ***=*** ) ***4mks*** <br><br>**SECTION** **B.**<br><br>21. (a) - Individual Time Occasion Colour in Food other Any <br><br>Balanced <br><br>Protein, requirements <br><br> carbohydrate, vitamins <br><br>available <br><br>( ***4*** ***x*** ***1*** ***=*** ***4mks)*** <br><br>Weigh (b) Use Use <br><br>ingredients accurately <br><br>mixture cool of lard equipment and and margarine a work in cool place <br><br>(c)- Entertaining and Number Type style and Cutlery Number of Time type of crockery dishes to and day <br><br>of service <br><br>guests <br><br>and of the available be served weather ***(4*** ***x*** ***1*** ***=*** ***4mks)*** **Discuss** Ease Preserve No food ***(well*** <br><br>**three**<br><br>**reasons** for used <br><br>**for** foods **preserving** like <br><br>**foods** vegetables season of out is food so preserved ***6mks)*** ***=*** ***2*** ***x*** ***3*** *(* <br><br>transportation be as <br><br>and fruits <br><br>so will ***discussed*** <br><br>to keep when indefinitely for future use <br><br>*)* ***points*** <br><br>**(e)**<br><br>**reasons** **Two** To - help Reduce - Retain - **for** retain bulk nutrients <br><br>**blanching** colours <br><br>**vegetables** **before** **freezing**<br><br>**21.**<br><br>**Precautions** not - water - flat - do - <br><br>**to** soak of **take** as they same **when** are temperature <br><br>**laundering** **woolen** **articles**<br><br>Do Use Dry Press <br><br>weak when <br><br>wet throughout <br><br>not iron to avoid stretching ***(any*** ***other)*** ***(5*** ***x*** ***1=*** ) ***5mks*** <br><br>**(b)** - <br><br>**Boiling** Measure () Add required **water** 1 () <br><br>**starch** tablespoon litre (1) boiling Starch. water 2 () <br><br>tablespoons cold <br><br>water(1) short Make while smooth () <br><br>paste as ***(5mks)***<br><br>(1) Stir and boil for a Dilute <br><br>**(c)**<br><br>**of** **Importance** surplus of - of - bad circulation - drowsiness - <br><br>**Good**<br><br>**ventilation** from <br><br>rid Get Get rid Allow Avoid <br><br>heat ordours of <br><br>people and machinery <br><br>fresh air <br><br>***(4*** ***x*** ***1*** ***=*** ***4mks)*** <br><br>**(d)**<br><br>**Reasons** Causes - Poses, - Affects - Carrier - **for** water health plants of <br><br>**not**<br><br>**disposing** to smell problems and <br><br>**waste** **in** **rivers**<br><br>foul to destroys animals aquatic and life <br><br>human beings <br><br>water borne diseases (zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz <br><br>**hoice** **of** of Size - Money - Care - Availability - ***=*** ***x*** ***(4*** <br><br>**wall** wall available <br><br>**finishes**<br><br>required of ***2mks)*** <br><br>the material <br><br>****** <br><br>22.**(a)** - - - <br><br>**Method** and form the of other the <br><br>**of**<br><br>**attaching** and open the to that <br><br>**zip** neaten <br><br>Tack Open Work side Pin <br><br>the <br><br>seam it press R.S. and opening so side <br><br> the edges <br><br>zip closed <br><br> length and <br><br>the tag level with the fitting line pin one <br><br>the zip <br><br>- the folds meet () <br><br>- <br><br>firmly Tack () teeth Hold the Working the fold ***(Diagrams*** <br><br>down on the side and up () of the other closing at the base of the zip <br><br>- - <br><br>together folds () R.S the on according ) ( ***to*** ***used*** ***be*** ***can*** () with machine to the ***make*** tacking () width the ***explanation*** <br><br>1cm down of stitches side teeth <br><br>() <br><br>from the the other <br><br>end <br><br>to 6mm end. <br><br>one zip ***clear)*** <br><br>and up from <br><br>***(9mks)***<br><br>**(b)** - - - - **Qualities** Flat Well Hemming Equal <br><br>**of** **well** **made** **hem**<br><br>in depth ***(3*** ***x*** ***1*** ***=*** ***3mks)*** bulky, for Cheap <br><br>should <br><br>not garment <br><br>be to will seen slide not over over survive <br><br>outer easily <br><br>garment <br><br>outer <br><br>materials constant wear and washing (c)**Three** - - **qualities** be laundered <br><br>**of** absorbent <br><br>**fabric** **for**<br><br>**underwear** worn are absolutely is <br><br>Should Easily waste Should Non Good ***x*** ***(4*** <br><br>since they cleanliness to skin essential due to accumulation of body <br><br>- - - <br><br>not be clinging quality ***8mks)*** ***=*** ***2*** <br><br>23.**(a)** - - <br><br>**How**<br><br>**a** **work** **french** fabric the of along the 5mm about () line backstitch <br><br>**at** and <br><br>**the**<br><br>**side** edges remove **of** **a** even all **childs** tack pin tacking **petticoat** along and the ( fitting the ) ( line seam <br><br> ) <br><br>() the trim <br><br>fold seam line <br><br>over () <br><br>along the seamline, pin, tack <br><br>- - **to** w.s. With Machine turning to the With along the Machine Remove **seam** together tacking () the of about ) ( press <br><br>- <br><br>right fitting or tacking <br><br>side <br><br>fabric 6mm along the facing below the seam () the fitting towards and the back of the garment () ks) ***(9m*** <br><br>(b) <br><br>**Feeddog** **Presser** **Stop** **foot** **motion** Regulate Holds amount fabric Stops of in the <br><br>fabric place <br><br>passing <br><br>through to it moving when the up needle dog down.***(*** <br><br>is stitching <br><br> **screw**<br><br>and presses feed <br><br>needle from and ***3*** ***x*** ***2*** ***=*** ***6mks)*** **(c)** - - - - - **Three** Tapers Straight Firmly Correct Pressed <br><br>**qualities**<br><br>**of** gradually of line secured length the to **well** a stitching the at width and side right <br><br>**a** to <br><br>**made** **dart**<br><br>point <br><br>point <br><br>(d)**Graining** Pulling Pulling **fabric** diagonally thread a - - across <br><br>the ***(2*** fabric ***=*** ***1*** ***x*** and ***2mks)*** **HOMESCIENCE** **IV**<br><br>**SECTION** **A:**<br><br>1. Give **four**precautions a mother should take to ensure that an active toddler does not <br><br>accidentally <br><br>suffer of factors from anaemia to <br><br>burns <br><br>and other scalds. than <br><br>mks) (2 (2 mks) house. mks) (1 (4 in (2 <br><br>2. State 3. State **two** **three**<br><br>causes nutritional <br><br>deficiency. for consider when planning lighting various rooms <br><br>in the (1 <br><br>why 4. Explain **four** 5. Explain reason 6. Giving a diet. children <br><br>laundry qualities in <br><br>blue for is in making <br><br>minimal <br><br>use lingerie. two <br><br>today for laundry work. <br><br>mk) mks) school mks) <br><br>each case name nutrients which should be emphasized <br><br>18 7. State 8. State 9. Heavy 10. Give 11. List 12. The following is a poorly planned menu for a family which includes a three year old <br><br>**two** **two** reasons general <br><br>be clothes why when to rules observe in fault common a is finish enamel vitreous why seam plain a finishing of <br><br>should <br><br>before thoroughly dried meal. for table setting a a two Give cake. sponge cookers. used is of the on <br><br>storage. <br><br>close texture causes. <br><br>**two** **four** reasons methods on side a denim skirt. <br><br>child. Ugali, (a) (i) (ii) Sweet give two suggest potatoes, reasons dish one Sukuma why it to wiki a is improve with menu. meal. poor the (2 (1 mks) mk) <br><br>**three** **two**<br><br>buying <br><br>a strips wooden <br><br>tape useful <br><br>measure. in utensils. <br><br>dressmaking. (1 (2 (2 (2 (2 (3 (2 mks) mks) mks) mks) mks) mks) <br><br>mks) 13. State 14. Explain 15. Give 16. State 17. Give 18. Good 19. Give <br><br>qualities qualities <br><br>to that consider <br><br>look <br><br>for make <br><br>when crossway buying hem. should times. and **four** **two** **two** eyesight **three** factors qualities reasons is reasons to a of why essential for when well-made weaning at all cooking be a Give decorating <br><br>gradual three process. on points care of eyes. <br><br>cakes. <br><br>**SECTION** **B:**<br><br>fabric for making evening wear. Give three factors that <br><br>(b) Give <br><br>(c) Give d. Describe **four** e. Give <br><br>**three**<br><br>differences work that between a machine determine and interfacing seam at method interlining. a poplin fullness how to factors fell the the of yoke of disposing shirt. a in **20. (** a) Silk <br><br>is a popular **four** common for the steps <br><br>it make (3 mks) stitching. mks) (4 mks) (3 (8 mks) garment. (2 <br><br>above to occasion. that ensure a sewing machine gives good stitches when <br><br>mks) refrigerator. mks) new (4 support (4 (4 <br><br>21. (a) Giving reasons in each case state four basic rules in the use and care of a <br><br>(8 her (b) <br><br>Give house. <br><br>**four** points you would advice your aunt on in choice of curtains for <br><br>mks) <br><br>(c) A well-drained house is a comfortable house to live in. Give four point to the <br><br>above (d) Suggest statement. four mks) mks) reasons why a family should prepare for a babys arrival. 22. (a) Explain <br><br>the blind. <br><br>meaning of the following terms used in cookery. (4 mks) <br><br>Bake Batter. Braising. Creaming. <br><br>(b) What advice would you give to a friend who is going to get married about planning girl career she baby. a for Assume the that as perfect a food has Give very four little advantages (c) Breast milk is of breastfeeding. <br><br>(5 (4 (2 mks) mks) mks) (d) (e) Give What **four** are points the of reasons personal for hygiene in that in are creamed <br><br>essential <br><br>to cake a mixtures? folding flour Give Explain wise before (c) Give (d) Give <br><br>**four** points <br><br>to points wise a item. <br><br>consider when buying <br><br>commercial zip a choosing consumer a points **five**<br><br>paper fastener. <br><br>patterns. (4 (3 look (5 (4 (4 mks) mks) for mks **)** mks) mks) <br><br>**three** is an <br><br>to consider consumer. when Give <br><br>shopper buying <br><br>should <br><br>**four** **four** points reasons <br><br>that determine the cleaning frequency of a house. <br><br>for budgeting family income. <br><br>**HOMESCIENCE** **MARKING**<br><br>**IV**<br><br>**SCHEME**<br><br>**1. Four precautions a mother should take to ensure an active toddler does not suffer**<br><br>**from** - Keep - Have - Do - Children - Handles <br><br>**burns** **and**<br><br>**scalds.** out round liquids be not pots and <br><br>( x 4 = 2 mks) <br><br>metal fire <br><br>boxes of reach <br><br>of fires. <br><br>children. <br><br>guards hot should pans of <br><br>open where locked <br><br>not place <br><br>children houses in be should can alone. away <br><br>reach them. <br><br>turned from path ways. **2. Causes** **of**<br><br>**anaemia** (sickle loss e.g. e.g. <br><br>**other** cell). of <br><br>**than** **nutritional** **deficiency.** **(1** **x** **2** **=** **2** **mks)**<br><br>- Genetic - Excessive Sickness - Parasites - <br><br>blood. <br><br>malaria, hookworm. <br><br>leukemia. <br><br>3.**Factors**<br><br>**consider** **to** the of Purpose - of - room. the Size existing - The <br><br>**when** **planning** **lighting** **for** **various** **rooms.** **(** **** **x** **3** **=** **1** **mks** ) <br><br>room. <br><br>colour scheme. <br><br>**4. Explain**<br><br>**use** - This is because most of the soapless detergents made these days have flourescent as <br><br>**why** **laundry** **blue** **is** **in** **minimal** **today:** **(1x1** **=** **1** **mk)**<br><br>whitener which have the same function laundry blue. **5. Qualities**<br><br>**fabric** **of** not to - Soft bulky - Not - Absorbent to Strong - not Should - <br><br>**for** **making** **lingerie.**<br><br>irritate be to not to absorb withstand generate skill. seen sweat. frequent static <br><br>over the outer garment. <br><br>washing. <br><br>electricity not to cling to the body. <br><br>**6. Nutrients** **to** **be**<br><br>**emphasized** because are they protection. strong <br><br>**school** **in** **a** are they growing. <br><br>**child's** **diet:** **(2x1** **=** **2** **mks)**<br><br>- Carbohydrate/fat because Protein - for - Vitamins for - Minerals <br><br>active. <br><br>bones. <br><br>**7. Reasons** **why**<br><br>**clothes** of **should** soap. <br><br>**be** **rinsed** **thoroughly:**<br><br>- Remove - - Avoid <br><br>smells <br><br>Freshens. skin irritation from detergents. - Prevent - Mention damage original to fibres colour. <br><br>by detergent. <br><br>8 <br><br>**. General** - Table - The - Allow Place - **to** **rules** should tablecloth space clean <br><br>**observe** clean. be <br><br>**when** **setting** **a** **table:** **(2x1** **=** **2mks)**<br><br>should about 2.5 be 60 cm clean cm from <br><br>and <br><br>well person. edge <br><br>pressed. <br><br>eof cutlery <br><br>per <br><br>the of the table. <br><br>**of** 9.**Causes** hot - Too Insufficient - - folding Poor rapid - Too much - Too <br><br>**heavy** oven. <br><br>**texture** **in** **sponge** **cakes:** **(2x1** **=** 2 mks) <br><br>whisking. in. addition flour. <br><br>of flour. <br><br>**enamel** **finish** **is** **used** **on** **cookers:** (2x1 = 2 mks) **10. Why**<br><br>**vitreous** - Attractive. - Easy to clean and maintain. <br><br>**11.**<br><br>**Four** - Edge - Zig zagging. - Overcasting. Pinking. - - Loop <br><br>**methods**<br><br>**of** stitching. <br><br>**finishing** **a** **plain** **seam** **on** **the** **side** **of** **a** **denim** **skirt:(** **x4** **=** **2** **mks)**<br><br>stitching. <br><br>**12. (i)**<br><br>**Reasons** - Contains meal - The protein A (ii) **why** lot a has dish **it** **is** of no e.g. **a** **menu:** carbohydrates. protein. meat <br><br>**poor** (2x1 = 2 mks) <br><br>stew, chicken, currry, ndengu (1 mk) <br><br>**a** **tape** **measure:** ( x 3 = 1 mks 13. <br><br>**Qualities** - Clearly - Not - Reinforced - not Should - Markings **of** **good** marked. stretchable. ends. fray at should sides. fade not off. <br><br>14. Qualities <br><br>that manipulated Forms make round in crossway and curves or grain <br><br>strip corners: <br><br>useful in dress making stretches <br><br>be can therefore 2mks) = (2x1 <br><br>a contrast print therefore decorative. <br><br>15. **Factors**<br><br>**to** scratches. <br><br>**consider** **when** **buying**<br><br>**wooden** Well Non Smooth. <br><br>**utensils:**<br><br>- No - Ordourless. - Durable. - - - <br><br>grained. toxic. <br><br>**16. Qualities**<br><br>**of** **a** width. for <br><br>**well-made** **hem:** (1x2 = 2mks) <br><br>Same - - Correct fabric and style. <br><br>21 - Not - - Well <br><br>puckered. <br><br>Seams matched. <br><br>pressed. <br><br>**17.** **Reasons**<br><br>**why** baby to mother **weaning** get time **should** accustomed observe to **be** to the **gradual:** the new baby <br><br>(1x2 = 2 mks) <br><br>- Allow - Allow food. any for allergic reactions. <br><br>**18.**<br><br>**eye** **Good** diet - Eat a in - Work - Clean your evidence - Any <br><br>**sight** rich well <br><br>**is** in lit face of **Points** **essential.** C. A vitamin and very avoid but area morning every paying eyesight bad <br><br>**on** **care:** (1x3 = 3 mks) <br><br>bright <br><br>unprotected to be <br><br>light. <br><br>attention should <br><br>areas <br><br>around to the the eyes. doctor. or soreness reported <br><br>(1x2 = 2 mks) **19. Two**<br><br>**for** **reasons** the make - To - cake Prevent - Encourages **decorating** cake from creativity. <br><br>**cakes:**<br><br>attractive. drying. <br><br>**SECTION** **B:**<br><br>20. (a) **Factors** **which** **make** **silk**<br><br>**popular** it **for** suitable **evening** for <br><br>**wear:** (1x4 = 4mks) <br><br>- Lustre - Has - Warm - Sheds - good gives - creases <br><br>the <br><br>nature draping shine quality. <br><br>makes fancy wear. <br><br>warmth easily. <br><br>on cold nights. <br><br>(b) <br><br>**Steps** - Correct - Thread - Firm - Correct - Thread <br><br>**to** **ensure**<br><br>**a** tension. machine <br><br>**sewing** **machine** **gives** **good** **stitches:**<br><br>correctly. tacking. for fabric <br><br>and <br><br>accurate of size should needle match fabric. in thickness. <br><br>**between** is <br><br>**interfacing**<br><br>**and** areas **interlining:** while = areas. used on small interlining is used on large (c) <br><br>**Difference** - - <br><br>(1x3 3mks) <br><br>Interfacing Interfacing is used on the facing while interlining is used between the lining and the garment. Interfacing is used to give crispness (stiffening) while interlining gives warmth and body <br><br>- <br><br>to garment. <br><br>(d) <br><br>**to** Place - - , Pin - Machine one - Trim the - Trim open. Press, - the - over Fold close - Machine <br><br>**How**<br><br>**work** two tack, **a** pieces the on **machine** of fitting **fell** material line. <br><br>**seam:** together <br><br>(8 mks) <br><br>edges matching. <br><br>on side other the to side fitting less to <br><br>line. <br><br>than 1.2 0.5 cm. <br><br>cm. <br><br>wider the to turning fold. <br><br>22 - Remove tacking and press. <br><br>(e) <br><br>**Factors** - Type - - Type - Age **which** of Position of of <br><br>**determine** **methods** **of** **controlling** **fullness:** ( x 4 = 2mks) <br><br>garment. of fabric. wearer. <br><br>fullness. <br><br>(2x4 = 8 mks) 21. (a) **Basic** **rules** **in** **use** **and** **care** **of** **refrigeration:**<br><br>- Do not keep hot food in the fridge as it lowers the temperature causing spoilage of <br><br>other foods. <br><br>- Do not use sharp instruments to scrap of ice from the fridge. It scratches and <br><br>causes Store <br><br>marks in food overload <br><br>on the polythene to allow coolest ***1mk)*** <br><br>fridge. <br><br>- - Do - papers free part prevent to circulation of drying. air. of to kitchen <br><br>not <br><br>- in the ***reason*** Place ***(state*** fridge ***1mk*** <br><br>the avoid heat interference. <br><br> <br><br>(b) <br><br>**Choice** **of** - Colour - Durable - Easy to - Colour - Non - **curtains:** fast to not fabric. launder. within the inflammable resistance. <br><br>(1x4 = 4 mks) <br><br>fade. <br><br>Shrink **(c)**<br><br>**Importance** house Frees - bad - Avoid - Makes places - Minimizes Precludes - <br><br>**of** from smells. <br><br>**goods** **drainage:**<br><br>dampness. <br><br>attractive. getting places risk breeding <br><br>of <br><br>diseases. pests. for <br><br>(d) <br><br>**why** **Reasons** **a** - Help a family last - Avoid - Challenges - Allows - Gives <br><br>**family** to minute the mother <br><br>**should** **prepare**<br><br>**for** finances <br><br>**baby's** better. baby and baby. <br><br>**arrival:** (1 x 4 = 4 mks) <br><br>manage rush family get to to time <br><br>their <br><br>and look to the best prepare after anxiety room for for the younger <br><br>is bed born. for baby. <br><br>parents children to accept the new baby. <br><br>22. (a **)** **Meaning**<br><br>**of** blind - **following** of baking - flour of mixture **terms:** pastry and <br><br>(1 x 4 = 4 mks) <br><br>- Bake a usually - Balter - Braising - cooking of food usually of meat on a bed of fried root vegetables *mirepoix creaming.*Beating fat or fat and sugar until it is creamy in and <br><br>without water filling. with an egg. <br><br>known as a texture both colour. (b) <br><br>**Points** - - Make <br><br>**to** Family <br><br>**consider** meals of **in** should in food **meal** be season <br><br>**planning:** nutritionally <br><br>**(1x5** **=** **5** **mks)**<br><br>balanced. <br><br>use as its cheaper. <br><br>23 - Money Plan - Should - Should - <br><br>available be to colour <br><br>- food prepared of individual <br><br>budget with dishes. <br><br>within the equipment finances available. <br><br>means of the family. <br><br>meals <br><br>vary consider taste. **(Any** **other** **relevant** **answers** ) <br><br>(c) <br><br>**Advantages** - More at - Always - Does not - Contains - Has <br><br>**breast** nutritious <br><br>**of**<br><br>**feeding:** easily temperatures. <br><br>and right preparation. <br><br>the need antibodies. <br><br>no harmful micro-organisms. <br><br>**(d)**<br><br>**Points** - Wash - Do not - Health - Wear <br><br>**of** hands handle carriers <br><br>**hygiene**<br><br>**to** before <br><br>**a** **food** touching food infectious when <br><br>**handler:** food. <br><br>cooked of clothes with bare diseases handling hands. should food b e apron allowed or to overall. kitchen e.g. <br><br>**flour** **in** **creamed** **cake** **mixture:** (2x1 = 2 mks) (e) **Reasons**<br><br>**for** incorporate the **folding** more already **in** air. incorporated - To - Prevent air from escaping. <br><br>23. (a) (i) **Points** **to** **consider** **when**<br><br>**buying** correspond **commercial** with <br><br>**patterns:** (1x4 = 4 mks) <br><br>- Measurements Style fit - should - Fashion - Choose one - Beginner <br><br>should the be <br><br>one's body measurements. <br><br>should <br><br>figure. current. <br><br>with should several choose styles. simple patterns. <br><br>(ii) <br><br>**Choice** **of** - Length - Colour - Weight **zip** - - - <br><br>**fastener:** correct <br><br>(1x3 = 3 mks) <br><br>buy should buy length the weight for the garment for garment nearly as purpose. being as Heavy made. possible. zips <br><br>match <br><br>correct cause sagging. (b) **Points**<br><br>**a** Should Should ship for quality - a good quality product will last long. Reputation on item is good Buy Should Should to Should find out about quarantee. The more expensive an item is the more the coverage Find <br><br>**consumer** window do **should** shopping **look** to **for** compare <br><br>**before**<br><br>**buying** in **an** **item:** different <br><br>(1x5 = 5 mks) <br><br>- - <br><br>prices shops. <br><br>to guide for look examine quality. features and tag <br><br>- - - <br><br>a of label product. an on one get useful with information features. on item use and care. <br><br>on information <br><br>quarantee one needs. <br><br>- on installation, delivery, servicing etc. <br><br>**which** (c)**Factors** occupants - The dirt - Amount of of - Conditions time - Available equipment - Cleaning <br><br>**determine** of or the for <br><br>**the** house **cleaning** e.g. <br><br>young the **frequency** children house. <br><br>**of** or **a** adult. <br><br>**house:**<br><br>the getting dust house e.g. cleaning. and <br><br>into cracked floors. <br><br>material available. (d) <br><br>**Four** income. - Helps - planning. It - The family knows how the money is being spent and they are able to evaluate <br><br>**reasons** family a promotes **budgeting** **for** within live to living organized **family** their and <br><br>**income:** **(1** **x** **4** **=** **4** **mks)**<br><br>their - Budgeting - Budgeting <br><br>financial situation. <br><br>encourages a helps sensible to control at of their various income expenses. sources family look realistically. <br><br>**HOMESCIENCE** **V**<br><br>have material to make a pair of shorts for your brother. What seam <br><br>(2mks) of effect (2mks) <br><br>2. important in stain removal processes. Explain the 1. <br><br>You would The hot a brought denim and choose water of following <br><br>you temperature the in water Blood Grease <br><br>why? is stains. <br><br>Mention 3. List **four** 4. Explain 5. State 6. 7. State 8. Explain fabric Give (a) (b) State Give State Give Three <br><br>**two** materials <br><br>caused for of consider a why why out. of advertising <br><br>hazards <br><br>water by interfacing. <br><br>pollution. <br><br>used importance to points reasons the **four** **three**<br><br>using acidic <br><br>substances fish be used transfer <br><br>when <br><br>buying not to knot is it should important to start pattern stitches. marking <br><br>**two** before <br><br>reasons cutting advantages is **three**<br><br>from paper <br><br>9. <br><br>**two** what give <br><br>flourescent lighting over filament bulb. <br><br>disadvantages <br><br>10. 11. 12. 13. 14. <br><br>**two** **three** **three** **two**<br><br>disadvantages <br><br>articles of pegs brushes of a using of use and choice, brooms of care in cake fats machine advertising knitted care and making. not points points functions of on on of sewing causes feeding the fabric properly mks) (2 (2mks) (2mks) (4mks) (3mks) pattern (2mks) (2mks) (2mks) (3 mks) (2mks) (4 mks) mks) (3 (2 mks (2mks) <br><br>in cooking bony beef meat. <br><br>to <br><br>**SECTION** **B.**<br><br>**15.** (a) Oil paints are commonly used as wall finish. Give **three** advantages of oil paints. <br><br>(3mks) the (4mks) (5mks) (4mks) (4mks) <br><br>(b) <br><br>Sufficient statement. Suggest Give Explain <br><br>ventilation is important in a house. Give **four** points in support of above <br><br>**five**<br><br>steps differences dry <br><br>to take <br><br>to between a <br><br>ensure soap that and shoes last soapless long detergents **four**<br><br>how to clean scarf. (c) (d) (e) <br><br>16. <br><br>(a) (i) (ii) (b) <br><br>Give Aged Vegetarians What causes Shrunken (i) short Too (ii) <br><br>**three** points in each case to consider when drawing up diets for <br><br>the pastry and crumbly pastry Give Discuss **four** State Give **two** Describe What attire? **four** Give **four** List the Define Bake blind (i) Chopping (ii) Glazing (iii) **four** State (d) Discuss is (e) What <br><br>**four** basic rules <br><br>in use which consider two and overlaid an to give you a of refrigerator and care individuals an determine an choosing when of disadvantages the seam who factors to factors advantages to how work would advice <br><br>**two**<br><br>opening man yoke has <br><br>(4mks) (4mks) (9mks) of (3mks) construction. (4mks) (2mks) <br><br>made of silk a narrow on friend blouse. hips your about choice <br><br>reasons areas on following to why as an article cookery interlining where terms <br><br>in used is done is interlining <br><br>garment <br><br>(2mks) (2mks) (2mks) (4mks) (3mks) (1mks) steps **three** meant making in advantages term the by budget. a of table raising setting agent? <br><br>**HOMESCIENCE** **MARKING**<br><br>**V**<br><br>**SCHEME**<br><br>**1.**<br><br>**Suitable** - Double **Reason** Strong Flat Easy <br><br>**seam**<br><br>**for** stitched **a** seam <br><br>**pair** **of** **shorts**<br><br>**(1mk)**<br><br>due hence to <br><br>to double comfortable <br><br>stitching <br><br>launder **(1mk)**<br><br>**2. Effects**<br><br>**hot** **of** hot Blood Hot Grease <br><br>**water** water **on** fixes <br><br>**the**<br><br>**following** stain it <br><br>**stains**<br><br>**-** - the emulsifies **(1mk)** **(1mk)** water <br><br>**3. Hazards**<br><br>**of** marine cause sea <br><br>**water** life <br><br>**pollution**<br><br> Kills May Kill <br><br>poisoning <br><br>plants ( *2x* *1mrk)* **4. Interfacing** **materials**<br><br> **5. Use** Villene Organdie Staflex Calico Canvas **of** Acid **acidic** changes **substance** collagen **in** to **cooking** gelatin <br><br>**meat**<br><br>thus softening the meat. <br><br>**6. Factors**<br><br>**to** unpleasant gills and <br><br>**consider** **when** **buying** **fish**<br><br> No Red Bright For <br><br>smell <br><br>prominent shell the eyes should shell fish be tightly closed <br><br>26 **a** **7. Why** **knot** tear Can undo Can Causes <br><br>**should** **not** **be** **used** **to** **start** **stitches**<br><br>fabric and <br><br>the lumps stitch when is fabric destroyed is tiny pressed ( *3x1=3mks)*<br><br>**8. Reasons** Ensure Ensure **for** right good <br><br>**transferring** **pattern** **marks**<br><br> parts fit/size <br><br>are joined <br><br>together line i.e. stitching is followed <br><br>**9. Advantages** Fluorescent gives bright consumes **Meaning** Simple **Disadvantages** to Appeals The can <br><br>**of** is light <br><br>**fluorescent** lasting long <br><br>**lighting**<br><br>less **of** way energy **advertising** informing of the public about goods and services available in the market. <br><br>b. influences of cost the be to quality consumer advertising to preferred manufacturer product cause will of low that of high quality ( *3x1=3mks)* **10.**<br><br>**Disadvantages** Very At Pulls **of** Easily And of <br><br>**knitted** **Articles**<br><br>Ladders Bulges Easily Knees out <br><br>Elbow <br><br>shape <br><br>**11.**<br><br>**Points** <br><br>**on**<br><br>**choice** made be are they in a strong **use** of clean clean and **and** **care** **of** good quality dry and container well <br><br>**pegs** material use <br><br>Should Ensure Keep Should <br><br> plastic or wood <br><br>before or designed pegs be bag. to <br><br>*(4x1=4mks)*<br><br>hold clothes firmly on the line <br><br>**12.**<br><br>**Care** Store <br><br>**of** With <br><br>**brooms** Head Fluffs And **and** Between Use After Before Dust <br><br>**brushes** Two Nails <br><br>Remove Shake Off Storage *(3x1=3mks)*<br><br>**fats** **in** Mixture Keeping <br><br>**cake** **making**<br><br>Quality **13.**<br><br>**of** **Functions** The Shortens The Improves Aeration Helps In Colour Improves **a** **of** **Causes** Fabric Held Feed Insufficient Too Length <br><br>**14.**<br><br>**sewing** Too <br><br>**machine** **not** **feeding** **fabric** **properly**<br><br>Tightly <br><br>Dog May <br><br>Be Pressure Short <br><br>Covered The On Pressure Foot <br><br>**SECTION** **B.**<br><br>27 **15.**<br><br>**(a)** - **Advantages** repellent is paint <br><br>**of** **oil** hence <br><br>**paints** easily therefore <br><br>Water Surface Oil <br><br>cleaned does dust <br><br>smooth is <br><br>not settle on it. <br><br>durable *(3x1=3mks)*<br><br>**(b)** **Prevent** Rid Get Remove Increase **humidity** Surplus Of Any Free <br><br>Heat From People And Machinery <br><br>Ordours Circulation of air <br><br>**(c)** - - **-** Repair On Store a in Dry With Wear <br><br>**Polish**<br><br>**preserve** Immediately Rack place to <br><br>**to**<br><br>socks absorb perspiration <br><br>**(d)** **Soapless** are soaps soapless soapless **detergents** from made in come lather forms <br><br>**do** **fast** animal\vegetable <br><br>**not** **foam**<br><br>**with** fat <br><br>**hard**<br><br>**water** soapless **while** are <br><br>**soap**<br><br>**does** chemicals while from <br><br>different in strengths warm both and cold water *(4x1=4mks)* **(e)** **Dry-cleaning** Shake Put squeeze leave <br><br>**a** **scarf**<br><br>dust solvent out solvent in a and to container hang settle <br><br>and open immerse air <br><br>garment in it squeezing gently <br><br>in and drain then store. ( ) *4mks* <br><br>**16.**<br><br>**Factors** Aged Balanced Easy Less Food Serve <br><br>**to** **consider** **in** **drawing** **a** **diet** **for**<br><br>(i) to energy in rich small in amounts *(3x1=3mks)*<br><br>**(ii)**<br><br>**Vegetarians** Balanced Well Varied - use to vegetable monotony oils and fats for preparing *(3x1=3mks)* **(b)**<br><br>**Shrunken** <br><br>**pastry**<br><br>Insufficient Stretching stretching relaxing during during shaping rolling <br><br>**(ii)**<br><br>**Short** too **and** much **crumbly** fat <br><br>**pastry** too little water <br><br>(e)**Basic** Do Store Do Store Place Do <br><br>**rule** not <br><br>**in** store in overload size in sharp **use** **and** food hot covered to allow portions coolest the instruments <br><br>**care** **of** the in containers free <br><br>**a** refrigerator, or <br><br>**refrigerator.**<br><br>it polythene <br><br>lowers <br><br>the papers temperatures prevent to food dehydration <br><br>not circulation of air <br><br>meal fridge use <br><br>part of <br><br>the remove kitchen to ice not to prevent scratching the surface. <br><br>(f)**Three** **classes** **of** Tea or milk Fruit <br><br>**beverages** coffee <br><br>**and** **give** **an** **example** **of** **each**<br><br>Stimulants Nourishing Refreshing juices <br><br>**factors** **which**<br><br>**determine** require more **an** more energy **individuals** protein foods <br><br>**nutrient** **requirement*(2x1=2marks)***<br><br> <br><br>children areas cold **(e)**<br><br>**Two** Age Climate Body State <br><br>young size of ***(stating*** <br><br>health <br><br> ***mrk,*** <br><br>invalids <br><br>and ***explaining*** convalescents ***mrk)*** <br><br>**17.**<br><br>**(a)** Position - of Type - of Type - Age - of Purpose - **Factors** of fabric fastening wearer of <br><br>**to** opening <br><br>**consider** **in** **choice** **of** **an** **opening** ***(4x1=4mks)***<br><br>opening <br><br>**(b)**<br><br>**Advantages** Durable Resistant Thermoplastic Soft. Smooth, <br><br>**of** **man** **made** **fibers** **)** ***(2x1=2mks*** <br><br>to <br><br>sunlight (can be Slippery <br><br>pleated) <br><br>**s)** ***(2x1=2mk*** **Disadvantages** Yarn Poor Not Holds spillage absorbency resistant and <br><br>is common <br><br>to generates abrasion static electricity **(c)**<br><br>**How** - - - <br><br>**to** Turn Press Place of , Pin **work** seam and the the tack **overlaid** allowance with hold overlay overlay. and <br><br>**seam,** on tacking the over <br><br>**s)** ***(11mk*** side the F.L. of the overlay to the wrong . <br><br>underlay with folding of overlay lying on the F.L. <br><br>- machine close to the fold on R.S. . Remove tacking the <br><br>W.S. trim <br><br> using <br><br>the <br><br>raw loop edges stitches to within Press . hem the of the completed <br><br>fitting <br><br>line. seam raw edges <br><br>**(d)**<br><br>**3** **of** **of** **pieces** **clothes** She Wear Bulky to <br><br>**advice** **you** **would** **give** **to** **your** **friend** **who** **has** **narrow**<br><br>**on** **hips** **choice** ) *(3x1=3mks* <br><br>should over fabrics tight wear blouses are fitting <br><br>pleated skirts <br><br>suitable skirts avoid <br><br>**18.** **(i)**<br><br>**Reasons** Gives - Increases - Adds - Adds - **for** added life warmth firmness <br><br>**using**<br><br>**interlining** resistance <br><br>***(4x1=4mks)***<br><br>crease to garment <br><br>to a complete silhouette the finely egg of <br><br>baking of <br><br>pastry of an a without vegetables before item <br><br>filling <br><br>*(2mks)* *(2mks* ) good a give especially on white baking to (ii) <br><br>- - - - - - Areas Pockets Collar Hems Cuffs Waistband <br><br>( x 4mks) <br><br>**(b)**<br><br>**Cookery** Bake (i) (ii) (iii) <br><br>**terms** blind Chopping Glazing appearance to refers cutting applying ) *(2mks* <br><br>**(c)**<br><br>**Steps** - - - - **in** Establish Estimate List Total **a** **making** **budget** financial family all from income fixed and committed, expenditure goal sources unchangeable compare and expenses with plan for estimated income <br><br>**(d)**<br><br>**Advantages** - the increases - gives - <br><br>**of** act the **table** of eating diners <br><br>**setting** ***(3x1=3mks)***<br><br>Makes It It <br><br>easier appetite as items are smartly presented <br><br>order during meal times **HOMESCIENCE** **VI**<br><br>**SECTION** **A**<br><br>1. 2. 3. **three** State List **three** (a) Define points disadvantages term the <br><br>on <br><br>use choice, of using accessories <br><br>and hard <br><br>care <br><br>of water a in charcoal the <br><br>iron <br><br>home <br><br>30 **two** List **four** State **four** Give **four** Write State **three** (a) Define Give (b) **four** State <br><br>of examples milk uses of to points points to reasons glare <br><br>accessories that are both functional and decorative <br><br>mk) mks) mks) mks) mks) mk) mks) mks) the mks) mks) mks) mks) mks) mks) <br><br>in consider consider using for cookery when when interlining for meals garments on <br><br>**three** factors <br><br>attributes to texture <br><br>of good <br><br>artificial buying in fault light a house creamed 9. 10. consider a when common <br><br>Heavy above **three** Give **three** State **three** Give **two** Give Suggest State <br><br>close is cakes. State **three** causes <br><br>11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. <br><br>causes **three**<br><br>**three** (1 (2 (4 (4 (3 (1 (3 (2 for (3 (1 (1 (3 (2 (1 arrangement <br><br>buying planning <br><br>fabric <br><br>soft for furnishing family the <br><br>qualities rules of advantages of reasons to of a sewing of fabric for bear <br><br>good on <br><br>dust bin buttons in during in choosing sponging puckering using in <br><br>laundry <br><br>work sewing garment <br><br>fullness when construction for points mind flowers flower <br><br>mks) (3 (3mks) (3 when (1 State State Budgeting making <br><br>**three** the <br><br>changes importance ones occur that in of play is income in the very during meat life a of important. roasting child **three** young List <br><br>mks) <br><br>for budget <br><br>factors to consider <br><br>a mks) 20. <br><br>(i) (ii) (iii)Boiling (iv) (v) (vi) a) ( <br><br>Explain briefly why the following processes are done in laundry work <br><br>Starching <br><br>mks) (2 mks) (2 mks) (2 mks) (4 (10mks) Give **four** (4 mks) mks) mks) articles Dampening State Discuss **five** Osteomalacia of symptoms **five** Discuss (b). **five** (c). Discuss **five** (a) Mention <br><br>**four**<br><br>advantages to factors common is a above the uses of points properties <br><br>of using consider carpets in as choice <br><br>floor a of women among covering washing of <br><br>materials <br><br>machine child-bearing disorder age. <br><br>disorder in consider which cookery when make (4 (5 household preparing synthetic meals fabrics for suitable children for 22 <br><br>(5mks) mks) (7 work the mks) (8 mks) (4 mks) (4 Give (b) 23.(a)French seam State and Discuss <br><br>clear seam instructions popular is on seam how in to work children <br><br>darts <br><br>a articles. Explain clearly how to <br><br>(b). . explain **two** **four** advantages general and to disadvantages <br><br>rules <br><br>observe of when advertising (d). <br><br>Define (a) (b) the Raising Braising <br><br>following agent <br><br>terms used in cookery <br><br>**HOMESCIENCE** **MARKING**<br><br>**VI**<br><br>**SCHEME**<br><br>31 1. <br><br>**Three** - - - - - <br><br>**on** Firmly fixed Comfortable Close Empty Store **X** **(1**<br><br>**points**<br><br>**choice,** screws handle and <br><br>**use** **and** **care** **of** **charcoal** **iron**<br><br>and clean sufficient sole pressure using <br><br>iron after cool, in **3** **=** **3**<br><br>well use <br><br>before <br><br>dry **mks)**<br><br>place <br><br>2. <br><br>- Wastes Forms - cause Can - Discolours - **=** **3** **X**<br><br>soap scum <br><br>during with blockage kettles washing when pities boilers soap in and <br><br>rinsing hence discolours clothes <br><br>**(1** **3** **mks)**<br><br>3. a) Assessories are small things worn or carried as part of ones dressing **(1** **mk)**<br><br>(b) <br><br>Ring, **X** **(** watches, **1** **1**<br><br>hair clips <br><br>**=** **mk)** 4. - <br><br>Sauces Bulters Beverages Puddings For **(**<br><br>e.g. custard sauce <br><br>- - - - <br><br> tea, milkshake <br><br>enriching **=** **X** e.g. **mks)**<br><br>mashed potatoes <br><br>**4** **2**<br><br>5. <br><br>- - - - - - Colour Fabric Should Colour Easy to Durable <br><br>must be should be blends launder <br><br>fast be crease <br><br>shrink resistant with <br><br>resistant <br><br>well rest of dcor <br><br>**(1** **X** **4** **=** **4** **mks)**<br><br>6. <br><br>- - - - - - - - <br><br>Should be Individual in Food Money Climate Time Fuel Facilities **=** **X** **(1**<br><br>balanced requirements <br><br>season available <br><br>available <br><br>available **mks)** **4** **4**<br><br>added <br><br>resistance sagging or garment 7. <br><br>- - - - - Give Prevent Increase Add Add <br><br>crease stretching of life warmth to firmness **=** **3** **X** **(1** a **3** complete **mks)** 8.(a)- Glare <br><br>is **mk)** not cause waver not **=** **3**<br><br>any brightness within the field of vision which causes the eye to strain <br><br>**(1** - Does Not - Not - Does - **X** **(1**<br><br>(b) <br><br>cast glare or <br><br>shadows <br><br>fricker <br><br>discharge **mks)** **3**<br><br>impurities in the air <br><br>9. - <br><br>- Cost. - - - - - - <br><br>Buying <br><br>a Should of Value Location Construction Orientation Reliability Family **X** **(**<br><br>house be house. of house <br><br>requirements **4** **=** **2** **mks)**<br><br>10. - - - - - **(1** Insufficient much Too slow Too Too hot Insufficient **=** **x**<br><br>creaming liquid oven an oven <br><br>cooking <br><br>**3** **3** **mks)**<br><br>11. - - - **(** strong of Made fitting lid Well enough Large **1** **=** **3** **x**<br><br>leak proof material <br><br>**mks)** be buttons All flat sewn should Buttons do a with Buttons firmly Should fixed be positioned Accurately side right Place **Mks)** **1** **=** **3** **x**<br><br>must be stem sewn on not <br><br>leaving <br><br>a fabric shank <br><br>shank <br><br>double a need <br><br>upright <br><br>13. - - - <br><br>are Solutions money Saves risk Reduces **3** **=** **3** **x** simple and of **mks)**<br><br>to time colour make since loss at it or home reduces shape <br><br>on commercial dry cleaning <br><br>**(1** 14. - - <br><br>Needle Stitches **2** **x** **(1**<br><br>too <br><br>coarse long **mks)**<br><br>for incase fabric of <br><br>too **2** **=**<br><br>fine fabric <br><br>15. - - Using Provide fullness fashion feature <br><br>33 - - <br><br>the Shape good a Give **3** **=** **3** **x** **(1** garment fit **mks)**<br><br>16. - - - - <br><br>Make Choose Use Avoid Avoid **3** **x** **(1**<br><br>sure follage <br><br>is flowers flat of strong too <br><br>clean <br><br>fresh mixture using cutting **3** **=**<br><br>a <br><br>and scented many flowers in flowers full bloom as they wither quickly <br><br>**mks)**<br><br>17. - - - - <br><br>The fat Colour Soluble Elasting **=** **x** **(1** melts changes proteins contracts **mks)** **3** **3**<br><br>18. - - - <br><br>helps Play a Helps in Help **3** **x** **(1** child a child to physical **=**<br><br>to develop <br><br>mentally the e.g. e.g. others climbing, <br><br>building blocks <br><br>socialize with development running <br><br>**3** **mks)** 19. - - - - - <br><br>Amount of the Needs should Needs expense Fixed should Saving **1** **=** **3** **x** **(**<br><br>of money available <br><br>individual ranked be be should be done **Mks)**<br><br>family in listed <br><br>members <br><br>order <br><br>of down <br><br>priority <br><br>**SECTION** **B.**<br><br>20.i. - - - - Starching (a) articles Give Give a Stiffens Whitens a smooth (gives articles <br><br>glossy surface body) <br><br>appearance dirt which does not adhere to <br><br>**(2** **mks)**<br><br>(ii) **Boiling** - Whiten - Kills - Removes <br><br>articles <br><br>germs <br><br>stubborn stains **(2** **mks)**<br><br>(iii) Sprinkle - - in Helps **Advantages** - - - - <br><br>**Dampening** warm removal <br><br>water of **carpet**<br><br> it creases <br><br>spreads better <br><br>**(2** **mks)**<br><br>iv. <br><br>**of** warm sound to colour are They Deaden Comfortable to Add feet scheme the of the room **(1** **x** **4** **=** **4** **mks)**<br><br>**v.**<br><br>**Five** - - - - - - - <br><br>**points** Size of Space Cost and Consider Buy from Should Consider **=** **x** **(2**<br><br>**in** family available <br><br>**choice** or <br><br>**of** **a**<br><br>**washing** to **machine** determine <br><br>establishment storage <br><br>size to be bought <br><br>for <br><br>maintenance the of control dealer reputable <br><br>machine <br><br>have <br><br>instruction serviceability **mks)** **10**<br><br>manual the of machine <br><br>**5**<br><br>21.(a) Symptoms - Bone - Patients - Twitching - <br><br>of tenderness walk of Spontaneous **=** **4** **(1**<br><br>osteomalacia <br><br>with legs muscles fracture <br><br>wide apart appearing to waddle <br><br>may occur <br><br>**x** **4** **mks)**<br><br>**of** **fruits** **Uses** (b making jam In - a - As dessert garnishing - For sauces - Making jelly - Making - As - <br><br>**)**<br><br>a Fruits **4** **x** **(1** filling in **=** for jelly **4** **mks)** c. <br><br>**Factors** Well Easy Serve Present Breast Contains Is the at Contains from Free Helps <br><br>**to** **consider** **in** **preparing** **meals** **for** **children**<br><br>- - - - - - - - - - <br><br>balanced digest to their <br><br>foods <br><br>food punctually <br><br>their milk <br><br>food is best nutrients right antibodies contamination between bond **6** **=** **3** **x** **2** **discussed**<br><br>attractively for baby their in temperature right for amounts baby the <br><br>develop <br><br>mother **mks)**<br><br>and child <br><br>**(Well**<br><br>**a) Five** 22.( - - - - - - - **which** **properties** a and luxurious have Smooth creases resilient, are They if weight in Light except to Resistant attacked Not Not absorbent Thermoplastic <br><br>**make**<br><br>**synthetic** appearance easily treatment <br><br>**popular**<br><br>hang <br><br>out bulk <br><br>even sunlight by <br><br>given hence suitable for air travel <br><br>for nylon <br><br>moth <br><br>hence can dry be quickly permanently pleated **(1** **x** **5** **=** **5** **mks)**<br><br>(b) - <br><br>Working Fold () - Starting nothing Leave Remove Five Always Match all firmly Tack exactly Stitch Conceal all All Should <br><br>dart <br><br>() fabric right sides () together matching stitching () line pins () and tack <br><br>from in long broad fold the threads end () () <br><br>() stitch () along the fitting line () until dart tapers to <br><br>- - - - - - - - - - <br><br>fasten press () making grain and line <br><br>by dart seams for fitting <br><br>weaving <br><br>or towards back correct stitch () direction tacking <br><br>() for <br><br>() <br><br>general rules <br><br>stitch balance along on raw must fine Sharp Stainless Eye Easy Assorted <br><br>along <br><br>the marks fitting the edges be <br><br>good hang <br><br>lines before stitching <br><br>fitting or <br><br>line <br><br>strengthened <br><br>by possible <br><br>protective stitching <br><br>seams be <br><br>inconspicuous as <br><br>should to be thread <br><br>smoothly finished <br><br>**(1** **x** **3** **=** **3** **mks)** 23.(a) Working <br><br>French pieces seam of - <br><br>Place () Pin () Remove open () so Turn () tack Remove <br><br>two material W.S () together with notches and fitting line matching <br><br>- - <br><br>and tack tacking () the <br><br>() () on trim <br><br>the <br><br>F.L turning line () ( to machine ) than less () the <br><br>above <br><br>the width fitting the of line seam finished press <br><br>- that <br><br>R.S. machine () <br><br>() <br><br>of () press material the on seam the <br><br>is F.L <br><br>inside and crease along the stitching line pin <br><br>() tacking - () to one side of garment **(8** **mks)**<br><br>**(b)** - - - - - - **General** Remove less Use Use correct Stains Wash If <br><br>**rules** when harmful <br><br>**on** fresh <br><br>**stain** as method for agents thoroughly be to <br><br>**removal** they <br><br>become for clearly in be stain after strong too <br><br>fixed unknown <br><br>with time <br><br>first stains <br><br>agents <br><br>stains must <br><br>identified <br><br>removing garment <br><br>solution when used on coloured fabrics <br><br>removal fabric for <br><br>agent garment Study **(Any**<br><br>is suspected try it first on hidden parts of the <br><br>the **other** appearance general **mks)** **4** **=** **X4**<br><br>of the stain first <br><br>**1** - - <br><br>Advertising Competition **2** **2** **x** increases among **mks)**<br><br>a for manufacturers <br><br>demand <br><br>product is increased leading to quality goods <br><br>**(1** **=**<br><br>***Disadvantages*** - - - <br><br>Gives Increases make Can **=** **2** **x** **(1**<br><br>false <br><br>information goods low of **mks)**<br><br>to the consumers <br><br>of cost goods **2**<br><br>quality to be preferred to those of low quality <br><br>(d). - <br><br>(a) Any heating <br><br>**Raising** agent **Agent** which when added to flour mixtures produces a gas which <br><br>expands **mks)** **(2** raising the mixture <br><br>(b) - <br><br>**Braising** of the Methods as known cooking mire food poix <br><br>especially meat and poultry on a bed of <br><br>fried **(2** root **mks)** |
# HOME SCIENCE I 1. How can you ensure that a sitting room is well ventilated? (3mks) 2. What two precautionary measures should be taken when using paraffin as a fuel? (2mks). 3. State two reasons for using white ceramic tiles in the kitchen? (2mks). 4. State three qualities of good lighting. (3mks). 5. State two advantages and two disadvantages of steaming as a method of cooking? 6. Care should be taken to ensure that left over foods remain fresh. How can this be done? (2mks) 7. State tw o qualities of fruit for jam making? (2mks). 8. Give three reasons for coating food before deep frying? (3mks). 9. State three ways of preparing clothes before washing? (3mks) 10. Two methods which can be used to sterilize baby's feeding equipment? (1mrk) 11. What two was you use to disinfect kitchen clothes. (1mrk) 12. Give two ways of using a crossway strip in garment construction. (1mrk) 13. Give the following I-T -C - L - C ( International Textile Care Labeling Code). (1 [1] / [] 2 mks). (a) (b) (c) 14. Give the two reasons of airing clothes after ironing. (1mrk). 15. Two stitches that may be used to neaten an overlaid seam. (1mrk). 16. Two ways of finishing the neckline of a night dress. (1mrk). 17 . Two qualities of a thimble. (1mrk). 18. What causes suffocation? (1 [1] / [] 2 mrks) 19. Two things to prevent in first treatment of a cut. (1mrk). 20. Using the diagram below, name the most suitable seam for joining the pieces labeled A and B, the suitable side seam and the piece labeled A of a child's dress. (3mks). Seam joining A and B . Side seam Piece labeled A 21. What points should you look for when buying a zip? Give two. (2mks) 22. Use the pattern piece below to answer the question that follow. Pattern pieces. (1 [1] / [] 2 mrk) A. B . C. Pattern symbol. (1 [1] / [] 2 mrk) X . Y . 1 ----- # Z . SECTION B. 23. (a) After completing your cookery practical lesson you found that your white cotton apron has the following stains (i) Grease (ii) Coffee State clearly how the stain can be removed. (5mks) (b) What factors should be considered when choosing brooms and brushes? (6mks) (c) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of dry cleaning. (4mks). (d) What factors should be considered when choosing floor covering? (5mks) 24. French seam is commonly worked on children's clothes. (a) i. What are the advantages of the seam? (2mks) ii. With aid of clear diagrams show the working of the seam. (6mks) (b) What are the advantages of combing wool with Nylon. (4mks) (c) Discuss points you would observe to ensure that your sewing machine gives you maximum service. (4mks) (d) Of what use is pattern drafting to tailor ? (4mks) 25. (a) Explain four rules to be observed when preparing left over foods. (4mks) (b) Discuss the advantages of food preservation. (4mks) (c) What points must be remembered when storing grains. (4mks) (d) (i) Explain points to be considered when serving invalids. (4mks) (ii) A sauce is served with lumps in it, what possible mistakes are likely to have been done? (4mks) HOME SCIENCE I MARKING SCHEME SECTION A. 1. - Doors should be large enough. - Windows should be large enough. - Room should be spacious. - Furniture should not be congested. - Artificial ventilation e.g. fans should be provided. - Rooms should be well cleaned daily. 2. - Do not store in sodas bottles. - Lids should be tight fitting. - Store away from foodstuffs. - Keep away from children's reach. 3. - Easy to clean. - Easily show dirt. - Attractive. - Protect wall from dampness. - Last long as they easy to maintain. 2 ----- # 4. - Should not contrast with background to avoid straining the eyes. - Light should be well distributed to avoid shadows on working areas. - Work should be done efficiently without straining. - It should minimise accidents and ease in movement. - It should enhance interior decoration. - It should be without a glare. 5. Advantages . - Easy to digest no fats are added or direct heating. - Saves time and fuel when food is cooked over a pot of boiling water in which other foods are cooked. - Nutrients are retained as no liquid media is used. Disadvantages . - A slow method of cooking - Expensive method if done a lone. - Steamed food tends to lack flavour. 6. - Put food in clean containers which are covered to prevent contamination by dust and flies. - Food should be cooled quickly and stored in the fridge clean cool place. 7. - Should be firm or hard. - Should not be over ripe or unripe. - Should be unbruised. - Should not be withered. 8. - To prevent it from breaking into pieces. - To prevent it from overcooking. - To improve it's appearance. - To prevent food from getting too greasy. 9. - Mending # Soaking - Removing stains. # Sorting. 10. - Boiling. - Commercial sterilizers e.g. Milton. # Boiling. 11. - Bleaching. - Commercial disinfectant e.g. Dettol. 12. - To neaten raw edges. - For decoration. - To strengthen out edges. - To make rouleu loops. 13. a.- Drip dry. 3 ----- # b.- Do not bleach. c.- Use warm iron. 14. - To get rid of excess dampness. - To remove any smells or odours. 15. - Loop stitches. - Button hole. - Overcasting. 16. - Bias binding / cross way strip. - Frill. - Lace. - Facing. - Collar - Double yoke. 17. - Should be strong to last long - Should not rust - Should fit the figure. 18. - Breathing poisonous gases. - Blocked windpipe - Wearing objects over there 19. To control too much bleeding which can lead to death - Prevent entry of germs. 20. - Overlaid seam. - French seam. - Yoke. 21. - Choose a good brand. - Test to see that zip glides smoothly and easily. - Length of zip should suit length of poening. - Colour of zip tape must match colour of fabric. 22. A - Front Bodice. B - Back Bodice. C - Front facing. X - Dart. Y - Starting grain. Z - Place to Fold. SECTION B. 23.(a) (i) - Wash in very hot water with a little washing soda in it. - Carbon tetrachloride may be used on the stubborn stain. 4 ----- # (ii) - Rub salt on the stain and pour boiling water through the stain. - Rub salt and lemon juice and pour boiling water through if stain is a bit stubborn. - Use wood ash or Borax in same way as salt if stain is very stubborn. (b) - Bristles should be firmly and closely set on the head. - Handle should be of comfortable length. - Head should be smooth and slightly curved to reduce damage on furniture. - Should be selected for the correct purpose and use. - Material should be of good quality so that they last long. (c) Advantages . - The material is expensive. - Solution may cause damage on the fabric. - Solutions are inflammable. - Solution are poisonous. (d) - Should relate to the colour scheme of the room ( Harmonize with rest of the colour) - Design of the upholstered furniture. - Texture of the fabric or material used. - Size of the room. - Cleaning and care required. - Amount of money available. - The purpose of the covering e.g soft carpet for sitting room, bed rooms and corridors and hard carpet for kitchen and bathroom. 24. (a) (i) Narrow and strong with two lines of machining. (ii) Neat seam as edges are concealed. (iii) Easy to launder. Easy to work. - Tack and stitch 6mm from, the edge outside the fitting line. - Remove tacking press open the seam and trim to 4mm. - Fold a long the stitching line with Right sides together. - Tack 6mm from the edge enclosing the raw edges completely. - Stitch below the tacking line i.e on the fitting line remove tacking. (b) - The fibre produce is much more stronger and hence long lasting. - The fibre is warmer than Nylon. - The fibre is easier to launder. - The fibre is cheaper to buy. (c) - Must be covered when not in use to protect it from dust. - Replace broken parts immediately. - Have the machine checked by mechanic regularly. - Oil the machine regularly. 5 ----- # (d) - Development of skills. - Money saving as patterns are made at home. - Less time wasted as shopping for patterns is not done. - Using of individual person's measurements. - No adjustment required and correction is easy to do. 25. (a) - Food be re heated and not re-cooked. - Large pieces should be cut into small ones. - Additional moisture should be added in form of gravy or stoch may be added to replace what was lost during cooking. - Food may be coated with batter to prevent it from over heating. - Food should be well garnished to enhance appearance. - Avoid repeated re- heating by preparing just enough. - Serve food in anew form to avoid monotony. (b) - Food in season can be preserved to be used when out of season. - Preserved food can be transported to reach places of storage. - Preservation slows down food decay. - May be done where there is surplus. (c) - They should be completely dry. - Store in well ventilated rooms. - Preserve grains before storage. - Place storage containers on racks. - Do not keep toxic chemical in the grain store. - Rock grain store and check frequently. - Use old stock before the one. (d) (i) - Meals should be balanced. - Serve meals punctually. - Prepare, cook and serve hygienically. - Food should be palatable and appetizing. - Serve attractively. - Give small amounts at a time. - Give hot foods hot and cold foods cold. - Food should be soft and easy to digest. - Avoid strong flavourings and smells in food. - Follow doctors orders. (ii) - Flour is added to very hot fat. - Using too much heat during cooking. - Adding liquid too fast without adequate stirring. - Inadequate stirring during cooking. - Roux not well cooked. - Blending of flour not adequately done. HOMESCIENCE II 1. Give two reasons for folding in flour in creamed cake mixtures (2mks) 6 ----- # 94226176. Explain the following terms used in cookery (3mks ) - Dextrinisation - Gelatinization - Caramelization 3. Give two reasons for airing clothes before storage (2 mks) 94226216. Differentiate between a split level house and a storeyed house (2mks) 94226217. Explain three ways in which blending viscose with polyester would modify the characteristics of the viscous fabric. (3mks) 4. State two advantages of dry cleaning clothes (2mks ) 94226218. Give two causes of a black ring in hard boiled egg (2mks) 94226219. List down four nutrients found in eggs (2mks) 94226220. Give three reasons why soaking is necessary for cotton and not for woolen fabrics (3mks) 94226221. State three qualities of fabric for underwear (3mks) 94226222. Explain two points on care of the Kitchen sink (2mks) 94226223. State three factors to consider when selecting flowers for flower arrangement (3mks) 94226224. Give three pre-caution to take when cleaning plain wooden surfaces (3mks) 94226225. Explain the advantage of a refrigerator with two doors as opposed to one door (1mk) 94226226. Give two ways of saving time and energy when performing house hold duties ( 3mks) 94226227. State two effective means of communication when passing information to children (2 mks) 94226228. Give two important points to bear in mind when choosing fastenings (2mks ) SECTION B 18. (a) State and explain five points to consider when planning meals (5mks) (b) Give two reasons for the following faults in baking (i) Cracked Swiss roll (2mks ) reamed cake sunken at the middle (2mks) c). Explain three causes of malnutritional disorders and in each case give an example (6 mks) 7 ----- # (d) Minerals perform varied and inter-related functions. Discuss (4mks) 19 .(a) Discuss properties of cotton which make it important for hospital linen. (8mks) (b) Describe how to make an open seam at the side of a popline blouse (6mks) (zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz our niece who is short and plump wishes to make a two piece outfit for a special occasion. Advice (4mks) (c) Give two advantages of smoking on a childs outfit (2mks ) 20. (a) Explain clearly how to remove a grease stain on cotton Apron (5mks ) (b) State four points to observe when laundering non fast coloured articles (4mks) (zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz our brother living in Kisumu is considering buying a plot to build a house . Suggest five points he should consider (5mks) (c) State four factors which determine the cleaning frequency of a room (4mks) (zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz tate two remedies for static fabrics in wear ` (2mks ) 21. (a) Discuss four points on use and care of brooms (4mks) (b) Discuss five points one should consider when choosing a method of fullness disposal on a garment. (5mks) (zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz ive four qualities of aluminium which make it popular for household utensils (4mks ) (c) Suggest factors which influence consumer choice (5mks ) (zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz ive two uses of salt in laundry work . (2mks ) HOMESCIENCE II 1. Reasons for folding in flour - To incorporate air - To retain the already incorporated air ( 2x1 = 2 marks ) 2. Meaning of terms - Dextrination - When starch is exposed to dry heat it changes to form a sugar known as dextrin . the process is known as dextrinisation ( 1mk) - Gelatinization - Starch when exposed to moist heat - absorbs water swells and burst (1mk ) - Caramelisation - Sugars exposed to heat melts to form a caramel hence caramelisation (1mk ) 3. Reasons for airing clothes - To get rid of dampness - To remove bad smells ( 2x1 = 2 marks ) 8 ----- # 4. Split level in a house is where rooms are placed at individual levels of the ground . A storeyed house has rooms on top of others . 94226432. - Reduces creasing - Reduces shrinkage - Makes it lighter 94226433. Advantages of dry cleaning - Fibres not affected - Colour is maintained - Texture is maintained ( 2x1= 2marks) 7. Black ring in eggs # Overboiling - Stale eggs - Not cooling in cold water . ( 2x1 = 2 marks ) 8. Nutrient in eggs - Vitamin A - Vitamin D - Iron - Protein - Fats # Phosphorous ( x 4 = 2 marks) 9. Soaking necessary for cotton and not for wool - Wool is weak when wet - Wool felts and shrinks - Soften cotton for dirt - Dirt does not adhere to woolen fabrics as much as any other (any other relevant answer 3x1 = 3 marks ) 10. - Not bulky - Soft to the skin - Non static - Not irritating - Absorbent - Colour fast ( any other 3x1= 3 marks) 11. Care of the kitchen sink - Pour hot water occasionally - Do not allow big particles down the sink ( 2x1 = 2 marks ) 9 ----- # 12. - Selecting flowers - Fresh - Not strong scented - Do not pick when full bloom - Clean foliage 94226472. - Plain wooden surfaces - Scrub along the grain - Avoid harsh abrasives - Avoid use of hot water -it discolors - Do not expose to direct sunlight - it warps - Avoid sharp things. 94226473. - A two door refrigerator allows the frozen food to stay undisturbed unlike one door where frequent opening affects the freezer compartment 94226474. - Use of correct and efficient tools - Use correct posture - Use labour saving devices - Make use of trays and trolleys ( 2x1 = 2 marks) 16. - Bold posters - Real objects any other ( 2x1 = 2 marks ) 17. - Choice of fastening - Position of the garment - The weaver - Type of fabric - Type of garment ( any other relevant point 2x1 = 2 mks ) SECTION B 18. (a) Planning meals - Cooks capability - Amount of money - Clients - Equipment available - Time available ( any other 5 x1 = 5 marks ) (b) - Cracked Swiss roll - Not rolled immediately - Too high temperature - A lot of baking time (ii) - Creamed cake sunk in the middle - Too soft mixture - Not cooked 10 ----- # - A lot of sugar used c ) Causes of malnutrition - Excessive intake of nutrient - Obesity - Lack of nutrients - Anaemia, Kwarshiokor - Inability of body to absorb nutrients - Anaemia, Rickets # d) General functions of minerals - Protects body from diseases - Helps in the formation of body cells - Regulate body processes - Helps maintain water composition in the body ( 3x1 = 3 marks ) 19 (a) Properties of cotton - Absorbent - Warm to the body - Soft to the skin - Withstands frequent washing / strong - Easy to launder - Not affected by alkalis and acids hence can be bleached effectively ( 4 x 2 = well explained points ) b) Making open seam . - Place two pieces () pieces together R.S () Facing - Pin () Tack () and machine stitch () along the fitting line () on w. s ( ) - Remove tacking () press () seam open () - Trim () raw edges and neaten () by machine fold () , binding , blanket stitch e.t.c. c) Advice on two piece outfit - Matching colour . - Dark and dainty fabric - Good draping quality - Not clinging to the body - Choose fabric with vertical lines d) Advantages of smoking - Style features - Can let down for added width 20 (a) Removal of grease stain - Scrape (1) as much as possible - Place blotting (1) paper on stain - Iron using hot iron (1) from outside (1) towards center . - Wash (1) article in hot water (5marks) (b) Laundering non fast coloured articles - Do not soak. 11 ----- # - Wash quickly - Dry undershade - Use warm iron - Iron w.s only (4x1 = 4marks) c) Points on plot buying - Type of soils - Social amenities # Neighbourhood # Security - Slope of land - Nearness to place of work ( any other relevant point 5 x1 = 5 marks ) d) Cleaning frequency - Condition of room - User of the room ( occupants ) - Time available for cleaning - Cleaning equip and material available - Use of the room - Location of the room e) Remedies of clinging fabric - Use fabric softener in last rinse - Wear with cotton underwears 21. (a) Use and care of brooms - Remove fluffs - Clean in heavily built soapy water - Store with the head between two nails - Dry Facing down - with no pressure on the bristles b) Choice of method of fullness of disposal. - Position on garment - Type of fabric ( weight ) - Age of wearer - Type of garment - Fabric texture c) Qualities of aluminium - Shinny appearance - Light in weight - Does not rust - Good conductor of heat d) Factors which influence consumer choice - Location - Money available - Fashion - Other consumers 12 ----- # - Time available e). Use of salt in Laundry - Fix color of loose colored garments - Cut mucus HOMESCIENCE III SECTION A 1. What causes mildew stain (1mk) 2. Give two methods of lengthening a skirt that has become too short (2mks) 3. You have a polyester dress that clings to the body. Suggest two remedies for this problem (3mks) 4. State two factors to consider when planning meals for invalids (2mks) 5. Give two methods of aerating flour mixtures and in each case give an example of a raising agent used. (2mks) 6. (a) Give three uses of fats in cookery (3mks) (b) Describe stewing as a method of cooking (1mk) 7. Give two disadvantages of advertising to the consumer (2mks) 8. State four ways of preventing skin diseases. (2mks) 9. Give two disadvantages of concealed drainage system (2mks) 10. Give two reasons why batter is allowed to rest after making before use. (2mks) 11. State two disadvantages of soaking clothes for more than 24 hours (1 mks) 12. List four factors to consider when selecting fabric for childrens garment (2mks) 13. What four factors contribute to efficiency when performing household tasks (2mks) 14. The size of a patch pocket depends on several factors . Give four. (2mks) 15. List any four preparations an expectant mother should make for home confinement (2mks) 16. State one way of protecting the baby against each of the following (i) Prickly heat (1mk) (ii) Nappy rash (1mk) 17. List four differences between brooms and brushes (2mks) 18. State three factors which determine method of controlling fullness (1 mks) 19. State four ways of conserving energy when lighting (4mks) SECTION B. 20. (a) State and explain four factors to consider when planning meals (4mks) (b) Give four general rules to bear in mind when preparing pastries (4mks) (c) Give four points to consider when entertaining (4mks) (d) Discuss three reasons for preserving food. (6mks) (e) Give two reasons for blanching vegetables before freezing (2mks) 21. (a) Give four precautionary measures to take when laundering woolen articles (5mks) (b) Explain how to make boiling water starch (5mks) (c) Explain four importance of good ventilation in a house (4mks) (d) Give four reasons why disposal of sewage in rivers and streams is prohibited (4mks) (e) State four factors to consider in choice of wall finishes (2mks) 13 ----- # 22. (a) Explain how to attach a zip fastener using edge to edge method (1mk) (b) State three qualities of a well made hem (3mks) (c) Discuss 4 qualities suitable for underwear fabrics (8mks) 23. (a) Explain how to work French seam at the side of a childs petticoat (9mks) (b) Explain the functions of the following machine parts (i) Feed dog (2mks) (ii) Presser foot (2mks) (iii) Stop motion screw (2mks) (c) Give three qualities of a well made dart (3mks) (d) Name two methods of graining a fabric before cutting out. (2mks) HOMESCIENCE III MARKING SCHEME 1. Caused by folding and storing damp clothes ( 1 x 1 = 1mk) 2. Ways of lengthening a skirt - Adding a frill Let down the hem Put a false hem (2 x 1 = 2mks) 3. Remedies for static electricity Wear dress with cotton petticoat Put fabric softener in the last rinsing water (2 x 1 = 2mks) 4. Planning meals for invalids Easily digested - Fresh foods Adhere to doctors instructions Not greasy ( 2 x 1 = 2mks) 5. Chemical Baking powder - Biological Yeast - Mechanical Air ( 2 x 1 = 2mks ) (a) Uses of fats - Cut short gluten strands - Soften mixtures Add flavour and colour Increase self life (3 x 1 = 3mks ) (b) Long slow moist method of cooking food. Food is not allowed to boil. Done in casserole in oven or on top of a stove (1 x 1 = 1mk) 7. Disadvantages of advertising to the consumer - Increases cost of goods - Gives false information - Confuses consumer due to many brands advertised (2 x 1 = 2mks ) 8. Preventing skin diseases Avoid sharing personal items 14 ----- # Sterilise shared items Bath regularly Eat food rich in vitamins (4 x = 2mks) 9. - Can only be used where there is piped water - Expensive to install - Careless use may make maintenance difficult 10. Reasons for resting batter So that starch grains can absorb liquid So that air bubbles can escape ( 2 x 1 = 2mks) 11. fibres are weakened - Water becomes slimy Bad smells develop (3 x = 1 mks) 12. - Shrink resistance - Strong - Light - Absorbent - Non - Irritating - Inflammable (4 x = 2mks) 13. - Correct equipment and material - Having a time plan - Good speed - Correct tools - Correct methods of working 14. - Purpose - Position - Purpose of garment - Age of wearer - Size of garment (4 x = 2mks) 15. Inform midwives Prepare clean and sterile room Make transport available Clean razor blade and string (4 x = 2mks ) 16. (i) Prickly heat avoid overdressing (1mk) (ii ) Nappy rash change napkins when used 17. - Rinse napkins thoroughly (1mk) 18. Brooms have long handle while brushes have short handle Brooms sweep large areas while brushes small areas Brooms have soft bristle while brushes have stiff bristles Brooms remove loose dirt while brushes remove fixed dirt (4 x = mks) 15 ----- # 19. - Type of garment Position on garment Figure type Weight, texture and washability of fabric (3 x = 1 mks) 20. - Use daylight as much as possible Lighting designed to suit purpose - Avoid bulbs of higher wattage than required - Ensure all light fittings are clean Turn off lights when not in use ( 4 x 1 = 4mks ) SECTION B. 21. (a) - Balanced Protein, carbohydrate, vitamins Individual requirements Time available Occasion Colour variety Food in season Any other ( 4 x 1 = 4mks) (b) Weigh ingredients accurately Use mixture of lard and margarine Use cool equipment and work in a cool place (c)- Entertaining Number and type of guests Type and style of service Cutlery and crockery available Number of dishes to be served Time of the day and weather (4 x 1 = 4mks) (d) Discuss three reasons for preserving foods - Ease transportation for foods like vegetables and fruits - Preserve so as to be used when out of season - No food will keep indefinitely so food is preserved for future use (well discussed points ) ( 3 x 2 = 6mks) (e) Two reasons for blanching vegetables before freezing - To help retain colours - Reduce bulk - Retain nutrients 21. Precautions to take when laundering woolen articles - Do not soak as they are weak when wet - Use water of same temperature throughout - Dry flat - Press do not iron to avoid stretching 16 ----- # (any other) (5 x 1= 5mks ) (b) Boiling water starch - Measure 1 tablespoon (1) Starch. 2 tablespoons cold water(1) Make smooth paste () Add litre (1) boiling water () Stir and boil for a short while () Dilute as required () (5mks) (c) Importance of Good ventilation - Get rid of surplus heat from people and machinery - Get rid of bad ordours - Allow circulation of fresh air - Avoid drowsiness (4 x 1 = 4mks) (d) Reasons for not disposing waste in rivers - Causes water to smell foul - Poses, health problems to animals and human beings - Affects plants and destroys aquatic life - Carrier of water borne diseases (zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz hoice of wall finishes - Size of wall - Money available - Care required - Availability of the material (4 x = 2mks) 22. (a) Method of attaching zip - Tack the seam and neaten the edges - Open and press it open - Work form R.S. and the zip closed and the tag level with the fitting line pin one side of the opening to the zip length - Pin the other side so that the folds meet () - Tack firmly down on the side and up () of the other closing at the base of the zip teeth () - Hold the folds together () with 1cm tacking stitches () from the end to end. - Working on the R.S () machine down () one side and up the other 6mm from the fold ( ) according to the width of the zip teeth (Diagrams can be used to make explanation clear) (9mks) (b) Qualities of well made hem - Flat - Well eased - Hemming stitches evenly distributed - Equal in depth (3 x 1 = 3mks) 17 ----- # (c) Three qualities of fabric for underwear - Should be absorbent since they are worn next to skin - Easily laundered cleanliness is absolutely essential due to accumulation of body waste - Should not be bulky, should not be seen over outer garment - Non clinging for outer garment to slide over easily - Good quality Cheap materials will not survive constant wear and washing (4 x 2 = 8mks) 23. (a) How to work a french seam at the side of a childs petticoat - With w.s. of the fabric together and edges even pin tack along the fitting line ( ) - Machine along the tacking () remove all the tacking and trim ( ) the seam turning to about 5mm () - With the right side () of the fabric facing () fold over along the seamline, pin, tack along the fitting line about 6mm below the seam () - Machine or backstitch ( ) along the fitting line - Remove tacking and press the seam towards the back of the garment () (9m ks) (b) Feeddog Regulate amount of fabric passing through when needle is stitching Presser foot Holds fabric in place and presses it to the feed dog Stop motion screw Stops the needle from moving up and down. ( 3 x 2 = 6mks) (c) Three qualities of a well made dart - Tapers gradually to a point - Straight line of stitching - Firmly secured at the point - Correct length and width - Pressed to the right side (d) Graining fabric - Pulling diagonally - Pulling a thread across the fabric and cut through (2 x 1 = 2mks) HOMESCIENCE IV SECTION A: 1. Give four precautions a mother should take to ensure that an active toddler does not accidentally suffer from burns and scalds. (2 mks) 2. State two causes of anaemia other than nutritional deficiency. (2 mks) 3. State three factors to consider when planning lighting for various rooms in the house. (1 mks) 4. Explain why laundry blue is in minimal use today for laundry work. (1 mk) 5. Explain four qualities for making lingerie. (4 mks) 6. Giving a reason in each case name two nutrients which should be emphasized in school children diet. (2 mks) 18 ----- # 7. State two reasons why clothes should be dried thoroughly before storage. (2 mks) 8. State two general rules to observe when setting a table for a meal. (2 mks) 9. Heavy close texture is a common fault in sponge cake. Give two causes. (2 mks) 10. Give two reasons why vitreous enamel finish is used on cookers. (2 mks) 11. List four methods of finishing a plain seam on the side of a denim skirt. (2 mks) 12. The following is a poorly planned menu for a family which includes a three year old child. Ugali, Sweet potatoes, Sukuma wiki fried with tomatoes. (a) (i) give two reasons why it is a poor menu. (2 mks) (ii) suggest one dish to improve the meal. (1 mk) 13. State three qualities to look for when buying a tape measure. (1 mks) 14. Explain two qualities that make crossway strips useful in dressmaking. (2 mks) 15. Give four factors to consider when buying wooden utensils. (2 mks) 16. State two qualities of a well-made hem. (2 mks) 17. Give two reasons why weaning should be a gradual process. (2 mks) 18. Good eyesight is essential at all times. Give three points on care of eyes. (3 mks) 19. Give three reasons for cooking and decorating cakes. (2 mks) SECTION B: 20. ( a) Silk is a common fabric for making evening wear. Give three factors that make it popular for the above occasion. (3 mks) (b) Give four steps to ensure that a sewing machine gives good stitches when stitching. (4 mks) (c) Give three differences between interfacing and interlining. (3 mks) d. Describe how to work a machine fell seam at the yoke of a poplin shirt. (8 mks) e. Give four factors that determine the method of disposing fullness in a garment. (2 mks) 21. (a) Giving reasons in each case state four basic rules in the use and care of a refrigerator. (8 mks) (b) Give four points you would advice your aunt on in choice of curtains for her new house. (4 mks) (c) A well-drained house is a comfortable house to live in. Give four point to support the above statement. (4 mks) (d) Suggest four reasons why a family should prepare for a babys arrival. (4 mks) 22. (a) Explain the meaning of the following terms used in cookery. (4 mks) Bake blind. Batter. Braising. Creaming. (b) What advice would you give to a friend who is going to get married about planning family meals? Assume that as a career girl she has very little experience. (5 mks) (c) Breast milk is the perfect food for a baby. Give four advantages of breastfeeding. (5 mks) (d) Give four points of personal hygiene that are essential to a food handler. (4 mks) (e) What are the reasons for folding in flour in creamed cake mixtures? (2 mks) 19 ----- # 23. (a) (i) Give four points to consider when buying commercial paper patterns. (4 mks) (ii) Explain three points to consider when choosing a zip fastener. (3 mks) (b) A wise shopper is a wise consumer. Give five points a consumer should look for before buying an item. (5 mks ) (c) Give four points that determine the cleaning frequency of a house. (4 mks) (d) Give four reasons for budgeting family income. (4 mks) HOMESCIENCE IV MARKING SCHEME **1. Four precautions a mother should take to ensure an active toddler does not suffer** from burns and scalds. ( x 4 = 2 mks) - Keep metal boxes out of reach of children. - Have fire guards round open fires. - Do not place hot liquids where children can reach them. - Children should not be locked in houses alone. - Handles of pans and pots should be turned away from path ways. 2. Causes of anaemia other than nutritional deficiency. (1 x 2 = 2 mks) - Genetic (sickle cell). - Excessive loss of blood. - Sickness e.g. malaria, leukemia. - Parasites e.g. hookworm. 3. Factors to consider when planning lighting for various rooms. ( x 3 = 1 mks ) - Purpose of the room. - Size of the room. - The existing colour scheme. 4. Explain why laundry blue is in minimal use today: (1x1 = 1 mk) - This is because most of the soapless detergents made these days have flourescent whitener which have the same function as laundry blue. 5. Qualities of fabric for making lingerie. - Soft not to irritate skill. - Not bulky not to be seen over the outer garment. - Absorbent to absorb sweat. - Strong to withstand frequent washing. - Should not generate static electricity not to cling to the body. 6. Nutrients to be emphasized in a school child's diet: (2x1 = 2 mks) - Carbohydrate/fat because they are active. - Protein because they are growing. - Vitamins for protection. - Minerals for strong bones. 7. Reasons why clothes should be rinsed thoroughly: - Remove smells of soap. - Freshens. - Avoid skin irritation from detergents. 20 ----- # - Prevent damage to fibres by detergent. - Mention original colour. 8 . General rules to observe when setting a table: (2x1 = 2mks) - Table should be clean. - The tablecloth should be clean and well pressed. - Allow space eof about 60 cm per person. - Place clean cutlery 2.5 cm from the edge of the table. 9. Causes of heavy texture in sponge cakes: (2x1 = 2 mks) - Too hot oven. - Insufficient whisking. - Poor folding in. - Too rapid addition of flour. - Too much flour. 10. Why vitreous enamel finish is used on cookers: (2x1 = 2 mks) - Attractive. - Easy to clean and maintain. 11. Four methods of finishing a plain seam on the side of a denim skirt:( x4 = 2 mks) - Edge stitching. - Zig zagging. - Overcasting. - Pinking. - Loop stitching. 12. (i) Reasons why it is a poor menu: (2x1 = 2 mks) - Contains a lot of carbohydrates. - The meal has no protein. (ii) A protein dish e.g. meat stew, chicken, currry, ndengu (1 mk) 13. Qualities of a good tape measure: ( x 3 = 1 mks - Clearly marked. - Not stretchable. - Reinforced ends. - Should not fray at sides. - Markings should not fade off. 14. Qualities that make crossway strip useful in dress making stretches therefore can be manipulated round curves and corners: (2x1 = 2mks) Forms a contrast in grain or print therefore decorative. 15. Factors to consider when buying wooden utensils: - No scratches. - Well grained. - Ordourless. - Non toxic. - Durable. - Smooth. 16. Qualities of a well-made hem: (1x2 = 2mks) - Same width. - Correct for fabric and style. 21 ----- # - Not puckered. - Seams matched. - Well pressed. 17. Reasons why weaning should be gradual: (1x2 = 2 mks) - Allow baby to get accustomed to the new food. - Allow mother time to observe the baby for any allergic reactions. 18. Good eye sight is essential. Points on care: (1x3 = 3 mks) - Eat a diet rich in vitamin A and C. - Work in well lit area but avoid very bright unprotected light. - Clean your face every morning paying attention to areas around the eyes. - Any evidence of bad eyesight or soreness should be reported to the doctor. 19. Two reasons for decorating cakes: (1x2 = 2 mks) - To make the cake attractive. - Prevent cake from drying. - Encourages creativity. SECTION B: 20. (a) Factors which make silk popular for evening wear: (1x4 = 4mks) - Lustre - the nature shine makes it suitable for fancy wear. - Has good draping quality. - Warm - gives warmth on cold nights. - Sheds creases easily. (b) Steps to ensure a sewing machine gives good stitches: (1x4 = 4mks) - Correct tension. - Thread machine correctly. - Firm and accurate tacking. - Correct size of needle for fabric. - Thread should match fabric in thickness. (c) Difference between interfacing and interlining: (1x3 = 3mks) - Interfacing is used on small areas while interlining is used on large areas. - Interfacing is used on the facing while interlining is used between the lining and the garment. - Interfacing is used to give crispness (stiffening) while interlining gives warmth and body to garment. (d) How to work a machine fell seam: (8 mks) - Place two pieces of material together edges matching. - Pin , tack, on the fitting line. - Machine on the fitting line. - Trim one side to less than 0.5 cm. - Trim the other side to 1.2 cm. - Press, open. - Fold over the wider turning to the shorter one and tack. - Machine close to the fold. 22 ----- # - Remove tacking and press. (e) Factors which determine methods of controlling fullness: ( x 4 = 2mks) - Type of garment. - Position of fullness. - Type of fabric. - Age of wearer. 21. (a) Basic rules in use and care of refrigeration: (2x4 = 8 mks) - Do not keep hot food in the fridge as it lowers the temperature causing spoilage of other foods. - Do not use sharp instruments to scrap of ice from the fridge. It scratches and causes marks on the fridge. - Store food in polythene papers to prevent drying. - Do not overload - to allow free circulation of air. - Place fridge in the coolest part of the kitchen to avoid heat interference. (state 1mk reason 1mk) (b) Choice of curtains: (1x4 = 4 mks) - Colour fast not to fade. - Durable fabric. - Easy to launder. - Colour within the colour scheme of the room. - Non inflammable fabric. - Shrink resistance. (c) Importance of goods drainage: - Frees house from dampness. - Avoid bad smells. - Makes places attractive. - Minimizes risk of getting diseases. - Precludes breeding places for pests. (d) Reasons why a family should prepare for baby's arrival: (1 x 4 = 4 mks) - Help a family to manage their finances better. - Avoid last minute rush and anxiety after baby is born. - Challenges the family to look for room and bed for baby. - Allows mother to get the best for the baby. - Gives parents time to prepare younger children to accept the new baby. 22. (a ) Meaning of following terms: (1 x 4 = 4 mks) - Bake blind - baking of pastry without a filling. - Balter - mixture of flour and water usually with an egg. - Braising - cooking of food usually of meat on a bed of fried root vegetables known as a mirepoix creaming. Beating fat or fat and sugar until it is creamy in both texture and colour. (b) Points to consider in meal planning: (1x5 = 5 mks) - Family meals should be nutritionally balanced. - Make use of food in season as its cheaper. 23 ----- # - Money available - food budget within the finances means of the family. - Plan meals to be prepared with equipment available. - Should vary colour of dishes. - Should consider individual taste. (Any other relevant answers ) (c) Advantages of breast feeding: - More nutritious and easily digested. - Always at the right temperatures. - Does not need preparation. - Contains antibodies. - Has no harmful micro-organisms. (d) Points of hygiene to a food handler: (4x1 = 4 mks) - Wash hands before touching food. - Do not handle cooked food with bare hands. - Health carriers of infectious diseases should not b e allowed to handle food. - Wear kitchen clothes when handling food e.g. apron or overall. (e) Reasons for folding in flour in creamed cake mixture: (2x1 = 2 mks) - To incorporate more air. - Prevent the already incorporated air from escaping. 23. (a) (i) Points to consider when buying commercial patterns: (1x4 = 4 mks) - Measurements should correspond with one's body measurements. - Style should fit the figure. - Fashion should be current. - Choose one with several styles. - Beginner should choose simple patterns. (ii ) Choice of zip fastener: (1x3 = 3 mks) - Length - buy correct length for the garment being made. - Colour - should match the garment as nearly as possible. - Weight - buy correct weight for purpose. Heavy zips cause sagging. (b) Points a consumer should look for before buying an item: (1x5 = 5 mks) - Should do window shopping to compare prices in different shops. - Should ship for quality - a good quality product will last long. Reputation on item is good guide to quality. - Should look for features of a product. Buy one with useful features. - Should examine tag and label on an item to get information on use and care. - Should find out about quarantee. The more expensive an item is the more the coverage on quarantee one needs. - Find information on installation, delivery, servicing etc. (c) Factors which determine the cleaning frequency of a house: - The occupants of the house e.g. young children or adult. - Amount of dirt or dust getting into the house. - Conditions of the house e.g. cracked floors. - Available time for cleaning. - Cleaning equipment and material available. 24 ----- # (d) Four reasons for budgeting family income: (1 x 4 = 4 mks) - Helps a family to live within their income. - It promotes organized living and planning. - The family knows how the money is being spent and they are able to evaluate their financial situation. - Budgeting encourages sensible control of various expenses. - Budgeting helps a family to look at their income sources realistically. HOMESCIENCE V 1. You have brought a denim material to make a pair of shorts for your brother. What seam would you choose and why? (2mks) 2. The temperature of water is important in stain removal processes. Explain the effect of hot water in the following stains. (2mks) Blood Grease 3. Mention two hazards caused by water pollution. (2 mks) 4. List four materials used for interfacing. (2mks) 5. Explain the importance of using acidic substances in cooking bony beef meat. (2mks) 6. State four points to consider when buying fish (4mks) 7. State three reasons why a knot should not be used to start stitches. (3mks) 8. Explain two reasons why it is important to transfer pattern marking from paper pattern to fabric before cutting out. (2mks) 9. Give two advantages of flourescent lighting over filament bulb. (2mks) (a) what is advertising (2mks) (b) give three disadvantages of advertising (3 mks) 10. State two disadvantages of using a knitted articles (2mks) 11. Give three points on choice, use and care of pegs (4 mks) 12. State three points on care of brooms and brushes (3 mks) 13. Give two functions of fats in cake making. (2 mks 14. Three causes of sewing machine not feeding the fabric properly (2mks) SECTION B. 15. (a) Oil paints are commonly used as wall finish. Give three advantages of oil paints. (3mks) (b) Sufficient ventilation is important in a house. Give four points in support of the above statement. (4mks) (c) Suggest five steps to take to ensure that shoes last long (5mks) (d) Give four differences between soap and soapless detergents (4mks) (e) Explain how to dry clean a scarf. (4mks) 16. (a) Give three points in each case to consider when drawing up diets for (i) Aged (3mks) (ii) Vegetarians (3mks) (b) What causes the following faults in pastry making (i) Shrunken pastry (3mks) (ii) Too short and crumbly pastry (2mks) 25 ----- # (c) Give four basic rules in use and care of a refrigerator (4mks) (d) Discuss two factors which determine an individuals nutrient requirements. 17. (a) State four factors to consider when choosing an opening for a garment. (4mks) (b) Give two advantages and two disadvantages of man made fibres. (4mks) (c) Describe how to work an overlaid seam on the yoke of a silk blouse. (9mks) (d) What advice would you give to your friend who has narrow hips about choice of attire? (3mks) 18. (a)(i) Give four reasons as to why interlining is used in garment construction. (4mks) (ii) List four areas on an article where interlining is done (2mks) (b) Define the following cookery terms (i) Bake blind (2mks) (ii) Chopping (2mks) (iii) Glazing (2mks) State four steps in making a budget. (4mks) (d) Discuss three advantages of table setting (3mks) (e) What is meant by the term raising agent? (1mks) HOMESCIENCE V MARKING SCHEME 1. Suitable seam for a pair of shorts - Double stitched seam (1mk) **Reason ** Strong due to double stitching Flat hence comfortable Easy to launder (1mk) 2. Effects of hot water on the following stains - Blood hot water fixes the stain (1mk) - Grease Hot water emulsifies it (1mk) 3. Hazards of water pollution Kills marine life May cause poisoning Kill sea plants ( 2x 1mrk) 4. Interfacing materials Villene Organdie Staflex Calico Canvas 5. Use of acidic substance in cooking meat Acid changes collagen to gelatin thus softening the meat. ( 2x1=2mks) 6. Factors to consider when buying fish No unpleasant smell Red gills Bright and prominent eyes For shell fish the shell should be tightly closed (4x1=4mks) 26 ----- # 7. Why a knot should not be used to start stitches Can tear fabric Can undo and the stitch is destroyed Causes tiny lumps when fabric is pressed ( 3x1=3mks) 8. Reasons for transferring pattern marks Ensure right parts are joined together Ensure good fit/size i.e. stitching line is followed (2x1=2mks) 9. Advantages of fluorescent lighting Fluorescent is long lasting gives bright light consumes less energy (3x1=3mks) a. Meaning of advertising - Simple way of informing the public about goods and services available in the market. b. Disadvantages Appeals to emotions hence influences consumer psychologically The manufacturer will bear the cost of advertising can cause product of low quality to be preferred to that of high quality ( 3x1=3mks) 10. Disadvantages of knitted Articles Ladders Very Easily Bulges At Knees And Elbow Easily Pulls out of shape 11. Points on choice use and care of pegs Should be made of good quality material plastic or wood Ensure they are clean and dry before use Keep pegs in a clean container or bag. (4x1=4mks) Should be strong and well designed to hold clothes firmly on the line 12. Care of brooms and brushes Store With Head Between Two Nails Remove Fluffs After Use Shake Off And Dust Before Storage (3x1=3mks) 13. Functions of fats in cake making Shortens The Mixture Improves The Keeping Quality Helps In Aeration Improves Colour (2x1=2mks) 14. Causes of a sewing machine not feeding fabric properly Fabric Held Too Tightly Feed Dog May Be Covered Insufficient Pressure On The Pressure Foot Length Too Short SECTION B. 27 ----- # 15. (a) Advantages of oil paints Water repellent hence easily cleaned - Surface is smooth therefore dust does not settle on it. Oil paint is durable (3x1=3mks) (b) Prevent humidity Get Rid Of Surplus Heat From People And Machinery Remove Any Ordours Increase Free Circulation of air (4x1=4mks) (c) - Polish to preserve - Repair Immediately When Torn - Store On Shoe Rack Dry in a cool place Wear With socks to absorb perspiration (5x1=5mks) (d) Soapless detergents do not foam fast with hard water while soap does soaps are made from animal\vegetable fat while soapless are from chemicals soapless come in different strengths soapless forms lather in both warm and cold water (4x1=4mks) (e) Dry-cleaning a scarf Shake dust Put solvent in a container and immerse garment in it squeezing gently squeeze out and hang in open air leave solvent to settle and drain then store. ( 4mks ) 16. Factors to consider in drawing a diet for (i) Aged Balanced Easy to digest Less energy giving foods Food rich in minerals and vitamins Serve in small amounts (3x1=3mks) (ii) Vegetarians Balanced Well flavored - Varied to avoid monotony use vegetable fats and oils for preparing (3x1=3mks) (b) Shrunken pastry Insufficient relaxing Stretching during shaping stretching during rolling (3x1=3mk s) (ii) Short and crumbly pastry too much fat 28 ----- # too little water (2x1=2mks) (e) Basic rule in use and care of a refrigerator. Do not store hot food in the refrigerator, it lowers the temperatures Store food in covered containers or polythene papers to prevent dehydration Do not overload to allow free circulation of air Store meal size portions Place fridge in the coolest part of the kitchen Do not use sharp instruments to remove ice to prevent scratching the surface. (f) Three classes of beverages and give an example of each Stimulants Tea or coffee Nourishing milk Refreshing Fruit juices (e) Two factors which determine an individuals nutrient requirement (2x1=2marks) Age young children require more protein Climate cold areas more energy foods Body size State of health invalids and convalescents (stating mrk, explaining mrk) 17. (a) Factors to consider in choice of an opening (4x1=4mks) - Position of opening - Type of fabric - Type of fastening - Age of wearer - Purpose of opening (b) Advantages of man made fibers (2x1=2mks ) Durable Resistant to sunlight Thermoplastic (can be pleated) Smooth, Soft. Slippery Disadvantages (2x1=2mk s) Yarn spillage is common Poor absorbency Not resistant to abrasion Holds and generates static electricity (c) How to work overlaid seam, (11mk s) - Turn seam allowance on the F.L. of the overlay to the wrong side . - Press and hold with tacking - Place the overlay over the underlay with folding of overlay lying on the F.L. of the overlay. - Pin , tack and machine close to the fold on R.S. . Remove tacking 29 ----- # - Turn to the W.S. trim the raw edges to within hem of the fitting line. - Neaten raw edges using loop stitches . Press the completed seam (d) 3 pieces of advice you would give to your friend who has narrow hips on choice of clothes (3x1=3mks ) She should wear pleated skirts Wear over blouses Bulky fabrics are suitable to avoid tight fitting skirts 18. (i) Reasons for using interlining (4x1=4mks) - Gives added crease resistance - Increases life to garment - Adds warmth - Adds firmness to a complete silhouette (ii) - Areas ( x 4mks) - Pockets - Collar - Hems - Cuffs - Waistband (b) Cookery terms (i) Bake blind refers to the baking of pastry without a filling (2mks) (ii) Chopping cutting finely especially of vegetables (2mks ) (iii) Glazing applying of egg white on an item before baking to give a good appearance (2mks ) (c) Steps in making a budget (4x1=4mks) - Establish family financial goal both present and future - Estimate income from all sources - List committed, fixed and unchangeable expenses - Total plan for expenditure and compare with estimated income (d) Advantages of table setting (3x1=3mks) - Makes the act of eating easier - It increases the diners appetite as items are smartly presented - It gives order during meal times (e) Raising agent is any substance which when added to a flour mixture provides a gas which expands upon heating, raising the mixture. (1mrk) HOMESCIENCE VI SECTION A 1. State three points on choice, use and care of a charcoal iron (3 mks) 2. List three disadvantages of using hard water in the home (3mks) 3. (a) Define the term accessories (1 mk) 30 ----- # 4. List two examples of accessories that are both functional and decorative (1 mk) 5. State four uses of milk in cookery (2 mks) 6. Give four points to consider when buying fabric for soft furnishing (4 mks) 7. Write four points to consider when planning meals for the family (4 mks) 8. State three reasons for using interlining on garments (3 mks) (a) Define glare (1 mk) (b) Give three attributes of good artificial light (3 mks) 9. State four factors to consider when buying a house (2 mks) 10. Heavy close texture is a common fault in creamed cakes. State three causes for the above (3 mks) 11. Give three qualities of a good dust bin (1 mks) 12. State three rules of sewing on buttons (1 mks) 13. Give three advantages of sponging in laundry work (3 mks) 14. Give two causes of fabric puckering during sewing (2 mks) 15. Suggest three reasons for using fullness in garment construction (1 mks) 16. State three points to bear in mind when choosing flowers for flower arrangement (3 mks) 17. State three changes that occur in meat during roasting (3mks) 18. State the importance of play in the life of a young child (3 mks) 19. Budgeting for ones income is very important. List three factors to consider when making a budget (1 mks) SECTION B. 20. (i) Explain briefly why the following processes are done in laundry work (ii) Starching (2 mks) (iii)Boiling (2 mks) (iv) Dampening (2 mks) (v) State four advantages of using carpets as floor covering materials (4 mks) (vi) Discuss five factors to consider in choice of a washing machine (10mks) 21. ( a) Osteomalacia is a common disorder among women of child-bearing age. Give four symptoms of the above disorder (4 mks) (b). Discuss five uses of fruits in cookery (4 mks) (c). Discuss five points to consider when preparing meals for children (5 mks) 22 (a)Mention five properties which make synthetic fabrics suitable for household articles (5mks) (b) Give clear instructions on how to work darts (7 mks) 23.(a)French seam is a popular seam in children articles. Explain clearly how to work the seam (8 mks) (b). State and explain four general rules to observe when removing stains (4 mks) . Discuss two advantages and disadvantages of advertising (4 mks) (d). Define the following terms used in cookery (a) Raising agent (2 mks) (b) Braising (2 mks) HOMESCIENCE VI MARKING SCHEME 31 ----- # 1. Three points on choice, use and care of charcoal iron - Firmly fixed screws - Comfortable handle and sufficient pressure - Close iron well and clean sole before using - Empty after use - Store in cool, dry place (1 X 3 = 3 mks) 2. - Wastes soap during washing - Forms scum with soap when rinsing hence discolours clothes - Can cause blockage in pities - Discolours kettles and boilers (1 X 3 = 3 mks) 3. a) Assessories are small things worn or carried as part of ones dressing (1 mk) (b) Ring, watches, hair clips ( X 1 = 1 mk) 4. - Sauces e.g. custard sauce - Bulters - Beverages tea, milkshake - Puddings - For enriching e.g. mashed potatoes ( X 4 = 2 mks) 5. - Colour must be fast - Fabric should be shrink resistant - Should be crease resistant - Colour blends well with rest of dcor - Easy to launder - Durable (1 X 4 = 4 mks) 6. - Should be balanced - Individual requirements - Food in season - Money available - Climate - Time available - Fuel - Facilities available (1 X 4 = 4 mks) 7. - Give added crease resistance - Prevent stretching or sagging - Increase life of garment - Add warmth - Add firmness to a complete suhoule (1 X 3 = 3 mks) 32 ----- # 8.(a)- Glare is any brightness within the field of vision which causes the eye to strain (1 mk) (b) - Does not cast shadows - Not cause glare - Not waver or fricker - Does not discharge impurities in the air (1 X 3 = 3 mks) 9. - Buying a house - Cost. Should be within - Value of house. Seek professional advice to determine worth - Location of house - Construction - Orientation - Reliability of seller - Family requirements ( X 4 = 2 mks) 10. - Insufficient creaming - Too much liquid - Too slow an oven - Too hot oven - Insufficient cooking (1 x 3 = 3 mks) 11. - Made of strong leak proof material - Well fitting lid - Large enough ( x 3 = 1 mks) 12. - All flat buttons must be sewn leaving a shank - Buttons should be sewn on double fabric - Buttons with a stem do not need a shank - Should be firmly fixed - Accurately positioned - Place right side upright ( x 3 = 1 Mks) 13. - Solutions are simple to make at home - Saves money and time since it reduces on commercial dry cleaning - Reduces risk of colour loss or shape (1 x 3 = 3 mks) 14. - Needle too coarse for fabric - Stitches too long incase of fine fabric (1 x 2 = 2 mks) 15. - Using fullness - Provide fashion feature 33 ----- # - Shape the garment - Give a good fit (1 x 3 = 3 mks) 16. - Make sure follage is clean - Choose fresh flowers - Use a mixture of flat and pointed flowers - Avoid using strong scented flowers Avoid cutting too many flowers in full bloom as they wither quickly (1 x 3 = 3 mks) 17. - The fat melts - Colour changes from red to brown - Soluble proteins coagulated resulting in meat being firmer - Elasting contracts causing meat to shrink (1 x 3 = 3 mks) 18. - Play helps a child to develop mentally e.g. building blocks - Helps a child to socialize with the others - Help in physical development e.g. climbing, running (1 x 3 = 3 mks) 19. - Amount of money available - Needs of the individual family members - Needs should be ranked in order of priority - Fixed expense should be listed down - Saving should be done ( x 3 = 1 Mks) SECTION B. 20.i. (a) Starching - Give articles a glossy appearance - Give a smooth surface which dirt does not adhere to - Stiffens (gives body) - Whitens articles (2 mks) (ii) Boiling - Whiten articles - Kills germs - Removes stubborn stains (2 mks) (iii) Dampening - Sprinkle warm water it spreads better - Helps in removal of creases (2 mks) iv. Advantages of carpet - They are warm - Deaden sound - Comfortable to the feet - Add to the colour scheme of the room 34 ----- # (1 x 4 = 4 mks) v. Five points in choice of a washing machine - Size of family or establishment to determine size to be bought - Space available for storage - Cost and maintenance - Consider control of the machine - Buy from reputable dealer - Should have instruction manual - Consider serviceability of the machine (2 x 5 = 10 mks) 21.(a) Symptoms of osteomalacia - Bone tenderness - Patients walk with legs wide apart appearing to waddle - Twitching of muscles - Spontaneous fracture may occur (1 x 4 = 4 mks) (b ) Uses of fruits - In jam making plum, pineapple - As a dessert fruit salad - For garnishing cakes - Making sauces apples - Making jelly - As a filling for a dessert pineapple upside down - Fruits in jelly (1 x 4 = 4 mks) c. Factors to consider in preparing meals for children - Well balanced - Easy to digest foods - Serve their food punctually - Present their food attractively - Breast milk is best for baby - Contains nutrients in their right amounts - Is at the right temperature for the baby - Contains antibodies - Free from contamination - Helps develop bond between mother and child (Well discussed 2 x 3 = 6 mks) 22.( a) Five properties which make synthetic popular - Smooth and have a luxurious appearance - They are resilient, creases hang out easily - Light in weight even if given bulk treatment hence suitable for air travel - Resistant to sunlight except for nylon - Not attacked by moth - Not absorbent hence dry quickly - Thermoplastic can be permanently pleated 35 ----- # (1 x 5 = 5 mks) (b) Working dart - Fold () fabric right sides () together matching stitching () line pins () and tack () - Starting from broad end () stitch () along the fitting line () until dart tapers to nothing in the fold () - Leave long threads () fasten by weaving or back stitch () - Remove tacking () press () dart towards correct direction () - Five general rules for making seams - Always stitch along the grain for good hang - Match all balance marks and fitting lines before stitching - Tack firmly along fitting line - Stitch exactly on the fitting line - Conceal all raw edges or strengthened by protective stitching - All seams must be inconspicuous as possible - Should be fine Sharp Stainless Eye should be smoothly finished Easy to thread Assorted (1 x 3 = 3 mks) 23.(a) Working French seam - Place two pieces of material W.S () together with notches and fitting line matching () - Pin () and tack () on the F.L line ( ) machine () above the fitting line - Remove tacking () trim turning () to less than the finished width of the seam press () open () - Turn so that the R.S. () of material is inside and crease along the stitching line pin () tack () machine () on the F.L - Remove tacking () press the seam () to one side of garment (8 mks) (b) General rules on stain removal - Remove when fresh as they become fixed with time - Use less harmful method first for unknown stains - Use correct agents for stains clearly identified - Stains removing agents must be in solution when used on coloured fabrics - Wash garment thoroughly after stain removal - If agent is suspected to be too strong for fabric try it first on hidden parts of the garment - Study the general appearance of the stain first (Any other 1 X4 = 4 mks) (c) Advantages of advertising - Informs consumers about goods and services - Consumers can choose what they want 36 ----- # - Advertising increases demand for a product - Competition among manufacturers is increased leading to quality goods (1 x 2 = 2 mks) ***Disadvantages*** - Gives false information to the consumers - Increases cost of goods - Can make goods of low quality to be preferred to those of low quality (1 x 2 = 2 mks) (d). (a) Raising Agent - Any agent which when added to flour mixtures produces a gas which expands upon heating raising the mixture (2 mks) (b) Braising - Methods of cooking food especially meat and poultry on a bed of fried root vegetables known as the mire poix (2 mks) 37 ----- |
**INTRODUCTION TO CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION**<br><br>**THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING CRE** **Definition of Christian Religious Education (CRE)** Christian Religious Education is the study of Gods revelation to human beings through scriptures, the persons of Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. Why do schools study CRE? There are many reasons why schools study CRE. Some of the reasons are to: a) Enable you to develop a personal relationship with God. a) Help you to acquire basic principles of Christian living. b) Help you to develop a sense of self-respect and respect for others. c) Help you to develop positive attitudes and values, which help you to cope with challenges of life. d) Contribute to the moral and spiritual development of students. e) Help you to contribute positively to the transformation of an individual and the society as whole. f) Help you to identify answers to situations of life, including death and Eternal life. g) Help learners to identify answers to lifes questions. h) Promotes international consciousness. i) Help you to understand yourself. j) Promote cultural integration. k) Enable you to acquire a better understanding of God. l) Unite people. m) Guide you in choosing a career n) Help you to appreciate African religious heritage and other religions. **THE BIBLE** The Bible is the sacred book containing Gods revelation to people. It is the inspired word of God. It is the book through which God communi- cates with His people. **The Bible as the word of God** The Bible is the word of God because: a) The written scripture contain Gods word. b) Through the Bible God communicates his will to humans. c) It contains word written by inspired authors such as the prophets who were sent by God. d) God himself took part in the writing of the Bible. E.g. God is believed to have written the Ten Commandments e) It contains the history of salvation realized through Jesus Christ. f) The Word gives revelation to mysteries. g) The Bible contains a message of hope and reconciliation. h) It reveals that God controlled what was being written and what He inte- nded the writers to pass to the people. **The Bible as a library** The Bible is referred to as a library since it is a collection of inspired scri- ptures or books. The Bible contains 66 books. The Bible is divided into the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament contains 39 books while the New Testament contains 27 books. However, the Ro- man Catholic Church accepts 7 additional books referred to as Apocrypha or Deutero or canonical books. The word Apocrypha means hidden or secret. They are Esdras (1, 2), Tobit, Judith, Ecclesiaticus, Baarch and Maccabees. **Why the Bible is a library** Several studies show that: a) The Bible contains (66) book just like a library has many books. The Bible is a collection of books arranged in series. b) The Bible is a reference book for Christians. The authors of the Bible had a special spiritual guidance; hence each book was written for a pur- pose. c) The books were written at different times in history. d) The Bible has literary works. e) The Books written contain different topics. f) The Bible has different books written by different authors. g) The books of the Bible were written under different situations and cir- cumstances. **THE BIBLE: MAJOR DIVISIONS AND ITS BOOKS** **Major divisions of the Bible** The bible is divided into two major divisions. These are the Old Testame- nt with (39 Books) and the New Testament with (27 Books). The word Testament means covenant or agreement with God. The Old Testament books are divided into: a. Books of the law or the Pentateuch or Torah. b. Historical books. c. Poetic Books d. Prophetic books. **Law books or the Pentateuch or Torah** The books of law are (i) Genesis (ii) Exodus (iii) Leviticus (iv) Numbers (v) Deuteronomy. Moses wrote these books. They contain the law of God as it was given to the people of Israel through Moses. They also contain the history of the Israelites from creation to the time they entered the Promised Land. The author Moses is regarded as a lawgiver, teacher and prophet. **Historical books** There are the 12 consecutive books from (i) Joshua (ii) Judges (iii) Ruth (iv) 1, 2 Samuel (v) 1, 2 Kings (vi)1, 2 Chronicles (vii) Ezra (viii) Nehemiah (ix) Esther. These 12 books record the history of the Israelites. They also contain information about the life and achievements of some prophets, for example, the life history of Elisha and Elijah. **Exercise 1 Go through the 12 books and check page by page the** **names of other prophets.** **Poetic Books** The books are poetic in nature. The poetic books contain wise sayings, songs, and prayers. The poetic books are (1) Psalms which was written by David (ii) Proverbs (iii) Ecclesiastes (iv) Song of Solomon written by Solomon and (v) Job. **Prophetic books** These are divided into major and minor prophets. A prophet is a messe- nger of God, or Gods spokesperson. A prophet is a mouthpiece of God. Prophets pass information and messages from God to the people. They are messengers from God. Their messages from God concern the future. **Five Major Prophetic Books** I. The major prophetic books are by (i) Isaiah (ii) Jeremiah (iii) Lamentations (iv) Ezekiel and (v) Daniel. The books are named after the prophets who prophesied and probably wrote them. Jeremiah wrote lamentations. These prophets are called Major Prophets because they cover a longer period of time. Their prophe- cies are long, and they prophesied over a long period of time. Minor Prophets. There are 12 books of (1) Hosea (2 Joel (3) Amos (4) Obadiah (5) Jonah (6) Micah (7) Nahum (8) Habakkuk (9) Zephaniah (10) Haggai (11) Zechariah and (12) Malachi. These <br><br>II. **New Testament books are:** a. Biographical books or Gospels. b. Historical books (Acts of the Apostles). c. The Epistles. d. Apocalyptic or Prophetic book **a) Biographical book or Gospels** **Gospel**means**Good News**. The disciples of Jesus wrote the biographical books. They contain information about the birth, life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The biographical books are four. (i) Mathew Written by Mathew (ii) Mark Written by Mark (iii) Luke Written by Luke, the doctor and (iv) John written by John (the beloved disciple of Jesus Christ) **b) Historical books** There is one historical book, which is the Acts of the Apostles. Luke, the writer of the St. Lukes Gospel, wrote it. The book of Acts tells us the history of the early church. **c) The Epistles** There are two Epistles: Pauline Epistles and General Epistles. Pauline Epistles are letters written by Paul. They are 13 letters that Paul wrote to (1) Romans (2,3) 1, 2 Corinthians (4) Galatians (5) Ephesians (6) Philip- pines (7) Colossians (8, 9) 1, 2 Thessalonians (10, 11) 1, 2 Timothy (12) Titus and (13) Philemon. General Epistles are letters written to the church by other people. The letters are 8 in number. They (1) Hebrews (2) James (3,4) 1, 2 Peter (5,6,7) 1, 2, 3, John and (8) Jude **d) Apocalyptic or Prophetic book** This is the book of Revelation. It is the last book in the New Testament. It is different from other books. This is because it is prophetic of things to come. It is about the future. It was written by John the beloved disciple of Jesus Christ. **MAJOR BIBLE TRANSLATIONS FROM THE ORIGINAL LAN-** **GUAGES TO LOCAL LANGUAGES** These books of the Bible are accepted as the Canon of the Bible. The term Canon means Standard or guidance or rule. Translation means expression of books by words and pictures, poems and songs from one language to another. The Old Testament was originally written in Hebrew, the langua- ge of the Israelites. Then between 250 100 BC, it was translated to the Greek language. The Greek translation of the Bible was known as Septua- gint. This term refers to 70 translators. The Jews in dispersion or Diaspora used this translation. These were the Jews living outside Palestine. Between 386 420 A.D. Jerome, a great Christian Scholar, translated the entire bible from Greek into Latin, the language of the Romans. This tran- slation was called Vulgate. Christians used the Latin translation of the Bible up to the 16th century. During the reformation in the 16th Century, Christians were encouraged to use their own native languages in worship. From that time, the Bible was translated into English and German. As Christianity spread to different parts of the world, there was the need for translations of the Holy Bible into various languages. In 1804, the British formed the Foreign Bible Society, which translated the Bible into many languages. Johann Ludwig Krapf translated the New Testament into Kiswahili. This was the first Bible translation in East Africa. Since that time, the Bible Society of Kenya has translated the Bible into other languages such as Kikuyu in 1951, Kikamba in 1956, Kimeru in 1964, Kalenjin in 1968, and Luhya in 1974. By 1980 the Bible had been translated into 29 Kenyan languages. To date (2010) the Bible has been translated into 42 languages of Kenya. **Translation and versions used in Kenya today** Besides bible translation into several languages, there are many English translation versions, which are commonly used in Kenya. These are (i) King James Version (ii) Jerusalem Bible (iii) New International version (iv) English Bible (v) The Authorized Version (vi) Good News (vii) Revised Standard Version (viii) New King James Version (ix) Amplified Bible (x) The living Bible (xi) The African Bible (xii) Common Bible (xiii) Todays English Bible (xiv) American version among others. **Writing of the Bible** By 2010, the Bible Society of Kenya had translated the Bible into 42 Kenyan languages. The need to read the Bible led to writing of Bible reading materials to teach literacy in local languages. Those who wrote the Bible used different styles, and figures of speech to make their message vivid and clear. Several literary forms were used in the writing of the Bible. These are: **a. Poetry in Psalms** **Activity** **a) Read Psalms and notice the poetry used by David when he wrote** **psalms** **b) Read Job. Notice the rhythm of the words** **c) Turn to your English textbook the Integrated English. Read topic** **4 on sound and pattern in poetry.** **d) Read any Psalm and any verse from Job. What do you notice?** **Other literary forms that are used in the Bible are:** i) Prose in Leviticus, which is a Legislative text ii) Wise sayings in Proverbs iii) Prophetic speeches by Jeremiah iv) Prayers by Nehemiah v) Love Songs, for example, the Songs of Solomon vi) Letters. Here see Pauline Epistles (Romans) vii) Gospels, for example, Marks Gospel viii) Religious events, for example, Exodus ix) Narratives, for example, Genesis x) Philosophical essays, for example, the book of Job. Here note the use of metaphors and similes in philosophical essays. **The effects of Bible translations on African languages** **Bible translations:** i) Increased and deepened African faith in God. ii) Led to increased literacy. After Africans acquired literacy skills, they read the Bible and improved their literacy skills. Christian missionaries established schools in order to teach literacy that helped African to read the Bible. ii) Made it easy for missionaries to spread the gospel to the African communities. iii) Increased the demand for the Bible. This led to writing of Books and setting up of printing presses in African countries. iv) Made it easy for the expansion of the church i.e. more people became Christians. v) Led to the emergence of independent churches and schools. vi) The missionaries and colonialists learnt the African languages. vii) The African converts realized that the missionaries were unfair to them. There was for example a different treatment of African by White missionaries. This was inequality of races, which was and is even now against Christian teachings. viii) Helped Africans to re-discover their cultural identity. For example the use of African instruments, dressings, and practice of polygamy, which David and other kings in the Old Testament did. ix) Led to the writings and spread of African languages. The missionaries learnt local languages. x) Improved communications between missionaries and the local people because they could understand each other. xi) Increased printing of reading materials **The effects of Bible translations on Africans communities** After the first Bible translations, there were immediate effects or influences on some communities. For example, some community leaders did not agree with the Christian teachings. Some wanted to retain aspects of their African religion. As a result, some communities who disagreed with Bible translations established their own Christian denominations in order to preach the Bible, as they understood it. This was the emergence of independent churches. Some African communities built independent schools where their children could learn how to read and write without being forced to practice all the Christian teachings. **Review questions** 1) What is the importance of reading the Bible? 2) How is the Bible used in society today? 3) How does the Kenya Government use the Bible today? 4) Name the major divisions of the Bible in both the New Testament and the Old Testament 5) What are the effects of Bible translation on African languages? 6) Why is the Bible referred to as (a) a Library and (b) the Word of God 7) What is the meaning of the term inspiration? **Study activities** 1. Read the Bible quotations given above. 2. Carry out role plays e.g. the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham. **CREATION AND THE FALL OF MAN (GENESIS 1-3, 6-9, 11)** **INTRODUCTION** In this topic, you shall learn about creation and the fall of man. This information is in Genesis. **BIBLICAL ACCOUNTS OF CREATION AND THEIR MEANINGS** The book of Genesis begins with two creation stories. The first creation story is in Genesis chapter one. The second creation story is in Genesis chapter two. **The two creation stories** The first creation story is in Genesis chapter one. The second creation story is in Genesis chapter two. This story is like a song or poem. Its written, Let there be and God saw that it was good to separate, and there was evening and morning on Each creation is taken as a day. The creation took place in the following order. It is orderly: 1st day God created day and night (Light and darkness) 2nd day The Heavens (sky) 3rd day The Earth, Water / Sea, Vegetation (Plants, trees, grass) 4th day Sun, Moon and Stars 5thday Birds, Sea Creatures 6th day Animals, Livestock, Man was the last creation (human beings) 7th day God rested and blessed the 7th day and made it holy. In this creation story, we see God creating things in an orderly manner, day after day until the 6th day. It was last in the first account. God created man from dust and breathed into his nostrils before anything else is mentioned. God then put man in the Garden of Eden, which He had made for him so that man could till and keep it. The garden was planted eastward in Eden. Out of the ground, God made every tree to grow. In the middle of the garden, there was the tree of knowledge of good and evil. Man was given the responsibility of tilling and conserving the garden. Man was commanded to eat of every tree in the garden except the tree of knowledge of good and evil. A river flowed from the garden and then it separated into four tributaries. God saw that man should not be alone hence He made him a helper/mate; a woman from one of the mans ribs. Man was also given the responsibility of naming all the animals in the garden. There is mention of God resting after work Mentions what was created on which day. Each creation takes a day. -This story is like a song or a poem. Its written, Let there be and God saw that it was good to separate, and there was evening and morning -It is orderly. <br><br>-doesnt mention the daily activities of GOD <br><br>-The story is in prose. For example and God said and it was evening... <br><br>-Not orderly was last in the first account -Doesnt mention what was created on which day -Mentions rivers, and garden for tilling -Woman was created from ribs of man -Mention of the knowledge -Marriage is for companionship -Sun, moon, stars, sky are not mentioned -Mention of resting after work but Sabbath day is not mentioned <br><br>-Mentions what was created on which day. -Rivers and garden are not me- ntioned. -Man and woman were created together. -No mention of the knowledge. -Marriage is for procreation. -Sun, moon, stars, sky are mentioned -God rested on the seventh day hence the Sabbath day b) God rested after creation. c) God provided the source of food. d) God is portrayed as the sole creator of the universe and everything in it. e) Man is given the responsibility of controlling animals, birds and plants that God created **Activity** Find out the differences between the two creation stories and write them down. Now compare them with my answer. **ATTRIBUTES OF GOD FROM THE BIBLICAL CREATION** **ACCOUNTS** The creation stories tell us that God is: (i) The sole creator and the only source of life (ii) Immortal and Eternal (iii) He is self existent (iv) God of order (v) Source of goodness and true happiness (vi) Holy, merciful and just (vii) Provider and sustainer of the universe and all that is in it (viii) All knowing (Omniscient) (ix) All powerful (Omnipotent) (x) Everywhere (Omnipresent) (xi) A personal God. (xii) He has a mind and a will (xiii) Moral God. He is interested in the behaviour of man and woman. He commands her/him to do the right things. **TRADITIONAL AFRICAN UNDERSTANDING OF CREATION** Traditional African view of creation is brought out through traditional stories of creation (Myths). The Agikuyu, Akamba, Gusii and other Kenyan communities have stories explaining their origin. These stories give each community a sense of belonging, and identity. The stories explain the mysteries of life. These stories have common characteristics or teachings. Thus all African communities believe that God: - (i) Is the chief architect of the world (ii) Existed from the very beginning of time. (iii) Created everything out of nothing. (iv) Provides for the needs of human beings. (v) Was disobeyed by human beings who had lived in eternal bliss. This bliss came to an end when human beings disobeyed God. (vi) The African communities had different names to describe God. God was not known as God but as the Creator of everything that existed on earth and skies. He was Mumbi and Mungai to Gikuyu. He was master of the universe. The Kamba called Him Ngai wa Matu. They believed that God continues to create through human beings. **Examples of African creation stories** 1. The Kamba believed that God created man and woman then tossed them to the earth. 2. The Bukusu say that God the creator (Were Khakaba) created the world alone. a. First God created heaven then created two assistants, Mukhaba and Murumwa. Were the God made the sun, moon, stars, a big red cock which crows whenever it thunders, the rains, the rainbow, mountains, rivers, lakes, streams and all the other things on earth. b. Created a woman for the man. c. Created plants, animals, birds and other creatures. **THE TEACHINGS FROM THE BIBLICAL CREATION** **ACCOUNTS** I. God is responsible for all creation. He is the sole creator. Gods creation was good. Everything He created God said it was good. It was without flaws and mistakes. God is the provider. God created everything that man needs. He also created food for all animals and other creatures. God is orderly. II. Man has a special place in Gods creation. Man was made as the keeper of God creation. Man is a co-creator and keeper of Gods creation since he was made in the image and likeness of God. Man was comma- nded to work. III. A woman was made from the mans flesh. She joins man in marriage and they become one flesh. God ordains marriage. Human beings were created to socialize. IV. Sin is a result of man and woman disobedience of God. **Responsibilities given to human beings by God in the Genesis stories** **of creation** After creating man and then woman, God asked man to: a. Reproduce and multiply. b. Rule over the rest of His creations. c. Be in charge of the fish, birds, and all the animals. d. Cultivate the garden and guard it. e. Eat from the fruits of the garden except from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. f. Name the animals. g. Subdue the earth h. Transform the creation that God has provided human beings with i. Use creation forests, rivers, mountains with responsibility and respect. j. Be a steward of Gods creation k. Engineer Gods creation by creating things from the creation l. Dominate the earth **Group work** Work in twos or threes and answer these questions. i. How does man fulfill the command to subdue and fill the earth? ii. How is man a co creator with God? **BIBLICAL TEACHING: THE FALL OF MAN, ORIGIN OF SIN** **AND THE CONSEQUENCES** **Introduction** Man and woman fell from the Garden of Eden. This experience is expla- ined in genesis chapter 3 verse 4; chapter 6 verse 9 and chapter 11. In these verses, the Bible is teaching about sin, which made Adam and Eve fall. Sin is defined as iniquity, and guilt. It is to miss a mark, to transgress. Sin is a rebellion or an offence against God. Sin originated with the disobedience of Adam and Eve. They had been commanded not to eat of the fruits of the tree of knowledge of good and evil the tree in the middle of the Garden of Eden. But Adam and Eve ate the fruit after being deceived by the serpent. Man had the power to resist temptation but instead he yielded. Genesis Chapter 3 verse 6 states that man wanted to be wise and thought how wonderful it would be to become wise hence sin arises from the lack of knowledge of God, from the denial of trust of God. **The consequences of sin** After sinning, we the human race and sinners: 1) Replaced friendship with God with fear of God. 2) Lost innocence. What had been innocent and good became shameful. Adam and Eve became ashamed of their nakedness, something they had never felt before they sinned against God. 3) Lost good relationship with God. The good relationship between God and man was betrayed. Human beings were alienated from God. The Lord God sent him out of the Garden of Eden 4) Damaged the perfect relationship between man and woman. The Lord said to the woman You will have desire for your husband, yet you will be subject to him. 5) Pain became part of human experience. I will greatly multiply your pain in child bearing. 6) Man began toiling and struggling to meet his needs You will have to work hard and sweat to make the soil produce anything 7) The home of man, and the earth itself was placed under a curse. Cursed is the ground because of you. Enmity between man and wild animals emerged. 9) Man began to die. Death sentence is passed upon all men. You will return to the ground you are dust 10) Man began to hate. Man developed murderous feelings in his heart, for example Cain killed Abel, his younger brother. 11) Man changed and became prone to sin. 12) Life span of man was reduced (see Gen. 6:3) I will not allow people to live forever, they will live no longer than 120 years 13) Mans language was confused by God after the flood (read Gen.11: 7) 14) Sin led to embarrassment, mistrust, suffering, pain, pride, arrogance and death. **Summary** Disobedience of God by Adam and Eve brought serious sin consequences to human beings. Sin brings sadness and suffering to man even today. **CONCEPT OF EVIL** **Introduction** In this lesson, we shall discuss the concept of evil as told by the traditi- onal African religion and the biblical writings. We shall study similarities and differences of evil from the two religions. **What is evil?** In the traditional African society, evil was an offence against God, spirits and ancestors. It was also viewed as an offence against another person or community. Evil was also a misfortune that can befall an individual or a community. **What are the causes of evil?** Many of the traditional African societies do not associate God with evil. God is not the creator of evil. Some communities believe that evil is an external power that exists on its own. Thus in the traditional African society, evil was understood or explained as something mysterious that was caused by several people and things. These were: a) Evil spirits b) Ancestral spirits due to disobedience to them c) Some animals like the chameleon are sources of evil. The Akamba believed that chameleons brought evil. Other communities believed that if an owl cries near ones homestead, it is a sign of evil. d) People with mystical powers for example magic, sorcery, and witchcraft are evils e) If a member of a community breaks a taboo by disobedience, this action may bring evil spirits. f) The spirits of the dead; cause evil; if they are not remembered or respected. Evil spirits cause harm and violence. **Consequences of evil in traditional African society** These were many and ranged from (a) Barrenness (b) Drought (c) Epidemics (d) Madness (e) Sickness (f) Death (g) Drowning (h) Burning in a house (i) War (j) Physically and mentally handicapped children (l) Rebellious children **GODS PLAN OF SALVATION** After the fall of man, God took steps to heal the damaged situation and relationship between Him and Adam and Eve. GOD: 1. Provided clothing of skin to Adam and Eve. 2. Looked for Adam and Eve since they were hiding from His presence. 3. Provided Adam and Eve with the knowledge to find different foods. 4. Declared enmity between man and the snake. 5. Hinted at the ultimate victory of man when He said that the seed of the woman would crush the snake or serpents head. The serpent would attack the heel of man and woman. All through the Old Testament, and the New Testament, we see Gods plan of salvation being manifested. For instance, GOD chose and separated Abraham from other communities. The children of Israel led by Moses (were delivered) from Egypt,. God sent prophets to teach and warn the Israelites of the dangers of sin. Finally God sent his only son Jesus Christ to die on the cross to save human kind. **SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TRADITIONAL** **AFRICAN VIEW OF EVIL AND BIBLICAL CONCEPT OF SIN** **Similarities** Both the Biblical and traditional African view or agree that 1) God is supreme. God is neither the creator nor author of evil 2) Sin comes from the disobedience of God by human beings 3) Evil and misfortune are Gods curse to man (Biblical) while the traditional African society sees evil as curses by ancestors, and elders. Both curses lead to misfortunes. 4) The result of sin and evil is human sufferings 5) Sin and evil lead to man being separated from God 6) God is the guardian of law and order 7) Human beings have the ability to overcome evil **Differences** 1) Biblical account emphasizes personal nature of sin while in the African concept; sin is more social and communal 2) Biblical account attributes evil to disobedience while African concept attributes evil not only to disobediences but other external forces. 3) Biblical accounts offer a message of hope to overcome evil while African concept doesnt offer a solution to sin and evil. 4) Traditional African concept all forms of suffering as a result of sin while in the Bible suffering is not always a result of sin. **Review questions** 1) Explain the differences between the two creation stories 2) State the traditional African view of creation 3) Explain how human beings continue with the work of creation 4) What is the origin of sin and evil according to traditional African society? 5) Give three consequences of sin as stated in Genesis 6) State the consequences of evil according to African traditional societies 7) Trace Gods plan of salvation of human kind Compare biblical and traditional African understanding of evil and sin. 9) What does the command Subdue the earth in Genesis 1 verse 28 mean? **FAITH AND GOD PROMISES TO ABRAHAM** **BACKGROUND TO THE CALL OF ABRAHAM (Genesis 11:24-32,** **12)** **Introduction** The background to the call of Abraham is found in the first book of the bible. This is Genesis which is a Greek word meaning Beginning. The relationship between Adam and God was good but after Adam disobeyed GOD, their relationship changed because of sin by Eve and Adam. After sometime, God repaired this relationship by calling Abraham and offering salvation. **Background** -Abraham lived with his father Terah at a place called Ur. Abrahams father lived among people who worshiped many gods. One of the gods whom people of Ur worshipped was the moon. This worship of many gods is referred to as polytheism. -The family of Terah moved from Ur to Haran. While at Haran, God called Abraham at 75 years old. He was told to. Leave your country, your relatives and your fathers home and go to a land that I am going to show you. Abraham obeyed Gods call. He left Haran for a land that was unknown to him. He took his property his wife Sarah and his nephew lot. At the time of the call of Abraham, he was known as Abram and his wife Sarai. God changed their names to Abraham and Sarah. Abraham means Father of many nations while Sarah means mother of nations. -On arrival in Canaan, he travelled and came to a place called Schechem. God appeared to him once more. Abraham built an altar for the lord at this place. Altars are places of worship. They were regarded as holy and were manifestations of Gods presence. An altar was made of stones. -After sometime, he separated with his nephew Lot due to their servants having strife over water for their livestock. Abraham left Canaan due to feminine. He went to Egypt. **FAITH AND GODS PROMISES TO ABRAHAM (HEBREWS 11: 1** ** 6)** **a. THE MEANING OF FAITH** -Faith is a strong belief, a complete trust or confidence in someone or something. It is also a firm belief, which is not based on any scientific or logical proof. Faith in God is an attitude of complete trust in God. It is not based on concrete or tangible objects. Faith is manifested in the ways of life of a believer. -Abraham is an example of someone who had faith in God. He showed his faith in action in several ways. **b. HOW ABRAHAM DEMONSTRATED HIS FAITH IN GOD** 1. Although Abraham was old, he left Haran to go to a strange unknown land of Canaan. 2. After he settled in Canaan, Abraham was assured by God of his protection and was given other promises such as he will get a son, and Abraham believed God. Sarah gave birth to a son when she was 90 years old and Abraham was around 120 years old. This was as the lord had promised Abraham. 3. The son was named Isaac that means laughter because Sarah had laughed when she was told that she would have a child in her old age. The child Isaac was circumcised when he was eight (8) days old. 4. Abraham was told by God to circumcise all males in his household including himself. He obeyed. 5. When Abraham was asked to sacrifice his son Isaac to God, he was ready to do so. 6. Abraham believed that God would fulfill all the promises he had given to him 7. Abraham demonstrated his faith by building altars **c. GODS PROMISES TO ABRAHAM (GENESIS 12:2-3, 15:1-21,** **21, 17:1-8, 17:15-18)** A promise is giving an assurance of something to someone. The promises God gave to Abraham were that: 1. God told him he would give him a land. His descendants would be given the land of Canaan to dwell in 2. His name would be made famous 3. His descendants will be many. Abraham would be made a great nation. 4. God would protect him 5. He was promised a son of their own 6. God would bless him 7. God would bless those who bless him and curse those who curse him 8. Abraham was promised that he would die in peace and in an old age 9. His descendants would be strangers in a foreign land but afterwards would come out with great possessions. **d. THE RELEVANCE OF THE PROMISES MADE BY GOD TO** **ABRAHAM TO CHRISTIANS TODAY (Gen. 12: 2 3, 15: 1 21,** **21:1 7, 17: 15 18)** God called Abraham from idol worship in the same way God continues to call people to serve him. 1) Through Abraham, God had a plan to restore the relationship between man and God 2) Christians receive the promises of blessings from God through Abraham (Gods promises to Abraham fulfilled through Christians) 3) As Abraham left his own people, Christians should leave their sinful lives and put their whole trust in God. 4) Abraham is seen as the descendant not only of the Israelites but also of Christians 5) Christians have faith that God fulfils promises to them as he did to Abraham 6) Christians are assured of Gods protection 7) Through Gods dealing with Abraham, God shows that he values a personal relationship with human kind. Through Jesus Christ Christians enter into an everlasting covenant with God. Just like Abraham entered into a covenant with God. 9) The promise to Abraham of Canaan Promised Land is to Christians the hope for new land heaven 10) God continues to make promises to those who believe him 11) Abraham is the ancestor (Father) of all believers) **e. DEFINE THE TERM COVENANT** **i. Definition.** A covenant is a solemn agreement between two persons or two groups of people. An agreement is between two separated parties. Its a pact, a treaty. When it is a covenant, it conveys a union or partnership. **ii. Characteristics / components of a covenant** There are components or features that must be in a covenant. A covenant must have a ceremony, sign, witnesses, promises/vows/oaths, obligations / consequences, and participants. A covenant establishes a sacrificial bond between the parties involved. There are obligations or rules by which the parties must abide by, adhere to and observe in order to keep the covenant. A covenant is an agreement and if it is broken, there are consequences for breaking it. In the Bible, there are many covenants. **iii. Examples of covenants in the Bible** 1. Adamic covenant Agreement between God and Adam 2. Noahlic Covenant Gods covenant with Noah where God promised to preserve life of man and not to destroy it with water. The sign of the covenant is the rainbow. In Gen 9 verse 3, GOD told Noah, Everything that lives and moves will be food for youJust as I gave you the green plants, I now give you everything. Verse 4 says, But you must not eat meat that has its lifeblood still in it 3. Abrahamic covenant Gods covenant with Abraham. He promised to fulfill promises He gave to Abraham. These promises were: (1) Increase numbers of descendant of Abraham. He will be father of many nations, (2) Be GOD of his descendants (3) Abraham will have a son an heir, (4) Given land of Canaan and other lands from the river of Egypt to River Euphrates, and all for heirs of Abraham (Gen. 15: 17 18) (5) Circum- cision of all males at 8 days after birth even none Israelites living in their land (6) Covenant with Isaac 4. Mosaic Covenant is a covenant between the Israelites and GOD. Moses led Israel to Mt. Sinai. God promised to be their God. Israelites were given the law written by GOD in tablets of stone, with law and commands I have written for. instruction. (Read exodus 23). 5. Davidic Covenant covenant between David and God God promised him that his dynasty would rule forever. 6. Messianic Covenant new covenant between Christians and God through Jesus Christ. **iv. Gods covenant with Abraham and its importance (Genesis 15:1-** **19)** The covenant was established after God appeared to Abraham in a vision. During the visitation of God, Abraham was 100 years old and Sarah 90 years. He was promised a son. Abraham wanted assurance from God. God told him to bring him the following items for sacrifice. **v. Items for sacrifice** The birds were not split. After it was dark, smoking fire and a flaming torch suddenly appeared <br><br>and passed between the pieces of animals. <br><br>Towards evening, Abraham fell into a deep sleep. While he slept the <br><br>Lord appeared to him and told him that: <br><br>His descendants will be strangers in a foreign land and be slaves for 400 <br><br>years. But they will come out of this land with a lot of wealth and God will punish the nation that will enslave Israelites. <br><br>He, Abraham will live up to a ripe age, and die in peace. Then the Lord <br><br>made a covenant with Abraham and promised to give him and his descendants the land of Canaan. God himself passed through the sacrifi- ces and bound himself to keep the promises. **f) IMPORTANCE OF THE COVENANT BETWEEN GOD AND** **ABRAHAM (GEN. 15: 1- 19)**<br><br>God bound himself in a personal relationship with a human being As God passed through the meat, he showed Abraham he would always <br><br>protect him. This passed on to the descendants of Abraham <br><br>This covenant between God and Abraham begins a lasting relationship <br><br>between God and all the nations of the earth. <br><br>Throughout this covenant God was initiating his plan of salvation for human kind <br><br>The promises made to Abraham were fulfilled in New Testament blood <br><br>of the lamb death of Jesus Christ <br><br>It emphasized the importance of faith followed by obedience that <br><br>Abraham shared. **g) COVENANTS IN MODERN LIFE AND THEIR IMPORTANCE** Modern covenants are (a) Marriage (b) Baptism (c) Oath of loyalty and (d) Ordination of clergy **Marriage ceremony:**In marriage, the bride, bridegroom and their fami- lies come together. When the two families come together a relationship is developed. They make an agreement and both sides are seriously involved in the ceremony, whether the marriage is civil or religious. During the marriage ceremony the couple makes vows/promises to each other, before a priest/ pastor and the congregation. Two officials witness these agree- ments. Rings are exchanged as a sign of a lasting relationship. A certifi- cate is given in some cases as a testimony (sign) of this agreement. There is eating and drinking. **Baptism:**In a Christian baptism, a covenant is entered into between the believer and God. The believer makes vows before God. The priest and the whole congregation witness this agreement. In some churches, a card is issued to the person who has been baptized as a sign of Christian mem- bership. The baptized can now take the Holy Communion, which is a Christian Ceremony. But when an infant is baptized, parents take the vows on behalf of the child. **Loyalty /oath**: Leaders in public service for example the president, ministers, Members of Parliament, and chief officers are sworn in before they take over their new responsibilities. They swear (take an oath) and promise to carry out their duties firmly and without fear or favour. **Ordination of the clergy**: Church leaders, nuns and priests take oaths and make vows to God and to the congregation in a ceremony attended by worshippers. **The importance of modern day covenants** They bind different groups They act as a security They strengthen relationships They unite people together They create loyalty They create peace, harmony and bring a sense of permanence **h) THE TESTING OF ABRAHAMS FAITH (GEN. 22: 1 18)** God tested Abrahams faith by asking him to go and sacrifice his only son Isaac. This was the son he loved so much. He was to travel to Mount Moniah. On reaching Mt. Moriah, he built an altar, and arranged wood on it. He tied up his son Isaac and placed him on the altar on top of the wood. He lifted a knife to kill him. But the Angel of the Lord called out to him from heaven. Abraham! Abraham! Do not lay a hand on the boyDo not do anything to him. Now I know you that you fear God, because you have not withheld from me your son, your only son (v 11-12). Abraham had obedient reverence for God became he did not keep back his only son from God. God provided a ram for sacrifice. He named the mountain the Lord provided God was pleased with Abraham and promised him blessings, many descendants victory, and protection. **Activity** Read Genesis 12:1 9, 15:1 6, 17:23 24, 21:1 7, 22:1-19 IMPORTANCE OF FAITH IN CHRISTIAN LIFE TODAY 1. A Christian today is acceptable to God through his faith in God through Jesus Christ. Without faith it is impossible to please God. 2. A Christian can only serve God if he has faith in him. Faith enables a Christian to serve God 3. Faith enables a Christian to accomplish what appears to be impossible 4. Through faith, Christians are able to trust God to fulfill his promises to them 5. Faith is the foundation of the Christians salvation 6. Faith in God gives a Christian the power to overcome all temptations. 8. Christians should expect to have their faith tested just like Abraham was. 9. Faith enables Christians to patiently wait on Gods promises 10. Christians through faith in God help the poor, make right decisions and are able to understand and know God better. **JEWISH AND AFRICAN PRACTICES OF CIRCUMCISION** **a. IMPORTANCE OF CIRCUMCISION TO ABRAHAM AND HIS** **DESCENDANTS (GEN. 17: 1 16)** The rite of circumcision was started by Abraham and has been practiced by the Jews up to the present times. **In the Old Testament**, it was important because: (i) Through circumcision: God assured Abraham that he would fulfill His promises to him. (ii) Circumcision was a sign that Abraham and his descendants had entered into a covenant with God. It was an outward sign of inner faith. (iii) Circumcision was a mark of identity for the Jews (iv) It was a sign of obedience to God (v) It was an acceptance of God as the only true God and their willingness to remain faithful to him **In the New Testament** (vi) Circumcision doesnt qualify one to be a child of God. One is accepted as a Christian without circumcision as long as they have faith in God. (vii) A true descendant of Abraham is the Christian who truly believes in God and lives according to His will regardless of colour, race or creed. **b. CIRCUMCISION IN AFRICAN COMMUNITIES** Circumcision is one of the rites of passage among the African people. It marks the transition from one stage to another. Many ethnic communities in Kenya still practice the rite of circumcision. During circumcision ceremonies, prayers are offered to God for the well being of the initiates (those who are being circumcised) and the prosperity of the whole community. Initiates learn secrets of their community and society. They are taught myths, origin, religious beliefs, and sex education. In some communities, initiates are given new names or ornaments to signify their new status. **c. JEWISH AND AFRICAN PRACTICES OF CIRCUMCISION** **Similarities** In both Jewish and African communities, circumcision: (a) is a mark of identity (b) provided a sense of belonging (c) was observed as a religious experience (d) was compulsory (e) was a tradition passed from one generation to another (f) is a time for shedding blood (g) was a time for offering prayers to God for the well being of the initiates (h) was a time for giving gifts (i) was a ceremony for initiation (j) was a time for giving the initiates names (k) took place in sacred places. **Differences** In Jewish community, i. Circumcision was a rite for boys while in African society it was for both boys and girls. But it was for boys in a few communities. ii. Boys were circumcised when aged 8 days while in the African society; it was between 15 to 25 years old. iii. Circumcision was for boys organ while in African societies several forms of initiation were done, for example, removal of teeth, and body piercing among others. iv. Circumcision was a command from God while for the African communities it was in obedience to customary law where ancestors were invoked to protect the initiates. **Among the African societies** v. Circumcision was a rite of passage from childhood to adulthood while for the Jews it was not. vi. The initiates were given specialized education while the Jews were not. vii. The initiates were grouped into age groups, and were secluded from the community while among the Jews it was not so. viii. The rite of circumcision according to seasons while the Jews once a child is born, they are circumcised on the 8th day. ix. After circumcision, the initiates were allowed to marry, enter a warrior group, own property but for the Jews the initiate was still a child. **Revision questions** 1.Explain why Abraham is referred to as the father of faith 2. Give five actions from the life of Abraham that shows his faith to God 3. List some of the promises God gave to Abraham 4. Compare and contrast the Jewish and traditional African practice of circumcision 5. What is the importance of faith to Christians? 6. State the elements of a covenant 7. Give examples of covenants in the bible and the modern society 8. Discuss the circumstances that led God to enter into a covenant relationship with Abraham. **SINAI COVENANT** **THE CALL OF MOSES** One day, Moses was looking after or tending the flock of Jethro his father-in-law. Jethro was a priest of Midian. When Moses came to mount Horeb, the mountain of God, the angel of the Lord appeared to him in flames of fire from within a bush. Moses saw that although the bush was on fire, it was not burning. Moses went over to the burning bush to look. God called him out within the bush Moses! Moses! He replied, Here I am. God then told Moses not to come closer and to take off his sandals for the place where he was standing was a holy ground. God introduced himself as the God of his father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob. God then said he had seen the misery and sufferings of the Israelites in Egypt. He had heard their cry. God had come down to rescue Israelites from the hand of Egyptians. God was to take them to their home, the land of the Canaanites, a land flowing with milk and honey. God told Moses that He was sending him to go to Pharaoh and bring out the Israelites, the people of God, from Egypt. Moses resisted the call. He asked God Who am I, that is should go to Pharaoh and bring the Israe- lites out of Egypt? God promised to be with him. God said to Moses Say to the Israelites the Lord. The God of their fathers, God of Abraham, God of Isaac and God of Jacob has sent me to you. Moses was told to assemble the elders of Israel and inform them that God was going to deliver them from Egypt. Moses was then to go to the king of Egypt with the elders. He was to tell the king the Lord, the God of the Hebrews has met with us. (EXODUS 3:1 22) **Gods sign to Moses** Moses was given several signs by God In case the people of Israel did not believe in him. a) First sign was his staff turning into a snake when he threw it down. When he touched the snakes tail it turned into his staff b) Second sign was God asked Moses to put his hand inside his cloak and it was as white as a snow leprous. He was asked to put it back into his cloak and it was restored. c) Moses further complained that he was a stammerer. God then appoi- nted Aaron, his brother, as his spokesman. **Reasons Moses gave against the call** 1. He felt unworthy of the call. 2. He wondered who he was to tell the Israelites that God had sent him 3. Moses said that he was a stammerer so he let God choose a spokesperson. Moses however heeded to the call and went back to Egypt together with his family. God promised to be with him and perform signs before Phara- oh. **What does the name Moses mean?** It means drawn out of water. **What did Moses learn about God from his Calling?** Moses learnt that: 1. God is caring, merciful and concerned about the welfare of his people Israelites. 2. God is transcendent he is beyond human understanding. He cannot be limited to time and space. 3. God chooses whomever he wills to carry out his plans. He chose Abraham an old man, a moon worshipper and now Moses, a murderer, a fugitive and a stammerer. 4. God expects total obedience and faith from those that He chooses 5. God is powerful, eternal and omnipresent 6. God is holy. 7. God is a God of history, which means He is concerned with His peoples welfare. 8. God is mysterious He manifested Himself in the burning bush that was not being consumed. **How did God prepare Moses to be the future leader of Israelites?** 1. His life was spared when he was rescued by Pharaohs daughter 2. He was nursed by his own mother who taught him about Yahweh and his own true identity 3. Life in the wilderness hardened him to be bold and to persevere hardships 4. He learnt to be patient, keen, and responsible as a shepherd 5. He acquired leadership skills while living at pharaohs palace 6. He learnt literacy and numeracy skills (Educational skills) at the palace. 7. He was not a stranger to Pharaoh hence he could approach him freely. **THE TEN PLAGUES EXODUS 7:14-11:10** During the call of Moses at Mount Sinai, God gave Moses a rod with which he could perform mighty signs before the Israelites and before Pharaoh. Aaron was to be his spokesman. Moses and Aaron gathered the Israelite elders and leaders to tell them what God had said to them. After Moses had performed the miracles that God had showed him; the Israelite leaders believed him. They then approached Pharaoh so that he may release the Israelites. However instead of releasing the Israelites, Pharaoh became crueler. He gave Israelites harder work. When Pharaoh refused to release Israelites, God instructed Moses to bring ten plagues upon Egypt. These plagues brought; great trouble and suffering to Israelites. **Ten plagues** **1) The plague of blood (Exodus 7: 14 25)** Moses and Aaron used the rod. They struck the waters of the river as God instructed them. All the water in the rivers, canals, and pools in Egypt turned into blood. All the fish died and there was no water to drink. This situation lasted for seven days. However Pharaohs heart was hardened. He did not release the Israelites. **2) The plague of frogs (Exodus 8:1 15)** God then sent Moses to tell Pharaoh that if he refused to release the Israelites the whole land would be covered with frogs. At the command of Moses, Aaron held out the rod of Moses and frogs covered the whole land. On seeing this, Pharaoh pleaded with Moses and Aaron to pray to the Lord to get rid of the frogs and he would release them. They prayed and all the frogs died. Pharaoh, however, changed his mind and refused to release the Israelites. **3) Plague of gnats (Exodus 8:16 19)** The lord instructed Moses to tell Aaron to strike the ground and Aaron did so and all the dust in Egypt turned into gnats or small flies that bites. The magicians of Egypt could perform the first two plagues. They could not bring the plague of gnats. Egyptians acknowledged that the presence of gnats or small flies that bites was Gods work. But even with this information, Pharaoh still refused to release the Israelites. **4) Plague of flies (Exodus 8:20 32)** The Lord warned Pharaoh through Moses once more. He was told that God would send swarms of flies to the Egyptian houses. The Israelites houses would be spared. Even after bringing the plague of flies, Pharaohs heart hardened even more **5) Death of cattle (Exodus 8:1 7)** A plague of disease befell the Egyptian cattle. Not a single Israelites animal died. Pharaoh was not moved; and he refused to let Jews go home. **6) Plague of boils (Exodus 9:8 12)** Moses threw ashes into the air as God had instructed. This produced boils, which became open sores on the skin of the Egyptians. Unmoved by the suffering of his people, Pharaoh still refused to let the Israelites leave. **7) Plague of hail (Exodus 9:13 35)** Moses raised his rod and there was a hailstorm with lighting and thunder. The people, animals and plants that were struck by the lightning died. Pharaoh then promised to let the Israelites go but as soon as Moses prayed for the hailstorm to stop, pharaoh hardened his heart and refused to let the Israelites leave. **8) Plague of Locusts (Exodus 19:1 20)** Locusts covered the whole land and ate all the crops in the fields. The locusts ate all that had not been destroyed by the hailstorm. When Moses prayed to God, for locusts to leave; Pharaoh hardened his heart and refu- sed to let the Israelites leave. **9) Plague of darkness (Exodus 10: 21 29)** God then instructed Moses to stretch out his hand to heaven. There was total darkness in Egypt for three days. But there was light where the Israe- lites they were living. Pharaoh remained unmoved and would not release the Israelites out of Egypt. **10) Death of Egyptian first-born males (Exodus 11: 1 31).** After the plague of darkness, God sent Moses once more to Pharaoh. He was told that this time even his family would be affected. The Lord would kill all the first-born Egyptian sons and first-born male animals at mid- night. This plague occurred during the night of Passover. Pharaoh was moved and allowed Israelites to leave Egypt. **What do the plagues tell us about Gods attributes?** GOD: 1. Empowers His people to perform miracles and to do His work 2. Is Almighty and more powerful than the Egyptian gods. 3. Is determined to fulfil His plans. 4. Is a God of justice. He protects the oppressed. 5. Gives everyone a chance to repent. Notice that each time Pharaoh promised to release the Israelites; God relieved the Egyptians from the plagues. 6. Fulfils His promises He had promised Abraham to deliver his descen- dants from foreign lands. 7. Expects total obedience and faith. 8. Communicates His will through natural events. 9. Is caring and loving. **PASSOVER (EXODUS 12:1-30, 19, 20, 34)** The tenth plague is called the Passover. It happened on the fourteenth day of the month. The Israelites were to offer one-year-old lamb per family. If a family was too small, they were to share the lamb with their neighbours. If a lamb was not available, a one-year-old goat could also be used. They were told to: 1. Slaughter the lamb/goat; smear some of the blood on the sides and tops of the door- frames of their houses. 2. Roast the meat and eat it with bitter herbs and unleavened bread (bread without yeast). If there were any leftovers they were to burn them with fire. 3. Eat in a hurry while fully dressed and having packed their belongings. They were told to borrow silver, clothings, jewellery, and gold from the Egyptians. 4. That on the same night, the angel of death would kill every first born both males and animals in the houses without blood. 5. The angel of death would pass over the houses with blood sparing them. The blood was a sign to indicate this is a house of Israelites. When the Lord sees the blood, He will pass over that house (V.13) 6. The Israelites were told to celebrate / commemorate from generation to generation the Passover as a festival to the Lord. 7. The Israelites were not allowed to come out of their houses on the night of Passover. 8. At midnight, the Lord struck down all firstborn in Egypt from Phara- ohs household to the firstborn of the prisoners and firstborn of livestock. 9. There was loud wailing over Egypt. Every house had someone dead. **Significance of items used during the Passover** 1) Roasted Meat this is the easiest method of preparing food since the Israelites were to leave in a short time. 2) Bitter herbs was a reminder of the suffering and hardships and slavery experienced in Egypt. 3) Eating while standing. Deliverance was near, hence the need to leave in a hurry. 4) Eating while fully dressed with their stuff at hand. This signified a quick deliverance; hence Israelites should be ready to leave Egypt at once. 5) Eating unleavened bread the bread was to be eaten and none left over hence there was no need to add yeast for preservation. 6) Collecting Jewellery God had promised Abraham that after slavery for four hundred and thirty years, his descendants shall be freed with great possessions. 7) Remaining indoors for security from death. Anyone outside was killed. Blood on doorposts a sign for deliverance. The angel of death would pass over doors with blood. **THE EXODUS** **Introduction** Exodus means movement of a large number of people. **Crossing the Red Sea** During the night of the Passover, Pharaoh summoned Moses and Aaron and told them to leave, to go and worship their Lord. All the Israelites, their flocks and herds were urged to leave in a hurry. Pharaoh took his chariot army and followed the Israelites and found them camped by the Red Sea. God led the Israelites over the desert towards the Red Sea. Moses took the body (bones) of Joseph, as Joseph had requested the Israelites to do. When God rescues you, you must carry my body with you from this place (Ex 13 vs. 19) During the day the Lord went in front of them in a pillar of cloud (angel of God) to show them the way, and during the night the lord went in front in a pillar of fire to give them light, so that they could travel night and day. This pillar of cloud led the Israelites by day and night. The Egyptian army followed Israelites and caught up with them by the Red Sea where they had camped. Moses asked the scared Israelites to move near the sea. God told Moses to lift up his stick, and hold it over the sea. The waters of the Red Sea divided and the Israelites crossed the sea on dry ground with walls of water on both sides. The angel of God, and the pillar of cloud (who had been in front of the army of Israel) moved behind the Israelites and provided light to them as they cross. The Egyptians army pursued Israelites. The pillar of cloud made it dark for Egyptians who could not see where they were going. Just before daylight, the Lord looked at the Egyptians from the pillar of cloud and fire and God threw the army of the Egyptians into confusion. Moses was asked by the Lord to stretch out his hand. He did so and waters returned to its normal level drowning Egyptian army and their horses. **God protected the Israelites during the Exodus by:** 1) Making them cross the red sea on dry ground. 2) Providing water in the wilderness. 3) Providing manna and quails. 4) Defeating Amalekites their enemies. 5) Protecting them from snakes and diseases in the wilderness. **Provision of water in the wilderness** Israelites travelled in the desert for three days without water. The water, which they found at Marah was bitter and could not be drunk. They called the place Marah meaning bitter. This made them complain. Moses prayed to the Lord. The Lord showed Moses a piece of wood. Moses threw it into the water and it became fit to drink. God continued providing Israelites with water. Again the Israelites lacked water and complained bitterly (Ex.17:1 9). God instructed Moses to strike a rock and water came out of it. Moses called that place Massah which means testing and Meribah meaning rebellion. This was because the Israelites quarreled and tested God. **Provision of manna and quails (EX 16:1 35)** As the Israelites were travelling through the desert, they ran out of food. They were hungry and complained to Moses. Their complaints displeased the Lord for they often told Moses they wished he had let them die in Egypt instead of dying in the wilderness. This showed that the Israelites did not trust God to provide for them. In the morning, they were given Manna, which is a Hebrew word for the type of bread given to Israelites by God. The bread looked like wafers or flakes and tasted like coriander seed. In the evening, GOD provided Israelites with quails meat. The provision of manna and quails (meat) lasted for 40 years. On the 6th day of each week, God gave them food for two days one for the 6th day and the other for the 7th day (Sabbath). **DEFEAT OF THE AMALEKITES (Exodus 17: 8 16)** **Challenges faced by the Israelites during the Exodus** During the Exodus, the Israelites faced the challenge of the Amalekites. These were desert Nomads who attacked the Israelites in the wilderness. When the Amalekite army came against Israelites, Moses ordered Joshua to gather men and fight. God promised to destroy the Amalekites forever. During the battle, Moses held up his rod. And each time he raised his hands with the rod, the Amalekites were defeated. When he brought his hands down, the Israe- lites were defeated. Because of this, Aaron and Hur supported Moses hands until the Amalekites were defeated. In the wilderness God protected the Israelites form snakebites. He also used a cloud to protect the Israelites from the scorching heat during the day. At night, the pillar of fire provided warmth to protect them from the harsh cold of the wilderness. **The importance of the exodus in the history of the Israelites** The exodus showed Israelites that: 1) God loves and tolerates His people. 2) God did not abandon the Israelites despite their lack of faith. 3) God gave the Israelites encouragement through his servant Moses. 4) It was the end of the oppression of Israelites in Egypt. 5) Moses was Gods chosen leader. **MAKING THE SINAI COVENANT (EXODUS 19: 24 1 ** **The Sinai covenant** **God and Israelites**. God had specific instructions on how the Israelites were to prepare to make the new covenant. Before making the covenant, God brought Israelites to the foot of Mt. Sinai and asked Moses to ask them if they were willing to make the covenant with HIM. GOD asked them to enter into a personal relationship as a community with HIM. The Israelites agreed to make a covenant. They agreed to obey all Gods com- m.ands. God then promised to make them; i His people ii. A kingdom of priests iii. A holy nation **God and Moses**. God wanted to confirm that Moses was His true pro- phet. He therefore told Moses that He would come in a thick cloud to meet Israelites. In preparation for Gods coming on Mt. Sinai the Israelites were to: I. Make themselves holy by washing their clothes (garments) II. Mark the boundaries on the foot of the mountain to prevent any person or animal from climbing the mountain. III. To abstain from sexual relations At Mt Sinai, God manifested His presence in the form of thunder, lightening, earthquake and a thick cloud of smoke that covered the whole mountain. In addition, there was a loud trumpet blast that made the people tremble. Moses climbed the mountain. God gave Moses the Ten Comma- ndments after sealing the covenant. **Sealing of the covenant**. The Lord told Moses Come up the mountain to me, you and Aaron, Nadab, Abibu and 70 of Israel leaders. At a distance bow down in worship, and come alone to me. A ceremony was then prepared to seal the covenant. This is how it was sealed: a. Moses built an altar at the foot of the mountain. b. He set up twelve stones, which represented the twelve tribes of Israel. c. He then sent young men to burn sacrifices to the Lord and sacrificed some cattle as fellowship offering and peace offerings to God (EX 24 vs. 5). d. Moses took half the blood of animals and poured it in bowls; and the other half he threw against the altar (vs. 6). He then took the book of the covenant, and read it aloud to the Israelites who responded by saying all that the Lord has spoken we will do; and we shall be obedient e. Moses then took the blood in the bowls and sprinkled it over the people; saying This is the blood that seals the covenant which the Lord made with you when he gave all these commands. **Theophany.**Gods presence manifested itself in several ways such as: The burning bush (during the call of Moses) Pillar of fire and a pillar of cloud Exodus story The mighty wind, earthquake, still small voice story of Elijah Thunder, lighting, smoking mountain Exodus of Israelites from the <br><br>wilderness These were physical manifestations of Gods presence. **BREAKING THE SINAI COVENANT (Exodus 32:1 35; 34:6 8)** Israelites dishonored their pledge to obey God upon sealing the covenant; Moses went back to talk to God in the mountain. He left Aaron in charge of Israelites affairs. He stayed in the mountain for forty days. The lord revealed His glory to Moses at Mt. Sinai and declared His character. The Lord the compassionate and glorious God, slow to anger and forgiving wickedness, rebellion and sin (Ex 34:6 The Israelites urged Aaron to make them gods that they could see. Aaron agreed. He melted the rings of gold and moulded a bull calf god. Israelites were happy and said this is our god who took us out of Egypt. They offered burnt offerings and peace offerings to it and indulged themselves in eating, drinking and sex. By accepting a bull calf as their god, the Israelites expected bull calf of gold to give them the same strength and fertility like the Egyptian gods. Through this act, they broke their covenant with God. When Moses came down from the mountain, he found Israelites worshipping the gold bull calf. He got annoyed. He threw down the stone tablets he was holding; on which the 10 commandments were written. Moses then took the golden calf, and burnt it into powder and mixed it with water. He then made those worshipping the calf to drink the mixture. Moses ordered those who had sinned to be killed. LESSON EIGHT: RENEWAL OF THE COVENANT (Exodus 34:1 14). Learning outcomes. After studying this lesson, describe conditions for the renewal of the covenant The renewal of the covenant came after Moses pleaded with God not to destroy the Israelites after they broke the covenant. God spared the Israelites. God agreed to renew the covenant with the Israelites. He gave them several conditions for its renewal. Conditions for the renewal of the covenant The Israelites were: a) To obey Gods commandments b) Not to make any treaty with those who lived in the land where they were going. c) To break down their altar, smash their sacred stones and cut down their Asherah (Idols). Not to worship any other god and not to make idols for worship. d) To keep the feast of unleavened bread (Passover). e) Not to marry people form other tribes. f) To rest on the Sabbath day. g) To sacrifice and offer their best produce and animals to God. God in turn promised to a) Bless them. Protect and preserve the Israelites. b) Make them prosper so much that the surrounding nations would enquire about their source of wealth and success. With these conditions, the covenant between God and the Israelites was renewed. From the making and renewal of the covenant, it is clear that: (i) God expected the Israelites to obey and have faith in Him (ii) God wanted a personal relationship with Israelites. (iii) God is the only one to be worshipped. (iv) God is powerful. LESSON NINE: WORSHIPING GOD IN THE WILDERNESS Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson a. Explain Gods purpose in delivering the Israelites from Egypt b. Describe features of worship a. Gods purpose in delivering the Israelites from Egypt was to worship and offer sacrifices to Him in the wilderness. He also intended to fulfil his promises to Abraham. b. Features of worshipping God in the wilderness. (i) The Israelites: Worshipped God through intermediaries. These were the priests who came from the tribe of Levi. (ii) The Israelites: Were guided in their worship and in daily living by the Ten Commandments and other ordinances (iii) The Ark of the Covenant was made in the wilderness. It was Gods dwelling place. It was a special box put into the tabernacle. A tabernacle was a portable tent. The ark symbolized the presence of God and the Israelites carried it wherever they went. (iv) Offerings of farm products or agricultural produce were given to God. These included among other farm products; vegetables, flour. Oil and fruits. (v) Other offerings to God were drinks, and incense. The offerings could be burnt, baked, boiled or roasted. (vi) There were several Sacrifices. They included: Burnt offerings (Holocaust) burning a whole animal completely Sin offering /atonement sacrifice offered when one had sinned and <br><br>wanted to have his sins forgiven. <br><br>Peace offering part of an animal was offered, while the people ate part <br><br>of the meat. Gift offering the best animal was given to God. It was offered as a <br><br>thanksgiving <br><br>Animals such as sheep, goats, bulls and birds were sacrificed to God. (vii) Festivals and feasts. Israelites observed several festivals and feasts. These included: <br><br>Feast of Passover and unleavened bread. Harvest festival feast of weeks or Pentecost. It marked the celebration <br><br>of the harvest of wheat. <br><br>Feast of gathering / shelters. It was celebrated during the season when <br><br>the Israelites gathered the fruits from the Orchards. <br><br>Feast of tabernacles that was celebrated to remember when the Israelites <br><br>dwelt in tents. <br><br>The Israelites kept the Sabbath day. They worshipped God through <br><br>singing, worship and dancing. LESSON TEN: THE TEN COMMANDMENTS (Exodus. 20: 1 17) Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, a. Recite the ten commandments b. Apply the ten commandments in your life c. Describe Israelites new understanding of the nature of God d. Explain to yourself and others the nature of God a. The Ten Commandments While on Mount Sinai, God gave Moses Ten Commandments written on a stone tablet. The first four commandments deal with relationship between man and God. God said: 1. You shall have no other gods but me. 2. You shall not make yourself a graven image. 3. You shall not mention Gods name in vain. 4. Remember the Sabbath day and keep it holy. The last six commandments give mans relationship with fellow human beings. God said: 5. Honor you father and mother that your days may be long on earth. 6. You shall not kill. 7. You shall not commit adultery. 8. You shall not steal. 9. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour. 10. You shall not covet your neighbors property. These are my thoughts. (1) Worshipping God (2) Being faithful to God (3) Resting (4) respecting parental authority (5) love humanity (6) Be faithful to your wife or husband (7) respect other peoples property (8) be truthful always (9) be satisfied with what God has given you. b. Israelites understand the nature of god The Israelites had a new and wider revelation about God. Besides GOD being a caring, loving, and a provider, they learnt that: a. God is a jealous God. He does not allow the worship of others gods. He alone should be worshipped. b. God does not condone evil. He punishes those who cause/engage in it. c. God values a personal relationship with his people. d. God wants people to live in harmony among them. e. God forgives those who repent. He is loving, merciful and compassionate f. God is a healer he healed Israelites in the wilderness when a snake attacked them g. God is a God of victory. He defeated the Amalekites, perizzites, and Hittites etc. h. God is faithful and can be depended upon. i. God is holy, slow to anger, powerful and just. j. God demands obedience to His commands. Revision questions a. What are the qualities of Moses as a leader? b (i). Describe the call of Moses (exodus 3:1-22) (ii). Why was Moses hesitant to Gods call? c (i). What is the significance of the items used for the Passover feast (similar to what is the meaning of the Passover meal) (ii). Compare the lords supper to the Passover feast d. Describe how the Sinai covenant was made e. Describe the circumstances that lead to the breaking of the Sinai covenant f. How was the broken covenant renewed? g. Describe how the Israelites worshipped God in the wilderness h. What is the relevance of the ten commandments? i. What did the Israelites learn about god in the wilderness? TOPIC FIVE: LEADERSHIP IN ISRAEL: DAVID AND SOLOMON Learning outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: a. Explain the reasons for and against kingship in Israel b. State king Sauls achievements, failures and lessons learnt from Saul. c. Explain the importance of David as King of Israel and ancestor of Jesus Christ. d. Describe the qualities of a good leader drawn from King Davids leadership e. State King Solomons achievements and failures f. Explain the importance of the temple in Israel. LESSON ONE: REASONS FOR AND AGAINST KINGSHIP IN ISRAEL Introduction Yahweh remained the God of Israel and the sovereign ruler of his people. Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a. Define leadership b. Name Israel judges in Canaan Leadership refers to the manner in which a communitys way of life is ruled or controlled. When Israelites settled in Canaan, Judges ruled them for the first 200 years. Some of the judges were (i) Othniel, (ii) Ehud (iii) Samson (iv) Deborah (v) Gideon (vi) Shamgar (vii). Samuel (viii). Barak Duties of judges a. Leading Israelites to war against their enemies b. Settling disputes among the people c. Acting as religious leaders and leading Israelites in worship d. Offering sacrifices on behalf of the people. e. Some of the judges acted as Gods prophets f. They anointed kings, for example Samuel anointed King David. Demands for a King in Israel After Israelites settled in Canaan, the Promised Land, they started demanding for an earthly king to rule over them. These demands for a king ruler were brought about by: i Samuels sons Joel and Abijah were corrupt and took bribes. The sons of Samuel, who were judges, lacked his good leadership qualities. ii The Israelites wanted a warrior king who could lead them to war against their enemies. iii The Israelites wanted to be like the other nations around them who had kings. iv The Israelites wanted a human leader whom they could see, approach, and talk to him face to face. v The Israelites wanted security, which could be provided by a stable political government ruled by law and order. vi They wanted a government that had a regular army, vii They also wanted an established law court system. Reasons against Kingship in Israel (Samuel 8:10 20) By demanding for a king, the Israelites were seen as rejecting Yahweh their unseen ruler. Two, there would be danger of hereditary kingship which would lead to oppression / dictatorship. God told Samuel to give Israelites strict warnings against Kingship by explaining how the king would treat them. A king would: - (a) Recruit Israelites sons forcefully into the army. (b) Grab peoples land. (c) Force people to pay taxes to the government (d) Turn people into slaves. (e) Introduce forced labour. (f) Force their daughters to work for his wives, sons, and for the royal house in general. The people of Israel were distinct from other nations. Asking for a king meant rejecting God as their unseen king. Further to this, Israel could become like other nations, which did not worship Yahweh. Then the covenant with God and the people of Israel would cease. LESSON TWO: ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES OF KING SAUL (Israel 13:8 14; 15:7 25) Learning outcomes. After reading about King Saul, you should a. State his achievements b. Identify his failures c. Suggest lesson we can learn from his failures Samuel was directed by God to choose and anoint Saul as the king of Israel. Saul was from the tribe of Benjamin. He became the first human king of the nation of Israel. He accomplished several things. Successes of King Saul 1) He was anointed by God; as king to rule the Israelites 2) He was chosen even though it was not Gods idea for a king over his people. 3) He was a great warrior. He led the Israelites to war and defeated their enemies Failures of King Saul 1) God told Saul through Samuel to destroy the Amalekites completely. Saul however disobeyed God. He spared the king and the fat livestock. He claimed to have spared the fat animals for sacrifice to God. Because of this disobedience, God rejected Saul as king. 2) The Israelites were faced with many enemies. The worst were the Philistines. It was a custom for the king of Israel to enquire from God whether to go to the battle or not. The priest/prophet gave permission to the king to go to war. When Saul was faced with the dilemma whether to fight or not, Samuel enquired from God. Saul did not wait for permission to go to war from Samuel the priest. He decided to bypass Samuel by offering a sacrifice to God before going to war. This action displeased God because it was not his work to offer sacrifice to God. It was the work of priests. 3) After God rejected Saul as the king of Israel, Samuel was guided by God to go to Bethlehem. He was asked to go to the home of Jesse who had eight (8) sons. In that home, God was to show Samuel the next king of Israel. Samuel would then anoint the chosen son of Jesse. Seven of Jesses sons were brought before Samuel one by one. God told Samuel that he had not chosen any of them. When David, a shepherd, was brought before Samuel God said to him this is the one anoint him! (1 Samuel 16:12). David was anointed (poured oil on) as the next king of Israel. However he had to wait until Saul died before he could take over kingship. 4) After Samuel anointed David to become the next king of Israel, Saul was jealous and plotted many times to kill him. David was employed to serve Saul. He played the harp, lyre wherever an evil spirit possessed Saul. 5) When Samuel died; the Philistines gathered to fight Israel. Saul was filled with terror. Saul enquired from God whether he should go to war, but did not get an answer. Saul disobeyed God by asking a medium (witch) to consult the dead for him. This act led to the death of Saul together with his son Jonathan in battle. 6) Saul was concerned with what people thought of him than pleasing God. He wanted to please people and not God. He was disobedient with God (1 Samuel 15:24) Lessons, which Christians can learn from King Sauls failures 1) Value of being patient. 2) Christian should obey God, follow His commands and not be afraid of people. 3) Christian should obey religious leaders placed over them by God. 4) Christian leaders should be humble 5) It is against the teachings of God, against the will of God to consult the spirits of the dead through mediums. 7) Without faith, it is impossible to please God. God desires sincere worship. 9) Political leaders should consult and listen to religious leaders. 10) Christians should not turn against their enemies or rivals. They should not plot to have them destroyed and killed. LESSON THREE: IMPORTANCE OF DAVID (1 Samuel 16: 1 23, 2 Samuel 6:1 15) Learning outcomes. After reading about King David, you should a. State his importance to God and the Israelites b. Analyse achievements and failures of King David c. Trace David lineage up to Jesus Christ d. Narrate fulfillment of the promises to David in the New Testament e. Give reasons why God rejected Davids offer to build him a temple David took over kingship of Israel though some people resisted his rule. At first he ruled the house of Judah. Later on the other tribes rallied behind him. Importance of King David David became king after the death of Saul. He ruled for over 40 years as king of Judah and Israel. Achievements of David 1) He was a brilliant military commander 2) He captured the old fortress of Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made it his capital city. 3) He removed the ark of covenant from the house of Abinadab in Shiloh and brought it to Jerusalem. 4) He expressed great faith in God. Through his faith in God, he was able to kill Goliath, the great Philistine warrior. 5) He was a skilled musician and composed marry psalms that were used and are still being used in temple and church worship. 6) David respected the prophets of God and always consulted them whenever he wanted to do anything. 7) He expanded the geographical boundaries of Israel through conquests. He was a great diplomat and established good political relations with the neighboring kings. 9) He was a shrewd administrator who chose wise elders and counselors to advice him. 10) God promised to establish an everlasting kingdom for David 11) David ruled over Israel, administering law and justice to all people. 12) He took a census of the Israelites and used the information to (a) recruit young men into military service and (2) decide on the policy of taxation. 13) David had remarkable leadership qualities. He was kind. He spared mephibosheth, Sauls grandson. 14) David was humble. He was ready to accept sins he had committed and repent e.g. he repented after committing adultery with Bathsheba. David as an ancestor of Jesus Christ (2 Samuel 1 29, LK 1:26 33) David intended to build a splendid temple for God in Jerusalem. He felt it was not fair for the Ark of the Covenant to continue dwelling in a tent while he himself lived in a magnificent palace. To achieve this goal, David consulted Nathan, the prophet on whether to build the temple. The prophet approved the idea. But that night, Nathan received a revelation form God that stated that David was not to build a house (temple) for God. Davids son would build the temple of God (2 Samuel 7:5 6). Prophet Nathan gave David Gods message to David. The message was that a) His son will build the temple b) God would give Davids descendants a place to settle c) God promised to raise up an heir from the house of David to sit on the throne d) God promised to make Davids name great or famous among all other leaders of the earth. Reasons why God rejected Davids offer to build him a temple Here are some of the reasons: a. David had been involved in a lot of wars with the Israelites enemies and had thus shed a lot of blood. b. God was a God of the people and could not be confined to a house. c. It was the will of God to establish the house of David (build David a house) rather than David builds a house for him (God). The human body is the temple of God. God dwells in the hearts of people. d. David had grown old. God wanted him to rest. e. God had planned that Davids son would build a house for him a place to house the Ark of the Covenant. King Solomon, Davids son built the temple and fulfilled Gods promises to David. Solomons rule was peaceful and prosperous. The New Testament is a fulfillment of Gods promises to David 1) The gospel writers tell us that Jesus was born in the family of David (Luke 1:26 27) 2) The angel of God during the annunciation of the birth of Jesus said that He will be like his ancestor David (Luke 1:32 33) 3) Jesus was born in Bethlehem which was also the birthplace of David (Luke 2:4) 4) Bartimaeus the blind man of Jericho hailed Jesus as the son of David 5) During his triumphal entry to Jerusalem, Jesus was hailed by the crowd as the messiah descended from David. 6) In his genealogy, saint Mathew says that Jesus was a descendant of David (Matt.1: 1) Failures of King David. Although David had many virtues: 1) He ordered Uriah to be placed at the battle forefront so that he can be killed. 2) Uriah was the husband of Bathsheba. David had committed adultery with her. 3) He took Bathsheba as his wife LESSON FOUR: LEADERSHIP OF KING DAVID Lesson outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should assess leadership qualities demonstrated by king David David showed 1) Courage and bravery. David was courageous and brave. Modern leaders should be ready to die with and for their subjects. 2) Gratitude thankful and grateful. David always thanked God for any success or favors he received. Good leaders should be thankful and grateful to God as well as to their fellow human beings. 3) Loyalty. David was loyal to God and to the Israelites. A good leader should be loyal, and never betray his people. 4) Justice. David administered justice to all his subjects without favoring anyone. No tribalism or nepotism. A leader should be fair to all (2 Samuel 8:15). 5) God fearing, having faith. David was God fearing. He expressed his total trust in God. Modern leaders need to emulate this quality. 6) Humility. A leader should be a humble person. Though David had been appointed as the king, he continued to serve Saul until Saul died. He accepted his failures and asked for forgiveness 7) Kind. David was a kind leader. Leaders should be kind. David spared the life of Saul twice yet Saul wanted to kill him. Wisdom. David was careful when choosing legal advisors to assist him in his rule. He was also wise. He reduced tribal jealousies by choosing Jerusalem; a neutral spot for administrative purposes. 9) Delegation a shrewd administrator. A good elder should be able to delegate duties. David delegated duties. He involved others in advising, and administering LESSON FIVE: ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES OF KING SOLOMON (1 KING 3 12) Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should: a. Analyse achievements of king Solomon b. State failures of king Solomon After David died, his son Solomon became the next king. Kingship in Israel was hereditary. Solomon was chosen by David to be his successor. He took over from David at a time of peace and security established by David. Achievements 1) He made Israel rich by establishing trade with other countries 2) He was a good trader and a successful merchant. He traded in copper, horses, timber, silver and gold. He established international trade with the neighboring countries. For example, he traded with Tyre in cedar and pine logs. 3) He established a well equipped large army for Israel 4) He was a builder. He built a magnificent temple for God in line with Gods promise to David. He also constructed other cities (Megiddo) and a palace for himself. 5) He is remembered for his amazing administrative skills. He had 550 officials in charge of labour force. 6) He was a diplomatic ruler. He established friendly ties with his neighbours. This ensured continued peace. For instance he married the daughters of the kings of Egypt, Moab, Eden and Sidon so as to establish strong ties with those nations. 7) He had great wisdom. He judged a difficult case between two women who were claiming ownership of the same child. He composed many wise sayings known as the proverbs of Solomon. He also composed songs like Song of Solomon and Song of Songs and poems in Ecclesiastes. 9) He dedicated the temple of God with great rejoicing. 10) He brought the Ark of the Covenant to the temple of Jerusalem. Failures of King Solomon 1) He married women from many foreign countries. These actions made Solomon break the Torah as Israelites were not supposed to marry foreigners. Through these marriages, idol worship started in Israel. This was because he allowed his wives to worship their gods, build temples and altars for them. This led to introduction of idolatry in Israel. 2) Solomon constructed his palace for 13 years. He then built Gods temple for 7 years. This showed that he probably loved himself more than God. 3) He killed his own half brother Adonija on suspicion that he could be a rival to the throne. 4) Solomon lived lavishly, and expensively. He thus burdened the Israelites with high taxes. 5) He used forced labour. This was the same as enslaving the Israelites. 6) He worshipped idols. Solomons heart was turned to such other gods as Ashtoreth / ashitarte goddess of Sidon and Molech the god of the Ammonites. This was breaking Gods commandments 7) He sold part of Israelite territory to the king of Tyre He used pagan skills when designing, decorating, and furnishing the temple. 9) He made treaties with other nations inspite of the fact that God had forbidden Israel from making treaties 10) He was extravagant. He used a lot of state wealth to entertain and please his many wives and concubines. Activity. Many husbands in Kenya practice polygamy. I want you to find out from your neighbours what are the advantages and disadvantages of polygamy. Then write a paper arguing either for polygamy or monogamy. LESSON SIX: IMPORTANCE OF THE TEMPLE IN ISRAEL Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a) Define a temple b) State the importance of the temple to Israelites. Definition of a temple This is a building dedicated to the worship of God. Solomon built the temple as a fulfillment of the promises that God gave to David, that his son would build a house for him. Importance and uses of a temple 1) It was a centre of worship. Prayers and sacrifices were offered to God from the temple. 2) It symbolized the presence of God among the Israelites. 3) The Ark of the Covenant was kept in the temple as a symbol of Gods presence among his people. 4) The temple acted as a symbol of unity in Israel. Every year all the Israelites had to go to Jerusalem to celebrate such feasts as the Passover, feast of tabernacles day of atonement. This led to the unity of the Israelites. 5) Dedication of children and purification were done in the temple. 6) It was a residence for the priest. 7) It was a business centre where people bought and sold animals needed for sacrifice. The temple acted as a school to the scribes, rabbis and others who studied and interpreted the Mosaic Law. 9) The temple also acted as the judicial court of Israel. Judges worked from the temple 10) It is where religious ceremonies like naming and circumcision of baby boys took place. 11) It was a house of prayer. Revision questions a. Explain the reasons against kingship in Israel 1 Sam 8: 10-20 b. Explain the importance of David as king of Israel c. How did Jesus fulfil the prophecies of prophet Nathan as a descendant of David? (i.e. areas where Jesus is mentioned as coming from David) d. What are the failures of king Solomon? e. Which leadership qualities can modern leaders learn from David? TOPIC SIX: LOYALTY TO GOD ELIJAH LESSON ONE: EFFECTS OF IDOLATRY IN ISRAEL Introduction After the death of Solomon, the kingdom of Israel split into two countries. the southern kingdom called Judah ruled by King Rehoboam and the Northern kingdom called Israel led by King Jeroboam. Other kings who ruled these two nations were King Abijah, King Asa of Judah, and king Nadab, Baasha, Elah, Zimri, Omri, and Ahab of Israel. During the time of Elijah king Ahab ruled Israel. Learning outcomes. After studying this lesson on idolatry, you should a. State factors that led to spread of idolatry in Israel b. Analyse religious schism between Judah and Israel c. Describe King Ahabs marriage to the Phoenician princess (Tyre) d. Explain the failure to completely destroy temples, and places of worship e. State effects of idolatry in Israel a. Factors that led to spread of idolatry in Israel When Israelites intermarried with other communities, they worshipped their gods. The Bible makes it clear that i There was a lot of influence by Canaanite religion ii There was division /schism of Israel into 2 kingdoms iii Ahabs married the Phoenician princess iv Israelites did not destroy all gods after settling in Canaan. Influence of the local Canaanite religion Idolatry is the worship of idols. An idol is an image representing a god made using precious materials such as gold, bronze, stone, and hardwood images kept in the places of worship. God had forbidden Israelites from bowing down to images and worshipping idols, intermarrying with non-Israelites, and making treaties. When Israelites settled in Canaan, they forgot Gods commandments. They intermarried and were greatly influenced by the local religion. Israelites changed from being pastoralist to farmers. They therefore worshipped Baal the god of rain, agricultural fertility, and storms. Israelites worshipped Baal, for rain for their crops. The Israelites were also attracted to the visible gods of Canaan as opposed to the invisible Yahweh. This is how idolatry spread in Israel. However some Israelites maintained worship of Yahweh only (monotheistic) while others worshipped Yahweh and Baal (syncretism). Characteristics of the Canaanite religion. Canaanite religion was: 1. Polytheistic. They worshipped many gods. The Israelites religion was monotheistic. They worshipped Yahweh and no other God. They abandoned their religion and worshipped many gods like Canaanite. This influenced the Israelites. 2. A nature religion. The gods were related with the forces of nature such as rain, sun, storms, drought, famine, wind, water and death. 3. Ensured continued fertility of land, people, animals 4. Based on many families of gods. There was a. EL Chief god who was their father, king, creator b. Asherah wife of El the goddess of motherhood and fertility c. Baal also referred to as Baal Hadad, son of El and Asherah the god of rain, agricultural fertility, storms d. Astarte wife of Baal -the goddess of war e. Anat sister of Baal the goddess of war and love f. Maat the goddess of love g. Mot most feared. The god of drought, famine and death 5. Free and temple of prostitution. Israelites turned to temple prostitution. Women who wanted to increase vitality of their husbands had sexual relations with the male priests in the Baal temples. 6. Had many places of worship. One could pray in the temple, under sacred trees, and on top of the hills among others. 7. Based on offerings and sacrifices of human beings. Exercise. State differences between Israel and Canaanite religion b. Religious schism between Judah and Israel Schism occurred among the Israelites because there were sharp differences within them. These differences were religious, political and social. After the death of Solomon, the nation of Israel was split. Rehoboam ruled one group while the other was ruled by Jeroboam. Because of this split, Jeroboam could not go to Jerusalem to worship in the temple. He thus set up other places of worship one at Bethel, and another at Dan. Jeroboam also set up images to represent Yahweh. Though he had no intention of Idol worship, it turned out to be so because he made his subjects to offer sacrifices to these golden calves, which he had designed as images representing Yahweh. He also built places of worship on hilltops like the Canaanites. He chose priests from other families in addition to the Levite Family. Furthermore, he organised religious festivals and feasts in the month of his choice. As it were, they coincided with the Canaanites calendars. He then burnt incense at the altar of idols. Jeroboam therefore started idol worship and gave room for idolatry. Kings who succeeded him followed this idol worship. c. King Ahabs marriage to the Phoenician/Tyre princess Ahab married Jezebel, the daughter of the King Ethbaal of Sidon (Tyre) to strengthen ties with Tyre/Phoenicia. Queen Jezebel was ambitious, and a strong follower of Baal religion. Ahab allowed her to bring her gods to Israel. She forced Israelites to worship Baal and not Yahweh. She imported 450 prophets of Baal and supported them using public treasury. Ahab built a temple to Baal In Samaria. He also put up an image of goddess Asherah. d. When Israelites settled in Canaan, they did not destroy temples, places of worship, idols, images that they found there. As a result Canaanites religious practices influenced Israelites worship of Yahweh leading to idolatry. The effects of idolatry harmed Israelites as: 1) Syncretism developed. This was a process of mixing beliefs and practices from different religions. Israelites worshipped Yahweh and the gods of Canaan. 2) Former places of worship for the Canaanite gods were used as places of worship for Yahweh 3) The Canaanite agricultural calendar was adopted by Israelites 4) Names of the Canaanite gods were used for Yahweh. For example, EL was referred to as Yahweh 5) Parents began naming their children after Baal. 6) Feasts and celebrations were changed to correspond with those of Canaanites when they celebrated their feasts. 7) King Ahab declared worship of Baal as the state religion Queen Jezebel ordered the destruction of the altars of Yahweh 9) Prophets of Yahweh were killed. Elijah went into hiding. 10) The 450 prophets of Baal were made the officials of the royal court in order to promote and protect Baal religion 11) Israel started to experience long droughts because Yahweh withdrew his blessings. This made Israel worshippers of El LESSON TWO: ELIJAHS FIGHT AGAINST CORRUPTION AND FALSE RELIGION IN ISRAEL Learning outcomes. After studying Elijah, you should a. Describe the contest at Mount Carmel b. Explain how Elijah fought against corruption c. Explain the relationship between Ahab and Naboth d. Describe Gods sentence to Ahab. e. Relate Elijahs encounter with Yahweh at Mt. Horeb f. Identify forms of corruption a) The contest at Mount Carmel (1 King 18:17 46). Carmel refers to the vineyard of the Lord. King Ahab brought trouble to Israel because of worshipping the idols of Baal. Elijah told Ahab that the problems Israel was facing were due to worship of Baal, The decision. Elijah requested king Ahab to call a meeting at Mt Carmel. In attendance would be all Israelites, 450 prophets of Baal, and 400 prophets of the goddess Asherah who were supported by Queen Jezebel and Elijah Elijah told Israelites it was decision time. They had to choose their God. Would it be Yahweh, the God of Israel or Baal the god of Jezebel of Phoenician/Tyre. If it was to be Baal, then they were told to follow him, if they select Yahweh as their God then they were to follow him (1 kings 18 vs. 21). The choice. Elijah proposed a contest between him and Baal prophets. He asked for two bulls one for him, the other for 450 prophets of Baal. The contest was who can light fire? Yahweh or Baal? He proposed that Baal prophets and himself be given each a bullock. Both shall cut the bull into pieces and put them on wood without lighting fire. The Baal prophets shall pray to their god and Elijah shall pray to the Lord. The one who sends fire to consume the sacrifices .. he is God. The people of Israel accepted Elijahs proposal. Actions. The prophets of Baal prayed first because they were many. They took the bull, prepared it and prayed to Baal until noon (vs. 26). They prayed louder, and cut themselves with knives and daggers; but there were no answer. The prophets of Baal kept on ranting and raving until evening but there was no answer (vs. 29). Elijah asked people to gather near him. He prepared the altar of the Lord to repair work. He took 12 stones representing the 12 tribes of Israel (who were named after the 12 sons of Jacob or Israel) and used them to rebuild the altar. He then dug a trench around the altar. This trench could hold 14 litres of water. He placed the wood on the altar; cut the bull into pieces and laid them on the wood. He asked for four barrels of water and poured it on the offering and wood. He poured water on the altar three times until the water overflowed, run around the altar and filled the trenches. Elijah then called on the Lord O Lord, the God of Abraham, prove now that you are the God of Israel and that am your servant and have done all this at your command (vs. 29). The Lord sent fire down and it burnt up the sacrifice, wood, stones, and dust and licked up the water that was in the trench. When people saw this, they proclaimed The Lord, is God; the Lord alone is God. Elijah asked people to arrest the prophets of Baal, led them down to the river Kishon and killed them. And after this there was rain in Israel (vs.40). Lessons learnt from Mt. Carmel. Israelites acknowledged that Yahweh is: i Is their only God and that Baal was not God ii Is powerful iii Is a merciful God iv Is a jealous God as He will have no other gods but him v Is a God of justice who punishes idolaters and sinners vi Answers prayer vii Is a forgiving true God viii Protects his servants b) Elijahs fight against corruption (1 Kings 21: 1 29) Corruption is defined as dishonesty. Its a form of injustice when dealing with either an individual or the community for selfish gain and benefit. In a corrupt society people in leadership or with wealth take advantage of the weak, and the poor. The powerful exploit the poor and the powerless by denying them their rights. An example of corruption in Israel is the story of the Naboths Vineyard. Naboths vineyard. Ahab wanted Naboth to either sell to him his vineyard or exchange it with another vineyard. Naboth refused to sell his inheritance. Jezebel, on seeing that Ahab was sorrowful told him that she will get him Naboths vineyard. Jezebel sent out letters in Ahabs name to the elders of the city. She found two witnesses who could bear witness that Naboth had blasphemed God and king Ahab. Witnesses testified that Naboth had blasphemed God. He was stoned to death. God then sent Elijah to meet with Ahab as he went to possess the vineyard of Naboth. Gods sentence to Ahab. God pronounced to Ahab through Elijah that (1) dogs shall lick his own blood from the place where dogs licked the blood of Naboth (2) His sons shall be killed (3) Dogs shall eat Jezebel by the wall of Jezreel (4) Evil shall be brought upon Ahabs house. This was because Ahab had broken these commandments: <br><br>The 6th commandment which forbids murder The 9th commandment which forbids bearing of false witness. Ahab allowed his wife to bear false witness against Naboth <br><br>10th Commandments you shall not covet your neighbors property. <br><br>Elijahs encounter with Yahweh at Mt. Horeb (Mr. Sinai) 1 Kings 19 After killing the prophets of Baal, Elijah was threatened by Jezebel. She vowed to kill him. Elijah ran away to the wilderness. The angel of God fed him with a loaf of bread and a jar of water. After eating and drinking Elijah walked to Mt. Sinai the holy mountain of God. He stayed there for 40 days and 40 nights. In the mountain God appeared to him. There was a strong wind, an earthquake, a fire but the Lord was not in them. Then the lord spoke to Elijah in a still small voice. God told Elijah return and anoint Hazael as king of Syria, Jehu as king of Israel, and anoint Elisha as a prophet and your successor. Self-assessment question. How can Christians help reduce corruption in Kenya? Answer First is to recognize the various forms of corruption like: tribalism, bribery, cheating in business, stealing, misuse of public funds, grabbing public land, robbery with violence and dishonesty Self-assessment question. How can Christians fight corruption? Christians can fight corruption by: a). Employing life skills a) Applying their critical thinking. This is the ability to make appropriate decisions; by weighing in the consequences of actions before taking decisions. b) Creative thinking and being imaginative. This is the ability to explore new ways of handling issues, c) Decision making which is the ability to make the right choices d) Assertiveness. This is the ability to express ones opinion with confidence e) Praying for the corrupt to change their behaviour f) Setting a good example by acting as a good role model g) Educating people on the evils of corruption h) Reporting those who are engaged in corrupt dealings / practices to the relevant authorities. i) Obeying the laws of the society /country Voting for morally upright leaders. LESSON THREE: REASONS WHY ELIJAH FACED DANGER AND HOSTILITY AS A PROPHET OF GOD Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you shall a. Explain why Elijah, faced hostility b. Show relevance of Elijahs prophetic mission to Christianity today Its not easy for a person to oppose the government and its policies. The person normally faces danger and hatred. Elijah faced hostility from King Ahab, his wife Jezebel and the 450 prophets of Baal. Elijah faced hostility because a. He pronounced a three years drought in Israel, which brought sufferings. b. He put to death 450 prophets of Baal c. He boldly condemned king Ahab for taking away Naboths vineyard d. He preached at a time when there was idolatry, and Baal was the official religion in Israel e. He identified himself with Yahweh in the midst of prosecution of Gods prophets by Jezebel. Relevance of Elijahs prophetic mission to Christians today Lessons Christians learn from the life of Elijah 1) Elijah was courageous. Church leaders should remain courageous and condemn any form of social injustice 2) Modern Christians learn to remain faithful to God through word and deed even if it would cost them their lives 3) As God helped Elijah in difficult times he will also help the Christians hence they should not despair. 4) Elijah was a man of prayer Christians should pray to God always. 5) Christians should advocate for the rights of the poor and speak out against any form of oppression. 6) Christians should not give false evidence against their neighbours 7) Christians should be persistent like Elijah was in their struggle against injustice God communicated with Elijah in a still small voice indicating his intimacy with the prophet. This means that God is able to establish an intimate relationship with his faithful. Review questions a) Describe the qualities of Elijah that led to his achievements b) What is schism and syncretism c) What are some of the characteristics of Elijah that a modern Christian should strive to emulate? d) What are the effects of idolatry in Israel today? e) Describe Elijahs fight against false religion in Israel f) Describe Elijahs fight against corruption 1 kings 21 g) What can Christians learn from the teachings of Elijah? TOPIC SEVEN: SELECTED ASPECTS OF AFRICAN RELIGIOUS HERITAGE. Introduction All Traditional African Communities believe in a Supreme Being who is the origin and sustainer of all things: He is the creator of the university and all that it contains. All Africans agree that nobody has ever seen God. Therefore, nobody can really describe Him, yet through their religious insights, Africans have formulated ideal about the nature of God. These ideas concern His real being and His activities. Traditional religion refers to African culture that existed in the sub Saharan Africa. African traditional culture had no scriptures or texts because most of it was oral. It was preserved and handed down from generation to generation-through oral traditions; ceremonies; rituals, and leading personalities. Learning outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to a) Explain and appreciate the African concept of God spirits and ancestors b) Identify attributes of God c) Explain the African understanding of the hierarchy of beings d) Describe the role of God, spirits and ancestors e) Explain the responsibilities of the living towards God, spirits and ancestors f) Describe the traditional African way of worshipping God, venerating and communicating with the ancestors and spirits. LESSON ONE: AFRICAN CONCEPT OF GOD, SPIRITS AND ANCESTORS Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a. Describe the African concept of his/her religion b. State attributes of God c. Draw a diagram showing hierarchy of beings Africans believed in existence of a supreme being who lived in mountains, clouds and the sky. God was the creator of the universe. In African traditions, religion was integrated in every aspect of life and daily activities. For example, farming activities involved God, spirits and ancestors. People would pray to God, spirits ancestors so as to ask for blessings in order to have a good harvest. Livestock keepers believed that fertility of their animals is a result of the blessings of God. If God was appeased, animals would increase. Natural phenomena such as thunder, lightning, rain; good harvest, and birth were linked to the Supreme Being and the invisible world. If there were calamities such as drought, disease, famine, and death, it was an indication that God, spirits and ancestors were displeased with humankind. Many communities have invocations uttered through out the day Nature or Attributes of god God is described with many names, which are Gods attributes. These are among others: a) God is Good Nearly all-African communities describe God as being good to all people and things. He gives rain, sunshine and life among many other gifts. b) God is merciful. The Akamba refer to God as God of pity, the merciful one. God shows mercy in times of danger, illness, difficulty or anxiety. c) God is holy. He is pure, holy and does not make mistakes. Yoruba call him God who is pure, without blemish. The Kikuyu say God is Possessor of whiteness and the Bukusu master whitewash. African traditions all approach God with reverence, fear, respect and honor. For example when offering sacrifices, they would offer a one-colour animal either white, black, or brown and not a spotted animal. d) God is powerful i.e. Omnipotent. God is described as almighty. His power is expressed in natural occurrences like thunder, lighting, earthquakes, rains, and floods. e) God is all knowing (Omniscient). God knew all things; nothing can be hidden from him. He discerns hearts. f) God is all present (Omnipresent).He is present everywhere in the universe g) God is limitless. God has no limit. He is both very far and very near, beyond and within. h) God is transcendent .God cannot be exhausted by human imagination. He is unexplainable, beyond human experience and understanding. i) God is all understanding j) God is self existent .He made all things but he himself is not made. He exists on his own. Zulu explain that God is he who is of himself. k) God is a spirit He is invisible, and everlasting.. Shilluk of Sudan refer to him as great spirit the formless spirit. l) God is everlasting. God is eternal, never changes, and never dies. The Yoruba call him the mighty immovable rock that never dies. m) God is God created the creator .The world Kikuyu call him Mumbi n) God is just. Kikuyu refer to God as Mugai meaning divider. One who shares out. God judges fairly, punishes those who do wrong and rewards the good with blessings. o) God is the provider. All communities acknowledge that God provides them with everything they have. Africans built representation of the power of God. They identified sites, places and things that represented the presence and power of God. For example things like big trees, thick forest, high mountains, unique rock formations and large rivers and animals. In these places they built sites, and shrines. Shrines were regarded as holy and people approached them with reverence Spirits. They were believed to exist between God and human beings in the universe. Spirits were diverse and created by God. Some spirits were dead human beings. Spirits were divided into nature, sky, earth and human spirits that were either long dead (ghosts) or recently dead (ancestors). There were different types of spirits. These were: a. Divinities. These are spirits created by God. They are close to God and act as his agents. They are in charge of natural phenomena like the sun, moon and stars. They are intermediaries between God and ancestral spirits, human beings and other creatures. They reveal Gods plans through diviners and mediums b. Human spirits / common spirits. These are inferior to divinities but higher than human kind. They are remains of human beings after their death. These spirits monitor human activities. Human spirits have lost their names and are not longer remembered by the living. They are believed to live in the under world, undergrounds, in thick bushes, forests, rivers, mountains, lakes, skies, and caves among other places. These spirits can bring harm to the living if disrespected. They appear to people in dreams or in form of shadows. They can also enter or possess a person and cause abnormalities. 3. Ancestors / living dead These are spirits of the recently dead. They are remembered by the living when children are named after them. They are actively involved in the lives and activities of the living. Their offerings (food or drink) are poured on the ground for them to receive. Ancestors are in a period of transition between the living and the higher categories. They are believed to know the problems of the living and therefore consulted constantly. They are also associated with evil such as revenge for burying them without honor, or not following the instructions they gave before they died or failing to pour them libations. When they are happy with the living, they are a source of blessings. Ancestors who did evil things or committed suicide are forgotten and ignored. Hierarchy of beings. Hierarchy means the order or ranking from the highest to the lowest of created beings. At the top is Divinities God is the creator. The Akamba community believed that God whom they called Mulungu created man and woman. He then tossed them to the earth. The Luhya claim God created them from the black topsoil hence their skin complexion. God is the source of life and giver of life. Barren women pray to God to ask for children. Human beings depend on God for life, rain, air, and sunshine. God is the provider. He gave domestic animals to human beings for their use. Domestic animals have many uses such as repayment of dowry, food, and sacrifices to God, payment of a fine by an offender. Many wild animals are used in folk songs and tales to discourage cowardice, and laziness God is a protector of human beings from evil. God is the giver of moral laws and a judge of people God offers solutions to mans problems through mediums, and prophets God gives power to the specialists such as medicine men, women and priests. God punishes people for wrongdoing Wild animals such as hyena are used in folk stories to discourage cowardice. Stories of tortoise illustrate the importance of being slow but sure. Snakes in some communities such as the Luhya were not killed. The community believed snakes were immortal ancestors coming to visit the living. Plants were used as food for people and animals. Trees were used for fuel and building materials. Some trees were used as sacred places of worship. Non-living things such as the rain, rocks, and rivers had a religious importance. Rain is seen as a blessing from God. When rain fails, diviner/rain maker was consulted. Rocks, and mountains were believed to be dwelling places for the living, the dead and the spirits. The spirits were viewed as neither good nor evil. Human beings feared them. Their roles were many. They; i Appeared in dreams especially to diviners, priests, medicine men and women, and rain makers to relay information ii Were consulted by religious specialists to find the cause of a problem in a given situation. iii Were bad (naughty) spirits, which disturbed people. African communities believed that bad sprits could call out ones name but on turning theres no one. iv Were manipulated by some human beings to cause harm to others v Relayed Gods messages to human beings. vi Sometimes possessed a person causing the person to be sent away from the village to the forest, or a way from home. vii Acted as intermediaries between humans, divinities and God. Role of ancestors is to: - 1) Appear to families in dreams, and visions. 2) Give family instructions i.e. what should be done. 3) Rebuke those who fail to honor them and warn them of impending punishment 4) Act as mediators between the living and God. 5) Enquire about family affairs as they considered as members of the family 6) Request for sacrifice of an animal which is slaughtered for them 7) Cause illness or mental disturbance to members of a family if they are disregarded or disobeyed. Preserve the culture of a community 9) Welcome those who die to the spirit world. LESSON THREE: RESPONSIBILITY OF THE LIVING TOWARDS GOD, SPIRITS, AND ANCESTORS Learning outcome. After studying this lesson, you should a. State responsibilities of the living to God, spirits, and ancestors b. Explain the various forms of worship Responsibilities of living include Human beings are expected to worship God, spirits and ancestors and show (i) reverence and respect or veneration to God. They are also expected to (i) pray (ii) sing and (iii) dance. Worship. This is our major responsibility as God expects us to meet and communicate with the spiritual world and God. There are several ways of worshipping God. These include among others: (a) Sacrifices and offerings. Sacrifices include shedding of blood of animals and birds. Offerings are in the form of foodstuffs, milk, water and honey. God was worshipped because He is recognized as the absolute owner of life and property. We also worship God in order to (i) invoke Him for special blessings (ii) thank Him (iii) express our personal fellowship and communion with God (iv) avert or prevent evil. Evils bring about epidemics, famine, floods, and drought. (b) Singing and dancing. Africans worshipped God through singing, dancing, clapping of hands, drumming, and use of musical instruments. (c)Prayers, invocations and blessings. Prayers were accompanied with sacrifices or offerings. Community leaders prayed to God, spirits and ancestors. (d) Invocations are shortened form of prayers e.g. Help me oh God Oh great God. These are prayers at the spur of the moment. They are few words full of meaning and calling for help form God. (e) Formal blessings. An elder or older person gave blessings. It is believed that the person blessing the other one is doing so on behalf of God. (f) Venerations. Africans treated their ancestors with great respect and honor. They for example worshiped ancestors daily. Worshipping included placing food or pouring libation of beer, milk, water and honey for the spirits. As this act was done, they uttered words to accompany the offerings. Libations were done daily by some communities. (g). Ancestors were honored by: <br><br>Mentioning their names at prayers was offered to God. Naming children after them. Inviting them to participate in family ceremonies and rituals. For <br><br>example during birth, and initiation. Maintaining their graves well. Giving the dead a decent burial clapping their hands. As they dance, sit and sing, diviners lose their senses and get possessed by the spirit. The spirits speak give them messages for individuals and communities. Spirits communicate on issues such as (i) lost property (ii) revealing by name the enemy in the society (iii) making demands on the living (iv) giving advice (v) giving warnings on impending danger and (vi) making promises to bless a family or clan. Spirits that possess mediums are not harmful. There are bad evil spirits harmful to people whom they possess. Some evil spirits cut themselves; others throw themselves into a fire, river, and lake. Revision questions a) Explain African beliefs about god ( or qualities) b) Describe the African understanding of the hierarchy of being c) Describe the role of the ancestors to the living d) What was the responsibility of the living towards God? e) Describe the T.A. ways of worshipping God. TOPIC EIGHT: AFRICAN MORAL AND CULTURAL VALUES Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic, you should be able to a Explain the meaning of life and its wholeness in the traditional African society b Explain the African concept of community and kingship system c Outline the factors contributing to harmony and mutual responsibility in the African communities d Describe rites of passage and their role inculcating moral values in the traditional African society e Explain the role of religious specialist and their relevance in modern society f Explain the African moral values g Discuss and evaluate continuity and change in the African understanding of leisure, dress, old age, widows, orphans, dowry, community, land, medicine, worship and property. LESSON ONE: MEANING OF LIFE AND ITS WHOLENESS IN THE TRADITIONAL AFRICAN SOCIETY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to:- 1. Describe the meaning and wholeness of life in the traditional African society 2. Describe the African understanding of a community Life originates from God and it progress from one stage to another with a certain rhythm each person has to follow. Each stage of life is marked by rites of passage. Life is continuous and unending. Each person is expected to value life and to be responsible. Life involves sharing. It is immoral to be greedy and self centred. People are to be hospitable, warm and caring toward other people. Unity and harmony are to be upheld. Life is viewed as whole only if a person went through all the stages or rites of passage Life was propagated through bearing children. Life cannot be divided into religious and secular. Every element of life has a religious meaning. Life is communal. Life was celebrated at every stage. Everyone depends on others. Labour was divided. There were duties for men, children and women. In African traditional society, human life is precious. Murder was condemned harshly. Suicide was considered the worst thing anyone could do. It was seen as a curse on the family. If one died at childhood, it was regarded as abortion. Death did not mark the end of life. Death is referred to as saying goodbye to food, sleeping, going home, being called by the ancestors. African concept of a community A community is a group of people who share a common language, religion, and culture and may live in the same geographical location. This group of people or an ethnic group shares common interests and characteristics. For example, African communities: <br><br>Share common features, and interests Have the same origin and are likely to be related by blood. Share a common language. Live together and inhabit the same geographical location. Are divided into smaller units called clans <br><br>A clan is made up of people who have the same forefather. A clan is composed of families. A family is made up of members (living or dead) who are related by blood and marriage. Family members therefore include the ancestors and the unborn. LESSON TWO: KINSHIP SYSTEM IN AFRICAN COMMUNITIES Learning outcomes. After studying African kinship system in African communities, you should be able to: a. Explain the importance of kinship system b. Give factors that contribute to harmony and mutual responsibility Kinship refers to the relationships between people. These can be by blood, marriage or adoption. People that belong to the same kinship system are referred to as kin. Importance of kinship system and ties Kinship relationships were and still are important among African communities. This is because these ties: i Provided company. This ensured that people were not lonely. ii Provided a sense of belonging which one of the human needs. We all want to belong iii Controlled social relationships between people related by blood or marriage. iv Promoted mutual responsibility and help v Enhanced a sense of security which is a human need vi Regulated marital customs, rules and regulations. vii Enabled people to live peacefully and in harmony. viii Bind the community together enhancing social cohesion and loyalty to each other ix Facilitated care for the disadvantaged members of community. x Ensured that all members of the community are have knowledge of community beliefs and practices xi Provided a peaceful way of settling disputes. xii Provided mechanisms for proper inheritance of property for example land. Factors contributing to harmony and mutual responsibility in African communities. These are many. Some of them are (i) rites of passage (2) good morals (3) participation in communal activities such as ceremonies, work, leisure activities and worship (4) sharing of property and ideas (5) division of labour. Tasks were distributed according to ones age, gender and status. (6) rules/social norms regulated how people grew up; knowing what is wrong and right. Good morals help people to live in peace and harmony LESSON THREE: RITES OF PASSAGE Learning outcomes. I expect you to read this lesson and a. Name the main stages of human life b. Explain the rite of circumcision in your community c. Narrate initiation rituals d. Discuss the importance of marriage in your community with peers e. State the importance of funeral and burial rites. In traditional African society, there were four main stages of life. These were (i) birth and naming (ii) initiation (iii) marriage and (iv) old age and death Birth and naming When a woman conceived, and pregnancy was visible, she was treated specially. She wore charms to keep away evil eyes. She ate special food and avoided sexual relations. The family and husband did not expect her to perform heavy task. When she was ready to deliver, mid wives helped in delivery. After delivery, the placenta was seen as a sign of fertility hence it was buried in the fertile land such as a banana plantation. Some communities preserved placenta while others threw it into a running stream. Birth The arrival of a baby and its sex was announced through ululations or shouts. The placenta was disposed off ceremoniously. The mother was purified and baby protection rites were conducted. Once purified, a mother could wear charms to protect herself and the baby from malicious spirits, sorcery, witchcraft, and evil eyes. Thanksgiving ceremonies were performed to show gratitude to God. The hair of the mother and child was shaved as a sign of purification and newness of life. Naming Naming of babies was carefully chosen. A baby could be named after either a season, weather, ancestors, place or time of delivery, occasion, experience of mother during delivery, significance events such as war, and drought, personality of the child, and names of heroes and gods. A good example is the name Were amongst the Luhya. Twins had special names. Initiation the second rite of passage. There were different types of initiations such as circumcision for boys and clitorisdectomy for girls, excision of teeth and body marks. Initiation rites were important and every individual was expected to go through them or be rendered an outcast. Initiation practices were seen as tests for courage and bravery. They helped the communities when identifying future leaders and warriors. Initiation was very important in communities where it was practiced. Initiation marked a transition from childhood to adulthood. In this transition, the initiate acquired new rights, new status in life, and privileges. For example the new initiates were allowed to marry, own property, and inherit the fathers property. In addition the initiates received specialized education. They were taught how to behave as adults, warriors, future husbands and parents. The education brought families, relatives and friends together. This act strengthened kinship ties. It also prepared the initiates to face the difficulties and challenges of adult life. In addition, initiation helped to structure the community. Initiation was programmed to fit an age set; and it marked passage of specific time. Thus each initiation ceremony was held regularly, normally between 16 21 years of age. If you calculate, you can see that 16 to 21 years introduced a new age set or group of young people. The age set held power for 16 to 21 years and handed over to the new generation. Initiation was therefore a mark of identity. It gave the initiate a sense of belonging. It bonded the initiates together with the ancestors. Initiation rituals are not popular today as they were in the past. This is because many communities have undergone social and cultural changes because of modern education. As a result some families take their sons to hospitals to be circumcised to prevent HIV/AIDs and to avoid infections because of unhygienic traditional initiation practices. Other reasons are (i) urbanization and migration, (ii) individualization (iii) Christians religious values. These have made some communities abandon some rites e.g. clitorisdectomy and (iv) some countries have made girls circumcision illegal and an issue of human and health rights. Attitude to birth and naming There has been a change in attitude to birth and naming. This is because initiation is no longer a community but a family affair. In addition, pregnant women attend antenatal clinics. Majority of pregnant women give birth in hospitals and health centres. Thus a doctor and not a midwife announce the sex of the baby. In modern society, the mother and child are no longer secluded. Lastly most parents prefer western names for their babies. Marriage was a requirement for all members of the community. It was a source of status in the community. Since a leader had to be married. Young men and women married after initiation. Marriage was a happy occasion and a source of wealth. The father gave young initiates some animals for dowry. Fathers of girls received dowry payments, as bride price was mandatory. It was given to the parents of the girl in form of (a) Cows (b) Goats (c) Camels (d) Jewellery (e) Poultry. The young men inherited the fathers property. Importance of dowry. Dowry unified the community. When young women were married, their parents lost their labour. Dowry payments compensated for this loss. Men paid dowry as a sign of commitment to their wife and parents. Importance of marriage Marriage was sacred. It was and ordained by God. Marriage created new social relationships and expanded web of kinships. During the marriage ceremonies the whole community rejoiced, and feasted together. The newly married couple learnt new knowledge and skills. The community and society respected the newly married couple. Children born from this union propagated and ensured continuity of family, and the community. Modern community and marriage. There has been a change in attitude towards marriage. As a result: marriage is no longer seen as sacred and divorce is common. In addition, dowry has been commercialized, as it is no longer seen as important. Some young men do not pay dowry. In fact marriage is no longer seen as a sign of status Children were important in marriage. Barren women were frowned upon. Polygamy solved issues of childlessness. Couples without children can now adopt them from the Child Welfare society. Divorce. This was very rare. It happened only if the girl (i) was not a virgin (ii) practiced witchcraft (iii) and did not show respect towards her husband. Old age and death. This is the age of wisdom. Old people were respected. Grey hair was a sign of respect and wisdom. In all culture, the elders were the custodians of the law, norms and regulations. Social and religious specialists were seers, rainmakers, priests, diviners, and medicine men among others Death. Old age is followed by death. It was seen as a transition into the spiritual life. Besides old age, many cultures believed that death was due to either breaking of the traditional customs and taboos, curses, evil spirits, witchcraft, war, diseases and epidemics. Burial rites were performed in many African communities. Disposing of the dead body. Several methods were used to dispose the body. These were burials, leaving bodies in the forest, and throwing body to animals or placing the body in an abandoned house. African communities believed that animals carried the spirit of the dead person to the next life. Burial rites were performed by the bereaved. They buried the body with ones person belongings and tools. Thus if a person was a great warrior, he was buried with a war coat. Celebrations accompanied funeral rites. Funeral songs (dirges) were performed. There was drinking and eating. Importance of funeral and burial rites Burial rites created a good relationship between the dead and the living. They were therefore given to appease the world of spirits, express unity in the society, cleanse the remaining relatives and obey the customs of the community. Rituals that were performed depended on the community. Some of the rituals for the dead included. a) Shaving of heads. Some mourners shaved their hair completely, while others shaved in a specific pattern. b) Dancing and singing, and giving gifts to the bereaved family c) Mourning (d) Drum beating (e) Horn blowing 9f) Grave side fires Here are some questions to make you think about marriages 1. In your opinion, what has brought changes in modern marriages? 2. Explain why divorce is rising in Kenya and Africa. 3. What changes do we see in contemporary marriages? 4. What has brought about these changes? 5. What are the major causes of death in Kenya today? LESSON FOUR: RELIGIOUS SPECIALISTS AND THEIR RELEVANCE IN MODERN SOCIETY Learning outcome. After studying this lesson, 1. Identify religious specialists 2. State the role of medicine men, priests, mediums, prophets, diviners, and seers 3. Describe roles of herbalists, elders, and rainmakers 4. Explain the role of religious specialists in your culture Religious specialists include Medicine men / healers, Herbalists, Diviners, Mediums, Prophets / Seers, Rainmakers, Priests and Elders. Religious specialists were given power by their parents who taught them religious duties. Others received divine call through dreams and visions. A few learnt from experts via apprenticeship. This is learning by observing and practicing what one sees the master teacher doing. Roles of the medicine women/men in the Community. Medicine women/men are healers who were and are respected by the community. This is because they were and are able to: 1) Treat and heal the sick 2) Solve serious and complicated chronic illnesses 3) Give medicine in form of powder, herbs, minerals or liquid form and observed patients swallowing, drinking, sniffing, and applying on the skin. 4) Offer prayers and sacrifices to God 5) Give charms to protect individual persons from evil spirits. 6) Perform specialized medical roles in some communities in spite of the fact that we have modern hospitals, counselors and psychologists. Elders were and still are community leaders. They were not religious specialists but the community gave elders duties, which made them close to religious leaders. Herbalists and their relevance. Herbalists were synonymous with witch doctors. They cured people through herbs just like the medicine women/men. Communities belief: that herbalists are witchdoctors and possess magical powers. Herbalists continue to be consulted as witch doctors or waganga. Today herbalists do religious tasks that were traditionally done by diviners. Diviners were able to find hidden secrets and knowledge; reveal witches and thieves. They communicated with spirits and enhanced the work of healers and medicine people. They worked as medicine people and were healers of people. They used magic powers and predicted future occurrences. They used items such as pebbles, water, bones or gourds in divination. They also warned of future calamities. They were mediators between God, ancestors and the people. To be a diviner, one had to be trained. There was a specialized curriculum prepared by diviners. Relevance of diviners in modern society. Diviners (witchdoctor mganga) are not popular today and are hardly consulted. But the unfortunate Kenyans consult them who: need a job, promotion, and children. This consultation is secret. Mediums were channels of communication between the living and the spirits of peoples ancestors. The ancestor spirits possessed mediums and through them ancestors gave information and messages to their relatives. Priests were religious leaders and functionaries. They were intermediaries between people, ancestors, spirits and God. Their work was to make sacrifices and give offerings on behalf of the people. They officiated during planting and harvesting rituals. They offered prayers and blessed the needy. They cared for the shrines and poured libations to the ancestors. They led the community in public worship. They were political heads and judges. Today, traditional priests are not relevant since most Kenyans follow several religious practices like Christianity, Hindus, Islam and many others. But there are however, a few traditional priests who take care of community shrines. Prophets / Seers predicted the future. They foretold events such as invasions, wars, drought, and epidemics. They gave advice. They also performed religious duties. They could bless and curse. Religious prophets are common today but traditional prophets are not common. Rainmakers were responsible for bringing or withholding rain to a community. They interpreted weather conditions. They performed certain rituals like asking God for rains. They were highly respected in the society. Modern science has replaced rainmakers Meteorological departments have made the rainmakers redundant. Elders were custodians of community values and secrets. They acted as educators. They gave punishment to offenders of social norms/rules. They acted as counselors and guided the youth on matters of sex and marriage. They helped in maintaining roles for important religious functions, such as rites of passage. They were political leaders in the community. They were negotiators and solved conflicts since they settled family disputes especially agreements concerning land. They were custodians of the traditional values, customs and history of the people. Relevance. Elders are relevant in modern society. They are referred to as village elders and are recognized by the government of Kenya. LESSON FIVE: AFRICAN MORAL VALUES Introduction. African communities were regulated by a strict code of laws and moral values. In this lesson we shall study moral values, which regulated individual members of society as well as the community itself. Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should 1. Give examples of cultural values 2. Define moral values 3. Identify forms of misconduct 3. State a punishment for each misconduct What is a cultural value? These are community practices and beliefs. Each community has cultural values that it accepts and upholds. These cultural values are laws, customs, and forms of behaviour, regulations, rules, observances and taboos. The cultural values form a moral code, which regulates the community. For example, if the culture, values private property, it will have laws that forbid theft of property. These laws are cultural values. Cultural values influence the social order and peace. God gives peace and harmony. God is seen as the giver and guardian of the law. Disobedience was and still is regarded as evil, wrong and was and still is punishable by law. What is a moral value? Moral values are standards of behaviour towards others. They are based on what is valued by the community. Moral values are also positive attitudes. Each community decided what is important to it and what is desirable for its members to practice and uphold. The moral values that communities observed were many. They included amongst others: 1. Hospitality and Love for self and others. This is the habit of welcoming all people, treating oneself and others well. Members of the community were taught how to be hospitable to visitors, strangers and how to assist the needy. 2. Honesty. This is developing good habits like telling the truth, Loyalty, Respect, Co operation with all. 3. Obedience to parents, elders, community leaders and elders. Cultural regulations were followed and adhered to leading 4. Caring for others. This is being responsible to members of the community 5. Developing social moral behaviour like Humility, Sharing, Responsibility, Chastity, Integrity, Tolerance, Perseverance, and Courtesy 6. Working Hard. Do chores. These were according to sex, age and social- economic status. 7. Cooperation. Members cooperated and worked together with others. Moral values were learnt in the process of socialization. Leisure activities helped in acquisition of moral values. Learning moral values was a lifelong process. The most valued behaviour was obedience. Children were to obey their parents; wives obey their husbands; community obeys their leaders, and elders. Learning to obey was a life long process. An obedient person was respected and rewarded. Misconducts. There were taboos that the community observed. Failure to obey community laws resulted in punishments. The community did not allow stealing of livestock. Domestic animals were the most valued private property. Individuals owned livestock while land ownership was communal. There were many forms of punishment for stealing livestock and committing other crimes. For example a. Payment of heavy fines to replace stolen livestock b. Being beaten in a sack c. Thrown down a hill d. Cast out of community. Thieves and murders built their homes at the outskirts of the community. They were not allowed to interact anymore with the members of the community. e. Being covered with dry banana leaves and then set on fire. LESSON SIX: CONTINUITY AND CHANGE Introduction Learning outcome. From this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Compare traditional and modern way of life 2. Trace property ownership in traditional and modern communities 3. Explain how money economy has affected the traditional way of life 4. State how communities can look after orphans, widows, and old people Community. Formal education introduced the western way of life. Employment and trade forced Africans to leave their villages to look for employment and markets in towns. These actions led to urbanization and pluralism. As a result different communities came to towns and lived together. 1. Paid employment. Workers were paid by money. The concept of money changed community life. Individualism ownership of money replaced communalism 2. Land used to be communal. There was plenty of land for everyone. But changes were brought by modern life. For example, health improved and people lived longer. There were fewer deaths and population increased. With money, there was an expansion of trade. Individuals started buying land with money instead of clearing forests. Modern life changed the concept of land. Individual started owning land. The colonial governments introduced policies about land ownership in different African countries. In communities where education was accepted and money economy took over from livestock economy, communal land disappeared. Parents did not have land for inheritance. As a result, people moved and bought land away from their ancestral birthplaces. This resulted in both migrations and immigrations. 3. Property. Traditionally property included land, cattle (Livestock), women/ wives, and children. In African traditional culture, this property belonged to men or the first-born son in paternal societies. In maternal communities, it belonged to wives and daughters. Today property or wealth is in different forms such as money, buildings, vehicles, land, shares, stock, jewels, insurance, and others. Women, men and children own property. Because of this, the status of a person is measured by property. Dowry Bride price / bride wealth In African societies, bride price was very important. It was given in various forms. For example cows, animals skin, and camels. Today dowry is commercialized. Its mainly in form of cash money. This has made marriage costly for the poor. Some young people are staying together without a formal wedding in church or in the community. Others do not want to pay dowry. Young couples are living together in what is called come we stay arrangements. 4. Health Medicine In traditional society, Illness was caused by witchcraft, sorcery, bad omen, or curses. Diviners, herbalists, and healers treated the sick people. Today bacterial, viruses, or environmental factors, cause illnesses. These are treated by nurses, and doctors; in hospitals and health centres. There is however a craze for herbalists. The communities are consulting herbalists and are taking herbal tea, and medicine 5. Dress Mode of dressing varied between countries. It was dependent on the type of climate. African communities were clothes made from skins or hides, leaves of bananas and trees. Women wore beads, and necklaces for decoration. Modern mode of dressing is a mixture of African, Asian and European wear. There are clothes for men, women, and unisex. African and western ornaments are worn for beauty and style. 6. Worship. Worship is an important activity in African communities. There are different forms of worship, which are done in various places. Those who were converted to Islam worship in Mosques. Those converted to Hinduism worship in temples. Christians worship in churches. The few traditional African communities continue to worship their ancestors in shrines. These are very few. But a few groups are turning back to traditional worship and reviving worship of ancestors and spirits, and their traditional God. For example Mungiki a cult in Kenya, made up of young people, worship the traditional Ngai and practice traditional culture. Traditional religions have many offerings such as foodstuffs and sacrifices such as goats, cows, sheep and chicken. Human sacrifice has been discarded. It is illegal, and it is murder. In the news, we have heard of cases of body parts being stolen from a dead body in mortuary probably for religious rituals. This is illegal and a criminal offence. Modern offerings in most religious institutions consist of money. 7. Death changes immediately the status of families. Mothers and fathers become widows and widowers. Children become orphans. Many parents, wives and husbands have died because of HIV / AIDS, road accidents, diseases and other modern calamities. They have left orphans, widows and widowers. Orphans used to be looked after by grandmothers, brothers and uncles. Today government, churches, charities, NGOs, well-wishers, and guardians, the elder sibling looks after orphans. Some orphan sisters and brothers drop out of school to look after the rest. Some orphans have ended up in the streets because there is no one to look after them Widows. Traditionally brothers inherited widows. However, widow inheritance is being discouraged to prevent HIV / AIDS. But on the other hand, widows are encouraged to remarry as society has become individualistic and no longer assists community members as an obligation. Widowers are not inherited and many of them remarry soon after the death of their wives. 8. Old age. In traditional African communities, old people were respected. But now old age is not respected. The aged are seen as a burden to their children. This is because the need medical care, food, and other forms of care to meet their needs. Most of them are neglected and mistreated. In traditional communities, children took care of their aged parents. Today some children care for their parents. Fortunately, churches have set up homes for the aged. An example is Nyumba za wazee. A few old people can look after themselves since they have pension schemes, life insurance policies, income generating projects, investments and bank deposits. They can care for themselves. Revision questions a) What is the significance of the kingship system b) Outline and explain factors contributing to harmony and mutual responsibility in the traditional African society c) What was the purpose of the bride wealth in the traditional African society? d) Explain the role of medicine men in the African communities and their relevance today. STUDY ACTIVITIES Read the Bible quotations given Carry out role-plays e.g. the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham Consult the aged to assist in the understanding of African traditional practices Form one answers Topic: one 1.What is the importance of reading the Bible? <br><br>Strengthens peoples faith. Helps in spreading the gospel. Helps in composition of songs and hymns. Acts as a reference when we write its translations and other books. Promotes good relationship between God and man. 2. In society, people in schools, crusades, churches, lodgings, homes, and hospitals read the Bible. 3.In the government, the Bible is used for swearing in the Courts, Parliament and Cabinet when members of parliament are nominated to become ministers of the government. 4.The major divisions of the Bible are the old and the new testaments. Read 1.3.4. Above for more information 2. What are the effects of Bible translation on African languages? The Effects of Bible translation into African languages The translations increased and deepened peoples faith in God. They also led to the establishment of schools. The Gospel spread to local communities and many of them became Christians. The missionaries and colonialists learnt African Languages. This led to the promotion of African languages. This helped the African converts to judge when the missionaries were unfair or when they practiced inequality of races. 8. Why is the Bible referred to as (a) a Library and (b) the Word of God (a) The Bible is referred to as a Library because its: 1. Books are arranged in a series and in order. 2. A reference book <br><br>3. Is a book of literary works 4. Books were written under different situations and circumstances 5. Books are many 1. Inspiration is a process through which God took the initiative to prompt and enlighten the writers of the Bible its Godly influence. TOPIC TWO: CREATION AND THE FALL OF MAN 1. Find answers on the differences between the two creation stories in lesson four 2. Traditional African view of creation is in lesson four. Africans view was that: <br><br>God is the architect of the world God existed from the very beginning of time God created everything from nothing God provides for the needs of human beings, animals, and all creation God continues to create through human beings <br><br>3. Human beings continue with the work of creation in lesson four 4. The origin of sin and evil read again lesson five 5. Consequences of sin in lesson five When Adam and Eve sinned <br><br>Mans friendship with God changed to fear of GOD What had been innocent and good became shameful Relationship between GOD and man was damaged and became spoilt Man began to toil for food, safety and other basic needs Pain became part of human experience Death sentence was passed <br><br>6. Consequences of evil are in lesson six Africans understand evil as barrenness, war, drought, epidemics, madness, sickness, death, burning in a house and others <br><br>7. Gods plan of salvation is lesson seven. The lesson tells us that GOD saved human kind by providing: Clothing for Adam and Eve Means to find food A decree to defeat serpent through the seed of the woman A solution in which he choose Abraham and separated him from others A delivery of Israelites from Egypt Prophets with messages for Israelites The Messiah to die on the Cross to save humankind <br><br>8. Compare the biblical concept of sin and the African concept of evil. Similarities: <br><br>Both agree that God is good and did not create evil. In both, sin is a result of disobedience, greed and selfishness of <br><br>humankind. <br><br>In both cases, sin leads to human suffering. Both hold the view that sin/evil befalls humankind in the form of a <br><br>curse. <br><br>Sin brings separation between God and man. In both, there is reconciliation and forgiveness between God and man. <br><br>Thus sin does not end a relationship. Differences <br><br>In the bible, the serpent is seen as the cause of sin whereas in many <br><br>Traditional African communities, the spirits of the dead causes evil. <br><br>In the bible, there is external punishment (hell) for sinners while the Traditional African Community, a child is born free of evil. <br><br>Biblically had taken the initiative to end sin but in Traditional African <br><br>Community, man does through sacrifice to the ancestral spirits. 9. Subdue the earth in genesis 1 verse 28 TOPIC THREE: FAITH AND GODS PROMISES TO ABRAHAM. Qn 1. Explain why Abraham is referred to as the Father of Faith Faith is complete trust in somebody or something. This is because he demonstrated faith in his lifes actions. <br><br>Accepting to move from his homeland to an unknown land. By accepting circumcision at an old age and change of name. Being ready to sacrifice his only son Isaac. He made altars for the worship of God at Bethel etc. He believed in a God he did not know/see. By accepting to enter into a covenant relationship with God where he <br><br>gave his best animals as a sacrifice. Qn 2. Give five (5) actions from the life of Abraham that shows his faith in God <br><br>Abraham obeyed Gods call and left his homeland Haran to go to an <br><br>unknown land. He believed in the promises God gave him. Build altars for the worship of God, one at Schecher and the other at <br><br>Bethel. <br><br>Covenant accepted to make a covenant with God where he sacrificed <br><br>the best of his animals. <br><br>Circumcision accepting the command to circumcise himself and all <br><br>male children in his household. Sacrifice of son willing to offer his only son Isaac as a burnt offering <br><br>to God. Qn 3. List some of the promises God gave to Abraham. <br><br>Abraham and his wife Sarah would have a son. Abraham would be famous. He would become the father of a great nation. God would curse those who cursed him and bless those who blessed <br><br>him. <br><br>God assured Abraham of a personal protection. Many descendants like stars on the sky. The descendants would be slaves in a foreign land but God would <br><br>deliver them. <br><br>He would live to a ripe old age and die in peace. God would establish an everlasting covenant with him and his <br><br>descendants. <br><br>Some of his descendants would be kings. God would give him and his descendants land. <br><br>Qn 4. Compare and contrast Jewish and Traditional African practice of circumcision A. Similarities <br><br>In both communities, circumcision is taken as a physical sign of <br><br>membership to the community. <br><br>It involves the cutting of the foreskin. Members who refuse to be circumcised are treated as outcasts in the <br><br>community. <br><br>The shedding of blood is symbolic as it binds the people with God and <br><br>ancestors. The occasions are accompanied by a ceremony which being kinsmen <br><br>together. <br><br>The rite is compulsory for males. The practice is handed down from one generation to the next. Names are given during the occasion. In both cases, it is done in special or religious places e.g. temple/under <br><br>mugumo tree/ shrine etc. <br><br>It is a command from God/ancestors. <br><br>Differences <br><br>For African, initiation leads to adult responsibilities such as marriage, <br><br>becoming a warrior, decision- making and property ownership. In Jewish community, the boys are too young to take up responsibility. <br><br>In the Jewish community, only males are circumcised while in the <br><br>Traditional African Community, both boys and girls are. <br><br>For Jews, one remains a child while in the Traditional African <br><br>Community, they move from childhood to adulthood. <br><br>Jewish community circumcise at the age of eight days while in the <br><br>Traditional African Community, it is at puberty. <br><br>Among the Jews, it is a sign that they have become Gods people, but in <br><br>Traditional African Community, one is bound to the ancestors. <br><br>The Jewish circumcision is a command from God as a sign of their The rite, taken place on the 8th day of both in Jewish community while <br><br>in the Traditional African Communities, it occurs after every four six years. <br><br>Done to individuals in Jewish community while it is done to a group of <br><br>age mates in the Traditional African Communities. <br><br>No seclusion period among Jews as is the case in most African <br><br>communities. <br><br>In African communities, the ceremony enables them to choose future <br><br>leaders, which is not the case with the Jews. <br><br>Helps one endure suffering (pain) in future in the African communities <br><br>unlike in the Jewish communities. <br><br>Only one form of initiation (cutting of foreskin) is done. Various forms <br><br>are practiced in the Traditional African communities. These include: <br><br>Cutting of foreskin Lib/ear piercing Removal of lower teeth Scarification (putting marks on face/body) <br><br>Qn 5. What is the importance of faith to Christians? <br><br>Faith is the foundation of Christian life today. It makes Christians part <br><br>of the great nation of God. <br><br>Through faith in Jesus, Christians became the chosen people of God. Faith enables Christians make correct choices in life e.g. When It gives them perseverance in prayer as they wait for Gods answer. It gives them the courage to commit their lives to God totally. It is through faith that Christians obey God. They are able to achieve impossible things through faith. They are able to believe what they have not seen through faith. They are able to serve the world, help the needy because of their faith in <br><br>Christ. Qn 6. State the elements of a covenant <br><br>Partners two or more partners are involved. A physical reminder a certificate/sign. Promises: given by both partners. Ceremony whose blood seals it or an oath taken. Witnesses must be present It requires faithfulness, obedience and loyalty to the regulations It spells out serious consequences for those who break it. <br><br>Qn 7. Give examples of covenant in the bible and the modern society The Bible <br><br>Gods covenant with Noah: where he promised never to destroy the <br><br>earth with flood rainbow is the sign of the covenant (Gen 9). <br><br>Gods covenant with Abraham: God promised to fulfil the promises he <br><br>made to Abraham. The sign was circumcision (Gen 15 & 17). <br><br>The covenant between God and the Israelites on Mt Sinai sign was the Jeremiahs covenant: The new covenant with Gods people (Jr 31: 31 <br><br>34). Modern Society Baptism Marriage Oath of allegiance/loyalty Ordination The National Anthem binds all The loyalty pledge Employment contract Qn 9. Discuss the circumstances that led God to enter into a covenant relationship with Abraham <br><br>To seal the promises given unto Abraham e.g. a great nation, son, many <br><br>descendants. <br><br>It was an assurance of the fulfillment of Gods promises to Abraham. It was to unite God and the Israelites. It was to be a source of blessings to all. A starting point for the salvation of mankind, whereby he would renew <br><br>the relationship between himself and man after the separation by the 1st parents. TOPIC FOUR: SINAI COVENANT. Qn a. What are the qualities of Moses as a leader? <br><br>Education: he received education while in the pharaohs palace where <br><br>he grew up. <br><br>Jewish religion knowledge: his own mother who was his maid taught <br><br>him the history of Israel. <br><br>He learned leadership skills from the King as he grew up. Shepherd: herding the father-in-laws herds made him gain experience Life in the wilderness where he lived after killing an Egyptian gave him <br><br>experience in desert life through where he would lead the Israelites. <br><br>Father/parent: his marriage to Zipporah helped him learn family <br><br>leadership. Later he applied this to his work. <br><br>Prophet: Enabled him to foresee the future and inform the community. Miracle-maker: helped him solve problem facing his people in the <br><br>wilderness e.g. lack of food, water. <br><br>Lawgiver: gave laws that were used to govern the community of Israel <br><br>i.e. the Ten Commandments. <br><br>Hard work: worked for his father-in-law serving the family e.g. fetching <br><br>water. Later he was able to serve the Jews. Qn b (i) Describe the call of Moses: Exodus 3: 1 22 <br><br>God called Moses as he herded his father-in-laws flock at Mt Sinai. Moses saw a burning bush, which was not consumed. He drew nearer to <br><br>get a better look. <br><br>God called Moses by name from the middle of the burning bush and <br><br>told him to remove his shoes because he was standing on holy ground. <br><br>God told Moses that he had seen the suffering of his people in Egypt and heard their cry. <br><br>He told Moses that he had chosen him to go to Pharaoh and release <br><br>them from bondage. <br><br>Moses objected to the task because he felt inadequate. God promised to be with Moses and to protect him. Moses asked for the name of God so that he would have a point of <br><br>reference when asked who sent him. God revealed himself to Moses saying, IAM WHO I AM God gave Moses power to perform miracles that he would use as proof <br><br>of his work. <br><br>Moses protested further saying he was a stammerer. God commissioned Aaron, Moses brother as his spokesman. Moses then told God he was afraid to go to Egypt. God assured him that the man he was afraid of was already dead. <br><br>Qn b (ii) Why was Moses hesitant to Gods call? <br><br>It is because he was already a criminal and wanted in Egypt after having <br><br>killed and Egyptian and ran away. <br><br>He was not a good speaker (stammerer). He did not know the name of God who was sending him. <br><br>Qn c (i) what is the significance of the items used for the Passover feast (similar to what is the meaning of the Passover meal)? <br><br>The Lamb: reminded the Israelite of the sacrificial lamb whose blood <br><br>saved their 1st born from the angel of death. <br><br>The unleavened bread signified purity. It too signified the hurry they had to leave Egypt, as unleavened bread is <br><br>easy to bake. <br><br>Roasting the meat was the easiest method of cooking. Not breaking bones and spilt blood signified forgiveness. Bitter herbs symbolized the bitterness of slavery in Egypt. way of disposal & sacred. Qn c (ii) Compare the Lords Supper to the Passover feast Similarities: <br><br>Both are acts of salvation from suffering. Passover saved Israelites from <br><br>slavery while the Lords Supper saved people from bondage of sin. <br><br>Both are celebrated in memory of a past event suffering. Lambs offered in both Hebrews the Passover lamb in the Lords <br><br>Supper Jesus is the paschal lamb. <br><br>In both a symbolic meal was taken. In both cases each group is saved through a mediator Moses and Jesus <br><br>respectfully. <br><br>Gods covenant is remembered in both cases i.e. Old testament and new <br><br>covenant respectfully. <br><br>In both the religious significance of the feasts is taught and emphasized. <br><br>Differences: <br><br>In the Passover feast, animal sacrifice is offered while in the Lords <br><br>Supper, Jesus was the last sacrifice and instead bread and wine are offered to represent his blood and body. <br><br>Whereas the Jewish Passover was compulsory for every few, the Lords <br><br>Supper is not compulsory in all Christian churches. <br><br>The blood shed in the Jewish Passover is for the salvation of the Jews <br><br>only while the blood of Jesus shed on the cross is for the salvation of the whole human race. Moses was instructed by God to tell the elders to do the following in <br><br>preparation for the making of the covenant. <br><br>All Israelites were to cleanse themselves and wash their garments. Mark the boundaries of the mountain and avoid going near or crossing <br><br>the border. <br><br>Avoid sexual relations between married couple. <br><br>Note: All these happened after Moses had gone up the mountain and God had promised to make the Israelites the following if they obeyed him. i. His people ii. A kingdom of priests iii. A holy nation <br><br>On the third day after cleansing, Moses took the Israelites to meet their <br><br>God. God manifested himself in the following forms: thunder, lightening, earthquake and a thick cloud that filled the mountain and a loud trumpet blast. <br><br>Moses came down and told people about the laws which was to guide <br><br>them as a covenant people. <br><br>The people agreed to obey all the words the Lord had spoken (Ex 24: 3 <br><br> 4) <br><br>Thus the covenant was made. <br><br>Qn e. Describe the circumstances that led to the breaking of the Sinai covenant <br><br>Moses went up the mountain to receive the stone tablets on which the <br><br>Ten Commandments where written. He delayed (40 days) thus forgetting God. Egypt. <br><br>Aaron was a weak leader who failed to lead the people to uphold the <br><br>covenant. He yielded to their demands to make and worship idols. <br><br>Availability of gold jewellery: used to make the calf image. Idolatry was a practice done while in Egypt so they copied/continued <br><br>with it. <br><br>They were used to Gods (idols). They could see while in Egypt unlike <br><br>the Yahweh who was invisible. Qn f. How was the broken covenant renewed? <br><br>Moses pleaded to God not to destroy the Israelites. God spared them. God commanded the Israelites to cut two stone tablets where he would <br><br>rewrite the commandments. <br><br>God gave conditions to be fulfilled by the Israelites in the renewal of the <br><br>covenant. These were: a) To obey Gods command. b) Not to make treaties with other nations. c) To tear down the altars of the gods of other nations and temples. d) Not to worship idols. e) Not to make images to represent God. f) Not to marry foreign wives. g) To keep and celebrate the three festivals namely, Passover, feast of weeks and the feast of in gathering. h) To keep the Sabbath day holy. i) Dedicate to God 1st born male children and animals. God promised that if they obeyed Him, He would: b) Bless them c) Make them prosper <br><br>After this Moses was ordered by God to write a new set of Laws on the <br><br>stone tablets. <br><br>Thus the covenant was renewed. <br><br>Qn g. Describe how the Israelites worshipped God in the wilderness <br><br>Worship is the practice of showing respect and love for God. The Israelites showed their respect and love for God in the wilderness in <br><br>the following ways: - 1) The Ark and the Tabernacle: The Ark was a wooden box where the Ten Commandments were kept. They signified the presence of God. The tabernacle was a portable tent for meeting between God and the Israelites. 2) The Sabbath: They observed the Sabbath as a sacred day for resting and worshipping God. 3) Festivals: Celebrated many festivals as one way of worshipping God. E.g. Passover. 4) Altars built them when there was need to worship God meeting place between God and the people and sacrifice to God. 5) Observance of the Ten Commandments. These guided them on how to live with God and man. 6) Religious leaders: God chose priest from the tribe of Levi to organize worship. Qn h. What is the relevance of the Ten Commandments to Christian today? Christians learn that God is unique and cannot be represented by visible <br><br>man-made objects or described in human terms. <br><br>They are reminded to observe the Sabbath by worshipping God. They strive to have a good relationship with God. They are taught to respect other people and their property. They learn that long life is a result of honoring and respecting their <br><br>parents. <br><br>They strive to live upright and moral lives. They learn that lust for money and other property is sinful. Qn i. What did the Israelites learn about God in the wilderness? <br><br>They learned that God is faithful. He keeps promises. A provider provided manna, water etc. God is the controller of natural forces e.g. Red sea, a pillar of cloud & <br><br>fire, earthquakes etc. <br><br>A jealous God no worship of other gods. Just forgave those who broke the covenant and punished those who <br><br>refused to repent. <br><br>Merciful and compassionate. Give them a 2nd chance after breaking the <br><br>covenant. <br><br>A God of victory helped them defeat Amalekites. <br><br>God valued a personal relationship commandments given. TOPIC FIVE: LEADERSHIP IN ISRAEL Qn a. Explain the reasons against Kingship in Israel (1 Sam 8:10 20) The King would force the sons of the Israelites to serve him as soldiers <br><br>in the army. <br><br>The King would create forced labour and enslavement by making the <br><br>young men work in his farms and in making weapons. Daughters would work in his house. <br><br>He would also grab their land and give it to his loyal servants. He would overtax them in order to maintain his administration. It would be seen as a rejection of Yahweh as their King. Israel would be like other nations who did not know Yahweh. Yahweh would reject them when they cried to him. Qn b. Explain the importance of David as King of Israel <br><br>David was important because he was chosen by God and publicly <br><br>anointed by elders in a religion ceremony. He too became ancestor of many communities. <br><br>David was a great musician and wrote many songs for promising God. He killed Goliath the philistine soldier. He conquered the enemies of Israel such as Amalekites, Ammonites etc. He expanded Israel through his military conquests and marked the <br><br>boundaries of the nation. <br><br>He captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made it a capital city. He too made it a religious centre by placing the Ark of the Covenant <br><br>there, which had been housed Abidjabs. <br><br>He had good diplomatic relationship with other nations. He encouraged trade with other nations thus making Israel prosperous. He was a shrewd administrator who chose wise elders to advise him. He was filled with the Holy Spirit. He established the largest and most enduring dynasty that lasted 400 years. <br><br>He composed the books of Psalms used to praise God. Whenever he wronged God, he genuinely repented and humbled <br><br>himself before God. He was a just ruler. He respected the prophets of God and consulted them before making <br><br>decisions. <br><br>He was prayerful and consulted God in his undertakings. He united the twelve (12) tribes of Israel. He set a good example of faithfulness to Yahweh that he wanted all the <br><br>Israelites to emulate. Qn c. How did Jesus fulfil the prophecies of prophet Nathan as a descendant of David? (i.e. Areas where Jesus is mentioned as coming from David) <br><br>Angel Gabriel announced the birth of Jesus to Mary who was engaged <br><br>to Joseph, a descendant of David. The Angel referred to Jesus as the King whose wisdom would last forever (Lk 1:26-33). <br><br>Jesus was born in Bethlehem the birth place of David (Lk 2: 4 5) Abraham and David are mentioned as the ancestors of Jesus. During the triumphant entry into Jerusalem, the crowds who met him <br><br>sang with joy and shouted Hosanna to the son of David. <br><br>On the days of Pentecost when Peter addressed the crowd, he referred to <br><br>Jesus as a descendant of David (Acts:2 29-35). <br><br>Zechariah in his Benedictus, says that God has promised a savior <br><br>descended from the house of David (Lk 1:69) The blind man at Jericho referred to Jesus as the son of David (Lk <br><br>18:38). Qn d. What was the failure of King Solomon? <br><br>Solomon was the 2nd King of Israel, succeeding his father King David. <br><br>He failed to live according to the covenant way of life in the following ways. <br><br>He married foreign wives thus breaking the Toral that clearly stated that <br><br>the Israelites should not marry foreigners because they can come with their gods idols. He allowed the wives to worship their gods (idols) thus leading to <br><br>spread of idolatry in Israel. <br><br>He not only worshipped the gods of his wives but also built temple for <br><br>their worship. <br><br>He, by worshipping the gods became a bad example to Israel, as King. <br><br>They copied him. <br><br>Although he built Gods temple, he erred in many ways: <br><br>i. He built his palace for 13 years but took only 7 years to build Gods temple. Shows he loved himself more the God. ii. He used foreign designs and materials in the construction of the temple, ignoring Gods specifications on how to build it. iii. He liaised pagan craftsmen from Tyre to design, decorate and furnish the temple. <br><br>He broke the sixth commandment by killing his half brother, Adonijah. <br><br>He suspected that Adonijah would become his rival to the throne. <br><br>He spent a lot of Israels money on his lavish lifestyle. He had a large <br><br>army and servants. <br><br>He overtaxed the people to meet the amount. He used forced labour in his development projects. He enslaved young men and women who went to work in the palace as servants for the wives. <br><br>He practiced nepotism. He exempted them from forced labour. He sold part of Israel sold 20 towns of Galilee to King of Tyre as <br><br>payment of a debt he could not pay contrary to Gods command. <br><br>He made treaties with other nations that were against the condition set <br><br>during the renewal of the Sinai covenant. <br><br>In the above ways, he oppressed the people of God. <br><br>Qn e. Which leadership qualities can modern leaders learn from David? Justice: A good leader is one who does not favour some people like <br><br>David (I Sam 24: 1 12). <br><br>Courage: David showed this while fighting Goliath. Leaders need to be <br><br>brave and courageous in their work (I Sam 17:41 54). <br><br>Fear of God and Faith: David consulted God before any undertaking. <br><br>Leaders should do the same. <br><br>Gratitude: David was thankful to blessings he received. Leaders should <br><br>be happy and grateful to God. <br><br>Loyalty: Modern leaders should remain loyal to their office. David was <br><br>loyal to God and his people (2 Sam 2:7) <br><br>Kindness: Good leaders should show mercy to their people like David <br><br>did e.g. he forgave Saul twice (2 Sam 19: 9 39). <br><br>Humility: Leaders should not hesitate to ask for forgiveness from God <br><br>and people. David was humble and asked for forgiveness any time he went wrong. <br><br>Willingness to delegate: Learn to delegate future as David did (2 Sam 20: 23 26) <br><br>Wisdom: Be wise in choosing legal advisers as David did. Respect: Leaders should show respect to God and preaches those they <br><br>serve as David did to the prophets and his people. TOPIC SIX: LOYALTY TO GOD- ELIJAH. Qn a. Qualities of Elijah that led to his achievements Elijah was fearless and courageous. His courage helped him to face king Ahab and queen Jezebel and condemn them for their wickedness such as corruption and idolatry He was faithful to God. Yahweh guided him in his dealings with Baal prophets and king Ahab. He lived a simple life. For example, he wore simple clothing made of carmels skin. He stood for the covenant at a time when the religion of Yahweh was in danger He had the power of God in him and was able to control rain. He confirmed that Yahweh had authority over land and over the people. b) Schism is sharp religious, social, political differences within a group or organization Syncretism is the process of mixing religious beliefs and practices c) Some characteristics of Elijah that a modern Christian should strive to emulate 1) Courage 2) Faithfulness 3) Zealousness for God 4) Concern for the needy / poor 5) Provision of social justice 6) Patience Qn d. What were the effects of idolatry in Israel? <br><br>Syncretism developed where the Israelites worshipped Yahweh alongside the gods of Canaan. <br><br>The Israelites started calling Yahweh by the names used for Canaanites <br><br>gods e.g. El. <br><br>The Israelites started naming their children after Canaanite gods like <br><br>Baal. They changed their religion calendar and celebration to correspond with <br><br>their Canaanite celebrations and feasts. <br><br>They converted the high places used for worshipping Baal to Yahwehs <br><br>shrines without removing the graven images of idols. <br><br>The unity that existed between the two tribes of Israel was destroyed. <br><br>They no longer treated one another as brothers. <br><br>The Kings of Israel behaved like the Canaanites leaders by oppressing <br><br>the weak and grabbing other peoples property. <br><br>The people neglected Yahwehs holy places. Gods prophets were mistreated, persecuted and even killed. God withdrew his blessings from the Israelites because they angered <br><br>Him by worshipping other gods. <br><br>They broke Gods commandments, which forbade worship of other god <br><br>a part from Yahweh. <br><br>The Israelites practiced temple prostitution and other Canaanites rituals <br><br>and sacrifices. Qn e. Describe Elijahs fight against false religion in Israel <br><br>Elijah rose to challenge false religion at a time when Baalism had <br><br>become the official religion. <br><br>He prophesied a three and a half years drought because the people had <br><br>turned away from Yahweh. <br><br>After the drought God appeared to Elijah and told him to go to King Elijah asked the King to invite the 400 prophets of Asherah and Baals <br><br>450, saw that they could prove who the true God is. <br><br>Elijah would sacrifice a bull and the false prophets would too sacrifice <br><br>their own to call on their Gods to send fire. The one who could send is the true God. <br><br>The prophets of Baal were the 1st to pray to their god but he never sent <br><br>fire. <br><br>The prophets cut themselves with knives to please their god but he <br><br>never sent it. <br><br>Elijah then prepared the altar with 12 pillars representing the 12 tribes <br><br>of Israel. <br><br>He dug a trench around the altar, placed wood and put the cut bull on <br><br>top of the wood. <br><br>He ordered for water to be poured around the trenches until it flooded. Then in the evening Elijah prayed and called upon the God of Abraham, <br><br>Isaac and Jacob to send fire. <br><br>Fire came and consumed the whole sacrifice, including the water in the <br><br>trenches. <br><br>As a result, the Israelites bowed down and declared that Yahweh was <br><br>the true God. <br><br>Then Elijah ordered the killing of all the prophets of Baal and the <br><br>prophetesses of Asherah. Elijah went to the top of the Mt Carmel and prayed for rain. Yahweh <br><br>sent His servant to watch for the sign of rain from the sea. <br><br>The servant looked towards the sea seven times after, which he saw a <br><br>small cloud forming. <br><br>Then heavy rain fell, signaling end of drought. <br><br>Qn f. Describe Elijahs fight against corruption 1 Kings 21 Corruption: Can be defined as dishonesty or misuse of power for <br><br>personal gain. <br><br>In a corrupt society, the rich and powerful people tend to take advantage <br><br>of the weak/poor by exploiting them and denying them their rights. <br><br>King Ahab of Israel desired a fruitful vineyard owned by a man named <br><br>Naboth. <br><br>King Ahab approached Naboth to sell him the vineyard or exchange <br><br>with another one. <br><br>Naboth declined the offer because in Israel, selling ancestral land was <br><br>against the covenant law. The land belonged to God. <br><br>Jezebel, Ahabs wife, soon learned, Naboths refusal and she arranged <br><br>Naboths murder through false accusations. <br><br>After Naboth was killed, Ahab possessed the vineyard. God commanded Elijah to go and declare His judgement on Ahab for <br><br>committing such an evil act in Israel. <br><br>Elijah declared the following judgement on Ahab: <br><br>i. Dogs would lick Ahabs blood at the same place where they had licked Naboths. ii. Ahabs dynasty would fall kike those of the Kings before him who had disobeyed God. iii. All family members of Ahab would face violent deaths. From the Mt Carmel incident, they learn that Yahweh controls the <br><br>forces of nature can bring rain or stop it. <br><br>Yahweh is the only true and living God Mt Carmel. Yahweh is forgiving pardoned those who repented on Mt Carmel. Yahweh is a jealous God. He will not share honor with any God killed <br><br>the 450 prophets worshipping Baal. <br><br>A prosecutor protected Elijah. A provider provided Elijah with food. Yahweh answers prayers. He is faithful. They also learn that church leaders should condemn evil like Elijah did <br><br>in the case of Ahab and Naboth. <br><br>Christians should work to protect the poor from exploitation. They should be prayerful so that God can help them overcome <br><br>difficulties like Elijah. <br><br>They should strive to lead lives free from corruption. They should remain faithful even if it means costing their lives to <br><br>Naboth. <br><br>Leaders should realize authority comes from God and are accountable <br><br>to Him. <br><br>They should avoid idolatry, which Elijah condemned. Perform tasks given by God however had they may be as Elijah did <br><br>facing Ahab, killing the 450 false prophets etc. Finally, they should invite sinners to repeat and bring them back to God. <br><br>TOPIC SEVEN: SELECTED ASPECTS OF AFRICAN RELIGIOUS HERITAGE Question a: Explain African beliefs about God (or qualities) African beliefs about their God are found in their proverbs, myths, <br><br>songs, prayers, narratives and religious ceremonies. <br><br>God was believed to be a supreme being who was beyond human <br><br>understanding. <br><br>The African communities believed that God was all-powerful <br><br>omnipotent. <br><br>They believed that Gods power is expressed in natural occurrences <br><br>such as thunder, earthquake floods and volcanic eruptions. <br><br>God is believed to be all-knowing omniscient. He is limitless and knows hears and sees everything. He is also omnipresent meaning he is everywhere at all times. Transcendent beyond human understanding. Because of the <br><br>transcendent nature, Africans found it impossible to represent him using physical representations. They viewed him as being far yet too near them. <br><br>He was seen as the provider and sustainer of creation. They believed that God is everlasting. He has no beginning or end. God is merciful. They believed he is incorruptible. African communities associated God with justice. Physical features were often seen as a representation of awesome power <br><br>of God. This is why large mountains, thick forest, unique rock formation were used as shrines. Non-living Things <br><br>God as the creator occupies the highest rank in the hierarchy of being <br><br>creator. <br><br>The Divinities: Came next and control natural forces in the universe, <br><br>created by God. <br><br>The Common Spirits: Comprise spirits of people who died long time <br><br>ago. <br><br>Ancestors: (living dead): Spirits of those who died recently and are still <br><br>remembered by the living. <br><br>Human Beings: Consist of the living and the unborn. Animals and Plants: Come next for mans use as food and sacrifice to <br><br>God. <br><br>Last (7th) are Non-living things: Such as mountains, rocks, rivers, <br><br>caves, dwelling places of God and Spirits. Qc. Describe the Role of the ancestors to the living <br><br>The ancestors acted as intermediaries between God and human beings. They communicated the problems and wishes of human beings to God. God and the spirits used the ancestors to express their wishes <br><br>concerning human beings. <br><br>The ancestors welcomed those who died to the spirit world. They helped to preserve the culture and standards of a community. The ancestors blessed the living and corrected them through <br><br>punishment. Qd. What was the responsibility of the living towards God? To show gratitude to God and give thanks to him as an <br><br>acknowledgement that He is the giver of life. <br><br>To honor, worship and adore God by praying to Him for their needs. To pray to Him during or before a war, before planting, etc. To obey and trust Him. To take care of Gods creation To teach children about God. Appease him through sacrifice. <br><br>Qe. Describe the Traditional African ways of worshipping God <br><br>Sacrifice: They were used to ask Gods favour, thanksgiving, to avert <br><br>evil and ask for forgiveness, before planting and after harvest, epidemics, birth, naming, invitation, weddings, funerals etc for different reasons. <br><br>Offerings: Foodstuffs e.g. grain, honey, beer, milk was offered in <br><br>recognition of God as owner of property and provider. <br><br>Prayers and invocations: Commonest act of worship. A continuation <br><br>activity done anytime as the need arises. <br><br>Song and dance: People were involved both physically and spiritually. <br><br>This brought the city together. Blessings and Salutations: Expressed in greetings and farewells e.g. Go <br><br>with God, God be with you. Qf. What were the African ways of venerating and communicating with the spirits and ancestors? <br><br>Venerating means showing respect to somebody. Spirits and ancestors were venerated because they were believed to be <br><br>senior to human beings and closer to God. <br><br>Sacrifices were offered to them as the ways of venerating them. Pouring libation was done. The living invited them during ceremonies such as birth, invitation, <br><br>marriage and burial. <br><br>They consulted diviners, mediums and medicine men to keep in contact. The living named after them thus they became immortal and members <br><br>in the physical world again. <br><br>Their names were mentioned during prayer. By maintaining their graves. <br><br>Giving them proper burial ceremonies. TOPIC EIGHT: AFRICAN MORAL AND CULTURAL VALUES. Qa. What is the significance of the kinship system? <br><br>Kinship means being related either by blood or marriages. The kinship system was important in the traditional African society <br><br>because of the following factors. <br><br>The kinship system regulated peoples behavior towards each other. <br><br>This promoted peaceful and harmonious relationships. <br><br>It promoted co-operation among community members especially in <br><br>times of difficulty. <br><br>It helped to ensure that the disadvantaged members of the community <br><br>were taken care of. <br><br>The living dead and the ancestors were part of the African kinship It provided a peaceful way of settling disputes with the elders acting as <br><br>arbitrators. <br><br>It ensured fairness and transparency in sharing out inheritance. The kinship system united the members of a family and clan by giving <br><br>them a sense of belonging. <br><br>It helped people to establish new relationship, especially through <br><br>marriage. <br><br>Kinship ties regulated marital customs rules and regulations. People <br><br>who were related in any way could not be allowed to marry. Qb. Outline and explain factors contributing to harmony and mutual responsibility in the Traditional African Society <br><br>Good morals: Every member of the community was expected to do the <br><br>right thing according to the norms of the community. <br><br>Participation in communal activities: Means of the community were <br><br>expected to participate in communal activities e.g. wrestling, dances and communal work. <br><br>Sharing: People shared ideas and even property, which created harmony <br><br>among the people. <br><br>Division of labour: Tasks were distributed according to ones age; <br><br>gender to avoid conflicts in roles. <br><br>Rules: In Traditional African Communities, elders, men youth, and <br><br>women had their respective roles to play that enhanced harmony in the community. <br><br>Virtues: Virtues like generosity, obedience, kindness and honesty were Religious beliefs and practices: A common belief in God, the spirits and <br><br>ancestors created a sense of togetherness. Qc. What was the purpose of bride wealth in the Traditional African Society? <br><br>It was a way of thanking the brides family for taking good care of her. It was a form of compensation to the brides parents because the woman <br><br>would now belong to another family. <br><br>It was a sign of contract that the man would marry the girl and they <br><br>would live together until death. <br><br>It represented evidence of the grooms ability to take care of a wife and <br><br>a family. <br><br>It was a sign of generosity on the side of the man. It initiated a long-lasting friendship between the families of the groom <br><br>and the bride. <br><br>It cemented a marriage. It was a symbol of the marriage covenant between the bride and the <br><br>groom. <br><br>Bride wealth served as an outward seal of the marriage contract. Qd. Explain the role of medicine-men in the African Communities and their relevant today 1) Medicine men <br><br>They are also referred to as healers, herbalists or traditional doctors. They identified illness and their causes. They identified appropriate treatment and prevention measures for the They gave medicine to increase fertility in both people and animals. They acted as counselors, guiding people on all issues of life. <br><br>2) Relevance of Modern Society <br><br>Modern medicine has not fully displaced herbalists. Medical doctors and scientific researchers today work side by side with <br><br>traditional healers since herbs are used to make modern medicine. <br><br>Some people still believe that there are some illnesses that cannot be <br><br>treated in hospitals hence; they turn to herbalists. <br><br>Some people also believe that medicine people who practice magic have <br><br>the power to change their fate. FORM TWO GOD MEETS US IN JESUS CHRIST ST. LUKES GOSPEL INTRODUCTION Matthew, Mark, Luke and John record the life of Jesus Christ and his ministry in the four Gospel books. We shall trace the life, and ministry of Jesus Christ as written by St Luke to Theophilus. St Luke was a medical doctor. TOPIC ONE: OLD TESTAMENT PROPHESIES ABOUT THE MESSIAH Introduction: Read 2 Samuel 7:13, Isaiah 7:10-16 Messiah Meaning: The word Messiah is from a Hebrew word meshiach, which means the anointed: thus a Messiah is one called, anointed and appointed by God to serve Him. Prophecy: A prophecy refers to a prediction of what will happen in future. Messianic Prophecies: These are those predictions that were made by the prophets to describe the coming of a righteous King who will rule Israel according to Gods will. The origin of the Messianic prophecies in the Bible starts with prophet Nathans prophecy to King David. NOTE: The Roman ruled the Israelites before the birth of Jesus. They hated the Roman leadership and longed for somebody of their own to lead them into victory over the Roman rule. The prophet of Israel (the Old Testament) communicated a message that God would send a messiah to bring all people into a lasting relationship with Him. The prophets who were sent had different ideas about the Messiah. Their ideas about the Messiah were different from the Jewish expectations whereby they hoped for political King to lead them into victory over the Roman rule. But the prophets were talking about a religious one to free them from sin. Topic Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: a) Explain the Old Testament prophecies about the coming of the Messiah. b) Relate the concept of the Messiah in the Old and New testaments. c) Explain the link between the Old and the New Testament d) Discuss the role of John the Baptist. LESSON ONE. OLD TESTAMENT PROPHESIES ABOUT THE COMING OF THE MESSIAH. Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe prophesies of Nathan, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Psalmist prophecy (David) and Micah concerning the Messiah (i) NATHANS PROPHECY (2 Samuel 7:3 17) and (Psalms 89: 20 38). David proposed to build God a house. Nathan, the prophet was given a message (an oracle) for David. In this prophecy, God told Nathan to tell King David that: <br><br>God would ensure that the Kingdom of David would last forever. An heir from Davids lineage would rule Davids heir shall build a house for Gods name. God would establish <br><br>the throne of his Kingdom forever. <br><br>David heir shall be Gods son and God shall be his father. David house and Kingdom shall be established forever. <br><br>David died. But Gods mercy shall not depart from the heir of David. Hence the promise that the Kingdom of David, shall last forever referred to the messiah who was to come. David is an ancestor of Christ. (ii) ISAIAHS PROPHECY Isaiah 7: 10 16; 9: 1- 7; 61:1 2; and 63. In these readings, Isaiah prophesied that the Messiah would be: Born of a virgin A boy, born of a virgin and called Emmanuel that is God with us A Wonderful, Counselor, Mighty God, The everlasting Father, and the <br><br>Prince of Peace. <br><br>The Spirit of God inside him Anointed of God Sent to preach the good news to the poor, to bring liberty to the <br><br>captives, proclaim the year of favour from God. Isaiah also prophesied that the Messiah would be the suffering servant <br><br>(Isaiah 53) CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUFFERING SERVANT ISAIAH 53 <br><br>He would bear the sins of human kind He was oppressed, afflicted, despised, rejected of men He bore suffering and disgrace submissively He was mocked and spat on and wounded He was innocent of sin and yet treated as a criminal. He was pierced and wounded in the sides He was crucified with thieves and made intercession for the sinners He was buried in a rich mans tomb. <br><br>iii. JEREMIAHS PROPHECY- JEREMIAH 23: 5 6. God promised to rise up a (branch) who shall: <br><br>Choose as King, a righteous descendant of David Prosper Rule wisely, do what is right, and just in the world Execute justice on the earth Ensure that Judah and Israel are safe and live in peace. Be called the God our righteousness The Lord our salvation <br><br>What does the term a righteous branch means? iv. MICAHS PROPHESY, (MICAH 5: 1 5). Micah prophesied that: The Messianic King shall come from Bethlehem He shall lead with authority He will bring peace <br><br>v. THE PSALMIST PROPHECY (Psalm 41:9 and 110:1 2). David spoke of <br><br>Betrayal by a close friend Messiah is referred to as the Lord The messiah shall rule/reign in the midst of enemies. Summary Nathan, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Psalmist prophecy (David) and Micah prophesied of a Messiah to come. The Jews expected a Messiah who would be a political leader, a victorious ruler and a King. They expected a Messiah: <br><br>Who would lead his people into a time of great national power and <br><br>prosperity; <br><br>In whose reign, there shall be no illness, no sorrow, no injustice, In whose reign, there shall be no fear In whose reign, land shall be filled with joy and peace Who shall rule forever. <br><br>Revision questions 1) Describe the prophecy of Jeremiah concerning the Messiah 2) What does the term Messiah mean? 3) Highlight the Jewish expectations of the Messiah in the Old Testament? 4) Did Jesus Christ fulfill the O.T. prophecies concerning the Messiah? How? 5) Which prophets in the Old Testament prophesied about the expected Messiah? LESSON TWO. THE CONCEPT OF THE MESSIAH IN THE NEW TESTAMENT Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain the concept of the Messiah in the New Testament The concept of messiah is found in Luke 1:26 38; 2:1-23; 23:1 35; 24:50 51. The writer of Lukes Gospel makes it clear that Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies concerning the coming of the Messiah. How did He do this? Well Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies because; <br><br>Jesus was born from the lineage of David (Mathew 1) Angle Gabriel said the child to be born shall rule forever (Luke 1:32) <br><br>Nathans prophecy <br><br>Jesus was born of Mary a Virgin, as pre told by Isaiah 7:14 Messiah is called Emmanuel, Isaiahs prophecy. Mathew 1:18 25 Jesus was born in Bethlehem Micahs prophecy The Messiah would be a Son of David Nathan, and Jeremiah <br><br>prophesies. Jesus was referred to as a Son of David (Luke 18:38) <br><br>Jesus would bring salvation said by Simeon during dedication of Jesus. <br><br>Luke 2:29 32. This was a fulfillment of Isaiahs prophecy. <br><br>Jesus referred to himself as the Messiah by reading the scroll. Isaiah <br><br>61:1 2. and Luke 4: 18 19 <br><br>Isaiah prophesied that the Messiah would perform miracles. Jesus <br><br>performed many miracles. <br><br>The prophecy of the suffering servant (Isaiah 53) was fulfilled through the passion, death and crucifixion of Jesus Christ. <br><br>We see Jesus betrayed by one of his disciples friend, fulfilling the <br><br>Psalmist prophecy. Note that the Jews in the New Testament expected a messiah who would deliver them from the rule of the Romans. Jews expected Jesus to be a political leader or king. However, Peter called him the Christ of God (Luke 9:20). Matthew called him King of the Jews in chapter (2 verse 2). Hence, Jesus came as a Spiritual Leader and King, and not as a political Leader / King. Self-Assessment Questions 1. What does the name Emmanuel mean? 2. Explain the concept of the Messiah in the New Testament? LESSON THREE. ANNUNCIATION OF THE BIRTH OF JOHN THE BAPTIST Introduction The parents of John the Baptist were Zechariah and his wife Elizabeth. Zechariahs name meant God has remembered. Elizabeths name meant God has sworn. Learning outcome. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the annunciation of the birth of John the Baptist and Jesus. John the Baptist 1. The Annunciation Read Luke 1:5 25. Zechariah was a priest. He and his wife Elizabeth were old, good and righteous people of God. But they did not have a child. They were barren. But God gave them a child, John the Baptist. His birth was announced to his father, Zechariah, when he was in the temple offering incense. An Angel appeared to Zechariah and told him that his prayers had been heard. His wife Elizabeth will bear a son. The angel said the child would be called John, which means that God is gracious. The child Will be set aside to serve God. Will be filled with the Holy Spirit <br><br>As an adult, John <br><br>Will be a Nazarite. He should neither cut his hair nor drink wine. Shall turn many hearts of people to the Lord their God. Shall also turn the hearts of the fathers to their children Zachariah expressed unbelief to these words. Angel Gabriel told him that he shall be dumb until the fulfillment of the Gods words. The Birth, Circumcision and Naming Of John the Baptist Elizabeth brought forth a son. This brought great joy to her and Zachariah. The cousins, and neighbours of Elizabeth wanted the Child to be named Zechariah after the father. But Elizabeth insisted on the name John. When Zechariah was asked to name the child, he wrote down the name John. On the 8th day, the child was named John as the angel had said. John was circumcised on the 8th day according to the Jewish traditions. After naming his Child John, the mouth of Zechariah opened immediately and he started to speak. He sung a song referred to as Benedictus in Luke 1:67 79. As he sung the Benedictus, Zechariah prophesied that God has: <br><br>Raised up a horn of salvation on the house of David Remembered his covenant with Abraham <br><br>Zechariah said this about his Child John: He shall be the prophet of the most high The child/John shall prepare the way of the lord by (i) Calling men to forgiveness (ii) Showing men the light of salvation (iii) Guiding people into peace. LESSON FOUR. THE ROLE OF JOHN THE BAPTIST The role of John the Baptist is found in Isaiah 40: 3 5, Malachi 3:1, 4:5 6, and Luke 7: 20 35. Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the role of John the Baptist in the Gospel. John the Baptist had an important role to play according to the Angel who announced his coming birth. His role was to: . <br><br>Be a Prophet with qualities of Elijah (see Malachi 3:1, 4:5) Announce the good news to come just like Elijah did. Be the link between the Old Testament and New Testament Prepare the way for the Lord. Announce the coming of Gods reign that was near. Preach a baptism of repentance Baptize with water Introduce people, and his disciples to the Messiah Jesus Christ. Fulfil the Prophecy of Elijah that a messenger was sent before the <br><br>coming of the Messiah. John the Baptist was likened to Elijah. Topic review questions 1. Outline the qualities of John as described by angel Gabriel to Zechariah 2. Why was John referred to as the second Elijah? 3. What lessons do Christians learn from annunciation of the birth of John the Baptist? 4.describe the birth of John the Baptist TOPIC TWO: THE INFANCY AND EARLY LIFE OF JESUS LUKE 1:26 38 Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should: a. Explain events leading to the birth of Jesus b. Describe the meeting between Mary and Elizabeth c. Describe the birth of Jesus d. Explain the dedication of JESUS e. Describe Jesus at the Temple a. Angel Gabriel announces the birth of Jesus. Angel Gabriel said that Mary would conceive and bear a child. Angel Gabriel called Mary the highly favoured one. Mary was an ordinary virgin girl in Galilee engaged to marry Joseph, a descendant of David. The Angel said that Mary will bear (i) A Son (ii) called Jesus (which means God serves. (iii) The child shall be great (iv) He shall be called the son of the highest. (v) He shall be given the throne of his father David (vi) He shall reign forever (vii) His kingdom will never end. Read again and explain what angel Gabriel said concerning the child to be born to Mary? b. Mary visits Elizabeth. Luke 1:39-56 Angel Gabriel had told Mary that her cousin Elizabeth was also going to have a child. Mary went to visit her. The child in Elizabeths womb leaped when Mary greeted Elizabeth. The Holy Spirit revealed to Elizabeth that Mary is the mother of her Lord, the Messiah. Mary answered Elizabeth by singing the hymn The Protector in Psalm 121:3, The Love of God. Psalm 103:17, 98:3. The Magnificent. In this hymn Mary says: Her soul magnifies the Lord. The Lord has regarded the poor and those of low estate. Gods mercy is on them that fear him from generation to generation. God humbles the proud and mighty, and exalts those of low estate (the lowly) God has filled the hungry and sent the rich away empty Through the magnificent, Mary, expresses her joy, gratitude and favour given to her and the world. c. The birth of Jesus Christ. Luke.2: 1 20 The birth of Jesus took place in Bethlehem, in Judea, during the reign of Augustus Caesar, a Roman Emperor. During that time, Rome was conducting a census of the people / citizens for the purpose of collecting taxes. The census was ordered by the emperor to determine payment of taxes. The method that Rome was using was counting. Joseph, of the house of David went to his hometown, called Bethlehem; for the census. Jesus was born during this time. He was wrapped in swaddling clothes and laid in a manger because there was no accommodation in Bethlehem. The first people to receive the news that a Savior was born were the shepherds. An angel announced the birth of the Savior, Christ the lord, to the shepherds. The shepherds went to Bethlehem and saw the child Jesus. They spread the word concerning what had been told them about the child. How was the annunciation of the birth of Jesus extraordinary? d. The dedication of JESUS LUKE.2: 22 38 Like John the Baptist, Jesus was circumcised, and named on the 8th day. He was named Jesus which means the savior or Yahweh or saves. Mary and Joseph observed the Jewish customs according to the Law of Moses. For her purification and dedication of the child Jesus, Mary brought a pair of turtledoves as an offering. The fist born males were dedicated to God as Holy. Simeon took the child up in his arms for dedication and said that: The child is set for the fall and rising of many in Israel. A Sword will pierce Marys soul on account of the child. Prophet Anna also came to the temple and prophesied that the child shall bring deliverance. e. Jesus at the Temple Luke 2:42 52 The parents of Jesus Mary and Joseph, went to Jerusalem every year for the feast of the Passover. When Jesus was 12, he accompanied them to Jerusalem. After the feast the parents went home without realizing that their child, Jesus was not with them. But while on the way, they realized he was not amongst them. They returned to Jerusalem, and looked for him for 3 days. They found him sitting in the temple; listening and asking teachers questions. All those who were in the temple were astonished by his wisdom and intelligence. It is in the temple that Jesus is revealed, first as a true son of his people and also as light and salvation for all people. On being questioned by Mary and Joseph, Jesus answered thus: Didnt you know I had to be in my Fathers house, about my Fathers business? This was an echo of Malachi 3:1 the Lord whom you seek will suddenly come to his temple. Answer these questions 1 Trace occasions when angels appeared to people in the new testament 2 How did Jesus follow the customs and traditions of the Jewish people? Answers 1. Occasions when angels appeared to people in the New Testament (a) Angel appeared to Zechariah to announce birth of John the Baptist (b) Angel appeared to Mary to announce the birth of Jesus Christ (c) Angels appeared to the shepherds on the night Jesus was born (d) Angel appeared to Joseph in a dream warning him to flee to Egypt with the child and Mary 2. How Jesus followed the customs and traditions of the Jewish people (i) He was named on the 8th day (ii) He was circumcised on the 8th day (iii) His parents took him to the temple for the annual cerebrations of the. Passover (iv) He went to the synagogue (v) In his dedication as a first male, his parents offered the sacrifices expected from them. Topic Review Questions 1. Explain events leading to the birth of Jesus b. Describe the meeting between Mary and Elizabeth c. Describe the birth of Jesus d. Explain the dedication of JESUS e. Describe Jesus at the Temple TOPIC THREE. THE GALILEAN MINISTRY LUKE 3-8 John the Baptist and Jesus Christ Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should: a) Explain the teachings of John the Baptist b) Describe the baptism and temptation of Jesus and its relevance to Christians today. c) Give reasons as to why Jesus was rejected at Nazareth d) Describe the first miracles of Jesus at Capernaum LESSON ONE. THE PREACHING OF JOHN THE BAPTIST (Luke3: 1 20) John the Baptist preached about <br><br>a. Baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins. Baptism means to dip in water. Repentance means change of heart/mind, turning around. Baptism was a symbol of repentance, which means a total change heart/mind, a confession of sins). Baptism of water was a preparation of the baptism of fire and Holy Spirit by Jesus. b. He warned people of Gods coming Judgment. The religious leaders stressed outward observance of the law rather than inner righteousness. John the Baptist told them to bear fruits worthy of repentance. He told them to live righteous lives and not as hypocrites (brood of vipers). Religious leaders also assumed that since they were descendants of Abraham, God would not punish them. He warned them that God could raise descendants of Abraham from stones. c) He announced the coming of the Messiah as Judge. John the Baptist became famous that some thought he is the promised messiah. He however pointed to a messiah who will not baptize with water but with the Holy Ghost and fire (Jesus Christ). d) He preached on social justice. He taught, emphasized, advised: That those who have should share with those who do not have The need for fairness and honesty for example tax collectors not to e). He condemned King Herods immoral behaviour. King Herod had married Herodians his own brothers wife. Herod imprisoned John the Baptist and this led to his death (Luke 3 v.22) What does the term social justice mean? Find the answer in (d). Summary of the teachings of John the Baptist <br><br>He taught on repentance and forgiveness of sins. He warned people of Gods coming judgment. He announced the coming of the messiah who would be judge. He preached on social justice. Those who have should share with the <br><br>poor. <br><br>He emphasized the need for fairness and honesty. He warned against abuse of power by those in power and authority. He condemned taking of bribes, corruption and over taxation. He condemned sexual immorality (adultery). <br><br>Relevance of the teachings of John the Baptist to Christians today The teachings challenge Christians to be fair, honest, and just in their dealings with other people. Christians should avoid being hypocritical to one another. Christians need to know that God will judge them for their wrongdoing. Hence Christian should repent their sins sincerely and seek forgiveness. Christians should warn non-believers of the coming judgment. They should preach against evils without fear; and avoid corruption, and sexual immorality. Christians should live together in harmony. Baptism was important to Christians. Group Activity. Read Luke and find out how John the Baptist was killed, why and by whom LESSON TWO. THE BAPTISM OF JESUS AND ITS RELEVANCE TODAY Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: a. Describe the baptism of Jesus Christ b. Give reasons why Jesus was baptized c. State relevance or the importance of the baptism of Jesus to Christians a. The baptism of Jesus Christ (Luke 3: 21 22) When Jesus was around 30 years of age, He went to be baptized by John the Baptist. Jesus was the last to be baptized. Although he did not need to repent as He did not sin ; He nevertheless was baptized even though He was without sin. When he was baptized, the heaven opened and the Holy Ghost descended on Him in the form of a dove. At the same time, a voice from heaven said, This is my beloved son, in whom I am well pleased. b. Reasons why Jesus was baptized. He was baptized because: a. Jesus wanted to show his approval of Johns Ministry of baptism b. Jesus accepted the work of redemption of human kind to be completed through suffering and death c. Jesus identified himself with the sinful humankind who needed redemption through baptism d. Jesus carried all the sins of humankind (baptized last) e. He wanted to carry sins of people/humankind upon himself in order to bring about reconciliation between people and God. f. God can confirm to the people that Jesus Christ was the messiah (Ps 2:7) g. It was an act of preparing those who were ready to receive the Messiah. h. Baptism was a way of fulfilling the Old Testament prophecy. c. Relevance or the Importance of the baptism of Jesus to Christians 1) Christians practice baptism. They follow example of Jesus baptism. There are many forms of baptism such as full immersion in water, sprinkling of water on the forehead, partial immersion (head only) and passing under a flag. 2) Christians teach importance of baptism. It qualifies a new convert to become a member of Christian fellowship. 3) Through baptism, Christians receive the power of the Holy Ghost. 4) Through baptism, Christians identify themselves with Jesus Christ and all that he stands for. 5) Baptism unites Christians in the body of Christ. 6) Baptism is a symbol of death and resurrection. In some denominations, the baptized are given new names of other Christians and Jews. 7) Baptism signifies the forgiveness of sins Through baptism one is considered a child of God. 9) Baptism is a form of preparation for the kingdom of God. 10) Baptism is a sign of Christs forgiveness of sins. Lesson Revision questions a. What is the relevance of john the Baptist teaching to Christians today? b. Give reasons why Jesus accepted to be baptized c. Describe the baptism of Jesus d. What is the significance of the baptism of Jesus to Christians today LESSON THREE. TEMPTATIONS OF JESUS: RELEVANCE TO CHRISTIANS TODAY Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should a. Narrate temptations of Jesus b. State relevance of the temptations of Jesus to modern Christians <br><br>c. State lessons that Christians can learn from temptations of Jesus a. The temptations of Jesus (Luke 4:1 13). Jesus, full of the Holy Spirit returned from Jordan into the desert. Like Elijah, Moses, He ate and drunk nothing for 40 days and nights. He was hungry after 40 days. It is at this time of weakness when the devil tempted Him. First temptation. The devil told Jesus to proof that He was the Son of God by turning the stones to become bread. Jesus however replied that it is written man does not live on bread alone to sustain him but on everything that the Lord says (Deut 8:3). Satan was telling Jesus to use his Messianic power and Spirit to obtain material security for himself and his followers for selfish, materialistic purposes. What can we learn from this temptation? Jesus was not seeking to establish a material paradise on earth. Second temptation. The devil led Jesus up to a high place (High Mountain) and showed Him in an instant all the Kingdoms of the world. He told Him that he would give Him all their authority and splendor, if He bows and worships Satan. Jesus replied it is written worship the Lord your God and serve him only. Do not worship other gods (Deut.6: 13-14). Satan wanted Jesus to use Godly power and influence. This was idolatry i.e. worshipping other gods. What can we learn from this temptation? Jesus did not come to seek a worldwide political military reign as many Jews expected Him to do. Third Temptation. The Devil led Jesus to Jerusalem and had Him stand on the highest point of the temple. He told Jesus to throw Himself down if He was the Son of God for it is written that the Lord will command angels to guard him (Psalm 91:11 12). Jesus replied and said it is written, do not put the Lord your God to the test. Satan wanted Jesus to presume on Gods good care by jumping from the roof of the temple. What can we learn from this temptation? Jesus will not force belief in His Messiah ship through a spectacular sign. Notice that the temptations came after Jesus Baptism, where he had solemnly accepted the opening of his public ministry and God confirmed it. Therefore the temptations were a testing of his loyalty to Gods chosen way of life. b. Relevance of Jesus temptations to Christians Jesus, though without sin was tempted. His followers must expect to be tested in their faith. Christians learn that it is not sinful to be tempted. Since Jesus was tempted, he understands Christians difficulties when they are tempted. Jesus is always ready to help Christians to cope with temptations. Why do you think Christians are tempted? Through temptations and trials, Christians faith in God is strengthened. Christians learn to refer to the Bible for guidance when tempted. Jesus said that it is written in reference to scripture. Christians should seek the Holy Spirit to give them strength to fight any form of trials and temptations. Jesus, full of the Holy Spirit went to the wilderness and was tempted by the devil In temptation, God does provide a way out. Thus followers of Jesus Christ (Christians) should not be seekers of spectacular signs. LESSON FOUR. REJECTION OF JESUS AT NAZARETH Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should a. Describe rejection of Jesus at Nazareth b. Suggest possible reasons for rejection a. Rejection of Jesus at Nazareth (Luke 4:14 30). After the temptation, Jesus went to Galilee, His home district to begin his ministry. As a faithful Israelite, Jesus attended service in the synagogue every Sabbath day. During that time, it was customary for visiting Rabbis (Teachers of the law) to be given the honor of reading from the law or to address the congregation. When Jesus was given this opportunity, He opened the scroll and read from Isaiah 61: 1 3 The Sovereign Lord has filled me with his spirit. He has chosen me and sent me. Luke writes in 4 v 18 The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has chosen me to bring good news to the poor. On completion of the reading, Jesus told them that today this scripture has been fulfilled in their hearing. From this reading Jesus referred to himself as the Messiah. The people of Nazareth in indignation wanted to kill Jesus by throwing him over a cliff. b. Possible Reasons for Rejection. Jews of Nazareth rejected Jesus because one, they knew him as the son of Mary and Joseph. They did not know Him as the Son of God. Two, Jesus did not fit into the idea of a political King that the Jews were expecting. They were waiting for a King with an army and horses. Three, Jesus preaching was seen as being against that of Pharisees, Scribes and Sadducees: the religious leaders at that time. Four, Jesus pointed out evils of religious leaders. Five, a leader is never accepted at home especially in a superior or senior position. Six, Jesus did not follow the general rules of the Mosaic Law. These were fasting, healing and working on the Sabbath day. Worse still Jesus associated Himself with Jewish outcasts such as sinners, and the sick. Discussion question 1. What are the possible reasons for rejection of Jesus at Nazareth? Answers (i) He was known by people as son of Mary and Joseph (ii) He did not fit in the idea of a political king that Jews were expecting (iii) Often times one is not accepted at home and at a senior position (iv) He did not follow the general rules of the law of Moses (v) He associated with sinners, and outcasts LESSON FIVE. HEALING AT CAPERNAUM Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson: a. Describe Jesus healing at Capernaum b. Explain healing of a man possessed with an evil spirit c. Describe Jesus healing of Simons mother in law a. Jesus healing at Capernaum LK. 4:31 44 After his rejection in Nazareth and an attempt to throw him down a hill, Jesus went on to Capernaum. Here he cast out demons (Luke 4: 40 41). He was teaching people. He performed many miracles of healing. For example: i. Healing a man possessed by an evil spirit. A man was possessed by an unclean demon/spirit. He was in the synagogue. When he saw Jesus, the evil spirit shouted, Ah! What do you want with us, Jesus of Nazareth? Have you come to destroy us? I know who you are, the Holy one of God (Luke 4:34). Jesus replied, Be silent and come out of him. The Demon threw the man down and came out without doing any harm. The man was made whole. ii. Jesus heals Simons mother in law. After Jesus left the synagogue, he went to the house of Simon Peters mother in law. She had a fever, Jesus commanded the fever to leave and she was made whole immediately. Which lessons do Christians learn from the healings at Capernaum There are many lessons. These are that 1) Jesus is the son of God 2) Jesus came to establish the Kingdom of God and destroy the kingdom of Satan. 3) Jesus has power over evil spirits / demons. 4) Jesus came to save human beings from the slavery of sin 5) God cares for his people. LESSON SIX. THE CALLING OF THE FIRST DISCIPLES Luke 5: 1 11 Introduction: A disciple is a learner, a student or a follower. Learners followed a master so as to learn about religious matters. Disciples were followers of Christ. Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the call of the first disciples. Rabbis. These were teachers of law. They had special schools where they taught law. In these schools, learning was by memorization and repetition what students heard from the rabbis. The disciples of Jesus did not memorize. They learnt by observation. They were witnesses and they spoke what they heard and described or explained what they saw. Call of the first disciples Jesus entered into Simons ship and started to teach people who were there. Later, He told Simon to push off a little from the shore. Jesus sat in the boat and taught the crowd. After speaking, he told Simon, and his partners James and John; Push the boat out further to the deep waterand let down your nets for a catch of fish. Simon told Jesus that they had toiled all night, and caught nothing. But if you say so, I will let down the nets. Simon obeyed. They let down the nets and caught a multitude of fish. They called for assistance from other fishermen. When Simon Peter saw this, he told Jesus Go away from me, Lord! I am a sinful man! Jesus said to Simon Dont be afraid, from now on you will be catching people. On getting to the shore, Peter and his friends James and John sons of Zebedee forsook all and followed Jesus Thus the first disciples of Jesus were Simon Peter; James and John. Lessons from the call of the first disciples 1) God can choose anybody to serve him regardless of his or her social status. 2) God still calls people to serve him in various capacities as evangelists, pastors and others. 3) Those called should repent their sins as Peter did 4) Christians should trust in God Simon Peter trusted Jesus and cast his nets even though they had caught no fish from the same spot. 5) God can intervene in peoples lives through miracles (miraculous catch of fish) 6) Christians should work together as a team. Fishermen worked together. 7) There is hope for those who follow Jesus. He told them follow me and I will make you fishers of men God reveals himself to people in everyday activities as Jesus revealed himself to Simon Peter, and his friends James and John through fishing. 9) Christians vocation may require renunciation of family ties and occupations or a change of life. 10) Those called to serve God are expected to be humble LESSON SEVEN. OPPOSITION IN GALILEE Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should a. Describe the Pharisees? Scribes? Sadducees. b. Identify the differences between the Pharisees and the Sadducees. c. Explain why Jesus faced opposition from Pharisees, Sadducees, and Scribes Jesus ministry consisted of teaching, healing and doing many miracles. Because of this work, Jesus faced opposition from the Pharisees, Sadducees and Scribes. These were Jewish religious leaders. a. Opposition by Pharisees and Sadducees. Luke 5:12- 6:11 Why did Jewish religious leaders; the Pharisees? Scribes? Sadducees oppose Jesus? There were many reasons for Jewish opposition to Jesus. These were: 1) Jesus was becoming more famous than the religious leaders 2) His claim to forgive sins. This was reserved only for God. 3) His association with tax collectors / publicans and sinners. For example, Jesus ate with Levi. 4) His failure to observe the law of fasting. Jesus disciples did not fast like the disciples of the Pharisees and John the Baptist. 5) Doing what religious leaders regarded as unlawful things on the Sabbath day. For example, a. Eating on Sabbath with unwashed hands (disciples), b. Plucking corn on the Sabbath day c. Working. Jesus healed on the Sabbath day. This was considered as work, which was unlawful. Jesus healed a man with a paralyzed hand on the Sabbath day. d. Touching the unclean. Jesus reached out his hand and touched a leper and healed him. Religious leaders were not allowed to touch the unclean lepers. e. Associating with tax collectors who were regarded as sinners because they were corrupt. They collected more tax than the required amount. Jesus was supposed not to associate with them or support them in any way. Who were the Pharisees? These were Referred to as the separated ones Religious leaders who expected people to respect and honour them. Pious leaders and wanted everybody to recognize them. Rich Jews and looked at their riches as blessings from God. Called ones and thought of themselves as the righteous ones. Popular to the poor who respected them. <br><br>Characteristics of Pharisees a. They believed in the Law of Moses and accepted the first five books of the Bible as God inspired. They insisted on strict observance of the law. b. They upheld and insisted on the observance of the oral traditions of the elders. c. They followed strictly 632 distinct rules and regulations broken down from the ten commandments d. They believed in the teachings of the prophets and other writings of the Old Testament. e. They passed religious traditions of the Jews from generation to generation and regarded this as a duty or obligation. f. They believed in the existence of angels and regarded them as intermediaries between God and human beings. g. They believed in the existence of demons and Satan h. They believed in and waited for the Messiah of God to come i. The believed in the resurrection of the dead j. The believed in the judgment of God at the end of time for all human kind k. They were strong nationalists and political leaders who resisted all foreign influences and power. Who were the Scribes? The word Scribe means a writer. The work of a scribe was to rewrite by hand new manuscripts of the Jewish scriptures. The copied the word exactly as it was. The scribes were either Pharisees or Sadducees. At the time of Jesus, majority of the Scribes were associated with the Pharisees. A scribe was also a Rabbi teacher. Some scribes managed schools called Rabbinical Schools. In these schools, Jewish male youth learnt the Mosaic Law from the age of 13 years. Scribes were represented in the Jewish religious council called the Sanhedrin. Sanhedrin was the Jewish Court of Justice, which tried those who committed religious sins. Who were the Sadducees? Sadducees were the wealthy people. They were an influential group. These were the majority in the Sanhedrin, the Jewish Court of Justice. The poor hated them. They were also members of the Jerusalem priesthood. The chief priests were mainly drawn from the Sadducees. They believed in the divine authority of the Law of Moses and the Pentateuchs first five Books of the bible. They believed that Moses wrote the first 5 books of the Bible. They regarded all the other books in the Old Testament as not divinely inspired. Hence they rejected them. They rejected and did not believe in (a) The resurrection of the dead (b) Last judgment (c) Coming of the Messiah (d) Angels and demons and (e) the oral traditions of the Pharisees. They were enemies of the Pharisees particularly because of religious matters. However, they joined with the Pharisees and Scribes to oppose Jesus Christ. LESSON EIGHT. THE SERMON ON THE PLAIN (Luke. 6:1216, 27 49) Review In the previous section, we learnt that Jesus chose His apostles. He came down the hill and stood on a level place. He gave a sermon to those present. This address is referred to as the sermon on the plain in Lukes Gospel. The people had come to hear Jesus word to receive healing and for Jesus to exercise unclean spirits from them. In the sermon, Jesus talked of the characteristics of the new community. All those who would listen to His word would be the New Israel. Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to (a) Name the12 disciples (b) Summarize the teachings of Jesus on true discipleship Analyse the teachings of Jesus on the plain (sermon on the plain) Selection of 12 disciples (Luke. 6:12 16) Jesus went into a mountain to pray. In the morning, he called his disciples. From them, he selected 12 disciples, whom he also called apostles. Apostle means one who is sent, a missionary. The 12 disciples were: (1) Simon Peter (2) Andrew (3) James (4) John (5) Phillip (6) Bartholomew (7) Mathew (Levi) (8) Thomas (9) James son of Alphaeus (10) Simon who was called the Patriot (11) Judas son of James and (12) Judas Iscariot who became the traitor (Luke vs. 14-16) Jesus teachings on true discipleship Jesus taught that a follower or disciple of Christ should: (a) Have unshakeable faith (b) Be obedient to Gods word (c) Be self-critical/analytical/self-searching (d) Be kind, loyal, objective, fair, and generous (e) Accept others without discrimination. (f) Be a disciple and show concern for others. The Sermon on the plain (Luke 6: 17 49) The Sermon on the plain is a lecture or lesson that Jesus gave to a large number of his disciples and a large crowd of people who had come from Judea, Jerusalem, tyre, and Sidon. They came to listen to the sermon of Jesus and to be healed of diseases, evil sprits. The purpose of the sermon was to teach the crowd the meaning of following Christ. Jesus covered 6 beatitudes or topics in his sermon. These are. 1) Blessings and woes beatitudes (2) Love for enemies (3) Judging others (4) Giving to the needy (5) A tree and its fruits (6) Wise and foolish builders hearing and doing the words of Jesus. We shall now discuss each of these beatitudes in detail. 1. Blessings and woes. Jesus taught that: (i) Blessed are the poor for theirs is the Kingdom of God. (ii) Blessed are the hungry for they shall be filled (iii) Blessed are those who weep now for they shall laugh (iv) Blessed are those who men shall hate, reject, reproach for the sake of Christs for their great reward is kept in heaven. (v) Woe to those who are rich, for they have already received their reward. (vi) Woe to those who are full for they shall go hungry (vii) Woe to those who laugh now for they shall mourn and weep (viii) Woe to those whom people speak well, for ancestors said the same about the false prophets. Those who accept to be followers of Christ are promised blessings while those who reject Christ are to suffer in future. 2. Love your enemies. Luke. 6: 27 36. Love is often defined as a warm feeling / affection towards somebody or something. Jesus taught his followers to love their enemies and do well to those who hate you. Bless those who curse you. Pray for those who mistreat you. Do unto men as you expect them to do unto you. Lend also to your enemies. Love your enemies and do good to them. Lend and expect nothing back. Be merciful. From these teachings: true discipleship of Jesus Christ: a) Entails unconditional love even for enemies b) Doing good without expecting any returns c) Praying for those who mistreat us d) Showing love to our enemies by exhibiting Gods love in us. e) Is love; because those who love are children of the most high who is kind and merciful to the sinners. (3) Judging others Luke. 6: 37 42 Jesus taught his followers not to judge others lest they are also judged. They should not condemn others lest they are also condemned. He asked disciples to forgive others and they shall also be forgiven. True discipleship requires acknowledging ones shortcomings and avoiding criticism of others. (4) Giving to the needy. A true disciple should share what they have with the needy. Those who share shall be rewarded. He also said that the blind couldnt lead the blind. There is a master and a follower. The disciple is not above his master. (5) A tree and its fruits. A healthy tree bears good fruits. A poor tree bears poor fruit. Neither does a corrupt tree bring forth good fruits. A tree is known by its fruits. Followers of Christ are evident to others by their actions. They are not hypocritical or fault finding. (6) Wise and foolish builders. A wise builder digs a deep foundation on a rock. When floods come, the house is able to stand. A foolish builder builds his house upon the sand. Without a foundation, when floods come, the house falls and is ruined. Wise builders are those who hear the word of God and do what is required. Those who do not adhere to the teachings are the unwise builders. True discipleship entails obedience to the teachings of Jesus Christ. Relevance of the lessons of the Sermon on the Plain to Christian Life Christians are urged to love even those that hate them. The challenges that followers of Christ encountered in the New Testament are not different from those that Christians experience today. Christians should forgive others, share with the needy, avoid judging others, and follow the teachings of Christ. Lesson Revision questions 1. Give the main teaching of Jesus on the sermon on the plain 2. What is the relevance of the (beatitudes) sermon on the plain to Christians today? LESSON NINE. JESUS WORKS OF COMPASSION In this lesson, Jesus works of compassion is discussed. These include the works of mercy for those in distress and pity for the suffering. Jesus mission lays its foundation in these works of compassion, because He came to establish the kingdom of God by conquering all forms of suffering caused by Satan. Compassion is a feeling of empathy for other peoples sufferings. Its being merciful, showing concern and affection for others. Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: a) Give examples of Jesus works of compassion b) Narrate Jesus works of compassion c) Give reasons why Jesus used parables d) Identify categories of the miracles of Jesus e) Give lessons learnt from each example in each category a. Examples of Jesus works of compassion. There are many examples of compassion i) Healing of the centurions servant (Luke 7:1 10) Centurion is an officer in charge of 100 men. Jesus healed the servant of a Roman soldier and a Gentile. The Centurion showed love and concern for his servant. The centurion sent Jewish elders to Jesus with a request to heal his servant. The leaders said this man deserves to have you do this, because he loves our nation and has built our synagogue (Luke 7:5). Jesus agreed and went with the elders. But before Jesus reached the centurions house, the centurion sent his friends to stop him from coming to his house. He said that he was not worthy to have Jesus under his roof. He said that he was a man of authority. Hence Jesus could give an order and the servant would be healed. On hearing this, Jesus declared to the crowd I tell you, I have not found such great faith even in Israel. When the men returned, they found the servant well. Lessons Christians can learn from the healing of the centurion servant. 1. Faith in God is important for healing to occur 2. We should confess our faith in Jesus. The centurion declared his faith in Jesus by saying he believed that Jesus could heal his servant by his word. 3. Christians should have compassion like Jesus. He took compassion on the servant and was ready to go and heal him. 4. Salvation was not for Jews alone, but for all who believed in Jesus. Centurion was not a Jew but a gentile officer in the Roman army. But he had faith in Jesus healing. 5. Christians should love each other regardless of their background or social status the centurion loved his servant dearly. 6. Christians should learn to relate well with all around them the centurion related well with the Jewish elders and others. 7. Jesus has power to heal any form of sickness. ii) The raising of the widows son Luke 7:11 17. A widow is a woman whose husband is dead. The widow was of the city of Nain. When Jesus neared the gates of the city, he saw the funeral procession of the widows son, the only son of his mother. Jesus had compassion on the widow and told her weep not. Jesus then touched the casket and said young man I say unto you, arise. The dead sat up and began to speak. All the people were filled with fear and glorified God, saying God has visited his people. Lessons Christians learn from the raising of the widows son 1) Jesus has power over death 2) Jesus empathizes with the suffering 3) Acts of love should not be hindered by traditions Jesus touched the casket even though Jewish traditions forbid it. 4) The Widow of Nain was a gentile. This is a sign that salvation was universal. 5) The crowd acknowledged Jesus lordship; Christians should acknowledge the lordship of Jesus. What are the practices pertaining to the disposal of the dead in your culture? and community? iii) Assurance to John the Baptist (Luke 7:20 30). A question arose whether Jesus Christ was the Messiah. John the Baptist wanted to assure his disciples that Christ; was the expected messiah: and not him (John the Baptist). He sent his disciples to Jesus to ask if you are the one he said was going to come, or if we should expect someone else? (Vs. 20). Jesus told the disciples of John to go back and tell John of the miracles works they saw and heard. Jesus then gave a testimony of John the Baptist as a prophet, whose life and missions is beyond that of ordinary prophets. Jesus testified that John the Baptist; was the forerunner or messenger of Jesus Christ: as the prophets in the Old Testament had written. The Pharisees and the publicans (teaches of the law) however rejected the testimony about John the Baptist. They had refused to be baptized by John. Those baptized by John the Baptist, the tax collectors acknowledged the testimony of Jesus. Jesus rebuked the Pharisees and teachers of law for their hypocrisy. In what ways were the Pharisees and teaches of law hypocritical? iv) The forgiveness of the sinful woman (Luke 7: 36 50) Jesus was invited by one of the Pharisees called Simon to his house to dine with him. In that city, there was a sinful woman. She went to the house of Simon when she learnt that Jesus was in the Pharisees house. She brought with her an alabaster jar full of perfume. She stood behind Jesus. She was weeping and washing his feet with her fears. She then wiped the tears from the feet of Jesus with her hair, kissed his feet, and anointed them with oil (an alabaster box of ointment). When Simon, the host saw this he said within himself, if this man was a prophet, he would know who this woman is who is touching him a sinful woman. Jesus told Simon a parable of a man who forgave two people that owed him money one 500, the other 50. Jesus asked which of the two debtors would love him most. Simon said the one that was forgiven much, Jesus then told Simon that when he came to his house, Simon did not give him water for his feet; neither did he welcome Jesus with a kiss; nor provide him with olive oil. But the woman washed his feet with her tears, and wiped them with her hair. She also kissed his feet. Jesus told the people that her sins, being many are forgiven for she loved much. Jesus turned to the woman and told her thy sins are forgiven. Thy faith has saved thee, go in peace. The people who were eating with Jesus murmured. Who was Jesus? He forgives sins. Lessons from the forgiveness of the sinful woman 1. The Jews believed that by associating with sinners, one becomes virtually defiled. Jesus however allowed the sinful woman to touch him. 2. By her actions, the woman acknowledged that she was a sinner, and repented. This was in contrast to the Pharisees who were self-righteous and therefore did not repent. 3. The Womans great love for Jesus led to her being forgiven of her sins. 4. Christians need to accept their sinful nature and seek forgiveness from God. 5. Faith in Jesus is necessary. Summary. Jesus is accepted women to be his followers unlike the Jewish customs which viewed women as lesser than men. Other women that played a key role in the ministry of Jesus include Mary Magdalene, Joann Joanna and Susanna among many others. Lesson Revision questions 1. What role do women play in the church ministry? 2. Narrate the story of the forgiveness of the sinful woman (Lk 7: 36, 8:3) 3. What lessons do you learn from the above story? 4. Describe the story of the raising of the widows son at Nain (Lk 7: 11- 17) Answers Women play many roles in the church ministry. Some of these are: (i) Carrying out duties of pastors, bishops, and deacons (ii) Management. Some are heads of the women groups (iii) Leading in church service (iv) Participating as church ushers, choir singers, and youth leaders (v) Attending church. Women are part of the congregations LESSON TEN. JESUS TEACHING IN PARABLES (LK. 8: 4- 21) Introduction Jesus used parables to teach. A parable is a Greek word. It means comparing or putting side by side in order to understand. A parable is defined as a short story or description, which teaches something or answers some questions. It is an allegory an earthly story with a hidden or heavenly meaning. a. Use of parables. Jesus used parables in his teachings in order to explain unfamiliar messages in a language that his hearers could understand. Other reasons were because Jesus wanted to: 1) Provoke critical thinking 2) Make the audience understand issues from a different point of view 3) Explain the nature of the kingdom of God by giving real life examples. 4) Explain the nature of God. The parables brought out the attributes of an invisible God. For example, the parable of the prodigal son who had been lost. 5) Attract the attention of his audiences so that they could listen and understand. 6) Make people understand how they should relate to one another. Read the parable of the good Samaritan 7) Teach Gods love to mankind. The parable of the lost sheep, lost coin. Separate / identify those who were sincere in seeking the kingdom of God from the onlookers. 9) Challenge the imagination of his hearers since entry to Gods kingdom was a personal decision. 10) Make an indirect attack on his opponents like the Pharisees, the scribes and the Sadducees. 11) Teach his disciples that they should be persistent and never be discouraged. 12) Make his teachings interesting and easy to understand. 1. The parable of the sower Lk 8:4 15 Jesus told this parable to the crowd that followed him. He said that a farmer went out to sow corn. He scattered seeds in the field. As he did so, some of them fell on the path, and they were trampled on and eaten by birds. Other seeds fell on the rock ground. When they germinated, they withered because they lacked moisture. Some seed fell among thorns bushes. They grew with bushes, which choked them as they grew. Some other seeds fell on fertile soil. They grew up in fertile soil and their yield was100 seed for each seed sown. Meaning or interpretation of the parable Jesus gave the meaning of the parable to his disciples. He said that the seed is the word of God. i. Seed that fell on the path represents people who hear the word of God, and then the devil comes and takes away the word from their hearts so that they do not believe. Such listeners are like the seeds that fell on the path. They hear the word but soon after the devil takes away the message to stop them from believing and being saved. ii. Seed that fell on the rocky ground are people who receive the word with joy but it does not stay with them. They believe for a while but when faced with trials and temptations they stop believing and fall away. iii. Seed that fell on the thorny bushes stands for people who receive the word. However, they fail to follow their beliefs because of interference by lifes worries, riches and pressures of the world. They fail to mature as believers. iv. Seed that fell on the good soil are those people with a noble and good heart. They hear the word, and retain it in their hearts. Such people persevere and produce good harvest. v. Interpretation. The different types of soil in this parable refer to different kinds of Hearts of people. The farmer is Jesus, God or Preacher. We learn that: One should not despair and Its important to receive the word of God, practice it and persevere so as <br><br>to bear fruits. 2. The parable of a lamp under a bowl (Lk.8: 16 18). Jesus taught that no one lights a lamp, then covers it with a bowl or hide it under a bed. When one lights a lamp, they put it on the lamp stand so as to illuminate a room and for people to see the light. For whatever is hidden or covered up shall be revealed. In this parable Jesus is the light. The disciples had a duty to pass on to others messages they had learnt from Jesus. They should not keep messages to themselves. Interpretation. From this parable of a lamp under a bowl, we learn that: i A Christian has a duty to share the knowledge of God with others ii One cannot be a Christian if this knowledge is hidden iii Those who do not share may loose their beliefs. 3. Jesus mother and brothers. Luke 8:19 21 The mother of Jesus and brothers came to see him. Someone told Jesus that they were there. He told the crowd. My mother and brothers are those who hear the word of God and obey . Accepters and believers are the members of the family of Jesus. Lesson Revision Questions 1. Give reasons why Jesus used parables 2. Identify various methods used by Christians in spreading the gospel today 3. Discuss the reasons why Jesus faced opposition fro the Jewish leaders. LESSON ELEVEN: MIGHTY WORKS OF JESUS Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson a. Organise in categories miracles performed by Jesus b. Narrate each miracle c. Discuss the significance of the miracle and lessons to learn Jesus continued to do miracles; and teach. His work is referred to as the mighty works of Jesus in various books. Miracles can be defined as acts of power whose purpose is to establish the kingdom of God. Miracles can also mean extraordinary events that go against the laws of nature. a. Categories / types of miracles Jesus performed four types of miracles. These were: 1) Nature miracles miracles that dealt with nature e.g. calming of the storm 2) Raising of the dead e.g. Jairus daughter 3) Healing miracles healing Simons mother in law of fever, healing of the woman with the flow of blood. 4) Exorcism miracles casting out of evil spirits e.g. the Gerasene demonic i) The calming of the storm One day, Jesus entered a boat with his disciples to go across Lake Galilee. As they sailed Jesus was asleep in the ship. Suddenly, there was a strong wind and the boat began to sink. The disciples woke him up saying, Master, we are about to die. Jesus woke up and gave an order to the winds and the raging waters. They obeyed and there was calm. He then said to his disciples where is your faith? Disciples were afraid and amazed and wondered, Who is this man? Winds and waves obey him. This miracle teaches Christians to have faith and to depend on Jesus when they face raging temptations and persecutions. Jesus has power over nature. ii) Jesus Heals a Man with demons (Lk8: 26 39) Jesus and his disciples sailed to Gerasa town across Lake Galilee. On arrival a man who had demons in him for a long time met Jesus. He lived naked in tombs, and wilderness. On seeing Jesus, he cried out, threw himself down at the feet of Jesus and shouted; Jesus son of the Most High God! What do you want with me? I beseech thee, torment me not. Jesus had ordered the demons to go out of him. Jesus asked him what is your name? He replied Legion or Mob. This was because the man had been possessed by many demons. The demons begged Jesus not to send them into the deep but to let them go into some pigs (swine) that were feeding by. Jesus allowed them and the devils went out of the man, into the pigs. The herd ran down the cliff into the lake and drowned. The herders run to the city and spread the news. The multitude found the man sitting at the feet of Jesus clothed, and in his right mind. The multitude asked Jesus to leave their country region. The healed man wanted to follow Jesus but Jesus declined and told him to go and tell others of the great things that God had done for him. The man went to town and told all what Jesus had done for him. This miracle teaches Christians that: 1. The mission of Jesus was universal. 2. Jesus mission is to teach all the people irrespective of their race, tribe or geographical location. The demon man was healed in a Gentile area. 3. Jesus has power over evil 4. Powers of evil (demons) are real 5. Human life is more valuable than mans material things 6. The demons evil spirits identified Jesus as the Son of the most High 7. Christians need to fight the power of evil SAQ. What were the causes of mental illness and spirit possession in traditional African society and in modern society? iii) Jairus daughter is raised. Lk.8: 40 42, 49 56 Jairus was an official in the local synagogue. He begged Jesus to come to his house and heal his only daughter who was 12 was dying. iv) Woman with the flow of blood is Healed (Lk. 8:43 48) When Jesus was on route to Jairus house, great crowds followed him and pressed him on either side. Amongst them was a woman who had suffered from severe bleeding for 12 years. She consulted doctors and spent all her savings on physicians. But she was not cured. The society considered the woman unclean. It blamed her for her illness. She herself was embarrassed by her condition. This woman walked behind Jesus and she touched the hem of the garment of Jesus. Her bleeding stopped at once. Jesus asked, who touched me? Everyone denied it. Peter replied the multitude was around Jesus and it was difficult to know who had touched him. Jesus persisted someone touched him. The woman who had touched Jesus the woman came forward, and fell at his feet and confessed to all her sickness and explained why she touched Jesus and how she was healed at once. Jesus said to her My daughter, your faith has made you well. Go in peace. Jairus daughter is raised. Lk.8: 40 42, 49 56 As Jesus was talking to her, Jairus was told that his little girl was dead. Dont bother the teacher anymore. Jesus told Jairus not to fear but to believe and she will be well. When he got to the house he went into the room with Peter, John and James and the parents of the girl. People around were weeping and wailing. But Jesus told them not to weep. She is not dead but asleep. They scorned and laughed at him for saying that she is asleep because they knew she was dead. Jesus took the girl by hand and called out Get up, my child little girl arise. She immediately got up and Jesus ordered the parent to give her food. He commanded them not to tell what had happened. Teachings from these two miracles The miracle of raising Jairus daughter teaches Christians that Jesus is compassionate and the author of life. He has power over death, resurrection and life. In the miracle of healing the Woman with the flow of blood: a. Jesus made her healing public. This was probably because He wanted to acknowledge the womans faith in the public. Jesus made it clear that her faith made her whole. b. Jesus wanted to challenge the cultural practices that kept women in bandage and could not participate in public life. c. Jesus made her healing public so that the community can receive her back and shall not isolate her again. From this miracle of healing this woman, Christians learn that one; Jesus is the healer. He has power over all sicknesses even those without cure. Two, Christians should have faith in Jesus Christ. Lesson Revision Questions 1. Narrate the healing of the Gerasene demoniac Lk 8: 26-39 2. What lessons can Christians learn fro the healing of the demoniac man above? 3. What do the miracles of Jesus teach us about him? 4. Compare the raising of Jairus daughter and the healing of the woman with the flow of blood Answers. A comparison of the raising of Jairus daughter and the healing of the woman with flow of blood (i) Jairus daughter was 12 years old and the woman sick with the flow of blood had suffered for 12 years. (ii) Jesus referred to both of them as daughter (iii) Their situation death and flow of blood did not have a cure (iv) The public witnessed the miracle of the woman with the flow of blood. (v) Jesus commanded Jairus to keep secret raising of his daughter LESSON TWELVE. COMMISSIONING OF THE TWELVE DISCIPLES Lk 9:1 10 Introduction. Commission means to officially ask someone to do something. Learning Outcomes: By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: a Describe the commissioning of the twelve disciples. b Explain the story of the feeding of the 5000 c Describe the transfiguration of Jesus d Explain the teachings of Jesus on faith and humility. a. The commissioning of the twelve disciples The twelve disciples or followers accompanied Jesus wherever he went. They were regarded as apostles. An apostle comes from a Greek word Apostols which means send out one who is sent or a missionary. The commissioning of the 12 disciples meant that they were given four main duties, power and authority to: a) Exorcise or cast out demons b) Cure diseases c) Heal the sick d) Preach the Kingdom of God and proclaim the arrival of Gods Instructions. They were told to: i) Take nothing for the journey ii) Initiate attack on the forces of evil iii) Depend entirely on God to take care of them iv) Take no stick, no beggars bag, no food, no money and not even an extra shirt for their journey v) Whatever house they entered they were to stay there until they leave the town. vi) If they were not welcomed, they were to leave that town and shake the dust off their feet as a warning to that city or town. With these instructions, the disciples left and travelled to all villages preaching the Good News and healing people everywhere. King Herod was perplexed by the work of the disciples and he desired to see Jesus. b. Feeding of the five thousand. Please open your Bible and read Luke chapter 9. Verses 11-17) After reading these verses, about feeding of the five thousand (5000) people we learn that 1. Jesus is concerned about peoples physical needs 2. Jesus demonstrated that he is the bread of life 3. Jesus has divine power 4. The Church has the duty of continuing to feed its followers both spiritually and physically. 5. The feeding of the 5000 people points to the Messianic banquet 6. Christians must learn to share whatever they have with one another 7. From this miracle, Jesus expected his disciples to appreciate their responsibility. Their work was not only to preach and heal but also feed the hungry. Feeding was both physical and spiritual. The personality of Jesus and his identity Lk. 9:18 27 When Jesus was alone with his disciples, he asked them who people say he is. The disciples told him that some say he is John the Baptist, others say he is Elijah and others say he is one of the old prophets who have risen again. Jesus asked them who they, disciples say he is. Peter replied that he is Christ of God. Jesus then told them not to tell people who he is for he Son of man has first to suffer many things be rejected by the elders chief, priests and scribes, be killed and be raised the third day. Jesus announced to the disciples of his passion (great sufferings) Jesus is the Christ (anointed) of God Messiah as well as the son of man. A divine nature and a human nature. Jesus went on ahead to tell his disciples that they should deny themselves (self denial) take up their cross daily and be ready to lose their lives for Jesus. However, great is the reward for the faithful. LESSON THRTEEN: THE TRANSFIGURATION (LK.9: 28 36) Instructions. Read. Luke chapter 9, verse 28 to 36. Then answer revision questions that follow. A brief summary from the Bible Transfiguration is change or transformation of form or appearance. Jesus was transformed in appearance when he took Peter, John and James to the mountain to pray. During the transfiguration, Moses and Elijah came down from heaven to talk with Jesus about his coming death in Jerusalem. Moses, Elijah and Jesus were in heavenly glory and glorious splendor. Peter, John and James were asleep. When they woke up, they saw Jesus glory. They also saw Elijah and Moses with Jesus. Peter suggested to Jesus that they build three tents for Jesus, Elijah and Moses. As he spoke a cloud overshadowed them. A voice from the cloud said this is my son, whom I have chosen listen to him. The cloud left and the disciples found themselves with Jesus. They kept what they saw and heard to themselves. Significance and importance of transfiguration a. The voice from heaven confirmed that Jesus is the Christ of God, or the Messiah b. Moses represented the Old Testament law. Jesus came to fulfil the Law of Moses. It showed that Jesus was not against the Law of Moses. c. Elijah represented the Old Testament Prophets. This meant that Jesus had fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies. He is above the prophets. d. Jesus is above or greater than the law and the prophets. e. Transfiguration was a way of preparing the disciples for the death and resurrection of Jesus. Death is not the end of life (Moses and Elijah appeared to confirm this) f. The transfiguration prepared and gave strength to Jesus for what lay ahead of him g. Dazzling appearance showed the glory of Jesus h. The transfiguration also shows the importance of encouraging each other. 5.0 Revision questions a. Explain the teachings of John the Baptist b. Describe the baptism and temptation of Jesus and its relevance to Christians today. c. Give reasons as to why Jesus was rejected at Nazareth d. Describe the first miracles of Jesus at Capernaum e. Narrate and dramatize the temptations of Jesus from the gospel according to St Luke, f. Identify five occasions when Jesus was tempted g. Explain ways in which Christians can be tempted today h. Outline ways in which Christians can overcome temptations in the contemporary world i. Identify lessons that Christians can learn from the temptations of Jesus? j. What is the role of the clergy in Kenya? k. How does the church participate in the upkeep of the clergy? l. Define and describe the transfiguration of Jesus TOPIC FOUR: THE JOURNEY TO JERUSALEM LUKE ch. 9-18 Introduction As Jesus travelled to Jerusalem, He prepared His disciples for the life they were to lead after He leaves them. Learning Outcomes. By the end of the topic, you should be able to a Identify duties and privileges and cost of a disciple. b Describe the teachings of Jesus on prayer, hypocrisy, wealth and watchfulness. c Describe parables Jesus used to teach about prayer, hypocrisy, wealth and watchfulness. LESSON ONE. DUTIES, PRIVILEGES AND COST OF DISCIPLESHIP Lesson Outcomes. When you read this lesson, you should: 1. Explain discipleship 2. List duties given to disciples by Jesus Christ 3. Explain relevance of Christian discipleship to modern Church Jesus teaching on faith and humility A brief summary from the Bible. Read (Luke 9: 37 50) for details. After the transfiguration, Jesus used two incidents to teach his disciples about faith and humility. One incident was the healing of a boy possessed by an evil spirit (Luke 9: 37 43). Jesus rebuked the unclean spirit out of the boy and the boy was healed. Jesus told His disciples that their lack of faith was the reason why they did not cure the boy. Jesus informed his disciples that faith in him was important when carrying out his work. Jesus teaching on His Work The next question was .. who is to work for Jesus? All Christians can work for Jesus even believers who are gentiles. Read (Luke 9 vs. 49 50). Jesus told his disciples not to forbid others from carrying out his work for whoever is not against Him is for Him. This means that whoever had faith; even the Gentiles could carry out Jesus work. Jesus teaching on His followers Jesus was determined to go to Jerusalem. As He travelled, men volunteered to follow him wherever he was going. Jesus replied that foxes have holes, birds of the air have nests but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head. Jesus had no earthly home. His mission on earth was only for a time. A man requested to follow Jesus but asked permission to bury his father. Jesus told him to let the dead bury their dead. Disciples of Jesus have to leave their families in order to do His Work. Mission of the 72 men. Read Luke 10:1 24 On the way to Jerusalem, Jesus sent out 72 disciples on a mission to promote the Gospel of the Kingdom of God through preaching and service. The 72 disciples were sent in 2s in order to encourage or help each other. The 72 were given instructions. Jesus told them that He has given them power over demons, serpents, scorpion. They have power over all the powers of Satan. When disciples returned, they reported that demons obeyed them. In Luke 10 verse 20, Jesus asked the 72 to rejoice not because demons flee but because their names are written in heaven. Out of the many followers, Jesus chose 12 apostles who learnt from Jesus and became His witnesses. Jesus teaching on the greatest disciple Read (Luke 9: 46- 48). The disciples asked themselves who is the greatest amongst disciples amongst the 12 disciples? In response Jesus took a child by His side and said to the disciples. Whoever welcomes this child in my name, welcomes me, as well as the one who sent me. For the one who is least amongst you shall be the greatest in Heaven. Lessons from this example. Jesus explained that His disciples needed values of humility and simplicity. These virtues were needed to carry out the work of discipleship. Teaching about Discipleship 1. True followers of Jesus Christ must a. Be ready to detach themselves from families and material possessions. b. Be ready to face rejections because not all people will accept them or their message. c. Be ready to serve. d. Be ready to cater for peoples physical needs. e. Be self less. f. Not be hypocrites and should accept hospitality whenever it is given. g. Be able to exercise self-evaluation. 2. Duties of a disciple were: a) To preach the good news of salvation to other people and be ready to suffer for the sake of Christ. b) Obey Gods commandments and follow teachings of Jesus. c) To help the needy spiritually and with material needs. d) To teach others about the Kingdom of God. e) To heal the sick. f) To cast out demons. g) Be prepared to suffer for the sake of the gospel. h) Being loyal to Jesus and faithful to the gospel. i) Commitment and loyalty 3. Privileges of a disciple a) One becomes a member of the Kingdom of God. b) They get an assurance of eternal life. c) They receive joy of winning other people to follow Jesus. d) They receive peace, and blessings of God. How are these teachings relevant to modern church leaders and members? Modern church leaders have a duty to continue preaching Gods word to all people. They should serve God in several ministries such as visiting the sick, caring for orphans, the destitute, widows, widowers, and the aged. They should also be ready to suffer and even face rejection for the sake of the Christ. Exercise 1. What are the characteristics of a true follower of Christ? 2. State the privileges of being a disciple of Jesus Christ 3. Why did Jesus choose the 12 disciples? LESSON TWO: A COMMITTED FOLLOWER OF CHRIST Read Luke 10: 25-37, and Luke 11: 1-13 a. The parable of the Good Samaritan A teacher of law asked Jesus questions in order to tempt him. One was what must I do to receive eternal life? (Read Luke 10: 25 to 28). Jesus replied with a question. What do the scriptures say? He replied and Jesus told him to do as the scripture say. . He asked another question. Who is my neighbour? (Luke 10 v 29). Jesus answered with the parable of the Good Samaritan. In this parable, the righteous people among the Jews, Levites and priests, did not help the injured man. A Samaritan whom Jews considered unclean and sinners helped him. After narrating this parable Jesus asked the lawyer, who of the 3 travelers was a good neighbour? The lawyer said the Samaritan. Lessons learnt from the parable of the Good Samaritan In the above parable, Jesus stressed that a follower of Jesus should be: (1) Committed (2) Show love of God by loving people in need and their neighbours. A neighbour is anybody who requires assistance or help regardless of race, ethnicity, creed, colour or gender. Jesus wants his followers to show love and concern to all people regardless of their background. A neighbour uses his/her resources selflessly to help the needy. A neighbour is also compassionate, kind, and generous to the needy. Jesus Visit to Martha and Mary (Read Luke 10: 38 42) Martha welcomed Jesus in her home where she lived with her sister Mary. While Martha prepared food, Mary sat at Jesus feet listening to his teaching. Martha complained. She was doing all the work while Mary sat listening to Jesus teaching. Jesus told Martha that Mary had made the right choice to listen to His teaching. Lessons we can learn from Jesus Visit to Martha and Mary 1. A committed follower of Jesus is one who creates time to study and listen to Gods word. 2. A follower of Christ should ensure that their commitment to God is not overshadowed by daily duties, worries and responsibilities. 3. Jesus visit to Mary and Martha was also to teach disciples on the characteristics of a true disciple. Revision exercise 1. From the teachings of Jesus, on the parable of the good Samaritan; who do you think is a committed follower of Jesus? LESSON THREE. JESUS TEACHING ON PRAYER (Read Luke 11:1 13) Prayer is communication with God. It is talking with God. People pray to God all the time. For example, people pray to God when: 1. They are in problems and in happiness; 2. Seeking healing and wealth, 3. Giving thanks to God, 4. Identifying the needs to be met, and asking for favors from God 5. Repenting and confessing their sins 6. Thanking God There are many forms or types of prayers. These are: 1. Intercessory prayer Praying for the needs of others. 2. Prayer for repentance for forgiveness of sins. 3. Thanksgiving prayer giving thanks to God for what he has done. 4. Worship prayer prayers to worship God. 5. Praise prayers to praise God, Honor God. 6. Supplication and petition prayer whereby an individual makes their needs known to God and asks for divine intervention. Jesus prayed often during his lifes Ministry. The disciples asked him to show them how to pray. Jesus responded by teaching them the Lords Prayer. Our Father who art in Heaven Hallowed be thy name Thy Kingdom come Thy will be done on earth as It is in heaven Give us this day our daily bread Forgive us our trespasses As we forgive those who trespass against us Lead us not into temptation But deliver us from evil a) Our Father who art in heaven The disciples were told to address God as Our father. God is to be seen and addressed as a Father. b) Hallowed be thy name The name of God should be respected and revered. c) Thy Kingdom come In Prayer, Christians/disciples are to pray that the rulership of God reign amongst them. d) Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven Christians to obey the will of God. e) Give us this day our daily bread Christians to pray for their needs. f. Forgive us our trespasses we ask for forgiveness of our sins and those of others. g. Jesus taught that one should be persistent in prayer. If a man goes to his friend at midnight and asks for bread to give to his visitor, the friend will open the door and give his friend all that he needs. This is because his friend was persistent in knocking on the door. In conclusion, if prayers are to be effective, one must have faith and be persistent. Believe that God shall answer prayers. A committed follower of Jesus should pray at all times. In prayer, one should acknowledge that God is the Father and that all prayers should be addressed to him. Two, one should have faith that God answers prayers. Therefore we should be persistent in prayer. Reasons why Christians should pray <br><br>To honor God To request for favors To offer thanksgiving To confess their sins and seek for forgiveness of sins To seek Gods protection To intercede on behalf of others To strengthen their relationship with God <br><br>Revision exercise 1. What did Jesus teach about prayer? 2. What is the importance of prayer? LESSON FOUR: USE OF GODS POWER TO OVERCOME EVIL. Read Luke 11:14 28 Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: 1. Narrate Jesus teaching about demons 2. Explain why the sign of Jonah was important 3. Describe how Gods power overcomes evil a. Jesus and Beelzebub. (Read Luke 11: 14 to 28) Jesus drove out a mute demon. The possessed man began to talk. The crowd said that Jesus was casting out demons using the power of Beelzebub (the price of demons). Beelzebul was an evil spirit. However Jesus replied Any country that divides itself into groups which fight each other will not last very long, and a family divided against itself will fall. Jesus said it is by the power of God that drives out demons. Lessons learnt i. Satan cannot fight against himself therefore Jesus cannot be an agent of Beelzebub / Satan. ii. Gods Kingdom and that of Satan were two separate Kingdoms and could not co exist. iii. The destruction of Satans power meant that the Kingdom of God was in Israel and it was powerful. Gods power destroyed Satans kingdom. It is impossible to be neutral in the battle between Christ and Satan. One has to belong to either Christ or Satan. iv. Jesus has power to drive out demons. v. Demons occupy people. They bring disabilities and diseases. What makes people to be insane? Mentally sick b. The sign of Jonah. (Read Luke 11: 29 32) After Jesus drove out the dumb spirit, Jews demanded performance of greater miracles. They wanted Jesus to prove that he was their expected messiah. Jesus said that Jonah was a great miracle. But Jesus was greater miracle than that of Jonah, and King Solomon. King Solomon was full of wisdom. He was so great that Queen of Sheba came to listen to his wisdom. Jesus like Jonah had brought a message of judgment. Jesus is greater than Jonah or Solomon. If Jews refuse to receive and listen to Jesus, the Gentiles like Queen of Sheba, will bear testimony against the Jews and receive Gods salvation. c. The light of the body. Read Luke: 11: 33 36 Jesus taught that no one lights a lamp and hides it under a bowl. A lamp is placed where all can see its light. He said that the human eye is the lamp or the light of the body. Jesus asked the listeners to make sure that the light in you is not darkness (vs. 35). What is the main message in this story? LESSON FIVE: JESUS TEACHING ON HYPOCRISY, WEALTH, WATCHFULNESS AND READINESS Introduction Hypocrisy is being dishonest and insincere or pretending to someone else or people. What did Jesus teach about hypocrisy? Learning outcomes. After reading these verses in Luke: 1. State what Jesus taught on hypocrisy 2. Explain value of wealth 3. Discuss how modern Christians can be watchful and ready for the coming of Jesus Christ a. Hypocrisy. Read Luke 12: 1- 12 A Pharisee invited Jesus to his house for a meal. When Jesus did not wash before eating the meal, the Pharisee was surprised. Jesus told him .. you Pharisees clean the outside of your cup and plate, but inside you are full violence and evil, greed and wickedness (vs. 39). Jesus condemned the Pharisees for their hypocrisy. They were concerned with outward appearances and traditions such as ceremonial washing of cups, hands, and dishes but not the souls of people. They loved the outward show and public recognition. Pharisees tithed, but neglected justice and love of God (vs. 42). They imposed rules and regulations for people to follow, yet they themselves did not practice what they preached. They refused to confess their sins but pointed out sins in others. They hinder others from entering the kingdom of God. They had failed to make people understand the true interpretation of the law. They were like unmarked graves dead to people yet the people trusted them. After this teaching, the Pharisees and the teachers of the law began to oppose Jesus fiercely. What do we learn from Jesus teachings? Followers of Jesus should be 1. Sincere and upright (honest); (2) obey Gods commands; (3), live to please God but not other people; (4) confess publicly their loyalty to God and (5) love God without fear and (6) be dependent on the Holy Spirit b. The Parable of the Rich Fool. (Read Luke 12:13 to 21). Someone wanted justice. His brother had refused to share with him his fathers wealth. He wanted Jesus to order his brother to divide their fathers inheritance between him. In response, Jesus answered him with the parable of the rich fool. A rich man expected a good harvest of his crops. He thought he did not have storage for the crop he expected to harvest. The man said to himself. i will demolish my granaries and stores, then build bigger ones to store all my corn, and other goods. He expected to have enough food to last him a lifetime. Then he can enjoy his wealth; eating, drinking and making merry. But God told him that his life would be demanded from him that same night. What will happen to his wealth, as he was not rich in Gods sight? Lessons to learn i Followers of Jesus should not put their trust in material wealth but in God ii Life consists of food, other material wealth and trust in God iii Whoever seeks Gods kingdom, will receive material blessings from God iv Jesus did not condemn material possessions but rather the attitude towards material possessions. v Jesus condemned attachment to material wealth instead of trust in God who controls our lives. c. Watchfulness, Readiness, and Instructions. (Read Luke 12: 35 59) Jesus told his disciples to be: i Watchful and ready for the return of the Son of Man i.e. Jesus. ii Faithful servants so that when Jesus returns, he will find them ready and acting responsibly iii Watchful of possible divisions in families iv Royal to Christ v Ready for the coming of the Son of Man. He will come at unexpected time; like a thief who comes when the owner of the house is not aware. vi Observing things of the kingdom of God, which were present in the person of Jesus. vii Like good servants, and watch over the affairs of the master. viii Be decision makers and follow the teachings of Jesus without being watched. Review questions 1. In what ways were the Pharisees hypocritical? LESSON SIX: THE KINGDOM OF GOD Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to 1. Explain the teachings of Jesus about the kingdom of God 4. Narrate the parables of a. The unfaithful fig tree b. The mustard seed c. Parable of the feast d. Parable of the great feast e. Parable of the lost sheep and the lost son The Kingdom of God Kingdom of God refers to rule of God, or Gods authority on peoples lives and the world He created. The kingdom of God was present in Jesus. It is now and in the future reality. The teachings, and miracles of Jesus were a manifestation of the Kingdom of God. For anyone to enter Gods kingdom, one has to repent and ask for forgiveness. The Kingdom of God continues to grow and spread through the work of the Church. Those who accept the teachings of Jesus Christ about Gods Kingdom are members of the Kingdom of God. Now to enter the Kingdom of God, one has to repent and not judge others. Read Luke 13:1-5. Luke has explained the kingdom of God and outlined who will enter it. The Kingdom of God has unfruitful fig tree (Read Luke, 13: 6 9). A farmer had a fig tree that was unproductive for 3 years. He ordered the gardener to cut it down. The gardener requested for the fig tree to be given another chance. He promised to dig around the fig tree and add fertilizer. If it bears fruits well, it can survive, if it doesnt bear fruit, then it should be cut down. Lessons learnt from the parable The unproductive fig tree represents followers of Jesus who are unproductive because they do not follow the teachings of Jesus Christ. God gives people chances to repent just like the fig tree was given a second chance to bear fruit. Jesus is the gardener who pleads for people before God. The followers of Jesus are expected to be fruitful. What are the figs used for? a. Parable of the mustard seed. Read Luke, 13:18 19 Jesus likened the kingdom of God to a mustard seed, which is very small. When a mustard seed is planted, it grows fast to become a big tree. It is difficult to control its growth. When mature, the fig tree attracts many birds, which feed on its seeds. Lesson learnt from the parable. The Kingdom of God <br><br>Begins as a small seed and grows quietly and humbly Then it grows and spreads to all corners of the earth And It attracts many people <br><br>b. Parable of the Yeast. Read Luke, 13: 20 21 The Kingdom of God is like yeast. Yeast makes dough rise and the bread big. The Kingdom of God grows secretly and slowly just like the dough rises without being noticed. It is only God who knows how a kingdom grows. The Kingdom of God grows as a small unit that eventually grows, spreads and reaches out to many people in many nations. <br><br>c. The narrow door. Read Luke, 13: 22 30 As Jesus was teaching in towns and villages, a person asked him whether a few people would be saved. Jesus replied that his followers should make every effort to go through the narrow door as it leads to the Kingdom of God. The narrow door will not remain open forever. Lesson learnt from the parable <br><br>Those who wish to follow Jesus must repent immediately Entrance to Gods Kingdom is through repentance Everybody is invited to enter into the Kingdom of God. <br><br>d. Jesus heals a crippled woman on the Sabbath. Luke, 13:10 12 Jesus was teaching in the synagogue on Sabbath. Jesus healed a woman who had an evil spirit, which had bent her back (Hunch back) for 18 years. Jesus saw her and told her woman, you are free from your illness! She was made straight and immediately glorified God. The official of the synagogue was annoyed that Jesus was healing on a Sabbath. He and others were hostile to Jesus for healing/working on the Sabbath. Jesus told him, you hypocrite. You feed and look after your animals on the Sabbath day. Jesus emphasized that human life is more important than animal life or even observing the Sabbath. Lessons learnt from the parable Jesus came to set people free from the bondage of sickness and Satan. Jesus work of liberation is continuous. It has to be performed even on a Sabbath day because human life is more important than animal life or even observing the Sabbath. e. Jesus Love for Jerusalem. (Read Luke13: 31 35) As Jesus continued with his teachings, he reached Jerusalem. Pharisees informed him that Herod wanted to kill him. His response was go and tell that fox I will continue healing the sick and casting out demons. Jesus however, lamented over Jerusalem for rejecting Gods messengers. God would abandon Jerusalem for rejecting Jesus. Jerusalem was the site of Jesus death. It would eventually acknowledge Jesus as the Messiah who brings salvation to Israel and to the rest of the world. f. Man with dropsy healed (Read Luke 14:1 6). Jesus was invited to the house of the leading Pharisees for a meal on a Sabbath. A man with dropsy (swollen legs and arms) came to Jesus for healing. The Pharisees watched Jesus closely to see what he would do. Jesus asked the Pharisees does our Law allow healing on the Sabbath or not? They kept quiet. Jesus healed the man who then left. Jesus asked the Pharisees, would they save their son or an ox if it fell in a well on a Sabbath. They kept quiet. g. Humility and Hospitality. (Read Luke 14: 7 14) Jesus was in the house of a leading Pharisees and observed that some of the invited guests were choosing the best places to sit at the table. He taught the disciples how to be humble. He said, when invited for a meal, let the owner give you a seat of honor that is reserved for important and honorable guests. Read verse 11. Jesus advised his host to invite the poor, cripples, and the blind who cannot invite you, as they have nothing to give back for generosity. Lessons learnt from the parable Jesus is teaching about humility and hospitality. Those who are humble shall be elevated. Those who elevate themselves shall be humbled. Followers of Jesus should extend invitations to the poor and the underprivileged in the society. The Kingdom of God belongs to the humble people. c. The parable of the Great Feast. Read Luke, 14: 15 24. A man said to Jesus, How happy are those who will sit down at the feast in the Kingdom of God (verse 15). In response Jesus told him that a man made a great feast and invited many friends and colleagues to the feast. The invited guests failed to come and a servant was sent to inform them that the feast was ready. All the invited guests gave personal excuses explaining why they could not come. The master was angry and asked the servant to invite the poor, crippled, lame, the blind and anyone willing to come to the feast. Lessons learnt from the parable God has invited all people to the great feast of the Kingdom of God. Those who honor his invitation will be blessed. Those who reject the invitation will be excluded from the feast. Jesus explained that the Kingdom of God is like a great feast open to all Jews and Gentiles. To enter the Kingdom of God, one has to make a personal decision because following Jesus means sacrificing activities that we consider important to us. d. The Cost of Being a Disciple Read Luke 14: 25 33 True discipleship means loving Jesus more than ones family. This is a great sacrifice to detach oneself from the family. A disciple must be ready to suffer for the sake of following Jesus. Following Jesus requires skills of careful thinking, planning and detailed preparations. Jesus compared true discipleship to the planning required when building a tower or engaging in a military operation. Lessons / teachings learnt from the parable True discipleship means making great sacrifices, none of you can be my disciple unless you give up everything you have (verse 33). Jesus disciples are expected to do careful planning before deciding to follow him because they are required to love God more than anyone else even their relatives and friends. e. The parable of the Lost Sheep Read Luke, 15:1 7 Pharisees and teachers of law complained to Jesus because Jesus was teaching ordinary people such as tax collectors, and outcasts considered sinners by them. Jesus told the Pharisees and teachers of law the parable of the lost sheep. He told them that if a shepherd with 100 sheep lost one of them, what action would he take? Wouldnt he leave the 99 sheep and go out to look for the lost sheep? And on finding it, wouldnt the shepherd celebrate with friends and neighbours? Jesus said that God celebrates if over one sinner who repents than over 99 respectable people who do not need to repent. Lessons / teachings learnt from the parable iii God is a shepherd and takes care of all his people. iv He does not want any of his people to be lost. v God searches for those lost in sin until he finds them. vi When one sinner repents, God is overjoyed and rejoices. vii God is the good shepherd who has come to seek and save the lost. f. Parable of the Lost Coin. Read Luke, 15: 8 10 If a woman losses one of her ten silver coins, she searches until she finds it. And if it is found, she invites her friends and neighbours to celebrate. Lessons learnt from the parable God and the angels in heaven search make every effort to seek the lost sinner until they find them. Jesus lights the world, looking for sinners who are lost because they are precious in Gods sight. g. Parable of the Lost Son (prodigal son) Read Luke 15:11 32 Jesus then told the story of a father who had two sons. The younger was given his share of inheritance he had requested. He went to foreign lands and wasted his inheritance. He became poor and decided to return home and ask his father to forgive him and employ him as a servant. His father kissed him and celebrated his return. The father announced to his guests that the son who was lost is now found. - The one who was dead is now live. The elder son was angry and unhappy because his father had never held a celebration for him, inspite of his hard work and obedience. His father told him my son you are always here with me, and everything I have is yours. We are just celebrating the return of the lost son. Lessons learnt from the parable a. A person dies spiritually if they sin b. God loves all people including sinners c. God is ready to forgive every sinner who repents d. There is no sin that God cannot give e. Jesus taught that both the righteous and unrighteous require Gods forgiveness f. There is joy and happiness in heaven when one sinner repents. g. Christians should confess their sins and acknowledge that Jesus saves repentant sinners h. God accepts unconditionally any sinner who comes back to him in repentance i. Confession of sins is a condition for entering the Kingdom of God. A GREAT FEAST FOR ALL WHO ARE PREPARED Luke 14: 1 35 SAQ. What are the qualities of those who belong to the kingdom of God? Answer. Qualities of people who belong to the Kingdom of God Those who belong to the Kingdom of God: i. Obey Gods commandments ii. Accept Gods rule in their lives iii Show Gods love to others iv Are ready to make sacrifices so as to be followers of Jesus v Read Gods word and preach to others vi Confess their sins and seek forgiveness of their sins through repentance. Review questions 1. Give an explanation of the term Kingdom of God 2. What did Jesus teach about the kingdom of God? 3. What lessons do Christians learn from the parables of the lost son? Answer 1. The term Kingdom of God means the role of God or Gods authority in peoples lives and the world. LESSON SEVEN: TEACHINGS ON WEALTH AND POVERTY. LK 16:1 32 Learning Outcomes. By the end of the topic, you should be able to: a) Explain the teachings of Jesus on wealth, and poverty b) Narrate the teachings of Jesus on repentance Introduction While wealth is possession of material things such as money or occupation of a high social economic status, poverty is the opposite. It is lack of basic needs such as water, education, food, shelter, clothing, and health. When teaching about wealth, Jesus taught using two parables. These were: (1) parable of the shrewd manager (2) parable of the rich man and Lazarus Parable of the shrewd manager Read Luke, 16: 1 18 When the shrewd manager realized that his master was going to sack him due to his dishonesty, he asked the debtors to change the amounts they owed their master to smaller amounts. He did this to make friends with a few people who would give him a place to stay after he was sacked. The master praised the shrewd manager and did not sack him. The shrewd manager is praised not because of his dishonesty but because he acted promptly and with great presence of mind in a moment of crisis. Jesus is encouraging his disciples and followers to make prompt (quick, appropriate, timely) decisions. They should use wealth to serve God. It should not be allowed to take the place of God. Followers of Jesus should be honest in small and big things. The Rich Man and Lazarus. Read Luke, 16: 19 31. A rich man lived in luxury. At his gates was a poor man, called Lazarus whose body was covered by sores. The rich man did not feed Lazarus. He ate food remains together with the rich mans dogs. When rich man died, he went to hell. When Lazarus died, he went to heaven and sat at Abraham/s bosom. When in hell, the rich man was tormented while Lazarus was at peace. Lessons to learn from this parable. The rich isnt condemned for being rich but because of his altitude towards Lazarus. He used his wealth for self-gratification and not for service to the needy. The wealthy should realize that it is God who gives wealth and he should be given honor. Riches can hinder the wealthy from inheriting eternal life, especially if they put their trust in riches instead of God who is the source of all wealth and blessings. Revision exercise 1. From the parable of the rich fool what can Christians learn about the use of wealth? 2. Narrate the parable of the shrewd manager LESSON EIGHT. JESUS TEACHING ON FORGIVENESS Read Luke 17: 1 4 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you shall explain the power of Christian faith. Sin. Read Luke 17: 1-4. Jesus taught his disciples to forgive offenders who repent. Those who sin should seek forgiveness. If they offend 7 times in a day, forgive them 7 times. Followers of Jesus need faith to forgive others. The power of faith. Read Luke, 17: 5 11. Faith is defined as complete trust or confidence in God. It is absolute truthfulness and trust in everything that comes from God. The apostles asked Jesus to increase their faith. Followers of Jesus should have faith. Faith has no measure. Faith as big as a mustard seed can empower Christians to perform miracles that serve God. Faith is necessary. With faith, Christians can forgive others and be servants of God. Disciples should have faith. Christians understand that they owe everything to God. Jesus heals ten lepers. Read Luke, 17:11- 19 Jesus was on his way to Jerusalem when he met ten lepers. They requested Jesus to heal them. Jesus told them to go and show themselves to the priests. On the way, they were healed. One of them, a Samaritan, returned to thank Jesus for healing him. The Samaritans and the Jews did not associate. Jesus told the Samaritan that his faith has made him whole. Faith is necessary for healing any disease. Leprosy is a disease that leads to loss of fingers, toes and other parts of the body. It was a dreadful skin disease, which Jews feared. Lepers were isolated from other people. They lived dejected lives The coming of the kingdom. Read Luke 17: 20 37 The Pharisee demanded to know when the kingdom of God would come. Jesus replied that the kingdom of God was within those who had accepted Jesus and his teachings. Those who wanted had received the kingdom. Faith is necessary to discover the power of Gods kingdom. The coming of the son of man, i.e. Jesus will bring the kingdom to reality. The coming of the son of man is also referred to as the day of the Lord, Day of Judgment. Read Luke, 21: 27- 28. Those who obey Jesus will be saved but those who reject him will be punished. Lessons to learn. God expects Christians to have faith in him. Christians should have faith in Jesus so that they can inherit eternal life. Faith is needed to strengthen Christians. Faith is important in the life of a Christian until Jesus returns, i.e. the second coming. Revision exercise 1. What did Jesus teach on forgiveness LESSON NINE. PERSISTENCE IN PRAYER, Read Luke, 18:1 14 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, discuss the values of persistence in prayer To teach about persistence in prayer, Jesus used two parables. These were the parables of: the widow and a corrupt judge and examples of prayer by a Pharisee and a tax collector. a. The widow and the unjust judge. Read Luke, 18: 1 9 Jesus had already taught the disciples how to pray. He now tells them that they ought to pray and not faint. He gives a parable to explain his point. A widow went to a corrupt judge to have her adversaries judged. The judge was corrupt and ignored her. He however gave in to her demands since she was persistent and wearing him down. The judge helped her because of her persistence and courage. Lessons learnt from the parable Followers of Jesus should pray with courage and be persistent in prayer. God hears and answers prayers. Christians should pray without ceasing and with faith and trust that their prayers will be answered. b. Parable of the Pharisee, and tax collector, Read Luke, 18:9 14 A Pharisee and tax collector went to the temple to pray. The Pharisee offered a long prayer focusing on his achievements. The tax collector (publican) did not have much to say except asking for mercy, as he was a sinner. Followers of Jesus should acknowledge they are sinners and seek forgiveness. They should approach God in humility and avoid spiritual pride, and self- righteousness. Revision exercise 1. State the parable of the widow and the unjust judge LESSON TEN. THE WAY TO SALVATION, Read Luke, 18: 15 19: 1 27. Introduction: The word salvation refers to the act of saving or being saved from sin. Those who have received salvation area assured of eternal life. To receive salvation a person must acknowledge that he is a sinner and repent their sins. In this way, they receive forgiveness and are reconciled to God. Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a. State the meaning of salvation b. Discuss characteristics of salvation c. Give examples of those who will enter the Kingdom of God. d. Explain how Jesus predicted his death Introduction Salvation means being saved from a life-threatening situation. In Christianity, salvation refers to the process of being delivered from sin and its consequences. Those who are saved are assured of eternal life. Jesus taught about salvation using children to illustrate his message. This is what happened. Some people brought their children to Jesus so that he could bless them. The disciples scolded them. Jesus asked the children to come to him and he blessed them. Jesus taught his disciples that they must be humble like children in order to enter the kingdom of God. The road to salvation is by being simple, humble, and trusting like little children. The kingdom of God belongs to those who humble themselves like the little children. The rich man. Read Luke, 18:18 30 The entry into the kingdom of God was further explained through the story of the rich man. The rich man came to Jesus wanting to know how he could inherit eternal life and be saved. Jesus reminded him of the importance of keeping the commandments. The young man responded that he had observed the commandments since he was young. Jesus told him there is one thing remaining to do; sell everything he has, and give it to the poor, and then follow Jesus. The rich man was very sorrowful for he was very wealthy. Wealth can hinder the rich from receiving salvation. Jesus acknowledged the sacrifice made by his disciples. He emphasized that disciples shall receive salvation in the present and in life to come. Salvation is a gift from God. Salvation is received; by those who accept to follow Jesus. Trusting in wealth can be a hindrance to salvation. The rich may find it difficult to inherit eternal life. Jesus predicts his death, a 3rd time. Read Luke, 18: 31 34. Jesus predicted his death a three times. First was after asking his disciples who they say he was. The second time was after transfiguration when his face was set towards Jerusalem. The third prediction shall be in Jerusalem (Luke 18:31-34). Jesus told the disciples that previous prophecies would be fulfilled in Jerusalem. His death was going to take place in Jerusalem according to the writings of the prophets. It was going to be a painful death. He shall be beaten, mocked, spit upon and put to death. But on the third day, he shall rise again. The disciples did not understand what Jesus was telling them. Jesus had to die so that those who believed in him may receive eternal life. The death and resurrection of Jesus gives Christians hope of eternal life. Jesus heals a blood beggar. Read Luke, 18: 35 43 As Jesus neared Jericho, a blind man sat by the roadside begging. When he heard the multitude pass by, he inquired what was going on and he was told that Jesus of Nazareth was passing by. He then cried out Jesus, Son of David, have mercy on me The crowds rebuked him but he cried out louder to Jesus to have mercy on him. Jesus asked him what he wanted. He said he wanted to see. Jesus told him to receive his sight for his faith had made him whole. The beggar was joyful and he followed Jesus rejoicing. Lessons learnt. Christians should have faith in Jesus. They should also be persistent and make specific requests. LESSON THIRTEEN: JESUS AND ZACCHAEUS LK 19:1 9 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, a. Narrate events leading to salvation of Zacchaeus b. Explain meanings of the story of the man who gave gold coins to his servants Zacchaeus was short. His profession was a tax collector. He was rich. He wanted to be saved. When Jesus was passing by Jericho, he wanted to see Jesus. He couldnt because he was short. He ran and climbed a sycamore tree to see Jesus. When Jesus came to the place where Zacchaeus was, he looked up and said Hurry down, Zacchaeus, because I must stay in your house today (verse 5). Jesus then went with Zacchaeus to his house. When people saw this they grumbled, and murmured. They said that Jesus was going to a house of a sinner. Jesus told them that salvation has come to the house of Zacchaeus, a son of Abraham the Son of man came to seek and save the lost. There is no sin that God cannot forgive, even that of a tax collector. Zacchaeus told Jesus that he was going to give to the poor half of his wealth and whatever he took from any man and woman wrongfully, he will restore four times. From this salvation, we learn that the rich should share their wealth with the needy. The Parable of the Gold Coins: Luke, 19: 11 27. A certain nobleman went to a far country. Before he left he called his ten servants and gave each a gold coin (ten pounds in total). He told them to trade with the coins until he returns. When he returned, he called the servants to report profits they had made. The first servant said that one-pound coin had made profit of 10 pounds (gold coins). He made the manager of ten cities. The second servant had traded and gained 5 pounds. He was made the manager of 5 cities. The third one had hidden the pound. He did not trade. He accused the master of being mean, and cruel. He returned the pound, which was given to the servant with 10 pounds. Lessons to learn. This parable was about the kingdom of God. God expects us to use opportunities he has given to us for his work. Each one of us shall account for the use of the abilities and skills that God gave to us students, workers, and other professionals. To receive eternal life, Christians should repent and be obedient to Gods instructions. Revision questions 1. What did Jesus teach by using the example of little children? 5. Give an account of how Jesus healed the blind beggar 6. Explain the relevance of Jesus teachings on salvation to Christians TOPIC FIVE: THE JERUSALEM MINISTRY. Luke, 19: 28 21: 38 Lesson Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should: a. Describe the triumphant entry of Jesus into Jerusalem b. Narrate events in the cleansing of the temple c. Discuss Jesus teachings about eschatology LESSON ONE: THE TRIUMPHANT ENTRY OF JESUS TO JERUSALEM LK. 19:28 40 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a. Explain why Jesus rode on a young colt into Jerusalem b. Discuss why Jesus wept over Jerusalem b. Describe what Jesus did when he went to the temple a. The triumphant approach to Jerusalem. Luke 19: 28- 40. Jesus death had to happen in Jerusalem. Hence Jesus went to Jerusalem. He sent two disciples to a place where there was a colt (young donkey) that no person had ever ridden. They took it to Jesus. They threw their garments on the colt, and Jesus sat on it. As Jesus rode, people spread their clothes on the road. As Jesus neared Jerusalem, a large crowd of his disciples began to praise God (vs37). The crowd said blessed be the king who comes in the name of the lord. The Pharisees told Jesus to rebuke the disciples. Jesus told them if the disciples kept quiet the stones would start shouting. Jesus made his entry into Jerusalem in a royal (kingly) procession. He was Israels humble king who came with peace and not a political leader. He rode on a donkey a symbol of peace. This was unlike the political kings who rode on the horses during that time. b. Jesus weeps over Jerusalem. Read, Luke 41- 44. When Jesus was near Jerusalem he wept. He then foretold the coming destruction of Jerusalem due to its rejection of the messiah. The rejoicing of his triumphant entry to Jerusalem turned to mourning as he foretold the destruction of Jerusalem by Romans in 70 A.D. c. Jesus goes to the temple. Read Luke 19:45 48. Jesus went to Jerusalem temple and evicted traders. He told them that the house of God is a house of prayer not a den of thieves. Jeremiah spoke these same words during his temple sermon. The chief priests and scribes began planning how to kill Jesus. LESSON TWO. PHARISEES, SCRIBES QUESTION JESUS. LUKE 20 1-47 Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the question about the authority of Jesus 2. Describe the parable of the tenants in the vineyard 3. Describe the question about paying taxes 4. Describe the question about resurrection 5. Describe Jesus teachings against the teachers of law 6. Describe the parable of the widows offering a. The question about Jesus authority. Read Luke, 20:1 8. The Jewish leaders wanted to know from Jesus by whose authority he was doing all the things he was doing. In response Jesus asked them did Johns right to baptize come from God or from human beings? (Vs4). They discussed among themselves and decided not answer. Jesus told them neither will I tell you. In response to his authority being questioned he told a parable. b. The parable of the Tenants in the Vineyard. Read the parable in Luke, 20: 9 18. The tenants refused to pay the owner of the vineyard his share of the harvest. They threw out the servants he sent to collect his share of the harvest. When he sent his son, they killed him so that they can own the vineyard. Jesus asked the people What will the owner of the vineyard do to the tenants? c. The Question about paying taxes. Read Luke 20:19-28 Pharisees, and scribes (teachers of the law) and chief priests planned to arrest Jesus but they were afraid of the people. They sent spies to trick Jesus by asking this question - is it against our law for us to pay taxes to the Roman Empire, or not? Jesus used the currency and told them pay the Emperor Caesar what belongs to him and pay God what belongs to God. (Verse 25) This was a tricky question. Jesus here teachers people to obey the rules of the land and to obey Gods rules. d. The Question about Resurrection The Sadducees who did not believe in resurrection tempted Jesus with another question. They wanted to know this. When resurrection comes, who shall be the husband to a woman who was married to the first brother and inherited as a widow by the other six brothers? Jesus told them the men and women who shall be worthy of resurrection shall not marry. They shall be like angels and cannot die (verse 34 to 38) e. Jesus warns against the Teachers of the law Jesus warned his disciples. Be careful and guard yourselves against teachers of the law, the scribes. They were hypocritical. They wore long robes, said long prayers, looked for positions of honor and exploited the widows. f. The Widows Offering. Luke, 21: 1- 4 When people were giving offerings in the temple, a widow gave two little copper coins. Jesus said the poor widow had given all she had. Likewise Christians should give to God not to be seen but from their hearts. It is not the quantity of the gift that matters but the attitude of the giver. LESSON THREE: THE TEACHINGS OF JESUS ABOUT ESCHATOLOGY LK. 21: 5 38 Eschatology is from two Greek words, eschatus and logos. Eschatus means end, Logos means study. Eschatology means the study of the end times or in CRE the last days of Jesus. For biblical information, read Luke 21:5-38 and Mathew 24: 1 36 and Mark 13:1-31. Learning outcomes. After this lesson, you should: a. Identify signs of end times b. State uses of the temple during the time of Jesus c. Discuss ways in which Christians can apply the parable of the fig tree d. State relevance of Jesus teachings on eschatology a. Signs of the end times. Jesus gave many signs that will inform Christians that end of the time has come. These were to happen at different times. The signs were: a) Destruction of the temple of Jerusalem by invading armies which shall surrounded it b) Hatred of disciples and Christians because they were followers of Christ c) Rejection of disciples by families because they were followers of Christ d) Betrayal of the followers of Christ e) Prosecution and imprisonment of Christians. f) Many false messiahs. People would come claiming to be the Messiah, the Son God g) Wars as nation rise against nations h) Eruption of natural calamities such as plagues, earthquakes, famines, great fear among people. i) Disruption in the sky and seas. Fall of strange heavenly beings from the sky and rise of seas. j) Natural calamities such as earthquakes, plagues, famines bringing despair and distress in all nations k) The times shall be announced by signs in the stars, moon, sun and sea l) Appear of the Son of man in power and glory at the end of times. b. Uses of the temple during the time of Jesus During the time of Jesus, the temple was used for (a) Child dedication (b) Circumcision (c) Purification (d) Trading and business centre (e) Worshiping and prayer (f) a place for celebrating festivals such as the Passover and other major feasts (g) a learning centre or school for religious purposes. For example disciples of the scribes learnt law in the temple. The destruction of the temple symbolized the birth of Christianity. From that time Christians became the new temple of God. c. The parable of the fig tree Lk.21: 29 33 Jesus used the parable of the fig tree to explain more about the end times. Appearance of leaves in the fig tree and other trees inform us that summer will soon come. When Christians see signs of the end times, they should know that the kingdom of God is about to come. Jesus told disciples to be watchful, alert, and praying for strength to endure the coming tribulations. See the previous teachings on watchfulness and readiness. Christians are to watch out and be ready for the end times. d. Relevance of Jesus teachings on eschatology These teachings assure and continue to tell Christians these messages from Jesus: a) There is life after death b) Christ will return to receive the faithful c) Christians are to be watchful, prayerful, and hopeful despite trials and tribulations d) Christians are assured of Gods protection from evil. e) Christians should prepare for the coming of Christ by leading a righteous life f) Do not lose hope g) Do not be pre occupied with the cares of this would for they never end h) Preach and spread the word of God i) Obey Gods commandment j) Help the needy Revision questions a. Describe Jesus triumphant entry into Jerusalem according to Luke chapter 19:29- 30 b. What does the manner of Jesus entry into Jerusalem reveal about the nature of his kingdom? c. What lessons can Christians learn from Jesus triumphant entry into Jerusalem d. State and explain why Jesus wept over Jerusalem e. Explain the cleansing of the temple f. Give reasons why Jesus cleansed the temple of Jerusalem g. What lessons can Christians learn from the cleansing of the temple? h. Explain Jesus conflict with the Jewish leaders i. Describe the parable of the tenants in the vineyard j. Explain the relevance of the parable of the of tenants in the vineyard k. Explain the question about paying taxes l. Explain the question about the resurrection m. What is eschatology? n. What will happen at the end of the world (eschatology) according to Jesus teaching in Lukes gospel 21; 5-38 o. How do Christians prepare for the second coming of Christ? TOPIC SIX: THE PASSION, DEATH AND RESURRECTION OF JESUS LK. 22 24 Passion is a strong feeling of love, hate or anger. Passion of Jesus is the great sufferings of Jesus, which was a deep emotional anguish. Learning outcomes By the end of this topic, you should be able to: (a) Discuss the events of the Lords supper (b) State relevance of the Lords supper to Christians today (c) Describe the events that took place at mount Olives (d) Describe the events that took place between the arrest and burial of Jesus (e) Relate the relevance of the sufferings and death of Jesus to Christians today (f) Explain the importance of resurrection of Jesus to Christians (g) Describe the resurrection of Jesus the evidence of his resurrection (h) Narrate the ascension of Jesus The plot against Jesus The Jewish religious leaders were determined to ensure that Jesus was either arrested or killed (Lk.22: 1 6) They were helped by Satan who entered into Judas Iscariot one of the twelve disciples of Jesus. Judas decided to betray Jesus. He communed with the Jewish leaders who agreed to pay him money to betray Jesus. He searched for a way to betray Jesus without knowledge of Jesus. He forgot who was Jesus. Judas agreed to betray Jesus probably because: a. He belonged to the party of Zealots who wanted political changes b. He was probably frustrated by Jesus approach to the Kingdom of God which was establishing a peaceful spiritual kingdom c. He expected Jesus to establish a political kingdom d. He was greedy for money e. Satan entered him LESSON ONE: THE LORDS SUPPERS/ THE LAST SUPPER. LK 22: 7 13 The last supper was the lost Passover meal that Jesus took before his arrest. Passover is celebrated in obedience to Gods command to Moses. It is a remembrance of Israels deliverance by God from slavery in Egypt. a. The Passover meal Preparations for the Passover, Read Luke 22: 7 23. Peter and John were sent by Jesus to go and prepare the Passover meal. They were to do so in a house in the city. They were taken to the house by, a man who was carrying a vessel of water. They were given a big furnished upper room upstairs. They prepared the Passover meal as instructed by Jesus. Passover meal During the meal with the 12 disciples / apostles Jesus told them that this was going to be his last meal with them before his death. He took a cup of wine gave thanks to God and said Take this and share it among yourselves. I tell you that from now on I will not drink this wine until the Kingdom of God comes. The cup of wine was his blood that he was going to shed for them. Wine therefore symbolized the blood of Jesus, shed for the purification of humankind and forgiveness of sins. This blood is the New Testament and covenant with Christians. After drinking of wine, He took a piece of bread, gave thanks to God and shared it and told them that the piece of bread represented his body which is given for them. He presented his death as a sacrifice whose blood sealed the new covenant. His death replaced the sacrifices of the Old law, those of animals, which sealed the Sinai covenant. The new covenant will be for all people including Gentiles. This is to fulfil Gods promise of salvation for all people. Jesus and disciples ate Passover together so that henceforth Christians would eat the meal together in remembrance of Jesus. Passover was initially taken to remind them of the deliverance from Egypt. But during the last supper, Jesus gave the Passover a new meaning. As they ate, Jesus foretold of his betrayal by one of his disciple. SAQ. i. Which items were used to celebrate the Passover in the Old Testament? ii. What items do modern Christians use to celebrate the Lords Supper? Comparisons of the Lords Supper and the Passover (a) The Passover commemorates the divine act of redemption of the Jews from their bondage in Egypt while the Last Supper commemorates the deliverance of human kind from sin. (b) The Passover feast reminded the Israelites that they were free, redeemed people while the Lords Suppers is to remind Christians of their forgiveness of sins. The death of Jesus set Christians free from sins. (c) Passover was followed by the Old covenant of Mount Sinai. The Lords suppers is a new covenant based on the death of Jesus for sins of humankind (d) Passover (Old testament) was sealed by the blood of Lambs while New Covenant (Lords suppers) is sealed by the blood of Jesus on the cross. (e) Items for celebrating in Passover (old testament) are different from the cup of wine and pieces of bread used by Jesus to celebrate his last supper with the disciples. Relevance of the Lords Supper today Christians celebrate the Lords supper. This celebration is called the Eucharist, the Lords suppers, or Lords meal. Christians celebrate it as an act of repentance; through which they receive assurance of forgiveness of their sins. The presence of Jesus becomes a reality when Christians share bread and wine. Bread and wine are symbols of heavenly feast, which Christians will partake in Gods kingdom. The Lords supper is also a sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving to God. It is a time for rededication to Christ and self-renewal. Through the celebration of the Lords supper, Christians anticipate the second coming of Jesus and the establishment of Gods Kingdom. It is also a time to remember the death and resurrection of Jesus and reflect on Gods love for humankind. b. The Argument about Greatness. Read Luke, 22: 24 30 A question arose among the disciples. They wanted to know who among them was the greatest? Jesus told them that they do not belong to the world system of authority given on the basis of wealth and fame. The authority among the disciples will be determined on the basis of their service to others. The greatest is the servant. Jesus likened himself to a servant hence disciples are called to serve. By sharing in trials and sufferings of Jesus, the disciples will share in his ruling power over the new Israel. Leadership in church should be understood in terms of service being a servant of people. In the community of Christians, all people who are followers of Jesus are all equal. SAQ. In your opinion, which are the signs of greatness in the world? c. Jesus Predicts Peters Denial. Read Luke, 22: 31 38 Jesus told peter that Satan had received permission to test or tempt all the disciples but Jesus had prayed for Peters faith not to fail. Jesus told Peter that he shall deny Jesus three times before the cock crows. Jesus was telling his disciples that they will encounter hostility in their evangelism hence they should be prepared for suffering and opposition because of Him as Isaiah 53:12 says he shared the fate of evil men. Jesus death was imminent inevitable. The disciples were expected to be strong LESSON TWO: PRAYER, ARREST OF JESUS AND DENIAL BY PETER Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you shall: a. Narrate the events that took place at Mount of Olives b. Describe the arrest of Jesus c. Discuss Peters denial of Jesus d. Describe the arrest of Jesus a. Prayer on the Mount of Olives. Read Luke. 22: 39 46 After celebrating the last supper, Jesus went to the Mount of Olives with his disciples to pray to resist temptation. Jesus went ahead of his disciples, knelt down and prayed. Jesus left them to pray by himself. He said Father if you will, take this cup of suffering away from me. Not my will, however, but your will to be done (42). An angel came to strengthen him. He prayed earnestly, in agony and turmoil great than the physical pain. He sweated great drops of blood. After praying, Jesus found his disciples asleep worn out by their grief vs. 45). Jesus asked them to wake up and pray to avoid temptation. Significance The disciples fell asleep. This was a sign of moral and physical exhaustion. Jesus expressed inner struggle about the fulfillment of his messianic mission. He prayed for Gods help. Christians should always pray to avoid temptation and seek Gods help. b. Betrayal and arrest of Jesus. Read Luke, 22: 47 53 Jesus was arrested by: the chief priest, elders, officers of the temple guard, and a crowd of people as he talked to his disciples. He was taken to the house of the high priest. Judas had identified Jesus with a kiss. Jesus asked Judas him Judas, is it with a kiss that you betray the Son of man? Jewish religious leaders had come to arrest Jesus as they arrested other criminals. Jesus told his disciples not to resist his arrest. He rejected armed resistance refusing the role of a political messiah. Peter followed him from a distance. c. Peters Denies Jesus. Read Luke, 22: 54 65 After Jesus was arrested he was taken to the house of the High Priest. As Peter sat warming himself with others, a maid identified Peter. She said, This man too was with Jesus. Peter denied knowing Jesus three times. After the third denial, the cock crowed just as Jesus predicted. Jesus turned and looked at Peter who remembered the words of Jesus. Peter went out and wept bitterly (Vs. 62). Weeping was a sign of repentance LESSON THREE: THE TRIALS AND CRUCIFIXION OF JESUS Lesson Outcomes. By the end of this lesson. You should a. Describe trials of Jesus by the various authorities b. Explain the importance of the judgement by Pilate c. Narrate events leading to crucifixion of Jesus a. Trials of Jesus by the various authorities i. Trial by the Sanhedrin Lk.22: 66 71 After being taken to the house of the High Priest, the next morning Jesus was taken to the Jewish religious council or court; called the Sanhedrin. They all asked him if he was the messiah. Jesus told they wouldnt believe whatever he says. But the Son of Man will be seated on the right hand of Almighty God. (Vs. 69). Jesus told them he was the Son of God. The Sanhedrin accused Jesus of blasphemy, a sin punishable by death. ii. Trial before Pilate. Read Luke 23: 1 5 The second court was the Roman court. The judge was Pilate, the Roman Governor. In this court the Sanhedrin accused Jesus of: Inciting people to revolt, and rebelling against Roman authority Forbidding people to pay taxes to the Emperor Claiming to be the king, a Messiah, <br><br>They could not accuse him of blasphemy before Pilate since this offence was not acceptable under the Roman law. Pilate asked Jesus if he was the king, Jesus replied, So you say. (vs.3). Pilate found no fault with Jesus so he sent him to Herod. iii. Trial by Herod. Read Luke, 23: 6 12 Herod was in Jerusalem. When Jesus was brought before him, he expected Jesus to perform miracles to impress him. He asked Jesus many questions and Jesus kept quiet. Herod and his soldiers mocked Jesus, and ridiculed him. They put on him royal clothes; then sent Jesus back to Pilate. iv. Jesus is sentenced to Death. Read Luke 23: 13 25 Jesus was brought back to Pilate a second time. Pilate repeated that Jesus was not guilty (innocent) of any crime. Pilate offered to have Jesus beaten and then released. The crowds, leaders and chief priests gave their judgement. Kill him! and release Barabbas, who was a rioter and a murderer. Pilate did not find Jesus guilty. But he did what they wanted. He released Barabbas and handed Jesus over for them to do as they wished (vs. 25). v. The crucifixion of Jesus. Read Luke 22: 26-43 Jesus was led away to be crucified. Solders forced Simon of Cyrene to carry the cross for Jesus. Women followed Jesus and weeping. Jesus told them not to weep for Him but for themselves and their children. Jesus was then crucified at a place called Golgotha (place of skull) or Calvary together with two male criminal; one on His right and the other on His Left. Jesus asked God to forgive them (persecutors) for they did not know what they were doing. The Jewish leaders, said He saved others; let him save himself if he is the Messiah whom God has chosen (vs. 35); Solders mocked Jesus and said Save yourself if you are the king of Jews and one criminal hanged with Jesus mocked Jesus and told Him Arent you the Messiah? Save yourself and me. The other thief rebuked him saying they deserved the punishment for their deeds but Jesus had done nothing. This thief repented and told Jesus, Remember me, Jesus, when you come as King. Jesus told him that he would be in paradise with Jesus on that day (vs. 42 43). On top of the cross, Jews wrote, This is the King of the Jews (vs. 38). LESSON FOUR: DEATH OF JESUS. Read Luke. 23: 44 50 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, a. Describe the death of Jesus b. Narrate the burial of Jesus c. State relevance of the suffering and death of Jesus to Christian life today a. The death of Jesus. There was darkness from 12 oclock until thee oclock. The veil/curtain of the temple tore into two. Jesus cried out with a loud voice Father, into they hands I commit my spirit. At this shout Jesus died. The Roman centurion saw and praised God. He declared, Certainly this was an innocent man. The multitude that watched the crucifixion and death went home beating their breasts, a sign of repentance. The women, who knew Jesus from Galilee, stood at a distance watching all these things. b. The burial of Jesus. Read Luke 23: 50 56. Joseph from Arimathea, a town in Judea sought permission from Pilate to bury the body of Jesus. He was waiting for the coming of the Kingdom of God, a likely secret disciple of Jesus. He was a good and honorable man. The body of Jesus was laid in a sepulchre (Tomb) where nobody had ever been laid. Jesus burial in Josephs tomb fulfilled Isaiahs prophecy that the suffering servant of Yahweh was buried in a rich mans tomb (Isaiah 53:9) The Galilean women and Joseph saw where the body of Jesus was laid. They went home, and prepared spices to use to wash Jesus body. They rested on the Sabbath. c. Relevance of the suffering and death of Jesus Christ to Christian life today Christians today should practice or do the following activities. i. Pray in times of sorrow, pain, trials and temptations. iii They should not give up when rejected. iv They should be aware of hypocrites and traitors amongst them. v They should be willing to suffer for the sake of the Kingdom of God. vi They should be ready to fight for a just cause vii They should never condemn the innocent. viii They should go through their suffering bravely. ix They should know and accept suffering as a part of the Christian calling x They should not be afraid of rejection by people l xi They should be encouraged that Jesus suffered for them. d. In which ways can Christians prepare for their death? Death is inevitable. Hence, Christians should at all times: live a holy life, repent sins, forgive those who have wronged them, make a will, accept death as inevitable, and read the word of God LESSON FIVE: THE RESURRECTION OF JESUS. Read Luke 24: 1 53 a. The Resurrection. Resurrection refers to the event of Jesus rising from the dead After the Sabbath day, on Sunday morning; Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, Salome (Joanna) and other women, went to the tomb with the spices they has prepared. They found the entrance open. The stone covering the tomb was rolled away. The tomb was empty. The body of Jesus was not in the tomb. Suddenly, two men, who were angels, appeared dresses in dazzling and shining clothes. They said Why are you looking among the dead for one who is alive? He is not here; he has been raised. The women went and told the 11 disciples, who did not believe them. Peter ran to the tomb and found it empty. Women were the first to witness the resurrection of Jesus Christ. This is significant as they (women) were empowered to become witnesses of Christ as evangelists beyond the Jewish culture. b. Witnesses of the resurrection of Jesus The disciples en route to Emmaus Two disciples were traveling to Emmaus, which was 11 km from Jerusalem discussing Jesus suffering, death and the empty tomb. Jesus met them but their eyes were blinded and they did not recognize him. The disciples explained to Jesus the events that had taken place and how they had hoped that Jesus would liberate Israel from the Roman rule. Jesus explained to them the scriptures concerning the messiah. When they got to Emmaus, they invited him to dine with them for it was evening. When Jesus, took the bread and said the blessings; then he broke the bread and gave it to them, the disciples recognized Jesus but he vanished out of their sight (vs. 30-31). They returned to Jerusalem and told the 11 disciples that Jesus has risen. c. Jesus appears to his Disciples. Read Luke 24: 36 49. As the two disciples explained the event that happened on the journey to Emmaus, Jesus came and said to them Peace be with you (vs. 36). Disciples were terrified and frightened. He asked them to look and touch his hands, and feet. He was not a ghost. He has flesh and bones unlike ghosts, which do not have. He explained to the apostles his mission, which was prophesied by prophets, and written in the Law of Moses, and Psalms (v.44). He commissioned the disciples to preach repentance and remission of sins and be his witnesses. He also promised to send them the promise of the father (Holy Spirit) SAQ. What was the nature of the resurrected body of Jesus? d. The ascension of Jesus, Luke, 24: 50 53 From Jerusalem, Jesus took his disciples to Bethany, a town outside Jerusalem. He lifted his hands and blessed them. As he blessed them, he was lifted up and carried to heaven. The disciples worshipped him and returned to Jerusalem with great joy. They continued to go to the temple to praise and give thanks to God. The disciples were now confident about their mission and who Jesus was e. The importance of the resurrection of Jesus to Christian Resurrection is the foundation of Christian faith. Christianity is based on the fact that Jesus resurrected and was taken up to heaven. Further to this: 1. Resurrection proved that Jesus is the Son of God. 2. Through resurrection, Christians have hope of eternal life 3. Through resurrections, Christians are assured of a new life in Christ 4. Sin and death were conquered by resurrection, giving hope of victory to Christians over death and sin. 5. Resurrection is a fulfillment of the writings of the prophets. It fulfilled Old Testament prophesies by Moses, Elijah, Elisha and others. 6. It is a proof that there is life after death. 7. Through resurrection, man was reconciled to God. 8. Jesus has power over death, over Satan and his Kingdom of darkness 9. It led to the coming of the Holy Spirit. Revision questions a. Give the different names used in reference to the lords supper by Christians in different churches b. Describe the institution of the lords supper c, State the Christian teaching about the lords supper d. What is the meaning of the lords supper to Christians? e. Compare the Passover feast with the practice of the lords supper f. Describe the prayer on mount olives g. Describe the betrayal and arrest of Jesus h. State the reasons that made Judas Iscariot to betray Jesus i. Describe the trial of Jesus under the following headings:- the council of Sanhedrin, the trial before Pilate, the trial before Herod and Pilates judgement. j. Why do you think Pilate agreed to have Jesus crucified? k. Identify and explain the lessons that Christians learn from the actions of Pilate during the trial of Jesus l. Actions taken by the Jewish leaders to ensure that Jesus was put to death m. Explain the crucifixion of Jesus n. Describe the death of Jesus o. The burial of Jesus p. Define the term resurrection q. Describe the four witnesses of the risen Christ r. Describe Jesus appearance to the disciples s. Describe the ascension of Jesus t. Give five evidences from the bible to show that Jesus rose from the dead u. Explain the significance of passion, death and the resurrection of Christ v. What is the significance of Jesus resurrection to Christians today w. Explain five importance of eulogy of death of the society. Revision question and answers OLD TESTAMENT PROPHESIES ABOUT THE COMING OF THE MESSIAH Lesson one: 1. The prophecy of Jeremiah about the Messiah a) He shall be a descendant of David b) He shall be a king c) He shall prosper d) He shall execute judgment and justice e) He shall ensure Judah/Israel is safe and lives in peace f) He shall be called the lord our righteousness 2. Meaning of Messiah mean? Messiah is a Hebrew word Meshiach which means the anointed one. It is equivalent to Christ, a Greek word, which also means the Anointed one. A Messiah is therefore someone called, anointed and appointed by God to serve Him in a special way. In the Old Testament, the Priests and Kings were the only people who were anointed. When a person is anointed oil is poured on them. The anointed person was set aside from the rest of the people in order to serve God and His people. Examples of anointed people are Aaron (Priest) and King David. In addition, God himself anointed Prophets: for example, Samuel, Elijah, Jeremiah, and Nathan among others. 3. Jewish expectations of the Messiah in the Old Testament The messiah shall be a political leader, a victorious ruler, a king to lead people to a time of great power and prosperity, a king in whose reign there shall be no sorrow or injustice nor fear, a king to rule forever 4. How Jesus Christ fulfilled the Old Testament prophetic of the messiah a) He was born from the lineage of David b) He was born of Mary, a virgin as foretold by Isaiah c) The messiah was called Immanuel (Jesus) Isaiah prophecy d) He was born in Bethlehem Micahs prophecy e) He was referred to as son of David Nathan/Jeremiah/s prophesies f) He suffered suffering servant prophecy by Isaiah 5. Prophets in the Old Testament who prophesied about the expected Messiah Isaiah, Nathan, Jeremiah, Micah and psalmist prophecy. Answers. Qn 1. The qualities of john as described by angel Gabriel a. He would be a prophet of god b. He would prepare the way for the messiah c. He would bring joy to Zachariah and others d. He would be a nazarite e. He would call people to repentance Qn 2. Why john was referred to as the second Elijah Like Elijah john had also lived in the wilderness John was also filled with the holy spirit and proclaimed gods message to the people He also met opposition from the king just like Elijah He was beheaded and Elijah was threatened with death by jezebel He stood firmly for the covenant way of life He was a great prophet of his time He led a simple life and faced many problems like hunger just like Elijah Qn 3. What lessons do Christians learn from annunciation of the birth of john the Baptist? God answers prayers however long it may take Christians should not doubt Gods messages We should be persistent, faithful and patient in prayers Christians should be devoted to God in prayer Children are a gift from God and a source of joy to their parents God has a purpose for every childs life Qn 4. Describe the birth of john the Baptist Elizabeth was very happy and so was Zachariah John was circumcised after eight days in accordance with the Jewish customs Elizabeth named the child john Zachariah affirmed the name of their son in writing They were surprised at the name because it was not in Zechariahs lineage Zechariah was now able to talk He broke into a hymn called the Benedictus Zechariah expressed his feelings of joy, gratitude and praise Zechariah told of the mission of his son. TOPIC TWO: INFANCY AND EARLY LIFE OF JESUS Qn 1. What lessons can Christians learn from the annunciation of the birth of Jesus Christ? God exalts the humble and rejects the proud Christians should humbly accept gods plan for their lives God has a purpose for the life of every one Nothing is impossible with god God wanted Jesus Christ to be part of the human family for him to identify with the human race Qn2. describe Marys visit to Elizabeth Mary went to visit Elizabeth after angel Gabriel told her that Elizabeth was expecting a baby Mary greeted Elizabeth and the baby in the Elizabeths womb leapt with joy The spirit also revealed that Mary was the most blessed of all women Mary sang a song known as the magnificent Qn3. identify the main ideas in the magnificent Mary thanks god for Being good to her His goodness and love for all human beings Fulfilling his promises to the people Delivering the oppressed from the oppressors Qn 4. Describe the dedication ceremony during the infancy of Jesus <br><br> The parents of Jesus offered the purification sacrifices according to the law of Moses Simon was moved by the holy spirit and took Jesus into his arm and praised God Simon prophesied about the mission of Jesus Prophetess Ann thanked God for sending Jesus who would bring redemption The things Simon and Anne said about their child amazed the parents of Jesus. TOPIC TWO: THE GALILEAN MINISTRY Qn a. What is the relevance of John the Baptist teachings to Christians today? Christians should not fear to condemn the evils in the society Christians should commit their lives wholly to the work of God Christians should accept their role with humility and preach the gospel Christians should be ready to proclaim the gospel even harsh environment for the people to know God Christians should share their resources with the less fortunate Christians should be contended with their pay and thus not accept bribes Christians should learn to be truthful in their work environment Christians should pronounce the consequences of judgement to those willing to repent Qn b. Give reasons why Jesus accepted to be baptized To be identified as the messiah To identify himself with the sinful human kind To receive the Holy Spirit For God to manifest the trinity It was a cleansing ritual To acknowledge the work of John the Baptist <br><br> He saw it as a way of fulfilling the old testament prophesies about the Messiah It was his final acceptance of the work of salvation Qn c. describe the baptism of Jesus When all the people were baptized Jesus was also baptized He was baptized by John the Baptist in river Jordan at a place called Bethbora Jesus was praying when the heavens opened The holy spirit descended from heaven upon him inform of a dove A voice came from heaven saying thou art my beloved son with thee I am well pleased Qn d. what is the significance of the baptism of Jesus to Christians today? Christians get new names that symbolizes new life in Christ Christians receive the Holy Spirit who gives them guidance in their lives Christians identify themselves with Jesus and the church Water is symbolically used as a cleanser as it wipes away ones sins and gives a new life Christians are brought together as members of the church of Christ During baptism Christians receive the Holy Spirit who guides them in their lives The old self dies and becomes a new person as a Christian It is the first step of being accepted into the Christian brotherhood LESSON THREE: TEMPTATIONS Qn a. describe the temptations of Jesus Satan told Jesus to turn stones into bread Jesus answered that man does not live on bread alone Satan then took Jesus to a high place and showed him all the kingdoms of the world. Satan promised to give Jesus everything if Jesus worshipped him Jesus answered that one should worship God and serve him alone Hastily, satin took Jesus to the pinnacle of the temple. He asked Jesus to throw himself down since God would send his angles to ensure that he did not get hurt. Jesus answered that no one should tempt God Qn b. from the gospel of St. Luke, identify five occasions when Jesus was tempted In the wilderness When he healed a dumb man the commanded a sign Jesus was tempted to arbitrate between two brothers When the rich young ruler called Jesus a good teacher When he was asked whether it was right to pay taxes to Caesar In the garden of Gethsemane, he was tempted to escape the cup of suffering During his trial he was asked whether he was the Messiah During crucifixion he was spat on but did not fight back On the cross one of the thieves wanted him to deliver them He was questioned by the Sadducees about resurrection Qn c. Outline ways in which Christians can overcome temptations in the contemporary world They should depend on Jesus They should be well versed with the scripture so that they can refer to the bible They should seek guidance and counseling They should attend bible classes for the right interpretation of the bible They should have faith or believe in God to help them during trials They should avoid bad company The should take part in active leisure They should avoid circumstances that can lead them to sin They should resist Satan Qn d. Explain ways in which Christians can be tempted To give a bribe in order to get a job To engage in irresponsible sexual behaviour due to peer pressure To steal money entrusted to them To cheat in examinations To take drugs/alcohol To exploit those who serve under them in their places of work To keep excess change from a shopkeeper or tout To show off Qn e. What lessons can Christians learn fro the temptations of Jesus? Since Jesus was tempted, he fully understands our difficulties God does not tempt us beyond our strength Through temptations we will also be tempted Through temptations and trials our faith is strengthened When we are tempted we should turn to the bible for guidance We should seek the holy spirit who enabled Jesus to conquer evil LESSON EIGHT: THESERMON ON THE PLAIN: 1. Give the main teachings of Jesus on the sermon on the plain The sermon on the plain consisted of five main parts namely: Blessings (Lk 6: 20 26) and woes These are also referred to as the beatitudes. Here, Jesus had a message for the poor, the rich, those who hunger and those who are full, those who weep and those who laugh. His concern is to show the social differences and mystery of Christian suffering. Persecution seems to be a common phenomenon for followers of Christ. The poor are those who cannot meet their basic needs and Luke depicts them as hungry and weeping. The disciples are included in the poor because they have given up everything. But Jesus gives hope. Jesus warns the rich against using their economic points to oppress the poor. They have an opportunity, however to belong to the Kingdom by using their riches to help the needy. Love of Enemies: (6:27-37) Followers of Jesus are supposed to Love your enemies, do good to those who hate, bless those who curse you, and pray for those who abuse you. Judging Others (6:37-43) Disciples are expected to acknowledge their own shortcomings before they can condemn the faults in others. Failure to recognize ones fault is a hindrance to becoming a member of the Kingdom of God. Evidence to Good Discipleship The proof of a persons goodness is seen in his deeds. The true nature of a person cannot be hidden because what they do and say will reveal their nature. Hearing and Doing (6: 47-49) It is not enough for His followers to proclaim Christ as Lord. They must also do what He tells them. Q2. What is the relevance of the (beatitudes) sermon on the plain to Christians today? The teachings on blessings and woes tell us that the goal of a person should be to inherit the Kingdom of God. Christians should love their enemies as Jesus loved them sinful as they were. Human beings are self-centered. It is easier to see other peoples mistakes than our own Christian should examine them before passing judgement on others. By so doing we appreciate that we are all sinners who should seek forgiveness from God and we should always appreciate others however sinful they may be. Be steadfast in faith and do good all the time. LESSION 9: JESUS WORKS OF COMPASSION Q2 Narrate the story of the forgiveness of the sinful woman (Lk 7:36-8:3) On one occasion, Jesus was invited by Simon the Pharisee to his house <br><br>to eat with him. <br><br>While this is a sinful woman walked into the house weeping. She began to wet Jesus feet with her tears and wiped them with her <br><br>hair. <br><br>She kissed his feet and anointed them with an ointment. When Simon saw this, he questioned Jesus power. If he were a prophet, <br><br>He would have noticed that the woman was a sinner. <br><br>And Jesus answered him the telling him about a certain creditor who <br><br>has two debtors, one owed him hundred denarii and the other fifty. <br><br>When asked Simon which of the two debtors would love the creditors <br><br>more. <br><br>Simon said the one who was forgiven more. Jesus said you have judged rightly. Then he had not given Him even water to wash His feet. But the woman used her tears to wet Jesus feet and wiped them using Jesus told Simon he gave him no kiss but the woman had not stopped <br><br>kissing Him. <br><br>Those at table began to ask who Jesus was who ever forgiven sins? And He said to the woman, Your faith has saved you, go in peace. <br><br>Q3. What lessons do Christians learn from the above story? <br><br>Christians should accept their sins and seek for forgiveness as the sinful <br><br>woman did. <br><br>Faith is important for one to be forgiven. Jesus told the woman Your <br><br>faith has save you. <br><br>A repentant sinner is greater than a righteous man (the Jewish religious <br><br>leaders). <br><br>It is not the magnitude of sin that matters but the attitude of a person <br><br>towards his sins. <br><br>Shows the importance of women in the ministry of Jesus. <br><br>Q4. Describe the story of the raising of the widows son at Nain (Lk 7:11- 17) <br><br>After His preaching in Capernaum, Jesus went to the city of Nain. He found a man being carried out near the gate. He was the only son of a widow. When the Lord saw her, He had compassionate on her and said to her, <br><br>Do not weep. <br><br>Then He came and touched the open coffin. And those who carried him stood still. Jesus said, Young man, arise. And he who was dead sat up and began to speak. Jesus presented him to his mother. Then fear came among all and they glorified God. They said a great prophet has come among us. God has visited His LESSON 10: JESUS TEACHING WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF PARABLES? 1. Give reasons why Jesus used parables To attract the attention of his listeners To help his listeners understand better To separate the serious people from the onlookers To enrich his teachings To avoid direct confrontation with his enemies It was a common way of teaching those days To teach about Gods mercy to sinners To make people think critically out issues concerning Gods kingdom To relate patent issues with those of the future kingdom positively Qn 2. Identify various methods used by Christians in spreading the gospel today Preaching Teaching Being role models Holding crusades Organizing seminars and conferences Electronic mechanisms e.g. sms and emails Print media e.g. posters and magazines Door to door evangelism Through demonstration and role play Through the mass media e.g. radios and TVs Through Christian music e.g. cassettes and C.Ds Qn 3. Discuss the reasons why Jesus faced opposition from the Jewish leaders His popularity His interpretation of the Sabbath His failure to observe the law of fasting He associated with tax collectors He claimed to be the messiah He out rightly condemned them Teaching with authority His claims to forgive sins. . LESSON 11: MIGHTY WORKS OF JESUS Q1 Narrate the healing of the Gerasene demoniac Lk 8:26-39. After crossing the Sea of Galilee, Jesus came across a demon <br><br>possessed man in a gentile town called Gerasa. <br><br>The man had been living in the caves used for burial of the dead. He wore no clothes. When the man saw Jesus, he asked Him not to torment him. When Jesus asked him what his name was, he responded that he was <br><br>called Legion which stands for 2000 6000 soldiers. <br><br>This meant that this man possessed by many demons. Jesus had sympathy and ordered the unclean spirits to leave him. Jesus let the evil spirits to go to the pigs, which were grazing nearby. They then fell into the lake and drowned. <br><br>Q2. What lesson can Christian learn from the healing of the demoniac man above? <br><br>Jesus valued human life. That is why He led the evil/spirits into the pigs, which drowned into the lake and saved the man. <br><br>It shows Jesus came for all regardless of tribe. This man was a gentile. Jesus heals the whole person physically and spiritually. That Jesus has power over evil spirits. Shows that Jesus came to destroy the power of evil. It teaches that Christians have to fight the power of evil constantly. But <br><br>with Jesus help they will overcome it. <br><br>God will never allow them to be defeated. He will come to their aid, <br><br>however, much. <br><br>They should give out their material possession to save those in need. <br><br>This man needed help. <br><br>They should tell their people about God as this man went to in his <br><br>village etc. Q3. What do the miracle of Jesus teach us about Him? <br><br>They show that Jesus is the Son of God. That Jesus gets power from God. That Jesus shares his power with His disciples. The miracles show Jesus compassion to suffering people e.g. the raising <br><br>of the widows son. <br><br>They also show that Jesus is Lord. He is the life and the resurrection. That affirms that Jesus came to save man from sin. They show that Jesus is a universal savior e.g. the Gesarone demoniac <br><br>who was a gentile. <br><br>They were part of His teaching they helped Him teach. Through them He showed the concern for human life, physically, <br><br>spiritually and mentally. LESSON 12: COMMISSIONING OF THE TWELVE DISCIPLES (LK 1:1-10) Q1. What is the role of the clergy in Kenya? Help the needy e.g. give them food, shelter etc. Hold seminars/workshops where they lead people into forgiveness. Being a good example for emulation. <br><br>Q2. How does the church participate in the upkeep of the clergy? <br><br>By giving sadaka. By giving of their income. They pay for their training. Fundraisings for building theological institutions. Building their residential houses in the church compound. Giving matega foodstuffs as part of sadaka during service. <br><br>LESSON 13: THE TRANSFIGURATION Q2. Describe the transfiguration of Jesus (Luke 9:28-37) <br><br>Jesus needed encouragement and reassurance that what He was about to <br><br>do was the will of His Father. <br><br>Therefore He took with Him Peter, James and John and went to Mount <br><br>Hermon to pray. <br><br>As He prayed, His appearance was changed and His face became <br><br>dazzling white. <br><br>Two men, Elijah & Moses appeared and talked of His departure (death), <br><br>which He was to accomplish in Jerusalem. <br><br>The disciples were asleep as this happened. When they woke up, they saw glory and the two men who stood with Him. <br><br>And as the men were parting form Him, Peter said to Jesus, Master, it <br><br>is well that we are here, Let us make booths, one for you, one for Elijah and one for Moses. <br><br>As he said this, a cloud cursed the whole area and they were afraid. A voice came out of the cloud saying, this is my only son, my chosen, <br><br>Listen to Him. Q3. What is the significance of the transfiguration of Jesus (Lk 9:28-37)? <br><br>A voice from heaven confirmed that Jesus was the Son of God. It strengthened the faith of the disciples so that they would continue <br><br>with His work after death. <br><br>It showed that Jesus had fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies and <br><br>God. This is seen with the appearance of Elijah and Moses. <br><br>The cloud was a symbol of Gods presence. It was a sign that Jesus mission was no longer a secret. It marked the <br><br>onset of His passion, which would lead to His death. <br><br>It confirmed to Jesus that He was doing the right thing and God was in <br><br>support of His suffering. <br><br>It shows that faith in prayer can lead us to Gods presence. <br><br>TOPIC FOUR: THE JOURNEY TO JERUSALEM LESSON 1: DUTIES, PRIVILEGES AND COST OF DISCIPLESHIP Q1. What are the characteristics of a true follower of Jesus? <br><br>Following Jesus means accepting homelessness and enduring hardship <br><br>because Jesus did not have a permanent home. Being a disciple of Jesus means self-denial and suffering. Being ready to give e.g. to the needy. To spread Christianity and make Jesus known. Following Jesus means being loyal to Him. <br><br>Q2. State the privileges of being a disciple of Jesus One becomes a member of the Kingdom of God. One is assured of eternal life. He has the joy of winning others to the Kingdom of God through <br><br>preaching. Q3 Why did Jesus choose the 12 disciples? <br><br>In order to help Him in the work of spreading the good news. So as to belong to the Kingdom of God and get eternal life. To witness to his work. To share with them the power of God e.g. in performing miracles. For company as He worked. <br><br>A COMMITED FOLLOWER OF JESUS Lk 10:25 11:1-13 (Note: Not the parable of the Samaritans) Q1. From the teaching of Jesus on the parable of the Good Samaritan, who do you think is a committed follower of Jesus? <br><br>One who understands the law and obeys it. One who understands that a neighbor is anybody who requires help <br><br>regardless of their social status <br><br>One who uses his resources selflessly to help the needy One who is not restricted by cultural and religious practices in <br><br>responding to a needy situation <br><br>One who is compassionate, kind and generous One who shows solidarity with the suffering. This includes identifying <br><br>with the needy and being ready to experience their suffering. LESSON 3: JESUS TEACHING ON PRAYER Q1. What did Jesus teach about prayer? One should not be proud when praying e.g. the parable of the tax <br><br>collector and the Pharisee. <br><br>One should have faith during prayer. One should pray always/continuously. There is no formula in prayer. One should address God as a father. Honestly confess sin as they pray. <br><br>Qs 1 & 2 are out of topic. LESSON 5: JESUS TEACHINGS ON HYPOCRISY, WEALTH, WATCHFULNESS AND READINESS Q1. Hypocrisy In what areas were the Pharisees hypocritical? In the washing of hands, cups and dishes which were done <br><br>ceremoniously. The Pharisees were too strict on this, which was not important. He told them to pay attention to issues of charity than external appearance. <br><br>Tithing habits They paid this well for the support of priests but <br><br>neglected justice and love for God. <br><br>He criticized them for recognition in the synagogues by taking reserved <br><br>seats and their desire to be noticed at market places by wearing long white robes. <br><br>He accused them of being like their ancestors who persecuted the <br><br>prophets of God. LESSON 6: (Lesson 6 will come later) AKUKA FIND THEY ARE IN THE TEXT LESSON 7: JESUS TEACHINGS ON WEALTH AND POVERTY Read Lk: 11:13-34 : Parable of the rich fool Q1. From the parable of the rich fool, what can Christians learn about the use of wealth? It teaches that wealth comes from God. Wealth should not be misused e.g. in drinking, etc. We should thank God for wealth received. It can make Christians to forget God. <br><br>Q2. Narrate the parable of the shrewd manager <br><br>Jesus taught the following parable about a rich man and his servant. A rich man wanted to sack his manager. He called the manager and <br><br>asked him for a full account of how the property was being managed. <br><br>The manager knew he was going to be sacked. He made friends with <br><br>some of his masters debtors so that they would take care of him if he got sacked. <br><br>One debtor who owed 100 barrels of olive oil was asked to pay 50 <br><br>barrels and one who owed 1000 was asked to pay 800 barrels. <br><br>The master praised him for being wise and acting property in his <br><br>moment of crisis. LESSION 8: TEACHING ON FORGIVENESS What were the teachings of Jesus on forgiveness? Jesus taught that one should forgive and forget All sins are equal before the eyes of God. One ought to ask for forgiveness after he has wronged. One should forgive as many times as he is offended. One should have faith when asking for forgiveness. PERSISTENT IN PRAYER Q1. State the parable of the widow and the unjust judge 18: 1-8 <br><br>Jesus told the Pharisees a parable to the effect that they ought always to <br><br>pray and not lose heart. <br><br>In a certain city there was a judge who neither feared God nor regarded <br><br>man. And there was a widow in that city which kept coming to him and <br><br>wanted her right given. <br><br>For a while he refused, but afterwards he said to himself, though I <br><br>neither fear God nor regard man, yet because this widow bothers me, I will allow her set her right or she will wear me out by her continual coming. <br><br>And the Lord said, Hear what the unrighteous judge says, and will he <br><br>not vindicate His elect who cry to Him day and night? <br><br>Will he delay long over them, I, you, He will vindicate them speedily. <br><br>LESSON 10: THE WAY TO SALVATION Lk 18: 15 19 Q1: What did Jesus teach by using the example of little children? <br><br>Jesus said, Let little children come to me because the kingdom of God <br><br>belongs to such as them. <br><br>He went on to tell them that for one to enter Gods kingdom, he must <br><br>humble himself like children. <br><br>This is because children are powerless, innocent and open. Jesus taught that the kingdom of God is for those who are simple, <br><br>humble, innocent and trusting like children. Q2. Give an account of how Jesus healed the blind beggar (18:35-43) A blind man recognized Jesus as the messiah. The blind man asked Jesus to heal him. He received his sight because of his faith. He followed Jesus, giving thanks to God. To receive salvation one needs to be bold and determined. We should seek Christ to heal our physical and spiritual blindness. Q3. Explain the relevance of Jesus teaching on salvation to Christians Christians learn that they need to repent their sins and seek forgiveness <br><br>in order to receive salvation and eternal life. <br><br>They need to humble themselves like children in order to earn salvation. They learn to obey the commandments of God so as to receive <br><br>salvation. <br><br>Use their abilities to glorify God e.g. the rich mans parable. They too learn that wealth can be a hindrance to salvation. They learn that salvation is given to all by God. <br><br>TOPIC FIVE: THE JERUSALEM MINISTRY Qn a. describe Jesus triumphant entry into Jerusalem according to Luke chapter 19: 29-30 After his journey from Galilee ended, Jesus approached Jerusalem passing through Bethaphage, Bethany and the mount olives He sent two of his disciples to a village to get him a donkey on which nobody had ridden He gave the disciples instructions that if the owner of the donkey demanded to know why they were untying it, they were to respond, The lord has need for it When they got the donkey, they threw their garments on it and helped Jesus to sit on it As Jesus rode along, they spread their garments on the road The crowds following him rejoiced and praised God for all the wonderful work Jesus had done this included: teaching, healing and feeding the hungry The crowds sang, Blessed is the king who comes in the name of the lord. Peace in heaven and glory in the highest. By singing, the crowds acclaimed Jesus as king. The Pharisees objected to the crowds singing and asked Jesus to silence them Jesus responded that if his followers were silent, the very stones would cry out. Insensitive than stones not to know what was happening, that is, the Messiah has come Qn b. what does the manner of Jesus entry into Jerusalem reveal about the nature of the kingdom of God? Jesus was a descendant of David, prophesied Messiah and son of God Jesus is a triumphant, victorious yet a humble king. A donkey is a symbol of humility and peace. So he came to establish a peaceful kingdom Jesus wanted to proclaim the coming of his kingdom but not as an earthly/ military leader, thus leading them to lay their garments for him to step on. In doing this, they were acknowledging Jesus as Jerusalems promised king Jesus was greeted as a king the same way the kings of Israel were greeted with acclamation and joy By riding on a donkey, Jesus fulfilled the prophesy of Zechariah which says, the king is coming riding on a donkey triumphant, humble and victorious Christianity is not propagated through violent means but peace Qn c. what lessons can Christians learn fro Jesus triumphant entry into Jerusalem? Christians learn that they should be prepared to receive Jesus into their lives like the crowd which escorted him to Jerusalem Christians also learn that they should emulate Jesus and be channels of peace in their communities <br><br> They also learn that they should expect opposition and resistance as they witness to Christ. They should not give up hope Christians learn that they should be humble like Jesus in their service to others Christians should thank and praise God for his intervention in their lives by sending Jesus They should be bold in their witnessing to Christ like the crowds that followed Jesus to Jerusalem and declared him king Qn d. state and explain why Jesus wept over Jerusalem. When Jesus came close to the city of Jerusalem he wept over it saying, If you only knew what is needed for peace! But now you cannot see it! The time will come when your enemies will surround you with barricades block you and close in on you from every side. They will completely destroy you and the people within your walls, not a single stone will they leave in its place because you did not recognize the time when God came to save you. According to Luke, all song and rejoicing stopped suddenly when Jesus was deeply distressed at the sight of Jerusalem Jesus knew that Jerusalem (the city of peace) would reject his final appeal and by so doing would bring judgement down on itself. The destruction of the city is viewed as the consequence of its rejection of Jesus. They cannot see when the true peace comes in the person of Jesus. The coming destruction is a symbol of Gods judgement on lack of trust. The tears of Jerusalem are the tears of tragedy. The heart of the tragedy is that Jerusalem did not recognize the time when God came to save them Now Jesus says that Jerusalem was not ready to receive him as their savior and this would lead to her ruin Just like the Babylonians were Gods instrument of destruction of Jerusalem during the time of Jeremiah, so will the Romans be instruments of destruction of Jerusalem Jerusalem was completely destroyed by the Roman armies in the year A.D 70 Qn e. Explain the cleansing of the temple. While in Jerusalem, Jesus entered the temple where he found people buying and selling He drove them out and overturned their tables saying that they had turned his fathers house into a den of robbers Here Luke uses this incidence to show how Jerusalem was still unprepared for the day of Gods visit Jesus carried out a symbolic act by driving out those who were buying and selling in the temple Jesus used the words of Jeremiah who too attacked the in his time for turning the temple into a hideout for thieves According to Jesus the temple will no longer give them the sense of security because it will be destroyed Although the temple will be destroyed, a new one will be built. This is the Christian community, which will be a house o prayer for all nations. The new temple will not be limited to Jesus alone but to all people In short Jesus is the Messiah. He exposed the unrighteousness of public life in Jerusalem by attacking the merchants in the temple Qn f. Give reasons why Jesus cleansed the temple of Jerusalem The temple authorities had allowed a market in the court of the gentiles where the everyday money issued by the Roman government could be exchanged for the special temple coins which had to be used for paying the temple tax In the same place they could also buy the animals needed for sacrifice. This animals had to be certified as acceptable But both the changing of money and the certifying of animals gave ample opportunity for making exorbitant profits Jesus made his protest because all this trading was hiding for the real purpose of the temple and prevented Israel from being a light to the gentiles. For this reason, the temple would be destroyed because it was no longer serving as a house of prayer. Qn g. what lessons can Christians learn from the cleansing of the temple? Christians learn that they should respect the house of God and use it appropriately Christian leaders should avoid exploiting members through asking for excessive contributions Christians should pay more attention to inward righteousness than external observance of rituals Christians should have more courage like Jesus to condemn evil practices by leaders in the church and society Christians should be exemplary with their life styles so as to win others to the kingdom Finally the cleansing of the temple by Jesus provides valuable lesson to Christians who are called upon to be Christs ambassadors. There are many incidents where churches have been subjected to disrespect and dishonor and this discourages many people from knowing God. Christians should also avoid leadership wrangles, corruption, sexual abuse, gossip and many others that have caused churches to split Qn h. explain Jesus conflict with the Jewish leaders In a series of conflicts in and around the temple between Jesus and the official leaders of the Jewish nation, the public ministry of Jesus came to its close After the cleansing the temple, he daily dominated the temple area teaching large crowds. His popularity grew steadily and the leaders felt the threat against their own position. They could not allow this to go on but they were afraid to arrest Jesus. In the end they tried to trap him into making statements which would either get him into trouble with the Roman authorities or discredit him before the people First Jesus was challenged about his authority. The Jewish religious leaders wondered whose authority Jesus used. They wanted to know which Rabii taught him or to which Jewish religious groups he belonged to i.e. the Pharisees or the Sadducees If Jesus proclaimed himself as the Messiah he could be accused before the Roman authorities for rebellion If he refused to make his claim the crowds would soon leave him alone But Jesus skillfully defeated his adversaries. He invited them to answer their own question. Tell me, did Johns right to baptize come from God or human beings? Whatever answer they gave to Jesus question about John the Baptist would apply in even stronger measures to their own question about Jesus But they had never supported John and they could no now admit that his right to baptize came from God If they did they would also have to accept Jesus whom John had announced. Neither could they say John was a prophet for that would bring trouble from the people who held John in high self-esteem Qn i. Describe the parable of the tenants in the vineyard After the question of Jesus authority, Jesus challenged the Jewish leaders by telling them the parable of the wicked tenants. He said that there was once a man who planted a vineyard, let it to the tenants and then left home for a long time When the time came to gather the grapes, he sent a slave to the tenants to receive from them his share of the harvest but the tenants beat the slaves and sent him back without a thing. The same treatment was given to the second and the third slave The owner decided to send his own son whom they killed. He therefore decided to come by himself, killed the tenants and handed over the vineyard to other men When the people heard this they said, surely not but Jesus explained to them the stone which the builders rejected as worthless turned out to be the most important of all. And every one who falls on the stone will be cut to pieces and if that stone falls on someone, it will crush him to dust In this parable, the vineyard represents Gods kingdom, Israel. The servants are the prophets sent to Israel and they are rejected. The son here represents Jesus and the owner is God who will bring judgement on Israel The stone that the builders rejected has become the cornerstone this shows that Jesus saw himself as the rejected but most important. He makes a new foundation of Israel for both Jews and Gentiles. On hearing this, the Pharisees wanted to seize Jesus but were afraid of the people Qn j. what is the relevance of the parable of the tenants? Over the centuries the situation has not changed. Jesus is still rejected by nations and by men What happened to Jesus happened as he foretold those who follow him Church history reveals many examples of men rejected by political and religious leaders and by the people their time and who have later been seen as the key man in the revelation of Gods purpose As Christians we should also pray for strength and guidance from God to be able to deal with rejection As Christians we should not fear rejection but stand firm for the truth Christians should also seek pastoral counseling fro the church leaders and other Christians. When we endure persecution we may be finally proved right Qn k. the question about paying taxes The teachers of law and the chief priest, after falling to arrest Jesus bribed some spies to ask whether it was right for the to pay taxes to Caesar or not The Israelites were compelled to pay taxes to the Romans who controlled them Many resented this because according to them payment of taxes using coins which had some emperors image was a violation of the Jewish law which forbade the use of images If Jesus would tell them to pay, the people would be against him for supporting Roman rule over them Many resented this because according to them people would be against him for supporting Roman rule over them If he told them not to pay, they would accuse him to the Roman authorities Jesus knew their trick and wanted his questioners to make their own decision about the issue According to him it was right for the Roman government to exert the tax payments without demeaning Gods authority In other words, by having the silver coin in their possession, the Jews accepted Roman authority <br><br> They had a duty to pay tax to the emperor because they enjoyed the benefit of the Roman rule At the same time they had a duty to be loyal to God. A persons loyalty should not be owed to the state or Caesar Qn l. explain the question about resurrection The Sadducees raised the question concerning marriage an resurrection or life after death They asked Jesus whose wife a woman would be in the resurrection when she married seven brothers who had died without bearing children The question was meant or designed to make Jesus look foolish thus to shame him. This would undermine the popular support that we had prevented action against Jesus In his response, Jesus made the following observations He does not accept the assumption that marriage continues after resurrection Quoting from exodus a book that the Sadducees accepted, Jesus confirms that there is life after death The resurrection life is different from earthly life It is a new existence where those who resurrect, live with God as his children in eternity Qn m. what is eschatology? The term eschatology is derived from two Greek words Eschatus and Lagos, which means end and study respectively Eschatology therefore is the study of the last things such as death, judgement, life after death and th end of the world <br><br> Jesus talked about the end of the world to his disciples just before he was arrested Qn n. what will happen at the end of the world (eschatology) according to Jesus teaching in Lukes gospel 21: 5-38? Jesus taught hi disciples about the end times in the temple of Jerusalem In his speech, he talked about what will happen to the city of Jerusalem and the world at the end of time Jerusalem was going to be destroyed because of her refusal to recognize and accept the Messiah Jesus told the disciples of the signs that would accompany the end of the world People come claiming to be Jesus the Messiah, the son of God There will be wars between nations Natural calamities like earthquakes, famines and plagues will occur Strange heavenly beings will come from the sky There will be disruption in the sky and in the sea All nations will be in despair People will faint from fear as they witness these signs At the end of all these, the son of man will appear in power and glory Jesus teaching of the end times was meant to provide encouragement to the disciples in difficult times They were expected to have hope Qn o. how do Christians prepare for the second coming of Christ? Christians should prepare for the second coming of Christ by not losing hope in the face of trials and tribulations because the kingdom of God with its promises of a new life will definitely come <br><br> They prepare for his second coming by leading a righteous life. They are to avoid too much feasting and drinking They should prepare by being watchful through prayers so that God will give them courage and strength to stand firm in their faith They should prepare by preaching the word of God to those who have not heard it They should prepare by being obedient to Gods commandments They should prepare by helping the needy They should prepare by preaching and evangelizing and converting others TOPIC SIX: THE PASSION, DEATH AND RESURRECTION OF JESUS CHRIST THE LORDS SUPPER Qn a. give the different names used in reference to the Lords Supper by Christians in different churches The holy Eucharist The mass The lords table or the table of the lord The Holy Communion The Last Supper The breaking of bread The sacrament Qn b. describe the institution of the Lords Supper Jesus was at the last supper with his disciples the night he was betrayed In the room which had been arranged by Jesus. He told his disciples how much he had longed to eat the Passover meal with them before he suffered death <br><br> He took a piece of bread and gave thanks to God and broke it. He gave it to them saying, this is my body which is given for you. So do this in memory of me He took a cup of wine and gave thanks to God and said take this and share it among yourselves He also gave them a cup of wine after supper saying this cup is Gods new covenant sealed with my blood which is poured out for you Qn c. state the Christian teachings about the Lords Supper The Last Supper was inaugurated by Jesus Its celebration of the crucified and rise Christ The Lords Supper is a gift from God It is a sacrifice of praise and thanks giving It is the churchs effective proclamation of Gods mighty works acts and promises It is a sign of the unity of the church or the believers It is a new paschal meal of the church. The meal, which by visible signs communicates Gods love in Jesus Christ. It is the sacrament of Christs real presence The bread is a symbol of the body of Christ which was crucified The wine or cup is a symbol of his blood, which was shed. It is the blood of the new covenant It is a fore state of Christs passion and of the final kingdom. It is symbolic of the heavenly banquet It is central to Christian worship. (Eucharist) Qn d. what is the meaning of the Lords Supper to Christians? The sacramental meal communicates Gods love in Christ The washing of the disciples feet by Jesus signifies humble service to and love for one another They proclaim the lords death until his second coming They share in the body of Christ The unity of Christians is evidenced The bread symbolizes the body of Jesus which was crucified on the cross for the sins of human kind and for the healing of their diseases The wine symbolizes the blood of Jesus which was shed for forgiveness of sins The wine also symbolizes the sealing of a new covenant The partaking of the Lords Supper strengthens the faith of believers in that, Christs presence is felt and in this way they constantly keep in touch with him The lords supper enhances a personal relationship between the individual believer ad Christ It is thanksgiving to God for everything accomplished in creation, redemption and sanctification Through the Holy Communion, Christians offer themselves as a holy and living sacrifice. They rededicate and renew themselves. Those who share in the sacred meal declare their loyalty to Christ The Lords Supper is an act of repentance. The partakers receive re- assurance of the forgiveness of sins and are assured of salvation The bread and the wine which represents the body and blood of Jesus become the final sacrifice replacing all O.T sacrifices that were offered for the salvation of the human race Qn f. Prayer on mount olives After celebrating the last supper, Jesus and his disciples went to mount olives He knelt down and prayed and asked his disciples to join him In response, God sent an angel from heaven to encourage him Jesus prayed in agony until his sweat was like drops of blood This sweat which was like blood was an indication of the struggle and agony he went through to accept the will of his father Though Jesus suffered agony and turmoil, he approached it with great courage and composure His suffering was even greater for it involved more than physical pain. It meant bearing the sin of the world So he prayed to God, his father to give him strength for his coming mission When he went back to his disciples, he found them asleep a sign of moral and physical exhaustion or maybe it was an indication that they were in sorrow because Jesus had told them he was about to be crucified In conclusion, we can say that Jesus expressed an inner struggle about the fulfillment of his Messianic mission. So he prayed to God to help him bear the suffering. Prayer was very important in Jesus ministry Qn g. describe the betrayal and arrest of Jesus When Jesus came down from Mt. Olives he met a multitude of people Judas Iscariot appeared accompanied by a large crowd, the chief priest, elders and the temple guards who had ordered to arrest Jesus Judas Iscariot came forth and kissed Jesus. This was a sign identifying Jesus as the man they were looking for. That kiss was the betrayal When the disciples noticed what was happening one of them used his sword to cut off the ear of a high priests slave In other words Jesus stopped his disciples from resisting his arrest By rejecting armed assistance, Jesus was refusing the role of a political Messiah Jesus was arrested and taken to the house of the chief priest Annas Qn h. state the reasons that made Judas Iscariot to betray Jesus He lacked moral courage to stand by Jesus during his moment He could have been an informer of the Jewish religious leaders He was overcome by the power of evil He was disappointed by Jesus teaching on spiritual kingdom rather than fulfilling the Jewish expectation of a political Messiah who could liberate them from the Roman rule He was a mercenary motivated by greed for money He had little faith in Jesus or lost his trust in Jesus Christ He was not loyal to the master He was a northerner who felt foreign and thus was jealous against other disciples He was a zealot who believed in war rather than peace Qn i. Describe the trial of Jesus under the following The council of Sanhedrin Jesus was brought to the Sanhedrin council early in the morning following his arrest The council of elders asked him if he was the Messiah Jesus responded by speaking of the son of the man coming in triumph The Sanhedrin accused him of the sin of blasphemy for allegedly claiming to be the son of God He was condemned to die for alleged blasphemy In the Jewish law, blasphemy was punishable by death The trial before Pilate Since the Sanhedrin could not carry out the death sentence, they took Jesus to the Roman governor Pilate They accused Jesus of inciting the people to revolt, forbidding payment of taxes and claiming to be a king in rebellion to Roman authority They could not accuse Jesus of blasphemy. This charge would not be accepted under Roman law However, by taking Jesus to Pilate, the Jewish religious leaders wanted the Roman authority to take responsibility for Jesus death The trial before Herod Jesus ministry works had mesmerized Herod. So when Pilate learned that Jesus was from Galilee, he handed him over to Herod who was the district officer of Galilee and happened to be in Jerusalem at that time The trial of Jesus before Herod (only mentioned in St. Lukes gospel) is not really a trial because king Herod only wanted to satisfy his curiosity about Jesus He joined the soldiers in mocking Jesus Jesus refused to answer Herods questions and he consequently sent Jesus back to Pilate Interestingly the mockery by Herod and his soldiers as another step in the public ridicule of Jesus. It will continue as he hangs on the cross Pilates judgement Jesus was brought to Pilate a second time Pilate reiterated that he found Jesus not guilty of any crime The chief priests prevailed upon Pilate who passed a sentence of death on Jesus to die by crucifixion. This was the punishment of high treason according to the Roman law The Jewish leaders asked that Barnabas a criminal be released instead of Jesus It was customary for a convicted person to be released during the Passover So the Jewish leaders and not the Jewish people or Pilate were responsible for Jesus death Jesus was killed because of the blind hatred of the Jewish leaders Qn j. why do you think Pilate agreed to have Jesus crucified? He was afraid of a Jew revolt. It was his duty to maintain peace in his territory in accordance with the expectations of the Roman emperor. If he had released Jesus, the Jew would have caused a disturbance He did not want to be disloyal to the Roman emperor after learning that Jesus had been accused of treason. Disloyalty could have resulted in losing favor with the emperor and consequently his job He washed his hands. This means that he was absolving himself of the guilt of having Jesus crucified. This is because he had learnt from the Jewish leaders that Jesus was the Son of God. His wife had also cautioned him about Jesus innocence. Pilate himself had found no evidence to convict Jesus Qn k. identify and explain the lessons that Christians learn from the actions of Pilate during the trial of Jesus Jesus is the king of the Jews <br><br> Jesus is without sin. Pilate found no guilt in Jesus and he sent him to Herod Pilate gave in to their demands on the grounds of treason- Christians should refrain from giving false witness Pilate was afraid of a revolt. It was his duty to maintain peace as a Roman officer. Christians learn that they should not be compromised by worldly standards Christians should stand firm for the truth because the truth will always prevail Christians should strive not to loose favour with God. They should desire to please God rather than man Pilate washed his hands he learnt that Jesus is truly the son of God (innocent) Great evil can happen when the truth is at the mercy of political pressure Christians should take time before making decisions Resisting the truth leaves a person without purpose or direction Qn l. actions taken by the Jewish leaders to ensure that Jesus was put to death They paid Judas Iscariot to betray him They bought false witnesses to accuse him of blasphemy before Sanhedrin/ blasphemy was punishable by stoning to death They hurriedly tried Jesus at night before people knew what was happening They framed treason charge against Jesus when he appeared before Pilate/ treason carried a death sentence <br><br> They employed armed temple guards and armored soldiers to deal with those who would fight for Jesus They blackmailed Pilate to have Jesus crucified They organized a mob to shout for the death of Jesus and release of Barnabas They crucified him dead when they got permission from Pilate Qn m. explain the crucifixion of Jesus Jesus was given the cross beam to carry to his crucifixion site Simon of Cyrene helped him carry it A group of women followed Jesus and wept over his plight Jesus asked them to weep over themselves and their children He talked about the impending destruction coming over Jerusalem Jesus eventually arrived at Golgotha and was nailed on the cross Two criminals were crucified on either of his sides After his crucifixion, the soldiers cast lots to divide his garments. This action fulfilled psalms 22: 18, Jesus is the righteous Messiah who suffers unjustly and is mocked by people as he cries to God The soldiers, Jewish leaders and one of the thieves mocked Jesus for claiming to be the royal Messiah Jesus is mocked with the challenge to save himself One of the criminals crucified with Jesus usually referred to as the repentant thief acknowledged Jesus as the Messiah and admitted the justness of his own condemnation Above Jesus it was written, this is the king of Jews Jesus forgave his killers and all those who had accused him falsely. He promised one of the thieves hanging on the cross a place in paradise Qn n. describe the death of Jesus The death of Jesus was preceded by extra ordinary happenings Darkness covered the land for three hours The curtain in the temple tore into two Jesus died after crying father into thy hands I commit my spirit On seeing Jesus die, the Roman centurion who was present testified to Jesus innocence. As he recognized Jesus lordship In his death, Jesus showed total commitment to Gods will Qn o. the burial of Jesus Joseph of Arimathea, a rich and righteous member of the Sanhedrin asked Pilate to allow him bury Jesus Joseph could have been a secret disciple of Jesus Jesus burial in Josephs grave fulfilled Isaiahs prophesy concerning the suffering servant of Yahweh who was buried in a rich mans tomb A group of women followed Joseph and saw where he buried Jesus They went back home to prepare spices with which to wash Jesus body after the Sabbath Jesus was indeed a king judged by the way he was buried THE RESURRECTION: Qn p. define the term resurrection The term resurrection refers to the event of Jesus rising from the dead. This event took place on the third day i.e. the Sunday morning after Jesus was crucified on Friday afternoon Qn q. the witnesses of the risen Christ The testimony of the repentant thief He rebuked his unrepentant companion He recognized his own sinful condition He declared Jesus to be sinless He professed in Jesus true Messiah-ship and Lordship He recognized that Jesus would live and exercise his saving power after he died The testimony of Joseph of Arimathea Joseph of Arimathea was a secret disciple of Christ He witnessed to the lordship of Jesus Christ after his death by his actions He did this by seeking permission from Pilate to bury the body of Jesus By giving Jesus this royal burial he was witnessing to the truth that Jesus was king Testimony of the holy woman On the day after the Sabbath, Mary Magdalene and Mary the mother of Jesus went to the tomb planning to prepare Jesus body for a proper burial On arrival, they found the stone covering the tomb had been rolled away The tomb was also empty Two men in dazzling clothes confirmed that Jesus had risen as he had prophesied. The two men were angles When the women learnt of Jesus resurrection, they broke the news to the apostils and all the others. The apostles rejected the womens testimony The testimony of disciples on their way to Emmaus Jesus appeared to the disciples who were on their way to Emmaus They were discussing Jesus suffering, death and the empty tomb They regarded Jesus death as a tragedy, for they had hoped he would liberate the Jews from the Roman rule Jesus explained to the scriptures, which say the messiah would suffer to reach his glory. <br><br> They invited Jesus to dine with them Jesus shared the Holy Eucharist with them before they recognized whom he was at the breaking of the bread The disciples at Emmaus thus became the second witnesses to the risen Christ. The effect of this testimony is that the disciples went and told the eleven apostles about their encounter with the risen Christ Qn r. the appearance of Jesus to the disciples As the disciples narrated their encounter with Jesus to the eleven apostles, Jesus appeared to them Jesus asked them to confirm that he had risen by touching his body He explained to the apostles his mission through telling them the prophesies about him in the law of Moses, prophets and psalms Jesus brought his disciples to be witnesses by proclaiming repentance and forgiveness of sins He tested some cooked fish He promised that he was going to be with them through the power of the Holy Spirit THE ASCENSION OF JESUS Qn s. Describe the ascension of Jesus From Jerusalem Jesus led his disciples to Bethany He raised his hands blessed the disciples and lifted to heaven The disciples returned and witnessed Jesus ascension with joy They continued to go to the temple to pray to God waiting for the holy spirit that Jesus had promised them <br><br> From this incidence where Jesus blessed the disciples, we learn that the disciples became confident about their mission. This earlier disbelief and blindness to who Jesus was now overcome Qn t. Give five evidences from the bible that show that Jesus Christ rose from the dead The tomb was empty Assurance of the angle to the women that Jesus had risen Thomas witnessed the resurrection by feeling the scars on Jesus hands The women who had gone to the tomb had found it empty The disciples witnessed his resurrection when he appeared to the two disciples at Emmaus Jesus shared a meal with his disciples after his resurrection in Jerusalem Jesus walked with the disciples up to Bethany prior to his ascension Qn t. explain the significance of passion, death and the resurrection of Jesus to Christian life The passion deed and resurrection refers to seven incidences namely, Jesus last supper, suffering in the garden, suffering before Sanhedrin, Pilate and Herod; mocking by the soldiers, death on the cross, resurrection and ascension Those events are of great significance to the modern Christians. First they proof that Jesus was indeed the son of God and the Messiah The passion, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ was a fulfillment of the old testament prophesies and Psalms The resurrection resulted in the rapid spread of the church. The spread of the church is as a result of the risen Christ and the influence of the Holy Spirit <br><br> The resurrection is thus the basis/ the central idea or foundation in the Christian faith and missionary activity; if Christ has not been raised, then our preaching is useless and you believing it is useless The passion, death and resurrection reveal the power of God to those who believe in him. They also prove that Jesus who was Gods triumphant envoy is alive and Christians are assured living again after the physical death The raising of Jesus from the dead proved that Jesus was not only man but lord over human life so that Christians share in his life on earth by believing in him and living according to the fruits of the holy spirit The resurrection of Jesus is a source of inspiration and confidence in Christians. It also points to the fact that Jesus was a man of his word i.e. he fore told the resurrection and it came to pass. His resurrection was a real fact because he showed his disciples the crucifixion marks All that happened during the passion, death and resurrection of Christ was just a completion of Gods revelation through Christ They also point to the power and glory of God in which those who believe share in the hope of their own resurrection in the second coming of Jesus Qn v. the significance of Jesus resurrection to Christians today It is the foundation of the Christian faith and hope which their belief would be useless Christian faith would be in vain (futile) if Jesus had not resurrected <br><br> Through resurrection Christians have confidence and hope in God because the one they believe in has been exalted and sits at the right hand of God almighty Through the resurrection, Christians are given hope of eternal life The resurrection of Jesus led to the coming of the holy spirit which helps Christians to live according to the teachings of Christ, preach the gospel and speak boldly against the evils in the society The resurrection give meaning to baptism in that one dies in sin and is raised with Christ to new life The resurrection confirms the divinity of Jesus as the true son of God The resurrection gives Christians courage to face death because they have hope of resurrecting at his second return It is remembered by Christians during the Eucharist Qn w. explain five importance of Eulogy of death in the society today It enables mourners to know the cause or nature of death It enables the mourners to forgive the dead person incase of any grudge between them and the dead person It enables the mourners to ask for forgiveness from the dead person It enables the mourners know the wish or last words of the deceased before he/ she died Mourners have an opportunity to declare what they owe or are owed by the dead It enables mourners to know the contribution of work of the dead to the society It provides the mourners with an opportunity to know the nature or character of the dead and his/her social life It enables mourners to know the background or life history of the deceased e.g. education. FORM THREE SELECTED TEACHINGS FROM THE NEW AND THE OLD TESTAMENTS TOPIC ONE: GIFTS OF THE HOLY SPIRIT Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: - a) Discuss what Jesus taught about the role and gifts of the Holy Spirit. b) Describe the manifestations of the Holy Spirit in Christianity today. c) Identify the fruits of the Holy Spirit d) Interpret the message of Peter on the day of Pentecost. LESSON ONE: TEACHINGS OF JESUS ON THE ROLE OF THE HOLY SPIRIT. Read JOHN 14:15-26, 16: 5-15, and ACTS 1: 7- 8 Introduction The Holy Spirit is the third person in the trinity. There is the power of Christ, the power of God, and the Holy Spirit who gives gifts such as prophecy and healing. The Holy Spirit is mentioned several times in the Bible; (1) during creation in Genesis, (2) at the annunciation of the birth of Jesus, (3) at the beginning of the ministry of Jesus, (4) during baptism, (5) revelation of Jesus in the temple (6) Jesus spoke of the Holy Spirit during his mission or ministry, after resurrection and before ascension Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson: a. State the role of Holy Spirit in the church and in Christian lives today b. Enumerate the gifts of the Holy Spirit c. Analyse the Manifestation of the Holy Spirit in the church and Christians today <br><br>d. Give the role of love in church and in Christian lives today a. The role of Holy Spirit in Church and in Christian lives today. Read JOHN 14:15-26 and JOHN 16: 5-15, ACTS 1: 7- 8 The Holy Spirit has many roles in the church and in Christian lives today. These roles are to: <br><br>Teach Christians on a daily basis messages of Jesus Live in the hearts of believers of Christ Be an advocate, a counselor, helper and a comforter to those who love <br><br>Jesus Christ and obey Gods commandments. <br><br>He would remind the disciples the words said by Jesus Christ and <br><br>introduce them to their deeper meanings. <br><br>Interpret the deeper meaning of the messages of Jesus Christ. Reveal the truth and mysteries of and about God. Affirm the right of Jesus as the Son of God. Reveal the glory of Jesus death. Reveal what is right and wrong Give the disciples of Jesus power to become witnesses of Christ. Give courage to the disciples of Jesus and modern Christians to face <br><br>prosecution on the account of following Jesus. <br><br>Enable the disciples to expose the secret lives and heart of sinful people. Guide Christians; help believers to cast away evils spirits, to heal, to preach the word of God, to encourage, and to condemn evil in the society. b. Paul teaching about the Gifts of the Holy Spirit. Read 1 Corinthians chapters 12, 13, and 14. Spiritual gifts are extra-ordinary favors, talents, abilities, and dispositions given to Christians by God for the benefit of all believers. The gifts are used for the service of others and not for self-glorification and gratification. The message of Peter on the day of the Pentecost Peter told the disciple that what was happening was the fulfillment of Jesus prophecy. - He said that Jesus of Nazareth was the Son of God. - He said that the suffering and death of Jesus was according to Gods plans. Death was the fulfillment of the Old Testament prophecy. Gifts of the Holy Spirit 1. Gift of wisdom: having deep understanding of issues- seeing far, being perceptive. 2. Gift of knowledge: ability to understand the basic facts about Jesus, His mission and knowledge about spiritual issues. 3. The gift of faith: refers to the confidence in Gods help. It is deep trust in God. 4. The Gift of healing: ability, and power to heal all forms of sickness by calling upon the name of Jesus Christ. 5. The gift of performing miracles: gift of healing miracles, creative miracles for example, dead legs becoming alive. 6. The gift of preaching 7. The gift of prophecy: the ability to interpret Gods word. The ability to foresee what will happen in the future as revealed by God. 8. The gift of distinguishing spirits or discernment: the ability to know whether a spiritual gift is from God, the Holy Spirit or from the evil spirit 9. The gift of speaking in tongues. The ability to utter, speak in a tongue, language unknown to the believer. Tongues are used when addressing God for self-edifications. It is personal growth. 10. The gift of interpretation of tongues: the ability to understand and interpret the messages of those speaking in tongues. 11. The gift of love. (Read 1 Corinthians 13) Paul stressed that all the gifts of the Holy Spirit are to be demonstrated with love. He stressed that love, a fruit of the Holy Spirit is supreme over other spiritual gifts possessed by Christians. Its the greatest of all. Speaking in tongues, preaching, and martyrdom without love is useless. Components of Love Love is patient, kind, not jealous or boastful, not arrogant or rude, is not ill mannered or selfish, and does not insist on its own way. It is not disrespectful. It is not irritable or resentful. It does not rejoice at wrong but rejoices in truth. It bears all things. Love believes all things, hopes all things, and endures all things. Love is eternal. Love never fails. The other gifts are temporary but love, faith and hope are eternal. c. Manifestation of the Holy Spirit in the church and Christians today Gifts of the Holy Spirit have been manifested in churches today. We see this manifestation through people possessing the gifts of the Holy Spirit. For example, leaders in church have displayed the gift of wisdom. Preachers, and Christians ministers have been casting out demons and performing healing. There are reported cases of interpretation of tongues and gift of prophecy in churches today. When Christians display the gifts of the Holy Spirit such as speaking in tongues the Holy Spirit is manifested. Other manifestations of the Holy Spirit are: <br><br>Through healing, prophecy, gifts of discernment, boldness in preaching, <br><br>and casting out demons among others <br><br>Christians helping the poor by giving generosity and in kindness. Through singing, dancing, shouting (fruit of joy) Through unity of believes and fellowships. Through praying, Christians persecutions/temptations. <br><br>d. Criteria for Discerning the Gifts of the Holy Spirit. Christians who have the Holy Spirit and are guided by Jesus have certain characteristics. These are: <br><br>They will confess that Jesus is Lord They cannot say a curse. They speak the truth. They worship God and behave in accordance with <br><br>Jesus teaching. <br><br>They led by the Holy Spirit and are known by the fruits of the Holy <br><br>Spirit. These fruits are love, joy, peace, and patience. <br><br>Such persons serve all Christians without discrimination and strife. They do not do sinful acts such as sexual immorality. They do not e. The fruits of the HOLY SPIRIT (GALATIANS 5:16-26) Paul taught that the fruit of the spirit are: Love, Joy, Patience, Long suffering, Goodness or Generosity, Faith and faithfulness, Peace, Meekness and kindness, gentleness, self- control and temperance. Answer these questions after reading JOHN 14:15-26 and JOHN 16: 5- 15, ACTS 1: 7- 8 and 1 Corinthians chapters 12, 13, and 14. 1. What is the role of the Holy Spirit among Christians? (Read a) 2. Discuss the gifts of the Holy Spirit 3. Write a talk about the Holy Spirit 4. Define love? 5. Describe the different types of love 6. Why do Christians need the Holy Spirit today? 7. State the role of love in church and in Christian lives today. 8. How has the gift of the Holy Spirit been manifested in Christian lives? 9. Which activities show that the Holy Spirit is working among Christian in Kenya. 10. How have the gifts of the Holy Spirit been misused in the church today? Answers are also in the text. Read sections with answers 1. The role of the holy spirit An advocate, a counsellor and a comforter. He would remind and introduce the disciples to the deeper meaning of the word of Jesus Christ. To reveal the myth and mysteries of God. He would affirm the right of Jesus as the Son of God. He would reveal the glory of Jesus death. He would enable the disciples to discern and expose the secret heart of sinful men. <br><br>2. The gift of the Holy Spirit has been misused today by pride and public manifestation of the gift as a way of show off. Some Christians have misused the gift of Holy Sprit of prophecy by prophesying for money. LESSON TWO. PETERS MESSAGE ON THE DAY OF PENTECOST. Read ACTS 2: 14-41 Introduction Jews commemorate Pentecost day. This is the day that God gave Moses his laws on mount Sinai. It is also referred to as the festival of weeks. Pentecost day was celebrated 50 days after the Passover. It was compulsory for all Jews. On this day, Jews brought offering, the first fruits of harvest, to the temple in Jerusalem. Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson You should be able: - 1. Describe Pentecost day 2. Narrate Peters Message. 3. Explain the relevance of the Pentecostal Experience a. Pentecost a day On the Pentecostal day, the disciples were gathered in Jerusalem awaiting the promise of the Holy Spirit. And as promised, the Holy Spirit came in the form of a strong wind, and tongues of fire. The Holy Spirit rested on the head of each disciple. The disciples received the gift of the Holy Spirit. They spoke in new tongues. Some of the observers mistook this experience. They thought that the disciples were drunk with wine. Peter stood up to explain what was happening and defend the disciples. He told those who saw the experience that the disciples were not drunk. It was in the morning. b. Peters Message. Read Joel 2: 28 32 Peter told the onlookers that; what was happening is fulfillment of Joels prophesies about the outpouring of Gods spirit. He said that Jesus of Nazareth was the Son of God. This was proved by the miracles that Jesus performed. He emphasized that the suffering and death of Jesus was according to Gods plans. Jesus is a descendant of David. Death and the resurrection of Jesus fulfilled prophesies in the Old Testament. God raised Jesus from the dead. He taught that Jesus had both the nature of God and Man. The apostles are the living witnesses of the resurrection of Jesus. Jesus has been exalted and sits on the right hand of God where He is Lord and Judge. They holy Spirit is a gift from Jesus Peter then invited the listeners to repentance so that they could be forgiven and receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. Three thousand souls accepted salvation message and were added to the fellowship of the disciples. c. After the Holy Spirit infilling. The disciples sold their possessions and goods and assisted the needy. They did many wonders and signs. They continued to live in unity, worshiping God, fellowshipping together, and breaking the bread. d. Lessons Christians learn from Leadership of Peter. Christians should be: 1. Courageous and stand up for Jesus Christ all the times. 2. Ready to spread the Gospel of Christ. 3. Win new converts to Jesus by inviting them to repentance. 4. Have faith in the risen Christ. 5. Pray to be filled with the Holy Spirit like Peter and those in church leadership should take their roles seriously. e. Relevance of the Pentecostal Experience Speaking in diverse tongues signified that Christianity is a universal religion. It pointed out the importance of all languages when communicating to God. There were no specific languages for speaking with God, as it was when Latin was the language of literacy and Christianity. Christians should be bold in their preaching. They should not be afraid as they have the counsel and helper, the Holy Spirit. Christians should understand that God chooses anyone as a leader, preacher, and witness of Christ. Pentecostal experience signifies that Christians need to receive and be filled with the Holy Spirit Revision questions a) Explain the meaning of the Pentecost b) Describe the manifestations of the holy spirit on the day of the Pentecost (Acts 2: 1-40)(or narrate the events that took place on the day of the Pentecost) c) Write down five teachings about Jesus from Peters speech on the day of the Pentecost d) What were the qualities of peter that made him a successful leader of the apostolic church? e) What lessons can Christians learn from the events of the day of the Pentecost? f) State the teachings of Jesus on the holy spirit (John 14:14-26) (acts 1:7- 8) g) What is the role of the holy spirit according to Jesus? h) What is the role of the holy spirit in the believers or the church or Christians? i) Outline the fruits of the holy spirit j) State the criteria for discerning the spiritual gifts k) List down the gifts of the holy spirit l) Explain why Paul taught that love is the greatest of all spiritual gifts m) Explain how the Holy spirit is manifested in the church today n) State ways in which the gifts of the holy spirit are being abused in the church today TOPIC TWO: THE UNITY OF BELIEVERS Learning outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: a) Explain teaching in selected New Testament texts of the unity of believers. b) Identify the metaphors used to describe unity of believers. c) Identify the causes of disunity in the early and modern church LESSON ONE: TEACHINGS OF THE UNITY OF BELIEVERS IN SELECTED NEW TESTAMENT TEXTS Unity of believers refers to oneness of those who have faith in Jesus Christ. Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson you should be able to: - i. Describe activities of early Christians ii. Describe characteristics of the people of God iii. Explain the meanings of these symbolic expressions - The body of Christ - The Vine and the Branches - The Church / Assembly of God - The Bride a. Early Christians The early Christians in Jerusalem demonstrated their unity by. <br><br>Holding joint prayer sessions Sharing the Lords supper, that is Eucharist. Sharing their possessions with the poor. The showed oneness and unity as believers. They expressed their oneness using various terms, images, metaphors and symbols. They regarded themselves as the people of God, the church and an Assembly of God. When they celebrated the last supper, eating of bread was a symbol of the body of Christ. They saw themselves as belonging to one tree with the vine and branches. As followers of Christ, the early Church saw itself as the Bride of Christ. b. Discussion of Symbolic Expressions i. The people of God Read 1 PETER 2: 9-10. Peter has outlined the characteristics of the people of God. He says that the people of God are Believers in God: through faith in Jesus Christ. The Chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation a chosen people Those who stand out from the rest because they live a holy and righteous life. Form a Holy nation chosen to proclaim the works of God. Not just the descendants of Abraham but people who follow Jesus Christ and His teachings. ii. The body of Christ Read 1 Corinthians 12:12-27, and Ephesians 4:1-12. The Holy Spirit is the one who brings Christians together as one body of Christ to serve the church. Christians are given gifts for the purpose of sharing the body of Christ. Jesus Christ is the head of the church. And just as the body has many parts, playing different roles, so has the Church. Every member of the church plays a vital role because different members have different spiritual gifts and callings. Some are Apostles, Teachers, Prophets, Evangelists, Pastors and Miracle performers, Administrators and those who show mercy to others and encourage (exhort) others. All church activities should be directed to the welfare of the church, just as the function of each part of the body is necessary for the well being of the whole body. To have a united body, members should be meek, and patient in order to bear the fruit of the Holy Spirit. For a church to be united, or to be considered as one body, Christians should have faith in God the father, one Lord Jesus Christ, one Holy Spirit and have faith in God through Jesus Christ. iii. The Vine and the Branches Read John 15:1-10 The vine represents Jesus. Vine tree was a tree that bore grapes. The vine tree was a symbol of prosperity and peace. Jesus is the vine and the Father is the vinedresser. Christians/ believers are the branches. They are expected to produce good fruits by remaining faithful and united in Christ. Faithful branches bear fruit like good Christians while unfruitful branches are like unfruitful Christians. Christians should remain united to Christ who is the vine so as to bear fruits. The teachings of Jesus purify the Christians. The dead branches of the Vine trees are cut off and the livings ones are trimmed or pruned. This is done so that the vines may produce high yields. Likewise unfaithful Christians, believers are rebuked and corrected so as to bear high yields. iv. The Church or Assembly of God. Read Ephesians 5: 21 32 Church is a Greek word ekklesia, which means people. People who belong to the Lord. Assembly of God is the coming together of people of diverse social and cultural backgrounds who recognize lordship of Jesus. The church is likened to the relationship between a husband and a wife. Christians (the church) are expected to be united with Christ just as a husband and wife are united in marriage. Just as husbands and wives are expected to love one another, so too, are Christians called upon to express love to one another and to love God. A husband is the head of a family; Jesus is also the head of the church. v. The Bride. Read 2 Corinthian 11: 2, and Revelations 21: 1 12 In the Old Testament, God calls Israel a bride. In the New Testament, Christians are referred to as a bride in the New Jerusalem. God or Jesus Christ is the bridegroom. Christians are reminded that the life on earth is a temporary home. Their real home is in heaven, the Holy city of God. Just as a bride is expected to be faithful to her husband, so are Christians expected to be faithful to God by observing the covenant way of life. Deviation from the covenant was portrayed as adultery. John, who wrote the book of revelations, sees a vision of a new heaven and a new earth in which faithful Christians will be rewarded. Christ will come to take His bride to eternity to live there forever. The relationship between Christians and Jesus/ God is like a marriage. It is a covenant. It is a relationship where the church (bride) is expected to submit to God. Jesus died for the church, a show of His or Gods love. Likewise Christians should be committed in their relationship to God. SAQ. 1. Discuss in twos who is a bride and what takes place in a wedding. 2. Discuss the significance of the symbols used to express the unity of the believers. These are The people of God, The body of Christ, The vine and the branches The church or assembly of God and The bride. LESSON TWO: CAUSES OF DISUNITY IN THE EARLY CHURCH The early church experienced some challenges, which led to divisions among the early disciples and Christians. Learning Outcomes. After reading this lesson, i Identify causes of disunity in the early church ii State causes of disunity in the modern church iii Compare the causes of disunity in the early and modern church iv Suggest possible solutions to disunity in modern church a. Causes of Disunity in the Early Church After Jesus ascended to his Father and left the Holy Spirit to look after his followers, the disciples established congregations or communities to spread the Word of God. As believers of Christ met and prayed together, there were disagreements and divisions brought about by several factors and issues. These were: Disputes, among early Christians; concerning leadership of the Church. Christians wanted different leaders: Paul, Apollos, Cephas or Christ. Paul told them that Christ couldnt be divided (1 Corinthians 1:10 -21). Sexual immorality was another cause of disunity in the early church. Some Christians were doing or having irresponsible sexual behaviours. These were incest, fornication, and prostitution. Paul condemned such behaviours and told Christians to stop sinning and honor God with their bodies. The body of a Christian is the temple of the Holy Ghost (1 Corinthian 5: 1-13, 6:12 20). Christians settling disputes in civil courts. Paul advised they ought to talk over issues among themselves and agree to solve problems on their own (1 Corinthians 6). Dispute over marriage and divorce. Some Christians were opposed to marriage. Others were encouraging divorce. Paul addressed these issues in 1 Corinthian, chapter 71-16. Paul advised Christians that it was okay to marry or not to marry. But marriage was needed to stop immorality. Eating of meat offered to idols. Some Christians were eating meat offered to idols while others were against it. Paul advised Christians not to eat anything that will cause their faith to weaken or fail. (1 Corinthians 8 and10: 14 20. There were disputes about dressing during worship. Should women cover their head during worship? Should women shave hair? Should men wear long hair? (1 Corinthian 11:1-16). Some Christians were overeating and over drinking during the Holy Communion misuse of the Lords Supper, (1 Corinthians 11:17 33). Misuses of spiritual gift especially the gift of speaking in tongues. Paul taught that all gifts are equal (1 Corinthians 12). There was a misunderstanding about the resurrection of the body and the dead. Some were saying there is no resurrection. Paul preached that if there is no resurrection then their preaching was in vain as they were witnesses to the resurrection of Jesus Christ (1 Corinthians 15). b. Causes of disunity among believers and church in Kenya today Leadership differences. Some Christians are struggling for power. This has led to formation of splinter groups, divisions and enmity between these groups. Cultural differences. Christians are divided by their African cultural beliefs from their backgrounds. This culture is merged with Christianity and Western cultural practices forming a unique mixture of beliefs. Some Christians are permissive, while others are conservative. This has led to disunity, for example in the areas of dressing. Discrimination. There is inequality within the church between the rich and the poor, the whites and blacks. Some Christians are viewed as more spiritual than others, on basis of the tribe, gender, wealth and social status among others. Misuse of freedom of worship. Christians are starting sprinter churches, probably because they want to control church finances without supervision by the wider church. To justify their departure, they spread propaganda against the mother church, and other churches in order to attract followers. The more followers a church has the more tithe it collects. Misuse of church funds. Some church leaders and followers misuse church funds Differences in the practice of baptism Arrogance and pride by some Christians. Sins: sexual immorality in the church, divorce and marriage issues. Some Christian denominations reject the human nature of the person of Jesus Christ; that Christ had both a human and divine nature e.g. Nomiya church. SAQ. Can you think of factors that led to disunity among Christians in the early church that you have noted in the Kenyan church? c. Reasons why Christians should work in Unity. Christians face many problems and they therefore need to work together in unity to: Promote oneness of Christians in Jesus Christ. Promote the teachings of Jesus Christ. Achieve effective evangelism or ministry. Adopt a common attitude to the integration of African culture in worship. Prevent the formation of sprinter groups and cults. Reduce the internal wrangling. Have a common stand in dealing with issues affecting the society. d. Possible Solutions to disunity The church should settle issues that divide its members by Christians: Learning to appreciate and respect the practices and belief of other Christians denominations. Having or forming a common goal Striving to be guided by the principle of love in solving problems facing them. Observing the teachings of disciples, prophets, apostles, God, laws of Moses, Jesus and the Bible. Avoiding doing anything to their fellow Christians that would cause suffering and disharmony. Activities that the early church did in order to remain united were that they: Ate bread together. Held fellowships together. Shared with the needy. Prayed together for each other In the current worldwide Church, there is disunity amongst believers or Christians. The most common ones are due. Leadership differences and wrangles for power. Cultural differences amongst Christians. Some Christians are permissive while others are conservative. Differences in the interpretation of the Bible. Misuse of church funds Pride and arrogance. Revision questions a. Write down terms used in the new testament to refer to believers in Christ b. Identify five causes of disunity in the church today c. Identify factors which cause disunity among the Christians today d. Discuss reasons why members of Christian families in Kenya find it difficult to harmoniously live together e. Explain how the church strengthens family relationships today TOPIC THREE. TEACHINGS FROM SELECTED OLD TESTAMENT PROPHETS INTRODUCTION This chapter introduces one to the work of prophets in the Old Testament. In Form One, some prophets were taught e.g. Moses, Elijah, Nathan and Samuel. Traditional African prophets were also taught. In Form Three, we compare true and false prophets and the Traditional African prophets. Learning outcomes. By the end of the topic, you should be able to: a. Define a prophet, and prophecy b. Identify categories of prophets c. Explain the importance of prophets in Israel. d. Describe the characteristics of prophets. e. Explain how prophetic messages were written. f. Compare the relationship between prophesies in the Old Testament and the New Testament LESSON ONE: PROPHETS Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should be able to: - 1. Give a correct definition of a prophet, and prophecy 2. List prophets in categories a. Definitions of a prophet, and prophecy The word prophet comes from a Hebrew word Rabii meaning one who is called or one who announces Gods message. A prophet is also referred to as a seer. A prophet is a person sent by God to teach and give people messages about things to come in future from God. Prophets received divine messages from God and communicated them to the people. A prophet is therefore a person who foretells events as revealed to him or her by God. Examples of prophets include Samuel, Elijah, Jeremiah and prophetesses (female prophet) Deborah, and Huidah. Prophecy is a statement, a message of something that is going to happen in the future. The action of giving future messages is called prophecy. b. Categories of prophets There were many categories of prophets. These were: a) Major Prophets. These were Prophets whose messages covered a long period of time. Their messages were long and detailed. For example Prophet Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. b) Minor prophets. There are 12 books of the Minor Prophets examples They are called minor because their messages are short, brief and do not contain detailed information. The Minor Prophets are Amos, and Hosea, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi. c) Canonical prophets the term canon means law. Canonical prophets are law prophets. The individual utterances of these prophets are laws. Both minor and major prophets are canonical prophets, d) The early prophets are Moses, Nathan Elijah, and Elisha. These prophets belonged to guilds schools. Their prophecies are not recorded under their names. Their prophecies are written in books, which do not bear their names. e) Cultic prophets like Hannah (N.T.) served in the places of worship. They assisted the priest officiating worship f) Professional / court prophets like Samuel, Micah, and Gad lived together in the temple and in groups. They earned their living through their work. They did not work elsewhere g) False prophets are pretenders to speak in the name of Yahweh but God did not call them. They spoke lies in accordance with the messages people wanted to hear. c. Characteristics of true prophets There were two (2) major categories of prophets in the Old Testament, (1) true prophets and (2) false prophets. True prophets are those whose prophecies occurred and were fulfilled. Prophesies of false prophets did not occur. True prophets distinguished themselves from false prophets and ordinary people. They experienced God dramatically when He called them and in their ministry. They were Gods spokesmen and women. They responded in faith to their call. God gave them specific tasks in their commission and Gods assurance and support in their ministry. They urged people to repent and turn back to God. In their messages, they taught that God demands sincere worship and not elaborate rituals. They understood God and taught about God righteousness, goodness, mercifulness, and loving care. They condemned evil in the society and proclaimed Gods judgment and punishment to those who failed to keep the covenant. They spoke with authority and acted with courage. They upheld God as a universal God for all nations. They talked of a remnant that shall remain after punishment or those that have continued to worship God sincerely. Their utterances were true because they were fulfilled They spent a lot of their time in prayers. They prayed regularly. At such times they withdrew from people in order to have a quiet time to seek God. All the true prophets received opposition from their audiences and they were ready to suffer for telling Gods word. d. The Characteristics of false prophets. Some of the prophecy of false prophets contradicted prophesies of the true prophets. False prophets followed their own imaginations, and gave false hopes. They told people what they wanted to hear. They had no personal knowledge of God. Hence, their prophecies were not in line with the divine revelations. They used evil forces such as magic, and divinations to call upon the spirits of the dead. They were paid for prophesy and benefits materially from their clients. They served Baal and were mainly immoral. They committed crime. Review questions How can we know true and false prophets today? LESSON TWO: IMPORTANCE OF PROPHETS IN ISRAEL Introduction Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should: 1. Describe the work of prophets in Israel 2. Explain how God communicated with prophets and Israelites 3. Analyse the content of the Prophetic messages 1. Work of prophets in Israel Prophets kept Israelites in communication with God. They communicated Gods will to the people of Israel. They foretold Gods judgments and punishment for sinners. They condemned the behaviour of the rich towards the poor. Through their messages, people reformed their lives since they condemned all forms of social evils and ritual sins. They contributed to the writing of their messages leading to the compilation of the Bible. Prophets guided and gave people hope. They taught people the laws of God. They warned people of dangers to come. They condemned idolatry and stressed the worship of one true God, Yahweh. They anointed the Kings in Israel. Kings consulted the prophets before any major undertaking such as war among others. They acted as conscience of kings. They advised them and challenged Kings when they went wrong. 2. Gods communication with prophets and Israelites God communicated to Prophets through visions, voices that were audible and clear, events, prayers, dreams, signs, ordinary things, and words which came to their minds with great power. Writing messages of the prophets The canonical prophets as mentioned earlier had their works and prophecies recorded under their names. Canonical prophets are referred to as writing prophets. Its possible that some prophets wrote down their own prophecies. They wrote what God spoke to them as He dictated. An example is Jeremiah who wrote what he was told Get a scroll and write on it everything that I have told you about Israel, Judah and all nations. (Jeremiah 36:2, Isaiah 30:8). Two, the prophets message were probably written by other people. These were their assistant, secretary, scribe, and disciples or followers as the prophet prophesied. Thirdly some of the prophetic messages could have been preserved as oral traditions and later written as books. A good example is 2 Kings. e. Content of the Prophetic messages Prophetic messages contained lessons from God to Israel. For example, the: i. Prophetic sayings were and still are oracles or poetic passages spoken by God himself through prophets. The prophecies were addressed to different nations. They carried specific teachings to the people, for example predicting future occurrences ii. Narratives in the first person give an account of the prophets testimony. They spoke of their experiences with God, and responses to the call of God. They tell us about prophets impelling compulsion to speak Gods word. The narratives are written in the first person. They have a format The Lord said to me The year that King Uzziah died, I was the Lord iii. Narratives in the third 3rd person have messages written by a third party, i.e. not the prophet but another person. For example, Isaiah said to them, Thus you shall say to your master, thus says the Lord: Do not be afraid of the words. (Isaiah 37:6). The message recounts the prophets personal life, and political background. LESSON THREE: PROPHESIES IN THE OLD TESTAMENT, NEW TESTAMENT AND AFRICAN TRADITIONAL SOCIETY Introduction The Israelites and the African traditional societies as well as other world communities had prophets who foretold the future. Among the Israelites, there were prophets chosen by God and false prophets who told messages which communities wanted to hear. Among the African traditional communities, there were wise men and women who prophesied about the future. In this lesson, we shall compare these prophecies and learn what was similar and different about these them. The Old Testament prophecies are compared with those from the African traditional society and the New Testament Learning outcomes. After studying this lesson, you should be able to: a. State relationships between Prophesies in the Old Testament New Testament and the African Traditional Society b. Discuss the similarities between prophets in the African traditional society and the Old Testament c. Identify differences between prophets in the African traditional society and the Old Testament a. Relationships between Prophesies Several Old Testament (O.T.) prophecies were and are fulfilled in both the old and New Testament (N.T) in the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. The Law of Moses is used in both the Old Testament and the New Testament. However Jesus gave the law a deeper meaning. The teachings and prophecies of the prophets provided the foundation for the message in the New Testament. The prophecies of Prophet Nathan to King David that God would raise up an offspring from the lineage of David was fulfilled in Jesus Christ, the expected messiah. Jesus disciples in the New Testament referred a lot to messages in the Old Testament. The teachings of Jesus in the New Testament are based in the Old Testament prophecies. They are therefore similar to each other because New Testament is a continuation of the Old Testament. The New Testament is the new covenant spoken of by Prophet Jeremiah and other Prophets like Isaiah, Micah, and Nathan. Their prophecies about Messiah are fulfilled in the New Testament. b. Similarities between prophets in the African traditional society and the Old Testament. In both traditions, prophets: <br><br>Were endowed with divine powers and they dealt with religious matters. Acted as intermediaries between God and people Warned people of impending dangers and disasters due to disobedience Had supernatural experiences Encouraged morality and discouraged evil ways In some cases, could heal Withstood oppression and opposition by the political rulers Encouraged people to fight injustices in society Foretold future disasters such as drought and wars. They explained why <br><br>they were going to occur. <br><br>Were consulted when things were not well in the society. Received revelations through dreams, visions and thoughts Were gender sensitive male prophets and female prophetesses. <br><br>c. Differences (O.T.) between prophets in the African traditional society and the Old Testament. The Old Testament prophets had a personal relationship with God. They communicated Gods messages to Israelites. The prophets in the African traditional society communicated and received messages from the ancestor spirits Old Testament prophets were Gods mouthpieces. They began their prophesy with thus saith the lord. While the prophets in the African traditional society predicted what would happen to individuals, and communities. The authority of prophets in the Old Testament came from God while the authority of prophets in the African traditional society came from their ancestors spirits. In the Old Testament prophets were called directly by God while in some African traditional communities the prophetic office was hereditary. The African traditional prophets dealt with family and local community issues while Old Testament prophets dealt with national issues, and crises. African traditional prophets were diviners while Old Testament prophets consulted God. d. Relevance of Old Testament prophets to Christians today Christian should be ready to be messengers of God. The call to be a Christian has a prophetic role. Some Christians are called to the office of a prophet and should prophecy for the glory of God and for the common good of the people. As Gods spokes person one should always stand for the truth. Christian should proclaim Gods will even if the message is not pleasant to the people. Once appointed as a prophet, one should pass the messages to who ever they are sent to without fear or favour. Gods messengers should always condemn the social political economic evils in the society. As Gods messengers Christians should live exemplary lives. They should stand for what they preach and should expect persecutions because of their works as Gods messengers. They should be ready to suffer for the sake of the gospel. Christians should pray to God to give them guidance, wisdom, and inspiration to be able to handle hardships in their lives. They should provide hope for the people in times of suffering. Christians should realize that God calls both men and women to His service. They should be ready to obey Gods prophetic call and not run away e.g. Jonah. They should be concerned and take care of the welfare of the poor community members. Revision questions 1. Define the terms prophet and prophecy 2. List five categories of true prophets 3. State the difference between true and false prophets 4. In what ways were Gods prophets called? 5. Outline the similarities and differences between the old testament prophets and the traditional African ones. 6. What is the relevance of prophets to Christians today? TOPIC FOUR: PROPHET AMOS Introduction Amos is one of the prophets God sent to Israel to warn the people because of their evil life. Politically, the Nation of Israel had become rich. There grew classer, the rich and the poor. The rich started oppressing the poor. Socially, there was still the rich poor gap. The rich exploited the poor. Merchants sold bad food, expensive and used false measurer. Religiously, the Israelites had turned away from God and were worshiping false gods. Syncretism was practiced. Priests were paid and Gods prophets were rejected. It is in this situation that Amos was called. He is called through visions. Amos is one of the canonical or writing prophets. The book of Amos is a temptation of oracles spoken by the prophet on different occasions. Note that after the death of King Solomon, the kingdom of Israel was split into two and rules by Rehoboam and Jeroboam. The northern Kingdom; called Judah was ruled by Rehoboam and was inhabited by two tribes. The southern kingdom called Israel was ruled by Jeroboam and was inhabited by 10 tribes. Amos came from Judah and prophesied in Israel. Topic Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: a) Analyse Prophet Amos work in Israel b) Describe the call of Amos c) Explain the teaching of Amos d) Relate relevance of Amos teaching to Christianity today LESSON ONE: Prophet Amos work in Israel Read Amos 1:1 Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should: 1. Describe the call of Amos 2. Describe the socio, political and economic situation in Israel during the time of Prophet Amos 3. Explain religious situation in Israel 1. The call of Amos (AMOS 1:1,3:8,7:10 15) Prophet Amos was born in a village called Tekoa in Judah, the southern kingdom. Before his call, Amos was a shepherd and a dresser of sycamore trees. He was not a professional prophet. But God called him to be a prophet. He received his call in form of a vision around 758 BC. Amos responded to Gods call with obedience. He felt a deep compulsion to prophesy (Amos 3:8). God directed him to give his message to the people of Israel, the northern kingdom (Amos 7:15). He was asked to speak the will of Yahweh. He was also to fore tell punishment if Israelites did not repent their sins. His message was opposed, and challenged by Amaziah the priest of Bethel. 3. Religion. Israelites worshipped Yahweh and other gods. Idolatry was also present. This form of worship is called Syncretism . There was religious hypocrisy. Like today, there was an emphasis on external observances of religious practices and less concern for internal observances. The priests were paid for religious work. Those who couldnt pay did not have religious ceremonies. They were offered at the expense of the poor. The prophets of God were rejected. 4. Social economic political situation. When Amos prophesied, King Jeroboam ruled Israel, the northern kingdom while King Uzziah ruled Judah. Amos was sent to prophesy to the people of Israel in the northern kingdom. He concentrated his work mainly in Bethel and Samaria the capital city of Israel and the main centres of worship. When Amos started his prophesy, there was peace and prosper in Israel and Judah. Both kingdoms were wealthy. However, the wealth did not reach the poor. This was because the wealth and power were in the hands of the king, his family, his officials, and wealthy merchants. As a result, Israel citizens were divided into two classes; the rich and the poor. Unfortunately, the rich people owned big luxurious houses. They drunk wine, and used the most expensive perfumes. They acquired their wealth at the expense of the poor. They oppressed and exploited the poor. The merchants of trade for example, were dishonest in their trade businesses. They sold bad wheat to unsuspecting customers and overcharged customers by measuring with false scales. Because of the inflated prices, the poor borrowed money from the rich at high interest rates to buy basic things like food. Hence, there was massive bribery and corruption in society and law courts. As a result the poor lacked basic necessities or needs like food, shelter, and clothing. It was at this time when God sent Amos to give prophesy to Israel. SAQ. How did the rich oppress the poor in Israel? LESSON TWO: VISIONS OF AMOS Read AMOS 7: 1 9, 8:1 3. 9:1 4) Vision is a picture we have in our mind. It is a future to come. Amos was shown many visions by God. Lesson outcomes. After reading these verses in Amos you should be able to: - 1. Analyse all the visions and 2. State the message of each vision 3. Summaries things that God condemned through Amos 1. The vision of the locusts (Amos 7:1 3 ) Amos saw a swarm of locusts being sent by God to destroy all plants and food crops in the land. The locusts were, a sign of disaster, which God was going to send to Israel as a punishment for their disobedience. Amos cried to God to forgive the people. God heard and changed his mind. 2. The vision of a great fire (Amos 7:4 6) Amos saw a vision of a supernatural fire that burnt up the land. He asked God to forgive the people and God listened. The punishment was stopped. 3. The vision of a crooked wall/ the plumb line (Amos 7:7 9) Amos saw the Lord standing beside the wall checked it with a plumb line. The wall represented the Israelites. They stopped observing the laws of their covenant with God. God found Israelites disobeying the covenant. God promised to destroy holy places of Israel.. 4. The vision of a basket of ripe fruits (Amos 8:1 3) In this vision, Amos saw a basket of ripe fruits. Fruits are harvested at the end of the summer. This meant that Israel was ripe for punishment for her refusal to turn to God. Amos did not pray for forgiveness. God would no longer withhold His judgment. Time for repentance was over. 5. The vision of the destruction of the altar. Read Amos 9:1 4. Amos saw the Lord standing by the altar. The Lord ordered the destruction of the temple. The shrines of Dan and Bethel were destroyed because they were the centres of idolatry. No one would escape punishment no matter where they hide. Summary of issues that God pointed out to Israel through Prophet Amos a. Lack of social justice There was lack of social justice and responsibility by the king of Israel. Social justice means dealing with other people fairly. It implies showing concern for the needs of others. b. Lack of responsibility. This refers to the rulers and people of Israel being accountable for their actions. In modern life, it is doing ones duty and fulfilling ones obligation to God and others. c. Practice of hypocritical religion in Israel. The Israelites were insincere in their worship. They made empty sacrifices. They worshipped idols as well as God. They profaned the name of God (Yahweh). They made idols of Baal and offered sacrifices to them. They worshipped other gods. This is syncretism and God does not allow worship of any other God but himself. d. Gods judgment against Israel and other nations. God promised to destroy Israel and leave a remnant of them for restoration. e. Oppressions of the poor by the rich God condemned King Jeroboam rule of Israel because of the oppression of the poor, government corruption and bribery of kings officials. These officials sold the righteous for silver and the needy for a pair of sandals (shoes) i.e. its like practising slavery. The rich trampled on the poor, despised them and placed no value on the poor. The poor gave their garments as security for loan. This was contrary to Gods commandments. The garment was supposed to be returned back to the owner before sunset. The Samaritan women were fat like the well fed cows of Bashan led luxurious lives and were very unkind to the poor. The rich took an excessive share of the harvest from the farmers. Rulers loved luxury and were arrogant. They loved material things and showed pride in material possessions. They used expensive perfumes. f. Corruption and bribery. The judges were corrupt. They accepted bribes. There was a conspiracy between the rich and the judges against the poor g. Pride in materials possessions The capital city of Israel was Samaria. It was built on a mountain called Bethel, which was also a place of worship. There was prosperity in the land. The Israelites prided themselves in their riches and materials possessions. Amos told them God would destroy their wealth. h. Dishonesty. This is telling lies, cheating or using unjust means to get certain things. The wealthy merchants waited impatiently for the end of the holy days so that they could engage in lucrative businesses. They cheated the poor by using false scales. They sold bad wheat to the poor. They mixed good and bad grains and sold them to unsuspecting people. i. Sexual immorality Sexual immorality was prevalent or common in Israel. For example a father and son would have sex with the same girl. There was temple (cultic) prostitution. There was dishonesty; sexual immorality. This sexual behaviour made the temple unholy. j. Drunkenness They Israelites spent time drinking when the poor lacked the basic needs. They engaged in excessive drinking of wine. They even forced the Nazarites to drink wine. They accepted drunkenness. k. Profaning the name of the God Israelites did not respect the name of God. They committed sin. They forced Nazirites to drink wine; forcing it down their throats yet they knew that Nazirites were people set aside and chosen by God to serve God. This act showed contempt of Gods commands. Nazirites were not supposed to drink wine or cut their hair. Israelites did this to show their contempt of the Lord, l. Hypocritical Religion and Idolatry in Israel Hypocrisy is pretending to be something different from the person one is. It is also saying one thing, and doing another thing. For example, Israelites did a lot of religious rites according to the laws of Moses and yet majority of them were unjust, corrupt and oppressed the poor. They observed the external religious activities while their hearts were corrupt and insincere. Amos condemned Israelites for this hypocrisy, characterized by insincere worship, and mixture of religious beliefs leading to diverse practices of religion i.e. syncretism. This is a combination or mixture of Israelites monotheism (Yahwehism) and worship of idols and other gods especially Baal, the gods of their neighbours. m. Empty sacrifices The Israelites made elaborative offerings and sacrifices. Yet God was interested only in sincere worship and free will offerings and not mere sacrifices, and tithes. Take away from me the noise of your songs (Amos 5:21 23). LESSON THREE. GODS JUDGMENT AGAINST ISRAEL AND OTHER NATIONS Read Amos chapter 1 and 2 Learning outcomes. After studying this lesson, you should be able to: a. State the sins committed by Israel and other nations b. Identify how God punished Israel and other nations i) Israel. She committed several crimes, which were condemned by Prophet Amos. Read lesson two again before you go on and list down crimes that were pointed out by Amos. Okay, you have seen that Israel committed crimes of injustice, disobedience to God, breaking their covenant with God, idolatry, hypocrisy among other sins mentioned above. Israel was punished for these crimes. Punishments were severe. Israelites would be exiled forcibly and painfully. Earthquakes, famines, fires, oppression from foreign kings, epidemics and divine silence, would destroy their kingdom and holy places. ii) Syria. Its capital was Damascus. Syria committed war crimes. The soldiers were excessively cruel in times of war. They murdered their prisoners brutally. For this cruelty, their punishment was to be severe. Their palaces would be destroyed by fire and the people would be exiled in Kir. iii) Gaza and philistines. Their crime was capturing other people and selling them into slavery. For this sin, Gods punishment was destruction of their city by divine fire. It would burn down the wall of Gaza city and destroy it. God would have no more association with them. iv) Tyre. Their Crime was violation of a treaty of friendship they had made. They broke it by capturing a whole nation into exile in the land of Edom. The punishment was God would send fire to destroy city of Tyre and its fortress (Amos 1:9-10). v. Edom. Her people were descendants of Esau. Yet Edom was ruthless to the Israelite to whom they were closely related. For this crime of ruthlessness, the punishment was God would destroy them by fire vi) Ammon committed crime of brutal killings. The people of Ammon attacked and killed their neighbours. They ripped open pregnant woman in Gilead (vs. 13). Gods punishment was destruction of the fortress and wall of the city of Rabbah by fire. Their king and his officers will go into exile: (vs. 15). vii) Moab. The people of Moab; their crime was mishandling the body of the king of Edom. They burned his bones to ashes. Gods punishment was destruction of the city of Kerioth by divine fire. The people, their rulers and leaders would be killed in battle. viii) Judah. Their crimes were (1) failure to obey Gods commands and (2) despising gods teaching. ix) Samaria, Egypt and Ashdod. Their crime was dishonesty and filling their mansions with things taken by crime and violence (Amos 3:10). Women of Samaria committed the crime of drunkenness, oppressing the weak and poor. The punishment for all these countries is destruction of their land, mansions and army. But a remnant will not go to captivity, and shall not be destroyed. Amos said the remnants are like 2 legs, or a piece of an ear of a sheep rescued from the mouth of a lion (Amos 3:12) x) Amaziah the priest of Bethel. He strongly opposed Amos and told him to go back and prophesy in Judah. Amos told Amaziah God sent him to Israel. His punishment for opposing Gods messenger was.. Amaziahs wife would be a harlot, his children will die in the war, his land will be given to others, and Amaziah will die in a foreign land (Amos 7: 14-17). Lessons to learn from Gods judgment of Israel and other nations The Assyrians attacked Israel, occupied their land and exiled others. God is (a) universal, (b) God hates sin (c) God is concerned about the welfare of his people (d) God is merciful and spares a remnant xi. Israels election (Amos 2:9 11, 3:1 2, 9:7 Election: is an act of choosing a person or group of people for a purpose or action. Israels election refers to Gods choice of the Israelites out of the entire human kind to be his people. God chose them to serve him, be a Holy nation and to be the light of the world. God made a covenant with the Israelites. In the covenant they agreed to live a holy life. In return, God looked after them. He led them out of Egypt to the wilderness and finally to Canaan. God chose His prophets from the Israelites and raised Nazirites. Despite Gods favour, the Israelites rebelled and sinned against God. And although Israelites were reminded that God cared for other nations equally and are to be punished if they disobeyed God; and that they were neither superior, nor better than other nations, they disobeyed God several times. xii. The day of the lord Amos taught that the day of the lord would be a day of severe judgment for sins. . It is not a time of happiness, joy or victory. It is a day of darkness, terror, disaster, gloom, wailing, flooding, mourning, defeat, punishment, famine for food and Gods word. xiii. The Remnant and Restoration. Remnant means a small number of survivors. These are the Israelites who will remain after the entire nation is punished. They are also those who returned to Jerusalem after the exile. Restoration is an act of reinstating things / persons to their former state or position. Amos informed the Israelites that God was still looking after them, and waiting for their repentance. The nation of Israel would not be destroyed completely. God would preserve the few righteous ones. He would raise the fallen dynasty of David. People would be restored back to their land to rebuild their cities. There was to be a great harvest and grapes shall overflow. xiv. Duty of Christians. Christians are the selected people of God. As the chosen ones, they should one, live holy lives and two, use their position to serve God and others. Three, Christians have a moral responsibility to spread Gods word, four, care for the needy and five, be the light of the world. xv. The Day of the lord. Read Amos 5:18-20, 6:3-5, 8:7-13. in the Old Testament, the day of the Lord is the day that Yahweh would make Israel victorious against other nations. On this day the Israelite believed that God would establish his rule over and with Israel. The day of the Lord was also believed to be the day when Israel would be prosperous, would have favour with God, and the just would triumph over the wicked. In the New Testament, the day of the lord is also the Day of Judgment (Parousia). It is the day of the second coming of Christ. On that day, everyone will be judged. Christians believe that it is the day that Christ will come for His bride (the church). Those who had obeyed the laws of God shall be received by Christ and given the reward of the eternal life. On that day, Gods kingdom shall be established and Christ will reign forever. xvi. Relevance of Amos teachings to Christians today. The messages of the prophecy of Amos are relevant to Christians today. This is because God is universal. He chose Israel but still punished her for her disobedience, and sins just as He punished other nations like Syria and Gaza. The message that God hates hypocrisy is very clear. Thus Christians should truthful and practice what they preach. They must worship God in sincerity. Other messages are: Justice. Christians should be just / fair in dealing with others. Self Indulgence. Christians should not pursue luxury and self- indulgence when others lack the basic needs. Bribery. Christians should condemn bribery and corruption, and uphold justice. Punishment. Christians should bear in mind that God will punish every evil. Wealth. When Israel became wealthy, they departed from the covenant with God. Christians should share their wealth with the needy and acquire their wealth justly Hypocritical religion. Amos taught about hypocrisy in religion. This was for example offering empty sacrifices. Christians have to learn to be sincere, to be concerned about their internal well being and soul more than outward observances of religion. Drunkenness. Christians should not engage in activities that can divert their faith from God. If that happens, they should learn to be Repentant. Revision exercise 1. List the visions that Amos saw 2. Explain the evils that Amos condemned in his teachings 3. Give reasons why prophet Amos condemned idol worship in Israel 4. List evils in the society today that Amos would condemn TOPIC FIVE. PROPHET JEREMIAH Introduction. Israel had not taken heed to Amos prophecies. This was especially on idolatry. So, God sent another prophet to continue with the same work. Jeremiah was therefore appointed as a prophet. Jeremiah is one of the Old Testament Major Prophets. He was called to a prophet at around 627 B.C. He was called as a young man, probably 20 years old. He prophesied in the southern kingdom- Judah, for a period of 40 years. His prophetic ministry took place before and during the exile of Judah. Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: - a Describe the political, Social, and religious background of prophet Jeremiah. b Describe the personal life and call of Jeremiah. c Explain the evils condemned by Jeremiah. d Explain the contents of the temple sermon. e Highlight the relevance of Jeremiahs teaching on evils, false prophets and Christians today. LESSON ONE: THE CALL JEREMIAH Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should be able to: - i. Describe the situation of the people of Judah ii. Identify religious, political and socio classes of Judah iii. Describe the call of Jeremiah iv. Explain lessons that modern Christians can learn from the call of Jeremiah a. The Kingdom of Judah Social background The people of Judah were divided into three social classes. At the top were the (i) Aristocrats. These were the ruling class, which consisted of the king, his family, royal officials, princesses, priests, and professional prophets. This class of the rich oppressed the poor. Below them was the class (ii) of technical professional such as stonecutters, carpenters, builders, masons, blacksmiths, masons, and others craftsmen (2 Kings 12:12). Below them was class (iii) made up of poor people such as slaves, widows, orphans, and foreigners. All these poor people were mistreated. In terms of ethics, there was moral degradation. They committed adultery, prostitution, murder, false witness, and corruption. Religions background. The Kings and people of Judah worshipped idols. They practiced human sacrifice, divination and magic, and listened to false prophecies. They abandoned their covenant with God and their way of life and practiced syncretism, which is worshipping God and other false gods like Baal. King Josiah tried to restore true worship by carrying out several reforms. Prophetess Huldah prophesied that Judah would be punished after Josiahs death since he humbled before Yahweh. Political Background. Prophet Jeremiah lived in the 7th century BC and prophesied when Judah was ruled by King Josiah, and later his sons Jehoiakim, and Zedekiah; and king Jehoiachin. Judah was conquered and ruled by Assyrians who were conquered by Egyptians who ruled Judah up to 605 BC. Egyptians; were conquered by Babylonians under King Nebuchadnezzar. This was according to the prophecies of Jeremiah. b. The Call of Jeremiah. Read Jer 1: 19. Jeremiahs father was a priest called Hilkiah. He was born in the territory of Benjamin; at a place called Anathoth, He was well educated. Jeremiah was called to be a prophet in 627 B.C during the reign of King Josiah. He received his call in form of a dialogue with Yahweh. God told him that he had appointed him to be his messenger; even before he was formed in his mothers womb, God had selected him to be a prophet. Jeremiah said he was too young and did not know how to speak. Jeremiah was forewarned of the hostility he would encounter in his prophetic career. God told him that He would protect him and not to fear. God touched Jeremiahs mouth. This symbolized that God is the one who shall put words in his mouth. Jeremiah responded to Gods call in faith and obedience. He was given a message that God was going to bring judgment upon the Kingdom of Judah. God promised to make him a fortified city, an iron pillar and bronze wall for protection. He was commanded by God not to marry, neither have children and not to attend social gatherings, weddings, and funerals. His mission made him isolated and lonely. As a result, his own family and relatives rejected him and plotted to kill him. But he had few friends like Ebed- melech, Ahikam who helped him to get out of a pit. Jeremiah was persecuted by; the kings of Judah. Priests including priest Pashhur opposed him, and false prophets like Hannaniah. He prophesied that God shall punish wicked Kings, priests, and ordinary people. He suffered spiritually and emotionally. At the fall of Jerusalem in 587 B.C, the army officers of Nebuchadnezzar released him from prison. He went to Egypt where he died at an old age and as a faithful servant of God. His life was symbolic to the people of Judah. During his call, Jeremiah saw two visions. Vision one was the vision of a branch of an almond tree. The tree seemed dead, bare, yet life was in it. This vision was telling Judah that although God seemed to be sleeping, He was watching over them if they obey Him. Vision two was a pot boiling in the north, and it is about to tip over this way (1:13). The boiling pot tilted away from the north signified that the destroyers of Judah would come from the north. The pot was ready to boil over and spill its contents. This meant that Judah was soon going to have trouble. Babylon would pour horrifying disasters on Judah. Lessons from the call of Jeremiah God has a purpose for each person and He can call anybody to do His work. He calls the unborn, the young, old, rich, and poor. God prepares people for His work, through specific experiences at family level, in school, and church. A person who is called to serve God should be ready to meet opposition. God protects His servants and promises to be with them. Jeremiah felt inadequate to speak. Christians should not let their human weakness hinder them from performing their tasks. Christians should respond to Gods call in obedience. LESSON TWO. EVILS ADDRESSED BY JEREMIAH. Read Jeremiah 2, 3, 4, 5,7, 9, 10, 23, and 28. Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, 1. Name the evil practices that Jeremiah condemned 2. Explain why Jeremiah condemned these evil practices There were many evils in Judah and Israel. We have mentioned some of them. These were: necromancy, dishonesty, deception, false prophecy, human sacrifice, and idolatry i. Necromancy. Words related to necromancy are divinations, magic, sorcery, and playing tricks on peoples minds. Necromancy is the art of seeking hidden knowledge from the mysterious world of spirits: using magic, and divination, which is invoking the dead. Divination was condemned in the Hebrew language. Diviners, magicians, sooth sayers and fortunetellers used necromancy. Prophet Jeremiah condemned necromancy. Reasons why Jeremiah condemned necromancy Necromancy was a deception and therefore an evil practice. The diviners gave false information from their own imagination. This practice polluted the true worship of Yahweh and indicated Israelites lack of faith in the one true God. Two, by trusting in divination, and magic, the Israelites showed their lack of knowledge of the one true God. Three, by consulting the mediums, the Israelites disobeyed God (Jer 27:8-10). ii) Deception and Dishonesty Dishonesty is lack of moral integrity or moral uprightness. Deception is cheating, and telling lies intentionally. It is also giving false and misleading information. The Israelites were dishonest because they worshiped God and at the same time committed social injustices against their brothers and sisters. Their repentance was insincere. There was treachery, and greed. They laid traps for each other. People pretended to be friendly and at the same time conspired to kill. Jeremiah challenged the Israelites people to circumcise their hearts which were deceitful. Their tongues were deadly arrows and they listened to false prophesies like that of Hannaniah Jeremiah condemned deception. This was because it led to syncretism, and hypocrisy in worship; and breaking down of the covenant way of life. Jeremiah warned the Israelites and asked them to repent iii. False prophesy by Hannaniah. Jer 28 During the reign of king Zedekiah, Hannaniah broke the yoke that Jeremiah was wearing. Hannaniah spoke in the name of Yahweh. He lied to the people as he spoke from his imagination and dreams. Jeremiah denounced Hannaniah. He predicted and prophesied the death of Hannaniah in the same year. And it came to pass. Jeremiah had also prophesied that the captivity of Judah should be long contrary to Hannaniah who said Judah will be exiled for 2 years. Reasons for condemning false prophets Prophets of Baal were still in existence. False prophets like Hannaniah had filled the people of Israel with unrealistic hopes of peace yet Judah was to be destroyed. Recall the characteristics of true and false prophets. False prophets did not condemn sin. They prophesied for money and in the process misled people away from Yahweh. False prophets prophesied from their dreams, imaginations and not from God. They gave people false hopes. They intended to make themselves popular, with the King and the people. iv) Human sacrifice. The people offered human sacrifice to idols and oppressed each other. Human sacrifice is the act of killing human beings for a religious or spiritual purpose. The Israelites copied this activity from the Canaanites. Children were believed to be the best sacrifice since people believed they would get great favors from the deities. Some kings such as Ahaz and Manasseh sacrificed their sons to idols. Jeremiah condemned human sacrifice. Reasons for condemning human sacrifice Human sacrifice was an act of idolatry. It indicated infidelity of the Israelites to the one true God. It demonstrated Israels disrespect for the sacred gift of life. It showed their lack of knowledge of the true nature of Yahweh. Human sacrifice defiled the land for life is in the blood. Blood speaks hence the land was crying at this vengeance. God did not ask for human sacrifices. Human sacrifice was a sign of lack of love of God and love for one another. It is a demonstration of disregard for human life. Only God has the right to take away life. In our country people kill each other every day especially on the road. Why do we do this? v. Idolatry Idolatry is the worship of many gods. Idols are images made by people for worship. The Israelites practiced syncretism, which we said was the worship of Yahweh and idols. The people of Israel were worshipping Baal the Queen of heaven, sun, moon, stars, and also Yahweh (Jer 8:2). Idols were placed even in Yahwehs sacred places. The temple was defiled by idols. This the temple unclean. Jeremiah condemned it. He told the people of Israel that {they have forsaken the fountain of living waters (GOD) and hewn out for themselves broken cisterns (IDOLs) that can hold no water (Jer 2: 11-13). Why did Jeremiah condemn idolatry? Read Jer 2: 20, 2:1- 3, 5: 7- 8. Idolatry is like adultery and prostitution. It defiled people and was a sign of lack of faith in Yahweh. It defiled the land. Idolatry led to divine judgment and punishment. People of Judah abandoned Yahweh the Husband and chased lovers the idols and deities The Israelites (Northern kingdom) had been punished before and yet Judah did not learn from them. By worshipping idols Judah broke the covenant and their relationship with God. And unless the people of Judah repented, they would be punished; as there is only one true living God to be worshipped and obeyed. Is there idolatry among Christians todays vi. Other evils condemned by Jeremiah People of Judah trusted that the temple was secure, holy and cannot be destroyed. Jeremiah denounced this false belief about the temple. He warned them that God would destroy the temple because of the many evils committed in it. The temple of God had become a den of robbers and human sacrifices. People of Judah committed other evils such as hypocrisy (Jer 7; 9-10); social injustice (adultery, murder), stubbornness, and rebellion. vi. The temple Temple is a place of worship. The temple of Israelites was in Jerusalem. It signified the presence of God among his people. The Israelites believed God could never destroy or allow destruction of the temple. Jeremiah stood at the gates of the temple court during Jehuiakims reign, and Judah that God would destroy the temple and send them to exile. He urged them to repent and turn back to God. King Josiah heard the message of Jeremiah and he reformed religious practices in Judah. vii. Religions reforms carried out by King Josiah This topic is not clearly spelt out in the syllabus. It is based on the book of Deuteronomy. The scroll was discovered in the temple during repairs. Josiah ordered the repair of the temple of God. He led a national ceremony to review the covenant. He destroyed idols and altars associated with the worship of foreign deities throughout Judah. He eliminated all the priests associated with the worship of false deities. He celebrated Passover in Jerusalem. The successors of King Josiah did not follow his example. They became corrupt. They persecuted the prophets of God. They listened to false prophets. They promoted idolatry and child sacrifice. viii. The Relevance of Jeremiahs teachings to Christians today. Christians should denounce hypocrisy in the society today. They should not result to witchcraft, divination and sorcery. They should be upright, and worship God in sincerity. They are to proclaim divine judgment upon those who refuse to obey Gods will, just like Jeremiah declared Gods judgment upon Judah due to the sins of the people. Like Jeremiah, Christians should speak out against modern idols like love of money, power, obsession with sports, sex, and drugs among other evils. Christians should condemn destruction of human life, violence; murder, abortion, parents killing their own children, genocide and exploitation of the poor. Christians should be aware of the existence of false teachings and prophecies. They should pray for Gods guidance and wisdom to be able to distinguish truth from false teaching. Christians have a responsibility to correct one another and call on sinners to repent. Christians are to be trustworthy, upright, and merciful to the poor and condemn dishonesty. They should practice justice in their relationship with others; preach against disobedience, stubbornness and pray to God to help them overcome these vices. Read these review questions and answer before reading answers> 1. Why was Jeremiah reluctant to accept the call? 2. Which evils / sins did Jeremiah Condemn?. 3. Give examples of idol worship in Kenya. 4. Describe Jeremiahs temple sermon SAQ answer. 1. Jeremiah felt inadequate because he was too young to work for God. He argued that he did not know how to speak. He was afraid. He knew he would face stiff opposition from the people of Judah. The message of Gods judgments is difficult to deliver. 2. Read text again and look for evils and sins that Jeremiah condemned. 3. Examples of idol worship in Kenya are many. Some people including Christians practice witchcraft, sorcery, personality cults and hero worship of religions and political leaders. Other people, worship money, materialism, media, and sports obsession with power / status Sexual immorality devil worship 4. Jeremiahs temple sermon. Read text again. LESSON THREE. JEREMIAHS TEACHINGS ON JUDGMENT AND PUNISHMENT Read Jeremiah 5:12-18, 6;1-30, 7:30, 8:1-17, 10: 17-25, 15;1-9, 17:1-13, 25: 1-38 Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: - a Summarize in two paragraphs Jeremiah key teachings. b Explain the significance of symbolic acts related to judgement and punishment. c Describe suffering and lamentations of Jeremiah d Explain the teachings of Jeremiah on the new covenant. a. Jeremiah teachings. Sin was internalise in the hearts of the people of Judah. God punished them. God punishes people because of their unfaithfulness. Punishment is a penalty, for an offence or a crime committed. But in punishing people, God is a just judge. He does not punish people without a reason irrespective of their status. God judges people by looking into their hearts. Divine judgment is for a group. For example, the people of Judah were punished as a group. However God searches each persons heart and judges accordingly. God executes His judgment by means of political and historical events. Divine punishments are in forms of natural disasters like drought, famine, and epidemics. Gods punishment is unavoidable, and inescapable. Judah took the best option by surrendering to the Babylonians. The purpose for Gods judgement is to correct the sinner. God gave his people a chance to repent before he punished them. Gods judgment is universal. It is not limited to one nation. God punished the neighbours of Judah who at that time were Egypt, Moab, Ammon, and Babylon. Gods punishment is severe compared to that of venomous snakes that bite the people of Judah. Gods judgement is not necessarily a punishment from God for ones sins. It is symbolic. The sufferings of Jeremiah were symbolic of the life of the people of Judah. What can we learn about Gods punishments? Are modern disasters such as cyclones, floods, earthquakes, landslides, epidemics, bomb blasts, civil wars, forest fires, rebellions in schools a sign of Gods judgment and punishment? What do you think? b. Symbolic acts related to judgement and punishment People use several methods to convey messages to each other. We use songs, advertisements, dramas, and stories by the fireside, in novels, the Internet, and magazines to communicate messages about children, adults, society, political leaders, poverty and many others. The prophets used: (1). Oracles; Thus says the Lord; (2) Allegories (3) Parables (4) Songs (5) Symbolic Visions (6) Symbolic actions and (7) dramatized messages Symbolic acts of Jeremiah i The linen waist cloth (Jer.13) ii Jeremiahs personal life (Jer.16) iii Jeremiahs visit to a potter (Jer.18) iv The broken earthen flask (Jer.19) v The symbolic vision of 2 baskets of figs (Jer.24) vi The wearing of the yoke i. The Linen Waist Cloth. Read Jer.13 Jeremiah was instructed by God to buy a linen waistcloth and wear it around his waist without dipping it in water. He was told to hide the cloth in a hole near river Euphrates. Afterwards he was told to take the cloth. He found it spoilt for wearing. Significance. The liner material was for priestly garments in Israel. It symbolized Israels holiness. The unwashed cloth represented Judahs sinful pride. Israel used to cling close to God but now Israel / Judah were spoilt, rebellious, arrogant and pursued foreign gods. God was going to destroy them if they did not repent. The spoilt linen waistcloth was a symbol for future Gods action. ii. Jeremiahs personal Life. Read Jer 16. His life was a symbolic act. He was told not to marry, have children, and nor attend funerals, social gatherings, feasts and wedding parties. Significance. The personal life of Jeremiah was one of suffering. This signified the suffering that the people of Judah would be subjected to. Judah was punished because of their wickedness and rebellion. Jeremiahs loneliness signified the perishing of families through the sword, famine and disease. It would be a time of terror for the families of Judah. Their normal social life of feasting, merry making would come to an end. There would be no weddings and no one to bury the dead. Hence Jeremiah was forbidden from mourning for the dead. iii. Jeremiahs at the potters house (Jer.18) Jeremiah was told to go to a potters house. He found the potter making a clay vessel. Whenever a piece of pottery turned out imperfect, he would take the clay and make it into something else (18: 4). The potter made a better pot, more perfect vessel than the spoilt one. Significance. God is the potter. People of Judah are the clay. As the potter destroyed to vessel, God intended to destroy Judah because of their wickedness and mould those who repented into better people. God was going to shape them into faithful people. Gods judgement was to be a corrective punishment. iv. The broken clay Jar. Read Jer.19. God told Jeremiah to buy a clay flask He then took some elders and priests to the valley of Valley of Hinnon. He delivered a sermon condemning the people of Judah for their idolatry and other evils. Jeremiah then broke the clay jar in their presence and announced to them that Yahweh would destroy Jerusalem and Judah as Jeremiah had destroyed the jar. Significance. The kings, priests and prophets of Judah would be shattered like the clay flask because of their sins. Sine, they brutally sacrificed their children; they are to suffer horrifying experiences at the hand of their enemies. They shall suffer starvation and turn into cannibals; eating their own children and neighbours (v.9). Broken pieces of a clay pot cannot be moulded. No one was to escape judgment. However there is hope after punishment. v. Two Baskets of Figs (Jer.24). Jeremiah received the visions, after the deportation and exile of leading citizens of Judah and Israel to Babylon. Two baskets of figs were placed in front of the temple. One basket had very good figs, which had ripened. The other basket had bad figs unfit for human consumption. Significance. The basket of good figs signified the first exile. God would renew their hearts; use them to fulfil his promises to the Israelites. He would recreate them to a new people. The basket of the bad figs represented people living in Jerusalem and Egypt. Since they were not exiled they had a self-righteous attitude. They thought that God spared them because they were truthful but it was not so. They shall also be destroyed through famine, and diseases. This vision signifies hope and restoration of the Israelites. vi. Jeremiah Wears an Ox Yoke. Read Jer. 27. When Zedekiah son of Josiah became the ruler of Judah, Jeremiah was instructed by God to make for himself a yoke out of leather straps and wooden crossbars and to wear it around his neck (27: 2). Jeremiah moved around in the yoke for quite sometime in public. He was also given a message for ambassadors of kings of Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre, and Sidon, who were coming to see King Zedekiah in Jerusalem. They were to give Gods message to their kings. The message was to submit to King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia; his son, and his grandson. Any nation that accepted this message shall not suffer; but if any nation ..will no submit to King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia rule, God will punish that nation by war, starvation and disease Read Jer 27:6-8. The message for king Zedekiah was to surrender to the Babylonian rule and live, if he resists he would perish. The message for priests and people of Judah was not to be misled by the false prophets. The temple would be destroyed. Its treasures looted by the Babylonians. Significance. The yoke represented the Babylonians rule. Nebuchadnezzar was used by God to bring judgment to all nations. Yahweh is a universal God and his judgment is universal. Sinners are punished regardless of their origin or nation. Those who repent are spared. Reflection questions Why did God inspire Jeremiah to use symbolic acts to convey his message? Answer Israelites were stubborn. Jeremiah acts were reminders to Judah to turn to God and stop idolatry and all the sins they were committing. They had drifted too far from God. False prophets were prophesying lies to them. The people of Judah were expected to meditate on these acts and understand Gods will for them and see the seriousness of the matter. This was also to imprint a lasting impression in their minds. SAQ. Which methods do pastors / priests use to communicate Gods message to Christians today? c. The sufferings and lamentations of Jeremiah Read Jer 11, 12, 17:14 18, 18:18- 23 , 20: 1 6, 27, 37, and 38. Jeremiah sufferings were experiences that were painful; physically and emotionally. In suffering there is loss and grief. Lamentations are strong emotional expressions of pain and grief. Jeremiah suffered in the following ways I. Rejection by his own family and relatives. They plotted to kill him. This grieved Jeremiah. II. Anathoth planned to kill him but God protected Jeremiah. He pronounced Gods judgment upon them III. Jeremiah suffered when he was accused falsely. He was accused of blasphemy after the temple sermon. He foretold the destruction of the temple, just like Jesus Christ in the New Testament did. IV. He was accused of treachery. That he was planning to leave Jerusalem and join the Babylonians. This led to Jeremiah being arrested and put in an underground jail. V. Jeremiah received death threats because of speaking for God. King Jehoiakim plotted to kill prophet Uriah. The prophet escaped to Egypt but he was followed to Egypt, arrested and killed by king Jehoiakim. The king had planned to accuse Jeremiah of Uriah death. Ahikam and other elders defended Jeremiah. (Jeremiah 26) VI. Jeremiah suffered loneliness and solitude. He felt emotional anguish and complained to God of his orders not to marry, neither attend social gathering and celebrations. This made Jeremiah lonely since he did not participate in the family life, political life, community activities and religious life. VII. Jeremiah experienced inner personal struggle due to his love for his own people He did not want to see them suffer but the people were stubborn Read Jer. 12:1 6, 15:10 21, and 27. VIII. Jeremiahs prophesying judgment caused him emotional pain and agony. His messages were mainly of severe judgment and punishment. IX. He went through a spiritual struggle in his relationship with God. He felt frustrations, doubts, self-pity and despair. He wondered why God made him suffer. Why do the wicked prosper? He also wondered why God was taking too long to fulfil his prophecies. God assured him that Judah would be punished and promised to give Jeremiah victory against his enemies. X. Jeremiah suffered physical assault, imprisonment and an attempt on his life. Pashhur, the chief temple priest ordered beating and chaining of Jeremiah to the temple gate. Jeremiah prophesied that Pashshurs name would change to terror everywhere. XI. King Zedekiah released Jeremiah from the cell to his court. Jeremiah continued to prophecy and was thrown in a muddy cistern. Here he was rescued by Ebed- melech an Ethiopian Eunuch. The court officials had accused him of not being patriotic. Jeremiah remained in jail until the Babylonians overthrew Jerusalem. He did not change his prophecies. Read Jer. 10:1 6, 27, 37, and 38. Is there relevance of the sufferings and lamentations of Jeremiah to Christians today? From his suffering Christians learn to be ready to face opposition and rejection from their own family members and relatives for the sake of the gospel. Christians should be prepared to suffer persecution for the Lord. Christians should be ready to make sacrifices for the sake of God. Be ready to lead humble lives. Jeremiahs open confessions to God encourage Christians to be open to God. Christians should let God avenge for them just like Jeremiah prayed to God to revenge his enemies. Christians should not lose hope in times of difficulty. Christians learn that tribulations strengthen their faith. Christians should learn to deal with negative emotions such as self pity, grief and trust God. Jeremiah was told by God to repent of his negative utterances. Christians should do the same as they are assured of divine security and protection against their persecutors. LESSON FOUR. JEREMIAHS TEACHING ABOUT THE NEW COVENANT A covenant is an agreement. Another word for covenant is testament. Jeremiah taught that there would be a new covenant between God and Israel. This new covenant would be different from the Old (Sinai) covenant. The new covenant would renew the broken relationship between God and his people. Lesson outcomes. After reading Jeremiahs teaching: a. State the terms of the new covenant. b. Identify the differences between the old covenant and the new covenant c. Summarize the similarities between the old covenant and the new covenant a. The New Covenant. In the new covenant, the law would be written in the hearts of the people unlike the old covenant where the law was written on stone tablets. Every individual would know God personally and not through prophets as it was during times of Jeremiah and previous one. Each person would be responsible for his/her sins. God would forgive sins and remember them no more. The new covenant would be established after Gods punishment of Israel and establishing a new Israel, a new people of God. The new covenant would establish a new beginning. People would forget the first Exodus. The second Exodus would be deliverance and restoration from Babylon. God would initiate the new covenant as he did with the first. It would be a new covenant of peace, unity, prosperity, Joy and gladness. In the new covenant a righteous branch would be established. The new covenant would be everlasting. It would not be broken again. b. Differences between the old covenant and the new covenant Old Covenant New Covenant 1. Based on law Based on faith 2. Word written on stone tablets Word written in peoples hearts 3. God known personally by a few priests prophets and prophets Each to person to know God personally 4. Covenant broken when people sinned Everlasting covenant 5. Sins punished collectively Sins punished individually 6. 1st Exodus from Egypt 2nd Exodus from Babylon 7. Sealed by animal sacrifice Sealed by Jesus sacrifice (blood) What are the similarities between the old and the new covenant? Jesus fulfilled the new covenant. Jesus is the righteous branch from the lineage of David. In the last supper, before his death, Jesus said this cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood. Read Luke, 22:20. The death and resurrection of Jesus marks the new covenant. Jesus spoke of forgiveness of sins of humanity Jesus forgave peoples sins, for example, the sinful woman in Simons house (Luke7: 36 50). In the new covenant the law would be written in peoples hearts. Jesus summarized the Mosaic Law into love God with all your heart, mind, strength and love your neighbour as you love yourself. Jesus established the kingdom of God as a new community of Gods people based on faith (the Christians). Jesus fulfilled the new covenant prophecies The teachings of Jeremiah new covenant of hope and restoration is fulfilled in Jesus Christ and the new testament church (Christians) Heb.8:7 12. LESSON FIVE. JEREMIAHS TEACHINGS ON HOPE AND RESTORATION Learning Outcomes (a) Explain the symbolic acts related to hope and restoration (b) Describe the fall of Jerusalem and the exile of the Israelites (c) Relate the relationship of the teachings of Jeremiah to the New Testament and Christian life today. A. Symbolic acts related to hope and restoration. The symbolic acts were one hope and restore. Hope is to expect something that is desired; while to restore is to bring back as nearly as possible the former or original state or condition. The symbolic acts were 5 in number. The first symbolic act was a vision of 2 baskets of figs. We have discussed it. Refer to the symbolic act related to judgment. The second symbolic act was Jeremiah buying a field. God instructed Jeremiah to buy a field from his cousin Hanamel of Anathoth. Jeremiah bought the field for 17 cents of silver. He then handed the title deed and open copy to Baruch. Baruch was told to keep the title deed and the copy in an earthen vessel for preservation for a long time. Jeremiah prophesied the restoration of the exiles to their homeland. The significance of this symbolic act is the assurance of restoration of Judah and Israel after suffering. People will be restored to their homeland. After 70 years people of Judah would reconstruct their homes, cultivate their land, and own property (Jer 32; 1 -15). The third symbolic act was Jeremiah letter to the Jews in Babylonia. Jeremiah wrote to the people of Judah a letter of encouragement while in exile. They were to settle down, build houses, marry and have children, live in peace with the Babylonians. They were to pray for the welfare of their masters and to ignore false prophets who lied to them about the safety of Jerusalem and a quick return. God would restore them back to their land after 70 years of exile were over. The exiles were to trust in God and not give up (Jer.29). The four symbolic act was a wooden ox yoke. The yoke represented captivity and suffering of Jews in exile. It was also a sign of hope if the people of Judah were willing to submit to the Babylonian rule. God would restore them back to their land. Their yoke would be broken and they would be set free. The fifth symbolic act was the visit to the porters house b. The fall of Jerusalem and the exile of the Israelites (Jer.39) Jeremiahs prophecy came to pass. Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians in the ninth year of king Zedekiah in 587BC. The Babylonians conquered Jerusalem and seized it. King Zedekiah fled but; he was captured by the Babylonians army. He witnessed the execution of his sons. His eyes were gauged out. He was then taken in chains to captivity in Babylon. Solomons temple was looted and destroyed. Villages, Jerusalem and the palace were destroyed and burnt down. The priests, court officials, army officials, people in the upper class, craftsmen were executed. City people were taken to Babylon as captives. The poor, aged and a few people were left behind and given vineyards to farm. Nebuchadnezzars army was brutal to the Israelites. Many were killed. A few like Ebed Melech were spared as prophesied by Jeremiah (he had rescued him from the well). Nebuchadnezzar ordered the release of Jeremiah. He was treated well Judah became a province of Babylon. Gedaliah was appointed governor of Judah. He stayed at Mizpah, the headquarters of Judah. Ishmael killed Gedaliah. Later Jeremiah was forced to go to Egypt by the Israelites. Jeremiah died in Egypt, an old man, and still faithful to his call. LESSON SIX. RELATING THE TEACHINGS OF JEREMIAH TO THE NEW TESTAMENT AND CHRISTIAN LIFE TODAY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1.Describe the teachings of Jeremiah in relation to Christian life today 2. Describe the teachings of Jeremiah in relation to the new testament Jeremiah was rejected by his; relatives, friends and the Israelites. In the New Testament, Jesus was rejected in his hometown of Nazareth: and by the religious leaders of Israel. Jeremiah compared himself to a lamb being led to the slaughter. Jesus in the New Testament is referred to as a lamb led to the slaughter. Jeremiahs suffering symbolizes divine judgment over Judah. However Jesus sufferings was to bring salvation to all mankind. Both Jeremiah and Jesus experienced spiritual agony. Jeremiah experience agony and felt left alone by God. Jesus too felt agony when praying in the garden of Gethsemane and when on the cross. Jeremiah taught that God is universal and a just judge. The gospel of Jesus is universal and everybody is judged according to his or her faith in God. Jeremiah and Jesus accused the Israelites of turning the temple into a den of robbers. Jeremiah and Jesus were both accused of blasphemy. Both challenged false beliefs about the temple. Both Jeremiah and Jesus spoke of the coming judgment of God. The new covenant was fulfilled in the life and ministry of Jesus Christ Jeremiah spoke of hope and restoration. Jesus gives hope of eternal life in the New Testament. ii. Relationship of Jeremiahs teaching to Christian today. Christians are to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ. They are empowered by the Holy Spirit to endure suffering and to grow spiritually. Christians like Jeremiah face false prophets who speak in Jesus name. Christians are to be watchful and obey Yahweh Like Jeremiah Christians should call people to repentance. The new covenant is fulfilled in Christians individual relationship with God. Christians are the new people, the new Israel as prophesied by Jeremiah. His teachings reveal that God is universal. Christians are from all corners of the earth. Christians should prepare for divine judgment by practicing love, righteousness, self-denial, and faith in God. Revision exercise 1. List the evils that Jeremiah condemned 2.What are some of the evils that church leaders condemn today? 3. Explain the symbolism used during the call of prophet Jeremiah 4. What did Jeremiah teach about the new covenant? 5. Why did prophet Jeremiah condemn the way the Israelites worshipped? 6. Explain Jeremiahs temple sermon as recorded in jeremiah7: 1-15 7. What forms of punishment did Jeremiah prophesy that God would use on Judah? 8. Outline the content of Jeremiahs letter to exiles in Babylon 9. Explain four symbolic acts related to judgement and punishment as demonstrated by prophet Jeremiah 10. Identify the relevance of Jeremiahs teaching to Christians today 11. In what ways is the prophetic mission of Jeremiah similar to that of Jesus? TOPIC SIX. NEHEMIAH Introduction The book of Nehemiah is a historical writing. Nehemiah is a record of his deep dependence on God and his frequent prayer to God. Nehemiah means Yahweh has comforted. Nehemiah was the son of Hacaliah of Judah. He was not a prophet. He was exiled to Babylon. Persians captured Babylon and improved the living condition of the Israelites. They were allowed religious freedom but had to pay tributes. Learning outcomes. By the end of this topic you should be able to; a. Describe the historical, religious and social background to Nehemiah b. Identify occasions when Nehemiah prayed c. Explain the importance of prayer in Christian life D .Describe leadership qualities of Nehemiah and relevance to Christians today. LESSON ONE. BACKGROUND TO NEHEMIAH Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, i. Describe how the people of Judah lived and worshipped. ii. Explain the conquest of Israel and Judah by foreign forces iii. Give reasons why God allowed Judah and Israel to be conquered and exiled. a. Political and historical background. From 587 BC to 538 BC, Israelites were in exile. In 538 B.C., the first group of Israelites was set free and returned to Judah. Cyrus the Great, of Persia ruled his subjects through governors. They were led out of Babylon by Joshua the high priest and Zerubbabel who became the first governor of Judah. Some Jews remained in Babylon. They were referred to as Jews in Diaspora or dispersion. Other Jews remained in other lands including Egypt, and Mediterranean lands Nehemiah. He was a cupbearer in the palace of the Persian king Artaxerxes I. He later became a governor of Judah. Even after the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem, Israelites remained subjects of the Persian king. The Wall of Jerusalem was important to Israel and Judah. The Wall represented a sense of pride, ownership, privacy, independence and Security. The Greeks conquered the Persians; who were later conquered by Romans. b. Social background The Jews in foreign lands retained their Jewish way of life. The land of Israel was partly occupied by foreigners. The foreign cultures of neighboring rulers influenced Israelites who returned. They for example, intermarried with foreigners, a custom that God did not allow. Israelites were not to intermarry with other people according to the Mosaic Law. In spite of this however, Jews maintained their separated identity. Some of the foreigners despised Jews. The wealthy Jews oppressed the poor Jews. In Jerusalem there was starvation. Nehemiah condemned oppression of the poor. c. Religious background Jews returned to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem and the altar of God for sacrifices. While in exile, Jews were allowed by the Babylonian king to practice their religion. They worshipped Yahweh, practiced circumcision, obeyed dietary laws and observed the Sabbath. The exiles could not however observe all the religious practices for example offering animal sacrifices. Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem to rebuild its the wall. The temple of Jerusalem was rebuilt, cleared and dedicated to God. LESSON TWO. Prayers by Nehemiah and modern Christians Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson the learner should be able to: a. Outline occasions when Nehemiah prayed to the Lord. b. Discuss the importance of prayer Nehemiah prayed, mourned, and fasted. He prayed often and for all actions, keeping Gods law, forgiveness, punishments, human relations, Jerusalem, good works, contributions and offerings, observance of Sabbath day, and preparing duty allocations for priests and Levites. . i. When he learnt about the suffering of Jews who remained in Judah and the ruined state of Jerusalem; He prayed for forgiveness on behalf of his people (Neh.4: 1 11). ii. Making a request to King Artaxerxes to be permitted to return to Judah (Neh.2: 4 iii. When his enemies ridiculed the Jews and planned to discourage them from rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Tobiah in particular said that the wall was poorly constructed and it could be brought down by; a fox jumping on it. Nehemiah requested God to punish the enemies who were mocking temple builders (Neh.4: 4 5). iv. When he learnt that his enemies were conspiring to attack Jerusalem to stop the construction work, he prayed and organised people to provide a 24-hour guard of the wall (Neh.4: 7 9). .v. For his good work, he prayed for his works (Neh 5:19). vi. When his enemies plotted to destroy him, he prayed God for strength and courage to overcome his enemies (Neh 6: 19). vii. When Shemaih attempted to frighten him to hide in the temple claiming that there was a plot to kill him, Nehemiah prayed and asked God to punish his enemies (Neh 6:14). viii. When he organized contributions for Levites and musicians; and people to distribute them. He asked God to remember his work for the house of God (Neh 13:14). ix. He stopped trade on the Sabbath day, and organised rest on the Sabbath day. He warned traders against violating the Sabbath law. He asked Lord to remember him for these actions (Neh.13: 22). x. Nehemiah prayed for punishment of the son of Joiada. The son of Joiada had brought disgrace to the priest hood by marrying a foreigner, the daughter of Sanballat from the town of Beth Horon, (Neh 13:29). After cleansing the Israelites of foreign influence, he forbade mixed marriages xi. He prepared duty regulations for priests and Levites. He allocated them duties. He then organised Jews to bring offerings for maintaining priests and Levites. He prayed God to remember his work for the temple, priests and Levites (Neh 13:31). b. Importance of prayer in Christian life Through prayers, Christians express their faith in God and praise God for his greatness, goodness, holiness, and majesty. Prayer brings Christians closer to God; it strengthens their relationship with God. Through prayer Christians request for their needs, blessings, success, good health, and protection among other requests. Prayers help Christians to listen to God and to seek his will. Prayer is a source of strength. It gives Christians courage to face and overcome lifes challenges. Christians seek guidance, comfort and support in times of trials. In prayer, Christians intercede for the sick, poor, hungry, prisoners, friends, family and community. The communal / public prayers unite Christians together. Through prayers, Christians ask for forgiveness and the ability to forgive others. In prayers, Christians trust that God listens and answers their prayers. LESSON THREE: LEADERSHIP QUALITIES OF NEHEMIAH Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State the leadership qualities of Nehemiah 2. Explain the relevance of Nehemiahs leadership qualities to Christians today Introduction. A leader is someone charged with the responsibility of guiding, controlling, directing and leading others. Nehemiah had many leadership qualities. These were: - 1) God fearing man. Nehemiah feared God, relied and depended on God. 2) Prayerfulness he prayed constantly before and after making decisions. 3) Courageous He displayed courage even when his life was in danger 4) Hard work and commitment. He was dedicated to the rebuilding of the wall of the temple and Jerusalem. 5) Team spirit he was a team leader, motivating people to work. 6) He had planning and organizational skills 7) He was visionary He had compassion for the needy especially the poor, Levites and priests 9) He was patriotic loved his country 10) Wisdom. He made wise decisions at the right time. 11) He led by example, a role model 12) He was honest and sincere in his prayers 13) He was shrewd and impartial 14) His trusted God absolutely. 15) He was decisive. He told God about decisions he had made and asked for their recognition. 16) He was humble. He asked to be allowed to return to Jerusalem and oversee the repair of its wall and temple. 16) He believed in law and punishment of wrong doers. He asked God to punish lawbreakers especially Jews who married foreigners. b. Relevance of Nehemiahs leadership to Christians today Christians should copy all the leadership qualities of Nehemiah. They should trust in God and seek his guidance in all their activities and needs. 1. Christians should live a life of prayer 2. Christians should be courageous, be ready to defend the gospel of Jesus Christ. 3. Christians should be dedicated to their work. Work diligently and honestly 4. Christians should set realistic goals and organize their activities. 5. Christians should seek wisdom from God to be able to choose appropriate activities to attain their visions. 6. Christians should care for the needy and be compassionate to all 7. Christians should be patriotic and ready to defend their country against internal / external threats. 8. Christians should need to fight for the rights of the helpless children, widows, orphans, and aged. 9. Christians should seek God first, view themselves as servants of God and be good role models. LESSON FOUR. BUILDING THE WALL OF JERUSALEM The wall of Jerusalem was destroyed when Babylonians conquered Judah. After finishing the wall, he dedicated it to the Lord. Dedication is to devote something in honor of a person held dear or to set aside something for some special purpose. Learning Outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should be able to: - a. Describe the problems that Nehemiah faced when building the wall of Jerusalem b. Describe the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem c. Identify lessons, which Christians can learn from Nehemiah. a. Nehemiah rebuilt the wall of Jerusalem. The rebuilt wall had several gates with different names. The gates were the entrances to Jerusalem. Their names were Dung gate, Potsherd gate, Fountain gate, Water gate, Horse gate, East gate, Sheep gate, Fish gate, Watch gate and Ephraim gate. Knowing the names of the gates may not be necessary but its good information. b. Problems faced by Nehemiah. When Nehemiah was building the wall of Jerusalem, he faced many challenges. There was lack of cooperation by the nobles of Tekoa. They did not want to do manual work at first but they later repented. Nehemiah faced opposition from enemies such as. Sanballat, and Tobiah, the Arab who tried to thwart the progress of Nehemiahs work. As he built Jerusalem, the rich oppressed the poor. This was worsened by famine The priests misused the temple and the offerings. For example, temple duties had been abandoned. The Levites were not getting their share of the offerings and the Sabbath was violated. There was laxity in observance of the Sabbath. This was a challenge to Nehemiah because Sabbath day should be kept holy. There was a lot of foreign influence because of the conquests by several foreign armies, intermarriages and interactions between Jews, neighboring people and foreigners. Marriages in particular threatened the identity of the Israelites as a nation. Worse still Priests married to foreign women defiled the priesthood according to Nehemiah. Because of these assimilations of Jews through marriages, Nehemiah knew that Israel and Judah would eventually be lost as Gods nation. Because of his opposition to these interactions, Nehemiah received death threats. c. Dedication of the wall of Jerusalem (NEH. 12:27 47) The rebuilt wall was dedicated to God. The wall restored security and prestige of Gods people. The wall of Jerusalem was set-aside for God in a solemn ceremony. There was a dedication ceremony in which people sung with symbols, harps, lyres, trumpets and other instruments. The priests, and Levites purified themselves. The people led by Ezra, Nehemiah, the priests and other leaders of Judah walked around the wall. They divided themselves into two groups. One group walked from the right side and the other group from the left side and converged at the temple. Sacrifices were offered and people rejoiced. Some men were appointed to be in charge of the storehouses; where tithes, and first fruits of harvest were kept. d. Relevance of Nehemiahs experience to Christians today Christians should expect opposition, as did Nehemiah. They should not be afraid of being ridiculed, mocked and despised. If it happens, Christians should persevere in Gods work. They should put their trust in God like Nehemiah did. They should also fight for the welfare of the disadvantaged groups and not exploit them. They have a moral obligation to condemn injustice and take practical steps to help solve problems that afflict individuals, groups, nations, and society. They should be in the forefront fighting HIV/ AIDS and drug abuse. Christians should be on the look out for external influence that may corrupt morals of the society and the church. They should learn that leadership involves suffering, persecution, and sacrifices. This is foregoing personal interests for the sake of the kingdom of God. LESSON FIVE: RENEWAL OF THE COVENANT Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should be able to: - i. List the stages followed to renew the covenant. ii. Identify issues that Ezra mentioned in his prayer iii. List the vows that were made by the Israelites during renewal of the covenant i. Stages of the renewal of the covenant. Israelites were the chosen people of God. They had suffered many hardships. There was therefore a need for the renewal of the covenant between God and Israelites. The ceremony to renewal the covenant was held in Jerusalem and was led by Ezra, the Levites and other religious leaders. The renewal of the covenant can be discussed in 3 main stages: Stage 1. A great public assembly was held in the square of Jerusalem inside the water gate. Gods law was read and expounded to the people. The people of Israel praised and worshipped God. They cried and grieved. They were sad because they realized that they had failed to observe the Mosaic Law. They were instructed to go and celebrate, as it was a holy day of God and an occasion for joy not sorrows. State 2. The feast of booths/tabernacle was celebrated for 7 days. It was a reminder of the days in the wilderness when the Israelites dwelt in tents. The Law of Moses was read each day during the celebrations. Stage 3. There was a public confession of sin. People fasted, prayed and praised God. The public confession was followed by the renewal of the covenant vows and a promise to keep Gods law in future. Ezras prayer closed the celebrations. In his prayer, he recalled Gods acts of creation. He then recounted the history of the Israelites. He mentioned the previous acts of God; where the Lord had demonstrated His love and mercy for the Israelites. He then confessed the sins of their ancestors and the present Israelites. These were the sins of rebellion and disobedience. ii. Promises and vows made by Israelites during the renewal of the covenant. Israelites promised God that they would <br><br>Live according to Gods law, by obeying all his commands and <br><br>requirements. <br><br>Stop intermarrying with foreigners living in their land. Cancel debts every 7th year Contribute annually towards the temple expenses to ensure that the <br><br>house of God was not neglected. <br><br>Provide sacrifices and offerings for the temple and arrange for provision <br><br>of wood for burnt sacrifices according to the law. <br><br>Offer first fruits of their harvest and dedicate the first born and flocks as <br><br>required by the law. <br><br>Pay for their tithes as required by the law. <br><br>Which lessons can we learn from the renewal of the covenant? God is good, loving, merciful, and faithful to his promises. God forgives all people and we are all sinners. We fail in our moral obligation to God and to one another. Since we are sinners, we should repent our sins and strive to live according to Gods law. Christians are to encourage one another as well as others to repent as it brings about reconciliation with God and with one another. Christians should be forgiving and avoid situations that lead them to sin SAQ. Check from form 1 work, this information. 1. Outline Nehemiahs final reforms 2. What is a covenant? 3. What are the components of a covenant? 4. Discuss how the covenant was renewed 5. List examples of covenants in the Old Testament and modern life. 6. Explain what Christians can learn from the experiences of Nehemiah 7. Compare or relate the teachings from Nehemiahs exemplary life to the teaching of St. Lukes Gospel and Christian life today. LESSON SIX: FINAL REFORMS OF NEHEMIAH Introduction. Changes for improvement are known as reforms, which are either political, economical, social, religious or a combination of any of them. Examples of reformers are King David, Prophet Elijah, and Martin Luther King among others. Nehemiah. After building the wall, Nehemiah went back to King Artaxerxes II who if you remember had given permission to go to Jerusalem and build its destroyed perimeter wall. Later he returned to Jerusalem and carried out these reforms. Lesson outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should be able to: a. List reforms of Nehemiah b. Suggest what we can learn from the teachings of Nehemiah and that of St. Lukes Gospel a. Reforms by Nehemiah. We have discussed reforms, which Nehemiah carried out during his stay in Judah, where he was the governor (Neh 5:14). The major reforms were i Rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem as well as its gates. ii Cleansing of the temple: Nehemiah threw him out Tobiah a foreigner who was living in the temple quarters. iii Reinstatement of the Levites and other temple workers. Levites, and musicians had left the temple duties to work in their farms to earn a livelihood. They were supposed to work in the temple and be supported by member contributions. Nehemiah organised Jews to make offerings and tithes to support temple workers. With these contributions, Nehemiah reinstated and redeployed Levites, priests, musicians and other temple workers. iv Reform of the Sabbath observance. The Israelites were told by the Lord to work for 6 days and rest on the Sabbath day. The Jews started working on the Sabbath day. The merchants camped outside waiting for the reopening of the gates of the temple to do business. When Nehemiah started rebuilding Jerusalem, he ordered closure of the gates of Jerusalem from the eve of Sabbath to the end of the Sabbath. v Separations from foreigners (Neh.13: 23 30). It was against Gods law to marry foreigners. Nehemiah cursed the men who had married foreign wives. He beat Jews, pulled their hair and forced them to take oaths that neither they, nor their sons nor daughters shall intermarry. vi Purification of priesthood and the office of the Levites. Nehemiah cleansed the priesthood. He sent away Eliashib, a grandson of the High Priest Joshua, because he had given Tobiah a foreigner, a room in the temple. b. Comparing teachings of Nehemiah and St. Lukes Gospel i Nehemiah lived a prayerful life while St. Lukes gospel emphasizes importance of prayer. Jesus taught the role of prayer in Christianity. ii Nehemiah fasted, St. Lukes gospel records that Jesus fasted. iii Nehemiah prayed for forgiveness of sinful Jews. We see Jesus in St. Lukes gospel being a leader who prayed for the forgiveness of his enemies. iv Nehemiah cared for the needy. Jesus showed compassion to the needy and taught his followers to follow His example. v Nehemiah condemned evil so did Jesus vi Nehemiah is seen as a reformer of the Mosaic Law. In St Luke Gospel, Jesus was also a reformer. He insisted on inner holiness. vii Nehemiah cleansed the temple of traders so did Jesus. viii Nehemiah was very strict on the Sabbath observance. St. Lukes gospel teaches that Jesus is lord over Sabbath. He healed and Worked on Sabbath. ix Nehemiah was opposed to racial intermarriages, St. Luke Gospel was dedicated to Theophilus, a gentile convert x Christianity kingdom of God in St. Lukes gospel is for all, not just the Jews. xi. Nehemiah had good leadership skills and wisdom. These are demonstrated in St Luke Gospel. c. Relating Nehemiahs teachings to Christian life today i Prayers and fasting are fundamental to Christians just like they were to Nehemiah who led a prayerful life. ii Nehemiahs example teaches Christians to face all forms of opposition with courage, wisdom, and firmness iii The good leadership qualities of Nehemiah are relevant to Christians and they are to be emulated. iv Nehemiah cared for the needy. Christians should learn to give spiritual food, physical food and clothing to the needy, orphans, widows. v As Nehemiah renewed the covenant, Christians should seek spiritual renewal publicly and privately. They should seek for communal as well as individual forgiveness. vi Nehemiah cleansing the temple and organised an inventory for temple contributions, offerings and tithes. He also appointed key people to look after temple contributions and pay Levites and priests. Christians should learn to use the church buildings and contributions rightly vii Nehemiah was guided by the Law of Moses and land just like Christians are guided by the scriptures (Bible) and the law of the nation. The Bible is the source and basis of Christian principles. Revision questions 1. Describe the political background of Nehemiah 2. Describe the social background to the vocation of Nehemiah 3. Describe the religious background to the vocation of Nehemiah 4. Describe occasions when Nehemiah prayed 5. State occasions when Christians pray 6. What is the importance of prayer in Christian life? 7. Identify the leadership of Nehemiahs patriotism 8. Explain the relevance of Nehemiahs leadership to a Christian today 9. Explain the relevance of Nehemiahs experience to Christians today 10. explain the problems that Nehemiah encountered in his vocation 11. Explain the steps taken by Nehemiah to renew the covenant 12. State the promises the Israelites made during the renewal of the covenant Study activities. Visit a church or your church and observe the display of the gifts of the Holy Spirit by the members. Study the books of Amos, Jeremiah and Nehemiah before hand. Form three answers. TOPIC ONE: THE GIFTS OF THE HOLY SPIRIT. Qn a. Explain the meaning of the Pentecost. <br><br>Pentecost means fifty days after the harvest. It was one of the religious festivals celebrated by Israelites annually. In the Old Testament, the day of the Pentecost was celebrated during the <br><br>wheat harvest in order to thank god for the blessing of the harvest. <br><br>Israelites came from all over the world and gathered in Jerusalem for <br><br>this celebration. <br><br>In the New Testament, the meaning of the festival changed. It was <br><br>celebrated to commemorate the coming of the Holy Spirit upon Gods people as they gathered in the upper room. Qn b. Describe the manifestations of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost. (Acts 2: 1-40) OR (narrate the events that took place on the day of Pentecost). The tongues of fire were distributed on each one of them. They were filled with the Holy Spirit. They were speaking in foreign languages and tongues. Those who were observing them were amazed, as they could not <br><br>understand what they were saying. <br><br>They accused them of being drunk Peter stood up and explained that they were not drunk as it was too <br><br>early in the day to get drunk. <br><br>He explained how they were filled with the Holy Spirit as prophesied by <br><br>prophet Joel. <br><br>He told them that it was Jesus whom they had rejected and crucified <br><br>who had sent them the Holy Spirit. <br><br>The people asked peter what they could do. Peter told them to repent and be baptized. On that day about 3000 people were added to the church. <br><br>Qn c. write down five teachings we learn about Jesus from Peters speech on the day of Pentecost. <br><br>Jesus was from Nazareth He had a divine nature or was son of God He had a human nature He was attested by God to work miracles and wonders through Jesus. Jesus death/ crucifixion was according to Gods plan God raised Jesus from the dead Jesus conquered death The death and resurrection of Jesus fulfils the prophecy of David Jesus was a descendant of David The Holy Spirit was from Jesus Christ as he had promised. God has made Jesus Christ both lord and Christ/ messiah Jesus ascended into heaven. He is exalted at the right hand of God The risen Christ is a source if hope or salvation to many <br><br>sinners/crippled/the dead Qn d. What were the qualities of peter that made him a successful leader for the apostolic church? <br><br>He was a man of great faith He was a good orator He dedicated his life to Jesus He was filled with the holy spirit He could perform miracles or wonders He was an eye- witness of the ministry of Jesus Christ. He was full of wisdom and knowledge i.e. Ananias and Saphiras case <br><br>Qn e. what lessons can Christians learn fro the events of the day of Pentecost <br><br>They learn that Jesus always honors and keeps his promises e.g. he <br><br>promised to send the Holy spirit and did it <br><br>Baptism in the holy spirit is very important for every believer That obedience yields immediate results i.e. the disciples obeyed Jesus <br><br>by testifying in Jerusalem and they received the Holy Spirit. <br><br>It is important for believers to meet for fellowship. The disciples did <br><br>this and they received the Holy Spirit <br><br>That the Holy Spirit enables Christians to declare the gospel with <br><br>boldness <br><br>It was the plan of God that Jesus was crucified Jesus indeed rose from the dead as peter witnessed Jesus was the son of God The Holy Spirit will comfort disciples The Holy Spirit will abide with believers forever. He was to teach the <br><br>world and reveal the truth about God <br><br>The Holy Spirit would guide them into all truth and make them <br><br>understand or know more about Jesus <br><br>The percolate i.e. comforter/make strong/counselor who give advice He was to help them attain eternal life. If it was necessary for him to die <br><br>and return to the father so that Holy Spirit will be sent to them. It was to replace Jesus as a counselor and an advocate <br><br>He was to give the disciples authority to forgive or not to forgive The spirit would remind them all that Jesus had taught them The holy spirit will reprove the world of sin, righteousness and <br><br>judgement <br><br>He would glorify Jesus amongst the believers He will enable believers to be witnesses of Jesus in the whole world He was to strengthen disciples as a wonderful counselor He was to continue with the work of Jesus as a witness Qn g. what is the role if the holy spirit according to Jesus? <br><br>He comforts believers He teaches believers all things He bring into remembrance all that Jesus taught his disciples The holy spirit would convict the world of their sins and lead them to righteousness <br><br>He will guide the believers in all the truth He will glorify Christ and teach about him He will tell of the things to come in the future He would not speak on his own authority but would speak only what he <br><br>hears from the father He will enable believers to be witnesses of Jesus in the world He will counsel believers because he knows the mind of God He will enable believers know the perfect will of God <br><br>Qn h. what is the role of the Holy Spirit in the believers (or Christians or the church) <br><br>He enables believers to preach with power He comforts believers He guides believers in all truth He gives believers boldness to witness about Jesus He enables Christians to produce the fruit of the spirit He washes sacrifices and justifies the believer in the name of Jesus He teaches believers all things He enables Christians to access God the father and son in prayer He enables Christians talk in tongues in worship He enables Christians to perform miracles in the name of Jesus He enables Christians to declare sins and transgressions of others <br><br>Qn i. Outline the fruits of the Holy Spirit (Galatians 5:6-26) <br><br>Love Joy deep happiness when one has a good relationship with God Peace being at peace with all people Patience being to wait in difficulties Kindness being caring and helpful towards others Goodness Faithfulness having confidence in God Gentleness being calm and avoiding violence Self-control have strong control over their emotions Qn j. state the criteria for discerning of the spiritual gifts <br><br>showing compassion to one another <br><br>seeking to do best in their lives The gifts must not call Jesus accursed The test of love. The gift must be accompanied with a good or true frit. <br><br>To discover whether or not the person who has the holy spirit must bear the fruits of the spirit <br><br>One who is user the influence if the Holy Spirit is known by his or her <br><br>way of life. He/she will act and behave in accordance with the teachings of Jesus. <br><br>Doctrinal test for example, prophecy should always in agreement with <br><br>the scripture because the Holy Spirit cannot contradict what is written <br><br>Loyalty or conformity to Jesus. The gift doesnt envy other believers The gift must be subject to the word of God The true gift will be guided by principles of sincerity and honesty The true gift will humbly submit to God The gift should encourage the growth of the church and edify her <br><br>Qn k. List down the gifts of the Holy Spirit. <br><br>The gift of wisdom (a deep understanding of who God is an his purpose <br><br>for human life) <br><br>The gift of knowledge that is the basic understanding of the truth about <br><br>Jesus Christ <br><br>The gift of faith that refers to the confidence or truth in Gods <br><br>inspiration and help in undertaking difficult tasks The gift of healing: the power to heal all types of sicknesses The gift to perform all types of miracles including healing The gift of prophecy: that is the ability to expound on the scriptures and <br><br>foretell its future implications <br><br>The gift of distinguishing gifts: the ability to tell the difference between <br><br>gifts that come from the spirit and those that are not <br><br>The gift of speaking in tongues: the ability to understand and interpret <br><br>tongues <br><br>Lastly the gift of love, which is the greatest of all the spiritual gifts. <br><br>Qn l. Explain why Paul taught that love is the greatest of all spiritual gifts. <br><br>Paul taught that love is the greatest of all spiritual gifts. He said that <br><br>love is patient and kind <br><br>Its not jealous or boastful. It is not arrogant or rude or conceited. It <br><br>does not hold grudges or ill mannered or selfish <br><br>It does not insist on its own way. It is not irritable or resentful It does not rejoice at wrong doings but rejoices in the truth Love bears, believes, hopes and endures all things It is ready to deep firm its faith, hope and its patience Love does not succumb to pressure but always perseveres He justified that love is the greatest gift of the spiritual gifts because in <br><br>prayer, the gift of tongues becomes nothing but meaningful when accompanied by love (charity) On faith, Paul says that even if one has faith that can move mountains <br><br>but has no love, he is nothing <br><br>Charity or generosity including sacrificing own life is nothing without love Qn m. Explain how the Holy Spirit is manifested in the church today Through dynamic, power, bold and vigorous teaching of the gospel Through speaking in tongues in many evangelical churches Through the gift of healing many people are healed as they are prayed <br><br>for <br><br>Through the gift of love, Christians show mercy to all members of the <br><br>society regardless of their race, sex or age (helping the poor in the society) Through the gift of prophecy some believers give proper guidance to the <br><br>church <br><br>Through the gift of discernment of spirits believers are able to tell the <br><br>type of spirit that is in operation <br><br>Through the gift of faith, believers have been able to accomplish tasks <br><br>that seem rather impossible <br><br>Some Christians through the holy spirit are able to withstand a <br><br>persecution to the point of death <br><br>The holy spirit convicts sinners and makes them confess their sins Through the holy spirit many Christians see heavenly visions and <br><br>dreams <br><br>The fear of the lord is upon many evangelical groups through the Holy <br><br>Spirit <br><br>In some evangelical gatherings, there are many supernatural things <br><br>during worship e.g. shaking and swaying <br><br>It is also manifested through prayer at individual or congregational <br><br>levels <br><br>Through decision making in church i.e. solving problems and issues in <br><br>church <br><br>Through singing and dancing or music Through offertory and alms or sadaka Holding fellowship meetings, bible study and reading the bible Celebration of sacraments e.g. Eucharist and lords supper Bringing new converts to the church Pastoral cave and counseling It is manifested in Ecumenism: working <br><br>together of the churches <br><br>Writing Christian literature e. g. books, pamphlets and magazines Enabling Christians to confess their sins and reconciliation meetings Education and giving instructions <br><br>Qn n: State ways in which the gifts of the Holy Spirit have been abused in the church today. <br><br>Cheating that one has a certain gift of the Holy Spirit Commercialization of the gifts. People are asked to pay money before <br><br>being prayed for or being healed <br><br>False interpretation of the bible, prophecy or predicting the future Unscrupulous Christians may impart demoniac powers or innocent <br><br>faithful <br><br>Some Christians who possess the gifts of the Holy Spirit develop pride <br><br>or selfishness or superiority complex <br><br>Wrong use of the gifts of the Holy Spirit where faithful get into ecstasy <br><br>or trance which may lead to injuries <br><br>Distinguishing oneself as a person with a special call e.g. preacher with <br><br>intention of exploiting others or situations TOPIC TWO: UNITY OF BELIEVERS Qn a. Write down the terms used in the New Testament to refer to believers in Christ <br><br>The people of God The body of Christ The bride of Christ The vine and the branches The assembly of God Christians The people of the way (followers of the way) other terms Followers of Christ New Israel Church The sheep The royal church Brethren Royal race Royal priest hood Holy nation The children of light Saints Brothers and sisters in Christ <br><br>Qn b. identify five causes of disunity in the early church <br><br>The question on the inclusion of the gentiles in the church. Some Jewish <br><br>Christians were not ready to accept gentile Christians in the church unless they underwent circumcision <br><br>There was negligence of the widows in the distribution of food Disagreement between and among leaders e.g. Paul and Barnabas, Peter <br><br>and Paul <br><br>Groupings in the church where some Christians owed loyalty to <br><br>individuals. They said that they belonged to individuals like Apollo others Peter and others Paul <br><br>Question of immorality, where some Christians did not live according to <br><br>the teachings of Christ <br><br>The problem of the gifts of the Holy Spirit. Some Christians became <br><br>arrogant because they were more gifted than others <br><br>Different interpretations of the doctrines e.g. resurrection, sin, salvation, <br><br>Christology, Holy Spirit, dressing Behaviour during the lords supper Christians took others to a pagan rule of law Question of the resurrection of the body Question of celibacy Question of incest sexual immorality Different approaches to common life between Christians communities <br><br>in Jerusalem and Antioch Qn c. identify factors, which cause disunity among Christians today <br><br>Selfishness or greed for money by some Christians Rivalry or competition for leadership positions or greed for power Misinterpretation by some Christians of the work of the holy spirit Arrogance or pride by some Christians Corruption in the church Failure by some Christians to live according to the law of God or their <br><br>failure to live exemplary <br><br>Lack of concern by some Christians about the plight of others Misinterpretation of the bible or doctrinal differences Misuse of church funds or power by some leaders Lack of transparency and accountability in running church affairs The emergence of charismatic movements in the church creates a <br><br>situation where some Christians think that they are more spiritual or holier l than others <br><br>Political interference where Christians find themselves in different <br><br>political camps <br><br>Sexism where women are not involved in decision-making. Women are <br><br>under represented <br><br>Discrimination against the youth or churches ignoring the youth in Qn d. Discuss reasons why members of Christian families in Kenya find it difficult to harmoniously live together <br><br>Unfaithfulness or promiscuity Misuse of family resources or lack of resources Child abuse e.g. beating, raping, incest or favourism Alcoholism or drug use and abuse Separation of family members e.g. due to wage labour or education Denial of conjugal rights Sickness e.g. HIV/AIDs, impotence, barrenness or cancer Child delinquency Lack of tolerance or forgiveness or presence of cruelty Greed for wealth or self esteemed prestige or professionalism Religious fanaticism or denominational differences Traditional or cultural inhabitation or western cultural influences or <br><br>permissive <br><br>Generation gap <br><br>Qn e. explain how the church strengthen family relationships today <br><br>Through guidance and counseling and mediation Hold seminars, conferences for couples, children the youth through <br><br>publications on Christian living e.g. magazines, books or pamphlets <br><br>Use of mass media e.g. televisions. Radios or videos Through offering pastoral care in homes or house to house visits Giving financial support to the needy families Praying for families Through preaching, teaching and condemning vices Offering employment to the jobless Providing vocational training skills Q1. Define the terms prophet and prophecy Prophet: Refers to one who speaks Gods message. He is Gods spokesman. His message includes predictions of the future. Prophecy: Is the message spoken by a prophet. Oracles spoken by prophets. Q2. List the five categories of true prophets i) Major prophets These include Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel. They are called Major Prophets because the books are long and contain clearly written messages. They bear the names of the writers. ii) Minor prophets These refer to 12 books that are short and contain less important than those in major books e.g. Amos, Hosea, Joel, Obadiah through to Malachi. iii) Canonical prophets Both the major and minor prophets are together referred to as canonical prophets. iv) The early prophets They belonged to guilds or schools. They lived together in communities under a chief prophet. Elijah and Elisha are examples. These are those who served in places of worship e.g. at Dan, Bethuel) They were called cultic prophets because they were associated with religious activities in shrines. They traveled around together delivering oracles. v) Cultic prophets They worked side by side with priests and said prayers especially peoples petition to Yahweh. Q3. State the difference between true and false prophets True prophets False prophets <br><br>They were called by God to be His spokesmen Not called by God. Were obedient to God. Not obedient to Him. Believed in one God. Could worship other gods and led people into <br><br>immorality. <br><br>They were prayerful. Not. Spoke and acted with authority from God. No authority from God. They led holy lives. Were immoral e.g. believed in false gods. Spoke Gods word. Spoke their opinion. Suffered physically and psychologically because of speaking the truth. Run away suffering. Spoke the truth. False Did not ask for pay. Asked for pay. Spoke form a common tradition based on the Mosaic Law. Did not <br><br>have any reference. Q4. In what ways were Gods prophets called? <br><br>Some were called through visions or dreams e.g. Amos and Samuel. Others were called through other prophets e.g. Elisha. Words or message came into their minds. Through prophetic symbolic actions e.g. Jeremiah Through common objects an object becoming a significant sign of <br><br>Gods power and activities Jer. 1:11-13. Both were mediators between people and a Supreme Being. Both performed the role of healing people physically and spiritually <br><br>(miracle). <br><br>They received calls mainly through visions/dreams, which were <br><br>considered supernatural. <br><br>Were both expected to be people of integrity and obedient to religious <br><br>codes. <br><br>Gave warnings and solutions to their people in case they offended the <br><br>Supreme Being. <br><br>Foretold the future. <br><br>b) Differences: Old Testament Tradition African <br><br>Received their message from God Received their message from spirits <br><br>and ancestors. <br><br>Inherited Appointed by God. Rejected by people Respected and feared in society Prophecy went to other nations Confined in tribal community Prophecies preserved in writing Passed on orally Believe and worship of one God Believe in god spirits Performed miracles Did not <br><br>Q6. What is the relevant of prophets to Christians today? <br><br>Through reading their prophecies, Christians get to know the will of <br><br>God. <br><br>Jesus who is the cornerstone of Christianity is stressed throughout <br><br>prophecy since Abraham. <br><br>Prophecy has helped many to be preachers (i.e. prophecy = preaching). Christians learn to be faithful to Yahweh just like the Old Testament <br><br>prophets. As prophets, Christians should provide hope to the people in times of <br><br>suffering. <br><br>They learn that they can face suffering just like the prophets did e.g. <br><br>Jeremiah e.g. persecution, rejection etc. <br><br>They should condemn sin like the prophets. The writings of the prophets strengthen their faith when they need them. <br><br>PROPHET AMOS Q1. List the visions that Amos saw <br><br>He saw a swarm of locusts. Amos 7:1-3 He saw a great fire. Amos 7:4-6 The plumb line/crooked wall. Amos 7:7-8 Basket of ripe fruits. Amos 8:1-3 The destruction of the temple. Amos 9:1-4 <br><br>Q2. Explain the evils that Amos condemned in his teachings <br><br>Sexual immorality (Amos 2:17) <br><br> Amos condemned temple prostitution 23:17. Father and son were going to the same woman. They copied these from the Canaanite pagans, which was wrong and unfaithful to Yahweh. Slavery: (Amos 2:6) The righteous, the rich made the poor slaves. This is because they borrowed from the rich and could not repay so they made them work like slaves and treated them harshly. Some sold them for a paid of sandals. This was breaking Gods laws, which guided them on how to treat their poor fellow Israelites. <br><br>Idolatry: Amos 5:26 <br><br>Amos accused them for breaking Gods covenant by worshipping other gods. Cheating in Business: He condemned the following: <br><br> Merchants used false measures They overcharged the poor Sold goods of low quality They sold poor people for not paying debts They too charged high interest rates Bribery and Corruption Ex. 23:8 <br><br> He condemned elders who were unjust and corrupt. They took bribes and grew rich from heavy levies from innocent people in law courts. <br><br>Greed and excessive luxury <br><br> He condemned women of Samaria who drink and lived in luxury when there were poor needy people. <br><br>Breaking Gods law on garments secured for pledges <br><br> God gave Israelites items that were to be given out to the creditors as a guarantees for the goods borrowed e.g. Millstones for grinding, were to be taken and returned in the evening because they were used daily. <br><br>Robbery and Violence <br><br> Poor were being oppressed and violated. <br><br>Self Indulgence and false sense of security <br><br> Leaders thought God could not punish them because they were a chosen race. But Amos told them they would be attacked. Q3. Give reasons why Prophet Amos condemned idol worship in Israel <br><br>It broke the covenant way of life. It was against the 10 commandments, which directed the Israelites to It promoted immorality e.g. temple prostitution. The worship of God belittled and degraded God. It promoted falsehood in the society. Religion became commercialized. Led to false prophecy. People got concerned with external behavior and not internal. <br><br>Q4. List evils in society today that Amos would condemn <br><br>Tribalism Bribery and corruption Robbery with violence Dishonesty in business Grabbing of public land and property Stealing Oppression of the poor e.g. underpayment Immorality e.g. prostitution <br><br>PROPHET JEREMIAH Q1. List evils that Jeremiah condemned Human sacrifice Hypocrisy in worship Dishonesty in business Defilement of the temple temple prostitution Social injustice Idolatry False prophecy Necromancy Exploitation of the poor Q2. What are some of the evils that the church leaders condemn today? Hypocrisy/pretence in worship Murder/suicide/abortion/genocide Exploitation of the poor/robbery Dishonesty False prophets Human sacrifices among devil worshippers Sexual immorality e.g. adultery Q3. Explain the symbolisms used during the call of Prophet Jeremiah <br><br>God touched Jeremiahs mouth. This was to symbolize that God was the <br><br>source of the message. Jeremiah was to deliver. <br><br>A branch of an almond tree that was base God was watching to see the <br><br>fulfillment of the message he gave to Jeremiah. <br><br>A pot of boiling facing away from the North and about to tilt toward <br><br>Judah. God would use a nation from the North to bring judgement on the people of Judah because of their wickedness. <br><br>A fortified city. A bronze wall and an iron pillar. God was going to <br><br>protect him even though he was going to meet opposition. <br><br>To uproot and pull down, to destroy and overthrow. God would pass <br><br>judgement on the nation of Judah and other nations. <br><br>To build and to plant. There was still hope of the restoration of people <br><br>of Judah after exile. Q4. What did Jeremiah teach about t the New Covenant? The new covenant was to be written in peoples hearts. The covenant was to be made between God and the remnant community Each individual was responsible for his won sins. The new covenant was to be initiated by God. The new covenant was to last forever. It was as a result in the emergence of a new people of God or new <br><br>Israel. Q5. Why did Prophet Jeremiah condemn the way the Israelites worshipped? <br><br>They broke Gods commands e.g. the 1st and do not worship other gods <br><br> they worshipped idols. <br><br>They practiced hypocrisy i.e. they were concerned with external <br><br>religious observance while their hearts were far from God. <br><br>They forgot the saving history of God and worshipped other gods e.g. <br><br>Asherah. <br><br>They practiced syncretism i.e. they worshipped both Yahweh and <br><br>foreign Gods. <br><br>They listened to false prophets and rejected Gods prophets e.g. <br><br>Jeremiah. They even killed some. <br><br>They dishonored the sanctity of human life by offering human sacrifice. They neglected the disadvantaged (widows & orphans). They were dishonest in business and deceitful to one another. They narrowed themselves in necromancy, divination and magic. They rebelled against God by breaking the covenant relationship. Q6. Explain Jeremiahs temple sermon as recorded in Jeremiah 7:1-15 God commanded prophet Jeremiah to speak in the temple. It was a response to the people of Israel to stop understanding religion <br><br>through the practice of syncretism and immorality. <br><br>At the gate to the temple, Jeremiah proclaimed that the people of Judah <br><br>had to change their way of life and stick to the covenant they made with God. <br><br>They had to stop defiling the temple of placing idols in it. They had to stop committing social injustices and as <br><br>murderer/exploitation of the weak, orphans widows and foreigners. <br><br>The practice of human sacrifice was murder and displeasing to God. Hypocrisy was bad. The Israelites believed that the temple was secure from destruction <br><br>because of its holiness was not true. <br><br>God would destroy Israelites/Jerusalem through invasion of a foreign <br><br>nation. <br><br>If the people stopped their evil ways, God would not bring judgement <br><br>upon them. <br><br>God would destroy the temple of Jerusalem and send the people to <br><br>exile. Q7. What forms of punishment did Jeremiah prophesy that God would use on Judah? <br><br>The punishment would be in form of a foreign body that God use to <br><br>conquer Judah. <br><br>They would be attacked and their city destroyed. People would suffer and die due to their sins. The punishment would in form of drought. This would affect people <br><br>and animals. <br><br>Gods punishment would come through death, diseases and sword. Their punishment would be a defeat inflicted to them by Babylonian. The punishment would be the loss of their land to a foreign nation and Q8. Outline the content of Jeremiahs letter to exiles in Babylon (Jer. 29) <br><br>He encouraged the Israelites in Babylon to build houses and live in <br><br>them. <br><br>Plant gardens and eat their produce. Marry and increase. Pray for their rulers. Not to worship false gods. Not to be cheated by false prophets. To obey their masters. Worship one God. <br><br>Q9. Explain four symbolic acts related to judgement and punishment as demonstrated by Prophet Jeremiah <br><br>Linen waist cloth the rotten/useless linen cloth that had been hidden in <br><br>the caves and lift to rot stood for Israels state of being useless before the eyes of God. A sign that they had soiled their priesthood. <br><br>Jeremiah was asked not to marry the solitary life symbolized solitude in <br><br>exile. <br><br>Two baskets of fig fruits the bad fruits signified that the bad people <br><br>would be punished. <br><br>Wooden yoke he was asked to carry a wooden yoke and work around <br><br>with it signifying suffering in Babylon exile. <br><br>Breaking an earthly flask destruction of the temple. Visit to a potter whereby the potter destroyed a pot due to poor shape Not to comfort anybody these would be sorrow and suffering, no help <br><br>while in exile. Q10. Identify the relevance of Jeremiahs teaching to Christians life today <br><br>Christians are called to preach Gods gospel as Jeremiah did. Christians should accept suffering like Jeremiah did. They should learn to distinguish between false and true prophets. Like Jeremiah, they should condemn evil in society. They have a duty to call people to repentance as Jeremiah did. Christians should be good examples to the people by living, holy and <br><br>upright lives as Jeremiah did. <br><br>People should be able to know the nature of God through the lives of <br><br>Christians. <br><br>They should believe they are the new community as prophesied by <br><br>Jeremiah in the new covenant. Q11. In what ways is the prophetic mission of Jeremiah similar to that of Jesus? <br><br>Both were rejected by their own relatives and communities. Both experienced opposition from political and religious authorities. Both prophesied the destruction of the temple. Both lamented over the stubbornness of the people of Jerusalem. Both predicted divine judgement and punishment in Israel. Jeremiah predicted the new covenant that is fulfilled by Jesus. Prophet Nehemiah Qn 1. Describe the political background of Nehemiah He worked during the Babylonian exile which lasted between 589- 538 <br><br>BC <br><br>During his vacation, Israelites were oppressed politically The Israelites hoped that God would soon liberate them fro this bondage In 538 BC the Babylonians were conquered by Cyrus the great king of <br><br>Persia In 538 BC king Cyrus allowed Israelites to return to Judah King Cyrus gave the Israelites a decree to rebuild the temple of <br><br>Jerusalem <br><br>In 538BC the first exile under Zebu Babel Joshua the priest departed from Babylon and started to rebuild alters of <br><br>God <br><br>Under the guidance of prophets Haggai and Zachariah the temple was <br><br>rebuilt and dedicated <br><br>The second exile arrived under prophet Ezra; after king Artaxerxes <br><br>authorized Ezra to re establish Israelites religious and moral expectations of the Mosaic Law. Nehemiah was a servant the king Artaxerxes palace. The king <br><br>authorized him to go and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem <br><br>Amidst all opposition from Samaritan, Nehemiah accomplished the <br><br>reconstruction of the walls of Jerusalem in 52 days. He then dedicated the walls to God. <br><br>This restored the sense of political pride in Israel. However the <br><br>Israelites remained subjected to the Persians and continued to pay tribute. The Persians were later overthrown by Romans who ruled the entire region until the time of the birth of Jesus Qn 2. Describe the social background to the vacation of Nehemiah <br><br>Israelites men married foreign women Children spoke different languages from their mothers Hebrew language almost became extinct Nehemiah condemned mixed marriages and even banned them Exiles who returned home were humiliated by foreigners who partially The Samaritans threatened Nehemiahs life as the rebuilt walls of <br><br>Jerusalem <br><br>Rich Jews oppressed the poor e.g. they would confiscate their property <br><br>for failure to repay debts Qn 3. Describe the religious background to the vocation of Nehemiah <br><br>While in exile the Babylonians allowed the Jews to continue with their <br><br>religious lives <br><br>The exiles became the period of purification They returned with a new zeal to worship God; they rebuilt the altar <br><br>under Zerubbabel for offering burnt offerings to God <br><br>The returnees built the temple of Jerusalem under Haggai and Zachariah <br><br>and dedicated to god by Ezra <br><br>Nehemiah embarked on rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem amidst <br><br>opposition in 52 days the wall was complete. Consequently, Jerusalem once more became the centre of worship for Israel. Idolatry was not allowed again in Israel after the exile. <br><br>The temple of Jerusalem was dedicated to Yahweh. The Israelites <br><br>renewed their covenant with God under prophet and priest Ezra. Nehemiah carried out various religious reforms Qn 4. Describe occasions when Nehemiah prayed <br><br>When he heard about the suffering of his fellow Jews back in Judah When he learned about the state of ruin of Jerusalem and king Atarterxes to request him to allow him go back to Judah <br><br>When his enemies e.g. Tobiah and Samballat ridiculed him as he <br><br>reconstructed the walls of Jerusalem <br><br>When he learned of his enemies conspiracy to attack Jerusalem When his enemies conspired to destroy his life/ kill him When Shemiah attempted to frighten him to hide in the temple as hi life <br><br>was in danger <br><br>When he cleansed and arranged the temple as a house of God When he warned the people of Judah against violating the Sabbath law After chasing away the son in law of Samballat from the temple After cleansing the Israelites of foreign influence <br><br>Qn 5. State occasions when Christians pray <br><br>When they are faced with diverse persecutions. They ask God to protect <br><br>them <br><br>When they dont understand certain scriptures. They ask God to give <br><br>them revelation <br><br>When they are faced with certain difficulties of life. They ask God to <br><br>help them <br><br>When the nation is facing political crisis. They pray for peace When they feel inadequate and sinful. They ask God to perform certain <br><br>miracles for them e.g. healing Qn 6. What is the importance of prayer in Christian life? <br><br>Prayer helps Christians to praise God, give thanks to him and to repent It helps Christians to pour out their hearts to God It helps Christians to rely to God for emotional and mental stability. It <br><br>helps put our problems to God <br><br>It strengthens Christians. It gives them determination and character to remain steadfast in their responsibilities despite the challenges <br><br>Through prayer a Christian can request to stand against personal attacks <br><br>and temptations <br><br>Prayer is the source of courage and strength in times of tribulations It brings one closer to God, we use it to praise God, use it to ask for <br><br>Gods supply of their needs, used to ask for forgiveness and promotes important virtues e.g. persistence and patience and promotes unity among different communities Qn 6. Identify the leadership of Nehemiahs patriotism <br><br>He was a tune patriot i.e. after talking to the Jews and getting the news <br><br>of distribution of Jerusalem, he was forced to go back home. <br><br>Reliance to God. He totally relied on God and to his call i.e. in most <br><br>cases he prayed before carrying out an activity <br><br>Devoted/ talented. As a cupbearer to the emperor he was an educated, <br><br>talented and trustworthy young man <br><br>Visionary. He had a vision and he shared it with enthusiasm to inspire <br><br>Jerusalem leaders to rebuild the wall <br><br>Initiative. He took the initiative to persuade the emperor to put things right Exceller organizer. He carefully organized the rebuilding process. He <br><br>organized how the wall of Jerusalem was to be built in steps <br><br>Careful planner. He carefully examined and inspected the wall before <br><br>starting the work <br><br>Peoples representative. He was a proper representative of his people in <br><br>Israel. he had a sense of responsibility to his community <br><br>Shrewd. He avoided the meetings organized by his opposer and Selfless and kind. He had the skill of solving problems. He hence <br><br>cancelled all debts that people had <br><br>Homogenous. He employed different strategies to counteract his <br><br>opposer Qn7. explain the relevance of Nehemiahs leadership to a Christian today <br><br>A Christian should use his/her present position to serve God Christians should acknowledge God as their source of power and giver <br><br>of gifts <br><br>A leader should appoint people who are trustworthy and honest to help <br><br>him/ her in ruling the country <br><br>God answers our prayers as a result of asking others for help A Christian leader should keep his /her plans a secret until it matures to <br><br>make an announcement <br><br>Christians should share their visions with others the way Nehemiah did Leaders should take care of the needy in the society As a Christian one could be lured to temptations; the way Nehemiah <br><br>was opposed we should be ready to resist temptations <br><br>Christians should be ready to help in solving problems in the society <br><br>Christians should act as role models by carrying out spiritual activities with the truth and helping in work after starting projects. Qn 8. Explain the relevance of Nehemiahs experience to Christians <br><br>They should not exploit the needy and disadvantaged They should defend the rights of the weak and use their work place, The should condemn the injustices in the society They should know that leadership involves challenges and difficulties They should be practically involved in problem solving e.g. HIV/AIDs <br><br>scourge Qn 9. Explain the problems that Nehemiah encountered in his vocation Oppression of the poor Jews by the rich Jews e.g. demanded high <br><br>interests on borrowed money <br><br>Great opposition from the enemies they tried to frustrate his/her efforts <br><br>to build the walls of Jerusalem <br><br>Threat to his own life. His adversaries wanted to kill him Lack of co-operation and support from the Jews. They refused to work <br><br>with him on the wall project <br><br>Excessive foreign influence in Israel. Intermarriage brought about <br><br>foreign influence which threatened to extinct the Jew culture and language <br><br>Violation of the Sabbath laws. Israelites went on to do their daily chores <br><br>on the Sabbath day <br><br>Abuse of the temple. Eliaship housed Tobias the heathen and Gods <br><br>enemies <br><br>Misuse of offerings. The levies were denied their share of sacrificial <br><br>offerings as required by the law Qn 10. Describe the steps taken by Nehemiah to renew the covenant <br><br>Ezra the priest read the book of the covenant and explained the meaning celebrating the feast of shelters. This was to remember their deliverance from Egypt. They were also to think about Gods protection and guidance <br><br>The Israelites confessed of their sins as they learnt that they had not <br><br>been following Gods commandments. Nehemiah was devoted to confession of national sin and prayers to Gods grace <br><br>Recital of Gods dealings with Israel. They recital of Gods mighty acts <br><br>is done in this. They remembered their history and this renewed Gods grace and power in them <br><br>A renewed covenant sealed. The covenant was renewed in writing and <br><br>the leaders put seals <br><br>The binding agreement that people and God was done by the Israelites <br><br>joining hands Qn 11. State the promises that Israelites made during the renewal of the covenant <br><br>That every seventh year, they would cancel debts according to the <br><br>Mosaic Laws <br><br>That they should observe Gods commandments and live according to <br><br>his laws <br><br>That they would offer the first of their harvests as required by Torah That they would dedicate their first-born sons to God That they will not intermarry with foreigners at all That they will not buy corn or anything else on the Sabbath day That they will remit their arrival temple expenses to ensure that Gods 1. Read and study the book of Luke by 2. Dividing up the chapters in the book of Luke among the members of the class and let every group present a summary of the chapters allocated to them. 3. Check out movies about the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ but note that your study according to the syllabus is based on St. Lukes gospel. FORM FOUR CONTEMPORARY CHRISTIAN LIVING Form four work deals with social issues in society. We shall compare the issues in the following communities The Traditional African Society Christian community and the contemporary one. By the end of it the student should be able to understand the meaning of life and live to its fullest. TOPIC ONE. INTRODUCTION TO CHRISTIAN ETHICS Instructions. Form four work covers contemporary issues in a Christians life. You are advised to read newspapers, listen to radio news, watch television news and current affairs and any other relevant news source. Work in twos. Give yourself topics to study and then give a presentation to your partner or colearner. Learning outcomes. After reading and discussing Christian ethics, you should be able to: a. Explain the meaning of Christians ethics b. Explore the basics of Christians ethics a. Christian ethics. The word ethics comes from a Greek term Ethikos which means custom, or conduct. Ethics are moral principles, which influence a persons behaviour. Ethics are defined as the systematic study of human actions and behaviour. We use ethics to judge, determine and assess the right and wrong of human behaviour. Morals refer to human character, which is the inclination to behave in oneway or another. Ethics is the study of morals and they determine and influence personal and societal behaviour. Christian ethics is the study of human conduct or behaviour from a Christian point of view. b. Basis of Christian ethics. Sources of Christians ethics: - 1. The bible, teachings of Jesus Christ 2. Human reason and experience 3. Natural law 4. The Christian community the church 5. Situation ethics 6. Authoritative Christian literature based on the bible 7. Gods revelation through prophets i. Human reason. These are internal thoughts that guide us when we are making decisions and taking actions. We use our minds and thoughts when confronted by situations. They also rely on internal thoughts in their life experiences. Internal guiding thoughts have many parts. One is our Conscience. This is our inner self that tells us and lets us know what is right and wrong. There are four types of consciences; doubtful conscience, sensitive conscience, certain conscience and perplexed conscience. For a Christian, rights and wrongs are in the Bible. God gave the Law of Moses to Israelites. Jesus came and explained the Old Testament and taught new scriptures in the New Testament. These teachings, which we have covered from Form one to three, explain very clearly what is right and wrong. When doubtful of the morality of an action, Christian consults the Bible to know if a decision is right or wrong. ii. Human Experiences: these are internal and external guides <br><br>When confronted by situations, Christians use their minds i.e. human <br><br>reason and their life experiences in making decisions. <br><br>They rely on internal guides, (Human reason) and experience (external <br><br>guides) Internal guides (i) Conscience: Mind, aspect of knowing right or wrong. When right, theres approval when wrong it registers guilt. When doubtful of the morality of an action we should not do it If conscience is perplexed then make us decision. A decision should be based on a certain conscience. Types of conscience - Doubtful conscience - Sensitive conscience - Certain conscience - Perplexed conscience 2. One can also make decisions based on knowledge and free will To make a decision one should have - Facts about the act, its aims, circumstances. - One should be free to perform A decision ought to be thoughtful 3. Intuition: inner feeling, insight Its an internal moral sense to do good or avoid evil. Intuition is important in situations that require quick and immediate that requires quick and immediate action. 4. Feelings Feelings are subjective e.g. it feels good to do so this, hence will do it can be dangerous to make decisions purely based on feelings especially in marriage friendship etc. Eternal guides Experience Guides here include authoritative persons such as parents, teachers, police, civil leaders philosophers, and religious leaders. Rules from secular, religions, and African traditional culture are part of external guides. The bible The bible, quoted in the text but now out of text guides Christian behaviour. God communicates to his people through the Bible. The Bible offers answers to questions in relation to the life of a Christian. Today, there are ethical issues not found in the bible e.g. HIV / AIDS, sexual and reproductive health rights, contraceptives, abortion, globalization, cloning, environmental degradation, genetically modified foods, terrorism, international trade etc. this gives reason and other sources / factors are basis of Christian ethics in addition to the bible. Moral principles in the bible - They are mostly found in the teachings of Jesus and the ten commandments, sermon on the mountain - Christians are also encouraged to have Faith - The virtues encouraged include generosity, love, kindness, faithfulness, patience, humility, peace, mercy, loyalty etc. Christian community church Church leadership can make decisions, which touch on their followers. They guide people on ethical issues e.g. politics, land, justice, abortion, contraception etc. Church organizations give rules on those conduct of their members. Natural law - The awareness that one has to choose good and avoid evil - If one studies human nature and reflects upon it he/she will discover natural laws of human behaviour - Natural law, natural rights such as right to education, life own property many etc. are incorporated into the constitution of any nation. - The constitution then guides the behaviour of list citizens; Christians being citizens of a country are guided in their behaviour by the constitution. Situation ethics One should reason out the rightness or wrongness of an act. The rightness or wrongness of an act depends on its uniqueness, the circumstances - Christians are warned against making decisions based on circumstances or the situation e.g. a pregnant student seeking abortion as the option so as to continue with education. Gods revelation God reveals himself to people through prophets, natural events, the law, dreams and visions. Through such ways God guides Christian on how they should approach certain issues. Gods revelation does not contradict with the bible. Revision questions 1. What is the meaning of Christian ethics? 2. What is the basis or source or foundation of Christian ethics? 3. List the basic life skills that one needs to be able to lead a better life TOPIC TWO: CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO HUMAN SEXUALITY, MARRIAGE AND FAMILY INTRODUCTION Christian approaches refer to how Christians view and handle issues of human sexuality, marriage and the family in accordance with Christians ethics. Through marriage, the family is formed. LESSON ONE: HUMAN SEXUALITY Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: a Define human sexuality, marriage, and family b Explain the Christian teaching of human sexuality c Assess the traditional African understanding of human sexuality d Determine gender roles in traditional African home e Explain Christians teachings about male and female relationships f Explain and appreciate Christian teaching on responsible sexual behaviour g Explain Christian teaching on irresponsible sexual behaviour and their consequences a. Human sexuality. This is a sacred gift from God. It was given to Adam and Eve. Human sexuality is that which makes us male or female. It is our biological or physiological differences associated with the state of being male or female. It is part of our biological make up. Males and female have different body structures, features, appearances and biological characteristics. In terms of physical strength more men are stronger than females. Besides the biological make up, we have an emotional side, which includes our attitudes, and feelings. Females are said to be more emotional, and talkative than males. Human sexuality is also in our brain and mind and it is what makes us human beings. If you look at animals they also have different physiological features based on sexual differences. b. Christian teaching on human sexuality. Males and females are Gods creation. Men and women were created for many reasons. These are (1) to be fruitful and to multiply; and (2) for companionship. In Genesis we learn that men and women share the image of God because God intended man and woman to play complementary roles and both are equal before God. Sex in marriage is a sign of love and it is sacred. In marriage man / and woman become one flesh. Both of them have the ability to control their sexual desires. Christian teaching forbids: sex before marriage, adultery or unfaithfulness, and other unnatural sexual behaviours like lesbianism, homosexuality or being gay, and incest. God created human body and it is to be kept holy. Chastity is encouraged while unfaithfulness in marriage is discouraged. Husbands / wives are to respect one another and give to each other in mutual love. c. Traditional African understanding of human sexuality. Human sexuality is highly valued in traditional African communities. It is understood in terms of marriage and parenthood. Procreation was the sole purpose of sex. Sex was to be practiced in marriage and it was regarded as another sacred duty. Adultery was discouraged and offenders punished. Irresponsible sexual relationships were forbidden. Virginity before marriage was highly valued. If a girl lost her virginity before marriage, she was treated with scorn and punishment. If a boy impregnating a girl, he was fined. In traditional African society it was a taboo to discuss openly sex matters. Grandparents taught sex education to their grandchildren. Sex education was taught during initiation stages. Free mixing of girls and boys was not allowed except under supervision. Girls were married off immediately after initiation to avoid temptation of engaging in pre-marital sex. To reinforce self discipline in relationships between the opposite sexes the African traditional society instilled the fear of supernatural curses through myths, taboos and rules. Marital status. Husbands and wives were expected to relate to each other, their parents, and in laws according to the community customs. Conflicts between a husband and a wife were resolved through intervention of relatives. d. Gender roles. There are specific chores and duties for either male or female in African traditional societies. Roles were therefore according to gender. Boys went hunting, herding, while girls fetched firewood, and helped in cooking. At an early age, girls and boys would mix freely as they played together. Mature boys and girls however, were restricted from mixing freely without supervision by elders. But there was gender identification. The boys identified with their fathers and other male adults, while girls identified themselves with their mother and other female adults. Education. Children belonged to the community and not just to their biological parents. At the adolescent stage; 13 18 years education was given to the adolescents and intensified at initiation stage. Boys and girls were taught traditional rules, and secrets of the society during initiation. Learning was informal. Knowledge was communicated through songs, stories and riddles among other forms of presentations. All adults acted as parents to the young ones. Socialisation. Men were socialized to be superior, while women were socialized to accept their subordinate position and role. Everyone knew and accepted what he/she was culturally supposed to do. Division of labour was based on sex. In the African communities, despite their differences, there were many common customary roles, rules, regulations, taboos and beliefs that governed the practices related to male female relationships from early childhood to old age. These traditional African practices relating to male female relationships existed at various levels. In all of them, man held superior positions when compared to those of women. Age. Old women and men were accorded respect. They were consulted for advice and counsel. Kinship system was emphasized. e. Christian teaching on male- female relationships. We learn that the husband is the head of the house and should love his wife like Christ loved the church. Once a wife is loved, she should submit to her husband. We also learn that both male and female are equal and co creators with God. Adam and Eve were created to complement each other. Likewise men and women should love each other. Jesus taught that each man should have one wife and vice versa. Once married, the husbands body belongs to the wife and hers belong to him. If that is the case, wife and husband should avoid immorality. Males and females are to relate freely. But the youth are to avoid the passions of youth. These are sexual sins. There are no specific chores or duties for either male or female. Relationship between sexes should be governed by love, chastity, respect, self-control, and self- discipline. Parents are to love their children, while children are to obey and honor their parents. Parents are asked to bring up their children in a Godly way. LESSON TWO. CHRISTIAN TEACHING ABOUT HUMAN SEXUALITY Lesson Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a. Outline Christian teaching on responsible sexual behaviour b. Analyse Christian teaching on irresponsible sexual behaviour c. Discuss effects and consequences of irresponsible sexual behaviour d. Give examples of the effects of irresponsible sexual behaviour Sexual behaviour is part of human behaviour. The Bible gives principles of sexual behaviour in the Ten Commandments. a. Christian teaching on responsible human sexuality. Christianity teaches us about responsible sexual behaviour. Being responsible means that one is exercising self control or self-discipline in matters of sexual behaviour. Self-discipline is necessary when we have a relationship with the opposite sex (Read, 1 Cor.7: 9 1 Peter 5:8). It is called responsible sexual behaviour, which is obedience to Gods commands. Christians promote healthy social relationship between boys and girls, men and women, and husbands and wives. Responsible sex is between male and female. Sexual intercourse is allowed only between married couples (1 Cor.7: 3 5). Married couples are obliged to be sexually faithful to one another (Heb.13: 4) adultery is condemned (exodus 25:14). Relationship between a husband / wife should be one of respect faithfulness, love, care, mercy, submission, tolerance, and forgiveness b. Christian teaching on irresponsible sexual behaviour. There are many irresponsible sexual behaviours. They include among others all acts and forms of: perversion, misuse, and abuse of sex, incest, rape, fornication, adultery, homosexuality, lesbianism or gay, prostitution, concubine, masturbation, bestiality and child marriages among others. These irresponsible sexual behaviours are against Gods will for humanity. Christians are to shun irresponsible sexual behaviour. This is because their bodies are the temples of the Holy Spirit. Thus whatever Christians do with their bodies, it should be for the glory of God. Let us now discuss in brief some of the irresponsible sexual behaviour; beginning with (i) Incest, which is a sexual relationship between people who are closely related by blood. For example, sex between a brother/sister, father / daughter. Incest is condemned in the Bible. It was punishable by death in the Old Testament. Read Leviticus 18:6 8. ii) Rape. Rape cannot be justified and it is condemned in The Bible. Rape is an act of forcing another person to have sexual intercourse without his or her consent. It is sexual violence and a crime against humanity. It is also a denial, and a violation of human rights of the victims who are sexually assaulted. Victims of rape include boys, men, girls, women, and babies especially girls. Rape is an expression of hatred toward the opposite sex. In traditional African society rape was abhorred and culprits were punished by death. In Kenya rape is punishable by 20 years imprisonment. Indecent assaults or sexual abuses such as touching a person of the opposite sex without their permission or use of vulgar language are both punishable by up to 5 years imprisonment. iii. Fornication. This is consensual sexual intercourse between unmarried people. It is condemned by both African and Christian teachings and punishment in African traditional society was by either payment of fines, stoning, and ritual cleansing. In the Old Testament, men were forced to marry the girl. Jesus said that fornication was due to peoples evil thoughts. Abstinence for the youth is encouraged and preached. Why do the youth engage in pre marital sex? There are several reasons. Some of them are: sexual curiosity, proving manhood, human weakness, lack of self control, testing fertility, fear of being jilted / rejected; commercial sex for money; copying acts in the print and electronic media. Others reasons are frustrations, drug abuse, bribe to get a job, and permissiveness in the society. iv. Adultery is committed by adults who have extra marital affairs; between married partner and another party. Adultery is having sex outside marriage with a person with whom one is not married to. Adultery is caused by lack of self control, sexual dissatisfaction, long periods of wife and husband separation, sexual dysfunction and vengeance by an initially faithful spouse who wants to be even with the unfaithful spouse. v. Prostitution. This is the practice of giving sexual pleasure for money or other material benefits. A prostitute can either be male or female. Prostitutes are referred to as commercial sex workers. Why is there prostitution? There are factors leading to prostitution. These are economic reasons such as unemployment, poverty, rejection of a girl at home, drug abuse, stress, anger, anxiety, frustrations in the family and pornography. The church condemns prostitution because it defiles the body, which is a temple of the Holy Spirit. Its sexual immorality. Read Gal 5: 19 21. vi. Homosexuality/ Gay/ Lesbianism. This is sex between people of the same sex for example; man and man (homosexuality), woman and woman (lesbianism). Homosexuality is a common practice in modern world. It is also a church problem. The Anglican Church in USA, and Canada have accepted homosexuality. The Anglican Church has gay bishops. African Anglican churches are opposing this practice. What makes people prefer sex with the same sex? The Christian view is that homosexuality is a sign of a lack of Christian moral values. It may also be due to confinement in a prison and permissiveness in society. If it is allowed to continue, it shall disintegrate traditional African values. Because of its threat to Gods people, the Church condemns homosexuality. Other reasons for condemning it is because (1) God created a male and a female. Read, Genesis 1:28. Two, sex is sacred. Homosexuality is an unnatural relationship, which lowers human dignity. It does not provide sexual fulfillment (as traditionally). Homosexuality is illegal in Kenya. vii. Sexually transmitted Diseases (STDs). There are many diseases passed from one person to the other through sex. These are gonorrhea, syphilis, herpes genitalis is, hepatitis B, clamydia, trichonomiasis, HIV/AIDS. Lets discuss them one by one. HIV / AIDS. This is human immune deficiency virus (HIV) that causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) condition. Syndrome refers to many symptoms. HIV is transmitted largely through sex with an infected partner; through blood transfusion; sharing sharp objects with infected persons; and from an infected mother to the unborn child. The HIV virus destroys the white blood cells, and weakens the body s immune system. When the body is weak, it is not able to fight, and defend itself against infections. Persons with the virus are vulnerable and susceptible to opportunistic infections. The signs / symptoms of AIDS are manifestations of symptoms of the opportunistic infections. Some symptoms include persistent coughs, loss of weight, oral thrush, loss of appetite, and diarrhoea. Churches encourage Christians to be compassionate to HIV/AIDS affected people, and to support the infected and the affected individuals like the orphans, widows, and widowers. It also teaches against sexual immorality and against all forms of discrimination. Gonorrhea is caused by a bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhea. Its symptoms appear a4 days after infection. Its symptoms are burning sensation when passing urine; pain or discomfort in the genitals; sticky discharge or pus in the vagina or through the urethra. The good news is that Gonorrhea is curable if treated early. Syphilis. Primary syphilis may show up in the form of a sore or a wound in the genitals a few days after infection. The wound heals by itself without treatment after some time. Syphilis infection may take several years about 7 years before its symptoms re appear. The symptoms of syphilis are a painless sore or pimple on the mans penis or womans vulva; and swelling of the glands in the groin. Other symptoms, which may appear later, are skin rashes, and sores either in the face armpits, under breasts, mouth or throat. Herpes genital is a sexual disease caused by a virus. It creates wounds in the genitals. A pregnant woman can transmit the infection to her newborn baby during delivery. This disease can be controlled although there is not an effective treatment. Hepatitis B virus causes Hepatitis B. It is transmitted through sex, injections by unsterilized needles and contact with contaminated blood. The infection does not show on the genitals. The signs and symptoms of Hepatitis B include yellowness of the eyes (jaundice) due to liver damage and pain around the upper abdomen. c. The effects of irresponsible sexual behaviour. There are many effects of irresponsible sexual behaviour. They include among others HIV / AIDS, sexually transmitted infections (STI), abortion; family separations and divorces, deaths, unplanned pregnancies; children living in the streets; school drop outs and psychological problems. i. Effects of incest. These are many. One, incest undermines the healthy relationships between members of a family as it brings shame and guilt among the parties involved. Two, incest destroys relationships within the family and can lead to breaking up of a marriage. Three, incest destroys self-esteem, self respect, and dignity of the victim. We find that abused boys and girls end up having problems when trying to establish healthy relationship with members of the opposite sex. Four, incest can lead to pregnancy, and abortion. And as you have read in the newspapers, it can lead to infections with sexually transmitted diseases (S.T.I.s) and HIV / AIDS. As I write, a father was jailed for life for raping his daughter and infecting her with HIV/AIDS virus. ii. Effects of Rape. This crime has very serious consequences and harmful effects on the victim. Rape may result in pregnancy and can led to physical, psychological, social, and spiritual side effects. The victim may suffer (1) serious physical injuries and (2) may contract both the STIs, and HIV / AIDs. The victim is traumatized, and ashamed of self. The victim suffers from guilt, loneliness, humiliation, posttraumatic stress disorders, and depression among others psychological manifestations. Young rape victims in particular may loose trust in the opposite sex. All these sufferings can lead to suicide and death. iii. Effects of Fornication. Some of these are having children out of wedlock; feelings of distrust, guilt, and hurt; contracting STIs and HIV/AIDS; loss of self-respect; early and forced marriage and abortion. iv. Effects of Adultery. Christians teach against adultery because it is against Gods commandments and can lead to divorce, abortion, STI, HIV/AIDS, domestic violence, murder (death) and psychological problems. v. Effects of Prostitution are many. It can lead to break up of marriage, and family. It lowers a persons dignity and can lead to unplanned pregnancies, school dropouts; infections such as STIs and HIV /AIDS and improper use of family resources. vi. Effects of homosexuality. It is a threat to procreation. It promotes loose short-term informal relationships and therefore promotes HIV / AIDS. Homosexual couples are prone to HIV/AIDS infections because of having many partners; although this is changing in USA where homosexual couples are being married in churches. vii. Effects of Sexually transmitted diseases HIV / AIDS effects are numerous. They include recurrent illness due to opportunistic infections. There is also stigmatization. Some individuals have feelings of guilt, anger, denial and depression. The sick persons have to look for extra finances to care for their health. They have the burden for medications, and special diet. HIV/AIDs has no cure and leads to death like many other diseases. Parents die and leave their children as orphans. Gonorrhea effects are many. The disease damages a womans fallopian tubes leading to infertility; and a mans epidydymis leading to sterility. An infected expectant mother can infect her newborn baby with gonorrhea. The disease may affect the eyes of the unborn child causing blindness. Gonorrhea can also cause inflammation of joints, the heart and liver. Effects of Syphilis are damage to the heart, brain and the nervous system. This disease can lead to madness and death of the victim. If a child is infected while in the womb, or during birth, the brain maybe damaged. The child may have either physical deformities or the infected mother may give stillbirths. Effects Herpes genitals. Infection can cause severe brain damage; cancer of the neck of the womb. If a woman is pregnant, the disease can cause death of the baby. The wounds and sores exposes the sick person to HIV /AIDS infections. Effects of Hepatitis B. This disease damages the liver and may lead to death of the infected person. It has a vaccine, but not treatment. viii. Other consequences of irresponsible sexual behaviours These are death, unplanned pregnancies, children living in the streets, school dropouts and psychological problems related to irresponsible sexual behaviour. These include among others: stress, depression, self pity, withdrawal, aggressiveness, and violence. Stress is the response of the body and mind to any situation that exerts pressure or makes demands on a person. The intensity or pressure experienced determines the level of stress. Some of the signs of stress are: anxiety, worry, drop in performance, chest pains, mood swings, rebellion, ulcers, heart palpitations, fatigue and guilt feelings. Solutions. To avoid stress, it is suggested that individuals should accept that one is stressed; identify sources of stress, rest, exercise, listening to therapeutic music and talk to a counselor. Depression. This is an acute mental disorder. It is also a state of hopelessness and low spirits. Depression can be mild or severe. It has physical, emotional and behavioural signs and symptoms. Let me caution you that it is only a medical doctor who can know if one has a depression or not. We are told by doctors that signs of a depression are: persistent headaches and chest pains; loss of appetite; too much appetite; loss of memory; insomnia i.e. lack of sleep; weight loss or gain; nervousness and mood swings; low self-confidence; suicidal tendencies and self-pity. Other signs and symptoms are loss of libido (sexual desire); poor performance in school and in work places; hopelessness; loss of interest in ones activities; hypertension and high blood pressure d. Irresponsible social and human behaviour. There are social and human behaviours that are contrary to Christian life. These unacceptable behaviours are abortion, and divorce. Abortion is termination of pregnancy before the foetus is capable of independent life. There are two types of abortions. One is spontaneous abortion or miscarriage. The other is induced abortion, which is deliberate and illegal in Kenya. Induced abortion has been debated in Kenya. The main question is should abortion be legalized or not. This is because abortion is legal in some European countries. Why do mothers seeking abortion? There are many reasons, which are known only to mothers. These are one, pregnancy due to rape and incest. Two, if the mother believes that the unborn child will be a burden. This may be because the baby is conceived outside wedlock and the mother lacks economic resources to take care of the baby. Another reason maybe that the mother is in school, and she cannot look after the baby and continue with her education. Three, medical personnel may abort a deformed foetus or in order to save the life of the mother if it is in danger. Christians view of abortion as murder (Exodus20: 13). This is because abortion interferes with the mothers body, and destroys the baby. Christian view is that the body is the temple of the Holy Spirit. God is the giver of life and He alone has the right to take it away. Abortion carries with it stigma and the effects mentioned above make Christians condemn abortion. e. Effects of irresponsible social and human behaviour. Effects of abortion are infertility, ectopic pregnancy, destruction of a womans body parts; fetal malformation; risk of the mother bleeding to death and destruction of uterus. Other effects are that the mother may experience in future still births, miscarriages, risk of barrenness; failed abortions leading to deformed babies and psychological problems that we have discussed. These are stress and depression. Revision questions. 1. Explain the T.A. understanding of human sexuality 2. Explain Christian attitudes towards human sexuality 3. In what ways is sex abused in Kenya? 4. Why do you think minors are defiled or sexually abused in Kenya? 5. Explain the Christian teaching on male/female relationships 6. What is the Christian teaching on responsible sexual behaviour? 7. List the different types of irresponsible sexual behaviour 8. Explain the Christian teaching on irresponsible sexual behaviour 9. State the effects of irresponsible sexual behaviour LESSON THREE: MARRIAGE Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to; a. Explain in brief the meaning of marriage b. Explain Christian teachings about marriage c. Describe courtship in African Traditional society d. Discuss the traditional African and Christian approaches to marriage preparation e. Explain celibacy as an alternative to marriage a. Definition of marriage. Marriage is a binding legal union between a man and a woman who agree to have a lasting relationship as husband / wife. Marriage partners choose each other. In some cases, senior member of the family and church influence the choice of a marriage partner. When marrying partners agree to marry, they are joined in church and they become husband and wife. Marriage is thus a covenant in which the partners give themselves to one another. Marriage involves other members of the community hence it is a social and community affair. Marriage is a permanent union. Marriage is a community requirement in which everyone in the community participates. Each person is expected to undergo marriage because it is a rite of passage. Marriage gives a person, a high social status and prestige in the community. Marriage is also a covenant between a man and a woman that should not be broken. Two people are joined in marriage in order to procreate and perpetuate the community. Once married, a couple is allowed to have sexual relationship, and companionship. Marriage is an expression of and fulfillment of mutual love and comfort. It enhance unity; social prestige, and respect in society. Purpose of marriage is sexual fulfillment; cultural and social requirement; obligation to build a family; and procreation although children are a gift from God. Forms of marriages There are many forms of marriages. There is a marriage ceremony organised as a symbol or mark of the union between a man and a woman. These marriages ceremonies are either civil, or religious. The main religious ceremonies are Christian, Islamic, Hindu, and Sikh among others. We also have African customary ceremonies many of which are polygamous. Christianity does not allow polygamous marriage. Secular approaches to marriage. In the modern world, some people choose not to marry for personal reasons. Some people have children without getting married while others opt to have a marriage without children. Husband and wife are equal. Monogamy is practiced for economic reasons. In some families women are the heads of the family. Choosing a partner is an individual act and not communal. In marriage traditional qualities of a good wife such as industrious, honesty, and hospitality are not considered. The modern society values external beauty, financial status and social status. As a result, there is a high rate of marriage, separation, and divorce. At times young people fail to be married in church. There is no formalization of marriages. These marriages are called Come-we-stay arrangements. Gender issues in marriage. The wife is subordinate to the husband but had rights. Marriage did not end with death of the husband. The wife was inherited by one of her husbands brother. This is widow inheritance / Levirate marriage. She could also refuse to be inherited but remained married to that man even in death. The wife could not marry outside the family because of dowry. There was dowry payment to parents. If a wife died, the man would marry the sister of his dead wife. This is surrogate marriage. Those who did not marry were considered lesser humans. Young people were prepared for marriage during initiation, which was witnessed in a public ceremony. During marriage, couple makes vows to each other. The ancestors are invoked to bless the marriage. Factors that lead to a stable, healthy and successful marriage People are different and they understand their roles differently. Here am giving you a few suggestions. Discuss with your study companions and come up with other suggestions. One important factor is mutual responsibility by the couple. This occurs if there is mutual consultation with each other in decision-making. Two is forgiveness of each other. Three is good treatment of each other especially with equal respect. Four is sharing scriptures together. Five is giving love and respecting each other. Six is having a faithful sexual relationship and lastly being open and honest. Seven is African traditional qualities of a good wife who is described as: hardworking, fertile, morally upright, generous, kind, obedient, humble, clean, beautiful, polite, warm hearted and hospitable. Eight are the qualities of a good husband, which are described as: being able to provide good leadership in the family. Other qualities are being aggressive, wise, brave, courageous, responsible and good property manager. b. Christian Teaching about Marriage. Christians teach that marriage is sacred and that it is a divine institution, which is ordained God. God started it when he created Adam and Eve. Marriage should therefore be monogamous and permanent as God protects marriages. The woman should submit to the husband who is told to love the wife as Christ loved the church. Church teaches respect of each other. Marriage is complete even without children as it is between a male and a female. Marriage is not obligatory and it ends when one partner dies. Christians preparation and approach to marriage Christians organise youth seminars, and rallies to teach the youth how to choose marriage partners and how to treat wife / husbands; care for the children; behave towards in laws; acquire wealth (men); and head a family. Youth are taught to avoid sexual intimacy before marriage. Those intending to marry are encouraged to go for pre marital counselling. During counselling, they are informed that love is the most important bond of unity in marriage. Church encourages partners to go for HIV /AIDs test before marriage. Marriage ceremony is conducted in church Choice of a marriage partner There are many ways of identifying a marriage partner. One is arrangement by parents. If not one can make an individual decision and choose a wife or husband. Two is through an intermediary or third party. In African traditional polygamous marriages, the first wife identified a wife for her husband. Girls would be given out to a chief as a gift c. Courtship in African Traditional society (A.T.S). Courtship varied from community to community. Courtship is the period between engagement and wedding ceremony. During courtship premarital sex is forbidden. Girls and boys dressed with bracelets and rings. Courtship was important in A.T.S. This was because the man and woman who were girls and boys got to know each other better before marriage. It was a period when girls/boys were instructed in family life education. It was also a period for linking the two marrying families. The couple had time to learn about one anothers character, and know their families. It is a symbol (sign) of the girls presence in her home (maternal home). She continues to live with her own people. The families and clan had an opportunity to check if the marrying couple was related and if their clans were acceptable to the parents. Courtship gives time to the two families to negotiate and pay the bride wealth or dowry. Bridal Wealth, dowry, bride price are all expressions of partnership. The family of the man pays dowry to the family of the woman. Some churches disregard bride wealth, while others encourage it. Dowry is paid in different forms. The girls family decides what it wants. Will it be livestock (poultry, pigs, camels, cows, goats, sheep), beer, grain, jewellery and clothes among others. Importance of dowry. It acts as a compensation for the girls labour and seals the marriage covenant. It is a public expression of appreciation for the coming of a new wife/mother into the mans family. It promotes friendship and cements relationship between families. It shows commitment and seriousness of the future husband. After dowry payment, the woman belongs to her husband. A ceremony is carried out depending on the community. Bride price payment is accompanied by marriage ceremonies. Lastly dowry helps in maintaining peace Traditional African approaches to marriage preparation. Polygamy is one husband, married to many wives. Polygamy is allowed by the African traditional religion because it occurs if the first wife is barren; ensures that all women have husbands; prevents infertility; provides extra labour in farms. A polygamous man has a higher status because many wives symbolize wealth. Children are important in a marriage because they promote social status of their parents. They cement a bond of unity between husband / wife. They are a source of labour, and wealth. They are heirs to the family wealth They provide security to the family. Divorce is legal dissolution of marriage. Christians allow divorce because of specific grounds. Divorce was rare in African traditional societies. Divorce is granted under circumstances of: adultery, witchcraft, laziness, cruelty and disrespect of wife. In the contemporary society, divorce is sought after or allowed because of: unfaithfulness in marriage or adultery; domestic violence; misuse of family resources; childlessness; in- law interference and alcohol abuse. Legal reasons for divorce According to the laws of Kenya, divorce is allowed under the following reasons; adultery; if a man deserts his wife for more than 3 years; if a partner becomes insane; and domestic violence for example, physical, and psychological torture. Christian teaching about divorce. Christians discourage divorce because marriage is a permanent status. There is no room for divorce. Church discourages divorce because of its adverse effects. Some denominations allow divorce if there is adultery. God hates divorce. Married couples should remain faithful to each other Effects of divorce are strained relationships, children suffering psychologically, and experiences of rejection. A divorcee faces social stigma, rejection, and isolation. If parents separate, they create single parent families. These families suffer from economic hardships and feelings of failure and inadequacy. e. Celibacy as an alternative to marriage. Celibacy is a Latin word Coelebes meaning bachelor. Why do some people fail to marry? There are many reasons. Some of these are to pursue education leading to delayed marriage; and career demands (workaholic). Other people are discouraged by examples of failed marriages. Other reasons maybe economic independence, poor health, HIV /AIDS, mental illness; parental interference and disappointment from past failed relationships. This happens if parents do not approve a partner. Revision questions 1. Explain the traditional African understanding of marriage 2, what is the importance of children in traditional African society? 3.what is the Christian teaching about marriage? 4. What is the importance of courtship period in T.As 5. Why are many people opting for celibacy? LESSON FOUR: THE FAMILY Introduction. As society grows and changes, the family grows and changes. As a result, there are several types and practices of the family. In this lesson, we shall discuss the traditional family as it is practiced in the Bible, the traditional African societies and some Christian families. Learning Outcomes. By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to a Explain types of families in society b Analyse traditional African family values and practices c Explain Christians family values and practices d Discuss problems related to family life today e Compare approaches to family by Christians and traditional African society f. Discuss responsible parenthood The family. What is a family? Family is the basic social unit of human society. This basic unit is extended to include relatives bound together by blood, marriage, friendship, and adoption. They are all members of the family. In Kenya, there are many types of families. a. Types of families i. Nuclear family is parents and their children. .It is father, mother, and children. There is an increase of monogamous families or nuclear because of urbanization as rural youth come to towns in search of white-collar jobs. Migration to cities by people of different tribes has led to pluralism. Education, high cost of living have led to the death of the African culture, which required men and women to marry many partners to produce many children to defend their tribe. Advantages of nuclear families are many. One, the man is able to give undivided attention to one wife and children. Two, there is sharing of mutual love, and peace in the home. Three it is economical to manage one family. Four there is little competition for attention, less strife, quarrels and stress. Five, it is easier to monitor the behaviour of a few children. ii. Polygamous family Father, mothers, children. These type of family have disadvantages in modern Kenya. Modern society is a cash economy. Thus if a man has many wives and children, they may lack basic necessities like food, shelter, education and clothes. iii. Single parent family one parent, and children. Single parent families are created by several circumstances. One is by parents separating. Separation of parents is due to several reasons. These are for example, one partner going to another country and failing to return to his or her country and family. Two, a single family is created by divorce. Divorced parents may decide not to marry again. Three is when one parent refuses to marry. This happens when a girl gets pregnant and the boy does not marry her. Four is because of death of a spouse. The remaining parent may decide not to remarry. Five is when some mothers decide to have children without marriage. This may not be correct as there is no research to suggest it. Six is imprisonment of one partner for a long time. One parent is left looking after children because one is in jail. iv. Extended family father, mother, children, uncles, aunts, and cousins. This is the common family type in traditional African communities. v. Children led family. This happens when parents die and the 1st born takes care of brothers and sisters including cousins. vi. Grandparent headed family. The HIV/AIDs epidemic has introduced this type of family where grandparents take care of their grandchildren due to the death of both parents especially the mother due to HIV / AIDS disease. This scourge has made many children orphans. In other cases parents go for further studies abroad and leave their children with their parents. b. Traditional African family values and practices. In African societies creation of a family is through marriage, and subsequent procreation. Family is viewed as a sacred institution in African society. The African traditional family includes the dead (ancestors), the unborn children and the living. An African traditional family has obligations and duties. These were (1) offering sacrifices to ancestors, (2) pouring libations; and (3) giving the dead decent burials (4) providing basic needs to their children (5) bringing up children to be morally upright individuals. Further to this, the African traditional family is responsible for the upbringing, caring, and protection of its children. This is demonstrated by the nuclear family, which provides necessities required to meet and satisfy the economic needs of its members. The African traditional family is expected to participate in communal activities. Work in the family was divided according to age, gender and social status. Each family member worked for its basic needs as well as the welfare of the community. The African family had well-stated and practiced values There were (1) respect for family members (2) providing responsible parenthood, which is the process of bringing up children to become all round or self reliant persons (3) educating children in all aspects of life. Parents and the extended family members helped their children to develop intellectually and cognitively. The family taught children physical skills. It also gave children confidence to appreciate their physical strength. Children were taken through a rigorous physical curriculum of games such as wrestling, swimming and running to develop their physical strength. Childrens bodies were nourished thoroughly. They were served good and nutritious food, which improved their muscle strength. Children were taught social skills. They learnt how to behave towards adults, peers and grandparents. They developed social skills since parents allowed them to socialize and interact with other children, grandparents and the community. This made them grow socially, emotionally and psychologically. They had a curriculum for teaching and training in traditional African religious values, family matters, moral and social values. This teaching of children started from an early age. The teaching method used was observation and practice. Parents taught by being good role models. They were expected to model desired values and family practices. Children were taught how to relate with one another as brothers and sisters. Parents were to show tolerance to children. These values show that African parents understood their parental roles and responsibilities. These values were sometimes; exploited by the irresponsible family members or specific individuals. This exploitation encouraged dependency, leading to conflicts, competition, hatred, and jealousy. Christian parents are expected to train their children to know God; be self -disciplined, and follow the Christian way of living. Another duty is to provide basic needs to their children. Christian understanding of the family Among Christians, family is sacred and instituted by God. Read again about the Christian teachings about marriage. Role of children in the Christian family A Christian child is expected to obey parents, honor them, and respect parents. This is one of the Ten Commandments given to Moses by God. Parenting styles a) Dictatorship /authoritative / autocratic the parents is the final authority, imposes decisions b) Permissive or liberal style also referred to as Laissez faire the children do as they want c) Democratic style parents discuss with their children on family issues. This is the best style. <br><br>Problems related to family life today <br><br>Families are faced with numerous problems such as a) Children abuse sex assault, beating b) Domestic violence abusive language, frequent fights, emotional abuse c) Diseases e.g. HIV / AIDS epilepsy , autism. d) Children with special needs, blindness, deafness or those with mental challenges, motor co ordination (Autism) e) Separation, divorce f) Childlessness g) Single parent families economic hardships h) Misuse of family resources, economic crisis i) Affluence a lot of wealth j) Unemployment, underemployment k) Retrenchment laying off of some employees in order to reduce the workforce l) Mismanagement of family finances m) Alcohol and drug abuse n) The generation gap o) Poor relations with in-laws p) Cultural and religious differences Traditional African approaches to problems related to family life today 1) Individuals were prepared for challenges of family life right from childhood 2) Adolescents, initiates were given family life education 3) People entered marriage knowing that its a life long union 4) Rules were clear to govern marriage relations 5) Polygamy helped reduce unfaithfulness 6) There were no single parent families. Members lived together reducing loneliness 7) Widows / widowers were encouraged to marry again Traditional brew was taken in moderation Christians approaches to problems related to family life today 1) Christian families are obliged to live according to Christian principles and values such as mutual respect, self discipline, understanding, honesty, faithfulness, love and forgiveness 2) Premarital counseling is carried out 3) Church holds regular seminars and conferences on family life matters. Love and respect for each other. Christian wife to submit to husband who is head of the family. They are taught to take each other as complementary and equal partners. 4) Women are encouraged to form participate in church organizations e.g. mothers union, womens guild where they learn roles of being a wife, mother, and a woman. 5) Some churches offer advice to families on management of their families. They are encouraged to have investments. 6) Breadwinner is encouraged to write a written will 7) To improve the parent child relationship churches offer guidance and counseling to the youth Christian parents are advised to set positive role models to their children 9) Parents are encouraged to be open and promote effective communication with their children 10) Churches in case of serious family conflicts such as child abuse, domestic violence, advise legal action. 11) Churches organize youth seminars where they talk about drug abuse, premarital sex, negative peer pressure and media influence etc. 12) Relevant information is passed through books, pamphlets, magazines, media FM, TV etc. 13) Some churches welcome unwed mothers 14) Churches provide health services, guidance on HIV / AIDS 15) Some churches care for widows, orphans widowers and the needy Revision questions 1. State the different types of families TOPIC THREE: CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO WORK Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic you should be able to a Define the term work and vocation b Explain and appreciated the traditional African attitude towards work c Explain the role of professional ethos, ethics and code in society d Explain virtues related to work e Discuss the moral duties and responsibilities of employers and employees f Discuss Christian approaches to issues related to employment LESSON ONE: DEFINITION OF TERMS Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: a. Explain the meaning of work. Vocation, profession, trade, craft, and job b. Give general reasons why people work Work Use of energy, physical or mental, for the purpose of improving human life. It is any activity that requires expenditure of energy or application of skills e.g. studying, teaching, cooking, farming etc. Vocation Work can be described as a vocation, profession, trade, craft, career or a job. Vocation is from a Latin word Vocare which means call Christians believe that every individual has been called of God to various duties. Vocation is work that requires special skills, special training or a unique call or a special mission in society. Profession Work that is characterized by a code of ethics, lengthy specialized training, advance knowledge and self disciple. Professionals have their own set standards. The professionals determine entry requirements for new members and usually have machinery for dealing with errant members. E.g. Law, medicine, architecture etc. A trade Refers to an occupation, a way of making a living. Some trades require specialized training examples hairdressing A craft An occupation which requires manipulative skills or use of the hands e.g. woodcarving, pottery, weaving. A craft may be a trade depending on the nature of occupation. A career An occupation that one chooses to pursue in his/her life. Its the general way of earning a living. Job Refers to tasks performed, services rendered in return for payment of wages. Most jobs are temporary others casual and others permanent and pension able. What determines ones career, vocation? 1. Available opportunities for future development in a particular job 2. The need to serve others especially the church and the needy 3. Interests, strengths, talents, abilities 4. Inclination or attraction to a certain kind of work 5. Pressure from parents, peers etc General reasons why people work a) Its an essential element of life b) God ordained work. Humans work for their food c) Work contributes to the development of the community d) Work is personal. It defines a person e) People work to earn a living f) People work for enjoyment, leisure g) To assist and give to the needy h) To get luxuries i) People work to raise their standards of living j) For self satisfaction and fulfillment k) For personal development l) To keep a person occupied and not idle m) To acquire wealth and status in the society n) To socialize with other members of the society o) To attain independence and not depend on someone else LESSON TWO: TRADITIONAL AFRICAN ATTITUDE TO WORK Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: a. Explain importance of work 1. Work is essential to the well being of the individual and survival of the community 2. Work ensured basic needs such as food, shelters etc were provided. 3. In traditional African society work was divided according to the age, gender, and status e.g. chief, elder of the individual. 4. Everyone was a worker. Boys assisted in herding, fishing, girls assisted in cooking fetching firewood. Women cooked, took care of babies constructed houses (maasai) etc. 5. Works among the traditional African societies included pastoralist, farmers, livestock keeping, fishing, bee keeping etc 6. Work was a communal affair; people would work together and assist each other 7. Work was not for a wage (Money). The rewards of work-included food, communal unity, acquisition of moral values etc. 8. Hard work was emphasized, laziness was condemned 9. There were some specific works for specialization e.g. herbal medicine men, divination, prophecy, rain making, pottery etc. 10. Work involved giving prayers, offerings, and sacrifices to God 11. Through work, the basic needs of the individual, community were fulfilled 12. Through work potentials; talents and skills were explored, acquired and utilized. 13. Work had a religious dimension as well as a social dimension. It brought people together improving their relations 14. SAE 1. Find out how different communities in Kenya lived in the past and how they live today 2. How did the lifestyle of the communities influence daily activities LESSON THREE: CHRISTIAN TEACHING ON WORK Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the christens teachings about work The Christian teaching on work is based mainly on the interpretation of the bible, the teachings of Jesus and the teachings of the apostles. Some of the teachings are: - 1. God himself instituted work. He created the heavens and the earth and all in it. Since God worked man should work. (Gen. 2:1) 2. Gods work of creation is good (Gen. 1:31) Christians should endeavor to produce good works 3. Work is a duty, an obligation, a command Christians are responsible for Gods creation (Gen.2: 15). They are to protect it animals, birds, plants, marine life are all under the care of man. 4. Human beings should work to acquire their basic needs (Genesis. 1:29 30, 3:19) God blesses the work of our hands 5. Human beings are co creators with God (Gen.1: 28) God continue to create through human beings. Human beings glorify God through their work. 6. God reveals himself through his work of creation. God had a purpose for his creation. He is orderly, source of life, Almighty etc. 7. Work is a co operative undertaking. Eve was created to be Adams helper (Gen. 2:20) Christians should co operate in their undertakings 8. Hard work is praised and laziness is looked down upon. (Proverbs 31:27). Christians should work for their daily needs and not become a burden to others. 9. Work should be accompanied with rest (Gen.2: 2) God rested on the 7th day from all his work. God commanded the Israelites to rest on the 7th day. 10. People should enjoy what they have worked for (Ecc.3: 22) 11. Work should be done for the glory of God and for the good of the society. 12. People should work honestly not steal but work to earn an honest living (Eph.4: 28) 13. Those who do not work should not eat They should always work since God is always at a work (John 15:17) LESSON FOUR: ROLES OF PROFESSIONAL ETHOS, ETHICS AND CODES IN THE SOCIETY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: - 1. Define the following terms, professional ethics, professional codes and professional ethos 2. Describe the role of ethics Definitions Professional ethics : principles of behaviour / conduct that guide members of a particular profession. What workers are allowed to do and not to do. Professional ethos The group identity of members of a profession, their unique custom or character e.g. what identifies doctors, lawyers etc. Profession codes or code of ethics Collection of laws arranged systematically according to major concerns and core functions of the profession. Roles - To regulate the behaviour of professional (workers) - Enables professionals to understand their role - Ensures professionals provide quality of services to their clients - To encourage respect among professionals - Give guidance on how professionals should relate to one another - They safe guard professionals against being compromised / misused - They determine expected level of performance - They serve as a measure of competence - Act as a measure of quality service - They protect the professionals - They provide a reference point for disciplining (used to discipline the errant professional) - They inspire respect and high esteem for professionals - Through professional codes, ethics, ethos, professional earn public trust LESSON FIVE: VIRTUES RELATED TO WORK Learning outcome. By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: -es 1. Define the term virtue 2. Give examples of virtues related to work Definition A virtue is a good human habit. Its a moral principle, moral quality or goodness of character and behaviour. Examples of virtues elated to work (i) Diligence hardworking (ii) Honesty, integrity ability to be relied upon (Integrity) Honest is being truthful. (iii) Faithfulness being trustworthy and loyal (iv) Responsibility ability to make decisions and take action independently. Being mindful of other peoples welfare (v) Tolerance ability to bear with others or with difficult situations LESSON SIX: MORAL DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF EMPLOYERS AND EMPLOYEES Learning outcomes: by the end of the lesson, you should be able to: - 1. State and explain the duties and responsibilities of employers towards employees 2. List the rights of employers 3. Outline the moral duties of employees 4. List the rights of employees Employers: government, non governmental organization, private sector individuals, company, selfemployment. Employers have several duties and responsibilities towards their employees. They are: - To organize and conduct business efficiently for the benefit of the institution, employer, community - To respect the employee, treat them with dignity - Pay a fair wage to the employee - Ensure good healthy and safe working conditions - Provide social welfare for the employees e.g. time off, leave days, time for recreation - Grant leave as required by law or the terms of contract - Take care of the welfare of the employees give medical cover, pension scheme etc - To motivate their employees - To reward employees - Compensate employees made redundant Rights of the employer Employers have a right to / are entitled to (a) Get profits from their businesses (b) Carry out their businesses without unfair taxation (c) Form association with other employers (d) Obtain and conduct business (e) Hire, dismiss employees in accordance with the requirements of their firms and contract (f) Demand a fair days work (g) Conduct business without subjection to unfair conditions and competitions Moral duties of the employees 1. Carry out their duties to the best of their ability without supervision 2. Respect and protect the property of the employer 3. Encourage peaceful solutions to any problems encountered in their work place 4. To work diligently for self fulfillment and development 5. To respect their employer and fellow employees 6. Observe terms of contract with employer 7. Be loyal, honest, respect to the employer Rights of the employees To receive fair wages To have a reasonable work load Have reasonable hours of work Have safety and protection at work Right to join a labour union Right to further individual training and development education Rights to retirement, terminal benefits Rights to a fair opportunity for provision A right to time for rest Right to Favourable working conditions LESSON SEVEN: CHRISTIANS APPROACHES TO ISSUES RELATED TO EMPLOYMENT Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to; - 1. Define the following terms, wages and industrial action 2. State the Christian teachings on wages 3. List the reasons for industrial action 4. State the results of workers strike/ industrial action 5. Explain the Christian approaches towards strikes Wages and industrial action (Strikes) A wage is payments for work done. Payment is in modern times done according to hours, weeks or days that one works. Christian teachings on wages - Human beings have the right to work for a decent living (Matt.20:1 16) They should be paid for their work. - Workers should be paid wages to the amount and value of their work (1 Timothy 5:18) - Wages should be paid as agreed upon (Mathew 20:13) - Employers should not take advantage of the poverty of the employee (Deuteronomy 24: 14 15) - Human beings should not be enslaved to work (Ex.5:22 23) - Employers who degrade their workers in wages are condemned (Deut.24:14 15, Jer.22:13) - Oppression is condemned (Amos 5:18, 8;4) - Workers wages should never be withheld (James 5:4) Industrial action Also commonly called Strike this is an effort by workers to stop work in protest by boycott go-slow sit ins or refuse to work. There has been increase of industrial action in the recent past in most countries of the world. Reasons for industrial actions 1 Due to increased awareness of workers rights 2 Exposure to global trends through the media 3 Formation of trade unions that fight for the rights of workers 4 Due to poor working conditions 5 Underpaying workers 6 Threatening workers with unjustified dismissals 7 Suspending the workers / interdiction unjustly 8 A hostile working environment Results of workers strikes (industrial / action a) Pay cuts b) Demotions c) Loss of jobs d) Employers suffer losses e) Inflation f) Injuries even death when confronted by police g) Victimization of some individuals h) Bitterness among the workers and employers Christian approaches towards strikes a) Christians recommend a peaceful co existence between workers and employers b) There should be fairness, justice, love among workers, employees c) There should be an open communication channel across the ranks from top to bottom d) Employees should not destroy property e) Working conditions should be better and improved f) Employees to be human when dealing with employees LESSON EIGHT: CHILD LABOUR Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the term child labour 2. State the reasons why children are employed 3. State the disadvantages of child labour 4. List down the causes of child labour 5. Describe the position of the church in dealing with child labour A child is a person below 18 years. A child does not have an identity card, does not vote (in Kenya). According to International Labour Organization the minimum employment age is 14 years. Child labour It is engaging a person below the age of 14 years in wage / paid employment. Reasons why children are employed - To provide cheap labour - They cannot fight for proper terms - They are easily hired and fired Disadvantages of child labour Children are not yet mentally and physically prepared to do adult jobs. This leads to a) Exploitation of children b) Children paid less, taken advantage of c) It inhibits the growth of a child and denies them a chance to enjoy their childhood d) It deprives them of their right to basic education e) It exposes children to hazards (dangers) from machines, chemicals f) Heavy workload deprives children of social educational, moral, psychological, physical rights Places where children are employed - Plantations coffee, tea - Domestic services homes - Tourism sector - Industries - Children are trafficked and employed as commercial sex workers Causes of child labour reasons why children work 1 Lack of money / poverty 2 Death of parents 3 Dropping out of school due to pregnancy, indiscipline, (truancy), poor academic performance or lack of school fees. 4 Those who never went or taken to school 5 Lack of good role models e.g. coast province Mombasa, Malindi has several of the financially stable people being school dropouts, engaged in drug trafficking, commercial sex etc. 6 Influence of cultural values e.g. circumcision of boys in some communities is done later in life and one is declared an adult e.g. the kikuyu circumcising at 13 years, or 12 years 7 Children being lured by employers 8 Greed for material benefits 9 Being homeless ending up as a street child Position of church in dealing with child labour - The church condemns it - It has put up homes for poor children (orphanages) - It provides guidance, counseling to both parents and children - Children are blessing from God hence should be loved and cared for - Parents have the responsibilities to protect their children from harm. LESSON NINE: UNEMPLOYMENT AND SELF EMPLOYMENT Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - <br><br>1. Define the term unemployment and self employment 2. State the causes of unemployment 3. Describe the response of Christians to issues of unemployment 4. List the problems faced by self employed people Unemployment When people are capable and willing to work but are unable to find a viable income or occupation it is referred to as unemployment. Causes of unemployment 1 Preference for prestigious white collar jobs (Office jobs, non manual jobs) 2 Corruption tribalism, nepotism, bribery denying jobs to the qualified in preference for the unqualified. 3 Unequal distribution of wealth some regions are more resourceful than others. Industries, good infrastructure concentrated in some areas. 4 Inadequate resources for self employment (lack of capital, skills) 5 Limited job opportunities probably due to high population growth 6 Few international investors in Kenya, probably due to high crime rate, insecurity Identify ways of creating job opportunities Response of Christians to issues of unemployment a) They encourage self employment in cases of unemployment b) They have set up vocational training, polytechnics to train people towards jobs that are for self employment c) Christians condemn idleness Self-employment Self-employment is an economic activity initiated, controlled by an individual. It is an occupation in which a person initiates a personal enterprise and manages it with the help of others. Examples Small businesses enterprises, Jua kali sector, music industry, entertainment (e.g. comedians), community work, agriculture etc Problems / challenges - Some lack sufficient capital to start a business and keep it running - Lack of necessary skills to run the business - High taxation leading to some business closing down - Small scale traders face undue competition from larger firms Revision questions 1. What is work? 2. List any six reasons why people work 3. Explain T.As attitude towards work 4. List some of the factors that have changed the attitude towards work in the modern society 5. What are the rights of employers? 6. State the duties of employees 7. Why has child labour become common in Kenya? 8. What are the causes of unemployment in Kenya? 9. What can the government do to reduce unemployment in Kenya? TOPIC FOUR: CHRISTIANS APPROACHES TO LEISURE Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic, you should be able to a Explain the meaning of leisure b Discuss the traditional African understanding of leisure c Discuss Christian teaching on leisure d Discuss the importance of leisure e Outline various forms and uses of leisure f Explain how leisure is misused in the society today g Discuss the abuse of alcohol and other drugs and their effects h Explain Christian criteria for evaluating the use of leisure <br><br>Christian criteria for evaluating the use of leisure <br><br>LESSON ONE: MEANING OF LEISURE Work is an obligation however people cannot work 24 hours. They need to rest. God rested on the 7th day after work. Work and rest are complementary elements of human life. Definition of leisure This is the time when one is free from work or other duties. Time at ones own disposal, which can be utilized in a productive manner depending on ones interests and abilities. Leisure provides mental, physical relaxation, spiritual, emotional relaxation and enrichment Forms of leisure 1. Passive 2. Active leisure Passive involves use of mental energy Active leisure there is use of physical energy Examples of activities of passive leisure are - Watching television - Reading story books - Playing video games - Chatting with friends Examples of activities of active leisure are - Jogging - Mountain climbing - Gardening - Dancing - Tree planting - Playing football Leisure is used for - Enjoyment - Entertainment song, dance, watching movies etc - Relaxation exercises - Socialization sharing, education - Religious engagement wedding ceremonies, visiting the sick, worship In passive leisure others entertain while in active leisure the person is active, whole body is involved. Active leisure enables a person to 1. Develop his/her body 2. Build stamina 3. Strengthen relationships etc Some leisure activities are dangerous e.g. boxing, motor racing; while others are expensive e.g. golf. Other leisure activities are addictive while others are unproductive. - Leisure activities should be planned for - Leisure activities can also be economic, income generating activities. LESSON TWO: TRADITIONAL AFRICAN UNDERSTANDING OF LEISURE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: - 1.Define leisure according to the traditional African understanding 2. State the various forms of communal leisure activities In traditional African society leisure permeates all aspects of life. Leisure activities accompany work. Leisure and work were entertainment. Work was accompanied by singing, reciting stories sharing past events. Examples of leisure activities in traditional African society include - Wrestling - Running - Playing ajua - Mock fighting - Swimming - Spear throwing - Poetry - Music and dance etc Leisure activities that were communal include Bull fighting Tongue twisters Poetry recitation Telling of myths legends Dancing Brain teasers Riddles etc o Work in African society included fishing, tilling the land, herding, hunting, harvesting o Most leisure activities in traditional African society were active form of leisure, communal, not individualistic and not for monetary gains o All forms of leisure had an educational value. Folk stories had a moral value. People were taught not to be selfish, greedy jealousy etc Myths and legends tell of the origin of the community and its history of important people as well as history of the community. o In African traditional society, leisure led to acquisition of values or virtues such as co operation, sharing, solidarity, love, bravery, empathy, endurance, tolerance etc. o Most activities were linked to the worship of God and, veneration of the ancestors o Leisure activates were organized along gender and age group season (E.g. harvest dancing, singing); wet rainy seasons boat swimming o Rites of passage e.g. initiation, marriage, birth and naming provided leisure activities o Leisure activities were planned for LESSON THREE: CHRISTIAN TEACHING ON LEISURE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the Christian teachings on work 2. State the various ways that Christians use their leisure Christian teach that a) Work and leisure are of divine origin. God rested on the 7th day after working b) Leisure is a gift from God leisure should be put to good use. Its not be wasted c) Leisure provides us with the opportunity to worship God. Leisure should be used to serve God. d) Christians associate leisure with personal growth and fellowship e) Jesus recognized the need for rest by withdrawing his disciples from their active ministry. Its good to have time alone for reflection, rest, visit friend etc. f) Leisure should be used to seek God and help others e.g. Jesus prayed, helped the needy restored peoples health. Ways Christian use their leisure time activities LESSON FOUR: IMPORTANT USE AND MISUSE OF LEISURE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State the importance of leisure 2. List the ways that leisure can be used properly 3. Describe how leisure is misused today Importance of leisure Leisure is necessary. Its important in various ways 1) It is a good time to assess the work we have done (Reflection time) 2) It brings people together leading to self growth and fulfilment (Social function of leisure) 3) Leisure helps individuals to discover their hidden talents 4) Leisure relaxes the mind a change of activity, relieves the mind 5) Leisure refreshes the body restores lost energy 6) Leisure enables Christians to offer charity to those in need 7) Leisure provides time for worship and spiritual renewal Leisure gives one time to rest 9) Its time for recreation 10) Give one time to attend social occasions 11) Allows people to travel and visit friends and relatives 12) Leisure can be used to enhance and acquire new skills and knowledge 13) Its a time to develop and discover ones talents Uses of leisure proper of leisure Leisure can be used for a. Religious experience b. A time for rest c. Leisure is used to provide us with time to help others d. Leisure can be used to spread the word of God e. Development of talents f. Its an opportunity for individual growth g. Leisure strengthens social relationships h. Leisure can be used for reflection on ones decision; actions etc leisure activities reveal who we are. i. Leisure can be used for educative and economic purposes Proper use of leisure is when leisure time is spent doing activities that add value to us. Misuse of leisure today Leisure time can be misused through various activities e.g. 1) Spending too much time in passive activities e.g. pornography watching, watching films that are violent 2) Spending leisure time in idle talk gossip-leading to conflicts 3) Spending time in gambling, casinos making bets on horses playing Ajua games etc 4) Alcohol and drug taking when a person over drinks alcohol, spends time drinking at the expense of family, abusing drugs is misuse of leisure time. 5) Leisure can also be misused by engaging in dangerous activities. Night dancing, disco dancing has become a common form of leisure worldwide. What are the advantages and disadvantages? LESSON FIVE: DRUG ABUSE AND ITS EFFECTS- ALCOHOL, SOFT AND HARD DRUGS Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: - 1. Define the terms drug, drug use, drug abuse 2. State the different ways that drugs are administered 3. List the various categories of drugs 4. List the different types of drugs 5. Describe the various effects of different drugs A drug is any substance which when taken may alter or cause changes in the normal functioning of the body. Drug abuse Improper use of drugs. Using a drug for another purpose than what it is intended for Drug use Proper use of drugs Drugs are taken in various forms namely 1 Liquids 2 Lotions 3 Ointment 4 Powder 5 Cake form, Drugs are classified as legal and illegal Ways of administering drugs Drugs are taken /administered in various ways - Infecting - Inhaling / smoking - Chewing - Swallowing - Drinking - Sniffing / snuffing Categories of drugs a) Medicinal b) Soft drugs c) Hard / narcotic drugs Types of drugs 1) Preventive drugs e.g. drugs to prevent polio, cholera, yellow fever 2) Curative drugs drugs that cure diseases 3) Sedatives, palliatives drugs that alleviate pain, put patients to sleep e.g. drugs for diabetes, heart diseases, asthma, painkillers 4) Tranquillizers drugs that relieve tension induce sleep e.g. piriton, valium 5) Stimulants drugs used to increase physiological activity of a particular organ. They arouse the activity of the central nervous system / senses. 6) Volatile drugs these drugs intoxicate the user, they are derived from petroleum products paint thinners dry cleaning fluids glue etc. stimulants and volatile drugs classified as soft drugs. 7) Hard drugs or narcotic drugs These are highly addictive drugs. The body forms dependence on these drugs. These drugs affect the mind causing drowsiness; sleep, stupor and they are the most commonly abused drugs. Examples are <br><br>Cocaine <br><br>- From coca leaves - Its highly addictive - Causes mental problems - Can lead to death on overdose - A very expensive drug Other side effects are confusion, Convulsions, circulatory collapse and rapid heart beat <br><br>Bhang / Marijuana - A plant of Indian hemp - Also called marijuana, Hashish, Cannabis, Sativa depending on which part of the plant is taken i.e. leaves, stem, or roots. - Users become aggressive excited or high - Bhang changes perception of space, time and reality - It causes drowsiness and irresponsible behaviour - Its side effects causes people to be engaged in criminal activities e.g. robbery with violence as it gives changes in perception <br><br>Morphine <br><br>Its used to suppress pain clinically - Its addictive - Its derived from cocaine - Used as local aesthetic <br><br>Heroine <br><br>- Its pain relieving - Highly addictive - Powder heated in foil paper, vapour forms hence smoked referred to as chasing the dragon - Also called brown sugar - Its injected and inhaled - An overdose can lead to death - its expensive - It causes respiratory problems - Its depressive <br><br>- Withdrawal symptoms when heroine is not available are nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and severe anxiety <br><br>Soft drugs <br><br>- Cigarette - Alcohol - Miraa / khat Cigarette - Made from tobacco - Cigarettes contain a) Nicotine a highly addictive substance. b) Carbon monoxide, which damages arteries heart and lungs c) Tar black substance which promotes cancer of the throat, heart and lungs Cigarettes are legal drugs in Kenya. Pregnant women may miscarry or terminate the pregnancy if they smoke. Leads to chest respiratory diseases poor blood circulation Leads to destructive fires due to carelessness Miraa / khat 1 Plants / legally in Kenyan, and other parts of the world 2 They are chewed 3 Causes temporary excitement 4 Makes one loose appetite for food and sex 5 The juice in miraa causes temporary excitement in the user when ingested 6 Miraa makes the user to be irritable Alcohol - Alcohol is a drug made through fermentation - Its a drink used in social ceremonial occasions - Its in form of beer wines, traditional brew (e.g. busaa, muratina, mnazi )and spirits e.g. whisks, brandy, gin, changaa - Alcohol is prepared by fermentation or distillation heating to a certain degree. - In African traditional society, alcohol was fermented and used for 1. Medicinal value 2. Entertainment 3. Marriage celebrations 4. Beer parties given to visitors - Excessive drinking was discouraged - Drunk people were scorned or scolded - Young people were not allowed to drink alcohol - When alcohol is taken excessively it is abused Alcohol abuse - Alcohol can lead to body dependence or addiction - Consequences of abusing alcohol are such as (i) Squandering family resources (ii) Health deterioration (iii) Lack of concentration leading to poor quality of work (iv) Family break-ups due to frustrations A man experiences a desire for sex but lacks the ability to perform leading to break ups (v) Deformed foetus if a mother abuses alcohol when pregnant (vi) Alcohol destroys brain cells (vii) It leads to unruly behaviour such as fights, violence (viii) One is vulnerable to risky behaviour a drunk person is unable to make proper decisions hence vulnerable to sexual infections such as HIV / AIDS (ix) Can make a person cause accidents if driving under the influence of alcohol or staggering on the road. LESSON SIX: CAUSES OF ALCOHOL AND DRUG ABUSE (REASONS WHY PEOPLE ABUSE ALCOHOL AND DRUGS) Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State and explain the effects of drugs 2. State and explain the causes of drug use and abuse (i) Frustration due to unemployment, inability to perform well and meet set standards or other personal frustrations. (ii) Idleness when idle some turn to alcohol and drug use (iii) Addiction (iv) Boredom (v) Bad examples from adults (vi) Availability of drugs in the Kenyan market (vii) Negative peer pressure (viii) Experimentation then addiction (ix) Media influence (x) Societal permissiveness (xi) Urbanization (xii) Pressure of work (xiii) Financial stress (xiv) Globalization foreign world influences Effects of drug abuse Drug abuse poses danger to the health of a person, affects family, society in general. Effects of drug abuse are <br><br>A. Psychological problems drugs are addictive. The body becomes dependant on them. It cannot perform without the drugs. It leads to depression, irritability, aggressiveness, paranoia, one becoming afraid to face reality etc. B. Crime robbery, theft, people abusing drugs will rob, steal so as to get money to buy the drugs. Drugs have led to students setting schools on fire, killing their fellow students C. Illusion users do not face reality D. Health problems one is prone to diseases because of frequent use of drugs. Drugs weakens the bodys system e.g. alcohol leads to liver Cirrhosis, stomach ulcers. One is susceptible / prone to HIV / AIDS infection STIs lung cancer, still birth etc E. Economic problems Drugs are expensive. Abuse leads to depletion of family resources leading to poverty F. Loss of job and income G. Social problems Abuse of drugs leads to family conflicts, leading to separation, divorce, family quarrels fights and even murder (domestic violence) H. Accidents I. Frustrations J. Poor performance in school work K. Death People die out of drug abuse. An over dose of heroine, cocaine kills. Alcohol can lead to a blackout, this affects the brain LESSON SEVEN: REMEDIES TO DRUG ABUSE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to:- 1. List down the various remedies to drug use and abuse Drug abuse has become a global problem. Remedies or solutions include a) Law enforcement through bodies such as UNDCP United Nations International Drug Control Programme Anti Narcotics Police Units, NACADA National Agency for the Campaign Against Drug Abuse so as to control abuse of Narcotics and other drugs. b) Education People to be educated on the effects of drugs. The curriculum from primary to secondary to include topics on drug abuse. Guidance and counselling Religious teachings all religious condemn the abuse of drugs Family values to be promoted. Parents should set good examples to their children Every individual to cultivate individual values. Respect their body and take care of their bodies Rehabilitation of drug users / abusers LESSON EIGHT: CHRISTIAN CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING THE USE OF LEISURE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the Christians criteria for evaluating the use of leisure Criteria criterion a principle or standard for judging something. How does a Christian determine whether a certain leisure activity is lawful, acceptable before God criteria for evaluating the use of leisure 1) Christians, should engage in leisure activities which promote their respect and dignity they should socialize with people who are morally upright (bad company corrupts good morals) 2) God ordains leisure hence it should serve Gods purpose. 3) Leisure should come after work 4) Leisure should be used for the good of others. The activities that are harmful to others should be avoided 5) Activities chosen should enrich their knowledge of God 6) Activities should provide service to others 7) Leisure doesnt mean laziness A Christian should not engage in a harmful activity to self but those that promote respect and dignity 9) Christians to avoid activities that lead to sin or to addiction 10) They should perform an activity which develop their physical emotional social and spiritual well being 11) Leisure should be enjoyed with moderation 12) Activities for leisure should be moral, within the laws of God and pleasing to good. Revision questions 1. Identify five (5) reasons why the taking of alcohol as a way of spending leisure is condemned 2. Write down five ways in which modern Christians use their leisure time 3. Give five ways in which drug use and abuse could affect a Christian 4.identify ways in which Christians can overcome temptations to drug use and abuse 5(a). Why is leisure important in the life of a Christian? 5(b). What factors have contributed to the misuse of leisure in Kenya? 6.state the factors that have led to the misuse of drugs in Kenya TOPIC FIVE: CHRISTIANS APPROACHES TO WEALTH, MONEY AND POVERTY Learning Outcomes By the end of this topic, you should be able to: - a. Define the concepts wealth, money and poverty b. Explain and appreciate the traditional African understanding of wealth and poverty c. Describe the impact of the introduction of money economy in the traditional African society. d. Explain Christian teachings on money, wealth and poverty e. Discuss Christians approached to some issues related to wealth money and poverty f. Uphold the Christian principles in acquiring and using wealth LESSON ONE: DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPTS WEALTH, MONEY AND POVERTY a) Wealth: accumulation Accumulation of materials owned by an individual, family or a group of people. Wealth is property that has economic value e.g. land, animals, money, valuable possessions such as jewellery, commercial and residential buildings etc. Ways of acquiring wealth <br><br>Inheritance Business Commercial farming Salaried Jobs Investment of money in financial institution Provision of commercial services <br><br>b) Money Its the medium of exchange that functions as a legal tender. It is something that is generally accepted as a medium of exchange, a means of payment. It is usually in form of coins or notes. Good monetary media (money) has certain qualities. Qualities of money It should be acceptable It should be fairly stable Easy to divide into small units Easy to carry Should be relatively scarce It should be durable Its value should be maintained through proper control of its circulations Money is a measure of wealth. What it can purchase is the value. Money is used to buy services, goods, pay debts etc. Examples of currencies in the world are Ksh. (Kenya), Rand (South Africa) US & Dollar, Pound (Britain) Euro (Europe), Yen (Japan) Etc c) Poverty State of being without adequate basic necessities of life e.g. food, shelter, clothing Its a state of helplessness. It is characterized by poor health, hunger, and lack of education facilities, uncared for environment. Causes of poverty a. Adverse climatic conditions (Geographical factors) b. Poor family background (historical and social factors) c. Political stability leading to civil wars d. Poor governance e. Regional imbalance of natural resources f. Low level of technology g. Laziness h. Over dependence on foreign aid LESSON TWO: THE TRADITIONAL AFRICAN UNDERSTANDING OF WEALTH AND POVERTY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the terms wealth and poverty according to the traditional African understanding 2. State the various ways in which wealth was acquired in traditional African communities 3. List the causes of poverty in tradition African communities Wealth In African traditional societies wealth was measured in terms of the amount of land, livestock, grains, wives, children possessed by an individual or the community. Wealth was acquired in various ways. (i) As a gift from God Most Africans believe that wealth is a blessing from God. (ii) Inheritance In cases where the head of the family is dead, the eldest son becomes the custodian of the estate. The clan and community elders give direction on how the wealth is to be shared out. (iii) Bride wealth (iv) Farming (v) Exploitation of natural resources honey, wood for carving, building materials etc (vi) Trade African communities were involved in barter trade where they exchanged good and services <br><br>(vii) Raids wealth was also acquired by raiding other communities goats, sheep, Cattle. - People were encouraged to work hard to acquire wealthy honesty - Wealthy people were highly regarded and were considered for leadership position - Wealth was incomplete without a family Poverty Poverty was viewed as punishment or curse for wrongdoing. Other causes of poverty according to African Traditional Society were: - Laziness Lack of inheritance Raids by other communities Famine Natural calamities Sickness rendering the individual weak to acquire wealth - In acquiring wealth, principles such as value for human life, mutual responsibility, and sharing, communal ownership were emphasized. - Places that were communal include grazing land, rivers, and watering places - Laziness was ridiculed through songs, riddles and proverbs. LESSON THREE: IMPACTS OF THE INTRODUCTION OF MONEY ECONOMY IN TRADITIONAL AFRICAN SOCIETY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define economy, development and money economy 2. Explain the reasons for the introduction of money 3. Explain the impact of money economy in traditional African society Introduction - Money was introduced to Africa by the Europeans - Before colonial period, Africans practiced barter trade actual goods exchanged with other goods e.g. animals would be exchanged with food grains, millet, sorghum, cowpeas, children exchanged for food during famine. - Trade merchants from Asia had introduced into Africa forms of currency such as the cowrie shells, gold and the Indian rupees. Europeans introduced currency still used today Economy: careful management of resources, finances, income and expenditure of a family, a business enterprise, community or a country. The economy of a country is to be well managed if it has the ability to meet the social economic needs of her members. Development Its measured by the healthy of its economy in the provision of health, education, housing, sanitation, employment, longevity of life, decrease of material and child mortality. Money economy: Use of money as a means of exchange in economic activities e.g. banking, investment, insurance, payment of goods and services. Reasons for money introduction 1) Colonization brought a lot of changes such as unoccupied land declared Crown land for colonialists. 2) Tax introduction Africans were supposed to pay taxes to the government. Taxes were paid in form of money. 3) Introduction of formal education School fees was introduced. Fees were paid in form of money. 4) Introduction of modern medical services People paid medical services using money. 5) Emergence of new lifestyles Converts to Christianity were emphasized on to have materials, hence had to work to improve their living standards. They built houses, took their children to schools practiced modern family techniques hence had to use money. Impact of the introduction of money economy in traditional African society 1) Introduction of wage labour 2) Break up of family ties as people migrated from rural to urban areas in search of employment 3) African land taken by the colonialists, reducing people to squatters hence need to work 4) There was creation of a gap between people the rich and the poor 5) Emergence of vices e.g. corruption, bribery, prostitution, robbery 6) Deterioration of cherished African values e.g. bride wealth has become commercialized, customs lost etc. 7) Loss of African human dignity. Africans had to pay taxes to the colonial government. They were forced to work in European farms so as to get money. They worked under dehumanizing conditions Production of traditional food crops declined replaced by cash crops. 9) Individual ownership of land was emphasized. Land could be sold at will 10) There was increase of rural urban migration leaving the rural people less educated. 11) Exploitation of the poor by the rich poor wages, overcharging prices on foods. 12) Destruction of the natural environment to create room for building projects, urban centres 13) The cost of living increased. Almost everything is acquired by money. LESSON FOUR: THE CHRISTIAN TEACHING ON WEALTH, MONEY, POVERTY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Explain the Christian teachings on wealth 2. Explain the Christian teachings on poverty Teaching on wealth 1) Wealth is a blessing from God 2) Those who obey Gods laws, teachings of the prophets are promised blessings by God Deut28: 1 4 3) Wealth has duties associated with it e.g. 10% tithe, alms to the poor, and an aspect of stewardship. 4) Wealth should be used wisely. People are not owners of their property but are stewards. Should share with the poor, needy. 5) Wealth is not permanent e.g. parable of the rich fool. When people die, they take nothing with them. Naked into the world, naked out of the world. Job. 1:21 6) Wealth can create a false sense of independence feeling of self reliance no need for God 7) Wealth should be obtained justly no happiness for a person who gets riches in the wrong way. Wrong attitude to wealth can lead to idolatry and other dangers. Matt.19: 23 24 danger of materialism making riches their God, the love of money is the root of all evil (1 timothy 6:10) 9) It is wrong to discriminate against others on the basis of material possessions. Jesus associated with the rich, the poor, the sick etc. 10) Seek spiritual wealth, which is permanent and more fulfilling than material wealth, which is transitory temporal. Matt 6:19 20) 11) Acknowledge God as the source of ones riches 12) Use wealth to help the needy 13) Wealth is an instrument to enable us live decently. 14) Obsession with money and wealth leads to sin 15) Church leaders should avoid greed for wealth (1 Timothy 3:3) 16) God will judge rich exploiters. Christian teaching on poverty 1) Christian teachings discourage irresponsible behaviour and habits e.g. laziness, idleness and negligence. Some people became poor because of such. 2) Some people become poor because of misfortunes 3) Others are poor because of judgment due to disobedience to God 4) God cares for the poor 5) Those with more should share with the poor 6) People should work to alleviate poverty in the society 7) Jesus helped the poor so should we The poor in spirit will be blessed LESSON FIVE: CHRISTIAN APPROACHES / RESPONSE TO ISSUES RELATED TO WEALTH AND MONEY. Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the Christians response towards wealth and poverty 2. State the factors causing poverty 3. Describe how wealth/ resources can be distributed fairly Christian can respond by A. Insistence on fair distribution of wealth B. Fighting against bribery and corruption C. Using life skills D. Practicing Christian values Introduction - Affluence having a lot of material possessions and a luxurious standard of living. Poverty is a state of lack of the basic necessities. - Illegal means of acquiring wealth include fraud, grabbing public land, selling narcotic drugs etc Factors that have contributed to poverty 1. Political instability 2. Lack of formal education 3. Laziness 4. Negative attitude towards work choosing jobs 5. Historical factors colonization lack of land 6. Exporting unprocessed agricultural products cheaply then sold back expensively. A. Fair distribution of wealth / resources a) Christians to promote the value of justice, fairness, social responsibility. How? By having anti corruption crusades, be role models, teach or import skills, advocate for cancellation of foreign debts, taxation to all etc. b) Fair salaries c) Promotion of affordable and decent housing d) Favourable terms of loans e) Encourage Jua Kali artisans f) Christians to demand transformation of society through implementation of just economic policies that can ensure fair distribution of wealth. g) Encourage foreign investors through good infrastructure, incentives e.g. shorter process to register business, security. h) Christian to encourage investments by churches and inculcate in people the values of hard work, proper time management free education free health care for the poor or needy. Fair distribution of wealth / resources refers to jobs, infrastructure, hospitals, water, agricultural products etc. LESSON SIX: BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the following terms bribery and corruption 2. Explain the factors that contribute to bribery and corruption 3. Explain the consequences of bribery and corruption Fighting against bribery and corruption Bribery and corruption are related terms. Corruption: practice of giving a bribe in the form of money, goods or privileges in return for a service. Bribery: act of giving money, material goods or services to someone to influence the recipient to give underserved favour. It is aimed at influencing a decision to favour. Bribery is a form of corruption. - Corruption is some kind of moral degeneration. A practice whereby someone uses his/her influence in an activity that is not morally acceptable. - Example of corruption include promotion by a senior for a favour, colluding to miss work, use of government vehicles to attend to personal matters. In Kenya, Kenya Anticorruption commission KACC is a national body formed to fight corruption. Factors leading to bribery and corruption 1. Un-employment one will bribe to secure employment 2. Greed for money caused by peer pressure, poor moral values, wrong ethical foundation about money etc. 3. Fear fear of being imprisoned 4. Ignorance giving bribes in form of gifts 5. Disintegration of traditional African values 6. Lack of moral integrity no Christian values, one having no spiritual basis 7. Frustration in the place of work 8. A perverted conscience Consequences of corruption and bribery 1. Leads to injustice 2. Leads to incompetent supplies of goods or services being awarded hefty contracts leads to poor services e.g. road construction 3. Poor infrastructure, poor public service delivery 4. Leads to undermining moral fabric of society leading to social hopelessness and despair 5. Has led to lack of trust in public servants, and the government 6. Discontentment among people. 7. Degrades the personality of an individual 8. Can lead to imprisonment and lose of job LESSON SEVEN: CHRISTIAN ATTITUDE TOWARDS BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the Christian attitude towards bribery and corruption 2. Define the following terms life skills, decision making, critical thinking, creative thinking, self esteem and assertiveness 3. List the steps involved in decision making 1. It is condemned as an evil practice (a social evil) Ex. 23:8 2. Bribes cause injustice proverbs 17:23 3. Seen as morally wrong as they negatively affect ones family 4. Jesus drove out merchants from the temple. They had started exploitation of the poor. 5. Condemned because it degrades the personality of an individual 6. Amos condemned taking and giving of bribes 7. Bribes blinds the eyes In the parable of John the Baptist condemned soldiers from taking bribes Corrupt judge and the widow, corruption is condemned 8. Christians are to live righteously and not give bribes or receive. They are the light of the world. 9. Money gained from corruption is not acceptable before God. C Using life skills Life skills are abilities, which enable a person to face the challenges of life in an effective way they are <br><br>Decision making Critical thinking Creative thinking Self esteem Assertiveness a. Decision making Process of identifying the best alternative to overcome a challenge encountered. Often decisions we make do not only affect us but those around us. Steps to decision making 1. Identify the challenge (problem) whats the problem? What is bothering you? 2. Understand the challenge / problem: What is really bothering you? 3. Find out possible solutions 4. Find out the possible options and alternatives 5. Consider the possible consequences for each option 6. Select the best option 7. Implement 8. Evaluate the outcome of the action b. Critical thinking g. Ability to examine and assess a given situation impartially or objectively. It involves reasoning carefully. Getting detailed information, consider the option before making a decision. Critical thinking makes a person responsible for their actions. c. Creative thinking This is the act or practice of using ideas imaginatively to solve a problem d. Self-esteem - This is the regard one has about himself or herself. Self-esteem can be low or high, positive or negative. A positive or high self-esteem person has confidence, is outgoing, social, appreciates self, realistic and independent. - A person with low, negative self-esteem is nave, withdrawn, shy, feels inadequate, and no selfconfidence. e. Assertiveness Ability to express ones feelings and wishes without hurting others. Assertive people are confident; direct in dealing with others assertive people have a high self-esteem. LESSON EIGHT: CHRISTIAN VALUES RELATED TO WEALTH, MONEY, AND POVERTY. Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the terms, values, love. Honesty, reliability, fairness, justice, respect, humility, faithfulness, persistence and chastity 2. State the values related to work Values Beliefs, which guide people on what is right and wrong. There are - Social values - Cultural values - Moral values Values related to wealth are: - - Love - Honesty - Reliability - Fairness - Justice - Respect - Faithfulness - Humility - Persistence - Chastity Love intense emotion of attachment, affection, warmth, fondness, regard for a person or something How should love guide a Christian in relation to wealth creation? Honesty quality of being truthful, fair trustworthy, sincere, genuine. The opposite of honesty is dishonesty. Reliability being dependable, faithful, predictable, unfailing. The ability of being relied upon and keeping promises. Fairness condition of being unbiased, free from discrimination. Justice fair dealings with the people, as they deserve according to the law. Being fair, giving people whats due to them. Opposite of justice is injustice. Respect Quality of having high regard for somebody or something. Politeness. Its important to respect other peoples property. Humility quality of not thinking that you are better than others. Being humble. Opposite of humility is pride, being proud. Those who humble themselves shall be exalted. Faithfulness quality of remaining loyal or true to someone. Christians should be faithful at their places of work and in allocating their wealth to Gods work. Those who are entrusted with public resources to manage on behalf of the people should show a high degree of faithfulness. Persistence quality to persevere. Quality to continue steadfastly, unrelentingly despite opposition e.g. the unjust judge and widow, job =, Jeremiah are people who persisted. Chastity a state of being pure, holy, innocent modest. It is abstinence from actions that may make one impure before God. -Christians should strive hard not to defile their bodies in search of wealth -Christians should strive to live holy lives, avoid prostitution, drug abuse; corruption -people use sexual favour to get jobs or promotion. Christians should thus avoid such. Revision questions 1. Explain the biblical teaching on wealth 2. Discuss the biblical teaching on acquisition and use of wealth 3. Explain ways in which people misuse wealth in Kenya today 4. Show how misuse of wealth leads to family instability 5. Give ways in which the Kenyan government is alleviating the high levels of poverty 6. State the factors that have contributed to high levels of poverty in Kenya today TOPIC SIX: APPROACHES TO LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic you should be able to: a Define the terms law order and justice b Describe the traditional African practices that promote law, order and justice. c Explain the Biblical teaching on law, order and justice. d Identify and evaluate the need for law, order and justice in the society. e Explain the rights and duties of citizens f Explain the causes and remedies of social disorder. g Evaluate the role of Christians in the transformation of the society h Discuss church-state relationship LESSON ONE: DEFINITION OF TERMS Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the following terms law, order and justice 2. State the types of law 3. State the types of statutory laws Introduction - Law, order, justice are essential for the survival of any society <br><br>- Following laws leads to order and justice lack of following leads to disorder and injustice laws of Kenya are laid down in the constitution. A. Law Established rules by an authority to regulate human behaviour in the community Schools laws, religious laws, factory laws, hospital laws etc. laws differ from society to society. Laws are dynamic. Laws cover all aspects of life. B. Order Condition brought about by obedience to set rules or laws. Order leads to peaceful co existence in the society. Where there is order, things are done systematically. The opposite of order is disorder. Types of laws 1. Non legal laws no court action e.g. school rules 2. Customary traditional laws based on culture, social traditions. They have to agree with state laws. They are respected by state. 3. Statutory laws / legal laws laws made by local council or national government and citizens are expected to obey them. Types of statutory laws a) Civil laws made by parliament on issues such as taxes, labour, divorce etc b) Criminal law on crime / punishment c) Constitutional law matters of state and governance d) Company law e) Religious laws e.g. Islamic law sharia C. Justice treating others the way they deserve in relation to the law. Its administration of rightful dealings in a fair manner according to their actions. A just society follows rules and administers legal action to those who offend others or disobey rules. Justice means treating people the same way without discrimination. LESSON TWO: IMPORTANCE OF LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State the importance of law, order and justice a) They are essential to preserve harmony and protect people b) Laws guide people and ensure peoples rights are protected. c) They protect peoples property and enable people to live in harmony d) They protect the consumer from exploitation e) They safeguard religious freedom f) Laws control power of those in authority and promote political stability g) Provides stability, encouraging economic growth h) Helps to control discontentment among people i) Helps implementation of taxes effectively j) Provides / help in maintenance of security k) Ensures human rights are upheld l) Enables the government to protect its citizens from internal or external threats. m) International law regulates relations between countries. LESSON THREE: RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF CITIZENS Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able: - 1. Define the terms citizen, rights and duty 2. List the rights of citizens 3. State te duties/ responsibilities of citizens Citizen person who is a member of a state, kingdom, empire. A person who has full rights as a member of a country by birth, decent, registration, naturalization. Rights legal claims that one is entitled to from the government Duty ones responsibility to the government. Rights 1) Right to life to live securely 2) Right to education 3) Right to liberty / freedom e.g. one should not be imprisoned, detained, without trial. One is innocent until proven guilty 4) Right to protection of property 5) Right to own a family right to marry and raise a family 6) Right to health 7) Freedom of movement Right to freedom of association 9) Right to freedom of assembly 10) Freedom of religion 11) Right to own property 12) Right to equality non discrimination 13) Protection of freedom of expression and speech (own opinions, ideas) Children have rights e.g. Right to life, education, parental care, health, protection from exploitation, right to identity etc. Duties of citizens (responsibilities) 1) Pay taxes to the government 2) Respect the flag and national anthem 3) Respect those in authority 4) Respect the laws of the land 5) Register as a voter and voter in national elections 6) Be responsible at work 7) Participate in national development Promote peace and harmony in the society 9) Report errant members of the society to law enforcement agents 10) Protect the environmental clean, plant trees, avoid poaching etc LESSON FOUR: TRADITIONAL AFRICAN PRACTICES THAT PROMOTE LAW, ORDER, JUSTICE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State and explain the traditional African practices that promoted law, order and justice Some of the practices that promote law, order and justice are a) Punishment of offenders People who committed offences such as stealing, murder, witchcraft were punished through death, curses, paying heavy fines etc. this promoted law, order, justice b) Installation of rules, kings, chiefs, elders They were installed to maintain law, order and to execute justice in their areas of jurisdiction c) Administration of oaths - Administered by specialists and are used as a method of establishing and maintaining law and order d) Making of covenants - Covenants were made if there was a conflict between two communities. They would promise to live in peace and harmony. e) Observing of taboos and customary law Taboos were prohibitions. Those who went against taboos were severely punished f) The kinship system defined how people related one to another g) Rites of passage ensured customs, laws were adhered to h) Religious practices- such as praying, singing, sacrificing and giving of offerings had the effect of maintaining order. LESSON FIVE: BIBLICAL TEACHING ON LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the biblical teachings on law, order and justice God initiated Law, order, and justice. 1. Gods creation is orderly. God desires order 2. Man was created with a conscience to know right from wrong sin has consequences or punishment. God does punish disobedience i.e. justice 3. God instituted the laws as part of his plan for salvation e.g. law of circumcision, Torah (10 commandments), circumcision of the heart, laws on what to eat etc. 4. Gods law governed kingship in Israel. National prosperity depended on a kings ruler ship. Kings were to ensure law and order 5. In the New Testament John the Baptist urged people to observe the law (social justice). 6. Jesus taught that the kingdom of God is based on law, order and justice. There should be fair treatment for all people 7. Jesus said that the law of Moses was given to guide people 8. Christians should obey the law of the land and respect those in authority 9. The apostolic teachings stress the need for law, order, justice (1 Cro.14: 33) 10. Christians should be orderly. 11. The birth of Jesus was orderly. His ministry was also orderly hence should Christians. LESSON SIX: CAUSES OF SOCIAL DISORDER AND THEIR REMEDIES Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State and explain the causes of social disorders 2. State the causes of discrimination 3. Explain the causes of crime 4. List the forms of punishment Social disorder is a state of confusion or lack of order in the society Causes 1) Discrimination 2) Inequitable distribution of wealth, resources 3) Crime 4) Racism 5) Tribalism 6) Sexism Discrimination Discrimination is unfair treatment. Discrimination is on basis of - Race - Tribe - Sex / gender People or a particular person is singled out and treated with disfavor or distaste. It is showing bias or prejudice. Causes of discrimination a. Culture b. Prejudice bias original from opinions that have no known basis or supporting facts stereotypes c. Ignorance e.g. on HIV /AIDS d. Social status ones position in a society Inequitable distribution of wealth and resources - This is when riches of family, community, and nation are not fairly shared out due to Selfishness or poor planning. Some areas are marginalized. Racism unfair treatment of people because of their race Tribalism discrimination on basis of ethnic group Crime an offence against state, normally settled in court. Its antisocial behaviour causing disorder. Causes of crime (Why people commit crime) 1. Poverty 2. Public mistrust for law enforces 3. Lack of parental guidance 4. Wide gap between the rich and the poor 5. Greed for power, money 6. Materialism 7. Drug and substance abuse Sexism - Discrimination against people because of gender - Women are discriminated in areas such as jobs, no promotion for women, oppression of women at home, cultural values demeaning the status of women, wife beating / men beating, female genital mutilation (FGM) early children marriages etc. Remedies to social disorder 1) Rehabilitation for drugs users / abusers 2) Punishment for offenders of crime Forms of punishment - Imprisonment - Payment of fines <br><br>- Corporal punishment - Probation - Being assigned community work - Being placed under house arrest - Learning in approved schools, Juvenile homes 3) Equitable distribution of national resources - Develop marginalized areas - Create jobs 4) Campaign against drug abuse 5) The public to use hot lines to report crime to police 6) Preach against racism, tribalism, and preach equality, freedom and interaction with all people 7) People to be sensitized to appreciate and respect different ethnics groups Promote national unity through education /cultural programmes 9) Creation of more national schools so as to have students from all backgrounds 10) Encourage domestic tourism 11) Enlighten women on their rights 12) Employment on merit 13) Rich countries to share wealth with the poor LESSON SEVEN: ROLE OF CHRISTIANS IN TRANSFORMING THE SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, POLITICAL LIFE OF THE SOCIETY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the term transformation 2. Describe Christians participation in social life 3. Describe Christians participation in political life 4. Describe Christians participation in economic life Transformation is to completely change the attitude, character, and well being of the society a) Christian participation in the social life - Christians are involved in the preaching of the gospel in many places in the country. They use print and electronic media to spread the gospel. - Christians have shown concern for the destitute and victims of violence in the society by building homes for them and providing them with food and clothing. - Christians run schools, vocational institutions, universities providing educational services - Christians offer medical services to the society - They speak openly against sexual immorality, murder, bribery, corruption, abortion etc. - They show compassion to those in need the poor, HIV / AIDS orphans, widows, widowers, aged etc. - They offer guidance and counselling to dysfunctional families (the pastors, those trained to do counselling almost all pastors get a training in guidance and counselling) b) Christians participation in the political life - Christians participate in the political life by advocating for fair distribution of wealth - They offer prayers for government, political leaders - They exercise their right by voting - They also participating in the political life by standing up for elections (Vying for elections) c) Christian participation in economic life - Christians participate in economic life by paying taxes to the government - By contributing in collection of funds for construction of churches, schools, hospitals - They invest in business that promotes their own development as well as the development of the country. - They provide financial resources in order to assist others to start economic activities or self employment - They discourage business practices such as using faulty scales, hiking of prices cheating in business etc and encourage proper acquisition of wealth d) THE CHURCH STATE RELATIONSHIP The government and the church interact at various levels and in different areas a) Religious leaders give advice to the state b) The church speaks against corruption, robbery, rape, abortion, vices which the government is fighting c) The church is the conscience of the state d) Both educate the citizens on the constitution and their rights e) The church preaches peace, love, unity, order f) The state needs support of the church in mobilizing citizens to adopt government policies g) Both are involved in rehabilitation of prisoners h) The church builds schools and other institutions that supplement government institutions. i) The church is involved in formulation of educational curriculum. However the church differs with government on various issues such as a) Use of condoms (Some churches opposed to this) b) Use of live bullets by the law enforces when curbing riots c) Fight on corruption a thorn to the church since state leaders are involved d) Issue of death penalty church been fighting against death penalty to convicts NB. The government lifted the death penalty as a form of punishment in the year 2009. Revision questions 1.state ways in which Christians can promote peace/unity in the society 2. Why should Christians take part in voting? TOPIC SEVEN: CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO SELECTED ISSUES RELATED TO MODERN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic, you should b able to: 1. Explain the Christian view on some issues related to modern science and technology 2. Explain the Christian view on the effects of modern science and technology on the environment LESSON ONE: DEFINITIONS Science subject field that deals with a systematic study of our surroundings and behaviour of materials in the universe It is based on observation, experimentation and measurement. Technology application of science to achieve desired objectives. Environment our surroundings both natural and human made i.e. mountains, lakes, land, forests, animals, buildings, flowers etc LESSON TWO: POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State the various ways that science and technology has improved our lives 2. State the negative effects of science and technology Ways science and technology has improved human lives 1) Improvement of crop production a quality seeds, fertilizers leading to improved yields 2) Better nutrition, health care, medical services 3) Improvement of livestock production through artificial insemination, quality medicine leading to more milk production. 4) It has led to development of efficient means of transport land, air, seas 5) Work has been made easier and enjoyable. There is use of machines, automation, use of computers. 6) Peoples lives have been spared, saved e.g. through life saving machines (ICU), incubators 7) Business transactions are being done through the internet Communication has been made easy fax, email, short text messages on mobile phones etc 9) Research is ongoing for incurable diseases i.e. HIV / AIDS, cancer 10) There is better management of environment 11) Technology has made the world a global village 12) Through family planning methods, its easier to control population growth 13) Theres a better security system through use of scanners, alarms, electrified fences etc. 14) Improvement of learning through elearning 15) Theres easier movement from one country to another Negative effects of science and technology 1. People use medicine to commit suicide 2. Increase of crime, fraud and death through modern means of communication 3. Destruction of family relationships 4. Breakdown of community names, values morals, breakdown of families 5. Terrorism 6. Greed for money / materialism 7. Unemployment replacement of personnel by machines 8. Health hazards such as accidents in factories 9. Pollution, air poisoning LESSON THREE: CHRISTIAN VIEW ON ISSUES RELATED TO SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the following terms euthanasia, blood transfusion, organ transplant, genetic engineering and plastic surgery 2. Describe Christians view on euthanasia, blood transfusion, organ transplant, human cloning, genetic engineering and plastic surgery 3. State the reasons for and against euthanasia, blood transfusion, organ transplant, human cloning, genetic engineering and plastic surgery a. Euthanasia b. Blood transfusion c. Organ transplant d. Genetic engineering e. Plastic surgery Euthanasia Its a Greek word, which means an easy and painless death. It is mercy killing ending a persons life so a) Injecting an overdose of sleeping pills to the sick person b) Switching off life support machine c) Exposing the person with chronic pneumonia to very cold air. Christians view on Euthanasia Christians are opposed to euthanasia for several reasons such as a) Life is sacred, a gift from God and only God can take away human life b) Suffering is part of human life c) Euthanasia is against medical ethos, which demands that doctors and nurses work for the sustenance of human life and alleviation of suffering but not to terminate it. d) Jesus has power over sickness and through his name all sickness are healed e) Accepting euthanasia discourages medical research on vaccines that may cure various diseases. f) Euthanasia discourages patients and makes them to lose hope in life. They may feel unwanted and rejected. Blood transfusion - Its the process of injecting a persons blood into another person through his/her veins. The giver is a donor the receiver is a recipient. Reasons for blood transfusion 1. When a person is suffering from acute anemia (little blood in the body) low blood level. 2. To restore blood lost during fatal accidents, wars, or childbirth 3. To maintain blood levels for patients undergoing major operations 4. To correct the low haemoglobin level of some patients 5 Blood has to be screened for any diseases, and then kept in blood bank after determining the blood group. The transfusion should be in a hygienic way. The equipment used should be sterilized 6. Donors should not be below 16 years or above 65 years Alternatives to blood transfusion a) Volume expanders increase fluid levels in the body b) Growth factors intra operative / post operative c) Blood salvage same blood when on surgery is saved then transfused back to the patient Christian view on blood transfusion a) Some Christians believe it is wrong to take blood from a healthy person and transfuse it to another person. b) Blood is life and life cannot be taken from one person to another c) Blood transfusion is essential as it saves life d) Blood transfusion can transmit dangerous diseases like HIV / AIDS and Hepatitis B e) God has given Christians the intelligence and capability to make the right decision and choice Organ transplant - This is the removal of a defective organ and replacing it with a healthy one. Body organs transplanted are kidneys, heart and eyes small intestines, pan crease. - The purpose is to replace the damaged organ of a recipient <br><br>- Common transplants are the heart, kidney, eyes from living and the dead (heart) within a span of hours. Eyes can be transplanted from animals. Christian view on organ transplant a) It saves life hence acceptable to some b) Its transferring human life from one person to another c) Its wrong to transplant from animals view by some Christians d) Some support organ transplant by referring to the story of creation of Eve from parts of Adam e) It is part of human beings continuing with the creation work of God. f) It is an expression of love and concern for those suffering as taught by Jesus Christ. Genetic engineering - Its a scientific technique used by scientists to change the biological characteristics of living organisms by deliberately altering the structure of individual genes. - There are genetically modified foods, genetically engineered seeds, test tube babies, human clones, and genes of human insulin. Human cloning This is a form of genetic engineering. Its a creation of genetically identical copy of a human being, human cell. <br><br>Twins are a form of natural cloning Theres therapeutic cloning and reproductive cloning (human cloning) Therapeutic cloning is when cells from an adult are used in creating Human cloning is illegal worldwide Genetic cells are used to treat Alzheimer, heart attack, cancer Test tube babies are different from human cloning. Test tube babies are <br><br>where the egg and sperm is fused together outside the body. <br><br>In cloning, a needle like device is used to draw out the cells from an <br><br>embryo, then preserved using chemicals, then put in a womb/uterus to grow. Some do not need a sperm cell, they use other body cells for fertilization. Reasons for advocating human cloning <br><br>Can clone people whose genetic composition is of a genius, people with <br><br>special abilities or talents <br><br>Can be able to bring, revive back great extinct characteristics. Those who support it believes it can reduce immorality <br><br>Reasons against human cloning 1. God is the sole creator. Cloning takes the place of God. 2. It de humanizes human beings purpose of human reproduction 3. It destroys uniqueness of each individual (Cloning is an exact copy) 4. It can be abused and used to create antisocial people (rapists, thieves) 5. May create deformed people 6. Its un-ethical, immoral experiment. Its destruction of the embryo hence abortion 7. 95% of clones have failed (animal) most animals died 8. Its illegal 9. Closed animals died of cancer, had arthritis, deformities and an early death 10. Cloning may bring a destructive copy of humans Advantages of genetic engineering 1. Implanting genes that are diseases free in people, plant and animals could prevent diseases. 2. Genetic crops yield more 3. Helps to determine the biological parent in case of dispute on babies (DNA) 4. Helps to increase disease resistance in crops and altering animal traits in plants and animals 5. Assists in classifying blood during screening before its transfused to another person. Christian view of genetic engineering 1. Christians support genetic engineering that is beneficial to human beings e.g. Cure of genetic diseases, production of drugs, plant and animals 2. Human beings are made in Gods image and are loved by God with or without defects. 3. The dignity of the human being is eroded or disregarded and should be upheld. 4. Christians oppose cloning and test tube babies 5. Its against Gods will or teaching Plastic surgery - Its to change or mould the shape of something, to enhance or restore an area of the body - Its repairing or improving of damaged, diseased or unsatisfactory shaped parts of the body with pieces of skin or bone taken from other parts of the body. - Skin grafting is the most common type of plastic surgery - Plastic surgery is done on cleft lips i.e. cosmetic surgery, breast surgery reduction or enlargement, surgery done to look younger. Reasons for plastic surgery <br><br>- It can help restore ones confidence or self esteem - It enhances beauty, attractiveness or youthfulness - It enhances a persons life and can be a life changing procedure - It may help a person to get a new job Disadvantages - Its expensive - Can lead to transmission of diseases Christian views on plastic surgery - Some support it, as it has some benefits - Some Christian oppose plastic surgery in order to look younger - Some argue that some people do it because of a lack of self acceptance, low self esteem hence should work on such issues first. LESSON FOUR: THE CHRISTIAN VIEW ON THE EFFECTS OF MODERN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ON THE ENVIRONMENT (POLLUTION, DESERTIFICATION) Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State the various ways of caring for the environment In Genesis 1, man was given the responsibility of taking care of the environment Ways of taking care of the environment 1. Cleaning up the environment, clean up rivers 2. Educating people on the importance of conservation 3. Dispose industrial wastes properly 4. Enforce use of environment friendly fuel (unleaded fuel) 5. Factory owners to supply protective wear to factory workers 6. Planting of trees and flowers 7. Establishing airports, industries, and disco clubs away from residential areas. <br><br>8. Advocate for laws to be passed to minimize noise from vehicles, aircrafts, entertainment centres. 9. Waste to be managed through <br><br>Reuse e.g. bottles Recycle plastic bottles to be recycled to plastic bins, old newspapers <br><br>to be recycled to tissue papers. <br><br>Recover burning waste products to produce electricity <br><br>Waste can be managed to reduce use of Throw away goods e.g. batteries to use of electricity. LESSON FIVE: POLLUTION AND ITS EFFECTS. Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the terms pollutant and pollution 2. Give examples of pollutants 3. State and explain the types of pollution 4. State the effects of the various types of pollution. Its introduction into the environment of substances or energy that is liable to cause hazards to human health, harm to living resources and ecological systems In simple terms pollution is the contamination of the environment. Substances that cause pollution are called pollutants. Some of the pollutants include; <br><br>Industrial affluent Pesticides Insecticides Fertilizers Ultra violent rays from nuclear plants Dust Smoke Noise Waste heat Exhaust gases from automobiles <br><br>Types of pollution a) Water pollution p) Air pollution q) Land pollution r) Radiation pollution s) Sound pollution (noise) Water pollution This is the increase of substances in water in excess of its rightful chemical components thus making it unsuitable for human, animal or plant use. - Disposing domestic and industrial waste into rivers, lakes, seas etc pollutes water. - Disposing agricultural chemicals pesticides into water bodies. - Oil spilling into waters - Poor sanitation bathing or washing clothes in rivers or dams Effects of water pollution a. Causes diseases, which are communicable such as cholera, typhoid, and dysentery. b. Leads to death of marine life birds (Flamingo) fish by oil spills c. Mercury (metal) leads, silver is poisonous. They kill organisms. d. Water becomes unfit for human consumption Air pollution - Presence of contaminants in the atmosphere caused by a. Smoke b. Fumes c. Dust from mines, quarries - When there is an increased level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere thats pollution - Other major atmospheric pollutants include gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), and sulphur dioxide (SO2) - Nitrogen Oxide (NO) i.e. fumes from vehicles, aircrafts, industries Effects (i) Leads to diseases such as bronchitis, asthma (ii) Leads to depletion of the Ozone layer leading to ultra violent rays of the sun penetrating to the earth causing skin cancer, cataracts (eye problems), low plant yields. (iii) Causes rusting of roofs (iv) Causes acid rains (v) Carbon dioxide (02) in the atmosphere has led to global warming. (vi) Formation of smog (thick fog), which can lead to accidents. (vii) Colored rain due to large amounts of dust in the atmosphere (viii) Eyesight loss due to gas leakages from industrial plants. Land pollution Land pollution is any physical or chemical alteration to land, which causes change in its use and renders it incapable of beneficial use without treatment. - Improper or excessive use of insecticides, pesticides makes land acidic - Land is also polluted by improper disposal of waste / garbage, broken glasses. Effects (i) Waste is an eye sore spoiling the beauty of the environment (ii) Broken glass can lead to injuries (iii) Open mining leaves pits, which are a danger to people and animals. Noise pollution - Experienced especially in urban centres, near roads, running water, mining areas, airports, music from bars, nightclubs etc. <br><br>- An instrument called sound meter measures noise. The lowest unit is O Decitel, which is okay. More than 80 decibels is harmful to the ear. Noise over 80 decibels can cause (effects) - Deafness, hearing problems - Psychological disorders frustrations, irritation - Insomnia - Shock due to sudden noise - Cracking of walls Noise can be minimized by <br><br>Construction of sound proof buildings Location of residential areas away from industries, airports, bars, main <br><br>roads <br><br>Banning of unnecessary hooting, playing of loud music in public <br><br>vehicles <br><br>Installing silencers in generators Education people on the effects of noise pollution <br><br>Pollution caused by radiation <br><br>Mainly in developed countries <br><br>Atomic explosions e.g. Hiroshima / Nagasaki in Japan in 1945. The side effects of mutations of born children. Some children born with deformities. The radiation caused chromosome mutations. Some mutations on the cells of the parent / grandparents. <br><br>Nuclear power stations also a danger Medical equipment e.g. X ray machines when one is over exposed to <br><br>these radiations (x rays) it can lead to development of cancer. LESSON SIX: DESERTIFICATION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the term desertification 2. Describe the causes of desertification This is slow encroachment of desert like a condition to land that was previously productive making it desolate, uncultivatable and uninhabitable. Human activity accelerates creation of deserts. Causes of deserts 1. Natural a) Persistent rains in a semi arid area b) Exposure of an area to very high, very cold temperatures c) Inadequate rainfall for a long period of time 2. Human Human activities that lead to desertification are (i) Cutting down of trees (deforestation) for land use such as building, industries, and not replacing them. (ii) Use of water from wells to irrigate land. Its harmful especially salty water salt on soil salination is toxic to soils. (iii) Incorrect use of pesticides and fertilizers destroy soil nutrients. (iv) Industrialization industries emit carbon dioxide (CO2) leading to formation of acid rain, which leads to unproductive land hence desertification (v) Overgrazing especially among the pastoralist communities (vi) Poor farming methods like cultivation on riverbanks and slopes, which causes soil erosion, leading to desertification. LESSON SEVEN: SOLUTIONS TO DESERTIFICATION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1.state the solutions to desertification Land can be restored through the following ways; (i) Removal of people, livestock from certain areas e.g. forests (ii) Installation of good drainage systems (iii) Reduction of water logging / salination (iv) Use of alternative sources of fuel such as wind, solar, biogas instead of cutting down trees to use as fuel (charcoal) (v) Advocate for penalties to those who pollute the environment factories (vi) Replace trees that are cut down (vii) Build water storage facilities to store rain water then use it for irrigation (viii) Educate people on the importance of the environment (ix) Use of manure instead of harmful fertilizers Emulate Prof. Wangari Maathai implanting trees 8th October 2004 she was awarded the Nobel peace prize, an international award, for her efforts in preserving the environment. Revision questions. 1. How can modern Christians evaluate scientific and technological discoveries 2. Why is the church in Kenya opposed to plastic surgery? 3. How has science and technology improved human life? 4. What are the consequences of science and technology in our society? C.R.E. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS TOPIC ONE CHRISTIAN ETHICS Q1. What is the meaning of Christian Ethics? It is about how Christians make choices in their daily lives guided by <br><br>Christian principles and value. Q2. What is the basis or sources or foundation of Christian Ethics? <br><br>The Bible/Biblical scripture (holy) The natural law Human experience and reason The Christian community preachers Situation Ethics Secular/Civil Law <br><br>Q3. List the basic life skills that one needs to be able to lead a better life (a) Critical thinking (b) Creative thinking (c) Decision making (d) Self-esteem (e) Assertiveness TOPIC TWO MALE/FEMALE RELATIONSHIPS Q1. Explain seven Christian teachings on male/female relationships <br><br>Male/female were created as equal human beings: created in the image <br><br>and likeness of God. <br><br>Male/female created for companionship, help/ partners/ compliment <br><br>each other. <br><br>Both are co-creator with God done through procreation. Union between both is consummated in marriage. Relationship is based on love and respect/chastity. Man/husband is the head of the family. Each man to have his own wife and wife own husband. Husband and wife should not deny each other conjugal rights. Youth should abstain from sex until marriage. Male/female body is temple of the Lord. Short periods of abstinence are allowed among married people but with <br><br>consent from each other. <br><br>Christians appreciate different roles of men and women in the church <br><br>e.g. leadership in choir for women and men. TOPIC THREE. HUMAN SEXUALITY Q1. Explain the Traditional African understanding of human sexuality Human sexuality is regarded as sacred and secret in many African <br><br>communities. <br><br>The sacredness of sex is related to the power to transmit life <br><br>procreation. <br><br>It is taboo to discuss sex matters freely especially in the presence of <br><br>children. <br><br>Grandparents who are free from any tying job teach sex education. Young people are prepared for adult life in the context of age group e.g. <br><br>games of sexual nature take place within an age group. The age group has control of each other and there is no sex whatsoever. <br><br>During initiation ceremonies, vigorous sex education is provided to the <br><br>initiates. <br><br>They are taught about sex, its secrets and the mystery of manhood and <br><br>womanhood. <br><br>Girls are expected to remain virgins Rape offenders are severely punished. Boys and girls are not allowed to mix. Division of labour is on the basis of sex. Roles of boys and girls are taught from childhood e.g. by copying their Man and woman are equal before God. It is for procreation. Man and woman are complimentary. Both were created in the image of God. They became one in marriage. Sex is only allowed in marriage. Virginity is valued. Human beings have the ability to control sexual desires. Chastity is a virtue. All forms of irresponsible sexual behavior are condemned. <br><br>Q3. In what ways is sex abused in Kenya? <br><br>By practicing fornication/sex before marriage. Adultery sex outside marriage Through prostitution By practicing bestiality Through homosexuality/lesbianism/gayism Incest Rape/defilement of minors Masturbation Pornographic literature using of technological devices in sex <br><br>Q4. Why do you think minors are defiled or sexually abused in Kenya daily? <br><br>Lack of self-control among some men. Drugs and drug abuse. Permissiveness in society. Influence from the mass media. Mental illness mad people. Erosion of the African culture/moral values Devil worship/strange cults/false religion. Breakdown of religion values. Irresponsible parenthood. Indecent dressing. Leniency of the Law/no punishment for criminal. Idleness Poverty <br><br>Responsible Sexual Behaviour Q 5. What is the Christian teaching on responsible sexual behavior? <br><br>Responsible sex is between male and female. Sexual intercourse is allowed between married people. Faithfulness is a virtue in this: Both partners must avoid adultery. Responsible sexual behavior means exercising self-control. It entails obedience to Gods commands hence a Christian has to shun <br><br>forbidden sexual behavior e.g. fornication. <br><br>Body temple of the Lord. Our sexual relationships should uphold human <br><br>dignity and respect for our bodies. <br><br>The Bible teaches that whatever we do with our bodies should be for the <br><br>glory of God (1 Cor. 7:19-20). Q6. List the difference types of irresponsible sexual behavior Homosexuality (lesbianism, sodomy) Bestiality Masturbation Rape Incest Prostitution Fornication Abortion Q7. Explain the Christian teaching on responsible sexual behavior <br><br>It defiles the body, which is the temple of God. It is wickedness. It is unholy and dirty before God. It is spiritually unclean. Those involved break the commandment of God. It involves coveting a sin. Polygamy is condemned and considered irresponsible. <br><br>Q8. State the effects of irresponsible sexual behavior It can lead to sexually transmitted diseases (AIDS). Can lead to pregnancy and then abortion. If married people are involved (adultery) divorce may occur. Separation Children suffer lack of parental care due to divorce as a result of <br><br>adultery. <br><br>It may lead to street children. It discourages young people from marrying. It can lead to fights, quarrels, misunderstanding and friction. Young people can chop out of school due to pregnancy/AIDS. Can lead to single parenthood. Withdrawing from family and society. Self-pity and loneliness. Psychological problems e.g. depression Stress Suicide and death. Unwanted/unexpected pregnancies. Aggressiveness and violence. LESSON THREE: THE FAMILY Q5. State the different types of families <br><br>Nuclear family Single parent family Polygamous Extended <br><br>LESSON TWO: MARRIAGE Q1. Explain the Traditional African understanding of marriage <br><br>Marriage is viewed as the focus of existence, i.e. the point where the <br><br>three members of the community meet (i.e. living, departed and the unborn). <br><br>A rhythm of life through which everybody must participate. Marriage is a duty/a must/compulsory Failure to marry means the person has rejected society and the society <br><br>rejects him in turn. <br><br>Those who do not marry are considered as sub-human or lawbreakers. Marriage is God ordained. Young boys and girls are prepared for this sacred institution during <br><br>initiation. <br><br>They are taught everything pertaining to marriage e.g. sex. Children cement the marriage. <br><br>Q2. What is the importance of children in Traditional African Society <br><br>They help their parents at old age. Cement a marriage: One without children is considered incomplete. Children (boys) provide security at home and the community. They help in the perpetuation of the family and community name. The departed are reborn through naming of children. Provide labour. It is through children that (new) members meet and get to know each <br><br>other. Young children are introduced to their relatives e.g. during initiation, marriage etc. Marriage is for procreation. Marriage is for companionship. It is for fulfillment of mutual love. Marriage is a remedy against sin fornication. It should be monogamous. Marriage should be permanent no divorce. Without or with children marriage is complete. Sex outside marriage is forbidden. <br><br>Q4. What is the importance of courtship period in Traditional African Societies? <br><br>It helped in identifying a suitable marriage partner. The two families involved established a firm relationship. The boy and the girl had a chance to learn each others character. It gives an opportunity to know whether the boy and girl are related. Allows time for exchange of gifts between the two families, thus a firm <br><br>relationship is established. <br><br>Time to negotiate the bride-wealth. Boy and girl are instructed about their duties and responsibilities. <br><br>Q5. Why are many people opting for celibacy instead of marriage today? <br><br>Celibacy is used to refer to the unmarried. Many remain single today because of Christianity to serve God. Some are born Eunuchs cannot father children. Education one may want to pursue education Career demands too demanding to allow one get time for a family. Lack of guidance and counseling on marriage and family. Discouragement from failing marriages. Economic reasons one may not have money for a big house, wedding Economic independence whereby young people feel satisfied when <br><br>they have enough money. <br><br>Parental interference or whom their son should marry. Disappointing relationships. <br><br>CHAPTER SIX CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO WORK Q1. What is work? Answer <br><br>Work means any human activity, be it manual, intellectual or both. <br><br>Q2. List any six reasons why people work <br><br>People work for self-satisfaction and fulfillment. For personal development. In order to acquire basic needs of life. To give life meaning, direction and dignity. To provide service for the community. To acquire wealth and status in the community. In order to socialize and grow as a member of a community. To attain independence and stop depending on others. In order to help others e.g. beggars. <br><br>Q3. Explain the Traditional African attitude towards work <br><br>Work was understood as a fundamental dimension of human existence <br><br>here on earth. <br><br>It is through work that human beings were able to change, reorganize <br><br>and restructure their society. <br><br>It was regarded as a recreational activity as through it, people built their <br><br>houses, places of worship, produced art like sculpture and carving. <br><br>Work was highly valued and the dignity of work was taught early in Each member had his own role to play e.g. men went out to hunt, herd <br><br>etc accompanied with boys while mother did house work with the help of daughters. <br><br>Grandparents taught the youth how to behave and baby seated. They believed work was Gods will and so they invoked Gods name <br><br>through prayer, sacrifice to bless their work. <br><br>They had freedom over their work. No supervision. They decided when <br><br>to work, when to rest but rest came after work. <br><br>Work was related to leisure, for people sang, danced and told stories as <br><br>they worked. <br><br>Through work, many people exploited talents or learned e.g. building <br><br>houses, song etc. <br><br>All were workers work was compulsory. Work brought people together solidarity. This is because they shared <br><br>work (communal work). Q3. List some of the factors that have changed the attitude towards work in the modern society <br><br>Level of education determine the type of work. Availability of job opportunities. Stiff competition Work is personal unlike in Traditional African Communities where it <br><br>was social. <br><br>Negative attitude to work. This is where some people hate manual work. People work for personal gain and gratification. Work is a commodity to be sold to the highest bidder. Have association with other employers. Expect loyalty form their employees. Receive from their employees work input as agreed upon on the <br><br>employment contract. <br><br>Operate without being black mailed by trade unions. Open business ventures without Government restrictions. <br><br>Q5. State the duties of employees <br><br>To carry out their duties to the best of their ability without supervision <br><br>e.g. be punctual, present etc. <br><br>To respect and protect the property of the employer. To resort to peaceful means of solving problems, and not destructive <br><br>ways e.g. strike. <br><br>To work diligently for self fulfillment and development. To respect the employer and fellow employees. <br><br>Q6. Why has child labour become common in Kenya? Definition: This is the employment of children on a full time basis. Reasons: <br><br>Their labour is cheap. They are not unionisable and can therefore not fight for proper terms <br><br>and conditions of service. <br><br>They can easily be lured and fired. They do no have qualifications in any skill so as to negotiate for their <br><br>terms. <br><br>They are looked at as a source of income by their parents or guardians. <br><br>Q7. What are the causes of unemployment in Kenya? <br><br>High population There are too few job opportunities as compared to Bribery and corruption In the job market whereby the rich are able to <br><br>give while the poor though with good qualifications cannot secure a job. <br><br>Lack of skills and capital to start self-employment. Bad governance and poor economic policies from the government. SAPS Structural Adjustment of Programmes i.e. Policy not giving <br><br>funds has led to poverty. <br><br>International policies of globalization that have affected the agric sector <br><br>that has been the greatest employer in Kenya. <br><br>Retrenchment of workers in the Civil Service and Private Sectors. Increase in crime that has aggravated insecurity in the country. This has <br><br>discouraged local and international investors. Q8. What can the Government do to reduce unemployment in Kenya? <br><br>By creating more job opportunities. By starting more industries. Increase of workers by 10% after every 10 years. Encouraging self-employment whereby loans and space are given. Starting of a school curriculum (8.4.4.) starting that gears students <br><br>into blue-collar jobs. <br><br>Starting the District Funds for Rural Development = C.D.F. Stopping rural urban migration. By Africanisation of jobs sending away foreign workers. <br><br>CHAPTER SEVEN CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO LEISURE: AND THE USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS Q1. Identify five (5) reasons why the taking of alcohol as a way of spending leisure is condemned Misuse of family resources. May lead to addiction. Leads to irresponsible sexual behaviours e.g. prostitution, adultery, and <br><br>fornication. <br><br>Could lead to loss of income. May lead to irresponsibility, which leads to accidents such as motor <br><br>accidents. Q2. Write down 5 ways in which modern Christian use their leisure time <br><br>Organize/attend religious seminars. Participate in church choir/concerts. Offers services to the aged. Read religious literature e.g. Bible. Keep the church and its environment clean. Have fellowship with other Christians. Initiate self-help projects to assist the needy. Provide guidance and counseling to the community. Preach the word of God. Visit relatives and friends. Be with family members. Listen to Christian preaching/songs on radio. <br><br>Q3. Give 5 ways in which drug abuse could affect a Christian family <br><br>Drains family resources. Fights in families may occur. Leads to diseases. Leads to family break-ups/separation/divorce. It reduces ones capacity to be productive in the family. Results in making wrong decisions/judgement. Leads to denial of conjugal rights. Leads to loss of religious values. Leads to poor role models for children. Leads to crime/imprisonment. <br><br>Q4. Identify ways in which Christians can overcome temptations to drug abuse <br><br>Practicing self-control. Praying against being tempted. Seeking guidance and counseling. Avoiding the company of those who misuse drugs. Reading literature on the correct use of drugs. Participating in activities that promote proper use of drugs/healthy <br><br>activities. Q5. Why is leisure important in the life of Christians? <br><br>Gives one time to visit the sick/needy. For dedicating oneself to God/worshiping God. Provide an opportunity to fellowship with others. It allows one to develop the different talents given by God. It gives one an opportunity to meet new friends/family. One is able to read the word of God. Provides an opportunity for one to preach/evangelize. Provides an opportunity to take care of the environment. Provides an opportunity to guide and counsel others and be guided. Provides time to rest to gain lost energy. <br><br>Q6. What factors have contributed to the misuse or leisure in Kenya today? <br><br>Too much money/wealth/availability of drugs/contraceptives. Inadequate facilities. Lack of proper guidance/education on how to use leisure. Poverty Inability to make right decisions. Bad company/peer pressure Watching/reading phonographic materials/negative media. Misunderstanding in families/frustrations. Inability to balance between different activities. Permissiveness Lack of role models Idleness/boredom/unemployment <br><br>Q7. State the factors that have led to the misuse of drugs in Kenya today <br><br>Poor role models. Stress/depression/rebellion. Peer pressure/curiosity. Irresponsible parenthood. Influence of mass media. Availability of drugs/wealth. Lack of guidance and counseling. Corruption/greed. Poverty Moral decay/permissiveness in the society. Lack of knowledge/ignorance on use of drugs. Idleness Urbanization/west culture. <br><br>CHAPTER EIGHT CHRISTIAN RESPONSE TO ISSUES RELATED TO WEALTH, MONEY AND POVERTY Q1. Explain the biblical teaching on wealth <br><br>It is a blessing from God. When wealth come with responsibility. Wealth can create a sense of false independence. It should be acquired in just and honest way. Wrong attitude to wealth leads to idolatry. One should seek spiritual wealth, which is permanent and more <br><br>fulfilling. It is wrong to discriminate others on basis of material possessions. Christians should share whatever wealth they have. Wealth is not supreme good. Wealth gives people independence so that they do not beg. Wealth may bring suffering and insecurity. God is the owner of wealth and people should realize that they are only <br><br>stewards. Q2. Discuss the biblical teaching on acquisition and use of wealth Riches acquired through just and fair means are not condemned. Even if wealth is acquired through just means it should not be idolized. Failing to use wealth to glorify God. God is the source of all riches. Wealth is acquired through obedience to Gods laws. People ought to take care of their wealth not misuse. Wealth should be equally distributed and not concentrated in the hands <br><br>of a few. <br><br>Wealth should be used to develop the nations infrastructure. Q3. Explain ways in which people misuse wealth in Kenya today <br><br>Indulge in alcohol and drugs. Engaging in immoral practices e.g. prostitution. Gambling which might lead to loss of wealth. Being luxurious/extravagant Unfair class competition among the wealthy. Using wealth to undermine others e.g. assassination Using wealth to promote crime. Engaging in risky/dangerous sports or projects e.g. motor racing, Q4. Show how misuse of wealth leads to family instability <br><br>One may indulge in alcohol/drug abuse at the expense of family needs. Engage in immorality/extra-marital sexual relations/prostitution. Leads to misunderstanding on how to use wealth/invest. One uses wealth to engage in gambling. Spoils children/encourages laziness. Arrogance/pride/showing off One becomes obsessed with wealth and fails to care for the family love <br><br> has no time for the family. <br><br>Inheritance squabbles in case of death. One fails to meet the basic needs for the family. <br><br>Q5. Give ways in which Kenyan Government is alleviating levels of poverty <br><br>Offering free education. Provision of C.D.F. Allocation of bursary to the needy. Creating and enabling environmental employment in formal and <br><br>informal sectors (easy access to loans). <br><br>Providing market for agricultural products e.g. K.C.C, Cereal Board. Provision of low cost health services. Improving infrastructure e.g. roads, electricity. Providing youth fund through the Ministry of Youth Affairs. <br><br>Q6. State the factors that have contributed to high levels of poverty in Kenya today Low level of technology. Unemployment Laziness Over dependence on foreign aid Abuse of alcohol and other drugs Lack of formal education hence no employment. <br><br>CHAPTER NINE CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE Q1. State ways in which Christians can promote unity/peach in the society <br><br>By reporting criminals to the police. By being good example to others as peacekeepers. Praying for criminals. Building and counseling criminals. Teaching the society the importance of keeping peace. Condemning evil and evildoers. <br><br>Q2. Why should Christians take part in voting? <br><br>They belong to the society and leadership affects them. It is a God-given duty. In order to choose righteous leaders who will encourage values/virtues. In order to help reduce bribery and corruption and other vices in the <br><br>society. CHAPTER 10 CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO SELECTED ISSUES RELATED TO MODERN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT Q1. How can modern Christians evaluate scientific and technological discoveries? <br><br>They should keep in mind that God gave them high-level power of <br><br>thinking. <br><br>Discoveries must be used intelligently to solve mans problems. They should not be used as an insult to God who created all things e.g. <br><br>in things like plastic surgery, test tube babies etc. <br><br>Discoveries must be used intelligently to solve mans problems. Discoveries should not erode Christian values by increasing mans trust <br><br>in scientific and technological production. <br><br>Acknowledge God as the source of all truth including science. Should help man make moral decision and judgments e.g. effect of <br><br>alcohol, smoking, etc. <br><br>Man should not be a slave to scientific discoveries instead he should <br><br>control it. Q2. Why is the church in Kenya opposed to plastic surgery? <br><br>It is against Gods plan of old age and death. It is a sign of lack of appreciation to Gods work of creation. It can lead to death if the operation fails. It interferes with Gods image given at birth. May be very expensive. Emphasis on beauty and pleasing which are seen as idolatry. Certain diseases can be transmitted especially where tissues may be <br><br>detached from a donor with an infectious disease. <br><br>Can bring about other operations like diseases. Scientists use it to compete with Gods creation. Leads to vices such as pride. It may lead to criminal activities by the victim due to different Modern methods of transport and communication have improved social <br><br>interaction and faster movements. <br><br>It has improved efficiency at work where machines are used. Has improved agricultural development hence increasing food <br><br>production. <br><br>Irrigation and wealth forecasting have too increased in food production. It has brought better health care through modern medical technology. Human beings are now better placed in terms of security matters by use <br><br>of radar, alarms and electrical fencing. <br><br>It has led to the creation of job opportunities through industrial <br><br>development. <br><br>Formal education and training has equipped human beings with new <br><br>skills for survival. <br><br>Trade has been promoted through the use of computers and the Internet. <br><br>Q4. What are the consequences of science and technology in our society today? <br><br>Unemployment is acute in our society today because computers have <br><br>taken over. <br><br>There is exploitation of workers by the employers because they want <br><br>maximum profits. <br><br>It has caused pollution and air poisoning. It has caused health hazards and accidents in factories, roads etc. Machines have replaced human labour. Families are separated due to employment whereby a mother lives in the <br><br>rural with children while the father goes to town to work. <br><br>It has destroyed family relationships and replaced it with individualis |
1 # **FORM ONE ** **INTRODUCTION TO CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION ** **THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING CRE ** **Definition of Christian Religious Education (CRE) ** Christian Religious Education is the study of Gods revelation to human beings through scriptures, the persons of Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. Why do schools study CRE? There are many reasons why schools study CRE. Some of the reasons are to: a) Enable you to develop a personal relationship with God. a) Help you to acquire basic principles of Christian living. b) Help you to develop a sense of self-respect and respect for others. c) Help you to develop positive attitudes and values, which help you to cope with challenges of life. d) Contribute to the moral and spiritual development of students. e) Help you to contribute positively to the transformation of an individual and the society as whole. f) Help you to identify answers to situations of life, including death and Eternal life. g) Help learners to identify answers to lifes questions. h) Promotes international consciousness. i) Help you to understand yourself. j) Promote cultural integration. k) Enable you to acquire a better understanding of God. l) Unite people. m) Guide you in choosing a career n) Help you to appreciate African religious heritage and other religions. ----- 2 # o) Promote living values such as honesty concern for others, kindness, love and unity. **THE BIBLE ** The Bible is the sacred book containing Gods revelation to people. It is the inspired word of God. It is the book through which God communi- cates with His people. **The Bible as the word of God ** The Bible is the word of God because: a) The written scripture contain Gods word. b) Through the Bible God communicates his will to humans. c) It contains word written by inspired authors such as the prophets who were sent by God. d) God himself took part in the writing of the Bible. E.g. God is believed to have written the Ten Commandments e) It contains the history of salvation realized through Jesus Christ. f) The Word gives revelation to mysteries. g) The Bible contains a message of hope and reconciliation. h) It reveals that God controlled what was being written and what He inte- nded the writers to pass to the people. **The Bible as a library ** The Bible is referred to as a library since it is a collection of inspired scri- ptures or books. The Bible contains 66 books. The Bible is divided into the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament contains 39 books while the New Testament contains 27 books. However, the Ro- man Catholic Church accepts 7 additional books referred to as Apocrypha or Deutero or canonical books. The word Apocrypha means hidden or secret. They are Esdras (1, 2), Tobit, Judith, Ecclesiaticus, Baarch and Maccabees. ----- 3 # **Why the Bible is a library ** Several studies show that: a) The Bible contains (66) book just like a library has many books. The Bible is a collection of books arranged in series. b) The Bible is a reference book for Christians. The authors of the Bible had a special spiritual guidance; hence each book was written for a pur- pose. c) The books were written at different times in history. d) The Bible has literary works. e) The Books written contain different topics. f) The Bible has different books written by different authors. g) The books of the Bible were written under different situations and cir- cumstances. **THE BIBLE: MAJOR DIVISIONS AND ITS BOOKS ** **Major divisions of the Bible ** The bible is divided into two major divisions. These are the Old Testame- nt with (39 Books) and the New Testament with (27 Books). The word Testament means covenant or agreement with God. The Old Testament books are divided into: a. Books of the law or the Pentateuch or Torah. b. Historical books. c. Poetic Books d. Prophetic books. **Law books or the Pentateuch or Torah ** The books of law are (i) Genesis (ii) Exodus (iii) Leviticus (iv) Numbers (v) Deuteronomy. Moses wrote these books. They contain the law of God as it was given to the people of Israel through Moses. They also contain the history of the ----- 4 # Israelites from creation to the time they entered the Promised Land. The author Moses is regarded as a lawgiver, teacher and prophet. **Historical books ** There are the 12 consecutive books from (i) Joshua (ii) Judges (iii) Ruth (iv) 1, 2 Samuel (v) 1, 2 Kings (vi)1, 2 Chronicles (vii) Ezra (viii) Nehemiah (ix) Esther. These 12 books record the history of the Israelites. They also contain information about the life and achievements of some prophets, for example, the life history of Elisha and Elijah. **Exercise 1 Go through the 12 books and check page by page the ** **names of other prophets. ** **Poetic Books ** The books are poetic in nature. The poetic books contain wise sayings, songs, and prayers. The poetic books are (1) Psalms which was written by David (ii) Proverbs (iii) Ecclesiastes (iv) Song of Solomon written by Solomon and (v) Job. **Prophetic books ** These are divided into major and minor prophets. A prophet is a messe- nger of God, or Gods spokesperson. A prophet is a mouthpiece of God. Prophets pass information and messages from God to the people. They are messengers from God. Their messages from God concern the future. **Five Major Prophetic Books** I. The major prophetic books are by (i) Isaiah (ii) Jeremiah (iii) Lamentations (iv) Ezekiel and (v) Daniel. The books are named after the prophets who prophesied and probably wrote them. Jeremiah wrote lamentations. These prophets are called Major Prophets because they cover a longer period of time. Their prophe- cies are long, and they prophesied over a long period of time. II. Minor Prophets. There are 12 books of (1) Hosea (2 Joel (3) Amos (4) Obadiah (5) Jonah (6) Micah (7) Nahum (8) Habakkuk (9) Zephaniah (10) Haggai (11) Zechariah and (12) Malachi. These ----- 5 # books are by Minor Prophets who are said to have prophesied over a shorter period of time if you compare them with the Major Prophets. **New Testament books are: ** a. Biographical books or Gospels. b. Historical books (Acts of the Apostles). c. The Epistles. d. Apocalyptic or Prophetic book **a) Biographical book or Gospels ** Gospel means Good News . The disciples of Jesus wrote the biographical books. They contain information about the birth, life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The biographical books are four. (i) Mathew Written by Mathew (ii) Mark Written by Mark (iii) Luke Written by Luke, the doctor and (iv) John written by John (the beloved disciple of Jesus Christ) **b) Historical books ** There is one historical book, which is the Acts of the Apostles. Luke, the writer of the St. Lukes Gospel, wrote it. The book of Acts tells us the history of the early church. **c) The Epistles ** There are two Epistles: Pauline Epistles and General Epistles. Pauline Epistles are letters written by Paul. They are 13 letters that Paul wrote to (1) Romans (2,3) 1, 2 Corinthians (4) Galatians (5) Ephesians (6) Philip- pines (7) Colossians (8, 9) 1, 2 Thessalonians (10, 11) 1, 2 Timothy (12) Titus and (13) Philemon. General Epistles are letters written to the church by other people. The letters are 8 in number. They (1) Hebrews (2) James (3,4) 1, 2 Peter (5,6,7) 1, 2, 3, John and (8) Jude ----- 6 # **d) Apocalyptic or Prophetic book** This is the book of Revelation. It is the last book in the New Testament. It is different from other books. This is because it is prophetic of things to come. It is about the future. It was written by John the beloved disciple of Jesus Christ. **MAJOR BIBLE TRANSLATIONS FROM THE ORIGINAL LAN-** **GUAGES TO LOCAL LANGUAGES ** These books of the Bible are accepted as the Canon of the Bible. The term Canon means Standard or guidance or rule. Translation means expression of books by words and pictures, poems and songs from one language to another. The Old Testament was originally written in Hebrew, the langua- ge of the Israelites. Then between 250 100 BC, it was translated to the Greek language. The Greek translation of the Bible was known as Septua- gint. This term refers to 70 translators. The Jews in dispersion or Diaspora used this translation. These were the Jews living outside Palestine. Between 386 420 A.D. Jerome, a great Christian Scholar, translated the entire bible from Greek into Latin, the language of the Romans. This tran- slation was called Vulgate. Christians used the Latin translation of the Bible up to the 16th century. During the reformation in the 16th Century, Christians were encouraged to use their own native languages in worship. From that time, the Bible was translated into English and German. As Christianity spread to different parts of the world, there was the need for translations of the Holy Bible into various languages. In 1804, the British formed the Foreign Bible Society, which translated the Bible into many languages. Johann Ludwig Krapf translated the New Testament into Kiswahili. This was the first Bible translation in East Africa. Since that time, the Bible Society of Kenya has translated the Bible into other languages such ----- 7 # as Kikuyu in 1951, Kikamba in 1956, Kimeru in 1964, Kalenjin in 1968, and Luhya in 1974. By 1980 the Bible had been translated into 29 Kenyan languages. To date (2010) the Bible has been translated into 42 languages of Kenya. **Translation and versions used in Kenya today ** Besides bible translation into several languages, there are many English translation versions, which are commonly used in Kenya. These are (i) King James Version (ii) Jerusalem Bible (iii) New International version (iv) English Bible (v) The Authorized Version (vi) Good News (vii) Revised Standard Version (viii) New King James Version (ix) Amplified Bible (x) The living Bible (xi) The African Bible (xii) Common Bible (xiii) Todays English Bible (xiv) American version among others. **Writing of the Bible ** By 2010, the Bible Society of Kenya had translated the Bible into 42 Kenyan languages. The need to read the Bible led to writing of Bible reading materials to teach literacy in local languages. Those who wrote the Bible used different styles, and figures of speech to make their message vivid and clear. Several literary forms were used in the writing of the Bible. These are: **a. Poetry in Psalms ** **Activity ** **a) Read Psalms and notice the poetry used by David when he wrote ** **psalms ** **b) Read Job. Notice the rhythm of the words ** **c) Turn to your English textbook the Integrated English. Read topic ** **4 on sound and pattern in poetry. ** **d) Read any Psalm and any verse from Job. What do you notice? ** **Other literary forms that are used in the Bible are: ** ----- 8 # i) Prose in Leviticus, which is a Legislative text ii) Wise sayings in Proverbs iii) Prophetic speeches by Jeremiah iv) Prayers by Nehemiah v) Love Songs, for example, the Songs of Solomon vi) Letters. Here see Pauline Epistles (Romans) vii) Gospels, for example, Marks Gospel viii) Religious events, for example, Exodus ix) Narratives, for example, Genesis x) Philosophical essays, for example, the book of Job. Here note the use of metaphors and similes in philosophical essays. **The effects of Bible translations on African languages ** **Bible translations: ** i) Increased and deepened African faith in God. ii) Led to increased literacy. After Africans acquired literacy skills, they read the Bible and improved their literacy skills. Christian missionaries established schools in order to teach literacy that helped African to read the Bible. ii) Made it easy for missionaries to spread the gospel to the African communities. iii) Increased the demand for the Bible. This led to writing of Books and setting up of printing presses in African countries. iv) Made it easy for the expansion of the church i.e. more people became Christians. v) Led to the emergence of independent churches and schools. vi) The missionaries and colonialists learnt the African languages. vii) The African converts realized that the missionaries were unfair to them. There was for example a different treatment of African by White missionaries. This was inequality of races, which was and is even now against Christian teachings. ----- 9 # viii) Helped Africans to re-discover their cultural identity. For example the use of African instruments, dressings, and practice of polygamy, which David and other kings in the Old Testament did. ix) Led to the writings and spread of African languages. The missionaries learnt local languages. x) Improved communications between missionaries and the local people because they could understand each other. xi) Increased printing of reading materials **The effects of Bible translations on Africans communities ** After the first Bible translations, there were immediate effects or influences on some communities. For example, some community leaders did not agree with the Christian teachings. Some wanted to retain aspects of their African religion. As a result, some communities who disagreed with Bible translations established their own Christian denominations in order to preach the Bible, as they understood it. This was the emergence of independent churches. Some African communities built independent schools where their children could learn how to read and write without being forced to practice all the Christian teachings. **Review questions ** 1) What is the importance of reading the Bible? 2) How is the Bible used in society today? 3) How does the Kenya Government use the Bible today? 4) Name the major divisions of the Bible in both the New Testament and the Old Testament 5) What are the effects of Bible translation on African languages? 6) Why is the Bible referred to as (a) a Library and (b) the Word of God 7) What is the meaning of the term inspiration? **Study activities ** 1. Read the Bible quotations given above. 2. Carry out role plays e.g. the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham. ----- 10 # 3. Visit old people in your community and ask them about African religious traditional practices. **CREATION AND THE FALL OF MAN (GENESIS 1-3, 6-9, 11) ** **INTRODUCTION ** In this topic, you shall learn about creation and the fall of man. This information is in Genesis. **BIBLICAL ACCOUNTS OF CREATION AND THEIR MEANINGS ** The book of Genesis begins with two creation stories. The first creation story is in Genesis chapter one. The second creation story is in Genesis chapter two. **The two creation stories ** The first creation story is in Genesis chapter one. The second creation story is in Genesis chapter two. This story is like a song or poem. Its written, Let there be and God saw that it was good to separate, and there was evening and morning on Each creation is taken as a day. The creation took place in the following order. It is orderly: 1st day God created day and night (Light and darkness) 2nd day The Heavens (sky) 3rd day The Earth, Water / Sea, Vegetation (Plants, trees, grass) 4th day Sun, Moon and Stars 5thday Birds, Sea Creatures 6th day Animals, Livestock, Man was the last creation (human beings) 7th day God rested and blessed the 7th day and made it holy. In this creation story, we see God creating things in an orderly manner, day after day until the 6th day. It was last in the first account. God created man from dust and breathed into his nostrils before anything else is mentioned. God then put man in the Garden of Eden, which He had made for him so that man could till and keep it. The garden was planted eastward in Eden. Out of the ground, God made every tree to grow. In the ----- 11 # middle of the garden, there was the tree of knowledge of good and evil. Man was given the responsibility of tilling and conserving the garden. Man was commanded to eat of every tree in the garden except the tree of knowledge of good and evil. A river flowed from the garden and then it separated into four tributaries. God saw that man should not be alone hence He made him a helper/mate; a woman from one of the mans ribs. Man was also given the responsibility of naming all the animals in the garden. There is mention of God resting after work ----- 12 # **Differences between the two creation stories ** |FIRST ACCOUNT|SECOND ACCOUNT| |---|---| |Mentions what was created on which day. Each creation takes a day. -This story is like a song or a poem. Its written, Let there be and God saw that it was good to separate, and there was evening and morning -It is orderly. -Mentions what was created on which day. -Rivers and garden are not me- ntioned. -Man and woman were created together. -No mention of the knowledge. -Marriage is for procreation. -Sun, moon, stars, sky are mentioned -God rested on the seventh day hence the Sabbath day|-doesnt mention the daily activities of GOD -The story is in prose. For example and God said and it was evening... -Not orderly was last in the first account -Doesnt mention what was created on which day -Mentions rivers, and garden for tilling -Woman was created from ribs of man -Mention of the knowledge -Marriage is for companionship -Sun, moon, stars, sky are not mentioned -Mention of resting after work but Sabbath day is not mentioned| ||| # **Similarities between the two accounts of creation ** In both creation accounts: a) Men and women are created by God and are given special references. Man and woman are special to God. ----- 13 # b) God rested after creation. c) God provided the source of food. d) God is portrayed as the sole creator of the universe and everything in it. e) Man is given the responsibility of controlling animals, birds and plants that God created **Activity ** Find out the differences between the two creation stories and write them down. Now compare them with my answer. **ATTRIBUTES OF GOD FROM THE BIBLICAL CREATION ** **ACCOUNTS ** The creation stories tell us that God is: (i) The sole creator and the only source of life (ii) Immortal and Eternal (iii) He is self existent (iv) God of order (v) Source of goodness and true happiness (vi) Holy, merciful and just (vii) Provider and sustainer of the universe and all that is in it (viii) All knowing (Omniscient) (ix) All powerful (Omnipotent) (x) Everywhere (Omnipresent) (xi) A personal God. (xii) He has a mind and a will (xiii) Moral God. He is interested in the behaviour of man and woman. He commands her/him to do the right things. ----- 14 # **TRADITIONAL AFRICAN UNDERSTANDING OF CREATION ** Traditional African view of creation is brought out through traditional stories of creation (Myths). The Agikuyu, Akamba, Gusii and other Kenyan communities have stories explaining their origin. These stories give each community a sense of belonging, and identity. The stories explain the mysteries of life. These stories have common characteristics or teachings. Thus all African communities believe that God: - (i) Is the chief architect of the world (ii) Existed from the very beginning of time. (iii) Created everything out of nothing. (iv) Provides for the needs of human beings. (v) Was disobeyed by human beings who had lived in eternal bliss. This bliss came to an end when human beings disobeyed God. (vi) The African communities had different names to describe God. God was not known as God but as the Creator of everything that existed on earth and skies. He was Mumbi and Mungai to Gikuyu. He was master of the universe. The Kamba called Him Ngai wa Matu. They believed that God continues to create through human beings. **Examples of African creation stories ** 1. The Kamba believed that God created man and woman then tossed them to the earth. 2. The Bukusu say that God the creator (Were Khakaba) created the world alone. a. First God created heaven then created two assistants, Mukhaba and Murumwa. Were the God made the sun, moon, stars, a big red cock which crows whenever it thunders, the rains, the rainbow, mountains, rivers, lakes, streams and all the other things on earth. b. Created a woman for the man. c. Created plants, animals, birds and other creatures. ----- 15 # d. Creation work took six days. On the seventh day Were rested. **Activity ** Ask your parents about your community creation story. **THE TEACHINGS FROM THE BIBLICAL CREATION ** **ACCOUNTS ** I. God is responsible for all creation. He is the sole creator. Gods creation was good. Everything He created God said it was good. It was without flaws and mistakes. God is the provider. God created everything that man needs. He also created food for all animals and other creatures. God is orderly. II. Man has a special place in Gods creation. Man was made as the keeper of God creation. Man is a co-creator and keeper of Gods creation since he was made in the image and likeness of God. Man was comma- nded to work. III. A woman was made from the mans flesh. She joins man in marriage and they become one flesh. God ordains marriage. Human beings were created to socialize. IV. Sin is a result of man and woman disobedience of God. **Responsibilities given to human beings by God in the Genesis stories ** **of creation ** After creating man and then woman, God asked man to: a. Reproduce and multiply. b. Rule over the rest of His creations. c. Be in charge of the fish, birds, and all the animals. d. Cultivate the garden and guard it. e. Eat from the fruits of the garden except from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. f. Name the animals. g. Subdue the earth ----- 16 # h. Transform the creation that God has provided human beings with i. Use creation forests, rivers, mountains with responsibility and respect. j. Be a steward of Gods creation k. Engineer Gods creation by creating things from the creation l. Dominate the earth **Group work** Work in twos or threes and answer these questions. i. How does man fulfill the command to subdue and fill the earth? ii. How is man a co creator with God? **BIBLICAL TEACHING: THE FALL OF MAN, ORIGIN OF SIN ** **AND THE CONSEQUENCES ** **Introduction ** Man and woman fell from the Garden of Eden. This experience is expla- ined in genesis chapter 3 verse 4; chapter 6 verse 9 and chapter 11. In these verses, the Bible is teaching about sin, which made Adam and Eve fall. Sin is defined as iniquity, and guilt. It is to miss a mark, to transgress. Sin is a rebellion or an offence against God. Sin originated with the disobedience of Adam and Eve. They had been commanded not to eat of the fruits of the tree of knowledge of good and evil the tree in the middle of the Garden of Eden. But Adam and Eve ate the fruit after being deceived by the serpent. Man had the power to resist temptation but instead he yielded. Genesis Chapter 3 verse 6 states that man wanted to be wise and thought how wonderful it would be to become wise hence sin arises from the lack of knowledge of God, from the denial of trust of God. **The consequences of sin ** After sinning, we the human race and sinners: 1) Replaced friendship with God with fear of God. ----- 17 # 2) Lost innocence. What had been innocent and good became shameful. Adam and Eve became ashamed of their nakedness, something they had never felt before they sinned against God. 3) Lost good relationship with God. The good relationship between God and man was betrayed. Human beings were alienated from God. The Lord God sent him out of the Garden of Eden 4) Damaged the perfect relationship between man and woman. The Lord said to the woman You will have desire for your husband, yet you will be subject to him. 5) Pain became part of human experience. I will greatly multiply your pain in child bearing. 6) Man began toiling and struggling to meet his needs You will have to work hard and sweat to make the soil produce anything 7) The home of man, and the earth itself was placed under a curse. Cursed is the ground because of you. Enmity between man and wild animals emerged. 9) Man began to die. Death sentence is passed upon all men. You will return to the ground you are dust 10) Man began to hate. Man developed murderous feelings in his heart, for example Cain killed Abel, his younger brother. 11) Man changed and became prone to sin. 12) Life span of man was reduced (see Gen. 6:3) I will not allow people to live forever, they will live no longer than 120 years 13) Mans language was confused by God after the flood (read Gen.11: 7) 14) Sin led to embarrassment, mistrust, suffering, pain, pride, arrogance and death. **Summary ** Disobedience of God by Adam and Eve brought serious sin consequences to human beings. Sin brings sadness and suffering to man even today. ----- 18 # **Activity** In groups of two or three, discuss the origin and consequences of sin. **CONCEPT OF EVIL ** **Introduction ** In this lesson, we shall discuss the concept of evil as told by the traditi- onal African religion and the biblical writings. We shall study similarities and differences of evil from the two religions. **What is evil? ** In the traditional African society, evil was an offence against God, spirits and ancestors. It was also viewed as an offence against another person or community. Evil was also a misfortune that can befall an individual or a community. **What are the causes of evil? ** Many of the traditional African societies do not associate God with evil. God is not the creator of evil. Some communities believe that evil is an external power that exists on its own. Thus in the traditional African society, evil was understood or explained as something mysterious that was caused by several people and things. These were: a) Evil spirits b) Ancestral spirits due to disobedience to them c) Some animals like the chameleon are sources of evil. The Akamba believed that chameleons brought evil. Other communities believed that if an owl cries near ones homestead, it is a sign of evil. d) People with mystical powers for example magic, sorcery, and witchcraft are evils e) If a member of a community breaks a taboo by disobedience, this action may bring evil spirits. f) The spirits of the dead; cause evil; if they are not remembered or respected. Evil spirits cause harm and violence. ----- 19 # **Consequences of evil in traditional African society ** These were many and ranged from (a) Barrenness (b) Drought (c) Epidemics (d) Madness (e) Sickness (f) Death (g) Drowning (h) Burning in a house (i) War (j) Physically and mentally handicapped children (l) Rebellious children **GODS PLAN OF SALVATION ** After the fall of man, God took steps to heal the damaged situation and relationship between Him and Adam and Eve. GOD: 1. Provided clothing of skin to Adam and Eve. 2. Looked for Adam and Eve since they were hiding from His presence. 3. Provided Adam and Eve with the knowledge to find different foods. 4. Declared enmity between man and the snake. 5. Hinted at the ultimate victory of man when He said that the seed of the woman would crush the snake or serpents head. The serpent would attack the heel of man and woman. All through the Old Testament, and the New Testament, we see Gods plan of salvation being manifested. For instance, GOD chose and separated Abraham from other communities. The children of Israel led by Moses (were delivered) from Egypt,. God sent prophets to teach and warn the Israelites of the dangers of sin. Finally God sent his only son Jesus Christ to die on the cross to save human kind. **SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TRADITIONAL ** **AFRICAN VIEW OF EVIL AND BIBLICAL CONCEPT OF SIN ** **Similarities ** Both the Biblical and traditional African view or agree that 1) God is supreme. God is neither the creator nor author of evil ----- 20 # 2) Sin comes from the disobedience of God by human beings 3) Evil and misfortune are Gods curse to man (Biblical) while the traditional African society sees evil as curses by ancestors, and elders. Both curses lead to misfortunes. 4) The result of sin and evil is human sufferings 5) Sin and evil lead to man being separated from God 6) God is the guardian of law and order 7) Human beings have the ability to overcome evil **Differences ** 1) Biblical account emphasizes personal nature of sin while in the African concept; sin is more social and communal 2) Biblical account attributes evil to disobedience while African concept attributes evil not only to disobediences but other external forces. 3) Biblical accounts offer a message of hope to overcome evil while African concept doesnt offer a solution to sin and evil. 4) Traditional African concept all forms of suffering as a result of sin while in the Bible suffering is not always a result of sin. **Review questions ** 1) Explain the differences between the two creation stories 2) State the traditional African view of creation 3) Explain how human beings continue with the work of creation 4) What is the origin of sin and evil according to traditional African society? 5) Give three consequences of sin as stated in Genesis 6) State the consequences of evil according to African traditional societies 7) Trace Gods plan of salvation of human kind Compare biblical and traditional African understanding of evil and sin. 9) What does the command Subdue the earth in Genesis 1 verse 28 mean? ----- 21 # **FAITH AND GOD PROMISES TO ABRAHAM ** **BACKGROUND TO THE CALL OF ABRAHAM (Genesis 11:24-32, ** **12) ** **Introduction ** The background to the call of Abraham is found in the first book of the bible. This is Genesis which is a Greek word meaning Beginning. The relationship between Adam and God was good but after Adam disobeyed GOD, their relationship changed because of sin by Eve and Adam. After sometime, God repaired this relationship by calling Abraham and offering salvation. **Background ** -Abraham lived with his father Terah at a place called Ur. Abrahams father lived among people who worshiped many gods. One of the gods whom people of Ur worshipped was the moon. This worship of many gods is referred to as polytheism. -The family of Terah moved from Ur to Haran. While at Haran, God called Abraham at 75 years old. He was told to. Leave your country, your relatives and your fathers home and go to a land that I am going to show you. Abraham obeyed Gods call. He left Haran for a land that was unknown to him. He took his property his wife Sarah and his nephew lot. At the time of the call of Abraham, he was known as Abram and his wife Sarai. God changed their names to Abraham and Sarah. Abraham means Father of many nations while Sarah means mother of nations. -On arrival in Canaan, he travelled and came to a place called Schechem. God appeared to him once more. Abraham built an altar for the lord at this place. Altars are places of worship. They were regarded as holy and were manifestations of Gods presence. An altar was made of stones. -After sometime, he separated with his nephew Lot due to their servants having strife over water for their livestock. Abraham left Canaan due to feminine. He went to Egypt. ----- 22 # **Activity** 1. Where did Lot settle? 2. Read GENESIS, chapter 11 (24 32) and chapter 12 (1 9) **FAITH AND GODS PROMISES TO ABRAHAM (HEBREWS 11: 1 ** ** 6) ** **a. THE MEANING OF FAITH ** -Faith is a strong belief, a complete trust or confidence in someone or something. It is also a firm belief, which is not based on any scientific or logical proof. Faith in God is an attitude of complete trust in God. It is not based on concrete or tangible objects. Faith is manifested in the ways of life of a believer. -Abraham is an example of someone who had faith in God. He showed his faith in action in several ways. **b. HOW ABRAHAM DEMONSTRATED HIS FAITH IN GOD ** 1. Although Abraham was old, he left Haran to go to a strange unknown land of Canaan. 2. After he settled in Canaan, Abraham was assured by God of his protection and was given other promises such as he will get a son, and Abraham believed God. Sarah gave birth to a son when she was 90 years old and Abraham was around 120 years old. This was as the lord had promised Abraham. 3. The son was named Isaac that means laughter because Sarah had laughed when she was told that she would have a child in her old age. The child Isaac was circumcised when he was eight (8) days old. 4. Abraham was told by God to circumcise all males in his household including himself. He obeyed. 5. When Abraham was asked to sacrifice his son Isaac to God, he was ready to do so. ----- 23 # 6. Abraham believed that God would fulfill all the promises he had given to him 7. Abraham demonstrated his faith by building altars **c. GODS PROMISES TO ABRAHAM (GENESIS 12:2-3, 15:1-21, ** **21, 17:1-8, 17:15-18) ** A promise is giving an assurance of something to someone. The promises God gave to Abraham were that: 1. God told him he would give him a land. His descendants would be given the land of Canaan to dwell in 2. His name would be made famous 3. His descendants will be many. Abraham would be made a great nation. 4. God would protect him 5. He was promised a son of their own 6. God would bless him 7. God would bless those who bless him and curse those who curse him 8. Abraham was promised that he would die in peace and in an old age 9. His descendants would be strangers in a foreign land but afterwards would come out with great possessions. **d. THE RELEVANCE OF THE PROMISES MADE BY GOD TO ** **ABRAHAM TO CHRISTIANS TODAY (Gen. 12: 2 3, 15: 1 21, ** **21:1 7, 17: 15 18) ** God called Abraham from idol worship in the same way God continues to call people to serve him. 1) Through Abraham, God had a plan to restore the relationship between man and God 2) Christians receive the promises of blessings from God through Abraham (Gods promises to Abraham fulfilled through Christians) 3) As Abraham left his own people, Christians should leave their sinful lives and put their whole trust in God. ----- 24 # 4) Abraham is seen as the descendant not only of the Israelites but also of Christians 5) Christians have faith that God fulfils promises to them as he did to Abraham 6) Christians are assured of Gods protection 7) Through Gods dealing with Abraham, God shows that he values a personal relationship with human kind. Through Jesus Christ Christians enter into an everlasting covenant with God. Just like Abraham entered into a covenant with God. 9) The promise to Abraham of Canaan Promised Land is to Christians the hope for new land heaven 10) God continues to make promises to those who believe him 11) Abraham is the ancestor (Father) of all believers) **e. DEFINE THE TERM COVENANT ** **i. Definition. ** A covenant is a solemn agreement between two persons or two groups of people. An agreement is between two separated parties. Its a pact, a treaty. When it is a covenant, it conveys a union or partnership. **ii. Characteristics / components of a covenant ** There are components or features that must be in a covenant. A covenant must have a ceremony, sign, witnesses, promises/vows/oaths, obligations / consequences, and participants. A covenant establishes a sacrificial bond between the parties involved. There are obligations or rules by which the parties must abide by, adhere to and observe in order to keep the covenant. A covenant is an agreement and if it is broken, there are consequences for breaking it. In the Bible, there are many covenants. **iii. Examples of covenants in the Bible ** 1. Adamic covenant Agreement between God and Adam 2. Noahlic Covenant Gods covenant with Noah where God promised to preserve life of man and not to destroy it with water. The sign of the ----- 25 # covenant is the rainbow. In Gen 9 verse 3, GOD told Noah, Everything that lives and moves will be food for youJust as I gave you the green plants, I now give you everything. Verse 4 says, But you must not eat meat that has its lifeblood still in it 3. Abrahamic covenant Gods covenant with Abraham. He promised to fulfill promises He gave to Abraham. These promises were: (1) Increase numbers of descendant of Abraham. He will be father of many nations, (2) Be GOD of his descendants (3) Abraham will have a son an heir, (4) Given land of Canaan and other lands from the river of Egypt to River Euphrates, and all for heirs of Abraham (Gen. 15: 17 18) (5) Circum- cision of all males at 8 days after birth even none Israelites living in their land (6) Covenant with Isaac 4. Mosaic Covenant is a covenant between the Israelites and GOD. Moses led Israel to Mt. Sinai. God promised to be their God. Israelites were given the law written by GOD in tablets of stone, with law and commands I have written for. instruction. (Read exodus 23). 5. Davidic Covenant covenant between David and God God promised him that his dynasty would rule forever. 6. Messianic Covenant new covenant between Christians and God through Jesus Christ. **iv. Gods covenant with Abraham and its importance (Genesis 15:1-** **19) ** The covenant was established after God appeared to Abraham in a vision. During the visitation of God, Abraham was 100 years old and Sarah 90 years. He was promised a son. Abraham wanted assurance from God. God told him to bring him the following items for sacrifice. **v. Items for sacrifice ** Three (3) years olds: heifer, goat, ram and a dove and a pigeon. Abraham then cut these animals into two halves and placed them opposite each other. ----- 26 # The birds were not split. After it was dark, smoking fire and a flaming torch suddenly appeared and passed between the pieces of animals. Towards evening, Abraham fell into a deep sleep. While he slept the Lord appeared to him and told him that: His descendants will be strangers in a foreign land and be slaves for 400 years. But they will come out of this land with a lot of wealth and God will punish the nation that will enslave Israelites. He, Abraham will live up to a ripe age, and die in peace. Then the Lord made a covenant with Abraham and promised to give him and his descendants the land of Canaan. God himself passed through the sacrifi- ces and bound himself to keep the promises. **f) IMPORTANCE OF THE COVENANT BETWEEN GOD AND ** **ABRAHAM (GEN. 15: 1- 19) ** God bound himself in a personal relationship with a human being As God passed through the meat, he showed Abraham he would always protect him. This passed on to the descendants of Abraham This covenant between God and Abraham begins a lasting relationship between God and all the nations of the earth. Throughout this covenant God was initiating his plan of salvation for human kind The promises made to Abraham were fulfilled in New Testament blood of the lamb death of Jesus Christ It emphasized the importance of faith followed by obedience that Abraham shared. **g) COVENANTS IN MODERN LIFE AND THEIR IMPORTANCE ** Modern covenants are (a) Marriage (b) Baptism (c) Oath of loyalty and (d) Ordination of clergy Marriage ceremony: In marriage, the bride, bridegroom and their fami- lies come together. When the two families come together a relationship is ----- 27 # developed. They make an agreement and both sides are seriously involved in the ceremony, whether the marriage is civil or religious. During the marriage ceremony the couple makes vows/promises to each other, before a priest/ pastor and the congregation. Two officials witness these agree- ments. Rings are exchanged as a sign of a lasting relationship. A certifi- cate is given in some cases as a testimony (sign) of this agreement. There is eating and drinking. Baptism: In a Christian baptism, a covenant is entered into between the believer and God. The believer makes vows before God. The priest and the whole congregation witness this agreement. In some churches, a card is issued to the person who has been baptized as a sign of Christian mem- bership. The baptized can now take the Holy Communion, which is a Christian Ceremony. But when an infant is baptized, parents take the vows on behalf of the child. Loyalty /oath : Leaders in public service for example the president, ministers, Members of Parliament, and chief officers are sworn in before they take over their new responsibilities. They swear (take an oath) and promise to carry out their duties firmly and without fear or favour. Ordination of the clergy : Church leaders, nuns and priests take oaths and make vows to God and to the congregation in a ceremony attended by worshippers. **The importance of modern day covenants ** They bind different groups They act as a security They strengthen relationships They unite people together They create loyalty They create peace, harmony and bring a sense of permanence **h) THE TESTING OF ABRAHAMS FAITH (GEN. 22: 1 18) ** ----- 28 # God tested Abrahams faith by asking him to go and sacrifice his only son Isaac. This was the son he loved so much. He was to travel to Mount Moniah. On reaching Mt. Moriah, he built an altar, and arranged wood on it. He tied up his son Isaac and placed him on the altar on top of the wood. He lifted a knife to kill him. But the Angel of the Lord called out to him from heaven. Abraham! Abraham! Do not lay a hand on the boyDo not do anything to him. Now I know you that you fear God, because you have not withheld from me your son, your only son (v 11-12). Abraham had obedient reverence for God became he did not keep back his only son from God. God provided a ram for sacrifice. He named the mountain the Lord provided God was pleased with Abraham and promised him blessings, many descendants victory, and protection. **Activity** Read Genesis 12:1 9, 15:1 6, 17:23 24, 21:1 7, 22:1-19 IMPORTANCE OF FAITH IN CHRISTIAN LIFE TODAY 1. A Christian today is acceptable to God through his faith in God through Jesus Christ. Without faith it is impossible to please God. 2. A Christian can only serve God if he has faith in him. Faith enables a Christian to serve God 3. Faith enables a Christian to accomplish what appears to be impossible 4. Through faith, Christians are able to trust God to fulfill his promises to them 5. Faith is the foundation of the Christians salvation 6. Faith in God gives a Christian the power to overcome all temptations. 8. Christians should expect to have their faith tested just like Abraham was. 9. Faith enables Christians to patiently wait on Gods promises 10. Christians through faith in God help the poor, make right decisions and are able to understand and know God better. ----- 29 # **JEWISH AND AFRICAN PRACTICES OF CIRCUMCISION ** **a. IMPORTANCE OF CIRCUMCISION TO ABRAHAM AND HIS ** **DESCENDANTS (GEN. 17: 1 16) ** The rite of circumcision was started by Abraham and has been practiced by the Jews up to the present times. In the Old Testament, it was important because: (i) Through circumcision: God assured Abraham that he would fulfill His promises to him. (ii) Circumcision was a sign that Abraham and his descendants had entered into a covenant with God. It was an outward sign of inner faith. (iii) Circumcision was a mark of identity for the Jews (iv) It was a sign of obedience to God (v) It was an acceptance of God as the only true God and their willingness to remain faithful to him **In the New Testament** (vi) Circumcision doesnt qualify one to be a child of God. One is accepted as a Christian without circumcision as long as they have faith in God. (vii) A true descendant of Abraham is the Christian who truly believes in God and lives according to His will regardless of colour, race or creed. **b. CIRCUMCISION IN AFRICAN COMMUNITIES ** Circumcision is one of the rites of passage among the African people. It marks the transition from one stage to another. Many ethnic communities in Kenya still practice the rite of circumcision. During circumcision ceremonies, prayers are offered to God for the well being of the initiates (those who are being circumcised) and the prosperity of the whole community. Initiates learn secrets of their community and society. They are taught myths, origin, religious beliefs, and sex education. In some communities, initiates are given new names or ornaments to signify their new status. ----- 30 # **c. JEWISH AND AFRICAN PRACTICES OF CIRCUMCISION ** **Similarities ** In both Jewish and African communities, circumcision: (a) is a mark of identity (b) provided a sense of belonging (c) was observed as a religious experience (d) was compulsory (e) was a tradition passed from one generation to another (f) is a time for shedding blood (g) was a time for offering prayers to God for the well being of the initiates (h) was a time for giving gifts (i) was a ceremony for initiation (j) was a time for giving the initiates names (k) took place in sacred places. **Differences ** In Jewish community, i. Circumcision was a rite for boys while in African society it was for both boys and girls. But it was for boys in a few communities. ii. Boys were circumcised when aged 8 days while in the African society; it was between 15 to 25 years old. iii. Circumcision was for boys organ while in African societies several forms of initiation were done, for example, removal of teeth, and body piercing among others. iv. Circumcision was a command from God while for the African communities it was in obedience to customary law where ancestors were invoked to protect the initiates. **Among the African societies ** v. Circumcision was a rite of passage from childhood to adulthood while for the Jews it was not. vi. The initiates were given specialized education while the Jews were not. vii. The initiates were grouped into age groups, and were secluded from the community while among the Jews it was not so. viii. The rite of circumcision according to seasons while the Jews once a child is born, they are circumcised on the 8th day. ----- 31 # ix. After circumcision, the initiates were allowed to marry, enter a warrior group, own property but for the Jews the initiate was still a child. **Revision questions ** 1.Explain why Abraham is referred to as the father of faith 2. Give five actions from the life of Abraham that shows his faith to God 3. List some of the promises God gave to Abraham 4. Compare and contrast the Jewish and traditional African practice of circumcision 5. What is the importance of faith to Christians? 6. State the elements of a covenant 7. Give examples of covenants in the bible and the modern society 8. Discuss the circumstances that led God to enter into a covenant relationship with Abraham. **SINAI COVENANT ** **THE CALL OF MOSES ** One day, Moses was looking after or tending the flock of Jethro his father-in-law. Jethro was a priest of Midian. When Moses came to mount Horeb, the mountain of God, the angel of the Lord appeared to him in flames of fire from within a bush. Moses saw that although the bush was on fire, it was not burning. Moses went over to the burning bush to look. God called him out within the bush Moses! Moses! He replied, Here I am. God then told Moses not to come closer and to take off his sandals for the place where he was standing was a holy ground. God introduced himself as the God of his father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob. God then said he had seen the misery and sufferings of the Israelites in Egypt. He had heard their cry. God had come down to rescue Israelites from the hand of Egyptians. God was to ----- 32 # take them to their home, the land of the Canaanites, a land flowing with milk and honey. God told Moses that He was sending him to go to Pharaoh and bring out the Israelites, the people of God, from Egypt. Moses resisted the call. He asked God Who am I, that is should go to Pharaoh and bring the Israe- lites out of Egypt? God promised to be with him. God said to Moses Say to the Israelites the Lord. The God of their fathers, God of Abraham, God of Isaac and God of Jacob has sent me to you. Moses was told to assemble the elders of Israel and inform them that God was going to deliver them from Egypt. Moses was then to go to the king of Egypt with the elders. He was to tell the king the Lord, the God of the Hebrews has met with us. (EXODUS 3:1 22) **Gods sign to Moses ** Moses was given several signs by God In case the people of Israel did not believe in him. a) First sign was his staff turning into a snake when he threw it down. When he touched the snakes tail it turned into his staff b) Second sign was God asked Moses to put his hand inside his cloak and it was as white as a snow leprous. He was asked to put it back into his cloak and it was restored. c) Moses further complained that he was a stammerer. God then appoi- nted Aaron, his brother, as his spokesman. **Reasons Moses gave against the call ** 1. He felt unworthy of the call. 2. He wondered who he was to tell the Israelites that God had sent him 3. Moses said that he was a stammerer so he let God choose a spokesperson. Moses however heeded to the call and went back to Egypt together with his family. God promised to be with him and perform signs before Phara- oh. ----- 33 # **What does the name Moses mean?** It means drawn out of water. **What did Moses learn about God from his Calling?** Moses learnt that: 1. God is caring, merciful and concerned about the welfare of his people Israelites. 2. God is transcendent he is beyond human understanding. He cannot be limited to time and space. 3. God chooses whomever he wills to carry out his plans. He chose Abraham an old man, a moon worshipper and now Moses, a murderer, a fugitive and a stammerer. 4. God expects total obedience and faith from those that He chooses 5. God is powerful, eternal and omnipresent 6. God is holy. 7. God is a God of history, which means He is concerned with His peoples welfare. 8. God is mysterious He manifested Himself in the burning bush that was not being consumed. **How did God prepare Moses to be the future leader of Israelites? ** 1. His life was spared when he was rescued by Pharaohs daughter 2. He was nursed by his own mother who taught him about Yahweh and his own true identity 3. Life in the wilderness hardened him to be bold and to persevere hardships 4. He learnt to be patient, keen, and responsible as a shepherd 5. He acquired leadership skills while living at pharaohs palace 6. He learnt literacy and numeracy skills (Educational skills) at the palace. 7. He was not a stranger to Pharaoh hence he could approach him freely. ----- 34 # **THE TEN PLAGUES EXODUS 7:14-11:10 ** During the call of Moses at Mount Sinai, God gave Moses a rod with which he could perform mighty signs before the Israelites and before Pharaoh. Aaron was to be his spokesman. Moses and Aaron gathered the Israelite elders and leaders to tell them what God had said to them. After Moses had performed the miracles that God had showed him; the Israelite leaders believed him. They then approached Pharaoh so that he may release the Israelites. However instead of releasing the Israelites, Pharaoh became crueler. He gave Israelites harder work. When Pharaoh refused to release Israelites, God instructed Moses to bring ten plagues upon Egypt. These plagues brought; great trouble and suffering to Israelites. **Ten plagues ** **1) The plague of blood (Exodus 7: 14 25) ** Moses and Aaron used the rod. They struck the waters of the river as God instructed them. All the water in the rivers, canals, and pools in Egypt turned into blood. All the fish died and there was no water to drink. This situation lasted for seven days. However Pharaohs heart was hardened. He did not release the Israelites. **2) The plague of frogs (Exodus 8:1 15) ** God then sent Moses to tell Pharaoh that if he refused to release the Israelites the whole land would be covered with frogs. At the command of Moses, Aaron held out the rod of Moses and frogs covered the whole land. On seeing this, Pharaoh pleaded with Moses and Aaron to pray to the Lord to get rid of the frogs and he would release them. They prayed and all the frogs died. Pharaoh, however, changed his mind and refused to release the Israelites. ----- 35 # **3) Plague of gnats (Exodus 8:16 19) ** The lord instructed Moses to tell Aaron to strike the ground and Aaron did so and all the dust in Egypt turned into gnats or small flies that bites. The magicians of Egypt could perform the first two plagues. They could not bring the plague of gnats. Egyptians acknowledged that the presence of gnats or small flies that bites was Gods work. But even with this information, Pharaoh still refused to release the Israelites. **4) Plague of flies (Exodus 8:20 32) ** The Lord warned Pharaoh through Moses once more. He was told that God would send swarms of flies to the Egyptian houses. The Israelites houses would be spared. Even after bringing the plague of flies, Pharaohs heart hardened even more **5) Death of cattle (Exodus 8:1 7) ** A plague of disease befell the Egyptian cattle. Not a single Israelites animal died. Pharaoh was not moved; and he refused to let Jews go home. **6) Plague of boils (Exodus 9:8 12) ** Moses threw ashes into the air as God had instructed. This produced boils, which became open sores on the skin of the Egyptians. Unmoved by the suffering of his people, Pharaoh still refused to let the Israelites leave. **7) Plague of hail (Exodus 9:13 35) ** Moses raised his rod and there was a hailstorm with lighting and thunder. The people, animals and plants that were struck by the lightning died. Pharaoh then promised to let the Israelites go but as soon as Moses prayed for the hailstorm to stop, pharaoh hardened his heart and refused to let the Israelites leave. **8) Plague of Locusts (Exodus 19:1 20) ** Locusts covered the whole land and ate all the crops in the fields. The locusts ate all that had not been destroyed by the hailstorm. When Moses prayed to God, for locusts to leave; Pharaoh hardened his heart and refu- sed to let the Israelites leave. ----- 36 # **9) Plague of darkness (Exodus 10: 21 29) ** God then instructed Moses to stretch out his hand to heaven. There was total darkness in Egypt for three days. But there was light where the Israe- lites they were living. Pharaoh remained unmoved and would not release the Israelites out of Egypt. **10) Death of Egyptian first-born males (Exodus 11: 1 31). ** After the plague of darkness, God sent Moses once more to Pharaoh. He was told that this time even his family would be affected. The Lord would kill all the first-born Egyptian sons and first-born male animals at mid- night. This plague occurred during the night of Passover. Pharaoh was moved and allowed Israelites to leave Egypt. **What do the plagues tell us about Gods attributes?** GOD: 1. Empowers His people to perform miracles and to do His work 2. Is Almighty and more powerful than the Egyptian gods. 3. Is determined to fulfil His plans. 4. Is a God of justice. He protects the oppressed. 5. Gives everyone a chance to repent. Notice that each time Pharaoh promised to release the Israelites; God relieved the Egyptians from the plagues. 6. Fulfils His promises He had promised Abraham to deliver his descen- dants from foreign lands. 7. Expects total obedience and faith. 8. Communicates His will through natural events. 9. Is caring and loving. **PASSOVER (EXODUS 12:1-30, 19, 20, 34) ** The tenth plague is called the Passover. It happened on the fourteenth day of the month. The Israelites were to offer one-year-old lamb per family. If a family was too small, they were to share the lamb with their neighbours. ----- 37 # If a lamb was not available, a one-year-old goat could also be used. They were told to: 1. Slaughter the lamb/goat; smear some of the blood on the sides and tops of the door- frames of their houses. 2. Roast the meat and eat it with bitter herbs and unleavened bread (bread without yeast). If there were any leftovers they were to burn them with fire. 3. Eat in a hurry while fully dressed and having packed their belongings. They were told to borrow silver, clothings, jewellery, and gold from the Egyptians. 4. That on the same night, the angel of death would kill every first born both males and animals in the houses without blood. 5. The angel of death would pass over the houses with blood sparing them. The blood was a sign to indicate this is a house of Israelites. When the Lord sees the blood, He will pass over that house (V.13) 6. The Israelites were told to celebrate / commemorate from generation to generation the Passover as a festival to the Lord. 7. The Israelites were not allowed to come out of their houses on the night of Passover. 8. At midnight, the Lord struck down all firstborn in Egypt from Phara- ohs household to the firstborn of the prisoners and firstborn of livestock. 9. There was loud wailing over Egypt. Every house had someone dead. **Significance of items used during the Passover ** 1) Roasted Meat this is the easiest method of preparing food since the Israelites were to leave in a short time. 2) Bitter herbs was a reminder of the suffering and hardships and slavery experienced in Egypt. 3) Eating while standing. Deliverance was near, hence the need to leave in a hurry. ----- 38 # 4) Eating while fully dressed with their stuff at hand. This signified a quick deliverance; hence Israelites should be ready to leave Egypt at once. 5) Eating unleavened bread the bread was to be eaten and none left over hence there was no need to add yeast for preservation. 6) Collecting Jewellery God had promised Abraham that after slavery for four hundred and thirty years, his descendants shall be freed with great possessions. 7) Remaining indoors for security from death. Anyone outside was killed. Blood on doorposts a sign for deliverance. The angel of death would pass over doors with blood. **THE EXODUS ** **Introduction ** Exodus means movement of a large number of people. **Crossing the Red Sea ** During the night of the Passover, Pharaoh summoned Moses and Aaron and told them to leave, to go and worship their Lord. All the Israelites, their flocks and herds were urged to leave in a hurry. Pharaoh took his chariot army and followed the Israelites and found them camped by the Red Sea. God led the Israelites over the desert towards the Red Sea. Moses took the body (bones) of Joseph, as Joseph had requested the Israelites to do. When God rescues you, you must carry my body with you from this place (Ex 13 vs. 19) During the day the Lord went in front of them in a pillar of cloud (angel of God) to show them the way, and during the night the lord went in front in a pillar of fire to give them light, so that they could travel night and day. This pillar of cloud led the Israelites by day and night. ----- 39 # The Egyptian army followed Israelites and caught up with them by the Red Sea where they had camped. Moses asked the scared Israelites to move near the sea. God told Moses to lift up his stick, and hold it over the sea. The waters of the Red Sea divided and the Israelites crossed the sea on dry ground with walls of water on both sides. The angel of God, and the pillar of cloud (who had been in front of the army of Israel) moved behind the Israelites and provided light to them as they cross. The Egyptians army pursued Israelites. The pillar of cloud made it dark for Egyptians who could not see where they were going. Just before daylight, the Lord looked at the Egyptians from the pillar of cloud and fire and God threw the army of the Egyptians into confusion. Moses was asked by the Lord to stretch out his hand. He did so and waters returned to its normal level drowning Egyptian army and their horses. **God protected the Israelites during the Exodus by: ** 1) Making them cross the red sea on dry ground. 2) Providing water in the wilderness. 3) Providing manna and quails. 4) Defeating Amalekites their enemies. 5) Protecting them from snakes and diseases in the wilderness. **Provision of water in the wilderness ** Israelites travelled in the desert for three days without water. The water, which they found at Marah was bitter and could not be drunk. They called the place Marah meaning bitter. This made them complain. Moses prayed to the Lord. The Lord showed Moses a piece of wood. Moses threw it into the water and it became fit to drink. God continued providing Israelites with water. Again the Israelites lacked water and complained bitterly (Ex.17:1 9). God instructed Moses to strike a rock and water came out of it. Moses called that place Massah which means testing and Meribah ----- 40 # meaning rebellion. This was because the Israelites quarreled and tested God. **Provision of manna and quails (EX 16:1 35) ** As the Israelites were travelling through the desert, they ran out of food. They were hungry and complained to Moses. Their complaints displeased the Lord for they often told Moses they wished he had let them die in Egypt instead of dying in the wilderness. This showed that the Israelites did not trust God to provide for them. In the morning, they were given Manna, which is a Hebrew word for the type of bread given to Israelites by God. The bread looked like wafers or flakes and tasted like coriander seed. In the evening, GOD provided Israelites with quails meat. The provision of manna and quails (meat) lasted for 40 years. On the 6th day of each week, God gave them food for two days one for the 6th day and the other for the 7th day (Sabbath). **DEFEAT OF THE AMALEKITES (Exodus 17: 8 16) ** **Challenges faced by the Israelites during the Exodus ** During the Exodus, the Israelites faced the challenge of the Amalekites. These were desert Nomads who attacked the Israelites in the wilderness. When the Amalekite army came against Israelites, Moses ordered Joshua to gather men and fight. God promised to destroy the Amalekites forever. During the battle, Moses held up his rod. And each time he raised his hands with the rod, the Amalekites were defeated. When he brought his hands down, the Israe- lites were defeated. Because of this, Aaron and Hur supported Moses hands until the Amalekites were defeated. In the wilderness God protected the Israelites form snakebites. He also used a cloud to protect the Israelites from the scorching heat during the ----- 41 # day. At night, the pillar of fire provided warmth to protect them from the harsh cold of the wilderness. **The importance of the exodus in the history of the Israelites ** The exodus showed Israelites that: 1) God loves and tolerates His people. 2) God did not abandon the Israelites despite their lack of faith. 3) God gave the Israelites encouragement through his servant Moses. 4) It was the end of the oppression of Israelites in Egypt. 5) Moses was Gods chosen leader. **MAKING THE SINAI COVENANT (EXODUS 19: 24 1 ** **The Sinai covenant ** God and Israelites . God had specific instructions on how the Israelites were to prepare to make the new covenant. Before making the covenant, God brought Israelites to the foot of Mt. Sinai and asked Moses to ask them if they were willing to make the covenant with HIM. GOD asked them to enter into a personal relationship as a community with HIM. The Israelites agreed to make a covenant. They agreed to obey all Gods com- m.ands. God then promised to make them; i His people ii. A kingdom of priests iii. A holy nation God and Moses . God wanted to confirm that Moses was His true pro- phet. He therefore told Moses that He would come in a thick cloud to meet Israelites. In preparation for Gods coming on Mt. Sinai the Israelites were to: I. Make themselves holy by washing their clothes (garments) II. Mark the boundaries on the foot of the mountain to prevent any person or animal from climbing the mountain. III. To abstain from sexual relations ----- 42 # At Mt Sinai, God manifested His presence in the form of thunder, lightening, earthquake and a thick cloud of smoke that covered the whole mountain. In addition, there was a loud trumpet blast that made the people tremble. Moses climbed the mountain. God gave Moses the Ten Comma- ndments after sealing the covenant. Sealing of the covenant . The Lord told Moses Come up the mountain to me, you and Aaron, Nadab, Abibu and 70 of Israel leaders. At a distance bow down in worship, and come alone to me. A ceremony was then prepared to seal the covenant. This is how it was sealed: a. Moses built an altar at the foot of the mountain. b. He set up twelve stones, which represented the twelve tribes of Israel. c. He then sent young men to burn sacrifices to the Lord and sacrificed some cattle as fellowship offering and peace offerings to God (EX 24 vs. 5). d. Moses took half the blood of animals and poured it in bowls; and the other half he threw against the altar (vs. 6). He then took the book of the covenant, and read it aloud to the Israelites who responded by saying all that the Lord has spoken we will do; and we shall be obedient e. Moses then took the blood in the bowls and sprinkled it over the people; saying This is the blood that seals the covenant which the Lord made with you when he gave all these commands. Theophany. Gods presence manifested itself in several ways such as: The burning bush (during the call of Moses) Pillar of fire and a pillar of cloud Exodus story The mighty wind, earthquake, still small voice story of Elijah Thunder, lighting, smoking mountain Exodus of Israelites from the wilderness These were physical manifestations of Gods presence. ----- 43 # **BREAKING THE SINAI COVENANT (Exodus 32:1 35; 34:6 8) ** Israelites dishonored their pledge to obey God upon sealing the covenant; Moses went back to talk to God in the mountain. He left Aaron in charge of Israelites affairs. He stayed in the mountain for forty days. The lord revealed His glory to Moses at Mt. Sinai and declared His character. The Lord the compassionate and glorious God, slow to anger and forgiving wickedness, rebellion and sin (Ex 34:6 The Israelites urged Aaron to make them gods that they could see. Aaron agreed. He melted the rings of gold and moulded a bull calf god. Israelites were happy and said this is our god who took us out of Egypt. They offered burnt offerings and peace offerings to it and indulged themselves in eating, drinking and sex. By accepting a bull calf as their god, the Israelites expected bull calf of gold to give them the same strength and fertility like the Egyptian gods. Through this act, they broke their covenant with God. When Moses came down from the mountain, he found Israelites worshipping the gold bull calf. He got annoyed. He threw down the stone tablets he was holding; on which the 10 commandments were written. Moses then took the golden calf, and burnt it into powder and mixed it with water. He then made those worshipping the calf to drink the mixture. Moses ordered those who had sinned to be killed. LESSON EIGHT: RENEWAL OF THE COVENANT (Exodus 34:1 14). Learning outcomes. After studying this lesson, describe conditions for the renewal of the covenant The renewal of the covenant came after Moses pleaded with God not to destroy the Israelites after they ----- 44 # broke the covenant. God spared the Israelites. God agreed to renew the covenant with the Israelites. He gave them several conditions for its renewal. Conditions for the renewal of the covenant The Israelites were: a) To obey Gods commandments b) Not to make any treaty with those who lived in the land where they were going. c) To break down their altar, smash their sacred stones and cut down their Asherah (Idols). Not to worship any other god and not to make idols for worship. d) To keep the feast of unleavened bread (Passover). e) Not to marry people form other tribes. f) To rest on the Sabbath day. g) To sacrifice and offer their best produce and animals to God. God in turn promised to a) Bless them. Protect and preserve the Israelites. b) Make them prosper so much that the surrounding nations would enquire about their source of wealth and success. With these conditions, the covenant between God and the Israelites was renewed. From the making and renewal of the covenant, it is clear that: (i) God expected the Israelites to obey and have faith in Him (ii) God wanted a personal relationship with Israelites. (iii) God is the only one to be worshipped. (iv) God is powerful. LESSON NINE: WORSHIPING GOD IN THE WILDERNESS Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson a. Explain Gods purpose in delivering the Israelites from Egypt ----- 45 # b. Describe features of worship a. Gods purpose in delivering the Israelites from Egypt was to worship and offer sacrifices to Him in the wilderness. He also intended to fulfil his promises to Abraham. b. Features of worshipping God in the wilderness. (i) The Israelites: Worshipped God through intermediaries. These were the priests who came from the tribe of Levi. (ii) The Israelites: Were guided in their worship and in daily living by the Ten Commandments and other ordinances (iii) The Ark of the Covenant was made in the wilderness. It was Gods dwelling place. It was a special box put into the tabernacle. A tabernacle was a portable tent. The ark symbolized the presence of God and the Israelites carried it wherever they went. (iv) Offerings of farm products or agricultural produce were given to God. These included among other farm products; vegetables, flour. Oil and fruits. (v) Other offerings to God were drinks, and incense. The offerings could be burnt, baked, boiled or roasted. (vi) There were several Sacrifices. They included: Burnt offerings (Holocaust) burning a whole animal completely Sin offering /atonement sacrifice offered when one had sinned and wanted to have his sins forgiven. Peace offering part of an animal was offered, while the people ate part of the meat. ----- 46 # Gift offering the best animal was given to God. It was offered as a thanksgiving Animals such as sheep, goats, bulls and birds were sacrificed to God. (vii) Festivals and feasts. Israelites observed several festivals and feasts. These included: Feast of Passover and unleavened bread. Harvest festival feast of weeks or Pentecost. It marked the celebration of the harvest of wheat. Feast of gathering / shelters. It was celebrated during the season when the Israelites gathered the fruits from the Orchards. Feast of tabernacles that was celebrated to remember when the Israelites dwelt in tents. The Israelites kept the Sabbath day. They worshipped God through singing, worship and dancing. LESSON TEN: THE TEN COMMANDMENTS (Exodus. 20: 1 17) Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, a. Recite the ten commandments b. Apply the ten commandments in your life c. Describe Israelites new understanding of the nature of God d. Explain to yourself and others the nature of God a. The Ten Commandments While on Mount Sinai, God gave Moses Ten Commandments written on a stone tablet. The first four commandments deal with relationship between man and God. God said: 1. You shall have no other gods but me. 2. You shall not make yourself a graven image. 3. You shall not mention Gods name in vain. 4. Remember the Sabbath day and keep it holy. ----- 47 # The last six commandments give mans relationship with fellow human beings. God said: 5. Honor you father and mother that your days may be long on earth. 6. You shall not kill. 7. You shall not commit adultery. 8. You shall not steal. 9. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour. 10. You shall not covet your neighbors property. These are my thoughts. (1) Worshipping God (2) Being faithful to God (3) Resting (4) respecting parental authority (5) love humanity (6) Be faithful to your wife or husband (7) respect other peoples property (8) be truthful always (9) be satisfied with what God has given you. b. Israelites understand the nature of god The Israelites had a new and wider revelation about God. Besides GOD being a caring, loving, and a provider, they learnt that: a. God is a jealous God. He does not allow the worship of others gods. He alone should be worshipped. b. God does not condone evil. He punishes those who cause/engage in it. c. God values a personal relationship with his people. d. God wants people to live in harmony among them. e. God forgives those who repent. He is loving, merciful and compassionate f. God is a healer he healed Israelites in the wilderness when a snake attacked them g. God is a God of victory. He defeated the Amalekites, perizzites, and Hittites etc. h. God is faithful and can be depended upon. i. God is holy, slow to anger, powerful and just. ----- 48 # j. God demands obedience to His commands. Revision questions a. What are the qualities of Moses as a leader? b (i). Describe the call of Moses (exodus 3:1-22) (ii). Why was Moses hesitant to Gods call? c (i). What is the significance of the items used for the Passover feast (similar to what is the meaning of the Passover meal) (ii). Compare the lords supper to the Passover feast d. Describe how the Sinai covenant was made e. Describe the circumstances that lead to the breaking of the Sinai covenant f. How was the broken covenant renewed? g. Describe how the Israelites worshipped God in the wilderness h. What is the relevance of the ten commandments? i. What did the Israelites learn about god in the wilderness? TOPIC FIVE: LEADERSHIP IN ISRAEL: DAVID AND SOLOMON Learning outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: a. Explain the reasons for and against kingship in Israel b. State king Sauls achievements, failures and lessons learnt from Saul. c. Explain the importance of David as King of Israel and ancestor of Jesus Christ. d. Describe the qualities of a good leader drawn from King Davids leadership e. State King Solomons achievements and failures f. Explain the importance of the temple in Israel. LESSON ONE: REASONS FOR AND AGAINST KINGSHIP IN ISRAEL Introduction Yahweh remained the God of Israel and the sovereign ruler of his people. ----- 49 # Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a. Define leadership b. Name Israel judges in Canaan Leadership refers to the manner in which a communitys way of life is ruled or controlled. When Israelites settled in Canaan, Judges ruled them for the first 200 years. Some of the judges were (i) Othniel, (ii) Ehud (iii) Samson (iv) Deborah (v) Gideon (vi) Shamgar (vii). Samuel (viii). Barak Duties of judges a. Leading Israelites to war against their enemies b. Settling disputes among the people c. Acting as religious leaders and leading Israelites in worship d. Offering sacrifices on behalf of the people. e. Some of the judges acted as Gods prophets f. They anointed kings, for example Samuel anointed King David. Demands for a King in Israel After Israelites settled in Canaan, the Promised Land, they started demanding for an earthly king to rule over them. These demands for a king ruler were brought about by: i Samuels sons Joel and Abijah were corrupt and took bribes. The sons of Samuel, who were judges, lacked his good leadership qualities. ii The Israelites wanted a warrior king who could lead them to war against their enemies. iii The Israelites wanted to be like the other nations around them who had kings. iv The Israelites wanted a human leader whom they could see, approach, and talk to him face to face. ----- 50 # v The Israelites wanted security, which could be provided by a stable political government ruled by law and order. vi They wanted a government that had a regular army, vii They also wanted an established law court system. Reasons against Kingship in Israel (Samuel 8:10 20) By demanding for a king, the Israelites were seen as rejecting Yahweh their unseen ruler. Two, there would be danger of hereditary kingship which would lead to oppression / dictatorship. God told Samuel to give Israelites strict warnings against Kingship by explaining how the king would treat them. A king would: - (a) Recruit Israelites sons forcefully into the army. (b) Grab peoples land. (c) Force people to pay taxes to the government (d) Turn people into slaves. (e) Introduce forced labour. (f) Force their daughters to work for his wives, sons, and for the royal house in general. The people of Israel were distinct from other nations. Asking for a king meant rejecting God as their unseen king. Further to this, Israel could become like other nations, which did not worship Yahweh. Then the covenant with God and the people of Israel would cease. LESSON TWO: ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES OF KING SAUL (Israel 13:8 14; 15:7 25) Learning outcomes. After reading about King Saul, you should a. State his achievements b. Identify his failures ----- 51 # c. Suggest lesson we can learn from his failures Samuel was directed by God to choose and anoint Saul as the king of Israel. Saul was from the tribe of Benjamin. He became the first human king of the nation of Israel. He accomplished several things. Successes of King Saul 1) He was anointed by God; as king to rule the Israelites 2) He was chosen even though it was not Gods idea for a king over his people. 3) He was a great warrior. He led the Israelites to war and defeated their enemies Failures of King Saul 1) God told Saul through Samuel to destroy the Amalekites completely. Saul however disobeyed God. He spared the king and the fat livestock. He claimed to have spared the fat animals for sacrifice to God. Because of this disobedience, God rejected Saul as king. 2) The Israelites were faced with many enemies. The worst were the Philistines. It was a custom for the king of Israel to enquire from God whether to go to the battle or not. The priest/prophet gave permission to the king to go to war. When Saul was faced with the dilemma whether to fight or not, Samuel enquired from God. Saul did not wait for permission to go to war from Samuel the priest. He decided to bypass Samuel by offering a sacrifice to God before going to war. This action displeased God because it was not his work to offer sacrifice to God. It was the work of priests. ----- 52 # 3) After God rejected Saul as the king of Israel, Samuel was guided by God to go to Bethlehem. He was asked to go to the home of Jesse who had eight (8) sons. In that home, God was to show Samuel the next king of Israel. Samuel would then anoint the chosen son of Jesse. Seven of Jesses sons were brought before Samuel one by one. God told Samuel that he had not chosen any of them. When David, a shepherd, was brought before Samuel God said to him this is the one anoint him! (1 Samuel 16:12). David was anointed (poured oil on) as the next king of Israel. However he had to wait until Saul died before he could take over kingship. 4) After Samuel anointed David to become the next king of Israel, Saul was jealous and plotted many times to kill him. David was employed to serve Saul. He played the harp, lyre wherever an evil spirit possessed Saul. 5) When Samuel died; the Philistines gathered to fight Israel. Saul was filled with terror. Saul enquired from God whether he should go to war, but did not get an answer. Saul disobeyed God by asking a medium (witch) to consult the dead for him. This act led to the death of Saul together with his son Jonathan in battle. 6) Saul was concerned with what people thought of him than pleasing God. He wanted to please people and not God. He was disobedient with God (1 Samuel 15:24) Lessons, which Christians can learn from King Sauls failures 1) Value of being patient. ----- 53 # 2) Christian should obey God, follow His commands and not be afraid of people. 3) Christian should obey religious leaders placed over them by God. 4) Christian leaders should be humble 5) It is against the teachings of God, against the will of God to consult the spirits of the dead through mediums. 7) Without faith, it is impossible to please God. God desires sincere worship. 9) Political leaders should consult and listen to religious leaders. 10) Christians should not turn against their enemies or rivals. They should not plot to have them destroyed and killed. LESSON THREE: IMPORTANCE OF DAVID (1 Samuel 16: 1 23, 2 Samuel 6:1 15) Learning outcomes. After reading about King David, you should a. State his importance to God and the Israelites b. Analyse achievements and failures of King David c. Trace David lineage up to Jesus Christ d. Narrate fulfillment of the promises to David in the New Testament e. Give reasons why God rejected Davids offer to build him a temple David took over kingship of Israel though some people resisted his rule. At first he ruled the house of Judah. Later on the other tribes rallied behind him. Importance of King David David became king after the death of Saul. He ruled for over 40 years as king of Judah and Israel. Achievements of David 1) He was a brilliant military commander ----- 54 # 2) He captured the old fortress of Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made it his capital city. 3) He removed the ark of covenant from the house of Abinadab in Shiloh and brought it to Jerusalem. 4) He expressed great faith in God. Through his faith in God, he was able to kill Goliath, the great Philistine warrior. 5) He was a skilled musician and composed marry psalms that were used and are still being used in temple and church worship. 6) David respected the prophets of God and always consulted them whenever he wanted to do anything. 7) He expanded the geographical boundaries of Israel through conquests. He was a great diplomat and established good political relations with the neighboring kings. 9) He was a shrewd administrator who chose wise elders and counselors to advice him. 10) God promised to establish an everlasting kingdom for David 11) David ruled over Israel, administering law and justice to all people. 12) He took a census of the Israelites and used the information to (a) recruit young men into military service and (2) decide on the policy of taxation. 13) David had remarkable leadership qualities. He was kind. He spared mephibosheth, Sauls grandson. 14) David was humble. He was ready to accept sins he had committed and repent e.g. he repented after committing adultery with Bathsheba. David as an ancestor of Jesus Christ (2 Samuel 1 29, LK 1:26 33) ----- 55 # David intended to build a splendid temple for God in Jerusalem. He felt it was not fair for the Ark of the Covenant to continue dwelling in a tent while he himself lived in a magnificent palace. To achieve this goal, David consulted Nathan, the prophet on whether to build the temple. The prophet approved the idea. But that night, Nathan received a revelation form God that stated that David was not to build a house (temple) for God. Davids son would build the temple of God (2 Samuel 7:5 6). Prophet Nathan gave David Gods message to David. The message was that a) His son will build the temple b) God would give Davids descendants a place to settle c) God promised to raise up an heir from the house of David to sit on the throne d) God promised to make Davids name great or famous among all other leaders of the earth. Reasons why God rejected Davids offer to build him a temple Here are some of the reasons: a. David had been involved in a lot of wars with the Israelites enemies and had thus shed a lot of blood. b. God was a God of the people and could not be confined to a house. c. It was the will of God to establish the house of David (build David a house) rather than David builds a house for him (God). The human body is the temple of God. God dwells in the hearts of people. d. David had grown old. God wanted him to rest. e. God had planned that Davids son would build a house for him a place to house the Ark of the ----- 56 # Covenant. King Solomon, Davids son built the temple and fulfilled Gods promises to David. Solomons rule was peaceful and prosperous. The New Testament is a fulfillment of Gods promises to David 1) The gospel writers tell us that Jesus was born in the family of David (Luke 1:26 27) 2) The angel of God during the annunciation of the birth of Jesus said that He will be like his ancestor David (Luke 1:32 33) 3) Jesus was born in Bethlehem which was also the birthplace of David (Luke 2:4) 4) Bartimaeus the blind man of Jericho hailed Jesus as the son of David 5) During his triumphal entry to Jerusalem, Jesus was hailed by the crowd as the messiah descended from David. 6) In his genealogy, saint Mathew says that Jesus was a descendant of David (Matt.1: 1) Failures of King David. Although David had many virtues: 1) He ordered Uriah to be placed at the battle forefront so that he can be killed. 2) Uriah was the husband of Bathsheba. David had committed adultery with her. 3) He took Bathsheba as his wife LESSON FOUR: LEADERSHIP OF KING DAVID Lesson outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should assess leadership qualities demonstrated by king David David showed ----- 57 # 1) Courage and bravery. David was courageous and brave. Modern leaders should be ready to die with and for their subjects. 2) Gratitude thankful and grateful. David always thanked God for any success or favors he received. Good leaders should be thankful and grateful to God as well as to their fellow human beings. 3) Loyalty. David was loyal to God and to the Israelites. A good leader should be loyal, and never betray his people. 4) Justice. David administered justice to all his subjects without favoring anyone. No tribalism or nepotism. A leader should be fair to all (2 Samuel 8:15). 5) God fearing, having faith. David was God fearing. He expressed his total trust in God. Modern leaders need to emulate this quality. 6) Humility. A leader should be a humble person. Though David had been appointed as the king, he continued to serve Saul until Saul died. He accepted his failures and asked for forgiveness 7) Kind. David was a kind leader. Leaders should be kind. David spared the life of Saul twice yet Saul wanted to kill him. Wisdom. David was careful when choosing legal advisors to assist him in his rule. He was also wise. He reduced tribal jealousies by choosing Jerusalem; a neutral spot for administrative purposes. 9) Delegation a shrewd administrator. A good elder should be able to delegate duties. David delegated duties. He involved others in advising, and administering ----- 58 # LESSON FIVE: ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES OF KING SOLOMON (1 KING 3 12) Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should: a. Analyse achievements of king Solomon b. State failures of king Solomon After David died, his son Solomon became the next king. Kingship in Israel was hereditary. Solomon was chosen by David to be his successor. He took over from David at a time of peace and security established by David. Achievements 1) He made Israel rich by establishing trade with other countries 2) He was a good trader and a successful merchant. He traded in copper, horses, timber, silver and gold. He established international trade with the neighboring countries. For example, he traded with Tyre in cedar and pine logs. 3) He established a well equipped large army for Israel 4) He was a builder. He built a magnificent temple for God in line with Gods promise to David. He also constructed other cities (Megiddo) and a palace for himself. 5) He is remembered for his amazing administrative skills. He had 550 officials in charge of labour force. 6) He was a diplomatic ruler. He established friendly ties with his neighbours. This ensured continued peace. For instance he married the daughters of the kings of Egypt, Moab, Eden and Sidon so as to establish strong ties with those nations. 7) He had great wisdom. He judged a difficult case between two women who were claiming ownership ----- 59 # of the same child. He composed many wise sayings known as the proverbs of Solomon. He also composed songs like Song of Solomon and Song of Songs and poems in Ecclesiastes. 9) He dedicated the temple of God with great rejoicing. 10) He brought the Ark of the Covenant to the temple of Jerusalem. Failures of King Solomon 1) He married women from many foreign countries. These actions made Solomon break the Torah as Israelites were not supposed to marry foreigners. Through these marriages, idol worship started in Israel. This was because he allowed his wives to worship their gods, build temples and altars for them. This led to introduction of idolatry in Israel. 2) Solomon constructed his palace for 13 years. He then built Gods temple for 7 years. This showed that he probably loved himself more than God. 3) He killed his own half brother Adonija on suspicion that he could be a rival to the throne. 4) Solomon lived lavishly, and expensively. He thus burdened the Israelites with high taxes. 5) He used forced labour. This was the same as enslaving the Israelites. 6) He worshipped idols. Solomons heart was turned to such other gods as Ashtoreth / ashitarte goddess of Sidon and Molech the god of the Ammonites. This was breaking Gods commandments 7) He sold part of Israelite territory to the king of Tyre He used pagan skills when designing, decorating, and furnishing the temple. ----- 60 # 9) He made treaties with other nations inspite of the fact that God had forbidden Israel from making treaties 10) He was extravagant. He used a lot of state wealth to entertain and please his many wives and concubines. Activity. Many husbands in Kenya practice polygamy. I want you to find out from your neighbours what are the advantages and disadvantages of polygamy. Then write a paper arguing either for polygamy or monogamy. LESSON SIX: IMPORTANCE OF THE TEMPLE IN ISRAEL Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a) Define a temple b) State the importance of the temple to Israelites. Definition of a temple This is a building dedicated to the worship of God. Solomon built the temple as a fulfillment of the promises that God gave to David, that his son would build a house for him. Importance and uses of a temple 1) It was a centre of worship. Prayers and sacrifices were offered to God from the temple. 2) It symbolized the presence of God among the Israelites. 3) The Ark of the Covenant was kept in the temple as a symbol of Gods presence among his people. 4) The temple acted as a symbol of unity in Israel. Every year all the Israelites had to go to Jerusalem to celebrate such feasts as the Passover, feast of tabernacles day of atonement. This led to the unity of the ----- 61 # Israelites. 5) Dedication of children and purification were done in the temple. 6) It was a residence for the priest. 7) It was a business centre where people bought and sold animals needed for sacrifice. The temple acted as a school to the scribes, rabbis and others who studied and interpreted the Mosaic Law. 9) The temple also acted as the judicial court of Israel. Judges worked from the temple 10) It is where religious ceremonies like naming and circumcision of baby boys took place. 11) It was a house of prayer. Revision questions a. Explain the reasons against kingship in Israel 1 Sam 8: 10-20 b. Explain the importance of David as king of Israel c. How did Jesus fulfil the prophecies of prophet Nathan as a descendant of David? (i.e. areas where Jesus is mentioned as coming from David) d. What are the failures of king Solomon? e. Which leadership qualities can modern leaders learn from David? TOPIC SIX: LOYALTY TO GOD ELIJAH LESSON ONE: EFFECTS OF IDOLATRY IN ISRAEL Introduction After the death of Solomon, the kingdom of Israel split into two countries. the southern kingdom called Judah ruled by King Rehoboam and the Northern kingdom called Israel led by King Jeroboam. Other kings who ruled these two nations were King Abijah, King Asa of Judah, and king Nadab, Baasha, Elah, ----- 62 # Zimri, Omri, and Ahab of Israel. During the time of Elijah king Ahab ruled Israel. Learning outcomes. After studying this lesson on idolatry, you should a. State factors that led to spread of idolatry in Israel b. Analyse religious schism between Judah and Israel c. Describe King Ahabs marriage to the Phoenician princess (Tyre) d. Explain the failure to completely destroy temples, and places of worship e. State effects of idolatry in Israel a. Factors that led to spread of idolatry in Israel When Israelites intermarried with other communities, they worshipped their gods. The Bible makes it clear that i There was a lot of influence by Canaanite religion ii There was division /schism of Israel into 2 kingdoms iii Ahabs married the Phoenician princess iv Israelites did not destroy all gods after settling in Canaan. Influence of the local Canaanite religion Idolatry is the worship of idols. An idol is an image representing a god made using precious materials such as gold, bronze, stone, and hardwood images kept in the places of worship. God had forbidden Israelites from bowing down to images and worshipping idols, intermarrying with non-Israelites, and making treaties. When Israelites settled in Canaan, they forgot Gods commandments. They intermarried and were greatly influenced by the local religion. Israelites changed from being pastoralist to farmers. They therefore worshipped Baal the god of rain, ----- 63 # agricultural fertility, and storms. Israelites worshipped Baal, for rain for their crops. The Israelites were also attracted to the visible gods of Canaan as opposed to the invisible Yahweh. This is how idolatry spread in Israel. However some Israelites maintained worship of Yahweh only (monotheistic) while others worshipped Yahweh and Baal (syncretism). Characteristics of the Canaanite religion. Canaanite religion was: 1. Polytheistic. They worshipped many gods. The Israelites religion was monotheistic. They worshipped Yahweh and no other God. They abandoned their religion and worshipped many gods like Canaanite. This influenced the Israelites. 2. A nature religion. The gods were related with the forces of nature such as rain, sun, storms, drought, famine, wind, water and death. 3. Ensured continued fertility of land, people, animals 4. Based on many families of gods. There was a. EL Chief god who was their father, king, creator b. Asherah wife of El the goddess of motherhood and fertility c. Baal also referred to as Baal Hadad, son of El and Asherah the god of rain, agricultural fertility, storms d. Astarte wife of Baal -the goddess of war e. Anat sister of Baal the goddess of war and love f. Maat the goddess of love g. Mot most feared. The god of drought, famine and death 5. Free and temple of prostitution. Israelites turned to temple prostitution. Women who wanted to ----- 64 # increase vitality of their husbands had sexual relations with the male priests in the Baal temples. 6. Had many places of worship. One could pray in the temple, under sacred trees, and on top of the hills among others. 7. Based on offerings and sacrifices of human beings. Exercise. State differences between Israel and Canaanite religion b. Religious schism between Judah and Israel Schism occurred among the Israelites because there were sharp differences within them. These differences were religious, political and social. After the death of Solomon, the nation of Israel was split. Rehoboam ruled one group while the other was ruled by Jeroboam. Because of this split, Jeroboam could not go to Jerusalem to worship in the temple. He thus set up other places of worship one at Bethel, and another at Dan. Jeroboam also set up images to represent Yahweh. Though he had no intention of Idol worship, it turned out to be so because he made his subjects to offer sacrifices to these golden calves, which he had designed as images representing Yahweh. He also built places of worship on hilltops like the Canaanites. He chose priests from other families in addition to the Levite Family. Furthermore, he organised religious festivals and feasts in the month of his choice. As it were, they coincided with the Canaanites calendars. He then burnt incense at the altar of idols. Jeroboam therefore started idol worship and gave room for idolatry. Kings who succeeded him followed this idol worship. ----- 65 # c. King Ahabs marriage to the Phoenician/Tyre princess Ahab married Jezebel, the daughter of the King Ethbaal of Sidon (Tyre) to strengthen ties with Tyre/Phoenicia. Queen Jezebel was ambitious, and a strong follower of Baal religion. Ahab allowed her to bring her gods to Israel. She forced Israelites to worship Baal and not Yahweh. She imported 450 prophets of Baal and supported them using public treasury. Ahab built a temple to Baal In Samaria. He also put up an image of goddess Asherah. d. When Israelites settled in Canaan, they did not destroy temples, places of worship, idols, images that they found there. As a result Canaanites religious practices influenced Israelites worship of Yahweh leading to idolatry. The effects of idolatry harmed Israelites as: 1) Syncretism developed. This was a process of mixing beliefs and practices from different religions. Israelites worshipped Yahweh and the gods of Canaan. 2) Former places of worship for the Canaanite gods were used as places of worship for Yahweh 3) The Canaanite agricultural calendar was adopted by Israelites 4) Names of the Canaanite gods were used for Yahweh. For example, EL was referred to as Yahweh 5) Parents began naming their children after Baal. 6) Feasts and celebrations were changed to correspond with those of Canaanites when they celebrated their feasts. 7) King Ahab declared worship of Baal as the state religion Queen Jezebel ordered the destruction of the altars of Yahweh ----- 66 # 9) Prophets of Yahweh were killed. Elijah went into hiding. 10) The 450 prophets of Baal were made the officials of the royal court in order to promote and protect Baal religion 11) Israel started to experience long droughts because Yahweh withdrew his blessings. This made Israel worshippers of El LESSON TWO: ELIJAHS FIGHT AGAINST CORRUPTION AND FALSE RELIGION IN ISRAEL Learning outcomes. After studying Elijah, you should a. Describe the contest at Mount Carmel b. Explain how Elijah fought against corruption c. Explain the relationship between Ahab and Naboth d. Describe Gods sentence to Ahab. e. Relate Elijahs encounter with Yahweh at Mt. Horeb f. Identify forms of corruption a) The contest at Mount Carmel (1 King 18:17 46). Carmel refers to the vineyard of the Lord. King Ahab brought trouble to Israel because of worshipping the idols of Baal. Elijah told Ahab that the problems Israel was facing were due to worship of Baal, The decision. Elijah requested king Ahab to call a meeting at Mt Carmel. In attendance would be all Israelites, 450 prophets of Baal, and 400 prophets of the goddess Asherah who were supported by Queen Jezebel and Elijah Elijah told Israelites it was decision time. They had to choose their God. Would it be Yahweh, the God of Israel or Baal the god of Jezebel of Phoenician/Tyre. If it was to be Baal, then they were told to follow ----- 67 # him, if they select Yahweh as their God then they were to follow him (1 kings 18 vs. 21). The choice. Elijah proposed a contest between him and Baal prophets. He asked for two bulls one for him, the other for 450 prophets of Baal. The contest was who can light fire? Yahweh or Baal? He proposed that Baal prophets and himself be given each a bullock. Both shall cut the bull into pieces and put them on wood without lighting fire. The Baal prophets shall pray to their god and Elijah shall pray to the Lord. The one who sends fire to consume the sacrifices .. he is God. The people of Israel accepted Elijahs proposal. Actions. The prophets of Baal prayed first because they were many. They took the bull, prepared it and prayed to Baal until noon (vs. 26). They prayed louder, and cut themselves with knives and daggers; but there were no answer. The prophets of Baal kept on ranting and raving until evening but there was no answer (vs. 29). Elijah asked people to gather near him. He prepared the altar of the Lord to repair work. He took 12 stones representing the 12 tribes of Israel (who were named after the 12 sons of Jacob or Israel) and used them to rebuild the altar. He then dug a trench around the altar. This trench could hold 14 litres of water. He placed the wood on the altar; cut the bull into pieces and laid them on the wood. He asked for four barrels of water and poured it on the offering and wood. He poured water on the altar three times ----- 68 # until the water overflowed, run around the altar and filled the trenches. Elijah then called on the Lord O Lord, the God of Abraham, prove now that you are the God of Israel and that am your servant and have done all this at your command (vs. 29). The Lord sent fire down and it burnt up the sacrifice, wood, stones, and dust and licked up the water that was in the trench. When people saw this, they proclaimed The Lord, is God; the Lord alone is God. Elijah asked people to arrest the prophets of Baal, led them down to the river Kishon and killed them. And after this there was rain in Israel (vs.40). Lessons learnt from Mt. Carmel. Israelites acknowledged that Yahweh is: i Is their only God and that Baal was not God ii Is powerful iii Is a merciful God iv Is a jealous God as He will have no other gods but him v Is a God of justice who punishes idolaters and sinners vi Answers prayer vii Is a forgiving true God viii Protects his servants b) Elijahs fight against corruption (1 Kings 21: 1 29) Corruption is defined as dishonesty. Its a form of injustice when dealing with either an individual or the community for selfish gain and benefit. In a corrupt society people in leadership or with wealth take advantage of the weak, and the poor. The powerful exploit the poor and the powerless by denying them their rights. An example of corruption in Israel is the story of the Naboths Vineyard. ----- 69 # Naboths vineyard. Ahab wanted Naboth to either sell to him his vineyard or exchange it with another vineyard. Naboth refused to sell his inheritance. Jezebel, on seeing that Ahab was sorrowful told him that she will get him Naboths vineyard. Jezebel sent out letters in Ahabs name to the elders of the city. She found two witnesses who could bear witness that Naboth had blasphemed God and king Ahab. Witnesses testified that Naboth had blasphemed God. He was stoned to death. God then sent Elijah to meet with Ahab as he went to possess the vineyard of Naboth. Gods sentence to Ahab. God pronounced to Ahab through Elijah that (1) dogs shall lick his own blood from the place where dogs licked the blood of Naboth (2) His sons shall be killed (3) Dogs shall eat Jezebel by the wall of Jezreel (4) Evil shall be brought upon Ahabs house. This was because Ahab had broken these commandments: The 6th commandment which forbids murder The 9th commandment which forbids bearing of false witness. Ahab allowed his wife to bear false witness against Naboth 10th Commandments you shall not covet your neighbors property. Elijahs encounter with Yahweh at Mt. Horeb (Mr. Sinai) 1 Kings 19 After killing the prophets of Baal, Elijah was threatened by Jezebel. She vowed to kill him. Elijah ran away to the wilderness. The angel of God fed him with a loaf of bread and a jar of water. After eating and drinking Elijah walked to Mt. Sinai the holy mountain of God. He stayed there for 40 days and 40 ----- 70 # nights. In the mountain God appeared to him. There was a strong wind, an earthquake, a fire but the Lord was not in them. Then the lord spoke to Elijah in a still small voice. God told Elijah return and anoint Hazael as king of Syria, Jehu as king of Israel, and anoint Elisha as a prophet and your successor. Self-assessment question. How can Christians help reduce corruption in Kenya? Answer First is to recognize the various forms of corruption like: tribalism, bribery, cheating in business, stealing, misuse of public funds, grabbing public land, robbery with violence and dishonesty Self-assessment question. How can Christians fight corruption? Christians can fight corruption by: a). Employing life skills a) Applying their critical thinking. This is the ability to make appropriate decisions; by weighing in the consequences of actions before taking decisions. b) Creative thinking and being imaginative. This is the ability to explore new ways of handling issues, c) Decision making which is the ability to make the right choices d) Assertiveness. This is the ability to express ones opinion with confidence e) Praying for the corrupt to change their behaviour f) Setting a good example by acting as a good role model g) Educating people on the evils of corruption h) Reporting those who are engaged in corrupt dealings / practices to the relevant authorities. i) Obeying the laws of the society /country ----- 71 # Voting for morally upright leaders. LESSON THREE: REASONS WHY ELIJAH FACED DANGER AND HOSTILITY AS A PROPHET OF GOD Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you shall a. Explain why Elijah, faced hostility b. Show relevance of Elijahs prophetic mission to Christianity today Its not easy for a person to oppose the government and its policies. The person normally faces danger and hatred. Elijah faced hostility from King Ahab, his wife Jezebel and the 450 prophets of Baal. Elijah faced hostility because a. He pronounced a three years drought in Israel, which brought sufferings. b. He put to death 450 prophets of Baal c. He boldly condemned king Ahab for taking away Naboths vineyard d. He preached at a time when there was idolatry, and Baal was the official religion in Israel e. He identified himself with Yahweh in the midst of prosecution of Gods prophets by Jezebel. Relevance of Elijahs prophetic mission to Christians today Lessons Christians learn from the life of Elijah 1) Elijah was courageous. Church leaders should remain courageous and condemn any form of social injustice 2) Modern Christians learn to remain faithful to God through word and deed even if it would cost them their lives 3) As God helped Elijah in difficult times he will also help the Christians hence they should not despair. 4) Elijah was a man of prayer Christians should pray to God always. ----- 72 # 5) Christians should advocate for the rights of the poor and speak out against any form of oppression. 6) Christians should not give false evidence against their neighbours 7) Christians should be persistent like Elijah was in their struggle against injustice God communicated with Elijah in a still small voice indicating his intimacy with the prophet. This means that God is able to establish an intimate relationship with his faithful. Review questions a) Describe the qualities of Elijah that led to his achievements b) What is schism and syncretism c) What are some of the characteristics of Elijah that a modern Christian should strive to emulate? d) What are the effects of idolatry in Israel today? e) Describe Elijahs fight against false religion in Israel f) Describe Elijahs fight against corruption 1 kings 21 g) What can Christians learn from the teachings of Elijah? TOPIC SEVEN: SELECTED ASPECTS OF AFRICAN RELIGIOUS HERITAGE. Introduction All Traditional African Communities believe in a Supreme Being who is the origin and sustainer of all things: He is the creator of the university and all that it contains. All Africans agree that nobody has ever seen God. Therefore, nobody can really describe Him, yet through their religious insights, Africans have formulated ideal about the nature of God. These ideas concern His real being and His activities. Traditional religion refers to African culture that existed in the sub Saharan Africa. African traditional ----- 73 # culture had no scriptures or texts because most of it was oral. It was preserved and handed down from generation to generation-through oral traditions; ceremonies; rituals, and leading personalities. Learning outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to a) Explain and appreciate the African concept of God spirits and ancestors b) Identify attributes of God c) Explain the African understanding of the hierarchy of beings d) Describe the role of God, spirits and ancestors e) Explain the responsibilities of the living towards God, spirits and ancestors f) Describe the traditional African way of worshipping God, venerating and communicating with the ancestors and spirits. LESSON ONE: AFRICAN CONCEPT OF GOD, SPIRITS AND ANCESTORS Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a. Describe the African concept of his/her religion b. State attributes of God c. Draw a diagram showing hierarchy of beings Africans believed in existence of a supreme being who lived in mountains, clouds and the sky. God was the creator of the universe. In African traditions, religion was integrated in every aspect of life and daily activities. For example, farming activities involved God, spirits and ancestors. People would pray to God, spirits ancestors so as to ask for blessings in order to have a good harvest. Livestock keepers believed that fertility of their animals is a result of the blessings of God. If God was appeased, animals would ----- 74 # increase. Natural phenomena such as thunder, lightning, rain; good harvest, and birth were linked to the Supreme Being and the invisible world. If there were calamities such as drought, disease, famine, and death, it was an indication that God, spirits and ancestors were displeased with humankind. Many communities have invocations uttered through out the day Nature or Attributes of god God is described with many names, which are Gods attributes. These are among others: a) God is Good Nearly all-African communities describe God as being good to all people and things. He gives rain, sunshine and life among many other gifts. b) God is merciful. The Akamba refer to God as God of pity, the merciful one. God shows mercy in times of danger, illness, difficulty or anxiety. c) God is holy. He is pure, holy and does not make mistakes. Yoruba call him God who is pure, without blemish. The Kikuyu say God is Possessor of whiteness and the Bukusu master whitewash. African traditions all approach God with reverence, fear, respect and honor. For example when offering sacrifices, they would offer a one-colour animal either white, black, or brown and not a spotted animal. d) God is powerful i.e. Omnipotent. God is described as almighty. His power is expressed in natural occurrences like thunder, lighting, earthquakes, rains, and floods. e) God is all knowing (Omniscient). God knew all things; nothing can be hidden from him. He discerns ----- 75 # hearts. f) God is all present (Omnipresent).He is present everywhere in the universe g) God is limitless. God has no limit. He is both very far and very near, beyond and within. h) God is transcendent .God cannot be exhausted by human imagination. He is unexplainable, beyond human experience and understanding. i) God is all understanding j) God is self existent .He made all things but he himself is not made. He exists on his own. Zulu explain that God is he who is of himself. k) God is a spirit He is invisible, and everlasting.. Shilluk of Sudan refer to him as great spirit the formless spirit. l) God is everlasting. God is eternal, never changes, and never dies. The Yoruba call him the mighty immovable rock that never dies. m) God is God created the creator .The world Kikuyu call him Mumbi n) God is just. Kikuyu refer to God as Mugai meaning divider. One who shares out. God judges fairly, punishes those who do wrong and rewards the good with blessings. o) God is the provider. All communities acknowledge that God provides them with everything they have. Africans built representation of the power of God. They identified sites, places and things that represented the presence and power of God. For example things like big trees, thick forest, high mountains, unique rock formations and large rivers and animals. In these places they built sites, and ----- 76 # shrines. Shrines were regarded as holy and people approached them with reverence Spirits. They were believed to exist between God and human beings in the universe. Spirits were diverse and created by God. Some spirits were dead human beings. Spirits were divided into nature, sky, earth and human spirits that were either long dead (ghosts) or recently dead (ancestors). There were different types of spirits. These were: a. Divinities. These are spirits created by God. They are close to God and act as his agents. They are in charge of natural phenomena like the sun, moon and stars. They are intermediaries between God and ancestral spirits, human beings and other creatures. They reveal Gods plans through diviners and mediums b. Human spirits / common spirits. These are inferior to divinities but higher than human kind. They are remains of human beings after their death. These spirits monitor human activities. Human spirits have lost their names and are not longer remembered by the living. They are believed to live in the under world, undergrounds, in thick bushes, forests, rivers, mountains, lakes, skies, and caves among other places. These spirits can bring harm to the living if disrespected. They appear to people in dreams or in form of shadows. They can also enter or possess a person and cause abnormalities. 3. Ancestors / living dead ----- 77 # These are spirits of the recently dead. They are remembered by the living when children are named after them. They are actively involved in the lives and activities of the living. Their offerings (food or drink) are poured on the ground for them to receive. Ancestors are in a period of transition between the living and the higher categories. They are believed to know the problems of the living and therefore consulted constantly. They are also associated with evil such as revenge for burying them without honor, or not following the instructions they gave before they died or failing to pour them libations. When they are happy with the living, they are a source of blessings. Ancestors who did evil things or committed suicide are forgotten and ignored. Hierarchy of beings. Hierarchy means the order or ranking from the highest to the lowest of created beings. At the top is Divinities Ancestors Human Beings Animals and Plants Non-living Things LESSON TWO: THE ROLE OF GOD, SPIRITS AND ANCESTORS Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson: - a. Write a description of God from an African perspective ----- 78 # God is the creator. The Akamba community believed that God whom they called Mulungu created man and woman. He then tossed them to the earth. The Luhya claim God created them from the black topsoil hence their skin complexion. God is the source of life and giver of life. Barren women pray to God to ask for children. Human beings depend on God for life, rain, air, and sunshine. God is the provider. He gave domestic animals to human beings for their use. Domestic animals have many uses such as repayment of dowry, food, and sacrifices to God, payment of a fine by an offender. Many wild animals are used in folk songs and tales to discourage cowardice, and laziness God is a protector of human beings from evil. God is the giver of moral laws and a judge of people God offers solutions to mans problems through mediums, and prophets God gives power to the specialists such as medicine men, women and priests. God punishes people for wrongdoing Wild animals such as hyena are used in folk stories to discourage cowardice. Stories of tortoise illustrate the importance of being slow but sure. Snakes in some communities such as the Luhya were not killed. The community believed snakes were immortal ancestors coming to visit the living. Plants were used as food for people and animals. Trees were used for fuel and building materials. Some trees were used as sacred places of worship. ----- 79 # Non-living things such as the rain, rocks, and rivers had a religious importance. Rain is seen as a blessing from God. When rain fails, diviner/rain maker was consulted. Rocks, and mountains were believed to be dwelling places for the living, the dead and the spirits. The spirits were viewed as neither good nor evil. Human beings feared them. Their roles were many. They; i Appeared in dreams especially to diviners, priests, medicine men and women, and rain makers to relay information ii Were consulted by religious specialists to find the cause of a problem in a given situation. iii Were bad (naughty) spirits, which disturbed people. African communities believed that bad sprits could call out ones name but on turning theres no one. iv Were manipulated by some human beings to cause harm to others v Relayed Gods messages to human beings. vi Sometimes possessed a person causing the person to be sent away from the village to the forest, or a way from home. vii Acted as intermediaries between humans, divinities and God. Role of ancestors is to: - 1) Appear to families in dreams, and visions. 2) Give family instructions i.e. what should be done. 3) Rebuke those who fail to honor them and warn them of impending punishment 4) Act as mediators between the living and God. 5) Enquire about family affairs as they considered as members of the family ----- 80 # 6) Request for sacrifice of an animal which is slaughtered for them 7) Cause illness or mental disturbance to members of a family if they are disregarded or disobeyed. Preserve the culture of a community 9) Welcome those who die to the spirit world. LESSON THREE: RESPONSIBILITY OF THE LIVING TOWARDS GOD, SPIRITS, AND ANCESTORS Learning outcome. After studying this lesson, you should a. State responsibilities of the living to God, spirits, and ancestors b. Explain the various forms of worship Responsibilities of living include Human beings are expected to worship God, spirits and ancestors and show (i) reverence and respect or veneration to God. They are also expected to (i) pray (ii) sing and (iii) dance. Worship. This is our major responsibility as God expects us to meet and communicate with the spiritual world and God. There are several ways of worshipping God. These include among others: (a) Sacrifices and offerings. Sacrifices include shedding of blood of animals and birds. Offerings are in the form of foodstuffs, milk, water and honey. God was worshipped because He is recognized as the absolute owner of life and property. We also worship God in order to (i) invoke Him for special blessings (ii) thank Him (iii) express our personal fellowship and communion with God (iv) avert or prevent evil. Evils bring about epidemics, famine, floods, and drought. (b) Singing and dancing. Africans worshipped God through singing, dancing, clapping of hands, ----- 81 # drumming, and use of musical instruments. (c)Prayers, invocations and blessings. Prayers were accompanied with sacrifices or offerings. Community leaders prayed to God, spirits and ancestors. (d) Invocations are shortened form of prayers e.g. Help me oh God Oh great God. These are prayers at the spur of the moment. They are few words full of meaning and calling for help form God. (e) Formal blessings. An elder or older person gave blessings. It is believed that the person blessing the other one is doing so on behalf of God. (f) Venerations. Africans treated their ancestors with great respect and honor. They for example worshiped ancestors daily. Worshipping included placing food or pouring libation of beer, milk, water and honey for the spirits. As this act was done, they uttered words to accompany the offerings. Libations were done daily by some communities. (g). Ancestors were honored by: Mentioning their names at prayers was offered to God. Naming children after them. Inviting them to participate in family ceremonies and rituals. For example during birth, and initiation. Maintaining their graves well. Giving the dead a decent burial Communication with spirits Diviners and mediums talk with spirits. To do so, they sit quietly in a place; singing, dancing and ----- 82 # clapping their hands. As they dance, sit and sing, diviners lose their senses and get possessed by the spirit. The spirits speak give them messages for individuals and communities. Spirits communicate on issues such as (i) lost property (ii) revealing by name the enemy in the society (iii) making demands on the living (iv) giving advice (v) giving warnings on impending danger and (vi) making promises to bless a family or clan. Spirits that possess mediums are not harmful. There are bad evil spirits harmful to people whom they possess. Some evil spirits cut themselves; others throw themselves into a fire, river, and lake. Revision questions a) Explain African beliefs about god ( or qualities) b) Describe the African understanding of the hierarchy of being c) Describe the role of the ancestors to the living d) What was the responsibility of the living towards God? e) Describe the T.A. ways of worshipping God. TOPIC EIGHT: AFRICAN MORAL AND CULTURAL VALUES Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic, you should be able to a Explain the meaning of life and its wholeness in the traditional African society b Explain the African concept of community and kingship system c Outline the factors contributing to harmony and mutual responsibility in the African communities d Describe rites of passage and their role inculcating moral values in the traditional African society e Explain the role of religious specialist and their relevance in modern society ----- 83 # f Explain the African moral values g Discuss and evaluate continuity and change in the African understanding of leisure, dress, old age, widows, orphans, dowry, community, land, medicine, worship and property. LESSON ONE: MEANING OF LIFE AND ITS WHOLENESS IN THE TRADITIONAL AFRICAN SOCIETY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to:- 1. Describe the meaning and wholeness of life in the traditional African society 2. Describe the African understanding of a community Life originates from God and it progress from one stage to another with a certain rhythm each person has to follow. Each stage of life is marked by rites of passage. Life is continuous and unending. Each person is expected to value life and to be responsible. Life involves sharing. It is immoral to be greedy and self centred. People are to be hospitable, warm and caring toward other people. Unity and harmony are to be upheld. Life is viewed as whole only if a person went through all the stages or rites of passage Life was propagated through bearing children. Life cannot be divided into religious and secular. Every element of life has a religious meaning. Life is communal. Life was celebrated at every stage. Everyone depends on others. Labour was divided. There were duties for men, children and women. In African traditional society, human life is precious. Murder was condemned harshly. Suicide was ----- 84 # considered the worst thing anyone could do. It was seen as a curse on the family. If one died at childhood, it was regarded as abortion. Death did not mark the end of life. Death is referred to as saying goodbye to food, sleeping, going home, being called by the ancestors. African concept of a community A community is a group of people who share a common language, religion, and culture and may live in the same geographical location. This group of people or an ethnic group shares common interests and characteristics. For example, African communities: Share common features, and interests Have the same origin and are likely to be related by blood. Share a common language. Live together and inhabit the same geographical location. Are divided into smaller units called clans A clan is made up of people who have the same forefather. A clan is composed of families. A family is made up of members (living or dead) who are related by blood and marriage. Family members therefore include the ancestors and the unborn. LESSON TWO: KINSHIP SYSTEM IN AFRICAN COMMUNITIES Learning outcomes. After studying African kinship system in African communities, you should be able to: a. Explain the importance of kinship system b. Give factors that contribute to harmony and mutual responsibility Kinship refers to the relationships between people. These can be by blood, marriage or adoption. People that belong to the same kinship system are referred to as kin. ----- 85 # Importance of kinship system and ties Kinship relationships were and still are important among African communities. This is because these ties: i Provided company. This ensured that people were not lonely. ii Provided a sense of belonging which one of the human needs. We all want to belong iii Controlled social relationships between people related by blood or marriage. iv Promoted mutual responsibility and help v Enhanced a sense of security which is a human need vi Regulated marital customs, rules and regulations. vii Enabled people to live peacefully and in harmony. viii Bind the community together enhancing social cohesion and loyalty to each other ix Facilitated care for the disadvantaged members of community. x Ensured that all members of the community are have knowledge of community beliefs and practices xi Provided a peaceful way of settling disputes. xii Provided mechanisms for proper inheritance of property for example land. Factors contributing to harmony and mutual responsibility in African communities. These are many. Some of them are (i) rites of passage (2) good morals (3) participation in communal activities such as ceremonies, work, leisure activities and worship (4) sharing of property and ideas (5) division of labour. Tasks were distributed according to ones age, gender and status. (6) rules/social norms regulated how ----- 86 # people grew up; knowing what is wrong and right. Good morals help people to live in peace and harmony LESSON THREE: RITES OF PASSAGE Learning outcomes. I expect you to read this lesson and a. Name the main stages of human life b. Explain the rite of circumcision in your community c. Narrate initiation rituals d. Discuss the importance of marriage in your community with peers e. State the importance of funeral and burial rites. In traditional African society, there were four main stages of life. These were (i) birth and naming (ii) initiation (iii) marriage and (iv) old age and death Birth and naming When a woman conceived, and pregnancy was visible, she was treated specially. She wore charms to keep away evil eyes. She ate special food and avoided sexual relations. The family and husband did not expect her to perform heavy task. When she was ready to deliver, mid wives helped in delivery. After delivery, the placenta was seen as a sign of fertility hence it was buried in the fertile land such as a banana plantation. Some communities preserved placenta while others threw it into a running stream. Birth The arrival of a baby and its sex was announced through ululations or shouts. The placenta was disposed off ceremoniously. The mother was purified and baby protection rites were conducted. Once purified, a ----- 87 # mother could wear charms to protect herself and the baby from malicious spirits, sorcery, witchcraft, and evil eyes. Thanksgiving ceremonies were performed to show gratitude to God. The hair of the mother and child was shaved as a sign of purification and newness of life. Naming Naming of babies was carefully chosen. A baby could be named after either a season, weather, ancestors, place or time of delivery, occasion, experience of mother during delivery, significance events such as war, and drought, personality of the child, and names of heroes and gods. A good example is the name Were amongst the Luhya. Twins had special names. Initiation the second rite of passage. There were different types of initiations such as circumcision for boys and clitorisdectomy for girls, excision of teeth and body marks. Initiation rites were important and every individual was expected to go through them or be rendered an outcast. Initiation practices were seen as tests for courage and bravery. They helped the communities when identifying future leaders and warriors. Initiation was very important in communities where it was practiced. Initiation marked a transition from childhood to adulthood. In this transition, the initiate acquired new rights, new status in life, and privileges. For example the new initiates were allowed to marry, own property, and inherit the fathers ----- 88 # property. In addition the initiates received specialized education. They were taught how to behave as adults, warriors, future husbands and parents. The education brought families, relatives and friends together. This act strengthened kinship ties. It also prepared the initiates to face the difficulties and challenges of adult life. In addition, initiation helped to structure the community. Initiation was programmed to fit an age set; and it marked passage of specific time. Thus each initiation ceremony was held regularly, normally between 16 21 years of age. If you calculate, you can see that 16 to 21 years introduced a new age set or group of young people. The age set held power for 16 to 21 years and handed over to the new generation. Initiation was therefore a mark of identity. It gave the initiate a sense of belonging. It bonded the initiates together with the ancestors. Initiation rituals are not popular today as they were in the past. This is because many communities have undergone social and cultural changes because of modern education. As a result some families take their sons to hospitals to be circumcised to prevent HIV/AIDs and to avoid infections because of unhygienic traditional initiation practices. Other reasons are (i) urbanization and migration, (ii) individualization (iii) Christians religious values. These have made some communities abandon some rites e.g. clitorisdectomy and (iv) some countries ----- 89 # have made girls circumcision illegal and an issue of human and health rights. Attitude to birth and naming There has been a change in attitude to birth and naming. This is because initiation is no longer a community but a family affair. In addition, pregnant women attend antenatal clinics. Majority of pregnant women give birth in hospitals and health centres. Thus a doctor and not a midwife announce the sex of the baby. In modern society, the mother and child are no longer secluded. Lastly most parents prefer western names for their babies. Marriage was a requirement for all members of the community. It was a source of status in the community. Since a leader had to be married. Young men and women married after initiation. Marriage was a happy occasion and a source of wealth. The father gave young initiates some animals for dowry. Fathers of girls received dowry payments, as bride price was mandatory. It was given to the parents of the girl in form of (a) Cows (b) Goats (c) Camels (d) Jewellery (e) Poultry. The young men inherited the fathers property. Importance of dowry. Dowry unified the community. When young women were married, their parents lost their labour. Dowry payments compensated for this loss. Men paid dowry as a sign of commitment to their wife and parents. Importance of marriage ----- 90 # Marriage was sacred. It was and ordained by God. Marriage created new social relationships and expanded web of kinships. During the marriage ceremonies the whole community rejoiced, and feasted together. The newly married couple learnt new knowledge and skills. The community and society respected the newly married couple. Children born from this union propagated and ensured continuity of family, and the community. Modern community and marriage. There has been a change in attitude towards marriage. As a result: marriage is no longer seen as sacred and divorce is common. In addition, dowry has been commercialized, as it is no longer seen as important. Some young men do not pay dowry. In fact marriage is no longer seen as a sign of status Children were important in marriage. Barren women were frowned upon. Polygamy solved issues of childlessness. Couples without children can now adopt them from the Child Welfare society. Divorce. This was very rare. It happened only if the girl (i) was not a virgin (ii) practiced witchcraft (iii) and did not show respect towards her husband. Old age and death. This is the age of wisdom. Old people were respected. Grey hair was a sign of respect and wisdom. In all culture, the elders were the custodians of the law, norms and regulations. Social and religious specialists were seers, rainmakers, priests, diviners, and medicine men among others ----- 91 # Death. Old age is followed by death. It was seen as a transition into the spiritual life. Besides old age, many cultures believed that death was due to either breaking of the traditional customs and taboos, curses, evil spirits, witchcraft, war, diseases and epidemics. Burial rites were performed in many African communities. Disposing of the dead body. Several methods were used to dispose the body. These were burials, leaving bodies in the forest, and throwing body to animals or placing the body in an abandoned house. African communities believed that animals carried the spirit of the dead person to the next life. Burial rites were performed by the bereaved. They buried the body with ones person belongings and tools. Thus if a person was a great warrior, he was buried with a war coat. Celebrations accompanied funeral rites. Funeral songs (dirges) were performed. There was drinking and eating. Importance of funeral and burial rites Burial rites created a good relationship between the dead and the living. They were therefore given to appease the world of spirits, express unity in the society, cleanse the remaining relatives and obey the customs of the community. Rituals that were performed depended on the community. Some of the rituals for the dead included. a) Shaving of heads. Some mourners shaved their hair completely, while others shaved in a specific pattern. b) Dancing and singing, and giving gifts to the bereaved family ----- 92 # c) Mourning (d) Drum beating (e) Horn blowing 9f) Grave side fires Here are some questions to make you think about marriages 1. In your opinion, what has brought changes in modern marriages? 2. Explain why divorce is rising in Kenya and Africa. 3. What changes do we see in contemporary marriages? 4. What has brought about these changes? 5. What are the major causes of death in Kenya today? LESSON FOUR: RELIGIOUS SPECIALISTS AND THEIR RELEVANCE IN MODERN SOCIETY Learning outcome. After studying this lesson, 1. Identify religious specialists 2. State the role of medicine men, priests, mediums, prophets, diviners, and seers 3. Describe roles of herbalists, elders, and rainmakers 4. Explain the role of religious specialists in your culture Religious specialists include Medicine men / healers, Herbalists, Diviners, Mediums, Prophets / Seers, Rainmakers, Priests and Elders. Religious specialists were given power by their parents who taught them religious duties. Others received divine call through dreams and visions. A few learnt from experts via apprenticeship. This is learning by observing and practicing what one sees the master teacher doing. Roles of the medicine women/men in the Community. Medicine women/men are healers who were and are respected by the community. This is because they were and are able to: 1) Treat and heal the sick 2) Solve serious and complicated chronic illnesses ----- 93 # 3) Give medicine in form of powder, herbs, minerals or liquid form and observed patients swallowing, drinking, sniffing, and applying on the skin. 4) Offer prayers and sacrifices to God 5) Give charms to protect individual persons from evil spirits. 6) Perform specialized medical roles in some communities in spite of the fact that we have modern hospitals, counselors and psychologists. Elders were and still are community leaders. They were not religious specialists but the community gave elders duties, which made them close to religious leaders. Herbalists and their relevance. Herbalists were synonymous with witch doctors. They cured people through herbs just like the medicine women/men. Communities belief: that herbalists are witchdoctors and possess magical powers. Herbalists continue to be consulted as witch doctors or waganga. Today herbalists do religious tasks that were traditionally done by diviners. Diviners were able to find hidden secrets and knowledge; reveal witches and thieves. They communicated with spirits and enhanced the work of healers and medicine people. They worked as medicine people and were healers of people. They used magic powers and predicted future occurrences. They used items such as pebbles, water, bones or gourds in divination. They also warned of future calamities. They were mediators between God, ancestors and the people. To be a diviner, one had to be trained. There was a specialized curriculum prepared by diviners. ----- 94 # Relevance of diviners in modern society. Diviners (witchdoctor mganga) are not popular today and are hardly consulted. But the unfortunate Kenyans consult them who: need a job, promotion, and children. This consultation is secret. Mediums were channels of communication between the living and the spirits of peoples ancestors. The ancestor spirits possessed mediums and through them ancestors gave information and messages to their relatives. Priests were religious leaders and functionaries. They were intermediaries between people, ancestors, spirits and God. Their work was to make sacrifices and give offerings on behalf of the people. They officiated during planting and harvesting rituals. They offered prayers and blessed the needy. They cared for the shrines and poured libations to the ancestors. They led the community in public worship. They were political heads and judges. Today, traditional priests are not relevant since most Kenyans follow several religious practices like Christianity, Hindus, Islam and many others. But there are however, a few traditional priests who take care of community shrines. Prophets / Seers predicted the future. They foretold events such as invasions, wars, drought, and epidemics. They gave advice. They also performed religious duties. They could bless and curse. Religious prophets are common today but traditional prophets are not common. Rainmakers were responsible for bringing or withholding rain to a community. They interpreted weather ----- 95 # conditions. They performed certain rituals like asking God for rains. They were highly respected in the society. Modern science has replaced rainmakers Meteorological departments have made the rainmakers redundant. Elders were custodians of community values and secrets. They acted as educators. They gave punishment to offenders of social norms/rules. They acted as counselors and guided the youth on matters of sex and marriage. They helped in maintaining roles for important religious functions, such as rites of passage. They were political leaders in the community. They were negotiators and solved conflicts since they settled family disputes especially agreements concerning land. They were custodians of the traditional values, customs and history of the people. Relevance. Elders are relevant in modern society. They are referred to as village elders and are recognized by the government of Kenya. LESSON FIVE: AFRICAN MORAL VALUES Introduction. African communities were regulated by a strict code of laws and moral values. In this lesson we shall study moral values, which regulated individual members of society as well as the community itself. Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should 1. Give examples of cultural values 2. Define moral values 3. Identify forms of misconduct 3. State a punishment for each misconduct ----- 96 # What is a cultural value? These are community practices and beliefs. Each community has cultural values that it accepts and upholds. These cultural values are laws, customs, and forms of behaviour, regulations, rules, observances and taboos. The cultural values form a moral code, which regulates the community. For example, if the culture, values private property, it will have laws that forbid theft of property. These laws are cultural values. Cultural values influence the social order and peace. God gives peace and harmony. God is seen as the giver and guardian of the law. Disobedience was and still is regarded as evil, wrong and was and still is punishable by law. What is a moral value? Moral values are standards of behaviour towards others. They are based on what is valued by the community. Moral values are also positive attitudes. Each community decided what is important to it and what is desirable for its members to practice and uphold. The moral values that communities observed were many. They included amongst others: 1. Hospitality and Love for self and others. This is the habit of welcoming all people, treating oneself and others well. Members of the community were taught how to be hospitable to visitors, strangers and how to assist the needy. 2. Honesty. This is developing good habits like telling the truth, Loyalty, Respect, Co operation with all. 3. Obedience to parents, elders, community leaders and elders. Cultural regulations were followed and ----- 97 # adhered to leading 4. Caring for others. This is being responsible to members of the community 5. Developing social moral behaviour like Humility, Sharing, Responsibility, Chastity, Integrity, Tolerance, Perseverance, and Courtesy 6. Working Hard. Do chores. These were according to sex, age and social- economic status. 7. Cooperation. Members cooperated and worked together with others. Moral values were learnt in the process of socialization. Leisure activities helped in acquisition of moral values. Learning moral values was a lifelong process. The most valued behaviour was obedience. Children were to obey their parents; wives obey their husbands; community obeys their leaders, and elders. Learning to obey was a life long process. An obedient person was respected and rewarded. Misconducts. There were taboos that the community observed. Failure to obey community laws resulted in punishments. The community did not allow stealing of livestock. Domestic animals were the most valued private property. Individuals owned livestock while land ownership was communal. There were many forms of punishment for stealing livestock and committing other crimes. For example a. Payment of heavy fines to replace stolen livestock b. Being beaten in a sack c. Thrown down a hill ----- 98 # d. Cast out of community. Thieves and murders built their homes at the outskirts of the community. They were not allowed to interact anymore with the members of the community. e. Being covered with dry banana leaves and then set on fire. LESSON SIX: CONTINUITY AND CHANGE Introduction Learning outcome. From this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Compare traditional and modern way of life 2. Trace property ownership in traditional and modern communities 3. Explain how money economy has affected the traditional way of life 4. State how communities can look after orphans, widows, and old people Community. Formal education introduced the western way of life. Employment and trade forced Africans to leave their villages to look for employment and markets in towns. These actions led to urbanization and pluralism. As a result different communities came to towns and lived together. 1. Paid employment. Workers were paid by money. The concept of money changed community life. Individualism ownership of money replaced communalism 2. Land used to be communal. There was plenty of land for everyone. But changes were brought by modern life. For example, health improved and people lived longer. There were fewer deaths and population increased. With money, there was an expansion of trade. Individuals started buying land with money instead of clearing forests. Modern life changed the concept of land. Individual started owning land. The colonial governments ----- 99 # introduced policies about land ownership in different African countries. In communities where education was accepted and money economy took over from livestock economy, communal land disappeared. Parents did not have land for inheritance. As a result, people moved and bought land away from their ancestral birthplaces. This resulted in both migrations and immigrations. 3. Property. Traditionally property included land, cattle (Livestock), women/ wives, and children. In African traditional culture, this property belonged to men or the first-born son in paternal societies. In maternal communities, it belonged to wives and daughters. Today property or wealth is in different forms such as money, buildings, vehicles, land, shares, stock, jewels, insurance, and others. Women, men and children own property. Because of this, the status of a person is measured by property. Dowry Bride price / bride wealth In African societies, bride price was very important. It was given in various forms. For example cows, animals skin, and camels. Today dowry is commercialized. Its mainly in form of cash money. This has made marriage costly for the poor. Some young people are staying together without a formal wedding in church or in the community. Others do not want to pay dowry. Young couples are living together in what is called come we stay arrangements. 4. Health Medicine ----- 100 # In traditional society, Illness was caused by witchcraft, sorcery, bad omen, or curses. Diviners, herbalists, and healers treated the sick people. Today bacterial, viruses, or environmental factors, cause illnesses. These are treated by nurses, and doctors; in hospitals and health centres. There is however a craze for herbalists. The communities are consulting herbalists and are taking herbal tea, and medicine 5. Dress Mode of dressing varied between countries. It was dependent on the type of climate. African communities were clothes made from skins or hides, leaves of bananas and trees. Women wore beads, and necklaces for decoration. Modern mode of dressing is a mixture of African, Asian and European wear. There are clothes for men, women, and unisex. African and western ornaments are worn for beauty and style. 6. Worship. Worship is an important activity in African communities. There are different forms of worship, which are done in various places. Those who were converted to Islam worship in Mosques. Those converted to Hinduism worship in temples. Christians worship in churches. The few traditional African communities continue to worship their ancestors in shrines. These are very few. But a few groups are turning back to traditional worship and reviving worship of ancestors and spirits, and their traditional God. For example Mungiki a cult in Kenya, made up of young people, worship the ----- 101 # traditional Ngai and practice traditional culture. Traditional religions have many offerings such as foodstuffs and sacrifices such as goats, cows, sheep and chicken. Human sacrifice has been discarded. It is illegal, and it is murder. In the news, we have heard of cases of body parts being stolen from a dead body in mortuary probably for religious rituals. This is illegal and a criminal offence. Modern offerings in most religious institutions consist of money. 7. Death changes immediately the status of families. Mothers and fathers become widows and widowers. Children become orphans. Many parents, wives and husbands have died because of HIV / AIDS, road accidents, diseases and other modern calamities. They have left orphans, widows and widowers. Orphans used to be looked after by grandmothers, brothers and uncles. Today government, churches, charities, NGOs, well-wishers, and guardians, the elder sibling looks after orphans. Some orphan sisters and brothers drop out of school to look after the rest. Some orphans have ended up in the streets because there is no one to look after them Widows. Traditionally brothers inherited widows. However, widow inheritance is being discouraged to prevent HIV / AIDS. But on the other hand, widows are encouraged to remarry as society has become individualistic and no longer assists community members as an obligation. ----- 102 # Widowers are not inherited and many of them remarry soon after the death of their wives. 8. Old age. In traditional African communities, old people were respected. But now old age is not respected. The aged are seen as a burden to their children. This is because the need medical care, food, and other forms of care to meet their needs. Most of them are neglected and mistreated. In traditional communities, children took care of their aged parents. Today some children care for their parents. Fortunately, churches have set up homes for the aged. An example is Nyumba za wazee. A few old people can look after themselves since they have pension schemes, life insurance policies, income generating projects, investments and bank deposits. They can care for themselves. Revision questions a) What is the significance of the kingship system b) Outline and explain factors contributing to harmony and mutual responsibility in the traditional African society c) What was the purpose of the bride wealth in the traditional African society? d) Explain the role of medicine men in the African communities and their relevance today. STUDY ACTIVITIES Read the Bible quotations given Carry out role-plays e.g. the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham Consult the aged to assist in the understanding of African traditional practices ----- 103 # Form one answers Topic: one 1.What is the importance of reading the Bible? Strengthens peoples faith. Helps in spreading the gospel. Helps in composition of songs and hymns. Acts as a reference when we write its translations and other books. Promotes good relationship between God and man. 2. In society, people in schools, crusades, churches, lodgings, homes, and hospitals read the Bible. 3.In the government, the Bible is used for swearing in the Courts, Parliament and Cabinet when members of parliament are nominated to become ministers of the government. 4.The major divisions of the Bible are the old and the new testaments. Read 1.3.4. Above for more information 2. What are the effects of Bible translation on African languages? The Effects of Bible translation into African languages The translations increased and deepened peoples faith in God. They also led to the establishment of schools. The Gospel spread to local communities and many of them became Christians. The missionaries and colonialists learnt African Languages. This led to the promotion of African languages. This helped the African converts to judge when the missionaries were unfair or when they practiced inequality of races. 8. Why is the Bible referred to as (a) a Library and (b) the Word of God (a) The Bible is referred to as a Library because its: 1. Books are arranged in a series and in order. 2. A reference book ----- 104 # 3. Is a book of literary works 4. Books were written under different situations and circumstances 5. Books are many 1. Inspiration is a process through which God took the initiative to prompt and enlighten the writers of the Bible its Godly influence. TOPIC TWO: CREATION AND THE FALL OF MAN 1. Find answers on the differences between the two creation stories in lesson four 2. Traditional African view of creation is in lesson four. Africans view was that: God is the architect of the world God existed from the very beginning of time God created everything from nothing God provides for the needs of human beings, animals, and all creation God continues to create through human beings 3. Human beings continue with the work of creation in lesson four 4. The origin of sin and evil read again lesson five 5. Consequences of sin in lesson five When Adam and Eve sinned Mans friendship with God changed to fear of GOD What had been innocent and good became shameful Relationship between GOD and man was damaged and became spoilt Man began to toil for food, safety and other basic needs Pain became part of human experience Death sentence was passed 6. Consequences of evil are in lesson six Africans understand evil as barrenness, war, drought, epidemics, madness, sickness, death, burning in a house and others ----- 105 # 7. Gods plan of salvation is lesson seven. The lesson tells us that GOD saved human kind by providing: Clothing for Adam and Eve Means to find food A decree to defeat serpent through the seed of the woman A solution in which he choose Abraham and separated him from others A delivery of Israelites from Egypt Prophets with messages for Israelites The Messiah to die on the Cross to save humankind 8. Compare the biblical concept of sin and the African concept of evil. Similarities: Both agree that God is good and did not create evil. In both, sin is a result of disobedience, greed and selfishness of humankind. In both cases, sin leads to human suffering. Both hold the view that sin/evil befalls humankind in the form of a curse. Sin brings separation between God and man. In both, there is reconciliation and forgiveness between God and man. Thus sin does not end a relationship. Differences In the bible, the serpent is seen as the cause of sin whereas in many Traditional African communities, the spirits of the dead causes evil. In the bible, there is external punishment (hell) for sinners while the African communities believe that punishment is here on earth. Biblically, human beings are born sinners because they are descendants of Adam (1st parents sin). In ----- 106 # Traditional African Community, a child is born free of evil. Biblically had taken the initiative to end sin but in Traditional African Community, man does through sacrifice to the ancestral spirits. 9. Subdue the earth in genesis 1 verse 28 TOPIC THREE: FAITH AND GODS PROMISES TO ABRAHAM. Qn 1. Explain why Abraham is referred to as the Father of Faith Faith is complete trust in somebody or something. This is because he demonstrated faith in his lifes actions. Accepting to move from his homeland to an unknown land. By accepting circumcision at an old age and change of name. Being ready to sacrifice his only son Isaac. He made altars for the worship of God at Bethel etc. He believed in a God he did not know/see. By accepting to enter into a covenant relationship with God where he gave his best animals as a sacrifice. Qn 2. Give five (5) actions from the life of Abraham that shows his faith in God Abraham obeyed Gods call and left his homeland Haran to go to an unknown land. He believed in the promises God gave him. Build altars for the worship of God, one at Schecher and the other at Bethel. Covenant accepted to make a covenant with God where he sacrificed the best of his animals. Circumcision accepting the command to circumcise himself and all male children in his household. ----- 107 # Sacrifice of son willing to offer his only son Isaac as a burnt offering to God. Qn 3. List some of the promises God gave to Abraham. Abraham and his wife Sarah would have a son. Abraham would be famous. He would become the father of a great nation. God would curse those who cursed him and bless those who blessed him. God assured Abraham of a personal protection. Many descendants like stars on the sky. The descendants would be slaves in a foreign land but God would deliver them. He would live to a ripe old age and die in peace. God would establish an everlasting covenant with him and his descendants. Some of his descendants would be kings. God would give him and his descendants land. Qn 4. Compare and contrast Jewish and Traditional African practice of circumcision A. Similarities In both communities, circumcision is taken as a physical sign of membership to the community. It involves the cutting of the foreskin. Members who refuse to be circumcised are treated as outcasts in the community. The shedding of blood is symbolic as it binds the people with God and ancestors. It has a religious significance. Special people in both do circumcision. ----- 108 # The occasions are accompanied by a ceremony which being kinsmen together. The rite is compulsory for males. The practice is handed down from one generation to the next. Names are given during the occasion. In both cases, it is done in special or religious places e.g. temple/under mugumo tree/ shrine etc. It is a command from God/ancestors. Differences For African, initiation leads to adult responsibilities such as marriage, becoming a warrior, decision- making and property ownership. In Jewish community, the boys are too young to take up responsibility. In the Jewish community, only males are circumcised while in the Traditional African Community, both boys and girls are. For Jews, one remains a child while in the Traditional African Community, they move from childhood to adulthood. Jewish community circumcise at the age of eight days while in the Traditional African Community, it is at puberty. Among the Jews, it is a sign that they have become Gods people, but in Traditional African Community, one is bound to the ancestors. The Jewish circumcision is a command from God as a sign of their covenant with him while Traditional African Communities do it in obedience to the customs and traditions of their duty. ----- 109 # The rite, taken place on the 8th day of both in Jewish community while in the Traditional African Communities, it occurs after every four six years. Done to individuals in Jewish community while it is done to a group of age mates in the Traditional African Communities. No seclusion period among Jews as is the case in most African communities. In African communities, the ceremony enables them to choose future leaders, which is not the case with the Jews. Helps one endure suffering (pain) in future in the African communities unlike in the Jewish communities. Only one form of initiation (cutting of foreskin) is done. Various forms are practiced in the Traditional African communities. These include: Cutting of foreskin Lib/ear piercing Removal of lower teeth Scarification (putting marks on face/body) Qn 5. What is the importance of faith to Christians? Faith is the foundation of Christian life today. It makes Christians part of the great nation of God. Through faith in Jesus, Christians became the chosen people of God. Faith enables Christians make correct choices in life e.g. When choosing a career, marriage partners etc. Faiths help them to face temptations and challenges in their lives and are able to overcome them. ----- 110 # It gives them perseverance in prayer as they wait for Gods answer. It gives them the courage to commit their lives to God totally. It is through faith that Christians obey God. They are able to achieve impossible things through faith. They are able to believe what they have not seen through faith. They are able to serve the world, help the needy because of their faith in Christ. Qn 6. State the elements of a covenant Partners two or more partners are involved. A physical reminder a certificate/sign. Promises: given by both partners. Ceremony whose blood seals it or an oath taken. Witnesses must be present It requires faithfulness, obedience and loyalty to the regulations It spells out serious consequences for those who break it. Qn 7. Give examples of covenant in the bible and the modern society The Bible Gods covenant with Noah: where he promised never to destroy the earth with flood rainbow is the sign of the covenant (Gen 9). Gods covenant with Abraham: God promised to fulfil the promises he made to Abraham. The sign was circumcision (Gen 15 & 17). The covenant between God and the Israelites on Mt Sinai sign was the Law 10 commandments (Exd 24). The covenant between God and King David promise to Davids kingdom would last forever (2 Sam:7). ----- 111 # Jeremiahs covenant: The new covenant with Gods people (Jr 31: 31 34). Modern Society Baptism Marriage Oath of allegiance/loyalty Ordination The National Anthem binds all The loyalty pledge Employment contract Qn 9. Discuss the circumstances that led God to enter into a covenant relationship with Abraham To seal the promises given unto Abraham e.g. a great nation, son, many descendants. It was an assurance of the fulfillment of Gods promises to Abraham. It was to unite God and the Israelites. It was to be a source of blessings to all. A starting point for the salvation of mankind, whereby he would renew the relationship between himself and man after the separation by the 1st parents. TOPIC FOUR: SINAI COVENANT. Qn a. What are the qualities of Moses as a leader? Education: he received education while in the pharaohs palace where he grew up. Jewish religion knowledge: his own mother who was his maid taught him the history of Israel. He learned leadership skills from the King as he grew up. Shepherd: herding the father-in-laws herds made him gain experience of shepherding people. ----- 112 # Life in the wilderness where he lived after killing an Egyptian gave him experience in desert life through where he would lead the Israelites. Father/parent: his marriage to Zipporah helped him learn family leadership. Later he applied this to his work. Prophet: Enabled him to foresee the future and inform the community. Miracle-maker: helped him solve problem facing his people in the wilderness e.g. lack of food, water. Lawgiver: gave laws that were used to govern the community of Israel i.e. the Ten Commandments. Hard work: worked for his father-in-law serving the family e.g. fetching water. Later he was able to serve the Jews. Qn b (i) Describe the call of Moses: Exodus 3: 1 22 God called Moses as he herded his father-in-laws flock at Mt Sinai. Moses saw a burning bush, which was not consumed. He drew nearer to get a better look. God called Moses by name from the middle of the burning bush and told him to remove his shoes because he was standing on holy ground. God told Moses that he had seen the suffering of his people in Egypt and heard their cry. He told Moses that he had chosen him to go to Pharaoh and release them from bondage. Moses objected to the task because he felt inadequate. God promised to be with Moses and to protect him. Moses asked for the name of God so that he would have a point of reference when asked who sent him. ----- 113 # God revealed himself to Moses saying, IAM WHO I AM God gave Moses power to perform miracles that he would use as proof of his work. Moses protested further saying he was a stammerer. God commissioned Aaron, Moses brother as his spokesman. Moses then told God he was afraid to go to Egypt. God assured him that the man he was afraid of was already dead. Qn b (ii) Why was Moses hesitant to Gods call? It is because he was already a criminal and wanted in Egypt after having killed and Egyptian and ran away. He was not a good speaker (stammerer). He did not know the name of God who was sending him. Qn c (i) what is the significance of the items used for the Passover feast (similar to what is the meaning of the Passover meal)? The Lamb: reminded the Israelite of the sacrificial lamb whose blood saved their 1st born from the angel of death. The unleavened bread signified purity. It too signified the hurry they had to leave Egypt, as unleavened bread is easy to bake. Roasting the meat was the easiest method of cooking. Not breaking bones and spilt blood signified forgiveness. Bitter herbs symbolized the bitterness of slavery in Egypt. Other Meanings: Eating while standing symbolized the haste with which the Israelites were to leave Egypt. They were not to leave any meal to avoid profanation in the form of flies. Burning was the simplest ----- 114 # way of disposal & sacred. Qn c (ii) Compare the Lords Supper to the Passover feast Similarities: Both are acts of salvation from suffering. Passover saved Israelites from slavery while the Lords Supper saved people from bondage of sin. Both are celebrated in memory of a past event suffering. Lambs offered in both Hebrews the Passover lamb in the Lords Supper Jesus is the paschal lamb. In both a symbolic meal was taken. In both cases each group is saved through a mediator Moses and Jesus respectfully. Gods covenant is remembered in both cases i.e. Old testament and new covenant respectfully. In both the religious significance of the feasts is taught and emphasized. Differences: In the Passover feast, animal sacrifice is offered while in the Lords Supper, Jesus was the last sacrifice and instead bread and wine are offered to represent his blood and body. Whereas the Jewish Passover was compulsory for every few, the Lords Supper is not compulsory in all Christian churches. The blood shed in the Jewish Passover is for the salvation of the Jews only while the blood of Jesus shed on the cross is for the salvation of the whole human race. Passover lamb offered in Hebrew while Jesus was the lamb offered in the Lords Supper. Qn d. Describe how the Sinai covenant was made The Israelites arrived at Mt Sinai through Gods saving power. ----- 115 # Moses was instructed by God to tell the elders to do the following in preparation for the making of the covenant. All Israelites were to cleanse themselves and wash their garments. Mark the boundaries of the mountain and avoid going near or crossing the border. Avoid sexual relations between married couple. Note: All these happened after Moses had gone up the mountain and God had promised to make the Israelites the following if they obeyed him. i. His people ii. A kingdom of priests iii. A holy nation On the third day after cleansing, Moses took the Israelites to meet their God. God manifested himself in the following forms: thunder, lightening, earthquake and a thick cloud that filled the mountain and a loud trumpet blast. Moses came down and told people about the laws which was to guide them as a covenant people. The people agreed to obey all the words the Lord had spoken (Ex 24: 3 4) Thus the covenant was made. Qn e. Describe the circumstances that led to the breaking of the Sinai covenant Moses went up the mountain to receive the stone tablets on which the Ten Commandments where written. He delayed (40 days) thus forgetting God. The Israelites became impatient. They forgot the saving power of God that had delivered them from ----- 116 # Egypt. Aaron was a weak leader who failed to lead the people to uphold the covenant. He yielded to their demands to make and worship idols. Availability of gold jewellery: used to make the calf image. Idolatry was a practice done while in Egypt so they copied/continued with it. They were used to Gods (idols). They could see while in Egypt unlike the Yahweh who was invisible. Qn f. How was the broken covenant renewed? Moses pleaded to God not to destroy the Israelites. God spared them. God commanded the Israelites to cut two stone tablets where he would rewrite the commandments. God gave conditions to be fulfilled by the Israelites in the renewal of the covenant. These were: a) To obey Gods command. b) Not to make treaties with other nations. c) To tear down the altars of the gods of other nations and temples. d) Not to worship idols. e) Not to make images to represent God. f) Not to marry foreign wives. g) To keep and celebrate the three festivals namely, Passover, feast of weeks and the feast of in gathering. h) To keep the Sabbath day holy. i) Dedicate to God 1st born male children and animals. God promised that if they obeyed Him, He would: a) Protect and preserve them ----- 117 # b) Bless them c) Make them prosper After this Moses was ordered by God to write a new set of Laws on the stone tablets. Thus the covenant was renewed. Qn g. Describe how the Israelites worshipped God in the wilderness Worship is the practice of showing respect and love for God. The Israelites showed their respect and love for God in the wilderness in the following ways: - 1) The Ark and the Tabernacle: The Ark was a wooden box where the Ten Commandments were kept. They signified the presence of God. The tabernacle was a portable tent for meeting between God and the Israelites. 2) The Sabbath: They observed the Sabbath as a sacred day for resting and worshipping God. 3) Festivals: Celebrated many festivals as one way of worshipping God. E.g. Passover. 4) Altars built them when there was need to worship God meeting place between God and the people and sacrifice to God. 5) Observance of the Ten Commandments. These guided them on how to live with God and man. 6) Religious leaders: God chose priest from the tribe of Levi to organize worship. Qn h. What is the relevance of the Ten Commandments to Christian today? Christians learn that God is a jealous God. They avoid holding other things in their lives strong in the place of God. ----- 118 # Christians learn that God is unique and cannot be represented by visible man-made objects or described in human terms. They are reminded to observe the Sabbath by worshipping God. They strive to have a good relationship with God. They are taught to respect other people and their property. They learn that long life is a result of honoring and respecting their parents. They strive to live upright and moral lives. They learn that lust for money and other property is sinful. Qn i. What did the Israelites learn about God in the wilderness? They learned that God is faithful. He keeps promises. A provider provided manna, water etc. God is the controller of natural forces e.g. Red sea, a pillar of cloud & fire, earthquakes etc. A jealous God no worship of other gods. Just forgave those who broke the covenant and punished those who refused to repent. Merciful and compassionate. Give them a 2nd chance after breaking the covenant. A God of victory helped them defeat Amalekites. God valued a personal relationship commandments given. TOPIC FIVE: LEADERSHIP IN ISRAEL Qn a. Explain the reasons against Kingship in Israel (1 Sam 8:10 20) The King would force the sons of the Israelites to serve him as soldiers in the army. The King would create forced labour and enslavement by making the young men work in his farms and in making weapons. Daughters would work in his house. He would also grab their land and give it to his loyal servants. ----- 119 # He would overtax them in order to maintain his administration. It would be seen as a rejection of Yahweh as their King. Israel would be like other nations who did not know Yahweh. Yahweh would reject them when they cried to him. Qn b. Explain the importance of David as King of Israel David was important because he was chosen by God and publicly anointed by elders in a religion ceremony. He too became ancestor of many communities. David was a great musician and wrote many songs for promising God. He killed Goliath the philistine soldier. He conquered the enemies of Israel such as Amalekites, Ammonites etc. He expanded Israel through his military conquests and marked the boundaries of the nation. He captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made it a capital city. He too made it a religious centre by placing the Ark of the Covenant there, which had been housed Abidjabs. He had good diplomatic relationship with other nations. He encouraged trade with other nations thus making Israel prosperous. He was a shrewd administrator who chose wise elders to advise him. He was filled with the Holy Spirit. He established the largest and most enduring dynasty that lasted 400 years. He composed the books of Psalms used to praise God. Whenever he wronged God, he genuinely repented and humbled himself before God. He was a just ruler. He respected the prophets of God and consulted them before making decisions. He was prayerful and consulted God in his undertakings. ----- 120 # He united the twelve (12) tribes of Israel. He set a good example of faithfulness to Yahweh that he wanted all the Israelites to emulate. Qn c. How did Jesus fulfil the prophecies of prophet Nathan as a descendant of David? (i.e. Areas where Jesus is mentioned as coming from David) Angel Gabriel announced the birth of Jesus to Mary who was engaged to Joseph, a descendant of David. The Angel referred to Jesus as the King whose wisdom would last forever (Lk 1:26-33). Jesus was born in Bethlehem the birth place of David (Lk 2: 4 5) Abraham and David are mentioned as the ancestors of Jesus. During the triumphant entry into Jerusalem, the crowds who met him sang with joy and shouted Hosanna to the son of David. On the days of Pentecost when Peter addressed the crowd, he referred to Jesus as a descendant of David (Acts:2 29-35). Zechariah in his Benedictus, says that God has promised a savior descended from the house of David (Lk 1:69) The blind man at Jericho referred to Jesus as the son of David (Lk 18:38). Qn d. What was the failure of King Solomon? Solomon was the 2nd King of Israel, succeeding his father King David. He failed to live according to the covenant way of life in the following ways. He married foreign wives thus breaking the Toral that clearly stated that the Israelites should not marry foreigners because they can come with their gods idols. ----- 121 # He allowed the wives to worship their gods (idols) thus leading to spread of idolatry in Israel. He not only worshipped the gods of his wives but also built temple for their worship. He, by worshipping the gods became a bad example to Israel, as King. They copied him. Although he built Gods temple, he erred in many ways: i. He built his palace for 13 years but took only 7 years to build Gods temple. Shows he loved himself more the God. ii. He used foreign designs and materials in the construction of the temple, ignoring Gods specifications on how to build it. iii. He liaised pagan craftsmen from Tyre to design, decorate and furnish the temple. He broke the sixth commandment by killing his half brother, Adonijah. He suspected that Adonijah would become his rival to the throne. He spent a lot of Israels money on his lavish lifestyle. He had a large army and servants. He overtaxed the people to meet the amount. He used forced labour in his development projects. He enslaved young men and women who went to work in the palace as servants for the wives. He practiced nepotism. He exempted them from forced labour. He sold part of Israel sold 20 towns of Galilee to King of Tyre as payment of a debt he could not pay contrary to Gods command. He made treaties with other nations that were against the condition set during the renewal of the ----- 122 # Sinai covenant. In the above ways, he oppressed the people of God. Qn e. Which leadership qualities can modern leaders learn from David? Justice: A good leader is one who does not favour some people like David (I Sam 24: 1 12). Courage: David showed this while fighting Goliath. Leaders need to be brave and courageous in their work (I Sam 17:41 54). Fear of God and Faith: David consulted God before any undertaking. Leaders should do the same. Gratitude: David was thankful to blessings he received. Leaders should be happy and grateful to God. Loyalty: Modern leaders should remain loyal to their office. David was loyal to God and his people (2 Sam 2:7) Kindness: Good leaders should show mercy to their people like David did e.g. he forgave Saul twice (2 Sam 19: 9 39). Humility: Leaders should not hesitate to ask for forgiveness from God and people. David was humble and asked for forgiveness any time he went wrong. Willingness to delegate: Learn to delegate future as David did (2 Sam 20: 23 26) Wisdom: Be wise in choosing legal advisers as David did. Respect: Leaders should show respect to God and preaches those they serve as David did to the prophets and his people. TOPIC SIX: LOYALTY TO GOD- ELIJAH. Qn a. Qualities of Elijah that led to his achievements ----- 123 # Elijah was fearless and courageous. His courage helped him to face king Ahab and queen Jezebel and condemn them for their wickedness such as corruption and idolatry He was faithful to God. Yahweh guided him in his dealings with Baal prophets and king Ahab. He lived a simple life. For example, he wore simple clothing made of carmels skin. He stood for the covenant at a time when the religion of Yahweh was in danger He had the power of God in him and was able to control rain. He confirmed that Yahweh had authority over land and over the people. b) Schism is sharp religious, social, political differences within a group or organization Syncretism is the process of mixing religious beliefs and practices c) Some characteristics of Elijah that a modern Christian should strive to emulate 1) Courage 2) Faithfulness 3) Zealousness for God 4) Concern for the needy / poor 5) Provision of social justice 6) Patience Qn d. What were the effects of idolatry in Israel? Syncretism developed where the Israelites worshipped Yahweh alongside the gods of Canaan. The Israelites started calling Yahweh by the names used for Canaanites gods e.g. El. The Israelites started naming their children after Canaanite gods like Baal. ----- 124 # They changed their religion calendar and celebration to correspond with their Canaanite celebrations and feasts. They converted the high places used for worshipping Baal to Yahwehs shrines without removing the graven images of idols. The unity that existed between the two tribes of Israel was destroyed. They no longer treated one another as brothers. The Kings of Israel behaved like the Canaanites leaders by oppressing the weak and grabbing other peoples property. The people neglected Yahwehs holy places. Gods prophets were mistreated, persecuted and even killed. God withdrew his blessings from the Israelites because they angered Him by worshipping other gods. They broke Gods commandments, which forbade worship of other god a part from Yahweh. The Israelites practiced temple prostitution and other Canaanites rituals and sacrifices. Qn e. Describe Elijahs fight against false religion in Israel Elijah rose to challenge false religion at a time when Baalism had become the official religion. He prophesied a three and a half years drought because the people had turned away from Yahweh. After the drought God appeared to Elijah and told him to go to King Ahab and tell him that the drought was as a result of idolatry in Israel. Elijah requested the King to order all the people to meet at Mt Carmel to hold a contest. ----- 125 # Elijah asked the King to invite the 400 prophets of Asherah and Baals 450, saw that they could prove who the true God is. Elijah would sacrifice a bull and the false prophets would too sacrifice their own to call on their Gods to send fire. The one who could send is the true God. The prophets of Baal were the 1st to pray to their god but he never sent fire. The prophets cut themselves with knives to please their god but he never sent it. Elijah then prepared the altar with 12 pillars representing the 12 tribes of Israel. He dug a trench around the altar, placed wood and put the cut bull on top of the wood. He ordered for water to be poured around the trenches until it flooded. Then in the evening Elijah prayed and called upon the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob to send fire. Fire came and consumed the whole sacrifice, including the water in the trenches. As a result, the Israelites bowed down and declared that Yahweh was the true God. Then Elijah ordered the killing of all the prophets of Baal and the prophetesses of Asherah. Elijah went to the top of the Mt Carmel and prayed for rain. Yahweh sent His servant to watch for the sign of rain from the sea. The servant looked towards the sea seven times after, which he saw a small cloud forming. Then heavy rain fell, signaling end of drought. Qn f. Describe Elijahs fight against corruption 1 Kings 21 ----- 126 # Corruption: Can be defined as dishonesty or misuse of power for personal gain. In a corrupt society, the rich and powerful people tend to take advantage of the weak/poor by exploiting them and denying them their rights. King Ahab of Israel desired a fruitful vineyard owned by a man named Naboth. King Ahab approached Naboth to sell him the vineyard or exchange with another one. Naboth declined the offer because in Israel, selling ancestral land was against the covenant law. The land belonged to God. Jezebel, Ahabs wife, soon learned, Naboths refusal and she arranged Naboths murder through false accusations. After Naboth was killed, Ahab possessed the vineyard. God commanded Elijah to go and declare His judgement on Ahab for committing such an evil act in Israel. Elijah declared the following judgement on Ahab: i. Dogs would lick Ahabs blood at the same place where they had licked Naboths. ii. Ahabs dynasty would fall kike those of the Kings before him who had disobeyed God. iii. All family members of Ahab would face violent deaths. On hearing this, Ahab humbled himself before God and repented. God postponed Ahabs punishment to the days of his son. Qn g. What can Christian learn from the teachings of Elijah? ----- 127 # From the Mt Carmel incident, they learn that Yahweh controls the forces of nature can bring rain or stop it. Yahweh is the only true and living God Mt Carmel. Yahweh is forgiving pardoned those who repented on Mt Carmel. Yahweh is a jealous God. He will not share honor with any God killed the 450 prophets worshipping Baal. A prosecutor protected Elijah. A provider provided Elijah with food. Yahweh answers prayers. He is faithful. They also learn that church leaders should condemn evil like Elijah did in the case of Ahab and Naboth. Christians should work to protect the poor from exploitation. They should be prayerful so that God can help them overcome difficulties like Elijah. They should strive to lead lives free from corruption. They should remain faithful even if it means costing their lives to Naboth. Leaders should realize authority comes from God and are accountable to Him. They should avoid idolatry, which Elijah condemned. Perform tasks given by God however had they may be as Elijah did facing Ahab, killing the 450 false prophets etc. Finally, they should invite sinners to repeat and bring them back to God. TOPIC SEVEN: SELECTED ASPECTS OF AFRICAN RELIGIOUS HERITAGE Question a: Explain African beliefs about God (or qualities) ----- 128 # African beliefs about their God are found in their proverbs, myths, songs, prayers, narratives and religious ceremonies. God was believed to be a supreme being who was beyond human understanding. The African communities believed that God was all-powerful omnipotent. They believed that Gods power is expressed in natural occurrences such as thunder, earthquake floods and volcanic eruptions. God is believed to be all-knowing omniscient. He is limitless and knows hears and sees everything. He is also omnipresent meaning he is everywhere at all times. Transcendent beyond human understanding. Because of the transcendent nature, Africans found it impossible to represent him using physical representations. They viewed him as being far yet too near them. He was seen as the provider and sustainer of creation. They believed that God is everlasting. He has no beginning or end. God is merciful. They believed he is incorruptible. African communities associated God with justice. Physical features were often seen as a representation of awesome power of God. This is why large mountains, thick forest, unique rock formation were used as shrines. African viewed God to be mysterious. Qb. Describe the African understanding of the Hierarchy of Beings Hierarchy of Beings Divinities ----- 129 # Ancestors Human Beings Animals and Plants Non-living Things God as the creator occupies the highest rank in the hierarchy of being creator. The Divinities: Came next and control natural forces in the universe, created by God. The Common Spirits: Comprise spirits of people who died long time ago. Ancestors: (living dead): Spirits of those who died recently and are still remembered by the living. Human Beings: Consist of the living and the unborn. Animals and Plants: Come next for mans use as food and sacrifice to God. Last (7th) are Non-living things: Such as mountains, rocks, rivers, caves, dwelling places of God and Spirits. Qc. Describe the Role of the ancestors to the living The ancestors acted as intermediaries between God and human beings. They communicated the problems and wishes of human beings to God. God and the spirits used the ancestors to express their wishes concerning human beings. The ancestors welcomed those who died to the spirit world. They helped to preserve the culture and standards of a community. ----- 130 # The ancestors blessed the living and corrected them through punishment. Qd. What was the responsibility of the living towards God? To show gratitude to God and give thanks to him as an acknowledgement that He is the giver of life. To honor, worship and adore God by praying to Him for their needs. To pray to Him during or before a war, before planting, etc. To obey and trust Him. To take care of Gods creation To teach children about God. Appease him through sacrifice. Qe. Describe the Traditional African ways of worshipping God Sacrifice: They were used to ask Gods favour, thanksgiving, to avert evil and ask for forgiveness, before planting and after harvest, epidemics, birth, naming, invitation, weddings, funerals etc for different reasons. Offerings: Foodstuffs e.g. grain, honey, beer, milk was offered in recognition of God as owner of property and provider. Prayers and invocations: Commonest act of worship. A continuation activity done anytime as the need arises. Song and dance: People were involved both physically and spiritually. This brought the city together. Blessings and Salutations: Expressed in greetings and farewells e.g. Go with God, God be with you. Qf. What were the African ways of venerating and communicating with the spirits and ancestors? Venerating means showing respect to somebody. ----- 131 # Spirits and ancestors were venerated because they were believed to be senior to human beings and closer to God. Sacrifices were offered to them as the ways of venerating them. Pouring libation was done. The living invited them during ceremonies such as birth, invitation, marriage and burial. They consulted diviners, mediums and medicine men to keep in contact. The living named after them thus they became immortal and members in the physical world again. Their names were mentioned during prayer. By maintaining their graves. Giving them proper burial ceremonies. TOPIC EIGHT: AFRICAN MORAL AND CULTURAL VALUES. Qa. What is the significance of the kinship system? Kinship means being related either by blood or marriages. The kinship system was important in the traditional African society because of the following factors. The kinship system regulated peoples behavior towards each other. This promoted peaceful and harmonious relationships. It promoted co-operation among community members especially in times of difficulty. It helped to ensure that the disadvantaged members of the community were taken care of. The living dead and the ancestors were part of the African kinship system. This showed concern or the families or relatives they left behind. The kinship system led to the preservation of cultural identity. ----- 132 # It provided a peaceful way of settling disputes with the elders acting as arbitrators. It ensured fairness and transparency in sharing out inheritance. The kinship system united the members of a family and clan by giving them a sense of belonging. It helped people to establish new relationship, especially through marriage. Kinship ties regulated marital customs rules and regulations. People who were related in any way could not be allowed to marry. Qb. Outline and explain factors contributing to harmony and mutual responsibility in the Traditional African Society Good morals: Every member of the community was expected to do the right thing according to the norms of the community. Participation in communal activities: Means of the community were expected to participate in communal activities e.g. wrestling, dances and communal work. Sharing: People shared ideas and even property, which created harmony among the people. Division of labour: Tasks were distributed according to ones age; gender to avoid conflicts in roles. Rules: In Traditional African Communities, elders, men youth, and women had their respective roles to play that enhanced harmony in the community. Virtues: Virtues like generosity, obedience, kindness and honesty were encouraged since they contributed towards harmonious living. ----- 133 # Religious beliefs and practices: A common belief in God, the spirits and ancestors created a sense of togetherness. Qc. What was the purpose of bride wealth in the Traditional African Society? It was a way of thanking the brides family for taking good care of her. It was a form of compensation to the brides parents because the woman would now belong to another family. It was a sign of contract that the man would marry the girl and they would live together until death. It represented evidence of the grooms ability to take care of a wife and a family. It was a sign of generosity on the side of the man. It initiated a long-lasting friendship between the families of the groom and the bride. It cemented a marriage. It was a symbol of the marriage covenant between the bride and the groom. Bride wealth served as an outward seal of the marriage contract. Qd. Explain the role of medicine-men in the African Communities and their relevant today 1) Medicine men They are also referred to as healers, herbalists or traditional doctors. They identified illness and their causes. They identified appropriate treatment and prevention measures for the illness. They averted the effects of a curse. They offered sacrifices and prayers to God and the ancestors. They prepared charms for protection against witchcraft and evil spirits. ----- 134 # They gave medicine to increase fertility in both people and animals. They acted as counselors, guiding people on all issues of life. 2) Relevance of Modern Society Modern medicine has not fully displaced herbalists. Medical doctors and scientific researchers today work side by side with traditional healers since herbs are used to make modern medicine. Some people still believe that there are some illnesses that cannot be treated in hospitals hence; they turn to herbalists. Some people also believe that medicine people who practice magic have the power to change their fate. FORM TWO GOD MEETS US IN JESUS CHRIST ST. LUKES GOSPEL INTRODUCTION Matthew, Mark, Luke and John record the life of Jesus Christ and his ministry in the four Gospel books. We shall trace the life, and ministry of Jesus Christ as written by St Luke to Theophilus. St Luke was a medical doctor. TOPIC ONE: OLD TESTAMENT PROPHESIES ABOUT THE MESSIAH Introduction: Read 2 Samuel 7:13, Isaiah 7:10-16 Messiah Meaning: The word Messiah is from a Hebrew word meshiach, which means the anointed: thus a Messiah is one called, anointed and appointed by God to serve Him. Prophecy: ----- 135 # A prophecy refers to a prediction of what will happen in future. Messianic Prophecies: These are those predictions that were made by the prophets to describe the coming of a righteous King who will rule Israel according to Gods will. The origin of the Messianic prophecies in the Bible starts with prophet Nathans prophecy to King David. NOTE: The Roman ruled the Israelites before the birth of Jesus. They hated the Roman leadership and longed for somebody of their own to lead them into victory over the Roman rule. The prophet of Israel (the Old Testament) communicated a message that God would send a messiah to bring all people into a lasting relationship with Him. The prophets who were sent had different ideas about the Messiah. Their ideas about the Messiah were different from the Jewish expectations whereby they hoped for political King to lead them into victory over the Roman rule. But the prophets were talking about a religious one to free them from sin. Topic Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: a) Explain the Old Testament prophecies about the coming of the Messiah. b) Relate the concept of the Messiah in the Old and New testaments. c) Explain the link between the Old and the New Testament d) Discuss the role of John the Baptist. LESSON ONE. OLD TESTAMENT PROPHESIES ABOUT THE COMING OF THE MESSIAH. Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe prophesies of Nathan, ----- 136 # Isaiah, Jeremiah, Psalmist prophecy (David) and Micah concerning the Messiah (i) NATHANS PROPHECY (2 Samuel 7:3 17) and (Psalms 89: 20 38). David proposed to build God a house. Nathan, the prophet was given a message (an oracle) for David. In this prophecy, God told Nathan to tell King David that: God would ensure that the Kingdom of David would last forever. An heir from Davids lineage would rule Davids heir shall build a house for Gods name. God would establish the throne of his Kingdom forever. David heir shall be Gods son and God shall be his father. David house and Kingdom shall be established forever. David died. But Gods mercy shall not depart from the heir of David. Hence the promise that the Kingdom of David, shall last forever referred to the messiah who was to come. David is an ancestor of Christ. (ii) ISAIAHS PROPHECY Isaiah 7: 10 16; 9: 1- 7; 61:1 2; and 63. In these readings, Isaiah prophesied that the Messiah would be: Born of a virgin A boy, born of a virgin and called Emmanuel that is God with us A Wonderful, Counselor, Mighty God, The everlasting Father, and the Prince of Peace. The Spirit of God inside him Anointed of God Sent to preach the good news to the poor, to bring liberty to the captives, proclaim the year of favour from God. ----- 137 # Isaiah also prophesied that the Messiah would be the suffering servant (Isaiah 53) CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUFFERING SERVANT ISAIAH 53 He would bear the sins of human kind He was oppressed, afflicted, despised, rejected of men He bore suffering and disgrace submissively He was mocked and spat on and wounded He was innocent of sin and yet treated as a criminal. He was pierced and wounded in the sides He was crucified with thieves and made intercession for the sinners He was buried in a rich mans tomb. iii. JEREMIAHS PROPHECY- JEREMIAH 23: 5 6. God promised to rise up a (branch) who shall: Choose as King, a righteous descendant of David Prosper Rule wisely, do what is right, and just in the world Execute justice on the earth Ensure that Judah and Israel are safe and live in peace. Be called the God our righteousness The Lord our salvation What does the term a righteous branch means? iv. MICAHS PROPHESY, (MICAH 5: 1 5). Micah prophesied that: The Messianic King shall come from Bethlehem He shall lead with authority He will bring peace v. THE PSALMIST PROPHECY (Psalm 41:9 and 110:1 2). David spoke of Betrayal by a close friend Messiah is referred to as the Lord The messiah shall rule/reign in the midst of enemies. ----- 138 # Summary Nathan, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Psalmist prophecy (David) and Micah prophesied of a Messiah to come. The Jews expected a Messiah who would be a political leader, a victorious ruler and a King. They expected a Messiah: Who would lead his people into a time of great national power and prosperity; In whose reign, there shall be no illness, no sorrow, no injustice, In whose reign, there shall be no fear In whose reign, land shall be filled with joy and peace Who shall rule forever. Revision questions 1) Describe the prophecy of Jeremiah concerning the Messiah 2) What does the term Messiah mean? 3) Highlight the Jewish expectations of the Messiah in the Old Testament? 4) Did Jesus Christ fulfill the O.T. prophecies concerning the Messiah? How? 5) Which prophets in the Old Testament prophesied about the expected Messiah? LESSON TWO. THE CONCEPT OF THE MESSIAH IN THE NEW TESTAMENT Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain the concept of the Messiah in the New Testament The concept of messiah is found in Luke 1:26 38; 2:1-23; 23:1 35; 24:50 51. The writer of Lukes Gospel makes it clear that Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies concerning the coming of the ----- 139 # Messiah. How did He do this? Well Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies because; Jesus was born from the lineage of David (Mathew 1) Angle Gabriel said the child to be born shall rule forever (Luke 1:32) Nathans prophecy Jesus was born of Mary a Virgin, as pre told by Isaiah 7:14 Messiah is called Emmanuel, Isaiahs prophecy. Mathew 1:18 25 Jesus was born in Bethlehem Micahs prophecy The Messiah would be a Son of David Nathan, and Jeremiah prophesies. Jesus was referred to as a Son of David (Luke 18:38) Jesus would bring salvation said by Simeon during dedication of Jesus. Luke 2:29 32. This was a fulfillment of Isaiahs prophecy. Jesus referred to himself as the Messiah by reading the scroll. Isaiah 61:1 2. and Luke 4: 18 19 Isaiah prophesied that the Messiah would perform miracles. Jesus performed many miracles. The prophecy of the suffering servant (Isaiah 53) was fulfilled through the passion, death and crucifixion of Jesus Christ. We see Jesus betrayed by one of his disciples friend, fulfilling the Psalmist prophecy. Note that the Jews in the New Testament expected a messiah who would deliver them from the rule of the Romans. Jews expected Jesus to be a political leader or king. However, Peter called him the Christ of God (Luke 9:20). Matthew called him King of the Jews in chapter (2 verse 2). Hence, Jesus came as a Spiritual Leader and King, and not as a political Leader / King. ----- 140 # Self-Assessment Questions 1. What does the name Emmanuel mean? 2. Explain the concept of the Messiah in the New Testament? LESSON THREE. ANNUNCIATION OF THE BIRTH OF JOHN THE BAPTIST Introduction The parents of John the Baptist were Zechariah and his wife Elizabeth. Zechariahs name meant God has remembered. Elizabeths name meant God has sworn. Learning outcome. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the annunciation of the birth of John the Baptist and Jesus. John the Baptist 1. The Annunciation Read Luke 1:5 25. Zechariah was a priest. He and his wife Elizabeth were old, good and righteous people of God. But they did not have a child. They were barren. But God gave them a child, John the Baptist. His birth was announced to his father, Zechariah, when he was in the temple offering incense. An Angel appeared to Zechariah and told him that his prayers had been heard. His wife Elizabeth will bear a son. The angel said the child would be called John, which means that God is gracious. The child Will be set aside to serve God. Will be filled with the Holy Spirit As an adult, John Will be a Nazarite. He should neither cut his hair nor drink wine. Shall turn many hearts of people to the Lord their God. Shall also turn the hearts of the fathers to their children ----- 141 # Zachariah expressed unbelief to these words. Angel Gabriel told him that he shall be dumb until the fulfillment of the Gods words. The Birth, Circumcision and Naming Of John the Baptist Elizabeth brought forth a son. This brought great joy to her and Zachariah. The cousins, and neighbours of Elizabeth wanted the Child to be named Zechariah after the father. But Elizabeth insisted on the name John. When Zechariah was asked to name the child, he wrote down the name John. On the 8th day, the child was named John as the angel had said. John was circumcised on the 8th day according to the Jewish traditions. After naming his Child John, the mouth of Zechariah opened immediately and he started to speak. He sung a song referred to as Benedictus in Luke 1:67 79. As he sung the Benedictus, Zechariah prophesied that God has: Raised up a horn of salvation on the house of David Remembered his covenant with Abraham Zechariah said this about his Child John: He shall be the prophet of the most high The child/John shall prepare the way of the lord by (i) Calling men to forgiveness (ii) Showing men the light of salvation (iii) Guiding people into peace. LESSON FOUR. THE ROLE OF JOHN THE BAPTIST The role of John the Baptist is found in Isaiah 40: 3 5, Malachi 3:1, 4:5 6, and Luke 7: 20 35. ----- 142 # Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the role of John the Baptist in the Gospel. John the Baptist had an important role to play according to the Angel who announced his coming birth. His role was to: . Be a Prophet with qualities of Elijah (see Malachi 3:1, 4:5) Announce the good news to come just like Elijah did. Be the link between the Old Testament and New Testament Prepare the way for the Lord. Announce the coming of Gods reign that was near. Preach a baptism of repentance Baptize with water Introduce people, and his disciples to the Messiah Jesus Christ. Fulfil the Prophecy of Elijah that a messenger was sent before the coming of the Messiah. John the Baptist was likened to Elijah. Topic review questions 1. Outline the qualities of John as described by angel Gabriel to Zechariah 2. Why was John referred to as the second Elijah? 3. What lessons do Christians learn from annunciation of the birth of John the Baptist? 4.describe the birth of John the Baptist TOPIC TWO: THE INFANCY AND EARLY LIFE OF JESUS LUKE 1:26 38 Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should: a. Explain events leading to the birth of Jesus b. Describe the meeting between Mary and Elizabeth c. Describe the birth of Jesus d. Explain the dedication of JESUS ----- 143 # e. Describe Jesus at the Temple a. Angel Gabriel announces the birth of Jesus. Angel Gabriel said that Mary would conceive and bear a child. Angel Gabriel called Mary the highly favoured one. Mary was an ordinary virgin girl in Galilee engaged to marry Joseph, a descendant of David. The Angel said that Mary will bear (i) A Son (ii) called Jesus (which means God serves. (iii) The child shall be great (iv) He shall be called the son of the highest. (v) He shall be given the throne of his father David (vi) He shall reign forever (vii) His kingdom will never end. Read again and explain what angel Gabriel said concerning the child to be born to Mary? b. Mary visits Elizabeth. Luke 1:39-56 Angel Gabriel had told Mary that her cousin Elizabeth was also going to have a child. Mary went to visit her. The child in Elizabeths womb leaped when Mary greeted Elizabeth. The Holy Spirit revealed to Elizabeth that Mary is the mother of her Lord, the Messiah. Mary answered Elizabeth by singing the hymn The Protector in Psalm 121:3, The Love of God. Psalm 103:17, 98:3. The Magnificent. In this hymn Mary says: Her soul magnifies the Lord. The Lord has regarded the poor and those of low estate. Gods mercy is on them that fear him from generation to generation. God humbles the proud and mighty, and exalts those of low estate (the lowly) God has filled the hungry and sent the rich away empty ----- 144 # Through the magnificent, Mary, expresses her joy, gratitude and favour given to her and the world. c. The birth of Jesus Christ. Luke.2: 1 20 The birth of Jesus took place in Bethlehem, in Judea, during the reign of Augustus Caesar, a Roman Emperor. During that time, Rome was conducting a census of the people / citizens for the purpose of collecting taxes. The census was ordered by the emperor to determine payment of taxes. The method that Rome was using was counting. Joseph, of the house of David went to his hometown, called Bethlehem; for the census. Jesus was born during this time. He was wrapped in swaddling clothes and laid in a manger because there was no accommodation in Bethlehem. The first people to receive the news that a Savior was born were the shepherds. An angel announced the birth of the Savior, Christ the lord, to the shepherds. The shepherds went to Bethlehem and saw the child Jesus. They spread the word concerning what had been told them about the child. How was the annunciation of the birth of Jesus extraordinary? d. The dedication of JESUS LUKE.2: 22 38 Like John the Baptist, Jesus was circumcised, and named on the 8th day. He was named Jesus which means the savior or Yahweh or saves. Mary and Joseph observed the Jewish customs according to the Law of Moses. For her purification and dedication of the child Jesus, Mary brought a pair of turtledoves as an offering. The fist born males were dedicated to God as Holy. Simeon took the child up in his arms ----- 145 # for dedication and said that: The child is set for the fall and rising of many in Israel. A Sword will pierce Marys soul on account of the child. Prophet Anna also came to the temple and prophesied that the child shall bring deliverance. e. Jesus at the Temple Luke 2:42 52 The parents of Jesus Mary and Joseph, went to Jerusalem every year for the feast of the Passover. When Jesus was 12, he accompanied them to Jerusalem. After the feast the parents went home without realizing that their child, Jesus was not with them. But while on the way, they realized he was not amongst them. They returned to Jerusalem, and looked for him for 3 days. They found him sitting in the temple; listening and asking teachers questions. All those who were in the temple were astonished by his wisdom and intelligence. It is in the temple that Jesus is revealed, first as a true son of his people and also as light and salvation for all people. On being questioned by Mary and Joseph, Jesus answered thus: Didnt you know I had to be in my Fathers house, about my Fathers business? This was an echo of Malachi 3:1 the Lord whom you seek will suddenly come to his temple. Answer these questions 1 Trace occasions when angels appeared to people in the new testament 2 How did Jesus follow the customs and traditions of the Jewish people? Answers 1. Occasions when angels appeared to people in the New Testament (a) Angel appeared to Zechariah to announce birth of John the Baptist ----- 146 # (b) Angel appeared to Mary to announce the birth of Jesus Christ (c) Angels appeared to the shepherds on the night Jesus was born (d) Angel appeared to Joseph in a dream warning him to flee to Egypt with the child and Mary 2. How Jesus followed the customs and traditions of the Jewish people (i) He was named on the 8th day (ii) He was circumcised on the 8th day (iii) His parents took him to the temple for the annual cerebrations of the. Passover (iv) He went to the synagogue (v) In his dedication as a first male, his parents offered the sacrifices expected from them. Topic Review Questions 1. Explain events leading to the birth of Jesus b. Describe the meeting between Mary and Elizabeth c. Describe the birth of Jesus d. Explain the dedication of JESUS e. Describe Jesus at the Temple TOPIC THREE. THE GALILEAN MINISTRY LUKE 3-8 John the Baptist and Jesus Christ Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should: a) Explain the teachings of John the Baptist b) Describe the baptism and temptation of Jesus and its relevance to Christians today. c) Give reasons as to why Jesus was rejected at Nazareth d) Describe the first miracles of Jesus at Capernaum LESSON ONE. THE PREACHING OF JOHN THE BAPTIST (Luke3: 1 20) John the Baptist preached about ----- 147 # a. Baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins. Baptism means to dip in water. Repentance means change of heart/mind, turning around. Baptism was a symbol of repentance, which means a total change heart/mind, a confession of sins). Baptism of water was a preparation of the baptism of fire and Holy Spirit by Jesus. b. He warned people of Gods coming Judgment. The religious leaders stressed outward observance of the law rather than inner righteousness. John the Baptist told them to bear fruits worthy of repentance. He told them to live righteous lives and not as hypocrites (brood of vipers). Religious leaders also assumed that since they were descendants of Abraham, God would not punish them. He warned them that God could raise descendants of Abraham from stones. c) He announced the coming of the Messiah as Judge. John the Baptist became famous that some thought he is the promised messiah. He however pointed to a messiah who will not baptize with water but with the Holy Ghost and fire (Jesus Christ). d) He preached on social justice. He taught, emphasized, advised: That those who have should share with those who do not have The need for fairness and honesty for example tax collectors not to collect more than what was required. That soldiers should not to abuse their power by accusing others falsely, robbing. They were told to be content with their wages. ----- 148 # e). He condemned King Herods immoral behaviour. King Herod had married Herodians his own brothers wife. Herod imprisoned John the Baptist and this led to his death (Luke 3 v.22) What does the term social justice mean? Find the answer in (d). Summary of the teachings of John the Baptist He taught on repentance and forgiveness of sins. He warned people of Gods coming judgment. He announced the coming of the messiah who would be judge. He preached on social justice. Those who have should share with the poor. He emphasized the need for fairness and honesty. He warned against abuse of power by those in power and authority. He condemned taking of bribes, corruption and over taxation. He condemned sexual immorality (adultery). Relevance of the teachings of John the Baptist to Christians today The teachings challenge Christians to be fair, honest, and just in their dealings with other people. Christians should avoid being hypocritical to one another. Christians need to know that God will judge them for their wrongdoing. Hence Christian should repent their sins sincerely and seek forgiveness. Christians should warn non-believers of the coming judgment. They should preach against evils without fear; and avoid corruption, and sexual immorality. Christians should live together in harmony. Baptism was important to Christians. Group Activity. Read Luke and find out how John the Baptist was killed, why and by whom ----- 149 # LESSON TWO. THE BAPTISM OF JESUS AND ITS RELEVANCE TODAY Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: a. Describe the baptism of Jesus Christ b. Give reasons why Jesus was baptized c. State relevance or the importance of the baptism of Jesus to Christians a. The baptism of Jesus Christ (Luke 3: 21 22) When Jesus was around 30 years of age, He went to be baptized by John the Baptist. Jesus was the last to be baptized. Although he did not need to repent as He did not sin ; He nevertheless was baptized even though He was without sin. When he was baptized, the heaven opened and the Holy Ghost descended on Him in the form of a dove. At the same time, a voice from heaven said, This is my beloved son, in whom I am well pleased. b. Reasons why Jesus was baptized. He was baptized because: a. Jesus wanted to show his approval of Johns Ministry of baptism b. Jesus accepted the work of redemption of human kind to be completed through suffering and death c. Jesus identified himself with the sinful humankind who needed redemption through baptism d. Jesus carried all the sins of humankind (baptized last) e. He wanted to carry sins of people/humankind upon himself in order to bring about reconciliation between people and God. f. God can confirm to the people that Jesus Christ was the messiah (Ps 2:7) g. It was an act of preparing those who were ready to receive the Messiah. h. Baptism was a way of fulfilling the Old Testament prophecy. ----- 150 # c. Relevance or the Importance of the baptism of Jesus to Christians 1) Christians practice baptism. They follow example of Jesus baptism. There are many forms of baptism such as full immersion in water, sprinkling of water on the forehead, partial immersion (head only) and passing under a flag. 2) Christians teach importance of baptism. It qualifies a new convert to become a member of Christian fellowship. 3) Through baptism, Christians receive the power of the Holy Ghost. 4) Through baptism, Christians identify themselves with Jesus Christ and all that he stands for. 5) Baptism unites Christians in the body of Christ. 6) Baptism is a symbol of death and resurrection. In some denominations, the baptized are given new names of other Christians and Jews. 7) Baptism signifies the forgiveness of sins Through baptism one is considered a child of God. 9) Baptism is a form of preparation for the kingdom of God. 10) Baptism is a sign of Christs forgiveness of sins. Lesson Revision questions a. What is the relevance of john the Baptist teaching to Christians today? b. Give reasons why Jesus accepted to be baptized c. Describe the baptism of Jesus d. What is the significance of the baptism of Jesus to Christians today LESSON THREE. TEMPTATIONS OF JESUS: RELEVANCE TO CHRISTIANS TODAY Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should a. Narrate temptations of Jesus b. State relevance of the temptations of Jesus to modern Christians ----- 151 # c. State lessons that Christians can learn from temptations of Jesus a. The temptations of Jesus (Luke 4:1 13). Jesus, full of the Holy Spirit returned from Jordan into the desert. Like Elijah, Moses, He ate and drunk nothing for 40 days and nights. He was hungry after 40 days. It is at this time of weakness when the devil tempted Him. First temptation. The devil told Jesus to proof that He was the Son of God by turning the stones to become bread. Jesus however replied that it is written man does not live on bread alone to sustain him but on everything that the Lord says (Deut 8:3). Satan was telling Jesus to use his Messianic power and Spirit to obtain material security for himself and his followers for selfish, materialistic purposes. What can we learn from this temptation? Jesus was not seeking to establish a material paradise on earth. Second temptation. The devil led Jesus up to a high place (High Mountain) and showed Him in an instant all the Kingdoms of the world. He told Him that he would give Him all their authority and splendor, if He bows and worships Satan. Jesus replied it is written worship the Lord your God and serve him only. Do not worship other gods (Deut.6: 13-14). Satan wanted Jesus to use Godly power and influence. This was idolatry i.e. worshipping other gods. What can we learn from this temptation? Jesus did not come to seek a worldwide political military reign as many Jews expected Him to do. ----- 152 # Third Temptation. The Devil led Jesus to Jerusalem and had Him stand on the highest point of the temple. He told Jesus to throw Himself down if He was the Son of God for it is written that the Lord will command angels to guard him (Psalm 91:11 12). Jesus replied and said it is written, do not put the Lord your God to the test. Satan wanted Jesus to presume on Gods good care by jumping from the roof of the temple. What can we learn from this temptation? Jesus will not force belief in His Messiah ship through a spectacular sign. Notice that the temptations came after Jesus Baptism, where he had solemnly accepted the opening of his public ministry and God confirmed it. Therefore the temptations were a testing of his loyalty to Gods chosen way of life. b. Relevance of Jesus temptations to Christians Jesus, though without sin was tempted. His followers must expect to be tested in their faith. Christians learn that it is not sinful to be tempted. Since Jesus was tempted, he understands Christians difficulties when they are tempted. Jesus is always ready to help Christians to cope with temptations. Why do you think Christians are tempted? Through temptations and trials, Christians faith in God is strengthened. Christians learn to refer to the Bible for guidance when tempted. Jesus said that it is written in reference to scripture. Christians ----- 153 # should seek the Holy Spirit to give them strength to fight any form of trials and temptations. Jesus, full of the Holy Spirit went to the wilderness and was tempted by the devil In temptation, God does provide a way out. Thus followers of Jesus Christ (Christians) should not be seekers of spectacular signs. LESSON FOUR. REJECTION OF JESUS AT NAZARETH Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should a. Describe rejection of Jesus at Nazareth b. Suggest possible reasons for rejection a. Rejection of Jesus at Nazareth (Luke 4:14 30). After the temptation, Jesus went to Galilee, His home district to begin his ministry. As a faithful Israelite, Jesus attended service in the synagogue every Sabbath day. During that time, it was customary for visiting Rabbis (Teachers of the law) to be given the honor of reading from the law or to address the congregation. When Jesus was given this opportunity, He opened the scroll and read from Isaiah 61: 1 3 The Sovereign Lord has filled me with his spirit. He has chosen me and sent me. Luke writes in 4 v 18 The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has chosen me to bring good news to the poor. On completion of the reading, Jesus told them that today this scripture has been fulfilled in their hearing. From this reading Jesus referred to himself as the Messiah. The people of Nazareth in indignation wanted to kill Jesus by throwing him over a cliff. ----- 154 # b. Possible Reasons for Rejection. Jews of Nazareth rejected Jesus because one, they knew him as the son of Mary and Joseph. They did not know Him as the Son of God. Two, Jesus did not fit into the idea of a political King that the Jews were expecting. They were waiting for a King with an army and horses. Three, Jesus preaching was seen as being against that of Pharisees, Scribes and Sadducees: the religious leaders at that time. Four, Jesus pointed out evils of religious leaders. Five, a leader is never accepted at home especially in a superior or senior position. Six, Jesus did not follow the general rules of the Mosaic Law. These were fasting, healing and working on the Sabbath day. Worse still Jesus associated Himself with Jewish outcasts such as sinners, and the sick. Discussion question 1. What are the possible reasons for rejection of Jesus at Nazareth? Answers (i) He was known by people as son of Mary and Joseph (ii) He did not fit in the idea of a political king that Jews were expecting (iii) Often times one is not accepted at home and at a senior position (iv) He did not follow the general rules of the law of Moses (v) He associated with sinners, and outcasts LESSON FIVE. HEALING AT CAPERNAUM Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson: a. Describe Jesus healing at Capernaum b. Explain healing of a man possessed with an evil spirit c. Describe Jesus healing of Simons mother in law a. Jesus healing at Capernaum LK. 4:31 44 ----- 155 # After his rejection in Nazareth and an attempt to throw him down a hill, Jesus went on to Capernaum. Here he cast out demons (Luke 4: 40 41). He was teaching people. He performed many miracles of healing. For example: i. Healing a man possessed by an evil spirit. A man was possessed by an unclean demon/spirit. He was in the synagogue. When he saw Jesus, the evil spirit shouted, Ah! What do you want with us, Jesus of Nazareth? Have you come to destroy us? I know who you are, the Holy one of God (Luke 4:34). Jesus replied, Be silent and come out of him. The Demon threw the man down and came out without doing any harm. The man was made whole. ii. Jesus heals Simons mother in law. After Jesus left the synagogue, he went to the house of Simon Peters mother in law. She had a fever, Jesus commanded the fever to leave and she was made whole immediately. Which lessons do Christians learn from the healings at Capernaum There are many lessons. These are that 1) Jesus is the son of God 2) Jesus came to establish the Kingdom of God and destroy the kingdom of Satan. 3) Jesus has power over evil spirits / demons. 4) Jesus came to save human beings from the slavery of sin 5) God cares for his people. LESSON SIX. THE CALLING OF THE FIRST DISCIPLES Luke 5: 1 11 ----- 156 # Introduction: A disciple is a learner, a student or a follower. Learners followed a master so as to learn about religious matters. Disciples were followers of Christ. Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the call of the first disciples. Rabbis. These were teachers of law. They had special schools where they taught law. In these schools, learning was by memorization and repetition what students heard from the rabbis. The disciples of Jesus did not memorize. They learnt by observation. They were witnesses and they spoke what they heard and described or explained what they saw. Call of the first disciples Jesus entered into Simons ship and started to teach people who were there. Later, He told Simon to push off a little from the shore. Jesus sat in the boat and taught the crowd. After speaking, he told Simon, and his partners James and John; Push the boat out further to the deep waterand let down your nets for a catch of fish. Simon told Jesus that they had toiled all night, and caught nothing. But if you say so, I will let down the nets. Simon obeyed. They let down the nets and caught a multitude of fish. They called for assistance from other fishermen. When Simon Peter saw this, he told Jesus Go away from me, Lord! I am a sinful man! Jesus said to Simon Dont be afraid, from now on you will be catching people. On getting to the shore, Peter and his friends James and John sons of Zebedee forsook ----- 157 # all and followed Jesus Thus the first disciples of Jesus were Simon Peter; James and John. Lessons from the call of the first disciples 1) God can choose anybody to serve him regardless of his or her social status. 2) God still calls people to serve him in various capacities as evangelists, pastors and others. 3) Those called should repent their sins as Peter did 4) Christians should trust in God Simon Peter trusted Jesus and cast his nets even though they had caught no fish from the same spot. 5) God can intervene in peoples lives through miracles (miraculous catch of fish) 6) Christians should work together as a team. Fishermen worked together. 7) There is hope for those who follow Jesus. He told them follow me and I will make you fishers of men God reveals himself to people in everyday activities as Jesus revealed himself to Simon Peter, and his friends James and John through fishing. 9) Christians vocation may require renunciation of family ties and occupations or a change of life. 10) Those called to serve God are expected to be humble LESSON SEVEN. OPPOSITION IN GALILEE Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should a. Describe the Pharisees? Scribes? Sadducees. b. Identify the differences between the Pharisees and the Sadducees. c. Explain why Jesus faced opposition from Pharisees, Sadducees, and Scribes Jesus ministry consisted of teaching, healing and doing many miracles. Because of this work, Jesus faced ----- 158 # opposition from the Pharisees, Sadducees and Scribes. These were Jewish religious leaders. a. Opposition by Pharisees and Sadducees. Luke 5:12- 6:11 Why did Jewish religious leaders; the Pharisees? Scribes? Sadducees oppose Jesus? There were many reasons for Jewish opposition to Jesus. These were: 1) Jesus was becoming more famous than the religious leaders 2) His claim to forgive sins. This was reserved only for God. 3) His association with tax collectors / publicans and sinners. For example, Jesus ate with Levi. 4) His failure to observe the law of fasting. Jesus disciples did not fast like the disciples of the Pharisees and John the Baptist. 5) Doing what religious leaders regarded as unlawful things on the Sabbath day. For example, a. Eating on Sabbath with unwashed hands (disciples), b. Plucking corn on the Sabbath day c. Working. Jesus healed on the Sabbath day. This was considered as work, which was unlawful. Jesus healed a man with a paralyzed hand on the Sabbath day. d. Touching the unclean. Jesus reached out his hand and touched a leper and healed him. Religious leaders were not allowed to touch the unclean lepers. e. Associating with tax collectors who were regarded as sinners because they were corrupt. They collected more tax than the required amount. Jesus was supposed not to associate with them or support them in any way. Who were the Pharisees? These were Referred to as the separated ones ----- 159 # Religious leaders who expected people to respect and honour them. Pious leaders and wanted everybody to recognize them. Rich Jews and looked at their riches as blessings from God. Called ones and thought of themselves as the righteous ones. Popular to the poor who respected them. Characteristics of Pharisees a. They believed in the Law of Moses and accepted the first five books of the Bible as God inspired. They insisted on strict observance of the law. b. They upheld and insisted on the observance of the oral traditions of the elders. c. They followed strictly 632 distinct rules and regulations broken down from the ten commandments d. They believed in the teachings of the prophets and other writings of the Old Testament. e. They passed religious traditions of the Jews from generation to generation and regarded this as a duty or obligation. f. They believed in the existence of angels and regarded them as intermediaries between God and human beings. g. They believed in the existence of demons and Satan h. They believed in and waited for the Messiah of God to come i. The believed in the resurrection of the dead j. The believed in the judgment of God at the end of time for all human kind k. They were strong nationalists and political leaders who resisted all foreign influences and power. Who were the Scribes? ----- 160 # The word Scribe means a writer. The work of a scribe was to rewrite by hand new manuscripts of the Jewish scriptures. The copied the word exactly as it was. The scribes were either Pharisees or Sadducees. At the time of Jesus, majority of the Scribes were associated with the Pharisees. A scribe was also a Rabbi teacher. Some scribes managed schools called Rabbinical Schools. In these schools, Jewish male youth learnt the Mosaic Law from the age of 13 years. Scribes were represented in the Jewish religious council called the Sanhedrin. Sanhedrin was the Jewish Court of Justice, which tried those who committed religious sins. Who were the Sadducees? Sadducees were the wealthy people. They were an influential group. These were the majority in the Sanhedrin, the Jewish Court of Justice. The poor hated them. They were also members of the Jerusalem priesthood. The chief priests were mainly drawn from the Sadducees. They believed in the divine authority of the Law of Moses and the Pentateuchs first five Books of the bible. They believed that Moses wrote the first 5 books of the Bible. They regarded all the other books in the Old Testament as not divinely inspired. Hence they rejected them. They rejected and did not believe in (a) The resurrection of the dead (b) Last judgment (c) Coming of the Messiah (d) Angels and demons and (e) the oral traditions of the Pharisees. They were enemies of the Pharisees particularly because of religious ----- 161 # matters. However, they joined with the Pharisees and Scribes to oppose Jesus Christ. LESSON EIGHT. THE SERMON ON THE PLAIN (Luke. 6:1216, 27 49) Review In the previous section, we learnt that Jesus chose His apostles. He came down the hill and stood on a level place. He gave a sermon to those present. This address is referred to as the sermon on the plain in Lukes Gospel. The people had come to hear Jesus word to receive healing and for Jesus to exercise unclean spirits from them. In the sermon, Jesus talked of the characteristics of the new community. All those who would listen to His word would be the New Israel. Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to (a) Name the12 disciples (b) Summarize the teachings of Jesus on true discipleship Analyse the teachings of Jesus on the plain (sermon on the plain) Selection of 12 disciples (Luke. 6:12 16) Jesus went into a mountain to pray. In the morning, he called his disciples. From them, he selected 12 disciples, whom he also called apostles. Apostle means one who is sent, a missionary. The 12 disciples were: (1) Simon Peter (2) Andrew (3) James (4) John (5) Phillip (6) Bartholomew (7) Mathew (Levi) (8) Thomas (9) James son of Alphaeus (10) Simon who was called the Patriot (11) Judas son of James and (12) Judas Iscariot who became the traitor (Luke vs. 14-16) Jesus teachings on true discipleship ----- 162 # Jesus taught that a follower or disciple of Christ should: (a) Have unshakeable faith (b) Be obedient to Gods word (c) Be self-critical/analytical/self-searching (d) Be kind, loyal, objective, fair, and generous (e) Accept others without discrimination. (f) Be a disciple and show concern for others. The Sermon on the plain (Luke 6: 17 49) The Sermon on the plain is a lecture or lesson that Jesus gave to a large number of his disciples and a large crowd of people who had come from Judea, Jerusalem, tyre, and Sidon. They came to listen to the sermon of Jesus and to be healed of diseases, evil sprits. The purpose of the sermon was to teach the crowd the meaning of following Christ. Jesus covered 6 beatitudes or topics in his sermon. These are. 1) Blessings and woes beatitudes (2) Love for enemies (3) Judging others (4) Giving to the needy (5) A tree and its fruits (6) Wise and foolish builders hearing and doing the words of Jesus. We shall now discuss each of these beatitudes in detail. 1. Blessings and woes. Jesus taught that: (i) Blessed are the poor for theirs is the Kingdom of God. (ii) Blessed are the hungry for they shall be filled (iii) Blessed are those who weep now for they shall laugh (iv) Blessed are those who men shall hate, reject, reproach for the sake of Christs for their great reward is kept in heaven. (v) Woe to those who are rich, for they have already received their reward. ----- 163 # (vi) Woe to those who are full for they shall go hungry (vii) Woe to those who laugh now for they shall mourn and weep (viii) Woe to those whom people speak well, for ancestors said the same about the false prophets. Those who accept to be followers of Christ are promised blessings while those who reject Christ are to suffer in future. 2. Love your enemies. Luke. 6: 27 36. Love is often defined as a warm feeling / affection towards somebody or something. Jesus taught his followers to love their enemies and do well to those who hate you. Bless those who curse you. Pray for those who mistreat you. Do unto men as you expect them to do unto you. Lend also to your enemies. Love your enemies and do good to them. Lend and expect nothing back. Be merciful. From these teachings: true discipleship of Jesus Christ: a) Entails unconditional love even for enemies b) Doing good without expecting any returns c) Praying for those who mistreat us d) Showing love to our enemies by exhibiting Gods love in us. e) Is love; because those who love are children of the most high who is kind and merciful to the sinners. (3) Judging others Luke. 6: 37 42 Jesus taught his followers not to judge others lest they are also judged. They should not condemn others lest they are also condemned. He asked disciples to forgive others and they shall also be forgiven. True discipleship requires acknowledging ones shortcomings and avoiding criticism of others. ----- 164 # (4) Giving to the needy. A true disciple should share what they have with the needy. Those who share shall be rewarded. He also said that the blind couldnt lead the blind. There is a master and a follower. The disciple is not above his master. (5) A tree and its fruits. A healthy tree bears good fruits. A poor tree bears poor fruit. Neither does a corrupt tree bring forth good fruits. A tree is known by its fruits. Followers of Christ are evident to others by their actions. They are not hypocritical or fault finding. (6) Wise and foolish builders. A wise builder digs a deep foundation on a rock. When floods come, the house is able to stand. A foolish builder builds his house upon the sand. Without a foundation, when floods come, the house falls and is ruined. Wise builders are those who hear the word of God and do what is required. Those who do not adhere to the teachings are the unwise builders. True discipleship entails obedience to the teachings of Jesus Christ. Relevance of the lessons of the Sermon on the Plain to Christian Life Christians are urged to love even those that hate them. The challenges that followers of Christ encountered in the New Testament are not different from those that Christians experience today. Christians should forgive others, share with the needy, avoid judging others, and follow the teachings of Christ. ----- 165 # Lesson Revision questions 1. Give the main teaching of Jesus on the sermon on the plain 2. What is the relevance of the (beatitudes) sermon on the plain to Christians today? LESSON NINE. JESUS WORKS OF COMPASSION In this lesson, Jesus works of compassion is discussed. These include the works of mercy for those in distress and pity for the suffering. Jesus mission lays its foundation in these works of compassion, because He came to establish the kingdom of God by conquering all forms of suffering caused by Satan. Compassion is a feeling of empathy for other peoples sufferings. Its being merciful, showing concern and affection for others. Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: a) Give examples of Jesus works of compassion b) Narrate Jesus works of compassion c) Give reasons why Jesus used parables d) Identify categories of the miracles of Jesus e) Give lessons learnt from each example in each category a. Examples of Jesus works of compassion. There are many examples of compassion i) Healing of the centurions servant (Luke 7:1 10) Centurion is an officer in charge of 100 men. Jesus healed the servant of a Roman soldier and a Gentile. The Centurion showed love and concern for his servant. The centurion sent Jewish elders to Jesus with a request to heal his servant. The leaders said this man deserves to have you do this, because he loves ----- 166 # our nation and has built our synagogue (Luke 7:5). Jesus agreed and went with the elders. But before Jesus reached the centurions house, the centurion sent his friends to stop him from coming to his house. He said that he was not worthy to have Jesus under his roof. He said that he was a man of authority. Hence Jesus could give an order and the servant would be healed. On hearing this, Jesus declared to the crowd I tell you, I have not found such great faith even in Israel. When the men returned, they found the servant well. Lessons Christians can learn from the healing of the centurion servant. 1. Faith in God is important for healing to occur 2. We should confess our faith in Jesus. The centurion declared his faith in Jesus by saying he believed that Jesus could heal his servant by his word. 3. Christians should have compassion like Jesus. He took compassion on the servant and was ready to go and heal him. 4. Salvation was not for Jews alone, but for all who believed in Jesus. Centurion was not a Jew but a gentile officer in the Roman army. But he had faith in Jesus healing. 5. Christians should love each other regardless of their background or social status the centurion loved his servant dearly. 6. Christians should learn to relate well with all around them the centurion related well with the Jewish elders and others. 7. Jesus has power to heal any form of sickness. ----- 167 # ii) The raising of the widows son Luke 7:11 17. A widow is a woman whose husband is dead. The widow was of the city of Nain. When Jesus neared the gates of the city, he saw the funeral procession of the widows son, the only son of his mother. Jesus had compassion on the widow and told her weep not. Jesus then touched the casket and said young man I say unto you, arise. The dead sat up and began to speak. All the people were filled with fear and glorified God, saying God has visited his people. Lessons Christians learn from the raising of the widows son 1) Jesus has power over death 2) Jesus empathizes with the suffering 3) Acts of love should not be hindered by traditions Jesus touched the casket even though Jewish traditions forbid it. 4) The Widow of Nain was a gentile. This is a sign that salvation was universal. 5) The crowd acknowledged Jesus lordship; Christians should acknowledge the lordship of Jesus. What are the practices pertaining to the disposal of the dead in your culture? and community? iii) Assurance to John the Baptist (Luke 7:20 30). A question arose whether Jesus Christ was the Messiah. John the Baptist wanted to assure his disciples that Christ; was the expected messiah: and not him (John the Baptist). He sent his disciples to Jesus to ask if you are the one he said was going to come, or if we should expect someone else? (Vs. 20). Jesus ----- 168 # told the disciples of John to go back and tell John of the miracles works they saw and heard. Jesus then gave a testimony of John the Baptist as a prophet, whose life and missions is beyond that of ordinary prophets. Jesus testified that John the Baptist; was the forerunner or messenger of Jesus Christ: as the prophets in the Old Testament had written. The Pharisees and the publicans (teaches of the law) however rejected the testimony about John the Baptist. They had refused to be baptized by John. Those baptized by John the Baptist, the tax collectors acknowledged the testimony of Jesus. Jesus rebuked the Pharisees and teachers of law for their hypocrisy. In what ways were the Pharisees and teaches of law hypocritical? iv) The forgiveness of the sinful woman (Luke 7: 36 50) Jesus was invited by one of the Pharisees called Simon to his house to dine with him. In that city, there was a sinful woman. She went to the house of Simon when she learnt that Jesus was in the Pharisees house. She brought with her an alabaster jar full of perfume. She stood behind Jesus. She was weeping and washing his feet with her fears. She then wiped the tears from the feet of Jesus with her hair, kissed his feet, and anointed them with oil (an alabaster box of ointment). When Simon, the host saw this he said within himself, if this man was a prophet, he would know who this woman is who is touching him a sinful woman. Jesus told Simon a parable of a man who forgave two people that owed him money ----- 169 # one 500, the other 50. Jesus asked which of the two debtors would love him most. Simon said the one that was forgiven much, Jesus then told Simon that when he came to his house, Simon did not give him water for his feet; neither did he welcome Jesus with a kiss; nor provide him with olive oil. But the woman washed his feet with her tears, and wiped them with her hair. She also kissed his feet. Jesus told the people that her sins, being many are forgiven for she loved much. Jesus turned to the woman and told her thy sins are forgiven. Thy faith has saved thee, go in peace. The people who were eating with Jesus murmured. Who was Jesus? He forgives sins. Lessons from the forgiveness of the sinful woman 1. The Jews believed that by associating with sinners, one becomes virtually defiled. Jesus however allowed the sinful woman to touch him. 2. By her actions, the woman acknowledged that she was a sinner, and repented. This was in contrast to the Pharisees who were self-righteous and therefore did not repent. 3. The Womans great love for Jesus led to her being forgiven of her sins. 4. Christians need to accept their sinful nature and seek forgiveness from God. 5. Faith in Jesus is necessary. Summary. Jesus is accepted women to be his followers unlike the Jewish customs which viewed women as lesser than men. Other women that played a key role in the ministry of Jesus include Mary Magdalene, Joann Joanna and Susanna among many others. Lesson Revision questions ----- 170 # 1. What role do women play in the church ministry? 2. Narrate the story of the forgiveness of the sinful woman (Lk 7: 36, 8:3) 3. What lessons do you learn from the above story? 4. Describe the story of the raising of the widows son at Nain (Lk 7: 11- 17) Answers Women play many roles in the church ministry. Some of these are: (i) Carrying out duties of pastors, bishops, and deacons (ii) Management. Some are heads of the women groups (iii) Leading in church service (iv) Participating as church ushers, choir singers, and youth leaders (v) Attending church. Women are part of the congregations LESSON TEN. JESUS TEACHING IN PARABLES (LK. 8: 4- 21) Introduction Jesus used parables to teach. A parable is a Greek word. It means comparing or putting side by side in order to understand. A parable is defined as a short story or description, which teaches something or answers some questions. It is an allegory an earthly story with a hidden or heavenly meaning. a. Use of parables. Jesus used parables in his teachings in order to explain unfamiliar messages in a language that his hearers could understand. Other reasons were because Jesus wanted to: 1) Provoke critical thinking 2) Make the audience understand issues from a different point of view 3) Explain the nature of the kingdom of God by giving real life examples. 4) Explain the nature of God. The parables brought out the attributes of an invisible God. For example, the parable of the prodigal son who had been lost. ----- 171 # 5) Attract the attention of his audiences so that they could listen and understand. 6) Make people understand how they should relate to one another. Read the parable of the good Samaritan 7) Teach Gods love to mankind. The parable of the lost sheep, lost coin. Separate / identify those who were sincere in seeking the kingdom of God from the onlookers. 9) Challenge the imagination of his hearers since entry to Gods kingdom was a personal decision. 10) Make an indirect attack on his opponents like the Pharisees, the scribes and the Sadducees. 11) Teach his disciples that they should be persistent and never be discouraged. 12) Make his teachings interesting and easy to understand. 1. The parable of the sower Lk 8:4 15 Jesus told this parable to the crowd that followed him. He said that a farmer went out to sow corn. He scattered seeds in the field. As he did so, some of them fell on the path, and they were trampled on and eaten by birds. Other seeds fell on the rock ground. When they germinated, they withered because they lacked moisture. Some seed fell among thorns bushes. They grew with bushes, which choked them as they grew. Some other seeds fell on fertile soil. They grew up in fertile soil and their yield was100 seed for each seed sown. Meaning or interpretation of the parable Jesus gave the meaning of the parable to his disciples. He said that the seed is the word of God. ----- 172 # i. Seed that fell on the path represents people who hear the word of God, and then the devil comes and takes away the word from their hearts so that they do not believe. Such listeners are like the seeds that fell on the path. They hear the word but soon after the devil takes away the message to stop them from believing and being saved. ii. Seed that fell on the rocky ground are people who receive the word with joy but it does not stay with them. They believe for a while but when faced with trials and temptations they stop believing and fall away. iii. Seed that fell on the thorny bushes stands for people who receive the word. However, they fail to follow their beliefs because of interference by lifes worries, riches and pressures of the world. They fail to mature as believers. iv. Seed that fell on the good soil are those people with a noble and good heart. They hear the word, and retain it in their hearts. Such people persevere and produce good harvest. v. Interpretation. The different types of soil in this parable refer to different kinds of Hearts of people. The farmer is Jesus, God or Preacher. We learn that: One should not despair and Its important to receive the word of God, practice it and persevere so as to bear fruits. 2. The parable of a lamp under a bowl (Lk.8: 16 18). Jesus taught that no one lights a lamp, then covers it with a bowl or hide it under a bed. When one lights a lamp, they put it on the lamp stand so as to ----- 173 # illuminate a room and for people to see the light. For whatever is hidden or covered up shall be revealed. In this parable Jesus is the light. The disciples had a duty to pass on to others messages they had learnt from Jesus. They should not keep messages to themselves. Interpretation. From this parable of a lamp under a bowl, we learn that: i A Christian has a duty to share the knowledge of God with others ii One cannot be a Christian if this knowledge is hidden iii Those who do not share may loose their beliefs. 3. Jesus mother and brothers. Luke 8:19 21 The mother of Jesus and brothers came to see him. Someone told Jesus that they were there. He told the crowd. My mother and brothers are those who hear the word of God and obey . Accepters and believers are the members of the family of Jesus. Lesson Revision Questions 1. Give reasons why Jesus used parables 2. Identify various methods used by Christians in spreading the gospel today 3. Discuss the reasons why Jesus faced opposition fro the Jewish leaders. LESSON ELEVEN: MIGHTY WORKS OF JESUS Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson a. Organise in categories miracles performed by Jesus b. Narrate each miracle c. Discuss the significance of the miracle and lessons to learn Jesus continued to do miracles; and teach. His work is referred to as the mighty works of Jesus in various books. Miracles can be defined as acts of power whose purpose is to establish the kingdom of God. ----- 174 # Miracles can also mean extraordinary events that go against the laws of nature. a. Categories / types of miracles Jesus performed four types of miracles. These were: 1) Nature miracles miracles that dealt with nature e.g. calming of the storm 2) Raising of the dead e.g. Jairus daughter 3) Healing miracles healing Simons mother in law of fever, healing of the woman with the flow of blood. 4) Exorcism miracles casting out of evil spirits e.g. the Gerasene demonic i) The calming of the storm One day, Jesus entered a boat with his disciples to go across Lake Galilee. As they sailed Jesus was asleep in the ship. Suddenly, there was a strong wind and the boat began to sink. The disciples woke him up saying, Master, we are about to die. Jesus woke up and gave an order to the winds and the raging waters. They obeyed and there was calm. He then said to his disciples where is your faith? Disciples were afraid and amazed and wondered, Who is this man? Winds and waves obey him. This miracle teaches Christians to have faith and to depend on Jesus when they face raging temptations and persecutions. Jesus has power over nature. ii) Jesus Heals a Man with demons (Lk8: 26 39) Jesus and his disciples sailed to Gerasa town across Lake Galilee. On arrival a man who had demons in ----- 175 # him for a long time met Jesus. He lived naked in tombs, and wilderness. On seeing Jesus, he cried out, threw himself down at the feet of Jesus and shouted; Jesus son of the Most High God! What do you want with me? I beseech thee, torment me not. Jesus had ordered the demons to go out of him. Jesus asked him what is your name? He replied Legion or Mob. This was because the man had been possessed by many demons. The demons begged Jesus not to send them into the deep but to let them go into some pigs (swine) that were feeding by. Jesus allowed them and the devils went out of the man, into the pigs. The herd ran down the cliff into the lake and drowned. The herders run to the city and spread the news. The multitude found the man sitting at the feet of Jesus clothed, and in his right mind. The multitude asked Jesus to leave their country region. The healed man wanted to follow Jesus but Jesus declined and told him to go and tell others of the great things that God had done for him. The man went to town and told all what Jesus had done for him. This miracle teaches Christians that: 1. The mission of Jesus was universal. 2. Jesus mission is to teach all the people irrespective of their race, tribe or geographical location. The demon man was healed in a Gentile area. 3. Jesus has power over evil 4. Powers of evil (demons) are real 5. Human life is more valuable than mans material things 6. The demons evil spirits identified Jesus as the Son of the most High ----- 176 # 7. Christians need to fight the power of evil SAQ. What were the causes of mental illness and spirit possession in traditional African society and in modern society? iii) Jairus daughter is raised. Lk.8: 40 42, 49 56 Jairus was an official in the local synagogue. He begged Jesus to come to his house and heal his only daughter who was 12 was dying. iv) Woman with the flow of blood is Healed (Lk. 8:43 48) When Jesus was on route to Jairus house, great crowds followed him and pressed him on either side. Amongst them was a woman who had suffered from severe bleeding for 12 years. She consulted doctors and spent all her savings on physicians. But she was not cured. The society considered the woman unclean. It blamed her for her illness. She herself was embarrassed by her condition. This woman walked behind Jesus and she touched the hem of the garment of Jesus. Her bleeding stopped at once. Jesus asked, who touched me? Everyone denied it. Peter replied the multitude was around Jesus and it was difficult to know who had touched him. Jesus persisted someone touched him. The woman who had touched Jesus the woman came forward, and fell at his feet and confessed to all her sickness and explained why she touched Jesus and how she was healed at once. Jesus said to her My daughter, your faith has made you well. Go in peace. Jairus daughter is raised. Lk.8: 40 42, 49 56 ----- 177 # As Jesus was talking to her, Jairus was told that his little girl was dead. Dont bother the teacher anymore. Jesus told Jairus not to fear but to believe and she will be well. When he got to the house he went into the room with Peter, John and James and the parents of the girl. People around were weeping and wailing. But Jesus told them not to weep. She is not dead but asleep. They scorned and laughed at him for saying that she is asleep because they knew she was dead. Jesus took the girl by hand and called out Get up, my child little girl arise. She immediately got up and Jesus ordered the parent to give her food. He commanded them not to tell what had happened. Teachings from these two miracles The miracle of raising Jairus daughter teaches Christians that Jesus is compassionate and the author of life. He has power over death, resurrection and life. In the miracle of healing the Woman with the flow of blood: a. Jesus made her healing public. This was probably because He wanted to acknowledge the womans faith in the public. Jesus made it clear that her faith made her whole. b. Jesus wanted to challenge the cultural practices that kept women in bandage and could not participate in public life. c. Jesus made her healing public so that the community can receive her back and shall not isolate her again. From this miracle of healing this woman, Christians learn that one; Jesus is the healer. He has power ----- 178 # over all sicknesses even those without cure. Two, Christians should have faith in Jesus Christ. Lesson Revision Questions 1. Narrate the healing of the Gerasene demoniac Lk 8: 26-39 2. What lessons can Christians learn fro the healing of the demoniac man above? 3. What do the miracles of Jesus teach us about him? 4. Compare the raising of Jairus daughter and the healing of the woman with the flow of blood Answers. A comparison of the raising of Jairus daughter and the healing of the woman with flow of blood (i) Jairus daughter was 12 years old and the woman sick with the flow of blood had suffered for 12 years. (ii) Jesus referred to both of them as daughter (iii) Their situation death and flow of blood did not have a cure (iv) The public witnessed the miracle of the woman with the flow of blood. (v) Jesus commanded Jairus to keep secret raising of his daughter LESSON TWELVE. COMMISSIONING OF THE TWELVE DISCIPLES Lk 9:1 10 Introduction. Commission means to officially ask someone to do something. Learning Outcomes: By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: a Describe the commissioning of the twelve disciples. b Explain the story of the feeding of the 5000 c Describe the transfiguration of Jesus d Explain the teachings of Jesus on faith and humility. a. The commissioning of the twelve disciples ----- 179 # The twelve disciples or followers accompanied Jesus wherever he went. They were regarded as apostles. An apostle comes from a Greek word Apostols which means send out one who is sent or a missionary. The commissioning of the 12 disciples meant that they were given four main duties, power and authority to: a) Exorcise or cast out demons b) Cure diseases c) Heal the sick d) Preach the Kingdom of God and proclaim the arrival of Gods Instructions. They were told to: i) Take nothing for the journey ii) Initiate attack on the forces of evil iii) Depend entirely on God to take care of them iv) Take no stick, no beggars bag, no food, no money and not even an extra shirt for their journey v) Whatever house they entered they were to stay there until they leave the town. vi) If they were not welcomed, they were to leave that town and shake the dust off their feet as a warning to that city or town. With these instructions, the disciples left and travelled to all villages preaching the Good News and healing people everywhere. King Herod was perplexed by the work of the disciples and he desired to see Jesus. b. Feeding of the five thousand. Please open your Bible and read Luke chapter 9. Verses 11-17) ----- 180 # After reading these verses, about feeding of the five thousand (5000) people we learn that 1. Jesus is concerned about peoples physical needs 2. Jesus demonstrated that he is the bread of life 3. Jesus has divine power 4. The Church has the duty of continuing to feed its followers both spiritually and physically. 5. The feeding of the 5000 people points to the Messianic banquet 6. Christians must learn to share whatever they have with one another 7. From this miracle, Jesus expected his disciples to appreciate their responsibility. Their work was not only to preach and heal but also feed the hungry. Feeding was both physical and spiritual. The personality of Jesus and his identity Lk. 9:18 27 When Jesus was alone with his disciples, he asked them who people say he is. The disciples told him that some say he is John the Baptist, others say he is Elijah and others say he is one of the old prophets who have risen again. Jesus asked them who they, disciples say he is. Peter replied that he is Christ of God. Jesus then told them not to tell people who he is for he Son of man has first to suffer many things be rejected by the elders chief, priests and scribes, be killed and be raised the third day. Jesus announced to the disciples of his passion (great sufferings) Jesus is the Christ (anointed) of God Messiah as well as the son of man. A divine nature and a human nature. Jesus went on ahead to tell his disciples that they should deny themselves (self denial) take up their cross daily and be ready to lose their lives for Jesus. ----- 181 # However, great is the reward for the faithful. LESSON THRTEEN: THE TRANSFIGURATION (LK.9: 28 36) Instructions. Read. Luke chapter 9, verse 28 to 36. Then answer revision questions that follow. A brief summary from the Bible Transfiguration is change or transformation of form or appearance. Jesus was transformed in appearance when he took Peter, John and James to the mountain to pray. During the transfiguration, Moses and Elijah came down from heaven to talk with Jesus about his coming death in Jerusalem. Moses, Elijah and Jesus were in heavenly glory and glorious splendor. Peter, John and James were asleep. When they woke up, they saw Jesus glory. They also saw Elijah and Moses with Jesus. Peter suggested to Jesus that they build three tents for Jesus, Elijah and Moses. As he spoke a cloud overshadowed them. A voice from the cloud said this is my son, whom I have chosen listen to him. The cloud left and the disciples found themselves with Jesus. They kept what they saw and heard to themselves. Significance and importance of transfiguration a. The voice from heaven confirmed that Jesus is the Christ of God, or the Messiah b. Moses represented the Old Testament law. Jesus came to fulfil the Law of Moses. It showed that Jesus was not against the Law of Moses. c. Elijah represented the Old Testament Prophets. This meant that Jesus had fulfilled the Old Testament ----- 182 # prophecies. He is above the prophets. d. Jesus is above or greater than the law and the prophets. e. Transfiguration was a way of preparing the disciples for the death and resurrection of Jesus. Death is not the end of life (Moses and Elijah appeared to confirm this) f. The transfiguration prepared and gave strength to Jesus for what lay ahead of him g. Dazzling appearance showed the glory of Jesus h. The transfiguration also shows the importance of encouraging each other. 5.0 Revision questions a. Explain the teachings of John the Baptist b. Describe the baptism and temptation of Jesus and its relevance to Christians today. c. Give reasons as to why Jesus was rejected at Nazareth d. Describe the first miracles of Jesus at Capernaum e. Narrate and dramatize the temptations of Jesus from the gospel according to St Luke, f. Identify five occasions when Jesus was tempted g. Explain ways in which Christians can be tempted today h. Outline ways in which Christians can overcome temptations in the contemporary world i. Identify lessons that Christians can learn from the temptations of Jesus? j. What is the role of the clergy in Kenya? k. How does the church participate in the upkeep of the clergy? l. Define and describe the transfiguration of Jesus TOPIC FOUR: THE JOURNEY TO JERUSALEM LUKE ch. 9-18 Introduction As Jesus travelled to Jerusalem, He prepared His disciples for the life they were to lead after He leaves ----- 183 # them. Learning Outcomes. By the end of the topic, you should be able to a Identify duties and privileges and cost of a disciple. b Describe the teachings of Jesus on prayer, hypocrisy, wealth and watchfulness. c Describe parables Jesus used to teach about prayer, hypocrisy, wealth and watchfulness. LESSON ONE. DUTIES, PRIVILEGES AND COST OF DISCIPLESHIP Lesson Outcomes. When you read this lesson, you should: 1. Explain discipleship 2. List duties given to disciples by Jesus Christ 3. Explain relevance of Christian discipleship to modern Church Jesus teaching on faith and humility A brief summary from the Bible. Read (Luke 9: 37 50) for details. After the transfiguration, Jesus used two incidents to teach his disciples about faith and humility. One incident was the healing of a boy possessed by an evil spirit (Luke 9: 37 43). Jesus rebuked the unclean spirit out of the boy and the boy was healed. Jesus told His disciples that their lack of faith was the reason why they did not cure the boy. Jesus informed his disciples that faith in him was important when carrying out his work. Jesus teaching on His Work The next question was .. who is to work for Jesus? All Christians can work for Jesus even believers who are gentiles. Read (Luke 9 vs. 49 50). Jesus told his disciples not to forbid others from carrying out his ----- 184 # work for whoever is not against Him is for Him. This means that whoever had faith; even the Gentiles could carry out Jesus work. Jesus teaching on His followers Jesus was determined to go to Jerusalem. As He travelled, men volunteered to follow him wherever he was going. Jesus replied that foxes have holes, birds of the air have nests but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head. Jesus had no earthly home. His mission on earth was only for a time. A man requested to follow Jesus but asked permission to bury his father. Jesus told him to let the dead bury their dead. Disciples of Jesus have to leave their families in order to do His Work. Mission of the 72 men. Read Luke 10:1 24 On the way to Jerusalem, Jesus sent out 72 disciples on a mission to promote the Gospel of the Kingdom of God through preaching and service. The 72 disciples were sent in 2s in order to encourage or help each other. The 72 were given instructions. Jesus told them that He has given them power over demons, serpents, scorpion. They have power over all the powers of Satan. When disciples returned, they reported that demons obeyed them. In Luke 10 verse 20, Jesus asked the 72 to rejoice not because demons flee but because their names are written in heaven. Out of the many followers, Jesus chose 12 apostles who learnt from Jesus and became His witnesses. Jesus teaching on the greatest disciple ----- 185 # Read (Luke 9: 46- 48). The disciples asked themselves who is the greatest amongst disciples amongst the 12 disciples? In response Jesus took a child by His side and said to the disciples. Whoever welcomes this child in my name, welcomes me, as well as the one who sent me. For the one who is least amongst you shall be the greatest in Heaven. Lessons from this example. Jesus explained that His disciples needed values of humility and simplicity. These virtues were needed to carry out the work of discipleship. Teaching about Discipleship 1. True followers of Jesus Christ must a. Be ready to detach themselves from families and material possessions. b. Be ready to face rejections because not all people will accept them or their message. c. Be ready to serve. d. Be ready to cater for peoples physical needs. e. Be self less. f. Not be hypocrites and should accept hospitality whenever it is given. g. Be able to exercise self-evaluation. 2. Duties of a disciple were: a) To preach the good news of salvation to other people and be ready to suffer for the sake of Christ. b) Obey Gods commandments and follow teachings of Jesus. c) To help the needy spiritually and with material needs. d) To teach others about the Kingdom of God. e) To heal the sick. f) To cast out demons. g) Be prepared to suffer for the sake of the gospel. ----- 186 # h) Being loyal to Jesus and faithful to the gospel. i) Commitment and loyalty 3. Privileges of a disciple a) One becomes a member of the Kingdom of God. b) They get an assurance of eternal life. c) They receive joy of winning other people to follow Jesus. d) They receive peace, and blessings of God. How are these teachings relevant to modern church leaders and members? Modern church leaders have a duty to continue preaching Gods word to all people. They should serve God in several ministries such as visiting the sick, caring for orphans, the destitute, widows, widowers, and the aged. They should also be ready to suffer and even face rejection for the sake of the Christ. Exercise 1. What are the characteristics of a true follower of Christ? 2. State the privileges of being a disciple of Jesus Christ 3. Why did Jesus choose the 12 disciples? LESSON TWO: A COMMITTED FOLLOWER OF CHRIST Read Luke 10: 25-37, and Luke 11: 1-13 a. The parable of the Good Samaritan A teacher of law asked Jesus questions in order to tempt him. One was what must I do to receive eternal life? (Read Luke 10: 25 to 28). Jesus replied with a question. What do the scriptures say? He replied and Jesus told him to do as the scripture say. . He asked another question. Who is my neighbour? (Luke 10 v 29). Jesus answered with the parable of the Good Samaritan. In this parable, the righteous ----- 187 # people among the Jews, Levites and priests, did not help the injured man. A Samaritan whom Jews considered unclean and sinners helped him. After narrating this parable Jesus asked the lawyer, who of the 3 travelers was a good neighbour? The lawyer said the Samaritan. Lessons learnt from the parable of the Good Samaritan In the above parable, Jesus stressed that a follower of Jesus should be: (1) Committed (2) Show love of God by loving people in need and their neighbours. A neighbour is anybody who requires assistance or help regardless of race, ethnicity, creed, colour or gender. Jesus wants his followers to show love and concern to all people regardless of their background. A neighbour uses his/her resources selflessly to help the needy. A neighbour is also compassionate, kind, and generous to the needy. Jesus Visit to Martha and Mary (Read Luke 10: 38 42) Martha welcomed Jesus in her home where she lived with her sister Mary. While Martha prepared food, Mary sat at Jesus feet listening to his teaching. Martha complained. She was doing all the work while Mary sat listening to Jesus teaching. Jesus told Martha that Mary had made the right choice to listen to His teaching. Lessons we can learn from Jesus Visit to Martha and Mary 1. A committed follower of Jesus is one who creates time to study and listen to Gods word. 2. A follower of Christ should ensure that their commitment to God is not overshadowed by daily duties, ----- 188 # worries and responsibilities. 3. Jesus visit to Mary and Martha was also to teach disciples on the characteristics of a true disciple. Revision exercise 1. From the teachings of Jesus, on the parable of the good Samaritan; who do you think is a committed follower of Jesus? LESSON THREE. JESUS TEACHING ON PRAYER (Read Luke 11:1 13) Prayer is communication with God. It is talking with God. People pray to God all the time. For example, people pray to God when: 1. They are in problems and in happiness; 2. Seeking healing and wealth, 3. Giving thanks to God, 4. Identifying the needs to be met, and asking for favors from God 5. Repenting and confessing their sins 6. Thanking God There are many forms or types of prayers. These are: 1. Intercessory prayer Praying for the needs of others. 2. Prayer for repentance for forgiveness of sins. 3. Thanksgiving prayer giving thanks to God for what he has done. 4. Worship prayer prayers to worship God. 5. Praise prayers to praise God, Honor God. 6. Supplication and petition prayer whereby an individual makes their needs known to God and asks for divine intervention. Jesus prayed often during his lifes Ministry. The disciples asked him to show them how to pray. Jesus responded by teaching them the Lords Prayer. ----- 189 # Our Father who art in Heaven Hallowed be thy name Thy Kingdom come Thy will be done on earth as It is in heaven Give us this day our daily bread Forgive us our trespasses As we forgive those who trespass against us Lead us not into temptation But deliver us from evil a) Our Father who art in heaven The disciples were told to address God as Our father. God is to be seen and addressed as a Father. b) Hallowed be thy name The name of God should be respected and revered. c) Thy Kingdom come In Prayer, Christians/disciples are to pray that the rulership of God reign amongst them. d) Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven Christians to obey the will of God. e) Give us this day our daily bread Christians to pray for their needs. f. Forgive us our trespasses we ask for forgiveness of our sins and those of others. g. Jesus taught that one should be persistent in prayer. If a man goes to his friend at midnight and asks for bread to give to his visitor, the friend will open the door and give his friend all that he needs. This is because his friend was persistent in knocking on the door. In conclusion, if prayers are to be effective, one must have faith and be persistent. Believe that God shall ----- 190 # answer prayers. A committed follower of Jesus should pray at all times. In prayer, one should acknowledge that God is the Father and that all prayers should be addressed to him. Two, one should have faith that God answers prayers. Therefore we should be persistent in prayer. Reasons why Christians should pray To honor God To request for favors To offer thanksgiving To confess their sins and seek for forgiveness of sins To seek Gods protection To intercede on behalf of others To strengthen their relationship with God Revision exercise 1. What did Jesus teach about prayer? 2. What is the importance of prayer? LESSON FOUR: USE OF GODS POWER TO OVERCOME EVIL. Read Luke 11:14 28 Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: 1. Narrate Jesus teaching about demons 2. Explain why the sign of Jonah was important 3. Describe how Gods power overcomes evil a. Jesus and Beelzebub. (Read Luke 11: 14 to 28) Jesus drove out a mute demon. The possessed man began to talk. The crowd said that Jesus was casting out demons using the power of Beelzebub (the price of demons). Beelzebul was an evil spirit. However Jesus replied Any country that divides itself into groups which fight each other will not last very long, ----- 191 # and a family divided against itself will fall. Jesus said it is by the power of God that drives out demons. Lessons learnt i. Satan cannot fight against himself therefore Jesus cannot be an agent of Beelzebub / Satan. ii. Gods Kingdom and that of Satan were two separate Kingdoms and could not co exist. iii. The destruction of Satans power meant that the Kingdom of God was in Israel and it was powerful. Gods power destroyed Satans kingdom. It is impossible to be neutral in the battle between Christ and Satan. One has to belong to either Christ or Satan. iv. Jesus has power to drive out demons. v. Demons occupy people. They bring disabilities and diseases. What makes people to be insane? Mentally sick b. The sign of Jonah. (Read Luke 11: 29 32) After Jesus drove out the dumb spirit, Jews demanded performance of greater miracles. They wanted Jesus to prove that he was their expected messiah. Jesus said that Jonah was a great miracle. But Jesus was greater miracle than that of Jonah, and King Solomon. King Solomon was full of wisdom. He was so great that Queen of Sheba came to listen to his wisdom. Jesus like Jonah had brought a message of judgment. Jesus is greater than Jonah or Solomon. If Jews refuse to receive and listen to Jesus, the Gentiles like Queen of Sheba, will bear testimony against the Jews and receive Gods salvation. c. The light of the body. Read Luke: 11: 33 36 ----- 192 # Jesus taught that no one lights a lamp and hides it under a bowl. A lamp is placed where all can see its light. He said that the human eye is the lamp or the light of the body. Jesus asked the listeners to make sure that the light in you is not darkness (vs. 35). What is the main message in this story? LESSON FIVE: JESUS TEACHING ON HYPOCRISY, WEALTH, WATCHFULNESS AND READINESS Introduction Hypocrisy is being dishonest and insincere or pretending to someone else or people. What did Jesus teach about hypocrisy? Learning outcomes. After reading these verses in Luke: 1. State what Jesus taught on hypocrisy 2. Explain value of wealth 3. Discuss how modern Christians can be watchful and ready for the coming of Jesus Christ a. Hypocrisy. Read Luke 12: 1- 12 A Pharisee invited Jesus to his house for a meal. When Jesus did not wash before eating the meal, the Pharisee was surprised. Jesus told him .. you Pharisees clean the outside of your cup and plate, but inside you are full violence and evil, greed and wickedness (vs. 39). Jesus condemned the Pharisees for their hypocrisy. They were concerned with outward appearances and traditions such as ceremonial washing of cups, hands, and dishes but not the souls of people. They loved the outward show and public recognition. Pharisees tithed, but neglected justice and love of God (vs. 42). They imposed rules and ----- 193 # regulations for people to follow, yet they themselves did not practice what they preached. They refused to confess their sins but pointed out sins in others. They hinder others from entering the kingdom of God. They had failed to make people understand the true interpretation of the law. They were like unmarked graves dead to people yet the people trusted them. After this teaching, the Pharisees and the teachers of the law began to oppose Jesus fiercely. What do we learn from Jesus teachings? Followers of Jesus should be 1. Sincere and upright (honest); (2) obey Gods commands; (3), live to please God but not other people; (4) confess publicly their loyalty to God and (5) love God without fear and (6) be dependent on the Holy Spirit b. The Parable of the Rich Fool. (Read Luke 12:13 to 21). Someone wanted justice. His brother had refused to share with him his fathers wealth. He wanted Jesus to order his brother to divide their fathers inheritance between him. In response, Jesus answered him with the parable of the rich fool. A rich man expected a good harvest of his crops. He thought he did not have storage for the crop he expected to harvest. The man said to himself. i will demolish my granaries and stores, then build bigger ones to store all my corn, and other goods. He expected to have enough food to last him a lifetime. Then he can enjoy his wealth; eating, drinking and making merry. But God told him that his life would be ----- 194 # demanded from him that same night. What will happen to his wealth, as he was not rich in Gods sight? Lessons to learn i Followers of Jesus should not put their trust in material wealth but in God ii Life consists of food, other material wealth and trust in God iii Whoever seeks Gods kingdom, will receive material blessings from God iv Jesus did not condemn material possessions but rather the attitude towards material possessions. v Jesus condemned attachment to material wealth instead of trust in God who controls our lives. c. Watchfulness, Readiness, and Instructions. (Read Luke 12: 35 59) Jesus told his disciples to be: i Watchful and ready for the return of the Son of Man i.e. Jesus. ii Faithful servants so that when Jesus returns, he will find them ready and acting responsibly iii Watchful of possible divisions in families iv Royal to Christ v Ready for the coming of the Son of Man. He will come at unexpected time; like a thief who comes when the owner of the house is not aware. vi Observing things of the kingdom of God, which were present in the person of Jesus. vii Like good servants, and watch over the affairs of the master. viii Be decision makers and follow the teachings of Jesus without being watched. Review questions 1. In what ways were the Pharisees hypocritical? LESSON SIX: THE KINGDOM OF GOD ----- 195 # Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to 1. Explain the teachings of Jesus about the kingdom of God 4. Narrate the parables of a. The unfaithful fig tree b. The mustard seed c. Parable of the feast d. Parable of the great feast e. Parable of the lost sheep and the lost son The Kingdom of God Kingdom of God refers to rule of God, or Gods authority on peoples lives and the world He created. The kingdom of God was present in Jesus. It is now and in the future reality. The teachings, and miracles of Jesus were a manifestation of the Kingdom of God. For anyone to enter Gods kingdom, one has to repent and ask for forgiveness. The Kingdom of God continues to grow and spread through the work of the Church. Those who accept the teachings of Jesus Christ about Gods Kingdom are members of the Kingdom of God. Now to enter the Kingdom of God, one has to repent and not judge others. Read Luke 13:1-5. Luke has explained the kingdom of God and outlined who will enter it. The Kingdom of God has unfruitful fig tree (Read Luke, 13: 6 9). A farmer had a fig tree that was unproductive for 3 years. He ordered the gardener to cut it down. The gardener requested for the fig tree to be given another chance. He promised to dig around the fig tree and add fertilizer. If it bears ----- 196 # fruits well, it can survive, if it doesnt bear fruit, then it should be cut down. Lessons learnt from the parable The unproductive fig tree represents followers of Jesus who are unproductive because they do not follow the teachings of Jesus Christ. God gives people chances to repent just like the fig tree was given a second chance to bear fruit. Jesus is the gardener who pleads for people before God. The followers of Jesus are expected to be fruitful. What are the figs used for? a. Parable of the mustard seed. Read Luke, 13:18 19 Jesus likened the kingdom of God to a mustard seed, which is very small. When a mustard seed is planted, it grows fast to become a big tree. It is difficult to control its growth. When mature, the fig tree attracts many birds, which feed on its seeds. Lesson learnt from the parable. The Kingdom of God Begins as a small seed and grows quietly and humbly Then it grows and spreads to all corners of the earth And It attracts many people b. Parable of the Yeast. Read Luke, 13: 20 21 The Kingdom of God is like yeast. Yeast makes dough rise and the bread big. The Kingdom of God grows secretly and slowly just like the dough rises without being noticed. It is only God who knows how a kingdom grows. The Kingdom of God grows as a small unit that eventually grows, spreads and reaches out to many people in many nations. ----- 197 # c. The narrow door. Read Luke, 13: 22 30 As Jesus was teaching in towns and villages, a person asked him whether a few people would be saved. Jesus replied that his followers should make every effort to go through the narrow door as it leads to the Kingdom of God. The narrow door will not remain open forever. Lesson learnt from the parable Those who wish to follow Jesus must repent immediately Entrance to Gods Kingdom is through repentance Everybody is invited to enter into the Kingdom of God. d. Jesus heals a crippled woman on the Sabbath. Luke, 13:10 12 Jesus was teaching in the synagogue on Sabbath. Jesus healed a woman who had an evil spirit, which had bent her back (Hunch back) for 18 years. Jesus saw her and told her woman, you are free from your illness! She was made straight and immediately glorified God. The official of the synagogue was annoyed that Jesus was healing on a Sabbath. He and others were hostile to Jesus for healing/working on the Sabbath. Jesus told him, you hypocrite. You feed and look after your animals on the Sabbath day. Jesus emphasized that human life is more important than animal life or even observing the Sabbath. Lessons learnt from the parable Jesus came to set people free from the bondage of sickness and Satan. Jesus work of liberation is continuous. It has to be performed even on a Sabbath day because human life is more important than animal life or even observing the Sabbath. e. Jesus Love for Jerusalem. (Read Luke13: 31 35) ----- 198 # As Jesus continued with his teachings, he reached Jerusalem. Pharisees informed him that Herod wanted to kill him. His response was go and tell that fox I will continue healing the sick and casting out demons. Jesus however, lamented over Jerusalem for rejecting Gods messengers. God would abandon Jerusalem for rejecting Jesus. Jerusalem was the site of Jesus death. It would eventually acknowledge Jesus as the Messiah who brings salvation to Israel and to the rest of the world. f. Man with dropsy healed (Read Luke 14:1 6). Jesus was invited to the house of the leading Pharisees for a meal on a Sabbath. A man with dropsy (swollen legs and arms) came to Jesus for healing. The Pharisees watched Jesus closely to see what he would do. Jesus asked the Pharisees does our Law allow healing on the Sabbath or not? They kept quiet. Jesus healed the man who then left. Jesus asked the Pharisees, would they save their son or an ox if it fell in a well on a Sabbath. They kept quiet. g. Humility and Hospitality. (Read Luke 14: 7 14) Jesus was in the house of a leading Pharisees and observed that some of the invited guests were choosing the best places to sit at the table. He taught the disciples how to be humble. He said, when invited for a meal, let the owner give you a seat of honor that is reserved for important and honorable guests. Read verse 11. Jesus advised his host to invite the poor, cripples, and the blind who cannot invite you, as they have ----- 199 # nothing to give back for generosity. Lessons learnt from the parable Jesus is teaching about humility and hospitality. Those who are humble shall be elevated. Those who elevate themselves shall be humbled. Followers of Jesus should extend invitations to the poor and the underprivileged in the society. The Kingdom of God belongs to the humble people. c. The parable of the Great Feast. Read Luke, 14: 15 24. A man said to Jesus, How happy are those who will sit down at the feast in the Kingdom of God (verse 15). In response Jesus told him that a man made a great feast and invited many friends and colleagues to the feast. The invited guests failed to come and a servant was sent to inform them that the feast was ready. All the invited guests gave personal excuses explaining why they could not come. The master was angry and asked the servant to invite the poor, crippled, lame, the blind and anyone willing to come to the feast. Lessons learnt from the parable God has invited all people to the great feast of the Kingdom of God. Those who honor his invitation will be blessed. Those who reject the invitation will be excluded from the feast. Jesus explained that the Kingdom of God is like a great feast open to all Jews and Gentiles. To enter the Kingdom of God, one has to make a personal decision because following Jesus means sacrificing activities that we consider important to us. d. The Cost of Being a Disciple ----- 200 # Read Luke 14: 25 33 True discipleship means loving Jesus more than ones family. This is a great sacrifice to detach oneself from the family. A disciple must be ready to suffer for the sake of following Jesus. Following Jesus requires skills of careful thinking, planning and detailed preparations. Jesus compared true discipleship to the planning required when building a tower or engaging in a military operation. Lessons / teachings learnt from the parable True discipleship means making great sacrifices, none of you can be my disciple unless you give up everything you have (verse 33). Jesus disciples are expected to do careful planning before deciding to follow him because they are required to love God more than anyone else even their relatives and friends. e. The parable of the Lost Sheep Read Luke, 15:1 7 Pharisees and teachers of law complained to Jesus because Jesus was teaching ordinary people such as tax collectors, and outcasts considered sinners by them. Jesus told the Pharisees and teachers of law the parable of the lost sheep. He told them that if a shepherd with 100 sheep lost one of them, what action would he take? Wouldnt he leave the 99 sheep and go out to look for the lost sheep? And on finding it, wouldnt the shepherd celebrate with friends and neighbours? Jesus said that God celebrates if over one sinner who repents than over 99 ----- 201 # respectable people who do not need to repent. Lessons / teachings learnt from the parable iii God is a shepherd and takes care of all his people. iv He does not want any of his people to be lost. v God searches for those lost in sin until he finds them. vi When one sinner repents, God is overjoyed and rejoices. vii God is the good shepherd who has come to seek and save the lost. f. Parable of the Lost Coin. Read Luke, 15: 8 10 If a woman losses one of her ten silver coins, she searches until she finds it. And if it is found, she invites her friends and neighbours to celebrate. Lessons learnt from the parable God and the angels in heaven search make every effort to seek the lost sinner until they find them. Jesus lights the world, looking for sinners who are lost because they are precious in Gods sight. g. Parable of the Lost Son (prodigal son) Read Luke 15:11 32 Jesus then told the story of a father who had two sons. The younger was given his share of inheritance he had requested. He went to foreign lands and wasted his inheritance. He became poor and decided to return home and ask his father to forgive him and employ him as a servant. His father kissed him and celebrated his return. The father announced to his guests that the son who was lost is now found. - The one who was dead is now live. The elder son was angry and unhappy because his father had never held a celebration for him, inspite of ----- 202 # his hard work and obedience. His father told him my son you are always here with me, and everything I have is yours. We are just celebrating the return of the lost son. Lessons learnt from the parable a. A person dies spiritually if they sin b. God loves all people including sinners c. God is ready to forgive every sinner who repents d. There is no sin that God cannot give e. Jesus taught that both the righteous and unrighteous require Gods forgiveness f. There is joy and happiness in heaven when one sinner repents. g. Christians should confess their sins and acknowledge that Jesus saves repentant sinners h. God accepts unconditionally any sinner who comes back to him in repentance i. Confession of sins is a condition for entering the Kingdom of God. A GREAT FEAST FOR ALL WHO ARE PREPARED Luke 14: 1 35 SAQ. What are the qualities of those who belong to the kingdom of God? Answer. Qualities of people who belong to the Kingdom of God Those who belong to the Kingdom of God: i. Obey Gods commandments ii. Accept Gods rule in their lives iii Show Gods love to others iv Are ready to make sacrifices so as to be followers of Jesus v Read Gods word and preach to others vi Confess their sins and seek forgiveness of their sins through repentance. Review questions 1. Give an explanation of the term Kingdom of God ----- 203 # 2. What did Jesus teach about the kingdom of God? 3. What lessons do Christians learn from the parables of the lost son? Answer 1. The term Kingdom of God means the role of God or Gods authority in peoples lives and the world. LESSON SEVEN: TEACHINGS ON WEALTH AND POVERTY. LK 16:1 32 Learning Outcomes. By the end of the topic, you should be able to: a) Explain the teachings of Jesus on wealth, and poverty b) Narrate the teachings of Jesus on repentance Introduction While wealth is possession of material things such as money or occupation of a high social economic status, poverty is the opposite. It is lack of basic needs such as water, education, food, shelter, clothing, and health. When teaching about wealth, Jesus taught using two parables. These were: (1) parable of the shrewd manager (2) parable of the rich man and Lazarus Parable of the shrewd manager Read Luke, 16: 1 18 When the shrewd manager realized that his master was going to sack him due to his dishonesty, he asked the debtors to change the amounts they owed their master to smaller amounts. He did this to make friends with a few people who would give him a place to stay after he was sacked. The master praised the shrewd manager and did not sack him. The shrewd manager is praised not because of his ----- 204 # dishonesty but because he acted promptly and with great presence of mind in a moment of crisis. Jesus is encouraging his disciples and followers to make prompt (quick, appropriate, timely) decisions. They should use wealth to serve God. It should not be allowed to take the place of God. Followers of Jesus should be honest in small and big things. The Rich Man and Lazarus. Read Luke, 16: 19 31. A rich man lived in luxury. At his gates was a poor man, called Lazarus whose body was covered by sores. The rich man did not feed Lazarus. He ate food remains together with the rich mans dogs. When rich man died, he went to hell. When Lazarus died, he went to heaven and sat at Abraham/s bosom. When in hell, the rich man was tormented while Lazarus was at peace. Lessons to learn from this parable. The rich isnt condemned for being rich but because of his altitude towards Lazarus. He used his wealth for self-gratification and not for service to the needy. The wealthy should realize that it is God who gives wealth and he should be given honor. Riches can hinder the wealthy from inheriting eternal life, especially if they put their trust in riches instead of God who is the source of all wealth and blessings. Revision exercise 1. From the parable of the rich fool what can Christians learn about the use of wealth? 2. Narrate the parable of the shrewd manager LESSON EIGHT. JESUS TEACHING ON FORGIVENESS ----- 205 # Read Luke 17: 1 4 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you shall explain the power of Christian faith. Sin. Read Luke 17: 1-4. Jesus taught his disciples to forgive offenders who repent. Those who sin should seek forgiveness. If they offend 7 times in a day, forgive them 7 times. Followers of Jesus need faith to forgive others. The power of faith. Read Luke, 17: 5 11. Faith is defined as complete trust or confidence in God. It is absolute truthfulness and trust in everything that comes from God. The apostles asked Jesus to increase their faith. Followers of Jesus should have faith. Faith has no measure. Faith as big as a mustard seed can empower Christians to perform miracles that serve God. Faith is necessary. With faith, Christians can forgive others and be servants of God. Disciples should have faith. Christians understand that they owe everything to God. Jesus heals ten lepers. Read Luke, 17:11- 19 Jesus was on his way to Jerusalem when he met ten lepers. They requested Jesus to heal them. Jesus told them to go and show themselves to the priests. On the way, they were healed. One of them, a Samaritan, returned to thank Jesus for healing him. The Samaritans and the Jews did not associate. Jesus told the Samaritan that his faith has made him whole. Faith is necessary for healing any disease. Leprosy is a disease that leads to loss of fingers, toes and other parts of the body. It was a dreadful skin ----- 206 # disease, which Jews feared. Lepers were isolated from other people. They lived dejected lives The coming of the kingdom. Read Luke 17: 20 37 The Pharisee demanded to know when the kingdom of God would come. Jesus replied that the kingdom of God was within those who had accepted Jesus and his teachings. Those who wanted had received the kingdom. Faith is necessary to discover the power of Gods kingdom. The coming of the son of man, i.e. Jesus will bring the kingdom to reality. The coming of the son of man is also referred to as the day of the Lord, Day of Judgment. Read Luke, 21: 27- 28. Those who obey Jesus will be saved but those who reject him will be punished. Lessons to learn. God expects Christians to have faith in him. Christians should have faith in Jesus so that they can inherit eternal life. Faith is needed to strengthen Christians. Faith is important in the life of a Christian until Jesus returns, i.e. the second coming. Revision exercise 1. What did Jesus teach on forgiveness LESSON NINE. PERSISTENCE IN PRAYER, Read Luke, 18:1 14 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, discuss the values of persistence in prayer To teach about persistence in prayer, Jesus used two parables. These were the parables of: the widow and a corrupt judge and examples of prayer by a Pharisee and a tax collector. a. The widow and the unjust judge. Read Luke, 18: 1 9 Jesus had already taught the disciples how to pray. He now tells them that they ought to pray and not ----- 207 # faint. He gives a parable to explain his point. A widow went to a corrupt judge to have her adversaries judged. The judge was corrupt and ignored her. He however gave in to her demands since she was persistent and wearing him down. The judge helped her because of her persistence and courage. Lessons learnt from the parable Followers of Jesus should pray with courage and be persistent in prayer. God hears and answers prayers. Christians should pray without ceasing and with faith and trust that their prayers will be answered. b. Parable of the Pharisee, and tax collector, Read Luke, 18:9 14 A Pharisee and tax collector went to the temple to pray. The Pharisee offered a long prayer focusing on his achievements. The tax collector (publican) did not have much to say except asking for mercy, as he was a sinner. Followers of Jesus should acknowledge they are sinners and seek forgiveness. They should approach God in humility and avoid spiritual pride, and self- righteousness. Revision exercise 1. State the parable of the widow and the unjust judge LESSON TEN. THE WAY TO SALVATION, Read Luke, 18: 15 19: 1 27. Introduction: The word salvation refers to the act of saving or being saved from sin. Those who have received salvation area assured of eternal life. To receive salvation a person must acknowledge that he is a sinner and repent their sins. In this way, they receive forgiveness and are reconciled to God. ----- 208 # Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a. State the meaning of salvation b. Discuss characteristics of salvation c. Give examples of those who will enter the Kingdom of God. d. Explain how Jesus predicted his death Introduction Salvation means being saved from a life-threatening situation. In Christianity, salvation refers to the process of being delivered from sin and its consequences. Those who are saved are assured of eternal life. Jesus taught about salvation using children to illustrate his message. This is what happened. Some people brought their children to Jesus so that he could bless them. The disciples scolded them. Jesus asked the children to come to him and he blessed them. Jesus taught his disciples that they must be humble like children in order to enter the kingdom of God. The road to salvation is by being simple, humble, and trusting like little children. The kingdom of God belongs to those who humble themselves like the little children. The rich man. Read Luke, 18:18 30 The entry into the kingdom of God was further explained through the story of the rich man. The rich man came to Jesus wanting to know how he could inherit eternal life and be saved. Jesus reminded him of the importance of keeping the commandments. The young man responded that he had observed the commandments since he was young. Jesus told him there is one thing remaining to do; sell everything ----- 209 # he has, and give it to the poor, and then follow Jesus. The rich man was very sorrowful for he was very wealthy. Wealth can hinder the rich from receiving salvation. Jesus acknowledged the sacrifice made by his disciples. He emphasized that disciples shall receive salvation in the present and in life to come. Salvation is a gift from God. Salvation is received; by those who accept to follow Jesus. Trusting in wealth can be a hindrance to salvation. The rich may find it difficult to inherit eternal life. Jesus predicts his death, a 3rd time. Read Luke, 18: 31 34. Jesus predicted his death a three times. First was after asking his disciples who they say he was. The second time was after transfiguration when his face was set towards Jerusalem. The third prediction shall be in Jerusalem (Luke 18:31-34). Jesus told the disciples that previous prophecies would be fulfilled in Jerusalem. His death was going to take place in Jerusalem according to the writings of the prophets. It was going to be a painful death. He shall be beaten, mocked, spit upon and put to death. But on the third day, he shall rise again. The disciples did not understand what Jesus was telling them. Jesus had to die so that those who believed in him may receive eternal life. The death and resurrection of Jesus gives Christians hope of eternal life. Jesus heals a blood beggar. Read Luke, 18: 35 43 As Jesus neared Jericho, a blind man sat by the roadside begging. When he heard the multitude pass by, ----- 210 # he inquired what was going on and he was told that Jesus of Nazareth was passing by. He then cried out Jesus, Son of David, have mercy on me The crowds rebuked him but he cried out louder to Jesus to have mercy on him. Jesus asked him what he wanted. He said he wanted to see. Jesus told him to receive his sight for his faith had made him whole. The beggar was joyful and he followed Jesus rejoicing. Lessons learnt. Christians should have faith in Jesus. They should also be persistent and make specific requests. LESSON THIRTEEN: JESUS AND ZACCHAEUS LK 19:1 9 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, a. Narrate events leading to salvation of Zacchaeus b. Explain meanings of the story of the man who gave gold coins to his servants Zacchaeus was short. His profession was a tax collector. He was rich. He wanted to be saved. When Jesus was passing by Jericho, he wanted to see Jesus. He couldnt because he was short. He ran and climbed a sycamore tree to see Jesus. When Jesus came to the place where Zacchaeus was, he looked up and said Hurry down, Zacchaeus, because I must stay in your house today (verse 5). Jesus then went with Zacchaeus to his house. When people saw this they grumbled, and murmured. They said that Jesus was going to a house of a sinner. Jesus told them that salvation has come to the house of Zacchaeus, a son of Abraham the Son of man ----- 211 # came to seek and save the lost. There is no sin that God cannot forgive, even that of a tax collector. Zacchaeus told Jesus that he was going to give to the poor half of his wealth and whatever he took from any man and woman wrongfully, he will restore four times. From this salvation, we learn that the rich should share their wealth with the needy. The Parable of the Gold Coins: Luke, 19: 11 27. A certain nobleman went to a far country. Before he left he called his ten servants and gave each a gold coin (ten pounds in total). He told them to trade with the coins until he returns. When he returned, he called the servants to report profits they had made. The first servant said that one-pound coin had made profit of 10 pounds (gold coins). He made the manager of ten cities. The second servant had traded and gained 5 pounds. He was made the manager of 5 cities. The third one had hidden the pound. He did not trade. He accused the master of being mean, and cruel. He returned the pound, which was given to the servant with 10 pounds. Lessons to learn. This parable was about the kingdom of God. God expects us to use opportunities he has given to us for his work. Each one of us shall account for the use of the abilities and skills that God gave to us students, workers, and other professionals. To receive eternal life, Christians should repent and be obedient to Gods instructions. Revision questions ----- 212 # 1. What did Jesus teach by using the example of little children? 5. Give an account of how Jesus healed the blind beggar 6. Explain the relevance of Jesus teachings on salvation to Christians TOPIC FIVE: THE JERUSALEM MINISTRY. Luke, 19: 28 21: 38 Lesson Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should: a. Describe the triumphant entry of Jesus into Jerusalem b. Narrate events in the cleansing of the temple c. Discuss Jesus teachings about eschatology LESSON ONE: THE TRIUMPHANT ENTRY OF JESUS TO JERUSALEM LK. 19:28 40 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a. Explain why Jesus rode on a young colt into Jerusalem b. Discuss why Jesus wept over Jerusalem b. Describe what Jesus did when he went to the temple a. The triumphant approach to Jerusalem. Luke 19: 28- 40. Jesus death had to happen in Jerusalem. Hence Jesus went to Jerusalem. He sent two disciples to a place where there was a colt (young donkey) that no person had ever ridden. They took it to Jesus. They threw their garments on the colt, and Jesus sat on it. As Jesus rode, people spread their clothes on the road. As Jesus neared Jerusalem, a large crowd of his disciples began to praise God (vs37). The crowd said blessed be the king who comes in the name of the lord. The Pharisees told Jesus to rebuke the disciples. Jesus told them if the disciples kept quiet the stones would start shouting. Jesus made his entry into Jerusalem in a royal (kingly) procession. He was Israels humble king who came ----- 213 # with peace and not a political leader. He rode on a donkey a symbol of peace. This was unlike the political kings who rode on the horses during that time. b. Jesus weeps over Jerusalem. Read, Luke 41- 44. When Jesus was near Jerusalem he wept. He then foretold the coming destruction of Jerusalem due to its rejection of the messiah. The rejoicing of his triumphant entry to Jerusalem turned to mourning as he foretold the destruction of Jerusalem by Romans in 70 A.D. c. Jesus goes to the temple. Read Luke 19:45 48. Jesus went to Jerusalem temple and evicted traders. He told them that the house of God is a house of prayer not a den of thieves. Jeremiah spoke these same words during his temple sermon. The chief priests and scribes began planning how to kill Jesus. LESSON TWO. PHARISEES, SCRIBES QUESTION JESUS. LUKE 20 1-47 Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the question about the authority of Jesus 2. Describe the parable of the tenants in the vineyard 3. Describe the question about paying taxes 4. Describe the question about resurrection 5. Describe Jesus teachings against the teachers of law 6. Describe the parable of the widows offering a. The question about Jesus authority. Read Luke, 20:1 8. The Jewish leaders wanted to know from Jesus by whose authority he was doing all the things he was doing. In response Jesus asked them did Johns right to baptize come from God or from human ----- 214 # beings? (Vs4). They discussed among themselves and decided not answer. Jesus told them neither will I tell you. In response to his authority being questioned he told a parable. b. The parable of the Tenants in the Vineyard. Read the parable in Luke, 20: 9 18. The tenants refused to pay the owner of the vineyard his share of the harvest. They threw out the servants he sent to collect his share of the harvest. When he sent his son, they killed him so that they can own the vineyard. Jesus asked the people What will the owner of the vineyard do to the tenants? c. The Question about paying taxes. Read Luke 20:19-28 Pharisees, and scribes (teachers of the law) and chief priests planned to arrest Jesus but they were afraid of the people. They sent spies to trick Jesus by asking this question - is it against our law for us to pay taxes to the Roman Empire, or not? Jesus used the currency and told them pay the Emperor Caesar what belongs to him and pay God what belongs to God. (Verse 25) This was a tricky question. Jesus here teachers people to obey the rules of the land and to obey Gods rules. d. The Question about Resurrection The Sadducees who did not believe in resurrection tempted Jesus with another question. They wanted to know this. When resurrection comes, who shall be the husband to a woman who was married to the first brother and inherited as a widow by the other six brothers? ----- 215 # Jesus told them the men and women who shall be worthy of resurrection shall not marry. They shall be like angels and cannot die (verse 34 to 38) e. Jesus warns against the Teachers of the law Jesus warned his disciples. Be careful and guard yourselves against teachers of the law, the scribes. They were hypocritical. They wore long robes, said long prayers, looked for positions of honor and exploited the widows. f. The Widows Offering. Luke, 21: 1- 4 When people were giving offerings in the temple, a widow gave two little copper coins. Jesus said the poor widow had given all she had. Likewise Christians should give to God not to be seen but from their hearts. It is not the quantity of the gift that matters but the attitude of the giver. LESSON THREE: THE TEACHINGS OF JESUS ABOUT ESCHATOLOGY LK. 21: 5 38 Eschatology is from two Greek words, eschatus and logos. Eschatus means end, Logos means study. Eschatology means the study of the end times or in CRE the last days of Jesus. For biblical information, read Luke 21:5-38 and Mathew 24: 1 36 and Mark 13:1-31. Learning outcomes. After this lesson, you should: a. Identify signs of end times b. State uses of the temple during the time of Jesus c. Discuss ways in which Christians can apply the parable of the fig tree d. State relevance of Jesus teachings on eschatology a. Signs of the end times. Jesus gave many signs that will inform Christians that end of the time has ----- 216 # come. These were to happen at different times. The signs were: a) Destruction of the temple of Jerusalem by invading armies which shall surrounded it b) Hatred of disciples and Christians because they were followers of Christ c) Rejection of disciples by families because they were followers of Christ d) Betrayal of the followers of Christ e) Prosecution and imprisonment of Christians. f) Many false messiahs. People would come claiming to be the Messiah, the Son God g) Wars as nation rise against nations h) Eruption of natural calamities such as plagues, earthquakes, famines, great fear among people. i) Disruption in the sky and seas. Fall of strange heavenly beings from the sky and rise of seas. j) Natural calamities such as earthquakes, plagues, famines bringing despair and distress in all nations k) The times shall be announced by signs in the stars, moon, sun and sea l) Appear of the Son of man in power and glory at the end of times. b. Uses of the temple during the time of Jesus During the time of Jesus, the temple was used for (a) Child dedication (b) Circumcision (c) Purification (d) Trading and business centre (e) Worshiping and prayer (f) a place for celebrating festivals such as the Passover and other major feasts (g) a learning centre or school for religious purposes. For example disciples of the scribes learnt law in the temple. The destruction of the temple symbolized the birth of Christianity. From that time Christians became the new temple of God. ----- 217 # c. The parable of the fig tree Lk.21: 29 33 Jesus used the parable of the fig tree to explain more about the end times. Appearance of leaves in the fig tree and other trees inform us that summer will soon come. When Christians see signs of the end times, they should know that the kingdom of God is about to come. Jesus told disciples to be watchful, alert, and praying for strength to endure the coming tribulations. See the previous teachings on watchfulness and readiness. Christians are to watch out and be ready for the end times. d. Relevance of Jesus teachings on eschatology These teachings assure and continue to tell Christians these messages from Jesus: a) There is life after death b) Christ will return to receive the faithful c) Christians are to be watchful, prayerful, and hopeful despite trials and tribulations d) Christians are assured of Gods protection from evil. e) Christians should prepare for the coming of Christ by leading a righteous life f) Do not lose hope g) Do not be pre occupied with the cares of this would for they never end h) Preach and spread the word of God i) Obey Gods commandment j) Help the needy Revision questions a. Describe Jesus triumphant entry into Jerusalem according to Luke chapter 19:29- 30 ----- 218 # b. What does the manner of Jesus entry into Jerusalem reveal about the nature of his kingdom? c. What lessons can Christians learn from Jesus triumphant entry into Jerusalem d. State and explain why Jesus wept over Jerusalem e. Explain the cleansing of the temple f. Give reasons why Jesus cleansed the temple of Jerusalem g. What lessons can Christians learn from the cleansing of the temple? h. Explain Jesus conflict with the Jewish leaders i. Describe the parable of the tenants in the vineyard j. Explain the relevance of the parable of the of tenants in the vineyard k. Explain the question about paying taxes l. Explain the question about the resurrection m. What is eschatology? n. What will happen at the end of the world (eschatology) according to Jesus teaching in Lukes gospel 21; 5-38 o. How do Christians prepare for the second coming of Christ? TOPIC SIX: THE PASSION, DEATH AND RESURRECTION OF JESUS LK. 22 24 Passion is a strong feeling of love, hate or anger. Passion of Jesus is the great sufferings of Jesus, which was a deep emotional anguish. Learning outcomes By the end of this topic, you should be able to: (a) Discuss the events of the Lords supper (b) State relevance of the Lords supper to Christians today (c) Describe the events that took place at mount Olives ----- 219 # (d) Describe the events that took place between the arrest and burial of Jesus (e) Relate the relevance of the sufferings and death of Jesus to Christians today (f) Explain the importance of resurrection of Jesus to Christians (g) Describe the resurrection of Jesus the evidence of his resurrection (h) Narrate the ascension of Jesus The plot against Jesus The Jewish religious leaders were determined to ensure that Jesus was either arrested or killed (Lk.22: 1 6) They were helped by Satan who entered into Judas Iscariot one of the twelve disciples of Jesus. Judas decided to betray Jesus. He communed with the Jewish leaders who agreed to pay him money to betray Jesus. He searched for a way to betray Jesus without knowledge of Jesus. He forgot who was Jesus. Judas agreed to betray Jesus probably because: a. He belonged to the party of Zealots who wanted political changes b. He was probably frustrated by Jesus approach to the Kingdom of God which was establishing a peaceful spiritual kingdom c. He expected Jesus to establish a political kingdom d. He was greedy for money e. Satan entered him LESSON ONE: THE LORDS SUPPERS/ THE LAST SUPPER. LK 22: 7 13 The last supper was the lost Passover meal that Jesus took before his arrest. Passover is celebrated in ----- 220 # obedience to Gods command to Moses. It is a remembrance of Israels deliverance by God from slavery in Egypt. a. The Passover meal Preparations for the Passover, Read Luke 22: 7 23. Peter and John were sent by Jesus to go and prepare the Passover meal. They were to do so in a house in the city. They were taken to the house by, a man who was carrying a vessel of water. They were given a big furnished upper room upstairs. They prepared the Passover meal as instructed by Jesus. Passover meal During the meal with the 12 disciples / apostles Jesus told them that this was going to be his last meal with them before his death. He took a cup of wine gave thanks to God and said Take this and share it among yourselves. I tell you that from now on I will not drink this wine until the Kingdom of God comes. The cup of wine was his blood that he was going to shed for them. Wine therefore symbolized the blood of Jesus, shed for the purification of humankind and forgiveness of sins. This blood is the New Testament and covenant with Christians. After drinking of wine, He took a piece of bread, gave thanks to God and shared it and told them that the piece of bread represented his body which is given for them. He presented his death as a sacrifice whose blood sealed the new covenant. His death replaced the sacrifices of the Old law, those of animals, which sealed the Sinai covenant. The new covenant will be for ----- 221 # all people including Gentiles. This is to fulfil Gods promise of salvation for all people. Jesus and disciples ate Passover together so that henceforth Christians would eat the meal together in remembrance of Jesus. Passover was initially taken to remind them of the deliverance from Egypt. But during the last supper, Jesus gave the Passover a new meaning. As they ate, Jesus foretold of his betrayal by one of his disciple. SAQ. i. Which items were used to celebrate the Passover in the Old Testament? ii. What items do modern Christians use to celebrate the Lords Supper? Comparisons of the Lords Supper and the Passover (a) The Passover commemorates the divine act of redemption of the Jews from their bondage in Egypt while the Last Supper commemorates the deliverance of human kind from sin. (b) The Passover feast reminded the Israelites that they were free, redeemed people while the Lords Suppers is to remind Christians of their forgiveness of sins. The death of Jesus set Christians free from sins. (c) Passover was followed by the Old covenant of Mount Sinai. The Lords suppers is a new covenant based on the death of Jesus for sins of humankind (d) Passover (Old testament) was sealed by the blood of Lambs while New Covenant (Lords suppers) is sealed by the blood of Jesus on the cross. (e) Items for celebrating in Passover (old testament) are different from the cup of wine and pieces of bread used by Jesus to celebrate his last supper with the disciples. ----- 222 # Relevance of the Lords Supper today Christians celebrate the Lords supper. This celebration is called the Eucharist, the Lords suppers, or Lords meal. Christians celebrate it as an act of repentance; through which they receive assurance of forgiveness of their sins. The presence of Jesus becomes a reality when Christians share bread and wine. Bread and wine are symbols of heavenly feast, which Christians will partake in Gods kingdom. The Lords supper is also a sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving to God. It is a time for rededication to Christ and self-renewal. Through the celebration of the Lords supper, Christians anticipate the second coming of Jesus and the establishment of Gods Kingdom. It is also a time to remember the death and resurrection of Jesus and reflect on Gods love for humankind. b. The Argument about Greatness. Read Luke, 22: 24 30 A question arose among the disciples. They wanted to know who among them was the greatest? Jesus told them that they do not belong to the world system of authority given on the basis of wealth and fame. The authority among the disciples will be determined on the basis of their service to others. The greatest is the servant. Jesus likened himself to a servant hence disciples are called to serve. By sharing in trials and sufferings of Jesus, the disciples will share in his ruling power over the new Israel. Leadership in church should be understood in terms of service being a servant of people. In the ----- 223 # community of Christians, all people who are followers of Jesus are all equal. SAQ. In your opinion, which are the signs of greatness in the world? c. Jesus Predicts Peters Denial. Read Luke, 22: 31 38 Jesus told peter that Satan had received permission to test or tempt all the disciples but Jesus had prayed for Peters faith not to fail. Jesus told Peter that he shall deny Jesus three times before the cock crows. Jesus was telling his disciples that they will encounter hostility in their evangelism hence they should be prepared for suffering and opposition because of Him as Isaiah 53:12 says he shared the fate of evil men. Jesus death was imminent inevitable. The disciples were expected to be strong LESSON TWO: PRAYER, ARREST OF JESUS AND DENIAL BY PETER Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you shall: a. Narrate the events that took place at Mount of Olives b. Describe the arrest of Jesus c. Discuss Peters denial of Jesus d. Describe the arrest of Jesus a. Prayer on the Mount of Olives. Read Luke. 22: 39 46 After celebrating the last supper, Jesus went to the Mount of Olives with his disciples to pray to resist temptation. Jesus went ahead of his disciples, knelt down and prayed. Jesus left them to pray by himself. He said Father if you will, take this cup of suffering away from me. ----- 224 # Not my will, however, but your will to be done (42). An angel came to strengthen him. He prayed earnestly, in agony and turmoil great than the physical pain. He sweated great drops of blood. After praying, Jesus found his disciples asleep worn out by their grief vs. 45). Jesus asked them to wake up and pray to avoid temptation. Significance The disciples fell asleep. This was a sign of moral and physical exhaustion. Jesus expressed inner struggle about the fulfillment of his messianic mission. He prayed for Gods help. Christians should always pray to avoid temptation and seek Gods help. b. Betrayal and arrest of Jesus. Read Luke, 22: 47 53 Jesus was arrested by: the chief priest, elders, officers of the temple guard, and a crowd of people as he talked to his disciples. He was taken to the house of the high priest. Judas had identified Jesus with a kiss. Jesus asked Judas him Judas, is it with a kiss that you betray the Son of man? Jewish religious leaders had come to arrest Jesus as they arrested other criminals. Jesus told his disciples not to resist his arrest. He rejected armed resistance refusing the role of a political messiah. Peter followed him from a distance. c. Peters Denies Jesus. Read Luke, 22: 54 65 After Jesus was arrested he was taken to the house of the High Priest. As Peter sat warming himself with others, a maid identified Peter. She said, This man too was with Jesus. Peter denied knowing Jesus ----- 225 # three times. After the third denial, the cock crowed just as Jesus predicted. Jesus turned and looked at Peter who remembered the words of Jesus. Peter went out and wept bitterly (Vs. 62). Weeping was a sign of repentance LESSON THREE: THE TRIALS AND CRUCIFIXION OF JESUS Lesson Outcomes. By the end of this lesson. You should a. Describe trials of Jesus by the various authorities b. Explain the importance of the judgement by Pilate c. Narrate events leading to crucifixion of Jesus a. Trials of Jesus by the various authorities i. Trial by the Sanhedrin Lk.22: 66 71 After being taken to the house of the High Priest, the next morning Jesus was taken to the Jewish religious council or court; called the Sanhedrin. They all asked him if he was the messiah. Jesus told they wouldnt believe whatever he says. But the Son of Man will be seated on the right hand of Almighty God. (Vs. 69). Jesus told them he was the Son of God. The Sanhedrin accused Jesus of blasphemy, a sin punishable by death. ii. Trial before Pilate. Read Luke 23: 1 5 The second court was the Roman court. The judge was Pilate, the Roman Governor. In this court the Sanhedrin accused Jesus of: Inciting people to revolt, and rebelling against Roman authority Forbidding people to pay taxes to the Emperor Claiming to be the king, a Messiah, They could not accuse him of blasphemy before Pilate since this offence was not acceptable under the ----- 226 # Roman law. Pilate asked Jesus if he was the king, Jesus replied, So you say. (vs.3). Pilate found no fault with Jesus so he sent him to Herod. iii. Trial by Herod. Read Luke, 23: 6 12 Herod was in Jerusalem. When Jesus was brought before him, he expected Jesus to perform miracles to impress him. He asked Jesus many questions and Jesus kept quiet. Herod and his soldiers mocked Jesus, and ridiculed him. They put on him royal clothes; then sent Jesus back to Pilate. iv. Jesus is sentenced to Death. Read Luke 23: 13 25 Jesus was brought back to Pilate a second time. Pilate repeated that Jesus was not guilty (innocent) of any crime. Pilate offered to have Jesus beaten and then released. The crowds, leaders and chief priests gave their judgement. Kill him! and release Barabbas, who was a rioter and a murderer. Pilate did not find Jesus guilty. But he did what they wanted. He released Barabbas and handed Jesus over for them to do as they wished (vs. 25). v. The crucifixion of Jesus. Read Luke 22: 26-43 Jesus was led away to be crucified. Solders forced Simon of Cyrene to carry the cross for Jesus. Women followed Jesus and weeping. Jesus told them not to weep for Him but for themselves and their children. Jesus was then crucified at a place called Golgotha (place of skull) or Calvary together with two male criminal; one on His right and the other on His Left. Jesus asked God to forgive them (persecutors) for they did not know what they were doing. ----- 227 # The Jewish leaders, said He saved others; let him save himself if he is the Messiah whom God has chosen (vs. 35); Solders mocked Jesus and said Save yourself if you are the king of Jews and one criminal hanged with Jesus mocked Jesus and told Him Arent you the Messiah? Save yourself and me. The other thief rebuked him saying they deserved the punishment for their deeds but Jesus had done nothing. This thief repented and told Jesus, Remember me, Jesus, when you come as King. Jesus told him that he would be in paradise with Jesus on that day (vs. 42 43). On top of the cross, Jews wrote, This is the King of the Jews (vs. 38). LESSON FOUR: DEATH OF JESUS. Read Luke. 23: 44 50 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, a. Describe the death of Jesus b. Narrate the burial of Jesus c. State relevance of the suffering and death of Jesus to Christian life today a. The death of Jesus. There was darkness from 12 oclock until thee oclock. The veil/curtain of the temple tore into two. Jesus cried out with a loud voice Father, into they hands I commit my spirit. At this shout Jesus died. The Roman centurion saw and praised God. He declared, Certainly this was an innocent man. The multitude that watched the crucifixion and death went home beating their breasts, a sign of repentance. The women, who knew Jesus from Galilee, stood at a distance watching all these things. b. The burial of Jesus. Read Luke 23: 50 56. ----- 228 # Joseph from Arimathea, a town in Judea sought permission from Pilate to bury the body of Jesus. He was waiting for the coming of the Kingdom of God, a likely secret disciple of Jesus. He was a good and honorable man. The body of Jesus was laid in a sepulchre (Tomb) where nobody had ever been laid. Jesus burial in Josephs tomb fulfilled Isaiahs prophecy that the suffering servant of Yahweh was buried in a rich mans tomb (Isaiah 53:9) The Galilean women and Joseph saw where the body of Jesus was laid. They went home, and prepared spices to use to wash Jesus body. They rested on the Sabbath. c. Relevance of the suffering and death of Jesus Christ to Christian life today Christians today should practice or do the following activities. i. Pray in times of sorrow, pain, trials and temptations. iii They should not give up when rejected. iv They should be aware of hypocrites and traitors amongst them. v They should be willing to suffer for the sake of the Kingdom of God. vi They should be ready to fight for a just cause vii They should never condemn the innocent. viii They should go through their suffering bravely. ix They should know and accept suffering as a part of the Christian calling x They should not be afraid of rejection by people l xi They should be encouraged that Jesus suffered for them. d. In which ways can Christians prepare for their death? Death is inevitable. Hence, Christians should at all times: live a holy life, repent sins, forgive those who ----- 229 # have wronged them, make a will, accept death as inevitable, and read the word of God LESSON FIVE: THE RESURRECTION OF JESUS. Read Luke 24: 1 53 a. The Resurrection. Resurrection refers to the event of Jesus rising from the dead After the Sabbath day, on Sunday morning; Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, Salome (Joanna) and other women, went to the tomb with the spices they has prepared. They found the entrance open. The stone covering the tomb was rolled away. The tomb was empty. The body of Jesus was not in the tomb. Suddenly, two men, who were angels, appeared dresses in dazzling and shining clothes. They said Why are you looking among the dead for one who is alive? He is not here; he has been raised. The women went and told the 11 disciples, who did not believe them. Peter ran to the tomb and found it empty. Women were the first to witness the resurrection of Jesus Christ. This is significant as they (women) were empowered to become witnesses of Christ as evangelists beyond the Jewish culture. b. Witnesses of the resurrection of Jesus The disciples en route to Emmaus Two disciples were traveling to Emmaus, which was 11 km from Jerusalem discussing Jesus suffering, death and the empty tomb. Jesus met them but their eyes were blinded and they did not recognize him. ----- 230 # The disciples explained to Jesus the events that had taken place and how they had hoped that Jesus would liberate Israel from the Roman rule. Jesus explained to them the scriptures concerning the messiah. When they got to Emmaus, they invited him to dine with them for it was evening. When Jesus, took the bread and said the blessings; then he broke the bread and gave it to them, the disciples recognized Jesus but he vanished out of their sight (vs. 30-31). They returned to Jerusalem and told the 11 disciples that Jesus has risen. c. Jesus appears to his Disciples. Read Luke 24: 36 49. As the two disciples explained the event that happened on the journey to Emmaus, Jesus came and said to them Peace be with you (vs. 36). Disciples were terrified and frightened. He asked them to look and touch his hands, and feet. He was not a ghost. He has flesh and bones unlike ghosts, which do not have. He explained to the apostles his mission, which was prophesied by prophets, and written in the Law of Moses, and Psalms (v.44). He commissioned the disciples to preach repentance and remission of sins and be his witnesses. He also promised to send them the promise of the father (Holy Spirit) SAQ. What was the nature of the resurrected body of Jesus? d. The ascension of Jesus, Luke, 24: 50 53 From Jerusalem, Jesus took his disciples to Bethany, a town outside Jerusalem. He lifted his hands and blessed them. As he blessed them, he was lifted up and carried to heaven. ----- 231 # The disciples worshipped him and returned to Jerusalem with great joy. They continued to go to the temple to praise and give thanks to God. The disciples were now confident about their mission and who Jesus was e. The importance of the resurrection of Jesus to Christian Resurrection is the foundation of Christian faith. Christianity is based on the fact that Jesus resurrected and was taken up to heaven. Further to this: 1. Resurrection proved that Jesus is the Son of God. 2. Through resurrection, Christians have hope of eternal life 3. Through resurrections, Christians are assured of a new life in Christ 4. Sin and death were conquered by resurrection, giving hope of victory to Christians over death and sin. 5. Resurrection is a fulfillment of the writings of the prophets. It fulfilled Old Testament prophesies by Moses, Elijah, Elisha and others. 6. It is a proof that there is life after death. 7. Through resurrection, man was reconciled to God. 8. Jesus has power over death, over Satan and his Kingdom of darkness 9. It led to the coming of the Holy Spirit. Revision questions a. Give the different names used in reference to the lords supper by Christians in different churches b. Describe the institution of the lords supper c, State the Christian teaching about the lords supper d. What is the meaning of the lords supper to Christians? e. Compare the Passover feast with the practice of the lords supper f. Describe the prayer on mount olives g. Describe the betrayal and arrest of Jesus h. State the reasons that made Judas Iscariot to betray Jesus ----- 232 # i. Describe the trial of Jesus under the following headings:- the council of Sanhedrin, the trial before Pilate, the trial before Herod and Pilates judgement. j. Why do you think Pilate agreed to have Jesus crucified? k. Identify and explain the lessons that Christians learn from the actions of Pilate during the trial of Jesus l. Actions taken by the Jewish leaders to ensure that Jesus was put to death m. Explain the crucifixion of Jesus n. Describe the death of Jesus o. The burial of Jesus p. Define the term resurrection q. Describe the four witnesses of the risen Christ r. Describe Jesus appearance to the disciples s. Describe the ascension of Jesus t. Give five evidences from the bible to show that Jesus rose from the dead u. Explain the significance of passion, death and the resurrection of Christ v. What is the significance of Jesus resurrection to Christians today w. Explain five importance of eulogy of death of the society. Revision question and answers OLD TESTAMENT PROPHESIES ABOUT THE COMING OF THE MESSIAH Lesson one: 1. The prophecy of Jeremiah about the Messiah a) He shall be a descendant of David b) He shall be a king c) He shall prosper d) He shall execute judgment and justice e) He shall ensure Judah/Israel is safe and lives in peace ----- 233 # f) He shall be called the lord our righteousness 2. Meaning of Messiah mean? Messiah is a Hebrew word Meshiach which means the anointed one. It is equivalent to Christ, a Greek word, which also means the Anointed one. A Messiah is therefore someone called, anointed and appointed by God to serve Him in a special way. In the Old Testament, the Priests and Kings were the only people who were anointed. When a person is anointed oil is poured on them. The anointed person was set aside from the rest of the people in order to serve God and His people. Examples of anointed people are Aaron (Priest) and King David. In addition, God himself anointed Prophets: for example, Samuel, Elijah, Jeremiah, and Nathan among others. 3. Jewish expectations of the Messiah in the Old Testament The messiah shall be a political leader, a victorious ruler, a king to lead people to a time of great power and prosperity, a king in whose reign there shall be no sorrow or injustice nor fear, a king to rule forever 4. How Jesus Christ fulfilled the Old Testament prophetic of the messiah a) He was born from the lineage of David b) He was born of Mary, a virgin as foretold by Isaiah c) The messiah was called Immanuel (Jesus) Isaiah prophecy d) He was born in Bethlehem Micahs prophecy e) He was referred to as son of David Nathan/Jeremiah/s prophesies f) He suffered suffering servant prophecy by Isaiah 5. Prophets in the Old Testament who prophesied about the expected Messiah Isaiah, Nathan, Jeremiah, Micah and psalmist prophecy. ----- 234 # Answers. Qn 1. The qualities of john as described by angel Gabriel a. He would be a prophet of god b. He would prepare the way for the messiah c. He would bring joy to Zachariah and others d. He would be a nazarite e. He would call people to repentance Qn 2. Why john was referred to as the second Elijah Like Elijah john had also lived in the wilderness John was also filled with the holy spirit and proclaimed gods message to the people He also met opposition from the king just like Elijah He was beheaded and Elijah was threatened with death by jezebel He stood firmly for the covenant way of life He was a great prophet of his time He led a simple life and faced many problems like hunger just like Elijah Qn 3. What lessons do Christians learn from annunciation of the birth of john the Baptist? God answers prayers however long it may take Christians should not doubt Gods messages We should be persistent, faithful and patient in prayers Christians should be devoted to God in prayer Children are a gift from God and a source of joy to their parents God has a purpose for every childs life Qn 4. Describe the birth of john the Baptist Elizabeth was very happy and so was Zachariah John was circumcised after eight days in accordance with the Jewish customs Elizabeth named the child john ----- 235 # Zachariah affirmed the name of their son in writing They were surprised at the name because it was not in Zechariahs lineage Zechariah was now able to talk He broke into a hymn called the Benedictus Zechariah expressed his feelings of joy, gratitude and praise Zechariah told of the mission of his son. TOPIC TWO: INFANCY AND EARLY LIFE OF JESUS Qn 1. What lessons can Christians learn from the annunciation of the birth of Jesus Christ? God exalts the humble and rejects the proud Christians should humbly accept gods plan for their lives God has a purpose for the life of every one Nothing is impossible with god God wanted Jesus Christ to be part of the human family for him to identify with the human race Qn2. describe Marys visit to Elizabeth Mary went to visit Elizabeth after angel Gabriel told her that Elizabeth was expecting a baby Mary greeted Elizabeth and the baby in the Elizabeths womb leapt with joy The spirit also revealed that Mary was the most blessed of all women Mary sang a song known as the magnificent Qn3. identify the main ideas in the magnificent Mary thanks god for Being good to her His goodness and love for all human beings Fulfilling his promises to the people Delivering the oppressed from the oppressors Qn 4. Describe the dedication ceremony during the infancy of Jesus ----- 236 # The parents of Jesus offered the purification sacrifices according to the law of Moses Simon was moved by the holy spirit and took Jesus into his arm and praised God Simon prophesied about the mission of Jesus Prophetess Ann thanked God for sending Jesus who would bring redemption The things Simon and Anne said about their child amazed the parents of Jesus. TOPIC TWO: THE GALILEAN MINISTRY Qn a. What is the relevance of John the Baptist teachings to Christians today? Christians should not fear to condemn the evils in the society Christians should commit their lives wholly to the work of God Christians should accept their role with humility and preach the gospel Christians should be ready to proclaim the gospel even harsh environment for the people to know God Christians should share their resources with the less fortunate Christians should be contended with their pay and thus not accept bribes Christians should learn to be truthful in their work environment Christians should pronounce the consequences of judgement to those willing to repent Qn b. Give reasons why Jesus accepted to be baptized To be identified as the messiah To identify himself with the sinful human kind To receive the Holy Spirit For God to manifest the trinity It was a cleansing ritual To acknowledge the work of John the Baptist ----- 237 # He saw it as a way of fulfilling the old testament prophesies about the Messiah It was his final acceptance of the work of salvation Qn c. describe the baptism of Jesus When all the people were baptized Jesus was also baptized He was baptized by John the Baptist in river Jordan at a place called Bethbora Jesus was praying when the heavens opened The holy spirit descended from heaven upon him inform of a dove A voice came from heaven saying thou art my beloved son with thee I am well pleased Qn d. what is the significance of the baptism of Jesus to Christians today? Christians get new names that symbolizes new life in Christ Christians receive the Holy Spirit who gives them guidance in their lives Christians identify themselves with Jesus and the church Water is symbolically used as a cleanser as it wipes away ones sins and gives a new life Christians are brought together as members of the church of Christ During baptism Christians receive the Holy Spirit who guides them in their lives The old self dies and becomes a new person as a Christian It is the first step of being accepted into the Christian brotherhood LESSON THREE: TEMPTATIONS Qn a. describe the temptations of Jesus Satan told Jesus to turn stones into bread Jesus answered that man does not live on bread alone Satan then took Jesus to a high place and showed him all the kingdoms of the world. Satan promised to give Jesus everything if Jesus worshipped him Jesus answered that one should worship God and serve him alone ----- 238 # Hastily, satin took Jesus to the pinnacle of the temple. He asked Jesus to throw himself down since God would send his angles to ensure that he did not get hurt. Jesus answered that no one should tempt God Qn b. from the gospel of St. Luke, identify five occasions when Jesus was tempted In the wilderness When he healed a dumb man the commanded a sign Jesus was tempted to arbitrate between two brothers When the rich young ruler called Jesus a good teacher When he was asked whether it was right to pay taxes to Caesar In the garden of Gethsemane, he was tempted to escape the cup of suffering During his trial he was asked whether he was the Messiah During crucifixion he was spat on but did not fight back On the cross one of the thieves wanted him to deliver them He was questioned by the Sadducees about resurrection Qn c. Outline ways in which Christians can overcome temptations in the contemporary world They should depend on Jesus They should be well versed with the scripture so that they can refer to the bible They should seek guidance and counseling They should attend bible classes for the right interpretation of the bible They should have faith or believe in God to help them during trials They should avoid bad company The should take part in active leisure They should avoid circumstances that can lead them to sin They should resist Satan ----- 239 # Qn d. Explain ways in which Christians can be tempted To give a bribe in order to get a job To engage in irresponsible sexual behaviour due to peer pressure To steal money entrusted to them To cheat in examinations To take drugs/alcohol To exploit those who serve under them in their places of work To keep excess change from a shopkeeper or tout To show off Qn e. What lessons can Christians learn fro the temptations of Jesus? Since Jesus was tempted, he fully understands our difficulties God does not tempt us beyond our strength Through temptations we will also be tempted Through temptations and trials our faith is strengthened When we are tempted we should turn to the bible for guidance We should seek the holy spirit who enabled Jesus to conquer evil LESSON EIGHT: THESERMON ON THE PLAIN: 1. Give the main teachings of Jesus on the sermon on the plain The sermon on the plain consisted of five main parts namely: Blessings (Lk 6: 20 26) and woes These are also referred to as the beatitudes. Here, Jesus had a message for the poor, the rich, those who hunger and those who are full, those who weep and those who laugh. His concern is to show the social differences and mystery of Christian suffering. Persecution seems to be a common phenomenon for followers of Christ. The poor are those who cannot meet their basic needs and Luke depicts them as hungry and weeping. ----- 240 # The disciples are included in the poor because they have given up everything. But Jesus gives hope. Jesus warns the rich against using their economic points to oppress the poor. They have an opportunity, however to belong to the Kingdom by using their riches to help the needy. Love of Enemies: (6:27-37) Followers of Jesus are supposed to Love your enemies, do good to those who hate, bless those who curse you, and pray for those who abuse you. Judging Others (6:37-43) Disciples are expected to acknowledge their own shortcomings before they can condemn the faults in others. Failure to recognize ones fault is a hindrance to becoming a member of the Kingdom of God. Evidence to Good Discipleship The proof of a persons goodness is seen in his deeds. The true nature of a person cannot be hidden because what they do and say will reveal their nature. Hearing and Doing (6: 47-49) It is not enough for His followers to proclaim Christ as Lord. They must also do what He tells them. Q2. What is the relevance of the (beatitudes) sermon on the plain to Christians today? The teachings on blessings and woes tell us that the goal of a person should be to inherit the Kingdom of God. Christians should love their enemies as Jesus loved them sinful as they were. Human beings are self-centered. It is easier to see other peoples mistakes than our own Christian ----- 241 # should examine them before passing judgement on others. By so doing we appreciate that we are all sinners who should seek forgiveness from God and we should always appreciate others however sinful they may be. Be steadfast in faith and do good all the time. LESSION 9: JESUS WORKS OF COMPASSION Q2 Narrate the story of the forgiveness of the sinful woman (Lk 7:36-8:3) On one occasion, Jesus was invited by Simon the Pharisee to his house to eat with him. While this is a sinful woman walked into the house weeping. She began to wet Jesus feet with her tears and wiped them with her hair. She kissed his feet and anointed them with an ointment. When Simon saw this, he questioned Jesus power. If he were a prophet, He would have noticed that the woman was a sinner. And Jesus answered him the telling him about a certain creditor who has two debtors, one owed him hundred denarii and the other fifty. When asked Simon which of the two debtors would love the creditors more. Simon said the one who was forgiven more. Jesus said you have judged rightly. Then he had not given Him even water to wash His feet. But the woman used her tears to wet Jesus feet and wiped them using her hair and oiled them. Therefore her sins, which are many, are forgiven for she loved much, one with little love receives little more. ----- 242 # Jesus told Simon he gave him no kiss but the woman had not stopped kissing Him. Those at table began to ask who Jesus was who ever forgiven sins? And He said to the woman, Your faith has saved you, go in peace. Q3. What lessons do Christians learn from the above story? Christians should accept their sins and seek for forgiveness as the sinful woman did. Faith is important for one to be forgiven. Jesus told the woman Your faith has save you. A repentant sinner is greater than a righteous man (the Jewish religious leaders). It is not the magnitude of sin that matters but the attitude of a person towards his sins. Shows the importance of women in the ministry of Jesus. Q4. Describe the story of the raising of the widows son at Nain (Lk 7:11- 17) After His preaching in Capernaum, Jesus went to the city of Nain. He found a man being carried out near the gate. He was the only son of a widow. When the Lord saw her, He had compassionate on her and said to her, Do not weep. Then He came and touched the open coffin. And those who carried him stood still. Jesus said, Young man, arise. And he who was dead sat up and began to speak. Jesus presented him to his mother. Then fear came among all and they glorified God. They said a great prophet has come among us. God has visited His people. ----- 243 # LESSON 10: JESUS TEACHING WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF PARABLES? 1. Give reasons why Jesus used parables To attract the attention of his listeners To help his listeners understand better To separate the serious people from the onlookers To enrich his teachings To avoid direct confrontation with his enemies It was a common way of teaching those days To teach about Gods mercy to sinners To make people think critically out issues concerning Gods kingdom To relate patent issues with those of the future kingdom positively Qn 2. Identify various methods used by Christians in spreading the gospel today Preaching Teaching Being role models Holding crusades Organizing seminars and conferences Electronic mechanisms e.g. sms and emails Print media e.g. posters and magazines Door to door evangelism Through demonstration and role play Through the mass media e.g. radios and TVs Through Christian music e.g. cassettes and C.Ds Qn 3. Discuss the reasons why Jesus faced opposition from the Jewish leaders His popularity His interpretation of the Sabbath His failure to observe the law of fasting ----- 244 # He associated with tax collectors He claimed to be the messiah He out rightly condemned them Teaching with authority His claims to forgive sins. . LESSON 11: MIGHTY WORKS OF JESUS Q1 Narrate the healing of the Gerasene demoniac Lk 8:26-39. After crossing the Sea of Galilee, Jesus came across a demon possessed man in a gentile town called Gerasa. The man had been living in the caves used for burial of the dead. He wore no clothes. When the man saw Jesus, he asked Him not to torment him. When Jesus asked him what his name was, he responded that he was called Legion which stands for 2000 6000 soldiers. This meant that this man possessed by many demons. Jesus had sympathy and ordered the unclean spirits to leave him. Jesus let the evil spirits to go to the pigs, which were grazing nearby. They then fell into the lake and drowned. Q2. What lesson can Christian learn from the healing of the demoniac man above? Jesus valued human life. That is why He led the evil/spirits into the pigs, which drowned into the lake and saved the man. It shows Jesus came for all regardless of tribe. This man was a gentile. Jesus heals the whole person physically and spiritually. That Jesus has power over evil spirits. Shows that Jesus came to destroy the power of evil. ----- 245 # It teaches that Christians have to fight the power of evil constantly. But with Jesus help they will overcome it. God will never allow them to be defeated. He will come to their aid, however, much. They should give out their material possession to save those in need. This man needed help. They should tell their people about God as this man went to in his village etc. Q3. What do the miracle of Jesus teach us about Him? They show that Jesus is the Son of God. That Jesus gets power from God. That Jesus shares his power with His disciples. The miracles show Jesus compassion to suffering people e.g. the raising of the widows son. They also show that Jesus is Lord. He is the life and the resurrection. That affirms that Jesus came to save man from sin. They show that Jesus is a universal savior e.g. the Gesarone demoniac who was a gentile. They were part of His teaching they helped Him teach. Through them He showed the concern for human life, physically, spiritually and mentally. LESSON 12: COMMISSIONING OF THE TWELVE DISCIPLES (LK 1:1-10) Q1. What is the role of the clergy in Kenya? To preach the word of God. To advise the leaders. To warn evildoers against their sins. To condemn evil. Pray for the needy. ----- 246 # Help the needy e.g. give them food, shelter etc. Hold seminars/workshops where they lead people into forgiveness. Being a good example for emulation. Q2. How does the church participate in the upkeep of the clergy? By giving sadaka. By giving of their income. They pay for their training. Fundraisings for building theological institutions. Building their residential houses in the church compound. Giving matega foodstuffs as part of sadaka during service. LESSON 13: THE TRANSFIGURATION Q2. Describe the transfiguration of Jesus (Luke 9:28-37) Jesus needed encouragement and reassurance that what He was about to do was the will of His Father. Therefore He took with Him Peter, James and John and went to Mount Hermon to pray. As He prayed, His appearance was changed and His face became dazzling white. Two men, Elijah & Moses appeared and talked of His departure (death), which He was to accomplish in Jerusalem. The disciples were asleep as this happened. When they woke up, they saw glory and the two men who stood with Him. And as the men were parting form Him, Peter said to Jesus, Master, it is well that we are here, Let us make booths, one for you, one for Elijah and one for Moses. As he said this, a cloud cursed the whole area and they were afraid. ----- 247 # A voice came out of the cloud saying, this is my only son, my chosen, Listen to Him. Q3. What is the significance of the transfiguration of Jesus (Lk 9:28-37)? A voice from heaven confirmed that Jesus was the Son of God. It strengthened the faith of the disciples so that they would continue with His work after death. It showed that Jesus had fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies and God. This is seen with the appearance of Elijah and Moses. The cloud was a symbol of Gods presence. It was a sign that Jesus mission was no longer a secret. It marked the onset of His passion, which would lead to His death. It confirmed to Jesus that He was doing the right thing and God was in support of His suffering. It shows that faith in prayer can lead us to Gods presence. TOPIC FOUR: THE JOURNEY TO JERUSALEM LESSON 1: DUTIES, PRIVILEGES AND COST OF DISCIPLESHIP Q1. What are the characteristics of a true follower of Jesus? Following Jesus means accepting homelessness and enduring hardship because Jesus did not have a permanent home. Being a disciple of Jesus means self-denial and suffering. Being ready to give e.g. to the needy. To spread Christianity and make Jesus known. Following Jesus means being loyal to Him. Q2. State the privileges of being a disciple of Jesus One becomes a member of the Kingdom of God. One is assured of eternal life. ----- 248 # He has the joy of winning others to the Kingdom of God through preaching. Q3 Why did Jesus choose the 12 disciples? In order to help Him in the work of spreading the good news. So as to belong to the Kingdom of God and get eternal life. To witness to his work. To share with them the power of God e.g. in performing miracles. For company as He worked. A COMMITED FOLLOWER OF JESUS Lk 10:25 11:1-13 (Note: Not the parable of the Samaritans) Q1. From the teaching of Jesus on the parable of the Good Samaritan, who do you think is a committed follower of Jesus? One who understands the law and obeys it. One who understands that a neighbor is anybody who requires help regardless of their social status One who uses his resources selflessly to help the needy One who is not restricted by cultural and religious practices in responding to a needy situation One who is compassionate, kind and generous One who shows solidarity with the suffering. This includes identifying with the needy and being ready to experience their suffering. LESSON 3: JESUS TEACHING ON PRAYER Q1. What did Jesus teach about prayer? Jesus taught that prayer must be persistent, use the parable of Friend at Midnight. Prayer should be done in a private place. It should be genuine. ----- 249 # One should not be proud when praying e.g. the parable of the tax collector and the Pharisee. One should have faith during prayer. One should pray always/continuously. There is no formula in prayer. One should address God as a father. Honestly confess sin as they pray. Qs 1 & 2 are out of topic. LESSON 5: JESUS TEACHINGS ON HYPOCRISY, WEALTH, WATCHFULNESS AND READINESS Q1. Hypocrisy In what areas were the Pharisees hypocritical? In the washing of hands, cups and dishes which were done ceremoniously. The Pharisees were too strict on this, which was not important. He told them to pay attention to issues of charity than external appearance. Tithing habits They paid this well for the support of priests but neglected justice and love for God. He criticized them for recognition in the synagogues by taking reserved seats and their desire to be noticed at market places by wearing long white robes. He accused them of being like their ancestors who persecuted the prophets of God. LESSON 6: (Lesson 6 will come later) AKUKA FIND THEY ARE IN THE TEXT LESSON 7: JESUS TEACHINGS ON WEALTH AND POVERTY Read Lk: 11:13-34 : Parable of the rich fool Q1. From the parable of the rich fool, what can Christians learn about the use of wealth? Material wealth should come second after God. We should try to help the poor. ----- 250 # It teaches that wealth comes from God. Wealth should not be misused e.g. in drinking, etc. We should thank God for wealth received. It can make Christians to forget God. Q2. Narrate the parable of the shrewd manager Jesus taught the following parable about a rich man and his servant. A rich man wanted to sack his manager. He called the manager and asked him for a full account of how the property was being managed. The manager knew he was going to be sacked. He made friends with some of his masters debtors so that they would take care of him if he got sacked. One debtor who owed 100 barrels of olive oil was asked to pay 50 barrels and one who owed 1000 was asked to pay 800 barrels. The master praised him for being wise and acting property in his moment of crisis. LESSION 8: TEACHING ON FORGIVENESS What were the teachings of Jesus on forgiveness? Jesus taught that one should forgive and forget All sins are equal before the eyes of God. One ought to ask for forgiveness after he has wronged. One should forgive as many times as he is offended. One should have faith when asking for forgiveness. PERSISTENT IN PRAYER Q1. State the parable of the widow and the unjust judge 18: 1-8 Jesus told the Pharisees a parable to the effect that they ought always to pray and not lose heart. In a certain city there was a judge who neither feared God nor regarded man. ----- 251 # And there was a widow in that city which kept coming to him and wanted her right given. For a while he refused, but afterwards he said to himself, though I neither fear God nor regard man, yet because this widow bothers me, I will allow her set her right or she will wear me out by her continual coming. And the Lord said, Hear what the unrighteous judge says, and will he not vindicate His elect who cry to Him day and night? Will he delay long over them, I, you, He will vindicate them speedily. LESSON 10: THE WAY TO SALVATION Lk 18: 15 19 Q1: What did Jesus teach by using the example of little children? Jesus said, Let little children come to me because the kingdom of God belongs to such as them. He went on to tell them that for one to enter Gods kingdom, he must humble himself like children. This is because children are powerless, innocent and open. Jesus taught that the kingdom of God is for those who are simple, humble, innocent and trusting like children. Q2. Give an account of how Jesus healed the blind beggar (18:35-43) A blind man recognized Jesus as the messiah. The blind man asked Jesus to heal him. He received his sight because of his faith. He followed Jesus, giving thanks to God. To receive salvation one needs to be bold and determined. We should seek Christ to heal our physical and spiritual blindness. Q3. Explain the relevance of Jesus teaching on salvation to Christians ----- 252 # Christians learn that they need to repent their sins and seek forgiveness in order to receive salvation and eternal life. They need to humble themselves like children in order to earn salvation. They learn to obey the commandments of God so as to receive salvation. Use their abilities to glorify God e.g. the rich mans parable. They too learn that wealth can be a hindrance to salvation. They learn that salvation is given to all by God. TOPIC FIVE: THE JERUSALEM MINISTRY Qn a. describe Jesus triumphant entry into Jerusalem according to Luke chapter 19: 29-30 After his journey from Galilee ended, Jesus approached Jerusalem passing through Bethaphage, Bethany and the mount olives He sent two of his disciples to a village to get him a donkey on which nobody had ridden He gave the disciples instructions that if the owner of the donkey demanded to know why they were untying it, they were to respond, The lord has need for it When they got the donkey, they threw their garments on it and helped Jesus to sit on it As Jesus rode along, they spread their garments on the road The crowds following him rejoiced and praised God for all the wonderful work Jesus had done this included: teaching, healing and feeding the hungry The crowds sang, Blessed is the king who comes in the name of the lord. Peace in heaven and glory in the highest. By singing, the crowds acclaimed Jesus as king. ----- 253 # The Pharisees objected to the crowds singing and asked Jesus to silence them Jesus responded that if his followers were silent, the very stones would cry out. Insensitive than stones not to know what was happening, that is, the Messiah has come Qn b. what does the manner of Jesus entry into Jerusalem reveal about the nature of the kingdom of God? Jesus was a descendant of David, prophesied Messiah and son of God Jesus is a triumphant, victorious yet a humble king. A donkey is a symbol of humility and peace. So he came to establish a peaceful kingdom Jesus wanted to proclaim the coming of his kingdom but not as an earthly/ military leader, thus leading them to lay their garments for him to step on. In doing this, they were acknowledging Jesus as Jerusalems promised king Jesus was greeted as a king the same way the kings of Israel were greeted with acclamation and joy By riding on a donkey, Jesus fulfilled the prophesy of Zechariah which says, the king is coming riding on a donkey triumphant, humble and victorious Christianity is not propagated through violent means but peace Qn c. what lessons can Christians learn fro Jesus triumphant entry into Jerusalem? Christians learn that they should be prepared to receive Jesus into their lives like the crowd which escorted him to Jerusalem Christians also learn that they should emulate Jesus and be channels of peace in their communities ----- 254 # They also learn that they should expect opposition and resistance as they witness to Christ. They should not give up hope Christians learn that they should be humble like Jesus in their service to others Christians should thank and praise God for his intervention in their lives by sending Jesus They should be bold in their witnessing to Christ like the crowds that followed Jesus to Jerusalem and declared him king Qn d. state and explain why Jesus wept over Jerusalem. When Jesus came close to the city of Jerusalem he wept over it saying, If you only knew what is needed for peace! But now you cannot see it! The time will come when your enemies will surround you with barricades block you and close in on you from every side. They will completely destroy you and the people within your walls, not a single stone will they leave in its place because you did not recognize the time when God came to save you. According to Luke, all song and rejoicing stopped suddenly when Jesus was deeply distressed at the sight of Jerusalem Jesus knew that Jerusalem (the city of peace) would reject his final appeal and by so doing would bring judgement down on itself. The destruction of the city is viewed as the consequence of its rejection of Jesus. They cannot see when the true peace comes in the person of Jesus. The coming destruction is a ----- 255 # symbol of Gods judgement on lack of trust. The tears of Jerusalem are the tears of tragedy. The heart of the tragedy is that Jerusalem did not recognize the time when God came to save them Now Jesus says that Jerusalem was not ready to receive him as their savior and this would lead to her ruin Just like the Babylonians were Gods instrument of destruction of Jerusalem during the time of Jeremiah, so will the Romans be instruments of destruction of Jerusalem Jerusalem was completely destroyed by the Roman armies in the year A.D 70 Qn e. Explain the cleansing of the temple. While in Jerusalem, Jesus entered the temple where he found people buying and selling He drove them out and overturned their tables saying that they had turned his fathers house into a den of robbers Here Luke uses this incidence to show how Jerusalem was still unprepared for the day of Gods visit Jesus carried out a symbolic act by driving out those who were buying and selling in the temple Jesus used the words of Jeremiah who too attacked the in his time for turning the temple into a hideout for thieves According to Jesus the temple will no longer give them the sense of security because it will be destroyed Although the temple will be destroyed, a new one will be built. This is the Christian community, which ----- 256 # will be a house o prayer for all nations. The new temple will not be limited to Jesus alone but to all people In short Jesus is the Messiah. He exposed the unrighteousness of public life in Jerusalem by attacking the merchants in the temple Qn f. Give reasons why Jesus cleansed the temple of Jerusalem The temple authorities had allowed a market in the court of the gentiles where the everyday money issued by the Roman government could be exchanged for the special temple coins which had to be used for paying the temple tax In the same place they could also buy the animals needed for sacrifice. This animals had to be certified as acceptable But both the changing of money and the certifying of animals gave ample opportunity for making exorbitant profits Jesus made his protest because all this trading was hiding for the real purpose of the temple and prevented Israel from being a light to the gentiles. For this reason, the temple would be destroyed because it was no longer serving as a house of prayer. Qn g. what lessons can Christians learn from the cleansing of the temple? Christians learn that they should respect the house of God and use it appropriately Christian leaders should avoid exploiting members through asking for excessive contributions Christians should pay more attention to inward righteousness than external observance of rituals ----- 257 # Christians should have more courage like Jesus to condemn evil practices by leaders in the church and society Christians should be exemplary with their life styles so as to win others to the kingdom Finally the cleansing of the temple by Jesus provides valuable lesson to Christians who are called upon to be Christs ambassadors. There are many incidents where churches have been subjected to disrespect and dishonor and this discourages many people from knowing God. Christians should also avoid leadership wrangles, corruption, sexual abuse, gossip and many others that have caused churches to split Qn h. explain Jesus conflict with the Jewish leaders In a series of conflicts in and around the temple between Jesus and the official leaders of the Jewish nation, the public ministry of Jesus came to its close After the cleansing the temple, he daily dominated the temple area teaching large crowds. His popularity grew steadily and the leaders felt the threat against their own position. They could not allow this to go on but they were afraid to arrest Jesus. In the end they tried to trap him into making statements which would either get him into trouble with the Roman authorities or discredit him before the people First Jesus was challenged about his authority. The Jewish religious leaders wondered whose authority ----- 258 # Jesus used. They wanted to know which Rabii taught him or to which Jewish religious groups he belonged to i.e. the Pharisees or the Sadducees If Jesus proclaimed himself as the Messiah he could be accused before the Roman authorities for rebellion If he refused to make his claim the crowds would soon leave him alone But Jesus skillfully defeated his adversaries. He invited them to answer their own question. Tell me, did Johns right to baptize come from God or human beings? Whatever answer they gave to Jesus question about John the Baptist would apply in even stronger measures to their own question about Jesus But they had never supported John and they could no now admit that his right to baptize came from God If they did they would also have to accept Jesus whom John had announced. Neither could they say John was a prophet for that would bring trouble from the people who held John in high self-esteem Qn i. Describe the parable of the tenants in the vineyard After the question of Jesus authority, Jesus challenged the Jewish leaders by telling them the parable of the wicked tenants. He said that there was once a man who planted a vineyard, let it to the tenants and then left home for a long time When the time came to gather the grapes, he sent a slave to the tenants to receive from them his share of the harvest but the tenants beat the slaves and sent him back without a thing. The same ----- 259 # treatment was given to the second and the third slave The owner decided to send his own son whom they killed. He therefore decided to come by himself, killed the tenants and handed over the vineyard to other men When the people heard this they said, surely not but Jesus explained to them the stone which the builders rejected as worthless turned out to be the most important of all. And every one who falls on the stone will be cut to pieces and if that stone falls on someone, it will crush him to dust In this parable, the vineyard represents Gods kingdom, Israel. The servants are the prophets sent to Israel and they are rejected. The son here represents Jesus and the owner is God who will bring judgement on Israel The stone that the builders rejected has become the cornerstone this shows that Jesus saw himself as the rejected but most important. He makes a new foundation of Israel for both Jews and Gentiles. On hearing this, the Pharisees wanted to seize Jesus but were afraid of the people Qn j. what is the relevance of the parable of the tenants? Over the centuries the situation has not changed. Jesus is still rejected by nations and by men What happened to Jesus happened as he foretold those who follow him Church history reveals many examples of men rejected by political and religious leaders and by the people their time and who have later been seen as the key man in the revelation of Gods purpose ----- 260 # As Christians we should also pray for strength and guidance from God to be able to deal with rejection As Christians we should not fear rejection but stand firm for the truth Christians should also seek pastoral counseling fro the church leaders and other Christians. When we endure persecution we may be finally proved right Qn k. the question about paying taxes The teachers of law and the chief priest, after falling to arrest Jesus bribed some spies to ask whether it was right for the to pay taxes to Caesar or not The Israelites were compelled to pay taxes to the Romans who controlled them Many resented this because according to them payment of taxes using coins which had some emperors image was a violation of the Jewish law which forbade the use of images If Jesus would tell them to pay, the people would be against him for supporting Roman rule over them Many resented this because according to them people would be against him for supporting Roman rule over them If he told them not to pay, they would accuse him to the Roman authorities Jesus knew their trick and wanted his questioners to make their own decision about the issue According to him it was right for the Roman government to exert the tax payments without demeaning Gods authority In other words, by having the silver coin in their possession, the Jews accepted Roman authority ----- 261 # They had a duty to pay tax to the emperor because they enjoyed the benefit of the Roman rule At the same time they had a duty to be loyal to God. A persons loyalty should not be owed to the state or Caesar Qn l. explain the question about resurrection The Sadducees raised the question concerning marriage an resurrection or life after death They asked Jesus whose wife a woman would be in the resurrection when she married seven brothers who had died without bearing children The question was meant or designed to make Jesus look foolish thus to shame him. This would undermine the popular support that we had prevented action against Jesus In his response, Jesus made the following observations He does not accept the assumption that marriage continues after resurrection Quoting from exodus a book that the Sadducees accepted, Jesus confirms that there is life after death The resurrection life is different from earthly life It is a new existence where those who resurrect, live with God as his children in eternity Qn m. what is eschatology? The term eschatology is derived from two Greek words Eschatus and Lagos, which means end and study respectively Eschatology therefore is the study of the last things such as death, judgement, life after death and th end of the world ----- 262 # Jesus talked about the end of the world to his disciples just before he was arrested Qn n. what will happen at the end of the world (eschatology) according to Jesus teaching in Lukes gospel 21: 5-38? Jesus taught hi disciples about the end times in the temple of Jerusalem In his speech, he talked about what will happen to the city of Jerusalem and the world at the end of time Jerusalem was going to be destroyed because of her refusal to recognize and accept the Messiah Jesus told the disciples of the signs that would accompany the end of the world People come claiming to be Jesus the Messiah, the son of God There will be wars between nations Natural calamities like earthquakes, famines and plagues will occur Strange heavenly beings will come from the sky There will be disruption in the sky and in the sea All nations will be in despair People will faint from fear as they witness these signs At the end of all these, the son of man will appear in power and glory Jesus teaching of the end times was meant to provide encouragement to the disciples in difficult times They were expected to have hope Qn o. how do Christians prepare for the second coming of Christ? Christians should prepare for the second coming of Christ by not losing hope in the face of trials and tribulations because the kingdom of God with its promises of a new life will definitely come ----- 263 # They prepare for his second coming by leading a righteous life. They are to avoid too much feasting and drinking They should prepare by being watchful through prayers so that God will give them courage and strength to stand firm in their faith They should prepare by preaching the word of God to those who have not heard it They should prepare by being obedient to Gods commandments They should prepare by helping the needy They should prepare by preaching and evangelizing and converting others TOPIC SIX: THE PASSION, DEATH AND RESURRECTION OF JESUS CHRIST THE LORDS SUPPER Qn a. give the different names used in reference to the Lords Supper by Christians in different churches The holy Eucharist The mass The lords table or the table of the lord The Holy Communion The Last Supper The breaking of bread The sacrament Qn b. describe the institution of the Lords Supper Jesus was at the last supper with his disciples the night he was betrayed In the room which had been arranged by Jesus. He told his disciples how much he had longed to eat the Passover meal with them before he suffered death ----- 264 # He took a piece of bread and gave thanks to God and broke it. He gave it to them saying, this is my body which is given for you. So do this in memory of me He took a cup of wine and gave thanks to God and said take this and share it among yourselves He also gave them a cup of wine after supper saying this cup is Gods new covenant sealed with my blood which is poured out for you Qn c. state the Christian teachings about the Lords Supper The Last Supper was inaugurated by Jesus Its celebration of the crucified and rise Christ The Lords Supper is a gift from God It is a sacrifice of praise and thanks giving It is the churchs effective proclamation of Gods mighty works acts and promises It is a sign of the unity of the church or the believers It is a new paschal meal of the church. The meal, which by visible signs communicates Gods love in Jesus Christ. It is the sacrament of Christs real presence The bread is a symbol of the body of Christ which was crucified The wine or cup is a symbol of his blood, which was shed. It is the blood of the new covenant It is a fore state of Christs passion and of the final kingdom. It is symbolic of the heavenly banquet It is central to Christian worship. (Eucharist) Qn d. what is the meaning of the Lords Supper to Christians? The sacramental meal communicates Gods love in Christ The washing of the disciples feet by Jesus signifies humble service to and love for one another They proclaim the lords death until his second coming ----- 265 # They share in the body of Christ The unity of Christians is evidenced The bread symbolizes the body of Jesus which was crucified on the cross for the sins of human kind and for the healing of their diseases The wine symbolizes the blood of Jesus which was shed for forgiveness of sins The wine also symbolizes the sealing of a new covenant The partaking of the Lords Supper strengthens the faith of believers in that, Christs presence is felt and in this way they constantly keep in touch with him The lords supper enhances a personal relationship between the individual believer ad Christ It is thanksgiving to God for everything accomplished in creation, redemption and sanctification Through the Holy Communion, Christians offer themselves as a holy and living sacrifice. They rededicate and renew themselves. Those who share in the sacred meal declare their loyalty to Christ The Lords Supper is an act of repentance. The partakers receive re- assurance of the forgiveness of sins and are assured of salvation The bread and the wine which represents the body and blood of Jesus become the final sacrifice replacing all O.T sacrifices that were offered for the salvation of the human race Qn f. Prayer on mount olives After celebrating the last supper, Jesus and his disciples went to mount olives He knelt down and prayed and asked his disciples to join him ----- 266 # In response, God sent an angel from heaven to encourage him Jesus prayed in agony until his sweat was like drops of blood This sweat which was like blood was an indication of the struggle and agony he went through to accept the will of his father Though Jesus suffered agony and turmoil, he approached it with great courage and composure His suffering was even greater for it involved more than physical pain. It meant bearing the sin of the world So he prayed to God, his father to give him strength for his coming mission When he went back to his disciples, he found them asleep a sign of moral and physical exhaustion or maybe it was an indication that they were in sorrow because Jesus had told them he was about to be crucified In conclusion, we can say that Jesus expressed an inner struggle about the fulfillment of his Messianic mission. So he prayed to God to help him bear the suffering. Prayer was very important in Jesus ministry Qn g. describe the betrayal and arrest of Jesus When Jesus came down from Mt. Olives he met a multitude of people Judas Iscariot appeared accompanied by a large crowd, the chief priest, elders and the temple guards who had ordered to arrest Jesus Judas Iscariot came forth and kissed Jesus. This was a sign identifying Jesus as the man they were looking for. That kiss was the betrayal ----- 267 # When the disciples noticed what was happening one of them used his sword to cut off the ear of a high priests slave In other words Jesus stopped his disciples from resisting his arrest By rejecting armed assistance, Jesus was refusing the role of a political Messiah Jesus was arrested and taken to the house of the chief priest Annas Qn h. state the reasons that made Judas Iscariot to betray Jesus He lacked moral courage to stand by Jesus during his moment He could have been an informer of the Jewish religious leaders He was overcome by the power of evil He was disappointed by Jesus teaching on spiritual kingdom rather than fulfilling the Jewish expectation of a political Messiah who could liberate them from the Roman rule He was a mercenary motivated by greed for money He had little faith in Jesus or lost his trust in Jesus Christ He was not loyal to the master He was a northerner who felt foreign and thus was jealous against other disciples He was a zealot who believed in war rather than peace Qn i. Describe the trial of Jesus under the following The council of Sanhedrin Jesus was brought to the Sanhedrin council early in the morning following his arrest The council of elders asked him if he was the Messiah Jesus responded by speaking of the son of the man coming in triumph The Sanhedrin accused him of the sin of blasphemy for allegedly claiming to be the son of God He was condemned to die for alleged blasphemy ----- 268 # In the Jewish law, blasphemy was punishable by death The trial before Pilate Since the Sanhedrin could not carry out the death sentence, they took Jesus to the Roman governor Pilate They accused Jesus of inciting the people to revolt, forbidding payment of taxes and claiming to be a king in rebellion to Roman authority They could not accuse Jesus of blasphemy. This charge would not be accepted under Roman law However, by taking Jesus to Pilate, the Jewish religious leaders wanted the Roman authority to take responsibility for Jesus death The trial before Herod Jesus ministry works had mesmerized Herod. So when Pilate learned that Jesus was from Galilee, he handed him over to Herod who was the district officer of Galilee and happened to be in Jerusalem at that time The trial of Jesus before Herod (only mentioned in St. Lukes gospel) is not really a trial because king Herod only wanted to satisfy his curiosity about Jesus He joined the soldiers in mocking Jesus Jesus refused to answer Herods questions and he consequently sent Jesus back to Pilate Interestingly the mockery by Herod and his soldiers as another step in the public ridicule of Jesus. It will continue as he hangs on the cross Pilates judgement Jesus was brought to Pilate a second time ----- 269 # Pilate reiterated that he found Jesus not guilty of any crime The chief priests prevailed upon Pilate who passed a sentence of death on Jesus to die by crucifixion. This was the punishment of high treason according to the Roman law The Jewish leaders asked that Barnabas a criminal be released instead of Jesus It was customary for a convicted person to be released during the Passover So the Jewish leaders and not the Jewish people or Pilate were responsible for Jesus death Jesus was killed because of the blind hatred of the Jewish leaders Qn j. why do you think Pilate agreed to have Jesus crucified? He was afraid of a Jew revolt. It was his duty to maintain peace in his territory in accordance with the expectations of the Roman emperor. If he had released Jesus, the Jew would have caused a disturbance He did not want to be disloyal to the Roman emperor after learning that Jesus had been accused of treason. Disloyalty could have resulted in losing favor with the emperor and consequently his job He washed his hands. This means that he was absolving himself of the guilt of having Jesus crucified. This is because he had learnt from the Jewish leaders that Jesus was the Son of God. His wife had also cautioned him about Jesus innocence. Pilate himself had found no evidence to convict Jesus Qn k. identify and explain the lessons that Christians learn from the actions of Pilate during the trial of Jesus Jesus is the king of the Jews ----- 270 # Jesus is without sin. Pilate found no guilt in Jesus and he sent him to Herod Pilate gave in to their demands on the grounds of treason- Christians should refrain from giving false witness Pilate was afraid of a revolt. It was his duty to maintain peace as a Roman officer. Christians learn that they should not be compromised by worldly standards Christians should stand firm for the truth because the truth will always prevail Christians should strive not to loose favour with God. They should desire to please God rather than man Pilate washed his hands he learnt that Jesus is truly the son of God (innocent) Great evil can happen when the truth is at the mercy of political pressure Christians should take time before making decisions Resisting the truth leaves a person without purpose or direction Qn l. actions taken by the Jewish leaders to ensure that Jesus was put to death They paid Judas Iscariot to betray him They bought false witnesses to accuse him of blasphemy before Sanhedrin/ blasphemy was punishable by stoning to death They hurriedly tried Jesus at night before people knew what was happening They framed treason charge against Jesus when he appeared before Pilate/ treason carried a death sentence ----- 271 # They employed armed temple guards and armored soldiers to deal with those who would fight for Jesus They blackmailed Pilate to have Jesus crucified They organized a mob to shout for the death of Jesus and release of Barnabas They crucified him dead when they got permission from Pilate Qn m. explain the crucifixion of Jesus Jesus was given the cross beam to carry to his crucifixion site Simon of Cyrene helped him carry it A group of women followed Jesus and wept over his plight Jesus asked them to weep over themselves and their children He talked about the impending destruction coming over Jerusalem Jesus eventually arrived at Golgotha and was nailed on the cross Two criminals were crucified on either of his sides After his crucifixion, the soldiers cast lots to divide his garments. This action fulfilled psalms 22: 18, Jesus is the righteous Messiah who suffers unjustly and is mocked by people as he cries to God The soldiers, Jewish leaders and one of the thieves mocked Jesus for claiming to be the royal Messiah Jesus is mocked with the challenge to save himself One of the criminals crucified with Jesus usually referred to as the repentant thief acknowledged Jesus as the Messiah and admitted the justness of his own condemnation Above Jesus it was written, this is the king of Jews Jesus forgave his killers and all those who had accused him falsely. He promised one of the thieves hanging on the cross a place in paradise Qn n. describe the death of Jesus ----- 272 # The death of Jesus was preceded by extra ordinary happenings Darkness covered the land for three hours The curtain in the temple tore into two Jesus died after crying father into thy hands I commit my spirit On seeing Jesus die, the Roman centurion who was present testified to Jesus innocence. As he recognized Jesus lordship In his death, Jesus showed total commitment to Gods will Qn o. the burial of Jesus Joseph of Arimathea, a rich and righteous member of the Sanhedrin asked Pilate to allow him bury Jesus Joseph could have been a secret disciple of Jesus Jesus burial in Josephs grave fulfilled Isaiahs prophesy concerning the suffering servant of Yahweh who was buried in a rich mans tomb A group of women followed Joseph and saw where he buried Jesus They went back home to prepare spices with which to wash Jesus body after the Sabbath Jesus was indeed a king judged by the way he was buried THE RESURRECTION: Qn p. define the term resurrection The term resurrection refers to the event of Jesus rising from the dead. This event took place on the third day i.e. the Sunday morning after Jesus was crucified on Friday afternoon Qn q. the witnesses of the risen Christ The testimony of the repentant thief He rebuked his unrepentant companion He recognized his own sinful condition ----- 273 # He declared Jesus to be sinless He professed in Jesus true Messiah-ship and Lordship He recognized that Jesus would live and exercise his saving power after he died The testimony of Joseph of Arimathea Joseph of Arimathea was a secret disciple of Christ He witnessed to the lordship of Jesus Christ after his death by his actions He did this by seeking permission from Pilate to bury the body of Jesus By giving Jesus this royal burial he was witnessing to the truth that Jesus was king Testimony of the holy woman On the day after the Sabbath, Mary Magdalene and Mary the mother of Jesus went to the tomb planning to prepare Jesus body for a proper burial On arrival, they found the stone covering the tomb had been rolled away The tomb was also empty Two men in dazzling clothes confirmed that Jesus had risen as he had prophesied. The two men were angles When the women learnt of Jesus resurrection, they broke the news to the apostils and all the others. The apostles rejected the womens testimony The testimony of disciples on their way to Emmaus Jesus appeared to the disciples who were on their way to Emmaus They were discussing Jesus suffering, death and the empty tomb They regarded Jesus death as a tragedy, for they had hoped he would liberate the Jews from the Roman rule Jesus explained to the scriptures, which say the messiah would suffer to reach his glory. ----- 274 # They invited Jesus to dine with them Jesus shared the Holy Eucharist with them before they recognized whom he was at the breaking of the bread The disciples at Emmaus thus became the second witnesses to the risen Christ. The effect of this testimony is that the disciples went and told the eleven apostles about their encounter with the risen Christ Qn r. the appearance of Jesus to the disciples As the disciples narrated their encounter with Jesus to the eleven apostles, Jesus appeared to them Jesus asked them to confirm that he had risen by touching his body He explained to the apostles his mission through telling them the prophesies about him in the law of Moses, prophets and psalms Jesus brought his disciples to be witnesses by proclaiming repentance and forgiveness of sins He tested some cooked fish He promised that he was going to be with them through the power of the Holy Spirit THE ASCENSION OF JESUS Qn s. Describe the ascension of Jesus From Jerusalem Jesus led his disciples to Bethany He raised his hands blessed the disciples and lifted to heaven The disciples returned and witnessed Jesus ascension with joy They continued to go to the temple to pray to God waiting for the holy spirit that Jesus had promised them ----- 275 # From this incidence where Jesus blessed the disciples, we learn that the disciples became confident about their mission. This earlier disbelief and blindness to who Jesus was now overcome Qn t. Give five evidences from the bible that show that Jesus Christ rose from the dead The tomb was empty Assurance of the angle to the women that Jesus had risen Thomas witnessed the resurrection by feeling the scars on Jesus hands The women who had gone to the tomb had found it empty The disciples witnessed his resurrection when he appeared to the two disciples at Emmaus Jesus shared a meal with his disciples after his resurrection in Jerusalem Jesus walked with the disciples up to Bethany prior to his ascension Qn t. explain the significance of passion, death and the resurrection of Jesus to Christian life The passion deed and resurrection refers to seven incidences namely, Jesus last supper, suffering in the garden, suffering before Sanhedrin, Pilate and Herod; mocking by the soldiers, death on the cross, resurrection and ascension Those events are of great significance to the modern Christians. First they proof that Jesus was indeed the son of God and the Messiah The passion, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ was a fulfillment of the old testament prophesies and Psalms The resurrection resulted in the rapid spread of the church. The spread of the church is as a result of the risen Christ and the influence of the Holy Spirit ----- 276 # The resurrection is thus the basis/ the central idea or foundation in the Christian faith and missionary activity; if Christ has not been raised, then our preaching is useless and you believing it is useless The passion, death and resurrection reveal the power of God to those who believe in him. They also prove that Jesus who was Gods triumphant envoy is alive and Christians are assured living again after the physical death The raising of Jesus from the dead proved that Jesus was not only man but lord over human life so that Christians share in his life on earth by believing in him and living according to the fruits of the holy spirit The resurrection of Jesus is a source of inspiration and confidence in Christians. It also points to the fact that Jesus was a man of his word i.e. he fore told the resurrection and it came to pass. His resurrection was a real fact because he showed his disciples the crucifixion marks All that happened during the passion, death and resurrection of Christ was just a completion of Gods revelation through Christ They also point to the power and glory of God in which those who believe share in the hope of their own resurrection in the second coming of Jesus Qn v. the significance of Jesus resurrection to Christians today It is the foundation of the Christian faith and hope which their belief would be useless Christian faith would be in vain (futile) if Jesus had not resurrected ----- 277 # Through resurrection Christians have confidence and hope in God because the one they believe in has been exalted and sits at the right hand of God almighty Through the resurrection, Christians are given hope of eternal life The resurrection of Jesus led to the coming of the holy spirit which helps Christians to live according to the teachings of Christ, preach the gospel and speak boldly against the evils in the society The resurrection give meaning to baptism in that one dies in sin and is raised with Christ to new life The resurrection confirms the divinity of Jesus as the true son of God The resurrection gives Christians courage to face death because they have hope of resurrecting at his second return It is remembered by Christians during the Eucharist Qn w. explain five importance of Eulogy of death in the society today It enables mourners to know the cause or nature of death It enables the mourners to forgive the dead person incase of any grudge between them and the dead person It enables the mourners to ask for forgiveness from the dead person It enables the mourners know the wish or last words of the deceased before he/ she died Mourners have an opportunity to declare what they owe or are owed by the dead It enables mourners to know the contribution of work of the dead to the society It provides the mourners with an opportunity to know the nature or character of the dead and his/her social life ----- 278 # It enables mourners to know the background or life history of the deceased e.g. education. FORM THREE SELECTED TEACHINGS FROM THE NEW AND THE OLD TESTAMENTS TOPIC ONE: GIFTS OF THE HOLY SPIRIT Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: - a) Discuss what Jesus taught about the role and gifts of the Holy Spirit. b) Describe the manifestations of the Holy Spirit in Christianity today. c) Identify the fruits of the Holy Spirit d) Interpret the message of Peter on the day of Pentecost. LESSON ONE: TEACHINGS OF JESUS ON THE ROLE OF THE HOLY SPIRIT. Read JOHN 14:15-26, 16: 5-15, and ACTS 1: 7- 8 Introduction The Holy Spirit is the third person in the trinity. There is the power of Christ, the power of God, and the Holy Spirit who gives gifts such as prophecy and healing. The Holy Spirit is mentioned several times in the Bible; (1) during creation in Genesis, (2) at the annunciation of the birth of Jesus, (3) at the beginning of the ministry of Jesus, (4) during baptism, (5) revelation of Jesus in the temple (6) Jesus spoke of the Holy Spirit during his mission or ministry, after resurrection and before ascension Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson: a. State the role of Holy Spirit in the church and in Christian lives today b. Enumerate the gifts of the Holy Spirit c. Analyse the Manifestation of the Holy Spirit in the church and Christians today ----- 279 # d. Give the role of love in church and in Christian lives today a. The role of Holy Spirit in Church and in Christian lives today. Read JOHN 14:15-26 and JOHN 16: 5-15, ACTS 1: 7- 8 The Holy Spirit has many roles in the church and in Christian lives today. These roles are to: Teach Christians on a daily basis messages of Jesus Live in the hearts of believers of Christ Be an advocate, a counselor, helper and a comforter to those who love Jesus Christ and obey Gods commandments. He would remind the disciples the words said by Jesus Christ and introduce them to their deeper meanings. Interpret the deeper meaning of the messages of Jesus Christ. Reveal the truth and mysteries of and about God. Affirm the right of Jesus as the Son of God. Reveal the glory of Jesus death. Reveal what is right and wrong Give the disciples of Jesus power to become witnesses of Christ. Give courage to the disciples of Jesus and modern Christians to face prosecution on the account of following Jesus. Enable the disciples to expose the secret lives and heart of sinful people. Guide Christians; help believers to cast away evils spirits, to heal, to preach the word of God, to encourage, and to condemn evil in the society. b. Paul teaching about the Gifts of the Holy Spirit. Read 1 Corinthians chapters 12, 13, and 14. Spiritual gifts are extra-ordinary favors, talents, abilities, and dispositions given to Christians by God for ----- 280 # the benefit of all believers. The gifts are used for the service of others and not for self-glorification and gratification. The message of Peter on the day of the Pentecost Peter told the disciple that what was happening was the fulfillment of Jesus prophecy. - He said that Jesus of Nazareth was the Son of God. - He said that the suffering and death of Jesus was according to Gods plans. Death was the fulfillment of the Old Testament prophecy. Gifts of the Holy Spirit 1. Gift of wisdom: having deep understanding of issues- seeing far, being perceptive. 2. Gift of knowledge: ability to understand the basic facts about Jesus, His mission and knowledge about spiritual issues. 3. The gift of faith: refers to the confidence in Gods help. It is deep trust in God. 4. The Gift of healing: ability, and power to heal all forms of sickness by calling upon the name of Jesus Christ. 5. The gift of performing miracles: gift of healing miracles, creative miracles for example, dead legs becoming alive. 6. The gift of preaching 7. The gift of prophecy: the ability to interpret Gods word. The ability to foresee what will happen in the future as revealed by God. 8. The gift of distinguishing spirits or discernment: the ability to know whether a spiritual gift is from ----- 281 # God, the Holy Spirit or from the evil spirit 9. The gift of speaking in tongues. The ability to utter, speak in a tongue, language unknown to the believer. Tongues are used when addressing God for self-edifications. It is personal growth. 10. The gift of interpretation of tongues: the ability to understand and interpret the messages of those speaking in tongues. 11. The gift of love. (Read 1 Corinthians 13) Paul stressed that all the gifts of the Holy Spirit are to be demonstrated with love. He stressed that love, a fruit of the Holy Spirit is supreme over other spiritual gifts possessed by Christians. Its the greatest of all. Speaking in tongues, preaching, and martyrdom without love is useless. Components of Love Love is patient, kind, not jealous or boastful, not arrogant or rude, is not ill mannered or selfish, and does not insist on its own way. It is not disrespectful. It is not irritable or resentful. It does not rejoice at wrong but rejoices in truth. It bears all things. Love believes all things, hopes all things, and endures all things. Love is eternal. Love never fails. The other gifts are temporary but love, faith and hope are eternal. c. Manifestation of the Holy Spirit in the church and Christians today Gifts of the Holy Spirit have been manifested in churches today. We see this manifestation through people possessing the gifts of the Holy Spirit. For example, leaders in church have displayed the gift of ----- 282 # wisdom. Preachers, and Christians ministers have been casting out demons and performing healing. There are reported cases of interpretation of tongues and gift of prophecy in churches today. When Christians display the gifts of the Holy Spirit such as speaking in tongues the Holy Spirit is manifested. Other manifestations of the Holy Spirit are: Through healing, prophecy, gifts of discernment, boldness in preaching, and casting out demons among others Christians helping the poor by giving generosity and in kindness. Through singing, dancing, shouting (fruit of joy) Through unity of believes and fellowships. Through praying, Christians persecutions/temptations. d. Criteria for Discerning the Gifts of the Holy Spirit. Christians who have the Holy Spirit and are guided by Jesus have certain characteristics. These are: They will confess that Jesus is Lord They cannot say a curse. They speak the truth. They worship God and behave in accordance with Jesus teaching. They led by the Holy Spirit and are known by the fruits of the Holy Spirit. These fruits are love, joy, peace, and patience. Such persons serve all Christians without discrimination and strife. They do not do sinful acts such as sexual immorality. They do not practice idolatry, and sorcery. They do not have in their hearts and minds hatred, and jealously or any other negative feelings and actions. ----- 283 # e. The fruits of the HOLY SPIRIT (GALATIANS 5:16-26) Paul taught that the fruit of the spirit are: Love, Joy, Patience, Long suffering, Goodness or Generosity, Faith and faithfulness, Peace, Meekness and kindness, gentleness, self- control and temperance. Answer these questions after reading JOHN 14:15-26 and JOHN 16: 5- 15, ACTS 1: 7- 8 and 1 Corinthians chapters 12, 13, and 14. 1. What is the role of the Holy Spirit among Christians? (Read a) 2. Discuss the gifts of the Holy Spirit 3. Write a talk about the Holy Spirit 4. Define love? 5. Describe the different types of love 6. Why do Christians need the Holy Spirit today? 7. State the role of love in church and in Christian lives today. 8. How has the gift of the Holy Spirit been manifested in Christian lives? 9. Which activities show that the Holy Spirit is working among Christian in Kenya. 10. How have the gifts of the Holy Spirit been misused in the church today? Answers are also in the text. Read sections with answers 1. The role of the holy spirit An advocate, a counsellor and a comforter. He would remind and introduce the disciples to the deeper meaning of the word of Jesus Christ. To reveal the myth and mysteries of God. He would affirm the right of Jesus as the Son of God. He would reveal the glory of Jesus death. He would enable the disciples to discern and expose the secret heart of sinful men. ----- 284 # 2. The gift of the Holy Spirit has been misused today by pride and public manifestation of the gift as a way of show off. Some Christians have misused the gift of Holy Sprit of prophecy by prophesying for money. LESSON TWO. PETERS MESSAGE ON THE DAY OF PENTECOST. Read ACTS 2: 14-41 Introduction Jews commemorate Pentecost day. This is the day that God gave Moses his laws on mount Sinai. It is also referred to as the festival of weeks. Pentecost day was celebrated 50 days after the Passover. It was compulsory for all Jews. On this day, Jews brought offering, the first fruits of harvest, to the temple in Jerusalem. Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson You should be able: - 1. Describe Pentecost day 2. Narrate Peters Message. 3. Explain the relevance of the Pentecostal Experience a. Pentecost a day On the Pentecostal day, the disciples were gathered in Jerusalem awaiting the promise of the Holy Spirit. And as promised, the Holy Spirit came in the form of a strong wind, and tongues of fire. The Holy Spirit rested on the head of each disciple. The disciples received the gift of the Holy Spirit. They spoke in new tongues. Some of the observers mistook this experience. They thought that the disciples were drunk with wine. ----- 285 # Peter stood up to explain what was happening and defend the disciples. He told those who saw the experience that the disciples were not drunk. It was in the morning. b. Peters Message. Read Joel 2: 28 32 Peter told the onlookers that; what was happening is fulfillment of Joels prophesies about the outpouring of Gods spirit. He said that Jesus of Nazareth was the Son of God. This was proved by the miracles that Jesus performed. He emphasized that the suffering and death of Jesus was according to Gods plans. Jesus is a descendant of David. Death and the resurrection of Jesus fulfilled prophesies in the Old Testament. God raised Jesus from the dead. He taught that Jesus had both the nature of God and Man. The apostles are the living witnesses of the resurrection of Jesus. Jesus has been exalted and sits on the right hand of God where He is Lord and Judge. They holy Spirit is a gift from Jesus Peter then invited the listeners to repentance so that they could be forgiven and receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. Three thousand souls accepted salvation message and were added to the fellowship of the disciples. c. After the Holy Spirit infilling. The disciples sold their possessions and goods and assisted the needy. They did many wonders and signs. They continued to live in unity, worshiping God, fellowshipping together, and breaking the bread. d. Lessons Christians learn from Leadership of Peter. Christians should be: ----- 286 # 1. Courageous and stand up for Jesus Christ all the times. 2. Ready to spread the Gospel of Christ. 3. Win new converts to Jesus by inviting them to repentance. 4. Have faith in the risen Christ. 5. Pray to be filled with the Holy Spirit like Peter and those in church leadership should take their roles seriously. e. Relevance of the Pentecostal Experience Speaking in diverse tongues signified that Christianity is a universal religion. It pointed out the importance of all languages when communicating to God. There were no specific languages for speaking with God, as it was when Latin was the language of literacy and Christianity. Christians should be bold in their preaching. They should not be afraid as they have the counsel and helper, the Holy Spirit. Christians should understand that God chooses anyone as a leader, preacher, and witness of Christ. Pentecostal experience signifies that Christians need to receive and be filled with the Holy Spirit Revision questions a) Explain the meaning of the Pentecost b) Describe the manifestations of the holy spirit on the day of the Pentecost (Acts 2: 1-40)(or narrate the events that took place on the day of the Pentecost) c) Write down five teachings about Jesus from Peters speech on the day of the Pentecost d) What were the qualities of peter that made him a successful leader of the apostolic church? ----- 287 # e) What lessons can Christians learn from the events of the day of the Pentecost? f) State the teachings of Jesus on the holy spirit (John 14:14-26) (acts 1:7- 8) g) What is the role of the holy spirit according to Jesus? h) What is the role of the holy spirit in the believers or the church or Christians? i) Outline the fruits of the holy spirit j) State the criteria for discerning the spiritual gifts k) List down the gifts of the holy spirit l) Explain why Paul taught that love is the greatest of all spiritual gifts m) Explain how the Holy spirit is manifested in the church today n) State ways in which the gifts of the holy spirit are being abused in the church today TOPIC TWO: THE UNITY OF BELIEVERS Learning outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: a) Explain teaching in selected New Testament texts of the unity of believers. b) Identify the metaphors used to describe unity of believers. c) Identify the causes of disunity in the early and modern church LESSON ONE: TEACHINGS OF THE UNITY OF BELIEVERS IN SELECTED NEW TESTAMENT TEXTS Unity of believers refers to oneness of those who have faith in Jesus Christ. Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson you should be able to: - i. Describe activities of early Christians ii. Describe characteristics of the people of God iii. Explain the meanings of these symbolic expressions - The body of Christ - The Vine and the Branches ----- 288 # - The Church / Assembly of God - The Bride a. Early Christians The early Christians in Jerusalem demonstrated their unity by. Holding joint prayer sessions Sharing the Lords supper, that is Eucharist. Sharing their possessions with the poor. The showed oneness and unity as believers. They expressed their oneness using various terms, images, metaphors and symbols. They regarded themselves as the people of God, the church and an Assembly of God. When they celebrated the last supper, eating of bread was a symbol of the body of Christ. They saw themselves as belonging to one tree with the vine and branches. As followers of Christ, the early Church saw itself as the Bride of Christ. b. Discussion of Symbolic Expressions i. The people of God Read 1 PETER 2: 9-10. Peter has outlined the characteristics of the people of God. He says that the people of God are Believers in God: through faith in Jesus Christ. The Chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation a chosen people Those who stand out from the rest because they live a holy and righteous life. Form a Holy nation chosen to proclaim the works of God. Not just the descendants of Abraham but people who follow Jesus Christ and His teachings. ii. The body of Christ Read 1 Corinthians 12:12-27, and Ephesians 4:1-12. ----- 289 # The Holy Spirit is the one who brings Christians together as one body of Christ to serve the church. Christians are given gifts for the purpose of sharing the body of Christ. Jesus Christ is the head of the church. And just as the body has many parts, playing different roles, so has the Church. Every member of the church plays a vital role because different members have different spiritual gifts and callings. Some are Apostles, Teachers, Prophets, Evangelists, Pastors and Miracle performers, Administrators and those who show mercy to others and encourage (exhort) others. All church activities should be directed to the welfare of the church, just as the function of each part of the body is necessary for the well being of the whole body. To have a united body, members should be meek, and patient in order to bear the fruit of the Holy Spirit. For a church to be united, or to be considered as one body, Christians should have faith in God the father, one Lord Jesus Christ, one Holy Spirit and have faith in God through Jesus Christ. iii. The Vine and the Branches Read John 15:1-10 The vine represents Jesus. Vine tree was a tree that bore grapes. The vine tree was a symbol of prosperity and peace. Jesus is the vine and the Father is the vinedresser. Christians/ believers are the branches. They are expected to produce good fruits by remaining faithful and united in Christ. Faithful branches bear fruit like good Christians while unfruitful branches are like unfruitful Christians. ----- 290 # Christians should remain united to Christ who is the vine so as to bear fruits. The teachings of Jesus purify the Christians. The dead branches of the Vine trees are cut off and the livings ones are trimmed or pruned. This is done so that the vines may produce high yields. Likewise unfaithful Christians, believers are rebuked and corrected so as to bear high yields. iv. The Church or Assembly of God. Read Ephesians 5: 21 32 Church is a Greek word ekklesia, which means people. People who belong to the Lord. Assembly of God is the coming together of people of diverse social and cultural backgrounds who recognize lordship of Jesus. The church is likened to the relationship between a husband and a wife. Christians (the church) are expected to be united with Christ just as a husband and wife are united in marriage. Just as husbands and wives are expected to love one another, so too, are Christians called upon to express love to one another and to love God. A husband is the head of a family; Jesus is also the head of the church. v. The Bride. Read 2 Corinthian 11: 2, and Revelations 21: 1 12 In the Old Testament, God calls Israel a bride. In the New Testament, Christians are referred to as a bride in the New Jerusalem. God or Jesus Christ is the bridegroom. Christians are reminded that the life on earth is a temporary home. Their real home is in heaven, the Holy city of God. Just as a bride is expected to be faithful to her husband, so are Christians expected to be faithful to God by observing the ----- 291 # covenant way of life. Deviation from the covenant was portrayed as adultery. John, who wrote the book of revelations, sees a vision of a new heaven and a new earth in which faithful Christians will be rewarded. Christ will come to take His bride to eternity to live there forever. The relationship between Christians and Jesus/ God is like a marriage. It is a covenant. It is a relationship where the church (bride) is expected to submit to God. Jesus died for the church, a show of His or Gods love. Likewise Christians should be committed in their relationship to God. SAQ. 1. Discuss in twos who is a bride and what takes place in a wedding. 2. Discuss the significance of the symbols used to express the unity of the believers. These are The people of God, The body of Christ, The vine and the branches The church or assembly of God and The bride. LESSON TWO: CAUSES OF DISUNITY IN THE EARLY CHURCH The early church experienced some challenges, which led to divisions among the early disciples and Christians. Learning Outcomes. After reading this lesson, i Identify causes of disunity in the early church ii State causes of disunity in the modern church iii Compare the causes of disunity in the early and modern church iv Suggest possible solutions to disunity in modern church a. Causes of Disunity in the Early Church ----- 292 # After Jesus ascended to his Father and left the Holy Spirit to look after his followers, the disciples established congregations or communities to spread the Word of God. As believers of Christ met and prayed together, there were disagreements and divisions brought about by several factors and issues. These were: Disputes, among early Christians; concerning leadership of the Church. Christians wanted different leaders: Paul, Apollos, Cephas or Christ. Paul told them that Christ couldnt be divided (1 Corinthians 1:10 -21). Sexual immorality was another cause of disunity in the early church. Some Christians were doing or having irresponsible sexual behaviours. These were incest, fornication, and prostitution. Paul condemned such behaviours and told Christians to stop sinning and honor God with their bodies. The body of a Christian is the temple of the Holy Ghost (1 Corinthian 5: 1-13, 6:12 20). Christians settling disputes in civil courts. Paul advised they ought to talk over issues among themselves and agree to solve problems on their own (1 Corinthians 6). Dispute over marriage and divorce. Some Christians were opposed to marriage. Others were encouraging divorce. Paul addressed these issues in 1 Corinthian, chapter 71-16. Paul advised Christians that it was okay to marry or not to marry. But marriage was needed to stop immorality. ----- 293 # Eating of meat offered to idols. Some Christians were eating meat offered to idols while others were against it. Paul advised Christians not to eat anything that will cause their faith to weaken or fail. (1 Corinthians 8 and10: 14 20. There were disputes about dressing during worship. Should women cover their head during worship? Should women shave hair? Should men wear long hair? (1 Corinthian 11:1-16). Some Christians were overeating and over drinking during the Holy Communion misuse of the Lords Supper, (1 Corinthians 11:17 33). Misuses of spiritual gift especially the gift of speaking in tongues. Paul taught that all gifts are equal (1 Corinthians 12). There was a misunderstanding about the resurrection of the body and the dead. Some were saying there is no resurrection. Paul preached that if there is no resurrection then their preaching was in vain as they were witnesses to the resurrection of Jesus Christ (1 Corinthians 15). b. Causes of disunity among believers and church in Kenya today Leadership differences. Some Christians are struggling for power. This has led to formation of splinter groups, divisions and enmity between these groups. Cultural differences. Christians are divided by their African cultural beliefs from their backgrounds. This culture is merged with Christianity and Western cultural practices forming a unique mixture of beliefs. ----- 294 # Some Christians are permissive, while others are conservative. This has led to disunity, for example in the areas of dressing. Discrimination. There is inequality within the church between the rich and the poor, the whites and blacks. Some Christians are viewed as more spiritual than others, on basis of the tribe, gender, wealth and social status among others. Misuse of freedom of worship. Christians are starting sprinter churches, probably because they want to control church finances without supervision by the wider church. To justify their departure, they spread propaganda against the mother church, and other churches in order to attract followers. The more followers a church has the more tithe it collects. Misuse of church funds. Some church leaders and followers misuse church funds Differences in the practice of baptism Arrogance and pride by some Christians. Sins: sexual immorality in the church, divorce and marriage issues. Some Christian denominations reject the human nature of the person of Jesus Christ; that Christ had both a human and divine nature e.g. Nomiya church. SAQ. Can you think of factors that led to disunity among Christians in the early church that you have noted in the Kenyan church? c. Reasons why Christians should work in Unity. Christians face many problems and they therefore need to work together in unity to: Promote oneness of Christians in Jesus Christ. ----- 295 # Promote the teachings of Jesus Christ. Achieve effective evangelism or ministry. Adopt a common attitude to the integration of African culture in worship. Prevent the formation of sprinter groups and cults. Reduce the internal wrangling. Have a common stand in dealing with issues affecting the society. d. Possible Solutions to disunity The church should settle issues that divide its members by Christians: Learning to appreciate and respect the practices and belief of other Christians denominations. Having or forming a common goal Striving to be guided by the principle of love in solving problems facing them. Observing the teachings of disciples, prophets, apostles, God, laws of Moses, Jesus and the Bible. Avoiding doing anything to their fellow Christians that would cause suffering and disharmony. Activities that the early church did in order to remain united were that they: Ate bread together. Held fellowships together. Shared with the needy. Prayed together for each other In the current worldwide Church, there is disunity amongst believers or Christians. The most common ones are due. Leadership differences and wrangles for power. Cultural differences amongst Christians. Some Christians are permissive while others are conservative. Differences in the interpretation of the Bible. ----- 296 # Misuse of church funds Pride and arrogance. Revision questions a. Write down terms used in the new testament to refer to believers in Christ b. Identify five causes of disunity in the church today c. Identify factors which cause disunity among the Christians today d. Discuss reasons why members of Christian families in Kenya find it difficult to harmoniously live together e. Explain how the church strengthens family relationships today TOPIC THREE. TEACHINGS FROM SELECTED OLD TESTAMENT PROPHETS INTRODUCTION This chapter introduces one to the work of prophets in the Old Testament. In Form One, some prophets were taught e.g. Moses, Elijah, Nathan and Samuel. Traditional African prophets were also taught. In Form Three, we compare true and false prophets and the Traditional African prophets. Learning outcomes. By the end of the topic, you should be able to: a. Define a prophet, and prophecy b. Identify categories of prophets c. Explain the importance of prophets in Israel. d. Describe the characteristics of prophets. e. Explain how prophetic messages were written. f. Compare the relationship between prophesies in the Old Testament and the New Testament LESSON ONE: PROPHETS Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should be able to: - ----- 297 # 1. Give a correct definition of a prophet, and prophecy 2. List prophets in categories a. Definitions of a prophet, and prophecy The word prophet comes from a Hebrew word Rabii meaning one who is called or one who announces Gods message. A prophet is also referred to as a seer. A prophet is a person sent by God to teach and give people messages about things to come in future from God. Prophets received divine messages from God and communicated them to the people. A prophet is therefore a person who foretells events as revealed to him or her by God. Examples of prophets include Samuel, Elijah, Jeremiah and prophetesses (female prophet) Deborah, and Huidah. Prophecy is a statement, a message of something that is going to happen in the future. The action of giving future messages is called prophecy. b. Categories of prophets There were many categories of prophets. These were: a) Major Prophets. These were Prophets whose messages covered a long period of time. Their messages were long and detailed. For example Prophet Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. b) Minor prophets. There are 12 books of the Minor Prophets examples They are called minor because their messages are short, brief and do not contain detailed information. The Minor Prophets are Amos, and Hosea, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi. ----- 298 # c) Canonical prophets the term canon means law. Canonical prophets are law prophets. The individual utterances of these prophets are laws. Both minor and major prophets are canonical prophets, d) The early prophets are Moses, Nathan Elijah, and Elisha. These prophets belonged to guilds schools. Their prophecies are not recorded under their names. Their prophecies are written in books, which do not bear their names. e) Cultic prophets like Hannah (N.T.) served in the places of worship. They assisted the priest officiating worship f) Professional / court prophets like Samuel, Micah, and Gad lived together in the temple and in groups. They earned their living through their work. They did not work elsewhere g) False prophets are pretenders to speak in the name of Yahweh but God did not call them. They spoke lies in accordance with the messages people wanted to hear. c. Characteristics of true prophets There were two (2) major categories of prophets in the Old Testament, (1) true prophets and (2) false prophets. True prophets are those whose prophecies occurred and were fulfilled. Prophesies of false prophets did not occur. True prophets distinguished themselves from false prophets and ordinary people. They experienced God dramatically when He called them and in their ministry. They were Gods spokesmen and women. They responded in faith to their call. ----- 299 # God gave them specific tasks in their commission and Gods assurance and support in their ministry. They urged people to repent and turn back to God. In their messages, they taught that God demands sincere worship and not elaborate rituals. They understood God and taught about God righteousness, goodness, mercifulness, and loving care. They condemned evil in the society and proclaimed Gods judgment and punishment to those who failed to keep the covenant. They spoke with authority and acted with courage. They upheld God as a universal God for all nations. They talked of a remnant that shall remain after punishment or those that have continued to worship God sincerely. Their utterances were true because they were fulfilled They spent a lot of their time in prayers. They prayed regularly. At such times they withdrew from people in order to have a quiet time to seek God. All the true prophets received opposition from their audiences and they were ready to suffer for telling Gods word. d. The Characteristics of false prophets. Some of the prophecy of false prophets contradicted prophesies of the true prophets. False prophets followed their own imaginations, and gave false hopes. They told people what they wanted to hear. They had no personal knowledge of God. Hence, their prophecies were not in line with the divine revelations. ----- 300 # They used evil forces such as magic, and divinations to call upon the spirits of the dead. They were paid for prophesy and benefits materially from their clients. They served Baal and were mainly immoral. They committed crime. Review questions How can we know true and false prophets today? LESSON TWO: IMPORTANCE OF PROPHETS IN ISRAEL Introduction Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should: 1. Describe the work of prophets in Israel 2. Explain how God communicated with prophets and Israelites 3. Analyse the content of the Prophetic messages 1. Work of prophets in Israel Prophets kept Israelites in communication with God. They communicated Gods will to the people of Israel. They foretold Gods judgments and punishment for sinners. They condemned the behaviour of the rich towards the poor. Through their messages, people reformed their lives since they condemned all forms of social evils and ritual sins. They contributed to the writing of their messages leading to the compilation of the Bible. Prophets guided and gave people hope. They taught people the laws of God. They warned people of dangers to come. They condemned idolatry and stressed the worship of one true God, Yahweh. They anointed the Kings in Israel. Kings consulted the prophets before any major undertaking such as war among others. ----- 301 # They acted as conscience of kings. They advised them and challenged Kings when they went wrong. 2. Gods communication with prophets and Israelites God communicated to Prophets through visions, voices that were audible and clear, events, prayers, dreams, signs, ordinary things, and words which came to their minds with great power. Writing messages of the prophets The canonical prophets as mentioned earlier had their works and prophecies recorded under their names. Canonical prophets are referred to as writing prophets. Its possible that some prophets wrote down their own prophecies. They wrote what God spoke to them as He dictated. An example is Jeremiah who wrote what he was told Get a scroll and write on it everything that I have told you about Israel, Judah and all nations. (Jeremiah 36:2, Isaiah 30:8). Two, the prophets message were probably written by other people. These were their assistant, secretary, scribe, and disciples or followers as the prophet prophesied. Thirdly some of the prophetic messages could have been preserved as oral traditions and later written as books. A good example is 2 Kings. e. Content of the Prophetic messages Prophetic messages contained lessons from God to Israel. For example, the: i. Prophetic sayings were and still are oracles or poetic passages spoken by God himself through prophets. The prophecies were addressed to different nations. They carried specific teachings to the ----- 302 # people, for example predicting future occurrences ii. Narratives in the first person give an account of the prophets testimony. They spoke of their experiences with God, and responses to the call of God. They tell us about prophets impelling compulsion to speak Gods word. The narratives are written in the first person. They have a format The Lord said to me The year that King Uzziah died, I was the Lord iii. Narratives in the third 3rd person have messages written by a third party, i.e. not the prophet but another person. For example, Isaiah said to them, Thus you shall say to your master, thus says the Lord: Do not be afraid of the words. (Isaiah 37:6). The message recounts the prophets personal life, and political background. LESSON THREE: PROPHESIES IN THE OLD TESTAMENT, NEW TESTAMENT AND AFRICAN TRADITIONAL SOCIETY Introduction The Israelites and the African traditional societies as well as other world communities had prophets who foretold the future. Among the Israelites, there were prophets chosen by God and false prophets who told messages which communities wanted to hear. Among the African traditional communities, there were wise men and women who prophesied about the future. In this lesson, we shall compare these prophecies and learn what was similar and different about these them. The Old Testament prophecies are compared with those from the African traditional society and ----- 303 # the New Testament Learning outcomes. After studying this lesson, you should be able to: a. State relationships between Prophesies in the Old Testament New Testament and the African Traditional Society b. Discuss the similarities between prophets in the African traditional society and the Old Testament c. Identify differences between prophets in the African traditional society and the Old Testament a. Relationships between Prophesies Several Old Testament (O.T.) prophecies were and are fulfilled in both the old and New Testament (N.T) in the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. The Law of Moses is used in both the Old Testament and the New Testament. However Jesus gave the law a deeper meaning. The teachings and prophecies of the prophets provided the foundation for the message in the New Testament. The prophecies of Prophet Nathan to King David that God would raise up an offspring from the lineage of David was fulfilled in Jesus Christ, the expected messiah. Jesus disciples in the New Testament referred a lot to messages in the Old Testament. The teachings of Jesus in the New Testament are based in the Old Testament prophecies. They are therefore similar to each other because New Testament is a continuation of the Old Testament. The New Testament is the new covenant spoken of by Prophet Jeremiah and other Prophets like Isaiah, Micah, and Nathan. Their prophecies about Messiah are fulfilled in the New Testament. ----- 304 # b. Similarities between prophets in the African traditional society and the Old Testament. In both traditions, prophets: Were endowed with divine powers and they dealt with religious matters. Acted as intermediaries between God and people Warned people of impending dangers and disasters due to disobedience Had supernatural experiences Encouraged morality and discouraged evil ways In some cases, could heal Withstood oppression and opposition by the political rulers Encouraged people to fight injustices in society Foretold future disasters such as drought and wars. They explained why they were going to occur. Were consulted when things were not well in the society. Received revelations through dreams, visions and thoughts Were gender sensitive male prophets and female prophetesses. c. Differences (O.T.) between prophets in the African traditional society and the Old Testament. The Old Testament prophets had a personal relationship with God. They communicated Gods messages to Israelites. The prophets in the African traditional society communicated and received messages from the ancestor spirits Old Testament prophets were Gods mouthpieces. They began their prophesy with thus saith the lord. While the prophets in the African traditional society predicted what would happen to individuals, and communities. ----- 305 # The authority of prophets in the Old Testament came from God while the authority of prophets in the African traditional society came from their ancestors spirits. In the Old Testament prophets were called directly by God while in some African traditional communities the prophetic office was hereditary. The African traditional prophets dealt with family and local community issues while Old Testament prophets dealt with national issues, and crises. African traditional prophets were diviners while Old Testament prophets consulted God. d. Relevance of Old Testament prophets to Christians today Christian should be ready to be messengers of God. The call to be a Christian has a prophetic role. Some Christians are called to the office of a prophet and should prophecy for the glory of God and for the common good of the people. As Gods spokes person one should always stand for the truth. Christian should proclaim Gods will even if the message is not pleasant to the people. Once appointed as a prophet, one should pass the messages to who ever they are sent to without fear or favour. Gods messengers should always condemn the social political economic evils in the society. As Gods messengers Christians should live exemplary lives. They should stand for what they preach and should expect persecutions because of their works as Gods messengers. They should be ready to suffer for the sake of the gospel. ----- 306 # Christians should pray to God to give them guidance, wisdom, and inspiration to be able to handle hardships in their lives. They should provide hope for the people in times of suffering. Christians should realize that God calls both men and women to His service. They should be ready to obey Gods prophetic call and not run away e.g. Jonah. They should be concerned and take care of the welfare of the poor community members. Revision questions 1. Define the terms prophet and prophecy 2. List five categories of true prophets 3. State the difference between true and false prophets 4. In what ways were Gods prophets called? 5. Outline the similarities and differences between the old testament prophets and the traditional African ones. 6. What is the relevance of prophets to Christians today? TOPIC FOUR: PROPHET AMOS Introduction Amos is one of the prophets God sent to Israel to warn the people because of their evil life. Politically, the Nation of Israel had become rich. There grew classer, the rich and the poor. The rich started oppressing the poor. Socially, there was still the rich poor gap. The rich exploited the poor. Merchants sold bad food, expensive and used false measurer. Religiously, the Israelites had turned away from God and were worshiping false gods. Syncretism was ----- 307 # practiced. Priests were paid and Gods prophets were rejected. It is in this situation that Amos was called. He is called through visions. Amos is one of the canonical or writing prophets. The book of Amos is a temptation of oracles spoken by the prophet on different occasions. Note that after the death of King Solomon, the kingdom of Israel was split into two and rules by Rehoboam and Jeroboam. The northern Kingdom; called Judah was ruled by Rehoboam and was inhabited by two tribes. The southern kingdom called Israel was ruled by Jeroboam and was inhabited by 10 tribes. Amos came from Judah and prophesied in Israel. Topic Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: a) Analyse Prophet Amos work in Israel b) Describe the call of Amos c) Explain the teaching of Amos d) Relate relevance of Amos teaching to Christianity today LESSON ONE: Prophet Amos work in Israel Read Amos 1:1 Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should: 1. Describe the call of Amos 2. Describe the socio, political and economic situation in Israel during the time of Prophet Amos 3. Explain religious situation in Israel 1. The call of Amos (AMOS 1:1,3:8,7:10 15) Prophet Amos was born in a village called Tekoa in Judah, the southern kingdom. Before his call, Amos was a shepherd and a dresser of sycamore trees. He was not a professional prophet. But God called him ----- 308 # to be a prophet. He received his call in form of a vision around 758 BC. Amos responded to Gods call with obedience. He felt a deep compulsion to prophesy (Amos 3:8). God directed him to give his message to the people of Israel, the northern kingdom (Amos 7:15). He was asked to speak the will of Yahweh. He was also to fore tell punishment if Israelites did not repent their sins. His message was opposed, and challenged by Amaziah the priest of Bethel. 3. Religion. Israelites worshipped Yahweh and other gods. Idolatry was also present. This form of worship is called Syncretism . There was religious hypocrisy. Like today, there was an emphasis on external observances of religious practices and less concern for internal observances. The priests were paid for religious work. Those who couldnt pay did not have religious ceremonies. They were offered at the expense of the poor. The prophets of God were rejected. 4. Social economic political situation. When Amos prophesied, King Jeroboam ruled Israel, the northern kingdom while King Uzziah ruled Judah. Amos was sent to prophesy to the people of Israel in the northern kingdom. He concentrated his work mainly in Bethel and Samaria the capital city of Israel and the main centres of worship. When Amos started his prophesy, there was peace and prosper in Israel and Judah. Both kingdoms were wealthy. However, the wealth did not reach the poor. This was because the wealth and power were in ----- 309 # the hands of the king, his family, his officials, and wealthy merchants. As a result, Israel citizens were divided into two classes; the rich and the poor. Unfortunately, the rich people owned big luxurious houses. They drunk wine, and used the most expensive perfumes. They acquired their wealth at the expense of the poor. They oppressed and exploited the poor. The merchants of trade for example, were dishonest in their trade businesses. They sold bad wheat to unsuspecting customers and overcharged customers by measuring with false scales. Because of the inflated prices, the poor borrowed money from the rich at high interest rates to buy basic things like food. Hence, there was massive bribery and corruption in society and law courts. As a result the poor lacked basic necessities or needs like food, shelter, and clothing. It was at this time when God sent Amos to give prophesy to Israel. SAQ. How did the rich oppress the poor in Israel? LESSON TWO: VISIONS OF AMOS Read AMOS 7: 1 9, 8:1 3. 9:1 4) Vision is a picture we have in our mind. It is a future to come. Amos was shown many visions by God. Lesson outcomes. After reading these verses in Amos you should be able to: - 1. Analyse all the visions and 2. State the message of each vision 3. Summaries things that God condemned through Amos 1. The vision of the locusts (Amos 7:1 3 ) ----- 310 # Amos saw a swarm of locusts being sent by God to destroy all plants and food crops in the land. The locusts were, a sign of disaster, which God was going to send to Israel as a punishment for their disobedience. Amos cried to God to forgive the people. God heard and changed his mind. 2. The vision of a great fire (Amos 7:4 6) Amos saw a vision of a supernatural fire that burnt up the land. He asked God to forgive the people and God listened. The punishment was stopped. 3. The vision of a crooked wall/ the plumb line (Amos 7:7 9) Amos saw the Lord standing beside the wall checked it with a plumb line. The wall represented the Israelites. They stopped observing the laws of their covenant with God. God found Israelites disobeying the covenant. God promised to destroy holy places of Israel.. 4. The vision of a basket of ripe fruits (Amos 8:1 3) In this vision, Amos saw a basket of ripe fruits. Fruits are harvested at the end of the summer. This meant that Israel was ripe for punishment for her refusal to turn to God. Amos did not pray for forgiveness. God would no longer withhold His judgment. Time for repentance was over. 5. The vision of the destruction of the altar. Read Amos 9:1 4. Amos saw the Lord standing by the altar. The Lord ordered the destruction of the temple. The shrines of Dan and Bethel were destroyed because they were the centres of idolatry. No one would escape punishment no matter where they hide. Summary of issues that God pointed out to Israel through Prophet Amos ----- 311 # a. Lack of social justice There was lack of social justice and responsibility by the king of Israel. Social justice means dealing with other people fairly. It implies showing concern for the needs of others. b. Lack of responsibility. This refers to the rulers and people of Israel being accountable for their actions. In modern life, it is doing ones duty and fulfilling ones obligation to God and others. c. Practice of hypocritical religion in Israel. The Israelites were insincere in their worship. They made empty sacrifices. They worshipped idols as well as God. They profaned the name of God (Yahweh). They made idols of Baal and offered sacrifices to them. They worshipped other gods. This is syncretism and God does not allow worship of any other God but himself. d. Gods judgment against Israel and other nations. God promised to destroy Israel and leave a remnant of them for restoration. e. Oppressions of the poor by the rich God condemned King Jeroboam rule of Israel because of the oppression of the poor, government corruption and bribery of kings officials. These officials sold the righteous for silver and the needy for a pair of sandals (shoes) i.e. its like practising slavery. The rich trampled on the poor, despised them and placed no value on the poor. The poor gave their garments as security for loan. This was contrary to Gods commandments. The garment was supposed to be returned back to the owner before sunset. The ----- 312 # Samaritan women were fat like the well fed cows of Bashan led luxurious lives and were very unkind to the poor. The rich took an excessive share of the harvest from the farmers. Rulers loved luxury and were arrogant. They loved material things and showed pride in material possessions. They used expensive perfumes. f. Corruption and bribery. The judges were corrupt. They accepted bribes. There was a conspiracy between the rich and the judges against the poor g. Pride in materials possessions The capital city of Israel was Samaria. It was built on a mountain called Bethel, which was also a place of worship. There was prosperity in the land. The Israelites prided themselves in their riches and materials possessions. Amos told them God would destroy their wealth. h. Dishonesty. This is telling lies, cheating or using unjust means to get certain things. The wealthy merchants waited impatiently for the end of the holy days so that they could engage in lucrative businesses. They cheated the poor by using false scales. They sold bad wheat to the poor. They mixed good and bad grains and sold them to unsuspecting people. i. Sexual immorality Sexual immorality was prevalent or common in Israel. For example a father and son would have sex with the same girl. There was temple (cultic) prostitution. There was dishonesty; sexual immorality. This sexual behaviour made the temple unholy. j. Drunkenness ----- 313 # They Israelites spent time drinking when the poor lacked the basic needs. They engaged in excessive drinking of wine. They even forced the Nazarites to drink wine. They accepted drunkenness. k. Profaning the name of the God Israelites did not respect the name of God. They committed sin. They forced Nazirites to drink wine; forcing it down their throats yet they knew that Nazirites were people set aside and chosen by God to serve God. This act showed contempt of Gods commands. Nazirites were not supposed to drink wine or cut their hair. Israelites did this to show their contempt of the Lord, l. Hypocritical Religion and Idolatry in Israel Hypocrisy is pretending to be something different from the person one is. It is also saying one thing, and doing another thing. For example, Israelites did a lot of religious rites according to the laws of Moses and yet majority of them were unjust, corrupt and oppressed the poor. They observed the external religious activities while their hearts were corrupt and insincere. Amos condemned Israelites for this hypocrisy, characterized by insincere worship, and mixture of religious beliefs leading to diverse practices of religion i.e. syncretism. This is a combination or mixture of Israelites monotheism (Yahwehism) and worship of idols and other gods especially Baal, the gods of their neighbours. m. Empty sacrifices The Israelites made elaborative offerings and sacrifices. Yet God was interested only in sincere worship ----- 314 # and free will offerings and not mere sacrifices, and tithes. Take away from me the noise of your songs (Amos 5:21 23). LESSON THREE. GODS JUDGMENT AGAINST ISRAEL AND OTHER NATIONS Read Amos chapter 1 and 2 Learning outcomes. After studying this lesson, you should be able to: a. State the sins committed by Israel and other nations b. Identify how God punished Israel and other nations i) Israel. She committed several crimes, which were condemned by Prophet Amos. Read lesson two again before you go on and list down crimes that were pointed out by Amos. Okay, you have seen that Israel committed crimes of injustice, disobedience to God, breaking their covenant with God, idolatry, hypocrisy among other sins mentioned above. Israel was punished for these crimes. Punishments were severe. Israelites would be exiled forcibly and painfully. Earthquakes, famines, fires, oppression from foreign kings, epidemics and divine silence, would destroy their kingdom and holy places. ii) Syria. Its capital was Damascus. Syria committed war crimes. The soldiers were excessively cruel in times of war. They murdered their prisoners brutally. For this cruelty, their punishment was to be severe. Their palaces would be destroyed by fire and the people would be exiled in Kir. iii) Gaza and philistines. Their crime was capturing other people and selling them into slavery. For this ----- 315 # sin, Gods punishment was destruction of their city by divine fire. It would burn down the wall of Gaza city and destroy it. God would have no more association with them. iv) Tyre. Their Crime was violation of a treaty of friendship they had made. They broke it by capturing a whole nation into exile in the land of Edom. The punishment was God would send fire to destroy city of Tyre and its fortress (Amos 1:9-10). v. Edom. Her people were descendants of Esau. Yet Edom was ruthless to the Israelite to whom they were closely related. For this crime of ruthlessness, the punishment was God would destroy them by fire vi) Ammon committed crime of brutal killings. The people of Ammon attacked and killed their neighbours. They ripped open pregnant woman in Gilead (vs. 13). Gods punishment was destruction of the fortress and wall of the city of Rabbah by fire. Their king and his officers will go into exile: (vs. 15). vii) Moab. The people of Moab; their crime was mishandling the body of the king of Edom. They burned his bones to ashes. Gods punishment was destruction of the city of Kerioth by divine fire. The people, their rulers and leaders would be killed in battle. viii) Judah. Their crimes were (1) failure to obey Gods commands and (2) despising gods teaching. ix) Samaria, Egypt and Ashdod. Their crime was dishonesty and filling their mansions with things taken ----- 316 # by crime and violence (Amos 3:10). Women of Samaria committed the crime of drunkenness, oppressing the weak and poor. The punishment for all these countries is destruction of their land, mansions and army. But a remnant will not go to captivity, and shall not be destroyed. Amos said the remnants are like 2 legs, or a piece of an ear of a sheep rescued from the mouth of a lion (Amos 3:12) x) Amaziah the priest of Bethel. He strongly opposed Amos and told him to go back and prophesy in Judah. Amos told Amaziah God sent him to Israel. His punishment for opposing Gods messenger was.. Amaziahs wife would be a harlot, his children will die in the war, his land will be given to others, and Amaziah will die in a foreign land (Amos 7: 14-17). Lessons to learn from Gods judgment of Israel and other nations The Assyrians attacked Israel, occupied their land and exiled others. God is (a) universal, (b) God hates sin (c) God is concerned about the welfare of his people (d) God is merciful and spares a remnant xi. Israels election (Amos 2:9 11, 3:1 2, 9:7 Election: is an act of choosing a person or group of people for a purpose or action. Israels election refers to Gods choice of the Israelites out of the entire human kind to be his people. God chose them to serve him, be a Holy nation and to be the light of the world. God made a covenant with the Israelites. In the covenant they agreed to live a holy life. In return, God looked after them. He led them out of Egypt to ----- 317 # the wilderness and finally to Canaan. God chose His prophets from the Israelites and raised Nazirites. Despite Gods favour, the Israelites rebelled and sinned against God. And although Israelites were reminded that God cared for other nations equally and are to be punished if they disobeyed God; and that they were neither superior, nor better than other nations, they disobeyed God several times. xii. The day of the lord Amos taught that the day of the lord would be a day of severe judgment for sins. . It is not a time of happiness, joy or victory. It is a day of darkness, terror, disaster, gloom, wailing, flooding, mourning, defeat, punishment, famine for food and Gods word. xiii. The Remnant and Restoration. Remnant means a small number of survivors. These are the Israelites who will remain after the entire nation is punished. They are also those who returned to Jerusalem after the exile. Restoration is an act of reinstating things / persons to their former state or position. Amos informed the Israelites that God was still looking after them, and waiting for their repentance. The nation of Israel would not be destroyed completely. God would preserve the few righteous ones. He would raise the fallen dynasty of David. People would be restored back to their land to rebuild their cities. There was to be a great harvest and grapes shall overflow. xiv. Duty of Christians. Christians are the selected people of God. As the chosen ones, they should one, ----- 318 # live holy lives and two, use their position to serve God and others. Three, Christians have a moral responsibility to spread Gods word, four, care for the needy and five, be the light of the world. xv. The Day of the lord. Read Amos 5:18-20, 6:3-5, 8:7-13. in the Old Testament, the day of the Lord is the day that Yahweh would make Israel victorious against other nations. On this day the Israelite believed that God would establish his rule over and with Israel. The day of the Lord was also believed to be the day when Israel would be prosperous, would have favour with God, and the just would triumph over the wicked. In the New Testament, the day of the lord is also the Day of Judgment (Parousia). It is the day of the second coming of Christ. On that day, everyone will be judged. Christians believe that it is the day that Christ will come for His bride (the church). Those who had obeyed the laws of God shall be received by Christ and given the reward of the eternal life. On that day, Gods kingdom shall be established and Christ will reign forever. xvi. Relevance of Amos teachings to Christians today. The messages of the prophecy of Amos are relevant to Christians today. This is because God is universal. He chose Israel but still punished her for her disobedience, and sins just as He punished other nations like Syria and Gaza. The message that God hates hypocrisy is very clear. Thus Christians should truthful and practice what ----- 319 # they preach. They must worship God in sincerity. Other messages are: Justice. Christians should be just / fair in dealing with others. Self Indulgence. Christians should not pursue luxury and self- indulgence when others lack the basic needs. Bribery. Christians should condemn bribery and corruption, and uphold justice. Punishment. Christians should bear in mind that God will punish every evil. Wealth. When Israel became wealthy, they departed from the covenant with God. Christians should share their wealth with the needy and acquire their wealth justly Hypocritical religion. Amos taught about hypocrisy in religion. This was for example offering empty sacrifices. Christians have to learn to be sincere, to be concerned about their internal well being and soul more than outward observances of religion. Drunkenness. Christians should not engage in activities that can divert their faith from God. If that happens, they should learn to be Repentant. Revision exercise 1. List the visions that Amos saw 2. Explain the evils that Amos condemned in his teachings 3. Give reasons why prophet Amos condemned idol worship in Israel 4. List evils in the society today that Amos would condemn TOPIC FIVE. PROPHET JEREMIAH Introduction. Israel had not taken heed to Amos prophecies. This was especially on idolatry. So, God sent another ----- 320 # prophet to continue with the same work. Jeremiah was therefore appointed as a prophet. Jeremiah is one of the Old Testament Major Prophets. He was called to a prophet at around 627 B.C. He was called as a young man, probably 20 years old. He prophesied in the southern kingdom- Judah, for a period of 40 years. His prophetic ministry took place before and during the exile of Judah. Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: - a Describe the political, Social, and religious background of prophet Jeremiah. b Describe the personal life and call of Jeremiah. c Explain the evils condemned by Jeremiah. d Explain the contents of the temple sermon. e Highlight the relevance of Jeremiahs teaching on evils, false prophets and Christians today. LESSON ONE: THE CALL JEREMIAH Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should be able to: - i. Describe the situation of the people of Judah ii. Identify religious, political and socio classes of Judah iii. Describe the call of Jeremiah iv. Explain lessons that modern Christians can learn from the call of Jeremiah a. The Kingdom of Judah Social background The people of Judah were divided into three social classes. At the top were the (i) Aristocrats. These were the ruling class, which consisted of the king, his family, royal officials, princesses, priests, and professional prophets. This class of the rich oppressed the poor. ----- 321 # Below them was the class (ii) of technical professional such as stonecutters, carpenters, builders, masons, blacksmiths, masons, and others craftsmen (2 Kings 12:12). Below them was class (iii) made up of poor people such as slaves, widows, orphans, and foreigners. All these poor people were mistreated. In terms of ethics, there was moral degradation. They committed adultery, prostitution, murder, false witness, and corruption. Religions background. The Kings and people of Judah worshipped idols. They practiced human sacrifice, divination and magic, and listened to false prophecies. They abandoned their covenant with God and their way of life and practiced syncretism, which is worshipping God and other false gods like Baal. King Josiah tried to restore true worship by carrying out several reforms. Prophetess Huldah prophesied that Judah would be punished after Josiahs death since he humbled before Yahweh. Political Background. Prophet Jeremiah lived in the 7th century BC and prophesied when Judah was ruled by King Josiah, and later his sons Jehoiakim, and Zedekiah; and king Jehoiachin. Judah was conquered and ruled by Assyrians who were conquered by Egyptians who ruled Judah up to 605 BC. Egyptians; were conquered by Babylonians under King Nebuchadnezzar. This was according to the prophecies of Jeremiah. b. The Call of Jeremiah. Read Jer 1: 19. ----- 322 # Jeremiahs father was a priest called Hilkiah. He was born in the territory of Benjamin; at a place called Anathoth, He was well educated. Jeremiah was called to be a prophet in 627 B.C during the reign of King Josiah. He received his call in form of a dialogue with Yahweh. God told him that he had appointed him to be his messenger; even before he was formed in his mothers womb, God had selected him to be a prophet. Jeremiah said he was too young and did not know how to speak. Jeremiah was forewarned of the hostility he would encounter in his prophetic career. God told him that He would protect him and not to fear. God touched Jeremiahs mouth. This symbolized that God is the one who shall put words in his mouth. Jeremiah responded to Gods call in faith and obedience. He was given a message that God was going to bring judgment upon the Kingdom of Judah. God promised to make him a fortified city, an iron pillar and bronze wall for protection. He was commanded by God not to marry, neither have children and not to attend social gatherings, weddings, and funerals. His mission made him isolated and lonely. As a result, his own family and relatives rejected him and plotted to kill him. But he had few friends like Ebed- melech, Ahikam who helped him to get out of a pit. Jeremiah was persecuted by; the kings of Judah. Priests including priest Pashhur opposed him, and false prophets like Hannaniah. He prophesied that God shall punish wicked Kings, priests, and ordinary ----- 323 # people. He suffered spiritually and emotionally. At the fall of Jerusalem in 587 B.C, the army officers of Nebuchadnezzar released him from prison. He went to Egypt where he died at an old age and as a faithful servant of God. His life was symbolic to the people of Judah. During his call, Jeremiah saw two visions. Vision one was the vision of a branch of an almond tree. The tree seemed dead, bare, yet life was in it. This vision was telling Judah that although God seemed to be sleeping, He was watching over them if they obey Him. Vision two was a pot boiling in the north, and it is about to tip over this way (1:13). The boiling pot tilted away from the north signified that the destroyers of Judah would come from the north. The pot was ready to boil over and spill its contents. This meant that Judah was soon going to have trouble. Babylon would pour horrifying disasters on Judah. Lessons from the call of Jeremiah God has a purpose for each person and He can call anybody to do His work. He calls the unborn, the young, old, rich, and poor. God prepares people for His work, through specific experiences at family level, in school, and church. A person who is called to serve God should be ready to meet opposition. God protects His servants and promises to be with them. Jeremiah felt inadequate to speak. Christians should not let their human weakness hinder them from performing their tasks. Christians should respond to Gods call in obedience. ----- 324 # LESSON TWO. EVILS ADDRESSED BY JEREMIAH. Read Jeremiah 2, 3, 4, 5,7, 9, 10, 23, and 28. Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, 1. Name the evil practices that Jeremiah condemned 2. Explain why Jeremiah condemned these evil practices There were many evils in Judah and Israel. We have mentioned some of them. These were: necromancy, dishonesty, deception, false prophecy, human sacrifice, and idolatry i. Necromancy. Words related to necromancy are divinations, magic, sorcery, and playing tricks on peoples minds. Necromancy is the art of seeking hidden knowledge from the mysterious world of spirits: using magic, and divination, which is invoking the dead. Divination was condemned in the Hebrew language. Diviners, magicians, sooth sayers and fortunetellers used necromancy. Prophet Jeremiah condemned necromancy. Reasons why Jeremiah condemned necromancy Necromancy was a deception and therefore an evil practice. The diviners gave false information from their own imagination. This practice polluted the true worship of Yahweh and indicated Israelites lack of faith in the one true God. Two, by trusting in divination, and magic, the Israelites showed their lack of knowledge of the one true God. Three, by consulting the mediums, the Israelites disobeyed God (Jer 27:8-10). ii) Deception and Dishonesty Dishonesty is lack of moral integrity or moral uprightness. Deception is cheating, and telling lies ----- 325 # intentionally. It is also giving false and misleading information. The Israelites were dishonest because they worshiped God and at the same time committed social injustices against their brothers and sisters. Their repentance was insincere. There was treachery, and greed. They laid traps for each other. People pretended to be friendly and at the same time conspired to kill. Jeremiah challenged the Israelites people to circumcise their hearts which were deceitful. Their tongues were deadly arrows and they listened to false prophesies like that of Hannaniah Jeremiah condemned deception. This was because it led to syncretism, and hypocrisy in worship; and breaking down of the covenant way of life. Jeremiah warned the Israelites and asked them to repent iii. False prophesy by Hannaniah. Jer 28 During the reign of king Zedekiah, Hannaniah broke the yoke that Jeremiah was wearing. Hannaniah spoke in the name of Yahweh. He lied to the people as he spoke from his imagination and dreams. Jeremiah denounced Hannaniah. He predicted and prophesied the death of Hannaniah in the same year. And it came to pass. Jeremiah had also prophesied that the captivity of Judah should be long contrary to Hannaniah who said Judah will be exiled for 2 years. Reasons for condemning false prophets Prophets of Baal were still in existence. False prophets like Hannaniah had filled the people of Israel with unrealistic hopes of peace yet Judah was to be destroyed. Recall the characteristics of true and false ----- 326 # prophets. False prophets did not condemn sin. They prophesied for money and in the process misled people away from Yahweh. False prophets prophesied from their dreams, imaginations and not from God. They gave people false hopes. They intended to make themselves popular, with the King and the people. iv) Human sacrifice. The people offered human sacrifice to idols and oppressed each other. Human sacrifice is the act of killing human beings for a religious or spiritual purpose. The Israelites copied this activity from the Canaanites. Children were believed to be the best sacrifice since people believed they would get great favors from the deities. Some kings such as Ahaz and Manasseh sacrificed their sons to idols. Jeremiah condemned human sacrifice. Reasons for condemning human sacrifice Human sacrifice was an act of idolatry. It indicated infidelity of the Israelites to the one true God. It demonstrated Israels disrespect for the sacred gift of life. It showed their lack of knowledge of the true nature of Yahweh. Human sacrifice defiled the land for life is in the blood. Blood speaks hence the land was crying at this vengeance. God did not ask for human sacrifices. Human sacrifice was a sign of lack of love of God and love for one another. It is a demonstration of disregard for human life. Only God has the right to take away life. In our country people kill each other every day especially on the road. Why do we do this? ----- 327 # v. Idolatry Idolatry is the worship of many gods. Idols are images made by people for worship. The Israelites practiced syncretism, which we said was the worship of Yahweh and idols. The people of Israel were worshipping Baal the Queen of heaven, sun, moon, stars, and also Yahweh (Jer 8:2). Idols were placed even in Yahwehs sacred places. The temple was defiled by idols. This the temple unclean. Jeremiah condemned it. He told the people of Israel that {they have forsaken the fountain of living waters (GOD) and hewn out for themselves broken cisterns (IDOLs) that can hold no water (Jer 2: 11-13). Why did Jeremiah condemn idolatry? Read Jer 2: 20, 2:1- 3, 5: 7- 8. Idolatry is like adultery and prostitution. It defiled people and was a sign of lack of faith in Yahweh. It defiled the land. Idolatry led to divine judgment and punishment. People of Judah abandoned Yahweh the Husband and chased lovers the idols and deities The Israelites (Northern kingdom) had been punished before and yet Judah did not learn from them. By worshipping idols Judah broke the covenant and their relationship with God. And unless the people of Judah repented, they would be punished; as there is only one true living God to be worshipped and obeyed. Is there idolatry among Christians todays vi. Other evils condemned by Jeremiah People of Judah trusted that the temple was secure, holy and cannot be destroyed. Jeremiah denounced ----- 328 # this false belief about the temple. He warned them that God would destroy the temple because of the many evils committed in it. The temple of God had become a den of robbers and human sacrifices. People of Judah committed other evils such as hypocrisy (Jer 7; 9-10); social injustice (adultery, murder), stubbornness, and rebellion. vi. The temple Temple is a place of worship. The temple of Israelites was in Jerusalem. It signified the presence of God among his people. The Israelites believed God could never destroy or allow destruction of the temple. Jeremiah stood at the gates of the temple court during Jehuiakims reign, and Judah that God would destroy the temple and send them to exile. He urged them to repent and turn back to God. King Josiah heard the message of Jeremiah and he reformed religious practices in Judah. vii. Religions reforms carried out by King Josiah This topic is not clearly spelt out in the syllabus. It is based on the book of Deuteronomy. The scroll was discovered in the temple during repairs. Josiah ordered the repair of the temple of God. He led a national ceremony to review the covenant. He destroyed idols and altars associated with the worship of foreign deities throughout Judah. He eliminated all the priests associated with the worship of false deities. He celebrated Passover in Jerusalem. The successors of King Josiah did not follow his example. They became corrupt. They ----- 329 # persecuted the prophets of God. They listened to false prophets. They promoted idolatry and child sacrifice. viii. The Relevance of Jeremiahs teachings to Christians today. Christians should denounce hypocrisy in the society today. They should not result to witchcraft, divination and sorcery. They should be upright, and worship God in sincerity. They are to proclaim divine judgment upon those who refuse to obey Gods will, just like Jeremiah declared Gods judgment upon Judah due to the sins of the people. Like Jeremiah, Christians should speak out against modern idols like love of money, power, obsession with sports, sex, and drugs among other evils. Christians should condemn destruction of human life, violence; murder, abortion, parents killing their own children, genocide and exploitation of the poor. Christians should be aware of the existence of false teachings and prophecies. They should pray for Gods guidance and wisdom to be able to distinguish truth from false teaching. Christians have a responsibility to correct one another and call on sinners to repent. Christians are to be trustworthy, upright, and merciful to the poor and condemn dishonesty. They should practice justice in their relationship with others; preach against disobedience, stubbornness and pray to God to help them overcome these vices. Read these review questions and answer before reading answers> 1. Why was Jeremiah reluctant to accept the call? 2. Which evils / sins did Jeremiah Condemn?. ----- 330 # 3. Give examples of idol worship in Kenya. 4. Describe Jeremiahs temple sermon SAQ answer. 1. Jeremiah felt inadequate because he was too young to work for God. He argued that he did not know how to speak. He was afraid. He knew he would face stiff opposition from the people of Judah. The message of Gods judgments is difficult to deliver. 2. Read text again and look for evils and sins that Jeremiah condemned. 3. Examples of idol worship in Kenya are many. Some people including Christians practice witchcraft, sorcery, personality cults and hero worship of religions and political leaders. Other people, worship money, materialism, media, and sports obsession with power / status Sexual immorality devil worship 4. Jeremiahs temple sermon. Read text again. LESSON THREE. JEREMIAHS TEACHINGS ON JUDGMENT AND PUNISHMENT Read Jeremiah 5:12-18, 6;1-30, 7:30, 8:1-17, 10: 17-25, 15;1-9, 17:1-13, 25: 1-38 Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: - a Summarize in two paragraphs Jeremiah key teachings. b Explain the significance of symbolic acts related to judgement and punishment. c Describe suffering and lamentations of Jeremiah d Explain the teachings of Jeremiah on the new covenant. a. Jeremiah teachings. Sin was internalise in the hearts of the people of Judah. God punished them. God punishes people because of their unfaithfulness. Punishment is a penalty, for an offence or a crime ----- 331 # committed. But in punishing people, God is a just judge. He does not punish people without a reason irrespective of their status. God judges people by looking into their hearts. Divine judgment is for a group. For example, the people of Judah were punished as a group. However God searches each persons heart and judges accordingly. God executes His judgment by means of political and historical events. Divine punishments are in forms of natural disasters like drought, famine, and epidemics. Gods punishment is unavoidable, and inescapable. Judah took the best option by surrendering to the Babylonians. The purpose for Gods judgement is to correct the sinner. God gave his people a chance to repent before he punished them. Gods judgment is universal. It is not limited to one nation. God punished the neighbours of Judah who at that time were Egypt, Moab, Ammon, and Babylon. Gods punishment is severe compared to that of venomous snakes that bite the people of Judah. Gods judgement is not necessarily a punishment from God for ones sins. It is symbolic. The sufferings of Jeremiah were symbolic of the life of the people of Judah. What can we learn about Gods punishments? Are modern disasters such as cyclones, floods, earthquakes, landslides, epidemics, bomb blasts, civil wars, forest fires, rebellions in schools a sign of Gods judgment and punishment? What do you think? ----- 332 # b. Symbolic acts related to judgement and punishment People use several methods to convey messages to each other. We use songs, advertisements, dramas, and stories by the fireside, in novels, the Internet, and magazines to communicate messages about children, adults, society, political leaders, poverty and many others. The prophets used: (1). Oracles; Thus says the Lord; (2) Allegories (3) Parables (4) Songs (5) Symbolic Visions (6) Symbolic actions and (7) dramatized messages Symbolic acts of Jeremiah i The linen waist cloth (Jer.13) ii Jeremiahs personal life (Jer.16) iii Jeremiahs visit to a potter (Jer.18) iv The broken earthen flask (Jer.19) v The symbolic vision of 2 baskets of figs (Jer.24) vi The wearing of the yoke i. The Linen Waist Cloth. Read Jer.13 Jeremiah was instructed by God to buy a linen waistcloth and wear it around his waist without dipping it in water. He was told to hide the cloth in a hole near river Euphrates. Afterwards he was told to take the cloth. He found it spoilt for wearing. Significance. The liner material was for priestly garments in Israel. It symbolized Israels holiness. The unwashed cloth represented Judahs sinful pride. Israel used to cling close to God but now Israel / Judah were spoilt, rebellious, arrogant and pursued foreign gods. God was going to destroy them if they did ----- 333 # not repent. The spoilt linen waistcloth was a symbol for future Gods action. ii. Jeremiahs personal Life. Read Jer 16. His life was a symbolic act. He was told not to marry, have children, and nor attend funerals, social gatherings, feasts and wedding parties. Significance. The personal life of Jeremiah was one of suffering. This signified the suffering that the people of Judah would be subjected to. Judah was punished because of their wickedness and rebellion. Jeremiahs loneliness signified the perishing of families through the sword, famine and disease. It would be a time of terror for the families of Judah. Their normal social life of feasting, merry making would come to an end. There would be no weddings and no one to bury the dead. Hence Jeremiah was forbidden from mourning for the dead. iii. Jeremiahs at the potters house (Jer.18) Jeremiah was told to go to a potters house. He found the potter making a clay vessel. Whenever a piece of pottery turned out imperfect, he would take the clay and make it into something else (18: 4). The potter made a better pot, more perfect vessel than the spoilt one. Significance. God is the potter. People of Judah are the clay. As the potter destroyed to vessel, God intended to destroy Judah because of their wickedness and mould those who repented into better people. God was going to shape them into faithful people. Gods judgement was to be a corrective punishment. ----- 334 # iv. The broken clay Jar. Read Jer.19. God told Jeremiah to buy a clay flask He then took some elders and priests to the valley of Valley of Hinnon. He delivered a sermon condemning the people of Judah for their idolatry and other evils. Jeremiah then broke the clay jar in their presence and announced to them that Yahweh would destroy Jerusalem and Judah as Jeremiah had destroyed the jar. Significance. The kings, priests and prophets of Judah would be shattered like the clay flask because of their sins. Sine, they brutally sacrificed their children; they are to suffer horrifying experiences at the hand of their enemies. They shall suffer starvation and turn into cannibals; eating their own children and neighbours (v.9). Broken pieces of a clay pot cannot be moulded. No one was to escape judgment. However there is hope after punishment. v. Two Baskets of Figs (Jer.24). Jeremiah received the visions, after the deportation and exile of leading citizens of Judah and Israel to Babylon. Two baskets of figs were placed in front of the temple. One basket had very good figs, which had ripened. The other basket had bad figs unfit for human consumption. Significance. The basket of good figs signified the first exile. God would renew their hearts; use them to fulfil his promises to the Israelites. He would recreate them to a new people. The basket of the bad figs ----- 335 # represented people living in Jerusalem and Egypt. Since they were not exiled they had a self-righteous attitude. They thought that God spared them because they were truthful but it was not so. They shall also be destroyed through famine, and diseases. This vision signifies hope and restoration of the Israelites. vi. Jeremiah Wears an Ox Yoke. Read Jer. 27. When Zedekiah son of Josiah became the ruler of Judah, Jeremiah was instructed by God to make for himself a yoke out of leather straps and wooden crossbars and to wear it around his neck (27: 2). Jeremiah moved around in the yoke for quite sometime in public. He was also given a message for ambassadors of kings of Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre, and Sidon, who were coming to see King Zedekiah in Jerusalem. They were to give Gods message to their kings. The message was to submit to King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia; his son, and his grandson. Any nation that accepted this message shall not suffer; but if any nation ..will no submit to King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia rule, God will punish that nation by war, starvation and disease Read Jer 27:6-8. The message for king Zedekiah was to surrender to the Babylonian rule and live, if he resists he would perish. The message for priests and people of Judah was not to be misled by the false prophets. The temple would be destroyed. Its treasures looted by the Babylonians. ----- 336 # Significance. The yoke represented the Babylonians rule. Nebuchadnezzar was used by God to bring judgment to all nations. Yahweh is a universal God and his judgment is universal. Sinners are punished regardless of their origin or nation. Those who repent are spared. Reflection questions Why did God inspire Jeremiah to use symbolic acts to convey his message? Answer Israelites were stubborn. Jeremiah acts were reminders to Judah to turn to God and stop idolatry and all the sins they were committing. They had drifted too far from God. False prophets were prophesying lies to them. The people of Judah were expected to meditate on these acts and understand Gods will for them and see the seriousness of the matter. This was also to imprint a lasting impression in their minds. SAQ. Which methods do pastors / priests use to communicate Gods message to Christians today? c. The sufferings and lamentations of Jeremiah Read Jer 11, 12, 17:14 18, 18:18- 23, 20: 1 6, 27, 37, and 38. Jeremiah sufferings were experiences that were painful; physically and emotionally. In suffering there is loss and grief. Lamentations are strong emotional expressions of pain and grief. Jeremiah suffered in the following ways I. Rejection by his own family and relatives. They plotted to kill him. This grieved Jeremiah. II. Anathoth planned to kill him but God protected Jeremiah. He pronounced Gods judgment upon them ----- 337 # III. Jeremiah suffered when he was accused falsely. He was accused of blasphemy after the temple sermon. He foretold the destruction of the temple, just like Jesus Christ in the New Testament did. IV. He was accused of treachery. That he was planning to leave Jerusalem and join the Babylonians. This led to Jeremiah being arrested and put in an underground jail. V. Jeremiah received death threats because of speaking for God. King Jehoiakim plotted to kill prophet Uriah. The prophet escaped to Egypt but he was followed to Egypt, arrested and killed by king Jehoiakim. The king had planned to accuse Jeremiah of Uriah death. Ahikam and other elders defended Jeremiah. (Jeremiah 26) VI. Jeremiah suffered loneliness and solitude. He felt emotional anguish and complained to God of his orders not to marry, neither attend social gathering and celebrations. This made Jeremiah lonely since he did not participate in the family life, political life, community activities and religious life. VII. Jeremiah experienced inner personal struggle due to his love for his own people He did not want to see them suffer but the people were stubborn Read Jer. 12:1 6, 15:10 21, and 27. VIII. Jeremiahs prophesying judgment caused him emotional pain and agony. His messages were mainly of severe judgment and punishment. IX. He went through a spiritual struggle in his relationship with God. He felt frustrations, doubts, self-pity ----- 338 # and despair. He wondered why God made him suffer. Why do the wicked prosper? He also wondered why God was taking too long to fulfil his prophecies. God assured him that Judah would be punished and promised to give Jeremiah victory against his enemies. X. Jeremiah suffered physical assault, imprisonment and an attempt on his life. Pashhur, the chief temple priest ordered beating and chaining of Jeremiah to the temple gate. Jeremiah prophesied that Pashshurs name would change to terror everywhere. XI. King Zedekiah released Jeremiah from the cell to his court. Jeremiah continued to prophecy and was thrown in a muddy cistern. Here he was rescued by Ebed- melech an Ethiopian Eunuch. The court officials had accused him of not being patriotic. Jeremiah remained in jail until the Babylonians overthrew Jerusalem. He did not change his prophecies. Read Jer. 10:1 6, 27, 37, and 38. Is there relevance of the sufferings and lamentations of Jeremiah to Christians today? From his suffering Christians learn to be ready to face opposition and rejection from their own family members and relatives for the sake of the gospel. Christians should be prepared to suffer persecution for the Lord. Christians should be ready to make sacrifices for the sake of God. Be ready to lead humble lives. Jeremiahs open confessions to God encourage Christians to be open to God. Christians should let God avenge for them just like Jeremiah prayed to God to revenge his enemies. Christians should not lose ----- 339 # hope in times of difficulty. Christians learn that tribulations strengthen their faith. Christians should learn to deal with negative emotions such as self pity, grief and trust God. Jeremiah was told by God to repent of his negative utterances. Christians should do the same as they are assured of divine security and protection against their persecutors. LESSON FOUR. JEREMIAHS TEACHING ABOUT THE NEW COVENANT A covenant is an agreement. Another word for covenant is testament. Jeremiah taught that there would be a new covenant between God and Israel. This new covenant would be different from the Old (Sinai) covenant. The new covenant would renew the broken relationship between God and his people. Lesson outcomes. After reading Jeremiahs teaching: a. State the terms of the new covenant. b. Identify the differences between the old covenant and the new covenant c. Summarize the similarities between the old covenant and the new covenant a. The New Covenant. In the new covenant, the law would be written in the hearts of the people unlike the old covenant where the law was written on stone tablets. Every individual would know God personally and not through prophets as it was during times of Jeremiah and previous one. Each person would be responsible for his/her sins. God would forgive sins and remember them no more. The new covenant would be established after Gods punishment of Israel and establishing a new Israel, a new ----- 340 # people of God. The new covenant would establish a new beginning. People would forget the first Exodus. The second Exodus would be deliverance and restoration from Babylon. God would initiate the new covenant as he did with the first. It would be a new covenant of peace, unity, prosperity, Joy and gladness. In the new covenant a righteous branch would be established. The new covenant would be everlasting. It would not be broken again. b. Differences between the old covenant and the new covenant Old Covenant New Covenant 1. Based on law Based on faith 2. Word written on stone tablets Word written in peoples hearts 3. God known personally by a few priests prophets and prophets Each to person to know God personally 4. Covenant broken when people sinned Everlasting covenant 5. Sins punished collectively Sins punished individually 6. 1st Exodus from Egypt 2nd Exodus from Babylon 7. Sealed by animal sacrifice Sealed by Jesus sacrifice (blood) What are the similarities between the old and the new covenant? Jesus fulfilled the new covenant. Jesus is the righteous branch from the lineage of David. In the last supper, before his death, Jesus said this cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood. Read Luke, 22:20. The death and resurrection of Jesus marks the new covenant. Jesus spoke of forgiveness of sins of humanity Jesus forgave peoples sins, for example, the sinful woman in Simons house (Luke7: 36 50). In the new ----- 341 # covenant the law would be written in peoples hearts. Jesus summarized the Mosaic Law into love God with all your heart, mind, strength and love your neighbour as you love yourself. Jesus established the kingdom of God as a new community of Gods people based on faith (the Christians). Jesus fulfilled the new covenant prophecies The teachings of Jeremiah new covenant of hope and restoration is fulfilled in Jesus Christ and the new testament church (Christians) Heb.8:7 12. LESSON FIVE. JEREMIAHS TEACHINGS ON HOPE AND RESTORATION Learning Outcomes (a) Explain the symbolic acts related to hope and restoration (b) Describe the fall of Jerusalem and the exile of the Israelites (c) Relate the relationship of the teachings of Jeremiah to the New Testament and Christian life today. A. Symbolic acts related to hope and restoration. The symbolic acts were one hope and restore. Hope is to expect something that is desired; while to restore is to bring back as nearly as possible the former or original state or condition. The symbolic acts were 5 in number. The first symbolic act was a vision of 2 baskets of figs. We have discussed it. Refer to the symbolic act related to judgment. The second symbolic act was Jeremiah buying a field. God instructed Jeremiah to buy a field from his cousin Hanamel of Anathoth. Jeremiah bought the field for 17 cents of silver. He then handed the title ----- 342 # deed and open copy to Baruch. Baruch was told to keep the title deed and the copy in an earthen vessel for preservation for a long time. Jeremiah prophesied the restoration of the exiles to their homeland. The significance of this symbolic act is the assurance of restoration of Judah and Israel after suffering. People will be restored to their homeland. After 70 years people of Judah would reconstruct their homes, cultivate their land, and own property (Jer 32; 1 -15). The third symbolic act was Jeremiah letter to the Jews in Babylonia. Jeremiah wrote to the people of Judah a letter of encouragement while in exile. They were to settle down, build houses, marry and have children, live in peace with the Babylonians. They were to pray for the welfare of their masters and to ignore false prophets who lied to them about the safety of Jerusalem and a quick return. God would restore them back to their land after 70 years of exile were over. The exiles were to trust in God and not give up (Jer.29). The four symbolic act was a wooden ox yoke. The yoke represented captivity and suffering of Jews in exile. It was also a sign of hope if the people of Judah were willing to submit to the Babylonian rule. God would restore them back to their land. Their yoke would be broken and they would be set free. The fifth symbolic act was the visit to the porters house b. The fall of Jerusalem and the exile of the Israelites (Jer.39) Jeremiahs prophecy came to pass. Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians in the ninth year of king Zedekiah ----- 343 # in 587BC. The Babylonians conquered Jerusalem and seized it. King Zedekiah fled but; he was captured by the Babylonians army. He witnessed the execution of his sons. His eyes were gauged out. He was then taken in chains to captivity in Babylon. Solomons temple was looted and destroyed. Villages, Jerusalem and the palace were destroyed and burnt down. The priests, court officials, army officials, people in the upper class, craftsmen were executed. City people were taken to Babylon as captives. The poor, aged and a few people were left behind and given vineyards to farm. Nebuchadnezzars army was brutal to the Israelites. Many were killed. A few like Ebed Melech were spared as prophesied by Jeremiah (he had rescued him from the well). Nebuchadnezzar ordered the release of Jeremiah. He was treated well Judah became a province of Babylon. Gedaliah was appointed governor of Judah. He stayed at Mizpah, the headquarters of Judah. Ishmael killed Gedaliah. Later Jeremiah was forced to go to Egypt by the Israelites. Jeremiah died in Egypt, an old man, and still faithful to his call. LESSON SIX. RELATING THE TEACHINGS OF JEREMIAH TO THE NEW TESTAMENT AND CHRISTIAN LIFE TODAY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1.Describe the teachings of Jeremiah in relation to Christian life today 2. Describe the teachings of Jeremiah in relation to the new testament Jeremiah was rejected by his; relatives, friends and the Israelites. In the New Testament, Jesus was ----- 344 # rejected in his hometown of Nazareth: and by the religious leaders of Israel. Jeremiah compared himself to a lamb being led to the slaughter. Jesus in the New Testament is referred to as a lamb led to the slaughter. Jeremiahs suffering symbolizes divine judgment over Judah. However Jesus sufferings was to bring salvation to all mankind. Both Jeremiah and Jesus experienced spiritual agony. Jeremiah experience agony and felt left alone by God. Jesus too felt agony when praying in the garden of Gethsemane and when on the cross. Jeremiah taught that God is universal and a just judge. The gospel of Jesus is universal and everybody is judged according to his or her faith in God. Jeremiah and Jesus accused the Israelites of turning the temple into a den of robbers. Jeremiah and Jesus were both accused of blasphemy. Both challenged false beliefs about the temple. Both Jeremiah and Jesus spoke of the coming judgment of God. The new covenant was fulfilled in the life and ministry of Jesus Christ Jeremiah spoke of hope and restoration. Jesus gives hope of eternal life in the New Testament. ii. Relationship of Jeremiahs teaching to Christian today. Christians are to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ. They are empowered by the Holy Spirit to endure suffering and to grow spiritually. Christians like Jeremiah face false prophets who speak in Jesus name. Christians are to be watchful and obey Yahweh Like Jeremiah Christians should call people to repentance. The new covenant is fulfilled in Christians ----- 345 # individual relationship with God. Christians are the new people, the new Israel as prophesied by Jeremiah. His teachings reveal that God is universal. Christians are from all corners of the earth. Christians should prepare for divine judgment by practicing love, righteousness, self-denial, and faith in God. Revision exercise 1. List the evils that Jeremiah condemned 2.What are some of the evils that church leaders condemn today? 3. Explain the symbolism used during the call of prophet Jeremiah 4. What did Jeremiah teach about the new covenant? 5. Why did prophet Jeremiah condemn the way the Israelites worshipped? 6. Explain Jeremiahs temple sermon as recorded in jeremiah7: 1-15 7. What forms of punishment did Jeremiah prophesy that God would use on Judah? 8. Outline the content of Jeremiahs letter to exiles in Babylon 9. Explain four symbolic acts related to judgement and punishment as demonstrated by prophet Jeremiah 10. Identify the relevance of Jeremiahs teaching to Christians today 11. In what ways is the prophetic mission of Jeremiah similar to that of Jesus? TOPIC SIX. NEHEMIAH Introduction The book of Nehemiah is a historical writing. Nehemiah is a record of his deep dependence on God and his frequent prayer to God. Nehemiah means Yahweh has comforted. Nehemiah was the son of ----- 346 # Hacaliah of Judah. He was not a prophet. He was exiled to Babylon. Persians captured Babylon and improved the living condition of the Israelites. They were allowed religious freedom but had to pay tributes. Learning outcomes. By the end of this topic you should be able to; a. Describe the historical, religious and social background to Nehemiah b. Identify occasions when Nehemiah prayed c. Explain the importance of prayer in Christian life D .Describe leadership qualities of Nehemiah and relevance to Christians today. LESSON ONE. BACKGROUND TO NEHEMIAH Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, i. Describe how the people of Judah lived and worshipped. ii. Explain the conquest of Israel and Judah by foreign forces iii. Give reasons why God allowed Judah and Israel to be conquered and exiled. a. Political and historical background. From 587 BC to 538 BC, Israelites were in exile. In 538 B.C., the first group of Israelites was set free and returned to Judah. Cyrus the Great, of Persia ruled his subjects through governors. They were led out of Babylon by Joshua the high priest and Zerubbabel who became the first governor of Judah. Some Jews remained in Babylon. They were referred to as Jews in Diaspora or dispersion. Other Jews remained in other lands including Egypt, and Mediterranean lands Nehemiah. He was a cupbearer in the palace of the Persian king Artaxerxes I. He later became a ----- 347 # governor of Judah. Even after the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem, Israelites remained subjects of the Persian king. The Wall of Jerusalem was important to Israel and Judah. The Wall represented a sense of pride, ownership, privacy, independence and Security. The Greeks conquered the Persians; who were later conquered by Romans. b. Social background The Jews in foreign lands retained their Jewish way of life. The land of Israel was partly occupied by foreigners. The foreign cultures of neighboring rulers influenced Israelites who returned. They for example, intermarried with foreigners, a custom that God did not allow. Israelites were not to intermarry with other people according to the Mosaic Law. In spite of this however, Jews maintained their separated identity. Some of the foreigners despised Jews. The wealthy Jews oppressed the poor Jews. In Jerusalem there was starvation. Nehemiah condemned oppression of the poor. c. Religious background Jews returned to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem and the altar of God for sacrifices. While in exile, Jews were allowed by the Babylonian king to practice their religion. They worshipped Yahweh, practiced circumcision, obeyed dietary laws and observed the Sabbath. The exiles could not however observe all the religious practices for example offering animal sacrifices. ----- 348 # Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem to rebuild its the wall. The temple of Jerusalem was rebuilt, cleared and dedicated to God. LESSON TWO. Prayers by Nehemiah and modern Christians Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson the learner should be able to: a. Outline occasions when Nehemiah prayed to the Lord. b. Discuss the importance of prayer Nehemiah prayed, mourned, and fasted. He prayed often and for all actions, keeping Gods law, forgiveness, punishments, human relations, Jerusalem, good works, contributions and offerings, observance of Sabbath day, and preparing duty allocations for priests and Levites. . i. When he learnt about the suffering of Jews who remained in Judah and the ruined state of Jerusalem; He prayed for forgiveness on behalf of his people (Neh.4: 1 11). ii. Making a request to King Artaxerxes to be permitted to return to Judah (Neh.2: 4 iii. When his enemies ridiculed the Jews and planned to discourage them from rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Tobiah in particular said that the wall was poorly constructed and it could be brought down by; a fox jumping on it. Nehemiah requested God to punish the enemies who were mocking temple builders (Neh.4: 4 5). iv. When he learnt that his enemies were conspiring to attack Jerusalem to stop the construction work, he prayed and organised people to provide a 24-hour guard of the wall (Neh.4: 7 9). ----- 349 # .v. For his good work, he prayed for his works (Neh 5:19). vi. When his enemies plotted to destroy him, he prayed God for strength and courage to overcome his enemies (Neh 6: 19). vii. When Shemaih attempted to frighten him to hide in the temple claiming that there was a plot to kill him, Nehemiah prayed and asked God to punish his enemies (Neh 6:14). viii. When he organized contributions for Levites and musicians; and people to distribute them. He asked God to remember his work for the house of God (Neh 13:14). ix. He stopped trade on the Sabbath day, and organised rest on the Sabbath day. He warned traders against violating the Sabbath law. He asked Lord to remember him for these actions (Neh.13: 22). x. Nehemiah prayed for punishment of the son of Joiada. The son of Joiada had brought disgrace to the priest hood by marrying a foreigner, the daughter of Sanballat from the town of Beth Horon, (Neh 13:29). After cleansing the Israelites of foreign influence, he forbade mixed marriages xi. He prepared duty regulations for priests and Levites. He allocated them duties. He then organised Jews to bring offerings for maintaining priests and Levites. He prayed God to remember his work for the temple, priests and Levites (Neh 13:31). b. Importance of prayer in Christian life Through prayers, Christians express their faith in God and praise God for his greatness, goodness, holiness, and majesty. Prayer brings Christians closer to God; it strengthens their relationship with God. ----- 350 # Through prayer Christians request for their needs, blessings, success, good health, and protection among other requests. Prayers help Christians to listen to God and to seek his will. Prayer is a source of strength. It gives Christians courage to face and overcome lifes challenges. Christians seek guidance, comfort and support in times of trials. In prayer, Christians intercede for the sick, poor, hungry, prisoners, friends, family and community. The communal / public prayers unite Christians together. Through prayers, Christians ask for forgiveness and the ability to forgive others. In prayers, Christians trust that God listens and answers their prayers. LESSON THREE: LEADERSHIP QUALITIES OF NEHEMIAH Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State the leadership qualities of Nehemiah 2. Explain the relevance of Nehemiahs leadership qualities to Christians today Introduction. A leader is someone charged with the responsibility of guiding, controlling, directing and leading others. Nehemiah had many leadership qualities. These were: - 1) God fearing man. Nehemiah feared God, relied and depended on God. 2) Prayerfulness he prayed constantly before and after making decisions. 3) Courageous He displayed courage even when his life was in danger 4) Hard work and commitment. He was dedicated to the rebuilding of the wall of the temple and Jerusalem. 5) Team spirit he was a team leader, motivating people to work. ----- 351 # 6) He had planning and organizational skills 7) He was visionary He had compassion for the needy especially the poor, Levites and priests 9) He was patriotic loved his country 10) Wisdom. He made wise decisions at the right time. 11) He led by example, a role model 12) He was honest and sincere in his prayers 13) He was shrewd and impartial 14) His trusted God absolutely. 15) He was decisive. He told God about decisions he had made and asked for their recognition. 16) He was humble. He asked to be allowed to return to Jerusalem and oversee the repair of its wall and temple. 16) He believed in law and punishment of wrong doers. He asked God to punish lawbreakers especially Jews who married foreigners. b. Relevance of Nehemiahs leadership to Christians today Christians should copy all the leadership qualities of Nehemiah. They should trust in God and seek his guidance in all their activities and needs. 1. Christians should live a life of prayer 2. Christians should be courageous, be ready to defend the gospel of Jesus Christ. 3. Christians should be dedicated to their work. Work diligently and honestly 4. Christians should set realistic goals and organize their activities. 5. Christians should seek wisdom from God to be able to choose appropriate activities to attain their visions. ----- 352 # 6. Christians should care for the needy and be compassionate to all 7. Christians should be patriotic and ready to defend their country against internal / external threats. 8. Christians should need to fight for the rights of the helpless children, widows, orphans, and aged. 9. Christians should seek God first, view themselves as servants of God and be good role models. LESSON FOUR. BUILDING THE WALL OF JERUSALEM The wall of Jerusalem was destroyed when Babylonians conquered Judah. After finishing the wall, he dedicated it to the Lord. Dedication is to devote something in honor of a person held dear or to set aside something for some special purpose. Learning Outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should be able to: - a. Describe the problems that Nehemiah faced when building the wall of Jerusalem b. Describe the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem c. Identify lessons, which Christians can learn from Nehemiah. a. Nehemiah rebuilt the wall of Jerusalem. The rebuilt wall had several gates with different names. The gates were the entrances to Jerusalem. Their names were Dung gate, Potsherd gate, Fountain gate, Water gate, Horse gate, East gate, Sheep gate, Fish gate, Watch gate and Ephraim gate. Knowing the names of the gates may not be necessary but its good information. b. Problems faced by Nehemiah. When Nehemiah was building the wall of Jerusalem, he faced many challenges. There was lack of cooperation by the nobles of Tekoa. They did not want to do manual work ----- 353 # at first but they later repented. Nehemiah faced opposition from enemies such as. Sanballat, and Tobiah, the Arab who tried to thwart the progress of Nehemiahs work. As he built Jerusalem, the rich oppressed the poor. This was worsened by famine The priests misused the temple and the offerings. For example, temple duties had been abandoned. The Levites were not getting their share of the offerings and the Sabbath was violated. There was laxity in observance of the Sabbath. This was a challenge to Nehemiah because Sabbath day should be kept holy. There was a lot of foreign influence because of the conquests by several foreign armies, intermarriages and interactions between Jews, neighboring people and foreigners. Marriages in particular threatened the identity of the Israelites as a nation. Worse still Priests married to foreign women defiled the priesthood according to Nehemiah. Because of these assimilations of Jews through marriages, Nehemiah knew that Israel and Judah would eventually be lost as Gods nation. Because of his opposition to these interactions, Nehemiah received death threats. c. Dedication of the wall of Jerusalem (NEH. 12:27 47) The rebuilt wall was dedicated to God. The wall restored security and prestige of Gods people. The wall of Jerusalem was set-aside for God in a solemn ceremony. There was a dedication ceremony in which people sung with symbols, harps, lyres, trumpets and other instruments. The priests, and Levites purified themselves. ----- 354 # The people led by Ezra, Nehemiah, the priests and other leaders of Judah walked around the wall. They divided themselves into two groups. One group walked from the right side and the other group from the left side and converged at the temple. Sacrifices were offered and people rejoiced. Some men were appointed to be in charge of the storehouses; where tithes, and first fruits of harvest were kept. d. Relevance of Nehemiahs experience to Christians today Christians should expect opposition, as did Nehemiah. They should not be afraid of being ridiculed, mocked and despised. If it happens, Christians should persevere in Gods work. They should put their trust in God like Nehemiah did. They should also fight for the welfare of the disadvantaged groups and not exploit them. They have a moral obligation to condemn injustice and take practical steps to help solve problems that afflict individuals, groups, nations, and society. They should be in the forefront fighting HIV/ AIDS and drug abuse. Christians should be on the look out for external influence that may corrupt morals of the society and the church. They should learn that leadership involves suffering, persecution, and sacrifices. This is foregoing personal interests for the sake of the kingdom of God. LESSON FIVE: RENEWAL OF THE COVENANT Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should be able to: - i. List the stages followed to renew the covenant. ii. Identify issues that Ezra mentioned in his prayer ----- 355 # iii. List the vows that were made by the Israelites during renewal of the covenant i. Stages of the renewal of the covenant. Israelites were the chosen people of God. They had suffered many hardships. There was therefore a need for the renewal of the covenant between God and Israelites. The ceremony to renewal the covenant was held in Jerusalem and was led by Ezra, the Levites and other religious leaders. The renewal of the covenant can be discussed in 3 main stages: Stage 1. A great public assembly was held in the square of Jerusalem inside the water gate. Gods law was read and expounded to the people. The people of Israel praised and worshipped God. They cried and grieved. They were sad because they realized that they had failed to observe the Mosaic Law. They were instructed to go and celebrate, as it was a holy day of God and an occasion for joy not sorrows. State 2. The feast of booths/tabernacle was celebrated for 7 days. It was a reminder of the days in the wilderness when the Israelites dwelt in tents. The Law of Moses was read each day during the celebrations. Stage 3. There was a public confession of sin. People fasted, prayed and praised God. The public confession was followed by the renewal of the covenant vows and a promise to keep Gods law in future. Ezras prayer closed the celebrations. In his prayer, he recalled Gods acts of creation. He then recounted ----- 356 # the history of the Israelites. He mentioned the previous acts of God; where the Lord had demonstrated His love and mercy for the Israelites. He then confessed the sins of their ancestors and the present Israelites. These were the sins of rebellion and disobedience. ii. Promises and vows made by Israelites during the renewal of the covenant. Israelites promised God that they would Live according to Gods law, by obeying all his commands and requirements. Stop intermarrying with foreigners living in their land. Cancel debts every 7th year Contribute annually towards the temple expenses to ensure that the house of God was not neglected. Provide sacrifices and offerings for the temple and arrange for provision of wood for burnt sacrifices according to the law. Offer first fruits of their harvest and dedicate the first born and flocks as required by the law. Pay for their tithes as required by the law. Which lessons can we learn from the renewal of the covenant? God is good, loving, merciful, and faithful to his promises. God forgives all people and we are all sinners. We fail in our moral obligation to God and to one another. Since we are sinners, we should repent our sins and strive to live according to Gods law. Christians are to encourage one another as well as others to repent as it brings about reconciliation with God and with one another. ----- 357 # Christians should be forgiving and avoid situations that lead them to sin SAQ. Check from form 1 work, this information. 1. Outline Nehemiahs final reforms 2. What is a covenant? 3. What are the components of a covenant? 4. Discuss how the covenant was renewed 5. List examples of covenants in the Old Testament and modern life. 6. Explain what Christians can learn from the experiences of Nehemiah 7. Compare or relate the teachings from Nehemiahs exemplary life to the teaching of St. Lukes Gospel and Christian life today. LESSON SIX: FINAL REFORMS OF NEHEMIAH Introduction. Changes for improvement are known as reforms, which are either political, economical, social, religious or a combination of any of them. Examples of reformers are King David, Prophet Elijah, and Martin Luther King among others. Nehemiah. After building the wall, Nehemiah went back to King Artaxerxes II who if you remember had given permission to go to Jerusalem and build its destroyed perimeter wall. Later he returned to Jerusalem and carried out these reforms. Lesson outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should be able to: a. List reforms of Nehemiah b. Suggest what we can learn from the teachings of Nehemiah and that of St. Lukes Gospel a. Reforms by Nehemiah. We have discussed reforms, which Nehemiah carried out during his stay in Judah, where he was the governor (Neh 5:14). The major reforms were i Rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem as well as its gates. ----- 358 # ii Cleansing of the temple: Nehemiah threw him out Tobiah a foreigner who was living in the temple quarters. iii Reinstatement of the Levites and other temple workers. Levites, and musicians had left the temple duties to work in their farms to earn a livelihood. They were supposed to work in the temple and be supported by member contributions. Nehemiah organised Jews to make offerings and tithes to support temple workers. With these contributions, Nehemiah reinstated and redeployed Levites, priests, musicians and other temple workers. iv Reform of the Sabbath observance. The Israelites were told by the Lord to work for 6 days and rest on the Sabbath day. The Jews started working on the Sabbath day. The merchants camped outside waiting for the reopening of the gates of the temple to do business. When Nehemiah started rebuilding Jerusalem, he ordered closure of the gates of Jerusalem from the eve of Sabbath to the end of the Sabbath. v Separations from foreigners (Neh.13: 23 30). It was against Gods law to marry foreigners. Nehemiah cursed the men who had married foreign wives. He beat Jews, pulled their hair and forced them to take oaths that neither they, nor their sons nor daughters shall intermarry. vi Purification of priesthood and the office of the Levites. Nehemiah cleansed the priesthood. He sent away Eliashib, a grandson of the High Priest Joshua, because he had given Tobiah a foreigner, a room in ----- 359 # the temple. b. Comparing teachings of Nehemiah and St. Lukes Gospel i Nehemiah lived a prayerful life while St. Lukes gospel emphasizes importance of prayer. Jesus taught the role of prayer in Christianity. ii Nehemiah fasted, St. Lukes gospel records that Jesus fasted. iii Nehemiah prayed for forgiveness of sinful Jews. We see Jesus in St. Lukes gospel being a leader who prayed for the forgiveness of his enemies. iv Nehemiah cared for the needy. Jesus showed compassion to the needy and taught his followers to follow His example. v Nehemiah condemned evil so did Jesus vi Nehemiah is seen as a reformer of the Mosaic Law. In St Luke Gospel, Jesus was also a reformer. He insisted on inner holiness. vii Nehemiah cleansed the temple of traders so did Jesus. viii Nehemiah was very strict on the Sabbath observance. St. Lukes gospel teaches that Jesus is lord over Sabbath. He healed and Worked on Sabbath. ix Nehemiah was opposed to racial intermarriages, St. Luke Gospel was dedicated to Theophilus, a gentile convert x Christianity kingdom of God in St. Lukes gospel is for all, not just the Jews. xi. Nehemiah had good leadership skills and wisdom. These are demonstrated in St Luke Gospel. c. Relating Nehemiahs teachings to Christian life today i Prayers and fasting are fundamental to Christians just like they were to Nehemiah who led a prayerful ----- 360 # life. ii Nehemiahs example teaches Christians to face all forms of opposition with courage, wisdom, and firmness iii The good leadership qualities of Nehemiah are relevant to Christians and they are to be emulated. iv Nehemiah cared for the needy. Christians should learn to give spiritual food, physical food and clothing to the needy, orphans, widows. v As Nehemiah renewed the covenant, Christians should seek spiritual renewal publicly and privately. They should seek for communal as well as individual forgiveness. vi Nehemiah cleansing the temple and organised an inventory for temple contributions, offerings and tithes. He also appointed key people to look after temple contributions and pay Levites and priests. Christians should learn to use the church buildings and contributions rightly vii Nehemiah was guided by the Law of Moses and land just like Christians are guided by the scriptures (Bible) and the law of the nation. The Bible is the source and basis of Christian principles. Revision questions 1. Describe the political background of Nehemiah 2. Describe the social background to the vocation of Nehemiah 3. Describe the religious background to the vocation of Nehemiah 4. Describe occasions when Nehemiah prayed 5. State occasions when Christians pray 6. What is the importance of prayer in Christian life? 7. Identify the leadership of Nehemiahs patriotism ----- 361 # 8. Explain the relevance of Nehemiahs leadership to a Christian today 9. Explain the relevance of Nehemiahs experience to Christians today 10. explain the problems that Nehemiah encountered in his vocation 11. Explain the steps taken by Nehemiah to renew the covenant 12. State the promises the Israelites made during the renewal of the covenant Study activities. Visit a church or your church and observe the display of the gifts of the Holy Spirit by the members. Study the books of Amos, Jeremiah and Nehemiah before hand. Form three answers. TOPIC ONE: THE GIFTS OF THE HOLY SPIRIT. Qn a. Explain the meaning of the Pentecost. Pentecost means fifty days after the harvest. It was one of the religious festivals celebrated by Israelites annually. In the Old Testament, the day of the Pentecost was celebrated during the wheat harvest in order to thank god for the blessing of the harvest. Israelites came from all over the world and gathered in Jerusalem for this celebration. In the New Testament, the meaning of the festival changed. It was celebrated to commemorate the coming of the Holy Spirit upon Gods people as they gathered in the upper room. Qn b. Describe the manifestations of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost. (Acts 2: 1-40) OR (narrate the events that took place on the day of Pentecost). Disciples gathered in a room. Sounds came from heaven like a rush of mighty wind and filled the house. There appeared tongues of fire. ----- 362 # The tongues of fire were distributed on each one of them. They were filled with the Holy Spirit. They were speaking in foreign languages and tongues. Those who were observing them were amazed, as they could not understand what they were saying. They accused them of being drunk Peter stood up and explained that they were not drunk as it was too early in the day to get drunk. He explained how they were filled with the Holy Spirit as prophesied by prophet Joel. He told them that it was Jesus whom they had rejected and crucified who had sent them the Holy Spirit. The people asked peter what they could do. Peter told them to repent and be baptized. On that day about 3000 people were added to the church. Qn c. write down five teachings we learn about Jesus from Peters speech on the day of Pentecost. Jesus was from Nazareth He had a divine nature or was son of God He had a human nature He was attested by God to work miracles and wonders through Jesus. Jesus death/ crucifixion was according to Gods plan God raised Jesus from the dead Jesus conquered death The death and resurrection of Jesus fulfils the prophecy of David Jesus was a descendant of David The Holy Spirit was from Jesus Christ as he had promised. God has made Jesus Christ both lord and Christ/ messiah Jesus ascended into heaven. He is exalted at the right hand of God ----- 363 # The risen Christ is a source if hope or salvation to many sinners/crippled/the dead Qn d. What were the qualities of peter that made him a successful leader for the apostolic church? He was a man of great faith He was a good orator He dedicated his life to Jesus He was filled with the holy spirit He could perform miracles or wonders He was an eye- witness of the ministry of Jesus Christ. He was full of wisdom and knowledge i.e. Ananias and Saphiras case Qn e. what lessons can Christians learn fro the events of the day of Pentecost They learn that Jesus always honors and keeps his promises e.g. he promised to send the Holy spirit and did it Baptism in the holy spirit is very important for every believer That obedience yields immediate results i.e. the disciples obeyed Jesus by testifying in Jerusalem and they received the Holy Spirit. It is important for believers to meet for fellowship. The disciples did this and they received the Holy Spirit That the Holy Spirit enables Christians to declare the gospel with boldness It was the plan of God that Jesus was crucified Jesus indeed rose from the dead as peter witnessed Jesus was the son of God Qn f. state the teachings of Jesus on the Holy Spirit The Holy Spirit comes from the father ----- 364 # The Holy Spirit will comfort disciples The Holy Spirit will abide with believers forever. He was to teach the world and reveal the truth about God The Holy Spirit would guide them into all truth and make them understand or know more about Jesus The percolate i.e. comforter/make strong/counselor who give advice He was to help them attain eternal life. If it was necessary for him to die and return to the father so that Holy Spirit will be sent to them. It was to replace Jesus as a counselor and an advocate He was to give the disciples authority to forgive or not to forgive The spirit would remind them all that Jesus had taught them The holy spirit will reprove the world of sin, righteousness and judgement He would glorify Jesus amongst the believers He will enable believers to be witnesses of Jesus in the whole world He was to strengthen disciples as a wonderful counselor He was to continue with the work of Jesus as a witness Qn g. what is the role if the holy spirit according to Jesus? He comforts believers He teaches believers all things He bring into remembrance all that Jesus taught his disciples The holy spirit would convict the world of their sins and lead them to righteousness He will guide the believers in all the truth He will glorify Christ and teach about him He will tell of the things to come in the future He would not speak on his own authority but would speak only what he hears from the father ----- 365 # He will enable believers to be witnesses of Jesus in the world He will counsel believers because he knows the mind of God He will enable believers know the perfect will of God Qn h. what is the role of the Holy Spirit in the believers (or Christians or the church) He enables believers to preach with power He comforts believers He guides believers in all truth He gives believers boldness to witness about Jesus He enables Christians to produce the fruit of the spirit He washes sacrifices and justifies the believer in the name of Jesus He teaches believers all things He enables Christians to access God the father and son in prayer He enables Christians talk in tongues in worship He enables Christians to perform miracles in the name of Jesus He enables Christians to declare sins and transgressions of others Qn i. Outline the fruits of the Holy Spirit (Galatians 5:6-26) Love showing compassion to one another Joy deep happiness when one has a good relationship with God Peace being at peace with all people Patience being to wait in difficulties Kindness being caring and helpful towards others Goodness seeking to do best in their lives Faithfulness having confidence in God Gentleness being calm and avoiding violence Self-control have strong control over their emotions Qn j. state the criteria for discerning of the spiritual gifts The gift must glorify Jesus so that one who is under the influence of th Holy Spirit will be able to recognize Jesus as lord and savior ----- 366 # The gifts must not call Jesus accursed The test of love. The gift must be accompanied with a good or true frit. To discover whether or not the person who has the holy spirit must bear the fruits of the spirit One who is user the influence if the Holy Spirit is known by his or her way of life. He/she will act and behave in accordance with the teachings of Jesus. Doctrinal test for example, prophecy should always in agreement with the scripture because the Holy Spirit cannot contradict what is written Loyalty or conformity to Jesus. The gift doesnt envy other believers The gift must be subject to the word of God The true gift will be guided by principles of sincerity and honesty The true gift will humbly submit to God The gift should encourage the growth of the church and edify her Qn k. List down the gifts of the Holy Spirit. The gift of wisdom (a deep understanding of who God is an his purpose for human life) The gift of knowledge that is the basic understanding of the truth about Jesus Christ The gift of faith that refers to the confidence or truth in Gods inspiration and help in undertaking difficult tasks The gift of healing: the power to heal all types of sicknesses The gift to perform all types of miracles including healing The gift of prophecy: that is the ability to expound on the scriptures and foretell its future implications The gift of distinguishing gifts: the ability to tell the difference between gifts that come from the spirit ----- 367 # and those that are not The gift of speaking in tongues: the ability to understand and interpret tongues Lastly the gift of love, which is the greatest of all the spiritual gifts. Qn l. Explain why Paul taught that love is the greatest of all spiritual gifts. Paul taught that love is the greatest of all spiritual gifts. He said that love is patient and kind Its not jealous or boastful. It is not arrogant or rude or conceited. It does not hold grudges or ill mannered or selfish It does not insist on its own way. It is not irritable or resentful It does not rejoice at wrong doings but rejoices in the truth Love bears, believes, hopes and endures all things It is ready to deep firm its faith, hope and its patience Love does not succumb to pressure but always perseveres He justified that love is the greatest gift of the spiritual gifts because in prayer, the gift of tongues becomes nothing but meaningful when accompanied by love (charity) On faith, Paul says that even if one has faith that can move mountains but has no love, he is nothing Charity or generosity including sacrificing own life is nothing without love Qn m. Explain how the Holy Spirit is manifested in the church today Through dynamic, power, bold and vigorous teaching of the gospel Through speaking in tongues in many evangelical churches Through the gift of healing many people are healed as they are prayed for Through the gift of love, Christians show mercy to all members of the society regardless of their race, sex or age (helping the poor in the society) ----- 368 # Through the gift of prophecy some believers give proper guidance to the church Through the gift of discernment of spirits believers are able to tell the type of spirit that is in operation Through the gift of faith, believers have been able to accomplish tasks that seem rather impossible Some Christians through the holy spirit are able to withstand a persecution to the point of death The holy spirit convicts sinners and makes them confess their sins Through the holy spirit many Christians see heavenly visions and dreams The fear of the lord is upon many evangelical groups through the Holy Spirit In some evangelical gatherings, there are many supernatural things during worship e.g. shaking and swaying It is also manifested through prayer at individual or congregational levels Through decision making in church i.e. solving problems and issues in church Through singing and dancing or music Through offertory and alms or sadaka Holding fellowship meetings, bible study and reading the bible Celebration of sacraments e.g. Eucharist and lords supper Bringing new converts to the church Pastoral cave and counseling It is manifested in Ecumenism: working together of the churches Writing Christian literature e. g. books, pamphlets and magazines Enabling Christians to confess their sins and reconciliation meetings ----- 369 # Education and giving instructions Qn n: State ways in which the gifts of the Holy Spirit have been abused in the church today. Cheating that one has a certain gift of the Holy Spirit Commercialization of the gifts. People are asked to pay money before being prayed for or being healed False interpretation of the bible, prophecy or predicting the future Unscrupulous Christians may impart demoniac powers or innocent faithful Some Christians who possess the gifts of the Holy Spirit develop pride or selfishness or superiority complex Wrong use of the gifts of the Holy Spirit where faithful get into ecstasy or trance which may lead to injuries Distinguishing oneself as a person with a special call e.g. preacher with intention of exploiting others or situations TOPIC TWO: UNITY OF BELIEVERS Qn a. Write down the terms used in the New Testament to refer to believers in Christ The people of God The body of Christ The bride of Christ The vine and the branches The assembly of God Christians The people of the way (followers of the way) other terms Followers of Christ ----- 370 # New Israel Church The sheep The royal church Brethren Royal race Royal priest hood Holy nation The children of light Saints Brothers and sisters in Christ Qn b. identify five causes of disunity in the early church The question on the inclusion of the gentiles in the church. Some Jewish Christians were not ready to accept gentile Christians in the church unless they underwent circumcision There was negligence of the widows in the distribution of food Disagreement between and among leaders e.g. Paul and Barnabas, Peter and Paul Groupings in the church where some Christians owed loyalty to individuals. They said that they belonged to individuals like Apollo others Peter and others Paul Question of immorality, where some Christians did not live according to the teachings of Christ The problem of the gifts of the Holy Spirit. Some Christians became arrogant because they were more gifted than others Different interpretations of the doctrines e.g. resurrection, sin, salvation, Christology, Holy Spirit, dressing ----- 371 # Behaviour during the lords supper Christians took others to a pagan rule of law Question of the resurrection of the body Question of celibacy Question of incest sexual immorality Different approaches to common life between Christians communities in Jerusalem and Antioch Qn c. identify factors, which cause disunity among Christians today Selfishness or greed for money by some Christians Rivalry or competition for leadership positions or greed for power Misinterpretation by some Christians of the work of the holy spirit Arrogance or pride by some Christians Corruption in the church Failure by some Christians to live according to the law of God or their failure to live exemplary Lack of concern by some Christians about the plight of others Misinterpretation of the bible or doctrinal differences Misuse of church funds or power by some leaders Lack of transparency and accountability in running church affairs The emergence of charismatic movements in the church creates a situation where some Christians think that they are more spiritual or holier l than others Political interference where Christians find themselves in different political camps Sexism where women are not involved in decision-making. Women are under represented Discrimination against the youth or churches ignoring the youth in running the church Tribalism where Christians are divided along tribal lines International differences ----- 372 # Qn d. Discuss reasons why members of Christian families in Kenya find it difficult to harmoniously live together Unfaithfulness or promiscuity Misuse of family resources or lack of resources Child abuse e.g. beating, raping, incest or favourism Alcoholism or drug use and abuse Separation of family members e.g. due to wage labour or education Denial of conjugal rights Sickness e.g. HIV/AIDs, impotence, barrenness or cancer Child delinquency Lack of tolerance or forgiveness or presence of cruelty Greed for wealth or self esteemed prestige or professionalism Religious fanaticism or denominational differences Traditional or cultural inhabitation or western cultural influences or permissive Generation gap Qn e. explain how the church strengthen family relationships today Through guidance and counseling and mediation Hold seminars, conferences for couples, children the youth through publications on Christian living e.g. magazines, books or pamphlets Use of mass media e.g. televisions. Radios or videos Through offering pastoral care in homes or house to house visits Giving financial support to the needy families Praying for families Through preaching, teaching and condemning vices Offering employment to the jobless Providing vocational training skills SELECTED OLD PROPHETS AND THEIR TEACHINGS. ----- 373 # Q1. Define the terms prophet and prophecy Prophet: Refers to one who speaks Gods message. He is Gods spokesman. His message includes predictions of the future. Prophecy: Is the message spoken by a prophet. Oracles spoken by prophets. Q2. List the five categories of true prophets i) Major prophets These include Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel. They are called Major Prophets because the books are long and contain clearly written messages. They bear the names of the writers. ii) Minor prophets These refer to 12 books that are short and contain less important than those in major books e.g. Amos, Hosea, Joel, Obadiah through to Malachi. iii) Canonical prophets Both the major and minor prophets are together referred to as canonical prophets. iv) The early prophets They belonged to guilds or schools. They lived together in communities under a chief prophet. Elijah and Elisha are examples. These are those who served in places of worship e.g. at Dan, Bethuel) They were called cultic prophets because they were associated with religious activities in shrines. They traveled around together delivering oracles. v) Cultic prophets They worked side by side with priests and said prayers especially peoples petition to Yahweh. ----- 374 # Q3. State the difference between true and false prophets True prophets False prophets They were called by God to be His spokesmen Not called by God. Were obedient to God. Not obedient to Him. Believed in one God. Could worship other gods and led people into immorality. They were prayerful. Not. Spoke and acted with authority from God. No authority from God. They led holy lives. Were immoral e.g. believed in false gods. Spoke Gods word. Spoke their opinion. Suffered physically and psychologically because of speaking the truth. Run away suffering. Spoke the truth. False Did not ask for pay. Asked for pay. Spoke form a common tradition based on the Mosaic Law. Did not have any reference. Q4. In what ways were Gods prophets called? Some were called through visions or dreams e.g. Amos and Samuel. Others were called through other prophets e.g. Elisha. Words or message came into their minds. Through prophetic symbolic actions e.g. Jeremiah Through common objects an object becoming a significant sign of Gods power and activities Jer. 1:11-13. Through prayers. Q5. Outline the similarities and differences between the Old Testament prophets and the Traditional African Ones a) Similarities: Both possessed spiritual powers. ----- 375 # Both were mediators between people and a Supreme Being. Both performed the role of healing people physically and spiritually (miracle). They received calls mainly through visions/dreams, which were considered supernatural. Were both expected to be people of integrity and obedient to religious codes. Gave warnings and solutions to their people in case they offended the Supreme Being. Foretold the future. b) Differences: Old Testament Tradition African Received their message from God Received their message from spirits and ancestors. Appointed by God. Inherited Rejected by people Respected and feared in society Prophecy went to other nations Confined in tribal community Prophecies preserved in writing Passed on orally Believe and worship of one God Believe in god spirits Performed miracles Did not Q6. What is the relevant of prophets to Christians today? Through reading their prophecies, Christians get to know the will of God. Jesus who is the cornerstone of Christianity is stressed throughout prophecy since Abraham. Prophecy has helped many to be preachers (i.e. prophecy = preaching). Christians learn to be faithful to Yahweh just like the Old Testament prophets. They too learn to be holy and prayerful like them e.g. Jeremiah. Prophets encouraged justice e.g. Elijah, Christians should do the same. ----- 376 # As prophets, Christians should provide hope to the people in times of suffering. They learn that they can face suffering just like the prophets did e.g. Jeremiah e.g. persecution, rejection etc. They should condemn sin like the prophets. The writings of the prophets strengthen their faith when they need them. PROPHET AMOS Q1. List the visions that Amos saw He saw a swarm of locusts. Amos 7:1-3 He saw a great fire. Amos 7:4-6 The plumb line/crooked wall. Amos 7:7-8 Basket of ripe fruits. Amos 8:1-3 The destruction of the temple. Amos 9:1-4 Q2. Explain the evils that Amos condemned in his teachings Sexual immorality (Amos 2:17) Amos condemned temple prostitution 23:17. Father and son were going to the same woman. They copied these from the Canaanite pagans, which was wrong and unfaithful to Yahweh. Slavery: (Amos 2:6) The righteous, the rich made the poor slaves. This is because they borrowed from the rich and could not repay so they made them work like slaves and treated them harshly. Some sold them for a paid of sandals. This was breaking Gods laws, which guided them on how to treat their poor fellow Israelites. Idolatry: Amos 5:26 Amos accused them for breaking Gods covenant by worshipping other gods. ----- 377 # Cheating in Business: He condemned the following: Merchants used false measures They overcharged the poor Sold goods of low quality They sold poor people for not paying debts They too charged high interest rates Bribery and Corruption Ex. 23:8 He condemned elders who were unjust and corrupt. They took bribes and grew rich from heavy levies from innocent people in law courts. Greed and excessive luxury He condemned women of Samaria who drink and lived in luxury when there were poor needy people. Breaking Gods law on garments secured for pledges God gave Israelites items that were to be given out to the creditors as a guarantees for the goods borrowed e.g. Millstones for grinding, were to be taken and returned in the evening because they were used daily. Robbery and Violence Poor were being oppressed and violated. Self Indulgence and false sense of security Leaders thought God could not punish them because they were a chosen race. But Amos told them they would be attacked. Q3. Give reasons why Prophet Amos condemned idol worship in Israel It broke the covenant way of life. It was against the 10 commandments, which directed the Israelites to worship one God. It was a sign of disobedience to God. ----- 378 # It promoted immorality e.g. temple prostitution. The worship of God belittled and degraded God. It promoted falsehood in the society. Religion became commercialized. Led to false prophecy. People got concerned with external behavior and not internal. Q4. List evils in society today that Amos would condemn Tribalism Bribery and corruption Robbery with violence Dishonesty in business Grabbing of public land and property Stealing Oppression of the poor e.g. underpayment Immorality e.g. prostitution PROPHET JEREMIAH Q1. List evils that Jeremiah condemned Human sacrifice Hypocrisy in worship Dishonesty in business Defilement of the temple temple prostitution Social injustice Idolatry False prophecy Necromancy Exploitation of the poor Q2. What are some of the evils that the church leaders condemn today? Hypocrisy/pretence in worship Murder/suicide/abortion/genocide Exploitation of the poor/robbery ----- 379 # Dishonesty False prophets Human sacrifices among devil worshippers Sexual immorality e.g. adultery Q3. Explain the symbolisms used during the call of Prophet Jeremiah God touched Jeremiahs mouth. This was to symbolize that God was the source of the message. Jeremiah was to deliver. A branch of an almond tree that was base God was watching to see the fulfillment of the message he gave to Jeremiah. A pot of boiling facing away from the North and about to tilt toward Judah. God would use a nation from the North to bring judgement on the people of Judah because of their wickedness. A fortified city. A bronze wall and an iron pillar. God was going to protect him even though he was going to meet opposition. To uproot and pull down, to destroy and overthrow. God would pass judgement on the nation of Judah and other nations. To build and to plant. There was still hope of the restoration of people of Judah after exile. Q4. What did Jeremiah teach about t the New Covenant? The new covenant was to be written in peoples hearts. The covenant was to be made between God and the remnant community after exile. The people were to have a personal knowledge of God in the new covenant. God was to forgive their sin and remember them no more. ----- 380 # Each individual was responsible for his won sins. The new covenant was to be initiated by God. The new covenant was to last forever. It was as a result in the emergence of a new people of God or new Israel. Q5. Why did Prophet Jeremiah condemn the way the Israelites worshipped? They broke Gods commands e.g. the 1st and do not worship other gods they worshipped idols. They practiced hypocrisy i.e. they were concerned with external religious observance while their hearts were far from God. They forgot the saving history of God and worshipped other gods e.g. Asherah. They practiced syncretism i.e. they worshipped both Yahweh and foreign Gods. They listened to false prophets and rejected Gods prophets e.g. Jeremiah. They even killed some. They dishonored the sanctity of human life by offering human sacrifice. They neglected the disadvantaged (widows & orphans). They were dishonest in business and deceitful to one another. They narrowed themselves in necromancy, divination and magic. They rebelled against God by breaking the covenant relationship. Q6. Explain Jeremiahs temple sermon as recorded in Jeremiah 7:1-15 God commanded prophet Jeremiah to speak in the temple. It was a response to the people of Israel to stop understanding religion through the practice of syncretism and immorality. At the gate to the temple, Jeremiah proclaimed that the people of Judah had to change their way of ----- 381 # life and stick to the covenant they made with God. They had to stop defiling the temple of placing idols in it. They had to stop committing social injustices and as murderer/exploitation of the weak, orphans widows and foreigners. The practice of human sacrifice was murder and displeasing to God. Hypocrisy was bad. The Israelites believed that the temple was secure from destruction because of its holiness was not true. God would destroy Israelites/Jerusalem through invasion of a foreign nation. If the people stopped their evil ways, God would not bring judgement upon them. God would destroy the temple of Jerusalem and send the people to exile. Q7. What forms of punishment did Jeremiah prophesy that God would use on Judah? The punishment would be in form of a foreign body that God use to conquer Judah. They would be attacked and their city destroyed. People would suffer and die due to their sins. The punishment would in form of drought. This would affect people and animals. Gods punishment would come through death, diseases and sword. Their punishment would be a defeat inflicted to them by Babylonian. The punishment would be the loss of their land to a foreign nation and their enslavement. God would allow the enemy to destroy Jerusalem and take survivors to captivity. ----- 382 # Q8. Outline the content of Jeremiahs letter to exiles in Babylon (Jer. 29) He encouraged the Israelites in Babylon to build houses and live in them. Plant gardens and eat their produce. Marry and increase. Pray for their rulers. Not to worship false gods. Not to be cheated by false prophets. To obey their masters. Worship one God. Q9. Explain four symbolic acts related to judgement and punishment as demonstrated by Prophet Jeremiah Linen waist cloth the rotten/useless linen cloth that had been hidden in the caves and lift to rot stood for Israels state of being useless before the eyes of God. A sign that they had soiled their priesthood. Jeremiah was asked not to marry the solitary life symbolized solitude in exile. Two baskets of fig fruits the bad fruits signified that the bad people would be punished. Wooden yoke he was asked to carry a wooden yoke and work around with it signifying suffering in Babylon exile. Breaking an earthly flask destruction of the temple. Visit to a potter whereby the potter destroyed a pot due to poor shape and remolded it. God would remold Israel to a shape befitting them. ----- 383 # Not to comfort anybody these would be sorrow and suffering, no help while in exile. Q10. Identify the relevance of Jeremiahs teaching to Christians life today Christians are called to preach Gods gospel as Jeremiah did. Christians should accept suffering like Jeremiah did. They should learn to distinguish between false and true prophets. Like Jeremiah, they should condemn evil in society. They have a duty to call people to repentance as Jeremiah did. Christians should be good examples to the people by living, holy and upright lives as Jeremiah did. People should be able to know the nature of God through the lives of Christians. They should believe they are the new community as prophesied by Jeremiah in the new covenant. Q11. In what ways is the prophetic mission of Jeremiah similar to that of Jesus? Both were rejected by their own relatives and communities. Both experienced opposition from political and religious authorities. Both prophesied the destruction of the temple. Both lamented over the stubbornness of the people of Jerusalem. Both predicted divine judgement and punishment in Israel. Jeremiah predicted the new covenant that is fulfilled by Jesus. Prophet Nehemiah Qn 1. Describe the political background of Nehemiah He worked during the Babylonian exile which lasted between 589- 538 BC During his vacation, Israelites were oppressed politically The Israelites hoped that God would soon liberate them fro this bondage In 538 BC the Babylonians were conquered by Cyrus the great king of Persia ----- 384 # In 538 BC king Cyrus allowed Israelites to return to Judah King Cyrus gave the Israelites a decree to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem In 538BC the first exile under Zebu Babel Joshua the priest departed from Babylon and started to rebuild alters of God Under the guidance of prophets Haggai and Zachariah the temple was rebuilt and dedicated The second exile arrived under prophet Ezra; after king Artaxerxes authorized Ezra to re establish Israelites religious and moral expectations of the Mosaic Law. Nehemiah was a servant the king Artaxerxes palace. The king authorized him to go and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem Amidst all opposition from Samaritan, Nehemiah accomplished the reconstruction of the walls of Jerusalem in 52 days. He then dedicated the walls to God. This restored the sense of political pride in Israel. However the Israelites remained subjected to the Persians and continued to pay tribute. The Persians were later overthrown by Romans who ruled the entire region until the time of the birth of Jesus Qn 2. Describe the social background to the vacation of Nehemiah Israelites men married foreign women Children spoke different languages from their mothers Hebrew language almost became extinct Nehemiah condemned mixed marriages and even banned them Exiles who returned home were humiliated by foreigners who partially occupied their land ----- 385 # The Samaritans threatened Nehemiahs life as the rebuilt walls of Jerusalem Rich Jews oppressed the poor e.g. they would confiscate their property for failure to repay debts Qn 3. Describe the religious background to the vocation of Nehemiah While in exile the Babylonians allowed the Jews to continue with their religious lives The exiles became the period of purification They returned with a new zeal to worship God; they rebuilt the altar under Zerubbabel for offering burnt offerings to God The returnees built the temple of Jerusalem under Haggai and Zachariah and dedicated to god by Ezra Nehemiah embarked on rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem amidst opposition in 52 days the wall was complete. Consequently, Jerusalem once more became the centre of worship for Israel. Idolatry was not allowed again in Israel after the exile. The temple of Jerusalem was dedicated to Yahweh. The Israelites renewed their covenant with God under prophet and priest Ezra. Nehemiah carried out various religious reforms Qn 4. Describe occasions when Nehemiah prayed When he heard about the suffering of his fellow Jews back in Judah When he learned about the state of ruin of Jerusalem and king Atarterxes to request him to allow him go back to Judah When his enemies e.g. Tobiah and Samballat ridiculed him as he reconstructed the walls of Jerusalem When he learned of his enemies conspiracy to attack Jerusalem ----- 386 # When his enemies conspired to destroy his life/ kill him When Shemiah attempted to frighten him to hide in the temple as hi life was in danger When he cleansed and arranged the temple as a house of God When he warned the people of Judah against violating the Sabbath law After chasing away the son in law of Samballat from the temple After cleansing the Israelites of foreign influence Qn 5. State occasions when Christians pray When they are faced with diverse persecutions. They ask God to protect them When they dont understand certain scriptures. They ask God to give them revelation When they are faced with certain difficulties of life. They ask God to help them When the nation is facing political crisis. They pray for peace When they feel inadequate and sinful. They ask God to perform certain miracles for them e.g. healing Qn 6. What is the importance of prayer in Christian life? Prayer helps Christians to praise God, give thanks to him and to repent It helps Christians to pour out their hearts to God It helps Christians to rely to God for emotional and mental stability. It helps put our problems to God It strengthens Christians. It gives them determination and character to remain steadfast in their responsibilities despite the challenges Through prayer a Christian can request to stand against personal attacks and temptations Prayer is the source of courage and strength in times of tribulations It brings one closer to God, we use it to praise God, use it to ask for Gods supply of their needs, used ----- 387 # to ask for forgiveness and promotes important virtues e.g. persistence and patience and promotes unity among different communities Qn 6. Identify the leadership of Nehemiahs patriotism He was a tune patriot i.e. after talking to the Jews and getting the news of distribution of Jerusalem, he was forced to go back home. Reliance to God. He totally relied on God and to his call i.e. in most cases he prayed before carrying out an activity Devoted/ talented. As a cupbearer to the emperor he was an educated, talented and trustworthy young man Visionary. He had a vision and he shared it with enthusiasm to inspire Jerusalem leaders to rebuild the wall Initiative. He took the initiative to persuade the emperor to put things right Exceller organizer. He carefully organized the rebuilding process. He organized how the wall of Jerusalem was to be built in steps Careful planner. He carefully examined and inspected the wall before starting the work Peoples representative. He was a proper representative of his people in Israel. he had a sense of responsibility to his community Shrewd. He avoided the meetings organized by his opposer and overlooked the abuses placed on him Impartial. He appointed men of integrity and God fearing to keep guard over Jerusalem ----- 388 # Selfless and kind. He had the skill of solving problems. He hence cancelled all debts that people had Homogenous. He employed different strategies to counteract his opposer Qn7. explain the relevance of Nehemiahs leadership to a Christian today A Christian should use his/her present position to serve God Christians should acknowledge God as their source of power and giver of gifts A leader should appoint people who are trustworthy and honest to help him/ her in ruling the country God answers our prayers as a result of asking others for help A Christian leader should keep his /her plans a secret until it matures to make an announcement Christians should share their visions with others the way Nehemiah did Leaders should take care of the needy in the society As a Christian one could be lured to temptations; the way Nehemiah was opposed we should be ready to resist temptations Christians should be ready to help in solving problems in the society Christians should act as role models by carrying out spiritual activities with the truth and helping in work after starting projects. Qn 8. Explain the relevance of Nehemiahs experience to Christians They should not exploit the needy and disadvantaged They should defend the rights of the weak and use their work place, family and friends They should ask God to protect them from the mischief of their enemies That they should pray to God to give them guidance in their endeavors That they should persevere in all difficulties as Nehemiah did ----- 389 # The should condemn the injustices in the society They should know that leadership involves challenges and difficulties They should be practically involved in problem solving e.g. HIV/AIDs scourge Qn 9. Explain the problems that Nehemiah encountered in his vocation Oppression of the poor Jews by the rich Jews e.g. demanded high interests on borrowed money Great opposition from the enemies they tried to frustrate his/her efforts to build the walls of Jerusalem Threat to his own life. His adversaries wanted to kill him Lack of co-operation and support from the Jews. They refused to work with him on the wall project Excessive foreign influence in Israel. Intermarriage brought about foreign influence which threatened to extinct the Jew culture and language Violation of the Sabbath laws. Israelites went on to do their daily chores on the Sabbath day Abuse of the temple. Eliaship housed Tobias the heathen and Gods enemies Misuse of offerings. The levies were denied their share of sacrificial offerings as required by the law Qn 10. Describe the steps taken by Nehemiah to renew the covenant Ezra the priest read the book of the covenant and explained the meaning of the Law of Moses. The Israelites listened carefully and their lives changed. They responded Amen, amen Celebration of the feast of shelters. After reading the scriptures, they realized that they had not been ----- 390 # celebrating the feast of shelters. This was to remember their deliverance from Egypt. They were also to think about Gods protection and guidance The Israelites confessed of their sins as they learnt that they had not been following Gods commandments. Nehemiah was devoted to confession of national sin and prayers to Gods grace Recital of Gods dealings with Israel. They recital of Gods mighty acts is done in this. They remembered their history and this renewed Gods grace and power in them A renewed covenant sealed. The covenant was renewed in writing and the leaders put seals The binding agreement that people and God was done by the Israelites joining hands Qn 11. State the promises that Israelites made during the renewal of the covenant That every seventh year, they would cancel debts according to the Mosaic Laws That they should observe Gods commandments and live according to his laws That they would offer the first of their harvests as required by Torah That they would dedicate their first-born sons to God That they will not intermarry with foreigners at all That they will not buy corn or anything else on the Sabbath day That they will remit their arrival temple expenses to ensure that Gods house was okay That they will provide sacrifices and offerings at the temple That they will pay their tithes according to the law Group study activities ----- 391 # 1. Read and study the book of Luke by 2. Dividing up the chapters in the book of Luke among the members of the class and let every group present a summary of the chapters allocated to them. 3. Check out movies about the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ but note that your study according to the syllabus is based on St. Lukes gospel. FORM FOUR CONTEMPORARY CHRISTIAN LIVING Form four work deals with social issues in society. We shall compare the issues in the following communities The Traditional African Society Christian community and the contemporary one. By the end of it the student should be able to understand the meaning of life and live to its fullest. TOPIC ONE. INTRODUCTION TO CHRISTIAN ETHICS Instructions. Form four work covers contemporary issues in a Christians life. You are advised to read newspapers, listen to radio news, watch television news and current affairs and any other relevant news source. Work in twos. Give yourself topics to study and then give a presentation to your partner or colearner. Learning outcomes. After reading and discussing Christian ethics, you should be able to: a. Explain the meaning of Christians ethics b. Explore the basics of Christians ethics a. Christian ethics. The word ethics comes from a Greek term Ethikos which means custom, or conduct. Ethics are moral principles, which influence a persons behaviour. Ethics are defined as the systematic ----- 392 # study of human actions and behaviour. We use ethics to judge, determine and assess the right and wrong of human behaviour. Morals refer to human character, which is the inclination to behave in oneway or another. Ethics is the study of morals and they determine and influence personal and societal behaviour. Christian ethics is the study of human conduct or behaviour from a Christian point of view. b. Basis of Christian ethics. Sources of Christians ethics: - 1. The bible, teachings of Jesus Christ 2. Human reason and experience 3. Natural law 4. The Christian community the church 5. Situation ethics 6. Authoritative Christian literature based on the bible 7. Gods revelation through prophets i. Human reason. These are internal thoughts that guide us when we are making decisions and taking actions. We use our minds and thoughts when confronted by situations. They also rely on internal thoughts in their life experiences. Internal guiding thoughts have many parts. One is our Conscience. This is our inner self that tells us and lets us know what is right and wrong. There are four types of consciences; doubtful conscience, sensitive conscience, certain conscience and perplexed conscience. For a Christian, rights and wrongs are in the Bible. God gave the Law of Moses to Israelites. Jesus came and explained the Old Testament and taught new scriptures in the New Testament. These teachings, ----- 393 # which we have covered from Form one to three, explain very clearly what is right and wrong. When doubtful of the morality of an action, Christian consults the Bible to know if a decision is right or wrong. ii. Human Experiences: these are internal and external guides When confronted by situations, Christians use their minds i.e. human reason and their life experiences in making decisions. They rely on internal guides, (Human reason) and experience (external guides) Internal guides (i) Conscience: Mind, aspect of knowing right or wrong. When right, theres approval when wrong it registers guilt. When doubtful of the morality of an action we should not do it If conscience is perplexed then make us decision. A decision should be based on a certain conscience. Types of conscience - Doubtful conscience - Sensitive conscience - Certain conscience - Perplexed conscience 2. One can also make decisions based on knowledge and free will To make a decision one should have - Facts about the act, its aims, circumstances. - One should be free to perform A decision ought to be thoughtful 3. Intuition: inner feeling, insight Its an internal moral sense to do good or avoid evil. Intuition is important in situations that require ----- 394 # quick and immediate that requires quick and immediate action. 4. Feelings Feelings are subjective e.g. it feels good to do so this, hence will do it can be dangerous to make decisions purely based on feelings especially in marriage friendship etc. Eternal guides Experience Guides here include authoritative persons such as parents, teachers, police, civil leaders philosophers, and religious leaders. Rules from secular, religions, and African traditional culture are part of external guides. The bible The bible, quoted in the text but now out of text guides Christian behaviour. God communicates to his people through the Bible. The Bible offers answers to questions in relation to the life of a Christian. Today, there are ethical issues not found in the bible e.g. HIV / AIDS, sexual and reproductive health rights, contraceptives, abortion, globalization, cloning, environmental degradation, genetically modified foods, terrorism, international trade etc. this gives reason and other sources / factors are basis of Christian ethics in addition to the bible. Moral principles in the bible - They are mostly found in the teachings of Jesus and the ten commandments, sermon on the mountain - Christians are also encouraged to have Faith ----- 395 # - The virtues encouraged include generosity, love, kindness, faithfulness, patience, humility, peace, mercy, loyalty etc. Christian community church Church leadership can make decisions, which touch on their followers. They guide people on ethical issues e.g. politics, land, justice, abortion, contraception etc. Church organizations give rules on those conduct of their members. Natural law - The awareness that one has to choose good and avoid evil - If one studies human nature and reflects upon it he/she will discover natural laws of human behaviour - Natural law, natural rights such as right to education, life own property many etc. are incorporated into the constitution of any nation. - The constitution then guides the behaviour of list citizens; Christians being citizens of a country are guided in their behaviour by the constitution. Situation ethics One should reason out the rightness or wrongness of an act. The rightness or wrongness of an act depends on its uniqueness, the circumstances - Christians are warned against making decisions based on circumstances or the situation e.g. a pregnant student seeking abortion as the option so as to continue with education. Gods revelation God reveals himself to people through prophets, natural events, the law, dreams and visions. Through such ways God guides Christian on how they should approach certain issues. Gods revelation does not ----- 396 # contradict with the bible. Revision questions 1. What is the meaning of Christian ethics? 2. What is the basis or source or foundation of Christian ethics? 3. List the basic life skills that one needs to be able to lead a better life TOPIC TWO: CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO HUMAN SEXUALITY, MARRIAGE AND FAMILY INTRODUCTION Christian approaches refer to how Christians view and handle issues of human sexuality, marriage and the family in accordance with Christians ethics. Through marriage, the family is formed. LESSON ONE: HUMAN SEXUALITY Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: a Define human sexuality, marriage, and family b Explain the Christian teaching of human sexuality c Assess the traditional African understanding of human sexuality d Determine gender roles in traditional African home e Explain Christians teachings about male and female relationships f Explain and appreciate Christian teaching on responsible sexual behaviour g Explain Christian teaching on irresponsible sexual behaviour and their consequences a. Human sexuality. This is a sacred gift from God. It was given to Adam and Eve. Human sexuality is that which makes us male or female. It is our biological or physiological differences associated with the state of being male or female. It is part of our biological make up. Males and female have different body ----- 397 # structures, features, appearances and biological characteristics. In terms of physical strength more men are stronger than females. Besides the biological make up, we have an emotional side, which includes our attitudes, and feelings. Females are said to be more emotional, and talkative than males. Human sexuality is also in our brain and mind and it is what makes us human beings. If you look at animals they also have different physiological features based on sexual differences. b. Christian teaching on human sexuality. Males and females are Gods creation. Men and women were created for many reasons. These are (1) to be fruitful and to multiply; and (2) for companionship. In Genesis we learn that men and women share the image of God because God intended man and woman to play complementary roles and both are equal before God. Sex in marriage is a sign of love and it is sacred. In marriage man / and woman become one flesh. Both of them have the ability to control their sexual desires. Christian teaching forbids: sex before marriage, adultery or unfaithfulness, and other unnatural sexual behaviours like lesbianism, homosexuality or being gay, and incest. God created human body and it is to be kept holy. Chastity is encouraged while unfaithfulness in marriage is discouraged. Husbands / wives are to respect one another and give to each other in mutual love. c. Traditional African understanding of human sexuality. Human sexuality is highly valued in traditional ----- 398 # African communities. It is understood in terms of marriage and parenthood. Procreation was the sole purpose of sex. Sex was to be practiced in marriage and it was regarded as another sacred duty. Adultery was discouraged and offenders punished. Irresponsible sexual relationships were forbidden. Virginity before marriage was highly valued. If a girl lost her virginity before marriage, she was treated with scorn and punishment. If a boy impregnating a girl, he was fined. In traditional African society it was a taboo to discuss openly sex matters. Grandparents taught sex education to their grandchildren. Sex education was taught during initiation stages. Free mixing of girls and boys was not allowed except under supervision. Girls were married off immediately after initiation to avoid temptation of engaging in pre-marital sex. To reinforce self discipline in relationships between the opposite sexes the African traditional society instilled the fear of supernatural curses through myths, taboos and rules. Marital status. Husbands and wives were expected to relate to each other, their parents, and in laws according to the community customs. Conflicts between a husband and a wife were resolved through intervention of relatives. d. Gender roles. There are specific chores and duties for either male or female in African traditional societies. Roles were therefore according to gender. Boys went hunting, herding, while girls fetched ----- 399 # firewood, and helped in cooking. At an early age, girls and boys would mix freely as they played together. Mature boys and girls however, were restricted from mixing freely without supervision by elders. But there was gender identification. The boys identified with their fathers and other male adults, while girls identified themselves with their mother and other female adults. Education. Children belonged to the community and not just to their biological parents. At the adolescent stage; 13 18 years education was given to the adolescents and intensified at initiation stage. Boys and girls were taught traditional rules, and secrets of the society during initiation. Learning was informal. Knowledge was communicated through songs, stories and riddles among other forms of presentations. All adults acted as parents to the young ones. Socialisation. Men were socialized to be superior, while women were socialized to accept their subordinate position and role. Everyone knew and accepted what he/she was culturally supposed to do. Division of labour was based on sex. In the African communities, despite their differences, there were many common customary roles, rules, regulations, taboos and beliefs that governed the practices related to male female relationships from early childhood to old age. These traditional African practices relating to male female relationships existed at various levels. In all of them, man held superior positions when compared to those of women. ----- 400 # Age. Old women and men were accorded respect. They were consulted for advice and counsel. Kinship system was emphasized. e. Christian teaching on male- female relationships. We learn that the husband is the head of the house and should love his wife like Christ loved the church. Once a wife is loved, she should submit to her husband. We also learn that both male and female are equal and co creators with God. Adam and Eve were created to complement each other. Likewise men and women should love each other. Jesus taught that each man should have one wife and vice versa. Once married, the husbands body belongs to the wife and hers belong to him. If that is the case, wife and husband should avoid immorality. Males and females are to relate freely. But the youth are to avoid the passions of youth. These are sexual sins. There are no specific chores or duties for either male or female. Relationship between sexes should be governed by love, chastity, respect, self-control, and self- discipline. Parents are to love their children, while children are to obey and honor their parents. Parents are asked to bring up their children in a Godly way. LESSON TWO. CHRISTIAN TEACHING ABOUT HUMAN SEXUALITY Lesson Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a. Outline Christian teaching on responsible sexual behaviour b. Analyse Christian teaching on irresponsible sexual behaviour c. Discuss effects and consequences of irresponsible sexual behaviour ----- 401 # d. Give examples of the effects of irresponsible sexual behaviour Sexual behaviour is part of human behaviour. The Bible gives principles of sexual behaviour in the Ten Commandments. a. Christian teaching on responsible human sexuality. Christianity teaches us about responsible sexual behaviour. Being responsible means that one is exercising self control or self-discipline in matters of sexual behaviour. Self-discipline is necessary when we have a relationship with the opposite sex (Read, 1 Cor.7: 9 1 Peter 5:8). It is called responsible sexual behaviour, which is obedience to Gods commands. Christians promote healthy social relationship between boys and girls, men and women, and husbands and wives. Responsible sex is between male and female. Sexual intercourse is allowed only between married couples (1 Cor.7: 3 5). Married couples are obliged to be sexually faithful to one another (Heb.13: 4) adultery is condemned (exodus 25:14). Relationship between a husband / wife should be one of respect faithfulness, love, care, mercy, submission, tolerance, and forgiveness b. Christian teaching on irresponsible sexual behaviour. There are many irresponsible sexual behaviours. They include among others all acts and forms of: perversion, misuse, and abuse of sex, incest, rape, fornication, adultery, homosexuality, lesbianism or gay, prostitution, concubine, masturbation, bestiality and child marriages among others. These irresponsible sexual behaviours are against Gods will for ----- 402 # humanity. Christians are to shun irresponsible sexual behaviour. This is because their bodies are the temples of the Holy Spirit. Thus whatever Christians do with their bodies, it should be for the glory of God. Let us now discuss in brief some of the irresponsible sexual behaviour; beginning with (i) Incest, which is a sexual relationship between people who are closely related by blood. For example, sex between a brother/sister, father / daughter. Incest is condemned in the Bible. It was punishable by death in the Old Testament. Read Leviticus 18:6 8. ii) Rape. Rape cannot be justified and it is condemned in The Bible. Rape is an act of forcing another person to have sexual intercourse without his or her consent. It is sexual violence and a crime against humanity. It is also a denial, and a violation of human rights of the victims who are sexually assaulted. Victims of rape include boys, men, girls, women, and babies especially girls. Rape is an expression of hatred toward the opposite sex. In traditional African society rape was abhorred and culprits were punished by death. In Kenya rape is punishable by 20 years imprisonment. Indecent assaults or sexual abuses such as touching a person of the opposite sex without their permission or use of vulgar language are both punishable by up to 5 years imprisonment. iii. Fornication. This is consensual sexual intercourse between unmarried people. It is condemned by ----- 403 # both African and Christian teachings and punishment in African traditional society was by either payment of fines, stoning, and ritual cleansing. In the Old Testament, men were forced to marry the girl. Jesus said that fornication was due to peoples evil thoughts. Abstinence for the youth is encouraged and preached. Why do the youth engage in pre marital sex? There are several reasons. Some of them are: sexual curiosity, proving manhood, human weakness, lack of self control, testing fertility, fear of being jilted / rejected; commercial sex for money; copying acts in the print and electronic media. Others reasons are frustrations, drug abuse, bribe to get a job, and permissiveness in the society. iv. Adultery is committed by adults who have extra marital affairs; between married partner and another party. Adultery is having sex outside marriage with a person with whom one is not married to. Adultery is caused by lack of self control, sexual dissatisfaction, long periods of wife and husband separation, sexual dysfunction and vengeance by an initially faithful spouse who wants to be even with the unfaithful spouse. v. Prostitution. This is the practice of giving sexual pleasure for money or other material benefits. A prostitute can either be male or female. Prostitutes are referred to as commercial sex workers. Why is there prostitution? There are factors leading to prostitution. These are economic reasons such as ----- 404 # unemployment, poverty, rejection of a girl at home, drug abuse, stress, anger, anxiety, frustrations in the family and pornography. The church condemns prostitution because it defiles the body, which is a temple of the Holy Spirit. Its sexual immorality. Read Gal 5: 19 21. vi. Homosexuality/ Gay/ Lesbianism. This is sex between people of the same sex for example; man and man (homosexuality), woman and woman (lesbianism). Homosexuality is a common practice in modern world. It is also a church problem. The Anglican Church in USA, and Canada have accepted homosexuality. The Anglican Church has gay bishops. African Anglican churches are opposing this practice. What makes people prefer sex with the same sex? The Christian view is that homosexuality is a sign of a lack of Christian moral values. It may also be due to confinement in a prison and permissiveness in society. If it is allowed to continue, it shall disintegrate traditional African values. Because of its threat to Gods people, the Church condemns homosexuality. Other reasons for condemning it is because (1) God created a male and a female. Read, Genesis 1:28. Two, sex is sacred. Homosexuality is an unnatural relationship, which lowers human dignity. It does not provide sexual fulfillment (as traditionally). Homosexuality is illegal in Kenya. vii. Sexually transmitted Diseases (STDs). There are many diseases passed from one person to the other ----- 405 # through sex. These are gonorrhea, syphilis, herpes genitalis is, hepatitis B, clamydia, trichonomiasis, HIV/AIDS. Lets discuss them one by one. HIV / AIDS. This is human immune deficiency virus (HIV) that causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) condition. Syndrome refers to many symptoms. HIV is transmitted largely through sex with an infected partner; through blood transfusion; sharing sharp objects with infected persons; and from an infected mother to the unborn child. The HIV virus destroys the white blood cells, and weakens the body s immune system. When the body is weak, it is not able to fight, and defend itself against infections. Persons with the virus are vulnerable and susceptible to opportunistic infections. The signs / symptoms of AIDS are manifestations of symptoms of the opportunistic infections. Some symptoms include persistent coughs, loss of weight, oral thrush, loss of appetite, and diarrhoea. Churches encourage Christians to be compassionate to HIV/AIDS affected people, and to support the infected and the affected individuals like the orphans, widows, and widowers. It also teaches against sexual immorality and against all forms of discrimination. Gonorrhea is caused by a bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhea. Its symptoms appear a4 days after infection. Its symptoms are burning sensation when passing urine; pain or discomfort in the genitals; sticky discharge or pus in the vagina or through the urethra. The good news is that Gonorrhea is curable ----- 406 # if treated early. Syphilis. Primary syphilis may show up in the form of a sore or a wound in the genitals a few days after infection. The wound heals by itself without treatment after some time. Syphilis infection may take several years about 7 years before its symptoms re appear. The symptoms of syphilis are a painless sore or pimple on the mans penis or womans vulva; and swelling of the glands in the groin. Other symptoms, which may appear later, are skin rashes, and sores either in the face armpits, under breasts, mouth or throat. Herpes genital is a sexual disease caused by a virus. It creates wounds in the genitals. A pregnant woman can transmit the infection to her newborn baby during delivery. This disease can be controlled although there is not an effective treatment. Hepatitis B virus causes Hepatitis B. It is transmitted through sex, injections by unsterilized needles and contact with contaminated blood. The infection does not show on the genitals. The signs and symptoms of Hepatitis B include yellowness of the eyes (jaundice) due to liver damage and pain around the upper abdomen. c. The effects of irresponsible sexual behaviour. There are many effects of irresponsible sexual behaviour. They include among others HIV / AIDS, sexually transmitted infections (STI), abortion; family separations and divorces, deaths, unplanned ----- 407 # pregnancies; children living in the streets; school drop outs and psychological problems. i. Effects of incest. These are many. One, incest undermines the healthy relationships between members of a family as it brings shame and guilt among the parties involved. Two, incest destroys relationships within the family and can lead to breaking up of a marriage. Three, incest destroys self-esteem, self respect, and dignity of the victim. We find that abused boys and girls end up having problems when trying to establish healthy relationship with members of the opposite sex. Four, incest can lead to pregnancy, and abortion. And as you have read in the newspapers, it can lead to infections with sexually transmitted diseases (S.T.I.s) and HIV / AIDS. As I write, a father was jailed for life for raping his daughter and infecting her with HIV/AIDS virus. ii. Effects of Rape. This crime has very serious consequences and harmful effects on the victim. Rape may result in pregnancy and can led to physical, psychological, social, and spiritual side effects. The victim may suffer (1) serious physical injuries and (2) may contract both the STIs, and HIV / AIDs. The victim is traumatized, and ashamed of self. The victim suffers from guilt, loneliness, humiliation, posttraumatic stress disorders, and depression among others psychological manifestations. Young rape victims in particular may loose trust in the opposite sex. All these sufferings can lead to suicide and death. ----- 408 # iii. Effects of Fornication. Some of these are having children out of wedlock; feelings of distrust, guilt, and hurt; contracting STIs and HIV/AIDS; loss of self-respect; early and forced marriage and abortion. iv. Effects of Adultery. Christians teach against adultery because it is against Gods commandments and can lead to divorce, abortion, STI, HIV/AIDS, domestic violence, murder (death) and psychological problems. v. Effects of Prostitution are many. It can lead to break up of marriage, and family. It lowers a persons dignity and can lead to unplanned pregnancies, school dropouts; infections such as STIs and HIV /AIDS and improper use of family resources. vi. Effects of homosexuality. It is a threat to procreation. It promotes loose short-term informal relationships and therefore promotes HIV / AIDS. Homosexual couples are prone to HIV/AIDS infections because of having many partners; although this is changing in USA where homosexual couples are being married in churches. vii. Effects of Sexually transmitted diseases HIV / AIDS effects are numerous. They include recurrent illness due to opportunistic infections. There is also stigmatization. Some individuals have feelings of guilt, anger, denial and depression. The sick persons have to look for extra finances to care for their health. They have the burden for medications, and special diet. HIV/AIDs has no cure and leads to death like many other diseases. Parents die and ----- 409 # leave their children as orphans. Gonorrhea effects are many. The disease damages a womans fallopian tubes leading to infertility; and a mans epidydymis leading to sterility. An infected expectant mother can infect her newborn baby with gonorrhea. The disease may affect the eyes of the unborn child causing blindness. Gonorrhea can also cause inflammation of joints, the heart and liver. Effects of Syphilis are damage to the heart, brain and the nervous system. This disease can lead to madness and death of the victim. If a child is infected while in the womb, or during birth, the brain maybe damaged. The child may have either physical deformities or the infected mother may give stillbirths. Effects Herpes genitals. Infection can cause severe brain damage; cancer of the neck of the womb. If a woman is pregnant, the disease can cause death of the baby. The wounds and sores exposes the sick person to HIV /AIDS infections. Effects of Hepatitis B. This disease damages the liver and may lead to death of the infected person. It has a vaccine, but not treatment. viii. Other consequences of irresponsible sexual behaviours These are death, unplanned pregnancies, children living in the streets, school dropouts and psychological problems related to irresponsible sexual behaviour. These include among others: stress, depression, self pity, withdrawal, aggressiveness, and violence. ----- 410 # Stress is the response of the body and mind to any situation that exerts pressure or makes demands on a person. The intensity or pressure experienced determines the level of stress. Some of the signs of stress are: anxiety, worry, drop in performance, chest pains, mood swings, rebellion, ulcers, heart palpitations, fatigue and guilt feelings. Solutions. To avoid stress, it is suggested that individuals should accept that one is stressed; identify sources of stress, rest, exercise, listening to therapeutic music and talk to a counselor. Depression. This is an acute mental disorder. It is also a state of hopelessness and low spirits. Depression can be mild or severe. It has physical, emotional and behavioural signs and symptoms. Let me caution you that it is only a medical doctor who can know if one has a depression or not. We are told by doctors that signs of a depression are: persistent headaches and chest pains; loss of appetite; too much appetite; loss of memory; insomnia i.e. lack of sleep; weight loss or gain; nervousness and mood swings; low self-confidence; suicidal tendencies and self-pity. Other signs and symptoms are loss of libido (sexual desire); poor performance in school and in work places; hopelessness; loss of interest in ones activities; hypertension and high blood pressure d. Irresponsible social and human behaviour. There are social and human behaviours that are contrary to Christian life. These unacceptable behaviours are abortion, and divorce. ----- 411 # Abortion is termination of pregnancy before the foetus is capable of independent life. There are two types of abortions. One is spontaneous abortion or miscarriage. The other is induced abortion, which is deliberate and illegal in Kenya. Induced abortion has been debated in Kenya. The main question is should abortion be legalized or not. This is because abortion is legal in some European countries. Why do mothers seeking abortion? There are many reasons, which are known only to mothers. These are one, pregnancy due to rape and incest. Two, if the mother believes that the unborn child will be a burden. This may be because the baby is conceived outside wedlock and the mother lacks economic resources to take care of the baby. Another reason maybe that the mother is in school, and she cannot look after the baby and continue with her education. Three, medical personnel may abort a deformed foetus or in order to save the life of the mother if it is in danger. Christians view of abortion as murder (Exodus20: 13). This is because abortion interferes with the mothers body, and destroys the baby. Christian view is that the body is the temple of the Holy Spirit. God is the giver of life and He alone has the right to take it away. Abortion carries with it stigma and the effects mentioned above make Christians condemn abortion. e. Effects of irresponsible social and human behaviour. Effects of abortion are infertility, ectopic pregnancy, destruction of a womans body parts; fetal ----- 412 # malformation; risk of the mother bleeding to death and destruction of uterus. Other effects are that the mother may experience in future still births, miscarriages, risk of barrenness; failed abortions leading to deformed babies and psychological problems that we have discussed. These are stress and depression. Revision questions. 1. Explain the T.A. understanding of human sexuality 2. Explain Christian attitudes towards human sexuality 3. In what ways is sex abused in Kenya? 4. Why do you think minors are defiled or sexually abused in Kenya? 5. Explain the Christian teaching on male/female relationships 6. What is the Christian teaching on responsible sexual behaviour? 7. List the different types of irresponsible sexual behaviour 8. Explain the Christian teaching on irresponsible sexual behaviour 9. State the effects of irresponsible sexual behaviour LESSON THREE: MARRIAGE Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to; a. Explain in brief the meaning of marriage b. Explain Christian teachings about marriage c. Describe courtship in African Traditional society d. Discuss the traditional African and Christian approaches to marriage preparation e. Explain celibacy as an alternative to marriage a. Definition of marriage. Marriage is a binding legal union between a man and a woman who agree to have a lasting relationship as husband / wife. Marriage partners choose each other. In some cases, senior member of the family and church influence the choice of a marriage partner. When marrying ----- 413 # partners agree to marry, they are joined in church and they become husband and wife. Marriage is thus a covenant in which the partners give themselves to one another. Marriage involves other members of the community hence it is a social and community affair. Marriage is a permanent union. Marriage is a community requirement in which everyone in the community participates. Each person is expected to undergo marriage because it is a rite of passage. Marriage gives a person, a high social status and prestige in the community. Marriage is also a covenant between a man and a woman that should not be broken. Two people are joined in marriage in order to procreate and perpetuate the community. Once married, a couple is allowed to have sexual relationship, and companionship. Marriage is an expression of and fulfillment of mutual love and comfort. It enhance unity; social prestige, and respect in society. Purpose of marriage is sexual fulfillment; cultural and social requirement; obligation to build a family; and procreation although children are a gift from God. Forms of marriages There are many forms of marriages. There is a marriage ceremony organised as a symbol or mark of the union between a man and a woman. These marriages ceremonies are either civil, or religious. The main religious ceremonies are Christian, Islamic, Hindu, and Sikh among others. We also have African customary ceremonies many of which are polygamous. Christianity does not allow polygamous ----- 414 # marriage. Secular approaches to marriage. In the modern world, some people choose not to marry for personal reasons. Some people have children without getting married while others opt to have a marriage without children. Husband and wife are equal. Monogamy is practiced for economic reasons. In some families women are the heads of the family. Choosing a partner is an individual act and not communal. In marriage traditional qualities of a good wife such as industrious, honesty, and hospitality are not considered. The modern society values external beauty, financial status and social status. As a result, there is a high rate of marriage, separation, and divorce. At times young people fail to be married in church. There is no formalization of marriages. These marriages are called Come-we-stay arrangements. Gender issues in marriage. The wife is subordinate to the husband but had rights. Marriage did not end with death of the husband. The wife was inherited by one of her husbands brother. This is widow inheritance / Levirate marriage. She could also refuse to be inherited but remained married to that man even in death. The wife could not marry outside the family because of dowry. There was dowry payment to parents. If a wife died, the man would marry the sister of his dead wife. This is surrogate marriage. Those who did not marry were considered lesser humans. Young people were prepared for marriage ----- 415 # during initiation, which was witnessed in a public ceremony. During marriage, couple makes vows to each other. The ancestors are invoked to bless the marriage. Factors that lead to a stable, healthy and successful marriage People are different and they understand their roles differently. Here am giving you a few suggestions. Discuss with your study companions and come up with other suggestions. One important factor is mutual responsibility by the couple. This occurs if there is mutual consultation with each other in decision-making. Two is forgiveness of each other. Three is good treatment of each other especially with equal respect. Four is sharing scriptures together. Five is giving love and respecting each other. Six is having a faithful sexual relationship and lastly being open and honest. Seven is African traditional qualities of a good wife who is described as: hardworking, fertile, morally upright, generous, kind, obedient, humble, clean, beautiful, polite, warm hearted and hospitable. Eight are the qualities of a good husband, which are described as: being able to provide good leadership in the family. Other qualities are being aggressive, wise, brave, courageous, responsible and good property manager. b. Christian Teaching about Marriage. Christians teach that marriage is sacred and that it is a divine institution, which is ordained God. God started it when he created Adam and Eve. Marriage should therefore be monogamous and permanent as God protects marriages. The woman should submit to the ----- 416 # husband who is told to love the wife as Christ loved the church. Church teaches respect of each other. Marriage is complete even without children as it is between a male and a female. Marriage is not obligatory and it ends when one partner dies. Christians preparation and approach to marriage Christians organise youth seminars, and rallies to teach the youth how to choose marriage partners and how to treat wife / husbands; care for the children; behave towards in laws; acquire wealth (men); and head a family. Youth are taught to avoid sexual intimacy before marriage. Those intending to marry are encouraged to go for pre marital counselling. During counselling, they are informed that love is the most important bond of unity in marriage. Church encourages partners to go for HIV /AIDs test before marriage. Marriage ceremony is conducted in church Choice of a marriage partner There are many ways of identifying a marriage partner. One is arrangement by parents. If not one can make an individual decision and choose a wife or husband. Two is through an intermediary or third party. In African traditional polygamous marriages, the first wife identified a wife for her husband. Girls would be given out to a chief as a gift c. Courtship in African Traditional society (A.T.S). Courtship varied from community to community. Courtship is the period between engagement and wedding ceremony. During courtship premarital sex is ----- 417 # forbidden. Girls and boys dressed with bracelets and rings. Courtship was important in A.T.S. This was because the man and woman who were girls and boys got to know each other better before marriage. It was a period when girls/boys were instructed in family life education. It was also a period for linking the two marrying families. The couple had time to learn about one anothers character, and know their families. It is a symbol (sign) of the girls presence in her home (maternal home). She continues to live with her own people. The families and clan had an opportunity to check if the marrying couple was related and if their clans were acceptable to the parents. Courtship gives time to the two families to negotiate and pay the bride wealth or dowry. Bridal Wealth, dowry, bride price are all expressions of partnership. The family of the man pays dowry to the family of the woman. Some churches disregard bride wealth, while others encourage it. Dowry is paid in different forms. The girls family decides what it wants. Will it be livestock (poultry, pigs, camels, cows, goats, sheep), beer, grain, jewellery and clothes among others. Importance of dowry. It acts as a compensation for the girls labour and seals the marriage covenant. It is a public expression of appreciation for the coming of a new wife/mother into the mans family. It promotes friendship and cements relationship between families. It shows commitment and seriousness ----- 418 # of the future husband. After dowry payment, the woman belongs to her husband. A ceremony is carried out depending on the community. Bride price payment is accompanied by marriage ceremonies. Lastly dowry helps in maintaining peace Traditional African approaches to marriage preparation. Polygamy is one husband, married to many wives. Polygamy is allowed by the African traditional religion because it occurs if the first wife is barren; ensures that all women have husbands; prevents infertility; provides extra labour in farms. A polygamous man has a higher status because many wives symbolize wealth. Children are important in a marriage because they promote social status of their parents. They cement a bond of unity between husband / wife. They are a source of labour, and wealth. They are heirs to the family wealth They provide security to the family. Divorce is legal dissolution of marriage. Christians allow divorce because of specific grounds. Divorce was rare in African traditional societies. Divorce is granted under circumstances of: adultery, witchcraft, laziness, cruelty and disrespect of wife. In the contemporary society, divorce is sought after or allowed because of: unfaithfulness in marriage or adultery; domestic violence; misuse of family resources; childlessness; in- law interference and alcohol abuse. Legal reasons for divorce ----- 419 # According to the laws of Kenya, divorce is allowed under the following reasons; adultery; if a man deserts his wife for more than 3 years; if a partner becomes insane; and domestic violence for example, physical, and psychological torture. Christian teaching about divorce. Christians discourage divorce because marriage is a permanent status. There is no room for divorce. Church discourages divorce because of its adverse effects. Some denominations allow divorce if there is adultery. God hates divorce. Married couples should remain faithful to each other Effects of divorce are strained relationships, children suffering psychologically, and experiences of rejection. A divorcee faces social stigma, rejection, and isolation. If parents separate, they create single parent families. These families suffer from economic hardships and feelings of failure and inadequacy. e. Celibacy as an alternative to marriage. Celibacy is a Latin word Coelebes meaning bachelor. Why do some people fail to marry? There are many reasons. Some of these are to pursue education leading to delayed marriage; and career demands (workaholic). Other people are discouraged by examples of failed marriages. Other reasons maybe economic independence, poor health, HIV /AIDS, mental illness; parental interference and disappointment from past failed relationships. This happens if parents do not approve a partner. Revision questions ----- 420 # 1. Explain the traditional African understanding of marriage 2, what is the importance of children in traditional African society? 3.what is the Christian teaching about marriage? 4. What is the importance of courtship period in T.As 5. Why are many people opting for celibacy? LESSON FOUR: THE FAMILY Introduction. As society grows and changes, the family grows and changes. As a result, there are several types and practices of the family. In this lesson, we shall discuss the traditional family as it is practiced in the Bible, the traditional African societies and some Christian families. Learning Outcomes. By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to a Explain types of families in society b Analyse traditional African family values and practices c Explain Christians family values and practices d Discuss problems related to family life today e Compare approaches to family by Christians and traditional African society f. Discuss responsible parenthood The family. What is a family? Family is the basic social unit of human society. This basic unit is extended to include relatives bound together by blood, marriage, friendship, and adoption. They are all members of the family. In Kenya, there are many types of families. a. Types of families i. Nuclear family is parents and their children. .It is father, mother, and children. There is an increase of monogamous families or nuclear because of urbanization as rural youth come to towns in search of ----- 421 # white-collar jobs. Migration to cities by people of different tribes has led to pluralism. Education, high cost of living have led to the death of the African culture, which required men and women to marry many partners to produce many children to defend their tribe. Advantages of nuclear families are many. One, the man is able to give undivided attention to one wife and children. Two, there is sharing of mutual love, and peace in the home. Three it is economical to manage one family. Four there is little competition for attention, less strife, quarrels and stress. Five, it is easier to monitor the behaviour of a few children. ii. Polygamous family Father, mothers, children. These type of family have disadvantages in modern Kenya. Modern society is a cash economy. Thus if a man has many wives and children, they may lack basic necessities like food, shelter, education and clothes. iii. Single parent family one parent, and children. Single parent families are created by several circumstances. One is by parents separating. Separation of parents is due to several reasons. These are for example, one partner going to another country and failing to return to his or her country and family. Two, a single family is created by divorce. Divorced parents may decide not to marry again. Three is when one parent refuses to marry. This happens when a girl gets pregnant and the boy does not marry her. Four is because of death of a spouse. The remaining parent may decide not to remarry. Five is when ----- 422 # some mothers decide to have children without marriage. This may not be correct as there is no research to suggest it. Six is imprisonment of one partner for a long time. One parent is left looking after children because one is in jail. iv. Extended family father, mother, children, uncles, aunts, and cousins. This is the common family type in traditional African communities. v. Children led family. This happens when parents die and the 1st born takes care of brothers and sisters including cousins. vi. Grandparent headed family. The HIV/AIDs epidemic has introduced this type of family where grandparents take care of their grandchildren due to the death of both parents especially the mother due to HIV / AIDS disease. This scourge has made many children orphans. In other cases parents go for further studies abroad and leave their children with their parents. b. Traditional African family values and practices. In African societies creation of a family is through marriage, and subsequent procreation. Family is viewed as a sacred institution in African society. The African traditional family includes the dead (ancestors), the unborn children and the living. An African traditional family has obligations and duties. These were (1) offering sacrifices to ancestors, (2) pouring libations; and (3) giving the dead decent burials (4) providing basic needs to their children (5) bringing up children to be morally upright individuals. Further to this, the African traditional family is ----- 423 # responsible for the upbringing, caring, and protection of its children. This is demonstrated by the nuclear family, which provides necessities required to meet and satisfy the economic needs of its members. The African traditional family is expected to participate in communal activities. Work in the family was divided according to age, gender and social status. Each family member worked for its basic needs as well as the welfare of the community. The African family had well-stated and practiced values There were (1) respect for family members (2) providing responsible parenthood, which is the process of bringing up children to become all round or self reliant persons (3) educating children in all aspects of life. Parents and the extended family members helped their children to develop intellectually and cognitively. The family taught children physical skills. It also gave children confidence to appreciate their physical strength. Children were taken through a rigorous physical curriculum of games such as wrestling, swimming and running to develop their physical strength. Childrens bodies were nourished thoroughly. They were served good and nutritious food, which improved their muscle strength. Children were taught social skills. They learnt how to behave towards adults, peers and grandparents. They developed social skills since parents allowed them to socialize and interact with other children, grandparents and the community. This made them grow socially, emotionally and psychologically. ----- 424 # They had a curriculum for teaching and training in traditional African religious values, family matters, moral and social values. This teaching of children started from an early age. The teaching method used was observation and practice. Parents taught by being good role models. They were expected to model desired values and family practices. Children were taught how to relate with one another as brothers and sisters. Parents were to show tolerance to children. These values show that African parents understood their parental roles and responsibilities. These values were sometimes; exploited by the irresponsible family members or specific individuals. This exploitation encouraged dependency, leading to conflicts, competition, hatred, and jealousy. Christian parents are expected to train their children to know God; be self -disciplined, and follow the Christian way of living. Another duty is to provide basic needs to their children. Christian understanding of the family Among Christians, family is sacred and instituted by God. Read again about the Christian teachings about marriage. Role of children in the Christian family A Christian child is expected to obey parents, honor them, and respect parents. This is one of the Ten Commandments given to Moses by God. Parenting styles a) Dictatorship /authoritative / autocratic the parents is the final authority, imposes decisions ----- 425 # b) Permissive or liberal style also referred to as Laissez faire the children do as they want c) Democratic style parents discuss with their children on family issues. This is the best style. Problems related to family life today Families are faced with numerous problems such as a) Children abuse sex assault, beating b) Domestic violence abusive language, frequent fights, emotional abuse c) Diseases e.g. HIV / AIDS epilepsy, autism. d) Children with special needs, blindness, deafness or those with mental challenges, motor co ordination (Autism) e) Separation, divorce f) Childlessness g) Single parent families economic hardships h) Misuse of family resources, economic crisis i) Affluence a lot of wealth j) Unemployment, underemployment k) Retrenchment laying off of some employees in order to reduce the workforce l) Mismanagement of family finances m) Alcohol and drug abuse n) The generation gap o) Poor relations with in-laws p) Cultural and religious differences Traditional African approaches to problems related to family life today 1) Individuals were prepared for challenges of family life right from childhood 2) Adolescents, initiates were given family life education ----- 426 # 3) People entered marriage knowing that its a life long union 4) Rules were clear to govern marriage relations 5) Polygamy helped reduce unfaithfulness 6) There were no single parent families. Members lived together reducing loneliness 7) Widows / widowers were encouraged to marry again Traditional brew was taken in moderation Christians approaches to problems related to family life today 1) Christian families are obliged to live according to Christian principles and values such as mutual respect, self discipline, understanding, honesty, faithfulness, love and forgiveness 2) Premarital counseling is carried out 3) Church holds regular seminars and conferences on family life matters. Love and respect for each other. Christian wife to submit to husband who is head of the family. They are taught to take each other as complementary and equal partners. 4) Women are encouraged to form participate in church organizations e.g. mothers union, womens guild where they learn roles of being a wife, mother, and a woman. 5) Some churches offer advice to families on management of their families. They are encouraged to have investments. 6) Breadwinner is encouraged to write a written will 7) To improve the parent child relationship churches offer guidance and counseling to the youth Christian parents are advised to set positive role models to their children 9) Parents are encouraged to be open and promote effective communication with their children ----- 427 # 10) Churches in case of serious family conflicts such as child abuse, domestic violence, advise legal action. 11) Churches organize youth seminars where they talk about drug abuse, premarital sex, negative peer pressure and media influence etc. 12) Relevant information is passed through books, pamphlets, magazines, media FM, TV etc. 13) Some churches welcome unwed mothers 14) Churches provide health services, guidance on HIV / AIDS 15) Some churches care for widows, orphans widowers and the needy Revision questions 1. State the different types of families TOPIC THREE: CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO WORK Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic you should be able to a Define the term work and vocation b Explain and appreciated the traditional African attitude towards work c Explain the role of professional ethos, ethics and code in society d Explain virtues related to work e Discuss the moral duties and responsibilities of employers and employees f Discuss Christian approaches to issues related to employment LESSON ONE: DEFINITION OF TERMS Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: a. Explain the meaning of work. Vocation, profession, trade, craft, and job b. Give general reasons why people work Work Use of energy, physical or mental, for the purpose of improving human life. It is any activity that requires ----- 428 # expenditure of energy or application of skills e.g. studying, teaching, cooking, farming etc. Vocation Work can be described as a vocation, profession, trade, craft, career or a job. Vocation is from a Latin word Vocare which means call Christians believe that every individual has been called of God to various duties. Vocation is work that requires special skills, special training or a unique call or a special mission in society. Profession Work that is characterized by a code of ethics, lengthy specialized training, advance knowledge and self disciple. Professionals have their own set standards. The professionals determine entry requirements for new members and usually have machinery for dealing with errant members. E.g. Law, medicine, architecture etc. A trade Refers to an occupation, a way of making a living. Some trades require specialized training examples hairdressing A craft An occupation which requires manipulative skills or use of the hands e.g. woodcarving, pottery, weaving. A craft may be a trade depending on the nature of occupation. A career An occupation that one chooses to pursue in his/her life. Its the general way of earning a living. ----- 429 # Job Refers to tasks performed, services rendered in return for payment of wages. Most jobs are temporary others casual and others permanent and pension able. What determines ones career, vocation? 1. Available opportunities for future development in a particular job 2. The need to serve others especially the church and the needy 3. Interests, strengths, talents, abilities 4. Inclination or attraction to a certain kind of work 5. Pressure from parents, peers etc General reasons why people work a) Its an essential element of life b) God ordained work. Humans work for their food c) Work contributes to the development of the community d) Work is personal. It defines a person e) People work to earn a living f) People work for enjoyment, leisure g) To assist and give to the needy h) To get luxuries i) People work to raise their standards of living j) For self satisfaction and fulfillment k) For personal development l) To keep a person occupied and not idle m) To acquire wealth and status in the society n) To socialize with other members of the society o) To attain independence and not depend on someone else LESSON TWO: TRADITIONAL AFRICAN ATTITUDE TO WORK Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: a. Explain importance of work ----- 430 # 1. Work is essential to the well being of the individual and survival of the community 2. Work ensured basic needs such as food, shelters etc were provided. 3. In traditional African society work was divided according to the age, gender, and status e.g. chief, elder of the individual. 4. Everyone was a worker. Boys assisted in herding, fishing, girls assisted in cooking fetching firewood. Women cooked, took care of babies constructed houses (maasai) etc. 5. Works among the traditional African societies included pastoralist, farmers, livestock keeping, fishing, bee keeping etc 6. Work was a communal affair; people would work together and assist each other 7. Work was not for a wage (Money). The rewards of work-included food, communal unity, acquisition of moral values etc. 8. Hard work was emphasized, laziness was condemned 9. There were some specific works for specialization e.g. herbal medicine men, divination, prophecy, rain making, pottery etc. 10. Work involved giving prayers, offerings, and sacrifices to God 11. Through work, the basic needs of the individual, community were fulfilled 12. Through work potentials; talents and skills were explored, acquired and utilized. 13. Work had a religious dimension as well as a social dimension. It brought people together improving their relations 14. SAE ----- 431 # 1. Find out how different communities in Kenya lived in the past and how they live today 2. How did the lifestyle of the communities influence daily activities LESSON THREE: CHRISTIAN TEACHING ON WORK Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the christens teachings about work The Christian teaching on work is based mainly on the interpretation of the bible, the teachings of Jesus and the teachings of the apostles. Some of the teachings are: - 1. God himself instituted work. He created the heavens and the earth and all in it. Since God worked man should work. (Gen. 2:1) 2. Gods work of creation is good (Gen. 1:31) Christians should endeavor to produce good works 3. Work is a duty, an obligation, a command Christians are responsible for Gods creation (Gen.2: 15). They are to protect it animals, birds, plants, marine life are all under the care of man. 4. Human beings should work to acquire their basic needs (Genesis. 1:29 30, 3:19) God blesses the work of our hands 5. Human beings are co creators with God (Gen.1: 28) God continue to create through human beings. Human beings glorify God through their work. 6. God reveals himself through his work of creation. God had a purpose for his creation. He is orderly, source of life, Almighty etc. 7. Work is a co operative undertaking. Eve was created to be Adams helper (Gen. 2:20) Christians should co operate in their undertakings ----- 432 # 8. Hard work is praised and laziness is looked down upon. (Proverbs 31:27). Christians should work for their daily needs and not become a burden to others. 9. Work should be accompanied with rest (Gen.2: 2) God rested on the 7th day from all his work. God commanded the Israelites to rest on the 7th day. 10. People should enjoy what they have worked for (Ecc.3: 22) 11. Work should be done for the glory of God and for the good of the society. 12. People should work honestly not steal but work to earn an honest living (Eph.4: 28) 13. Those who do not work should not eat They should always work since God is always at a work (John 15:17) LESSON FOUR: ROLES OF PROFESSIONAL ETHOS, ETHICS AND CODES IN THE SOCIETY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: - 1. Define the following terms, professional ethics, professional codes and professional ethos 2. Describe the role of ethics Definitions Professional ethics : principles of behaviour / conduct that guide members of a particular profession. What workers are allowed to do and not to do. Professional ethos The group identity of members of a profession, their unique custom or character e.g. what identifies doctors, lawyers etc. Profession codes or code of ethics Collection of laws arranged systematically according to major concerns and core functions of the ----- 433 # profession. Roles - To regulate the behaviour of professional (workers) - Enables professionals to understand their role - Ensures professionals provide quality of services to their clients - To encourage respect among professionals - Give guidance on how professionals should relate to one another - They safe guard professionals against being compromised / misused - They determine expected level of performance - They serve as a measure of competence - Act as a measure of quality service - They protect the professionals - They provide a reference point for disciplining (used to discipline the errant professional) - They inspire respect and high esteem for professionals - Through professional codes, ethics, ethos, professional earn public trust LESSON FIVE: VIRTUES RELATED TO WORK Learning outcome. By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: -es 1. Define the term virtue 2. Give examples of virtues related to work Definition A virtue is a good human habit. Its a moral principle, moral quality or goodness of character and behaviour. Examples of virtues elated to work (i) Diligence hardworking (ii) Honesty, integrity ability to be relied upon (Integrity) Honest is being truthful. (iii) Faithfulness being trustworthy and loyal ----- 434 # (iv) Responsibility ability to make decisions and take action independently. Being mindful of other peoples welfare (v) Tolerance ability to bear with others or with difficult situations LESSON SIX: MORAL DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF EMPLOYERS AND EMPLOYEES Learning outcomes: by the end of the lesson, you should be able to: - 1. State and explain the duties and responsibilities of employers towards employees 2. List the rights of employers 3. Outline the moral duties of employees 4. List the rights of employees Employers: government, non governmental organization, private sector individuals, company, selfemployment. Employers have several duties and responsibilities towards their employees. They are: - To organize and conduct business efficiently for the benefit of the institution, employer, community - To respect the employee, treat them with dignity - Pay a fair wage to the employee - Ensure good healthy and safe working conditions - Provide social welfare for the employees e.g. time off, leave days, time for recreation - Grant leave as required by law or the terms of contract - Take care of the welfare of the employees give medical cover, pension scheme etc - To motivate their employees - To reward employees - Compensate employees made redundant Rights of the employer ----- 435 # Employers have a right to / are entitled to (a) Get profits from their businesses (b) Carry out their businesses without unfair taxation (c) Form association with other employers (d) Obtain and conduct business (e) Hire, dismiss employees in accordance with the requirements of their firms and contract (f) Demand a fair days work (g) Conduct business without subjection to unfair conditions and competitions Moral duties of the employees 1. Carry out their duties to the best of their ability without supervision 2. Respect and protect the property of the employer 3. Encourage peaceful solutions to any problems encountered in their work place 4. To work diligently for self fulfillment and development 5. To respect their employer and fellow employees 6. Observe terms of contract with employer 7. Be loyal, honest, respect to the employer Rights of the employees To receive fair wages To have a reasonable work load Have reasonable hours of work Have safety and protection at work Right to join a labour union Right to further individual training and development education Rights to retirement, terminal benefits Rights to a fair opportunity for provision A right to time for rest Right to Favourable working conditions ----- 436 # LESSON SEVEN: CHRISTIANS APPROACHES TO ISSUES RELATED TO EMPLOYMENT Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to; - 1. Define the following terms, wages and industrial action 2. State the Christian teachings on wages 3. List the reasons for industrial action 4. State the results of workers strike/ industrial action 5. Explain the Christian approaches towards strikes Wages and industrial action (Strikes) A wage is payments for work done. Payment is in modern times done according to hours, weeks or days that one works. Christian teachings on wages - Human beings have the right to work for a decent living (Matt.20:1 16) They should be paid for their work. - Workers should be paid wages to the amount and value of their work (1 Timothy 5:18) - Wages should be paid as agreed upon (Mathew 20:13) - Employers should not take advantage of the poverty of the employee (Deuteronomy 24: 14 15) - Human beings should not be enslaved to work (Ex.5:22 23) - Employers who degrade their workers in wages are condemned (Deut.24:14 15, Jer.22:13) - Oppression is condemned (Amos 5:18, 8;4) - Workers wages should never be withheld (James 5:4) Industrial action Also commonly called Strike this is an effort by workers to stop work in protest by boycott go-slow sit ----- 437 # ins or refuse to work. There has been increase of industrial action in the recent past in most countries of the world. Reasons for industrial actions 1 Due to increased awareness of workers rights 2 Exposure to global trends through the media 3 Formation of trade unions that fight for the rights of workers 4 Due to poor working conditions 5 Underpaying workers 6 Threatening workers with unjustified dismissals 7 Suspending the workers / interdiction unjustly 8 A hostile working environment Results of workers strikes (industrial / action a) Pay cuts b) Demotions c) Loss of jobs d) Employers suffer losses e) Inflation f) Injuries even death when confronted by police g) Victimization of some individuals h) Bitterness among the workers and employers Christian approaches towards strikes a) Christians recommend a peaceful co existence between workers and employers b) There should be fairness, justice, love among workers, employees c) There should be an open communication channel across the ranks from top to bottom d) Employees should not destroy property e) Working conditions should be better and improved f) Employees to be human when dealing with employees ----- 438 # LESSON EIGHT: CHILD LABOUR Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the term child labour 2. State the reasons why children are employed 3. State the disadvantages of child labour 4. List down the causes of child labour 5. Describe the position of the church in dealing with child labour A child is a person below 18 years. A child does not have an identity card, does not vote (in Kenya). According to International Labour Organization the minimum employment age is 14 years. Child labour It is engaging a person below the age of 14 years in wage / paid employment. Reasons why children are employed - To provide cheap labour - They cannot fight for proper terms - They are easily hired and fired Disadvantages of child labour Children are not yet mentally and physically prepared to do adult jobs. This leads to a) Exploitation of children b) Children paid less, taken advantage of c) It inhibits the growth of a child and denies them a chance to enjoy their childhood d) It deprives them of their right to basic education e) It exposes children to hazards (dangers) from machines, chemicals f) Heavy workload deprives children of social educational, moral, psychological, physical rights Places where children are employed ----- 439 # - Plantations coffee, tea - Domestic services homes - Tourism sector - Industries - Children are trafficked and employed as commercial sex workers Causes of child labour reasons why children work 1 Lack of money / poverty 2 Death of parents 3 Dropping out of school due to pregnancy, indiscipline, (truancy), poor academic performance or lack of school fees. 4 Those who never went or taken to school 5 Lack of good role models e.g. coast province Mombasa, Malindi has several of the financially stable people being school dropouts, engaged in drug trafficking, commercial sex etc. 6 Influence of cultural values e.g. circumcision of boys in some communities is done later in life and one is declared an adult e.g. the kikuyu circumcising at 13 years, or 12 years 7 Children being lured by employers 8 Greed for material benefits 9 Being homeless ending up as a street child Position of church in dealing with child labour - The church condemns it - It has put up homes for poor children (orphanages) - It provides guidance, counseling to both parents and children - Children are blessing from God hence should be loved and cared for - Parents have the responsibilities to protect their children from harm. LESSON NINE: UNEMPLOYMENT AND SELF EMPLOYMENT Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - ----- 440 # 1. Define the term unemployment and self employment 2. State the causes of unemployment 3. Describe the response of Christians to issues of unemployment 4. List the problems faced by self employed people Unemployment When people are capable and willing to work but are unable to find a viable income or occupation it is referred to as unemployment. Causes of unemployment 1 Preference for prestigious white collar jobs (Office jobs, non manual jobs) 2 Corruption tribalism, nepotism, bribery denying jobs to the qualified in preference for the unqualified. 3 Unequal distribution of wealth some regions are more resourceful than others. Industries, good infrastructure concentrated in some areas. 4 Inadequate resources for self employment (lack of capital, skills) 5 Limited job opportunities probably due to high population growth 6 Few international investors in Kenya, probably due to high crime rate, insecurity Identify ways of creating job opportunities Response of Christians to issues of unemployment a) They encourage self employment in cases of unemployment b) They have set up vocational training, polytechnics to train people towards jobs that are for self employment c) Christians condemn idleness Self-employment ----- 441 # Self-employment is an economic activity initiated, controlled by an individual. It is an occupation in which a person initiates a personal enterprise and manages it with the help of others. Examples Small businesses enterprises, Jua kali sector, music industry, entertainment (e.g. comedians), community work, agriculture etc Problems / challenges - Some lack sufficient capital to start a business and keep it running - Lack of necessary skills to run the business - High taxation leading to some business closing down - Small scale traders face undue competition from larger firms Revision questions 1. What is work? 2. List any six reasons why people work 3. Explain T.As attitude towards work 4. List some of the factors that have changed the attitude towards work in the modern society 5. What are the rights of employers? 6. State the duties of employees 7. Why has child labour become common in Kenya? 8. What are the causes of unemployment in Kenya? 9. What can the government do to reduce unemployment in Kenya? TOPIC FOUR: CHRISTIANS APPROACHES TO LEISURE Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic, you should be able to a Explain the meaning of leisure b Discuss the traditional African understanding of leisure c Discuss Christian teaching on leisure ----- 442 # d Discuss the importance of leisure e Outline various forms and uses of leisure f Explain how leisure is misused in the society today g Discuss the abuse of alcohol and other drugs and their effects h Explain Christian criteria for evaluating the use of leisure Christian criteria for evaluating the use of leisure LESSON ONE: MEANING OF LEISURE Work is an obligation however people cannot work 24 hours. They need to rest. God rested on the 7th day after work. Work and rest are complementary elements of human life. Definition of leisure This is the time when one is free from work or other duties. Time at ones own disposal, which can be utilized in a productive manner depending on ones interests and abilities. Leisure provides mental, physical relaxation, spiritual, emotional relaxation and enrichment Forms of leisure 1. Passive 2. Active leisure Passive involves use of mental energy Active leisure there is use of physical energy Examples of activities of passive leisure are - Watching television - Reading story books - Playing video games - Chatting with friends Examples of activities of active leisure are - Jogging - Mountain climbing - Gardening ----- 443 # - Dancing - Tree planting - Playing football Leisure is used for - Enjoyment - Entertainment song, dance, watching movies etc - Relaxation exercises - Socialization sharing, education - Religious engagement wedding ceremonies, visiting the sick, worship In passive leisure others entertain while in active leisure the person is active, whole body is involved. Active leisure enables a person to 1. Develop his/her body 2. Build stamina 3. Strengthen relationships etc Some leisure activities are dangerous e.g. boxing, motor racing; while others are expensive e.g. golf. Other leisure activities are addictive while others are unproductive. - Leisure activities should be planned for - Leisure activities can also be economic, income generating activities. LESSON TWO: TRADITIONAL AFRICAN UNDERSTANDING OF LEISURE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: - 1.Define leisure according to the traditional African understanding 2. State the various forms of communal leisure activities In traditional African society leisure permeates all aspects of life. Leisure activities accompany work. Leisure and work were entertainment. Work was accompanied by singing, reciting stories sharing past ----- 444 # events. Examples of leisure activities in traditional African society include - Wrestling - Running - Playing ajua - Mock fighting - Swimming - Spear throwing - Poetry - Music and dance etc Leisure activities that were communal include Bull fighting Tongue twisters Poetry recitation Telling of myths legends Dancing Brain teasers Riddles etc o Work in African society included fishing, tilling the land, herding, hunting, harvesting o Most leisure activities in traditional African society were active form of leisure, communal, not individualistic and not for monetary gains o All forms of leisure had an educational value. Folk stories had a moral value. People were taught not to be selfish, greedy jealousy etc Myths and legends tell of the origin of the community and its history of important people as well as history of the community. o In African traditional society, leisure led to acquisition of values or virtues such as co operation, ----- 445 # sharing, solidarity, love, bravery, empathy, endurance, tolerance etc. o Most activities were linked to the worship of God and, veneration of the ancestors o Leisure activates were organized along gender and age group season (E.g. harvest dancing, singing); wet rainy seasons boat swimming o Rites of passage e.g. initiation, marriage, birth and naming provided leisure activities o Leisure activities were planned for LESSON THREE: CHRISTIAN TEACHING ON LEISURE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the Christian teachings on work 2. State the various ways that Christians use their leisure Christian teach that a) Work and leisure are of divine origin. God rested on the 7th day after working b) Leisure is a gift from God leisure should be put to good use. Its not be wasted c) Leisure provides us with the opportunity to worship God. Leisure should be used to serve God. d) Christians associate leisure with personal growth and fellowship e) Jesus recognized the need for rest by withdrawing his disciples from their active ministry. Its good to have time alone for reflection, rest, visit friend etc. f) Leisure should be used to seek God and help others e.g. Jesus prayed, helped the needy restored peoples health. Ways Christian use their leisure time activities Worshipping God Visiting the sick ----- 446 # Caring for the needy Resting Watching television Chatting with family members Retreat time spend away with a group of people to be alone with God Visiting friends, relatives Reading the bible Praying etc LESSON FOUR: IMPORTANT USE AND MISUSE OF LEISURE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State the importance of leisure 2. List the ways that leisure can be used properly 3. Describe how leisure is misused today Importance of leisure Leisure is necessary. Its important in various ways 1) It is a good time to assess the work we have done (Reflection time) 2) It brings people together leading to self growth and fulfilment (Social function of leisure) 3) Leisure helps individuals to discover their hidden talents 4) Leisure relaxes the mind a change of activity, relieves the mind 5) Leisure refreshes the body restores lost energy 6) Leisure enables Christians to offer charity to those in need 7) Leisure provides time for worship and spiritual renewal Leisure gives one time to rest 9) Its time for recreation 10) Give one time to attend social occasions 11) Allows people to travel and visit friends and relatives 12) Leisure can be used to enhance and acquire new skills and knowledge 13) Its a time to develop and discover ones talents Uses of leisure proper of leisure ----- 447 # Leisure can be used for a. Religious experience b. A time for rest c. Leisure is used to provide us with time to help others d. Leisure can be used to spread the word of God e. Development of talents f. Its an opportunity for individual growth g. Leisure strengthens social relationships h. Leisure can be used for reflection on ones decision; actions etc leisure activities reveal who we are. i. Leisure can be used for educative and economic purposes Proper use of leisure is when leisure time is spent doing activities that add value to us. Misuse of leisure today Leisure time can be misused through various activities e.g. 1) Spending too much time in passive activities e.g. pornography watching, watching films that are violent 2) Spending leisure time in idle talk gossip-leading to conflicts 3) Spending time in gambling, casinos making bets on horses playing Ajua games etc 4) Alcohol and drug taking when a person over drinks alcohol, spends time drinking at the expense of family, abusing drugs is misuse of leisure time. 5) Leisure can also be misused by engaging in dangerous activities. Night dancing, disco dancing has become a common form of leisure worldwide. What are the advantages and disadvantages? LESSON FIVE: DRUG ABUSE AND ITS EFFECTS- ALCOHOL, SOFT AND HARD DRUGS ----- 448 # Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: - 1. Define the terms drug, drug use, drug abuse 2. State the different ways that drugs are administered 3. List the various categories of drugs 4. List the different types of drugs 5. Describe the various effects of different drugs A drug is any substance which when taken may alter or cause changes in the normal functioning of the body. Drug abuse Improper use of drugs. Using a drug for another purpose than what it is intended for Drug use Proper use of drugs Drugs are taken in various forms namely 1 Liquids 2 Lotions 3 Ointment 4 Powder 5 Cake form, Drugs are classified as legal and illegal Ways of administering drugs Drugs are taken /administered in various ways - Infecting - Inhaling / smoking - Chewing - Swallowing - Drinking - Sniffing / snuffing Categories of drugs ----- 449 # a) Medicinal b) Soft drugs c) Hard / narcotic drugs Types of drugs 1) Preventive drugs e.g. drugs to prevent polio, cholera, yellow fever 2) Curative drugs drugs that cure diseases 3) Sedatives, palliatives drugs that alleviate pain, put patients to sleep e.g. drugs for diabetes, heart diseases, asthma, painkillers 4) Tranquillizers drugs that relieve tension induce sleep e.g. piriton, valium 5) Stimulants drugs used to increase physiological activity of a particular organ. They arouse the activity of the central nervous system / senses. 6) Volatile drugs these drugs intoxicate the user, they are derived from petroleum products paint thinners dry cleaning fluids glue etc. stimulants and volatile drugs classified as soft drugs. 7) Hard drugs or narcotic drugs These are highly addictive drugs. The body forms dependence on these drugs. These drugs affect the mind causing drowsiness; sleep, stupor and they are the most commonly abused drugs. Examples are Cocaine - From coca leaves - Its highly addictive - Causes mental problems - Can lead to death on overdose - A very expensive drug ----- 450 # Other side effects are confusion, Convulsions, circulatory collapse and rapid heart beat Bhang / Marijuana - A plant of Indian hemp - Also called marijuana, Hashish, Cannabis, Sativa depending on which part of the plant is taken i.e. leaves, stem, or roots. - Users become aggressive excited or high - Bhang changes perception of space, time and reality - It causes drowsiness and irresponsible behaviour - Its side effects causes people to be engaged in criminal activities e.g. robbery with violence as it gives changes in perception Morphine Its used to suppress pain clinically - Its addictive - Its derived from cocaine - Used as local aesthetic Heroine - Its pain relieving - Highly addictive - Powder heated in foil paper, vapour forms hence smoked referred to as chasing the dragon - Also called brown sugar - Its injected and inhaled - An overdose can lead to death - its expensive - It causes respiratory problems - Its depressive ----- 451 # - Withdrawal symptoms when heroine is not available are nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and severe anxiety Soft drugs - Cigarette - Alcohol - Miraa / khat Cigarette - Made from tobacco - Cigarettes contain a) Nicotine a highly addictive substance. b) Carbon monoxide, which damages arteries heart and lungs c) Tar black substance which promotes cancer of the throat, heart and lungs Cigarettes are legal drugs in Kenya. Pregnant women may miscarry or terminate the pregnancy if they smoke. Leads to chest respiratory diseases poor blood circulation Leads to destructive fires due to carelessness Miraa / khat 1 Plants / legally in Kenyan, and other parts of the world 2 They are chewed 3 Causes temporary excitement 4 Makes one loose appetite for food and sex 5 The juice in miraa causes temporary excitement in the user when ingested 6 Miraa makes the user to be irritable Alcohol - Alcohol is a drug made through fermentation - Its a drink used in social ceremonial occasions ----- 452 # - Its in form of beer wines, traditional brew (e.g. busaa, muratina, mnazi )and spirits e.g. whisks, brandy, gin, changaa - Alcohol is prepared by fermentation or distillation heating to a certain degree. - In African traditional society, alcohol was fermented and used for 1. Medicinal value 2. Entertainment 3. Marriage celebrations 4. Beer parties given to visitors - Excessive drinking was discouraged - Drunk people were scorned or scolded - Young people were not allowed to drink alcohol - When alcohol is taken excessively it is abused Alcohol abuse - Alcohol can lead to body dependence or addiction - Consequences of abusing alcohol are such as (i) Squandering family resources (ii) Health deterioration (iii) Lack of concentration leading to poor quality of work (iv) Family break-ups due to frustrations A man experiences a desire for sex but lacks the ability to perform leading to break ups (v) Deformed foetus if a mother abuses alcohol when pregnant (vi) Alcohol destroys brain cells (vii) It leads to unruly behaviour such as fights, violence (viii) One is vulnerable to risky behaviour a drunk person is unable to make proper decisions hence vulnerable to sexual infections such as HIV / AIDS ----- 453 # (ix) Can make a person cause accidents if driving under the influence of alcohol or staggering on the road. LESSON SIX: CAUSES OF ALCOHOL AND DRUG ABUSE (REASONS WHY PEOPLE ABUSE ALCOHOL AND DRUGS) Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State and explain the effects of drugs 2. State and explain the causes of drug use and abuse (i) Frustration due to unemployment, inability to perform well and meet set standards or other personal frustrations. (ii) Idleness when idle some turn to alcohol and drug use (iii) Addiction (iv) Boredom (v) Bad examples from adults (vi) Availability of drugs in the Kenyan market (vii) Negative peer pressure (viii) Experimentation then addiction (ix) Media influence (x) Societal permissiveness (xi) Urbanization (xii) Pressure of work (xiii) Financial stress (xiv) Globalization foreign world influences Effects of drug abuse Drug abuse poses danger to the health of a person, affects family, society in general. Effects of drug abuse are ----- 454 # A. Psychological problems drugs are addictive. The body becomes dependant on them. It cannot perform without the drugs. It leads to depression, irritability, aggressiveness, paranoia, one becoming afraid to face reality etc. B. Crime robbery, theft, people abusing drugs will rob, steal so as to get money to buy the drugs. Drugs have led to students setting schools on fire, killing their fellow students C. Illusion users do not face reality D. Health problems one is prone to diseases because of frequent use of drugs. Drugs weakens the bodys system e.g. alcohol leads to liver Cirrhosis, stomach ulcers. One is susceptible / prone to HIV / AIDS infection STIs lung cancer, still birth etc E. Economic problems Drugs are expensive. Abuse leads to depletion of family resources leading to poverty F. Loss of job and income G. Social problems Abuse of drugs leads to family conflicts, leading to separation, divorce, family quarrels fights and even murder (domestic violence) H. Accidents I. Frustrations J. Poor performance in school work K. Death People die out of drug abuse. An over dose of heroine, cocaine kills. Alcohol can lead to a blackout, this affects the brain LESSON SEVEN: REMEDIES TO DRUG ABUSE ----- 455 # Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to:- 1. List down the various remedies to drug use and abuse Drug abuse has become a global problem. Remedies or solutions include a) Law enforcement through bodies such as UNDCP United Nations International Drug Control Programme Anti Narcotics Police Units, NACADA National Agency for the Campaign Against Drug Abuse so as to control abuse of Narcotics and other drugs. b) Education People to be educated on the effects of drugs. The curriculum from primary to secondary to include topics on drug abuse. Guidance and counselling Religious teachings all religious condemn the abuse of drugs Family values to be promoted. Parents should set good examples to their children Every individual to cultivate individual values. Respect their body and take care of their bodies Rehabilitation of drug users / abusers LESSON EIGHT: CHRISTIAN CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING THE USE OF LEISURE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the Christians criteria for evaluating the use of leisure Criteria criterion a principle or standard for judging something. How does a Christian determine whether a certain leisure activity is lawful, acceptable before God criteria for evaluating the use of leisure 1) Christians, should engage in leisure activities which promote their respect and dignity they should ----- 456 # socialize with people who are morally upright (bad company corrupts good morals) 2) God ordains leisure hence it should serve Gods purpose. 3) Leisure should come after work 4) Leisure should be used for the good of others. The activities that are harmful to others should be avoided 5) Activities chosen should enrich their knowledge of God 6) Activities should provide service to others 7) Leisure doesnt mean laziness A Christian should not engage in a harmful activity to self but those that promote respect and dignity 9) Christians to avoid activities that lead to sin or to addiction 10) They should perform an activity which develop their physical emotional social and spiritual well being 11) Leisure should be enjoyed with moderation 12) Activities for leisure should be moral, within the laws of God and pleasing to good. Revision questions 1. Identify five (5) reasons why the taking of alcohol as a way of spending leisure is condemned 2. Write down five ways in which modern Christians use their leisure time 3. Give five ways in which drug use and abuse could affect a Christian 4.identify ways in which Christians can overcome temptations to drug use and abuse 5(a). Why is leisure important in the life of a Christian? 5(b). What factors have contributed to the misuse of leisure in Kenya? 6.state the factors that have led to the misuse of drugs in Kenya TOPIC FIVE: CHRISTIANS APPROACHES TO WEALTH, ----- 457 # MONEY AND POVERTY Learning Outcomes By the end of this topic, you should be able to: - a. Define the concepts wealth, money and poverty b. Explain and appreciate the traditional African understanding of wealth and poverty c. Describe the impact of the introduction of money economy in the traditional African society. d. Explain Christian teachings on money, wealth and poverty e. Discuss Christians approached to some issues related to wealth money and poverty f. Uphold the Christian principles in acquiring and using wealth LESSON ONE: DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPTS WEALTH, MONEY AND POVERTY a) Wealth: accumulation Accumulation of materials owned by an individual, family or a group of people. Wealth is property that has economic value e.g. land, animals, money, valuable possessions such as jewellery, commercial and residential buildings etc. Ways of acquiring wealth Inheritance Business Commercial farming Salaried Jobs Investment of money in financial institution Provision of commercial services b) Money Its the medium of exchange that functions as a legal tender. It is something that is generally accepted as ----- 458 # a medium of exchange, a means of payment. It is usually in form of coins or notes. Good monetary media (money) has certain qualities. Qualities of money It should be acceptable It should be fairly stable Easy to divide into small units Easy to carry Should be relatively scarce It should be durable Its value should be maintained through proper control of its circulations Money is a measure of wealth. What it can purchase is the value. Money is used to buy services, goods, pay debts etc. Examples of currencies in the world are Ksh. (Kenya), Rand (South Africa) US & Dollar, Pound (Britain) Euro (Europe), Yen (Japan) Etc c) Poverty State of being without adequate basic necessities of life e.g. food, shelter, clothing Its a state of helplessness. It is characterized by poor health, hunger, and lack of education facilities, uncared for environment. Causes of poverty a. Adverse climatic conditions (Geographical factors) b. Poor family background (historical and social factors) c. Political stability leading to civil wars d. Poor governance e. Regional imbalance of natural resources f. Low level of technology ----- 459 # g. Laziness h. Over dependence on foreign aid LESSON TWO: THE TRADITIONAL AFRICAN UNDERSTANDING OF WEALTH AND POVERTY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the terms wealth and poverty according to the traditional African understanding 2. State the various ways in which wealth was acquired in traditional African communities 3. List the causes of poverty in tradition African communities Wealth In African traditional societies wealth was measured in terms of the amount of land, livestock, grains, wives, children possessed by an individual or the community. Wealth was acquired in various ways. (i) As a gift from God Most Africans believe that wealth is a blessing from God. (ii) Inheritance In cases where the head of the family is dead, the eldest son becomes the custodian of the estate. The clan and community elders give direction on how the wealth is to be shared out. (iii) Bride wealth (iv) Farming (v) Exploitation of natural resources honey, wood for carving, building materials etc (vi) Trade African communities were involved in barter trade where they exchanged good and services ----- 460 # (vii) Raids wealth was also acquired by raiding other communities goats, sheep, Cattle. - People were encouraged to work hard to acquire wealthy honesty - Wealthy people were highly regarded and were considered for leadership position - Wealth was incomplete without a family Poverty Poverty was viewed as punishment or curse for wrongdoing. Other causes of poverty according to African Traditional Society were: - Laziness Lack of inheritance Raids by other communities Famine Natural calamities Sickness rendering the individual weak to acquire wealth - In acquiring wealth, principles such as value for human life, mutual responsibility, and sharing, communal ownership were emphasized. - Places that were communal include grazing land, rivers, and watering places - Laziness was ridiculed through songs, riddles and proverbs. LESSON THREE: IMPACTS OF THE INTRODUCTION OF MONEY ECONOMY IN TRADITIONAL AFRICAN SOCIETY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define economy, development and money economy 2. Explain the reasons for the introduction of money 3. Explain the impact of money economy in traditional African society ----- 461 # Introduction - Money was introduced to Africa by the Europeans - Before colonial period, Africans practiced barter trade actual goods exchanged with other goods e.g. animals would be exchanged with food grains, millet, sorghum, cowpeas, children exchanged for food during famine. - Trade merchants from Asia had introduced into Africa forms of currency such as the cowrie shells, gold and the Indian rupees. Europeans introduced currency still used today Economy: careful management of resources, finances, income and expenditure of a family, a business enterprise, community or a country. The economy of a country is to be well managed if it has the ability to meet the social economic needs of her members. Development Its measured by the healthy of its economy in the provision of health, education, housing, sanitation, employment, longevity of life, decrease of material and child mortality. Money economy: Use of money as a means of exchange in economic activities e.g. banking, investment, insurance, payment of goods and services. Reasons for money introduction 1) Colonization brought a lot of changes such as unoccupied land declared Crown land for colonialists. 2) Tax introduction Africans were supposed to pay taxes to the government. Taxes were paid in form of money. 3) Introduction of formal education School fees was introduced. Fees were paid in form of money. ----- 462 # 4) Introduction of modern medical services People paid medical services using money. 5) Emergence of new lifestyles Converts to Christianity were emphasized on to have materials, hence had to work to improve their living standards. They built houses, took their children to schools practiced modern family techniques hence had to use money. Impact of the introduction of money economy in traditional African society 1) Introduction of wage labour 2) Break up of family ties as people migrated from rural to urban areas in search of employment 3) African land taken by the colonialists, reducing people to squatters hence need to work 4) There was creation of a gap between people the rich and the poor 5) Emergence of vices e.g. corruption, bribery, prostitution, robbery 6) Deterioration of cherished African values e.g. bride wealth has become commercialized, customs lost etc. 7) Loss of African human dignity. Africans had to pay taxes to the colonial government. They were forced to work in European farms so as to get money. They worked under dehumanizing conditions Production of traditional food crops declined replaced by cash crops. 9) Individual ownership of land was emphasized. Land could be sold at will 10) There was increase of rural urban migration leaving the rural people less educated. ----- 463 # 11) Exploitation of the poor by the rich poor wages, overcharging prices on foods. 12) Destruction of the natural environment to create room for building projects, urban centres 13) The cost of living increased. Almost everything is acquired by money. LESSON FOUR: THE CHRISTIAN TEACHING ON WEALTH, MONEY, POVERTY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Explain the Christian teachings on wealth 2. Explain the Christian teachings on poverty Teaching on wealth 1) Wealth is a blessing from God 2) Those who obey Gods laws, teachings of the prophets are promised blessings by God Deut28: 1 4 3) Wealth has duties associated with it e.g. 10% tithe, alms to the poor, and an aspect of stewardship. 4) Wealth should be used wisely. People are not owners of their property but are stewards. Should share with the poor, needy. 5) Wealth is not permanent e.g. parable of the rich fool. When people die, they take nothing with them. Naked into the world, naked out of the world. Job. 1:21 6) Wealth can create a false sense of independence feeling of self reliance no need for God 7) Wealth should be obtained justly no happiness for a person who gets riches in the wrong way. Wrong attitude to wealth can lead to idolatry and other dangers. Matt.19: 23 24 danger of materialism making riches their God, the love of money is the root of all evil (1 timothy 6:10) ----- 464 # 9) It is wrong to discriminate against others on the basis of material possessions. Jesus associated with the rich, the poor, the sick etc. 10) Seek spiritual wealth, which is permanent and more fulfilling than material wealth, which is transitory temporal. Matt 6:19 20) 11) Acknowledge God as the source of ones riches 12) Use wealth to help the needy 13) Wealth is an instrument to enable us live decently. 14) Obsession with money and wealth leads to sin 15) Church leaders should avoid greed for wealth (1 Timothy 3:3) 16) God will judge rich exploiters. Christian teaching on poverty 1) Christian teachings discourage irresponsible behaviour and habits e.g. laziness, idleness and negligence. Some people became poor because of such. 2) Some people become poor because of misfortunes 3) Others are poor because of judgment due to disobedience to God 4) God cares for the poor 5) Those with more should share with the poor 6) People should work to alleviate poverty in the society 7) Jesus helped the poor so should we The poor in spirit will be blessed LESSON FIVE: CHRISTIAN APPROACHES / RESPONSE TO ISSUES RELATED TO WEALTH AND MONEY. Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the Christians response towards wealth and poverty 2. State the factors causing poverty 3. Describe how wealth/ resources can be distributed fairly Christian can respond by ----- 465 # A. Insistence on fair distribution of wealth B. Fighting against bribery and corruption C. Using life skills D. Practicing Christian values Introduction - Affluence having a lot of material possessions and a luxurious standard of living. Poverty is a state of lack of the basic necessities. - Illegal means of acquiring wealth include fraud, grabbing public land, selling narcotic drugs etc Factors that have contributed to poverty 1. Political instability 2. Lack of formal education 3. Laziness 4. Negative attitude towards work choosing jobs 5. Historical factors colonization lack of land 6. Exporting unprocessed agricultural products cheaply then sold back expensively. A. Fair distribution of wealth / resources a) Christians to promote the value of justice, fairness, social responsibility. How? By having anti corruption crusades, be role models, teach or import skills, advocate for cancellation of foreign debts, taxation to all etc. b) Fair salaries c) Promotion of affordable and decent housing d) Favourable terms of loans e) Encourage Jua Kali artisans f) Christians to demand transformation of society through implementation of just economic policies that ----- 466 # can ensure fair distribution of wealth. g) Encourage foreign investors through good infrastructure, incentives e.g. shorter process to register business, security. h) Christian to encourage investments by churches and inculcate in people the values of hard work, proper time management free education free health care for the poor or needy. Fair distribution of wealth / resources refers to jobs, infrastructure, hospitals, water, agricultural products etc. LESSON SIX: BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the following terms bribery and corruption 2. Explain the factors that contribute to bribery and corruption 3. Explain the consequences of bribery and corruption Fighting against bribery and corruption Bribery and corruption are related terms. Corruption: practice of giving a bribe in the form of money, goods or privileges in return for a service. Bribery: act of giving money, material goods or services to someone to influence the recipient to give underserved favour. It is aimed at influencing a decision to favour. Bribery is a form of corruption. - Corruption is some kind of moral degeneration. A practice whereby someone uses his/her influence in an activity that is not morally acceptable. - Example of corruption include promotion by a senior for a favour, colluding to miss work, use of ----- 467 # government vehicles to attend to personal matters. In Kenya, Kenya Anticorruption commission KACC is a national body formed to fight corruption. Factors leading to bribery and corruption 1. Un-employment one will bribe to secure employment 2. Greed for money caused by peer pressure, poor moral values, wrong ethical foundation about money etc. 3. Fear fear of being imprisoned 4. Ignorance giving bribes in form of gifts 5. Disintegration of traditional African values 6. Lack of moral integrity no Christian values, one having no spiritual basis 7. Frustration in the place of work 8. A perverted conscience Consequences of corruption and bribery 1. Leads to injustice 2. Leads to incompetent supplies of goods or services being awarded hefty contracts leads to poor services e.g. road construction 3. Poor infrastructure, poor public service delivery 4. Leads to undermining moral fabric of society leading to social hopelessness and despair 5. Has led to lack of trust in public servants, and the government 6. Discontentment among people. 7. Degrades the personality of an individual 8. Can lead to imprisonment and lose of job LESSON SEVEN: CHRISTIAN ATTITUDE TOWARDS BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - ----- 468 # 1. Describe the Christian attitude towards bribery and corruption 2. Define the following terms life skills, decision making, critical thinking, creative thinking, self esteem and assertiveness 3. List the steps involved in decision making 1. It is condemned as an evil practice (a social evil) Ex. 23:8 2. Bribes cause injustice proverbs 17:23 3. Seen as morally wrong as they negatively affect ones family 4. Jesus drove out merchants from the temple. They had started exploitation of the poor. 5. Condemned because it degrades the personality of an individual 6. Amos condemned taking and giving of bribes 7. Bribes blinds the eyes In the parable of John the Baptist condemned soldiers from taking bribes Corrupt judge and the widow, corruption is condemned 8. Christians are to live righteously and not give bribes or receive. They are the light of the world. 9. Money gained from corruption is not acceptable before God. C Using life skills Life skills are abilities, which enable a person to face the challenges of life in an effective way they are Decision making Critical thinking Creative thinking Self esteem Assertiveness a. Decision making Process of identifying the best alternative to overcome a challenge encountered. Often decisions we make do not only affect us but those around us. ----- 469 # Steps to decision making 1. Identify the challenge (problem) whats the problem? What is bothering you? 2. Understand the challenge / problem: What is really bothering you? 3. Find out possible solutions 4. Find out the possible options and alternatives 5. Consider the possible consequences for each option 6. Select the best option 7. Implement 8. Evaluate the outcome of the action b. Critical thinking g. Ability to examine and assess a given situation impartially or objectively. It involves reasoning carefully. Getting detailed information, consider the option before making a decision. Critical thinking makes a person responsible for their actions. c. Creative thinking This is the act or practice of using ideas imaginatively to solve a problem d. Self-esteem - This is the regard one has about himself or herself. Self-esteem can be low or high, positive or negative. A positive or high self-esteem person has confidence, is outgoing, social, appreciates self, realistic and independent. - A person with low, negative self-esteem is nave, withdrawn, shy, feels inadequate, and no selfconfidence. e. Assertiveness Ability to express ones feelings and wishes without hurting others. Assertive people are confident; direct in dealing with others assertive people have a high self-esteem. ----- 470 # LESSON EIGHT: CHRISTIAN VALUES RELATED TO WEALTH, MONEY, AND POVERTY. Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the terms, values, love. Honesty, reliability, fairness, justice, respect, humility, faithfulness, persistence and chastity 2. State the values related to work Values Beliefs, which guide people on what is right and wrong. There are - Social values - Cultural values - Moral values Values related to wealth are: - - Love - Honesty - Reliability - Fairness - Justice - Respect - Faithfulness - Humility - Persistence - Chastity Love intense emotion of attachment, affection, warmth, fondness, regard for a person or something How should love guide a Christian in relation to wealth creation? Honesty quality of being truthful, fair trustworthy, sincere, genuine. The opposite of honesty is dishonesty. ----- 471 # Reliability being dependable, faithful, predictable, unfailing. The ability of being relied upon and keeping promises. Fairness condition of being unbiased, free from discrimination. Justice fair dealings with the people, as they deserve according to the law. Being fair, giving people whats due to them. Opposite of justice is injustice. Respect Quality of having high regard for somebody or something. Politeness. Its important to respect other peoples property. Humility quality of not thinking that you are better than others. Being humble. Opposite of humility is pride, being proud. Those who humble themselves shall be exalted. Faithfulness quality of remaining loyal or true to someone. Christians should be faithful at their places of work and in allocating their wealth to Gods work. Those who are entrusted with public resources to manage on behalf of the people should show a high degree of faithfulness. Persistence quality to persevere. Quality to continue steadfastly, unrelentingly despite opposition e.g. the unjust judge and widow, job =, Jeremiah are people who persisted. Chastity a state of being pure, holy, innocent modest. It is abstinence from actions that may make one impure before God. -Christians should strive hard not to defile their bodies in search of wealth -Christians should strive to live holy lives, avoid prostitution, drug abuse; corruption ----- 472 # -people use sexual favour to get jobs or promotion. Christians should thus avoid such. Revision questions 1. Explain the biblical teaching on wealth 2. Discuss the biblical teaching on acquisition and use of wealth 3. Explain ways in which people misuse wealth in Kenya today 4. Show how misuse of wealth leads to family instability 5. Give ways in which the Kenyan government is alleviating the high levels of poverty 6. State the factors that have contributed to high levels of poverty in Kenya today TOPIC SIX: APPROACHES TO LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic you should be able to: a Define the terms law order and justice b Describe the traditional African practices that promote law, order and justice. c Explain the Biblical teaching on law, order and justice. d Identify and evaluate the need for law, order and justice in the society. e Explain the rights and duties of citizens f Explain the causes and remedies of social disorder. g Evaluate the role of Christians in the transformation of the society h Discuss church-state relationship LESSON ONE: DEFINITION OF TERMS Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the following terms law, order and justice 2. State the types of law 3. State the types of statutory laws Introduction - Law, order, justice are essential for the survival of any society ----- 473 # - Following laws leads to order and justice lack of following leads to disorder and injustice laws of Kenya are laid down in the constitution. A. Law Established rules by an authority to regulate human behaviour in the community Schools laws, religious laws, factory laws, hospital laws etc. laws differ from society to society. Laws are dynamic. Laws cover all aspects of life. B. Order Condition brought about by obedience to set rules or laws. Order leads to peaceful co existence in the society. Where there is order, things are done systematically. The opposite of order is disorder. Types of laws 1. Non legal laws no court action e.g. school rules 2. Customary traditional laws based on culture, social traditions. They have to agree with state laws. They are respected by state. 3. Statutory laws / legal laws laws made by local council or national government and citizens are expected to obey them. Types of statutory laws a) Civil laws made by parliament on issues such as taxes, labour, divorce etc b) Criminal law on crime / punishment c) Constitutional law matters of state and governance d) Company law e) Religious laws e.g. Islamic law sharia ----- 474 # C. Justice treating others the way they deserve in relation to the law. Its administration of rightful dealings in a fair manner according to their actions. A just society follows rules and administers legal action to those who offend others or disobey rules. Justice means treating people the same way without discrimination. LESSON TWO: IMPORTANCE OF LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State the importance of law, order and justice a) They are essential to preserve harmony and protect people b) Laws guide people and ensure peoples rights are protected. c) They protect peoples property and enable people to live in harmony d) They protect the consumer from exploitation e) They safeguard religious freedom f) Laws control power of those in authority and promote political stability g) Provides stability, encouraging economic growth h) Helps to control discontentment among people i) Helps implementation of taxes effectively j) Provides / help in maintenance of security k) Ensures human rights are upheld l) Enables the government to protect its citizens from internal or external threats. m) International law regulates relations between countries. LESSON THREE: RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF CITIZENS Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able: - 1. Define the terms citizen, rights and duty 2. List the rights of citizens 3. State te duties/ responsibilities of citizens ----- 475 # Citizen person who is a member of a state, kingdom, empire. A person who has full rights as a member of a country by birth, decent, registration, naturalization. Rights legal claims that one is entitled to from the government Duty ones responsibility to the government. Rights 1) Right to life to live securely 2) Right to education 3) Right to liberty / freedom e.g. one should not be imprisoned, detained, without trial. One is innocent until proven guilty 4) Right to protection of property 5) Right to own a family right to marry and raise a family 6) Right to health 7) Freedom of movement Right to freedom of association 9) Right to freedom of assembly 10) Freedom of religion 11) Right to own property 12) Right to equality non discrimination 13) Protection of freedom of expression and speech (own opinions, ideas) Children have rights e.g. Right to life, education, parental care, health, protection from exploitation, right to identity etc. Duties of citizens (responsibilities) 1) Pay taxes to the government 2) Respect the flag and national anthem 3) Respect those in authority 4) Respect the laws of the land 5) Register as a voter and voter in national elections ----- 476 # 6) Be responsible at work 7) Participate in national development Promote peace and harmony in the society 9) Report errant members of the society to law enforcement agents 10) Protect the environmental clean, plant trees, avoid poaching etc LESSON FOUR: TRADITIONAL AFRICAN PRACTICES THAT PROMOTE LAW, ORDER, JUSTICE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State and explain the traditional African practices that promoted law, order and justice Some of the practices that promote law, order and justice are a) Punishment of offenders People who committed offences such as stealing, murder, witchcraft were punished through death, curses, paying heavy fines etc. this promoted law, order, justice b) Installation of rules, kings, chiefs, elders They were installed to maintain law, order and to execute justice in their areas of jurisdiction c) Administration of oaths - Administered by specialists and are used as a method of establishing and maintaining law and order d) Making of covenants - Covenants were made if there was a conflict between two communities. They would promise to live in peace and harmony. e) Observing of taboos and customary law Taboos were prohibitions. Those who went against taboos were severely punished f) The kinship system defined how people related one to another g) Rites of passage ensured customs, laws were adhered to ----- 477 # h) Religious practices- such as praying, singing, sacrificing and giving of offerings had the effect of maintaining order. LESSON FIVE: BIBLICAL TEACHING ON LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the biblical teachings on law, order and justice God initiated Law, order, and justice. 1. Gods creation is orderly. God desires order 2. Man was created with a conscience to know right from wrong sin has consequences or punishment. God does punish disobedience i.e. justice 3. God instituted the laws as part of his plan for salvation e.g. law of circumcision, Torah (10 commandments), circumcision of the heart, laws on what to eat etc. 4. Gods law governed kingship in Israel. National prosperity depended on a kings ruler ship. Kings were to ensure law and order 5. In the New Testament John the Baptist urged people to observe the law (social justice). 6. Jesus taught that the kingdom of God is based on law, order and justice. There should be fair treatment for all people 7. Jesus said that the law of Moses was given to guide people 8. Christians should obey the law of the land and respect those in authority 9. The apostolic teachings stress the need for law, order, justice (1 Cro.14: 33) 10. Christians should be orderly. ----- 478 # 11. The birth of Jesus was orderly. His ministry was also orderly hence should Christians. LESSON SIX: CAUSES OF SOCIAL DISORDER AND THEIR REMEDIES Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State and explain the causes of social disorders 2. State the causes of discrimination 3. Explain the causes of crime 4. List the forms of punishment Social disorder is a state of confusion or lack of order in the society Causes 1) Discrimination 2) Inequitable distribution of wealth, resources 3) Crime 4) Racism 5) Tribalism 6) Sexism Discrimination Discrimination is unfair treatment. Discrimination is on basis of - Race - Tribe - Sex / gender People or a particular person is singled out and treated with disfavor or distaste. It is showing bias or prejudice. Causes of discrimination a. Culture b. Prejudice bias original from opinions that have no known basis or supporting facts stereotypes c. Ignorance e.g. on HIV /AIDS ----- 479 # d. Social status ones position in a society Inequitable distribution of wealth and resources - This is when riches of family, community, and nation are not fairly shared out due to Selfishness or poor planning. Some areas are marginalized. Racism unfair treatment of people because of their race Tribalism discrimination on basis of ethnic group Crime an offence against state, normally settled in court. Its antisocial behaviour causing disorder. Causes of crime (Why people commit crime) 1. Poverty 2. Public mistrust for law enforces 3. Lack of parental guidance 4. Wide gap between the rich and the poor 5. Greed for power, money 6. Materialism 7. Drug and substance abuse Sexism - Discrimination against people because of gender - Women are discriminated in areas such as jobs, no promotion for women, oppression of women at home, cultural values demeaning the status of women, wife beating / men beating, female genital mutilation (FGM) early children marriages etc. Remedies to social disorder 1) Rehabilitation for drugs users / abusers 2) Punishment for offenders of crime Forms of punishment - Imprisonment - Payment of fines ----- 480 # - Corporal punishment - Probation - Being assigned community work - Being placed under house arrest - Learning in approved schools, Juvenile homes 3) Equitable distribution of national resources - Develop marginalized areas - Create jobs 4) Campaign against drug abuse 5) The public to use hot lines to report crime to police 6) Preach against racism, tribalism, and preach equality, freedom and interaction with all people 7) People to be sensitized to appreciate and respect different ethnics groups Promote national unity through education /cultural programmes 9) Creation of more national schools so as to have students from all backgrounds 10) Encourage domestic tourism 11) Enlighten women on their rights 12) Employment on merit 13) Rich countries to share wealth with the poor LESSON SEVEN: ROLE OF CHRISTIANS IN TRANSFORMING THE SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, POLITICAL LIFE OF THE SOCIETY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the term transformation 2. Describe Christians participation in social life 3. Describe Christians participation in political life 4. Describe Christians participation in economic life ----- 481 # Transformation is to completely change the attitude, character, and well being of the society a) Christian participation in the social life - Christians are involved in the preaching of the gospel in many places in the country. They use print and electronic media to spread the gospel. - Christians have shown concern for the destitute and victims of violence in the society by building homes for them and providing them with food and clothing. - Christians run schools, vocational institutions, universities providing educational services - Christians offer medical services to the society - They speak openly against sexual immorality, murder, bribery, corruption, abortion etc. - They show compassion to those in need the poor, HIV / AIDS orphans, widows, widowers, aged etc. - They offer guidance and counselling to dysfunctional families (the pastors, those trained to do counselling almost all pastors get a training in guidance and counselling) b) Christians participation in the political life - Christians participate in the political life by advocating for fair distribution of wealth - They offer prayers for government, political leaders - They exercise their right by voting - They also participating in the political life by standing up for elections (Vying for elections) c) Christian participation in economic life - Christians participate in economic life by paying taxes to the government ----- 482 # - By contributing in collection of funds for construction of churches, schools, hospitals - They invest in business that promotes their own development as well as the development of the country. - They provide financial resources in order to assist others to start economic activities or self employment - They discourage business practices such as using faulty scales, hiking of prices cheating in business etc and encourage proper acquisition of wealth d) THE CHURCH STATE RELATIONSHIP The government and the church interact at various levels and in different areas a) Religious leaders give advice to the state b) The church speaks against corruption, robbery, rape, abortion, vices which the government is fighting c) The church is the conscience of the state d) Both educate the citizens on the constitution and their rights e) The church preaches peace, love, unity, order f) The state needs support of the church in mobilizing citizens to adopt government policies g) Both are involved in rehabilitation of prisoners h) The church builds schools and other institutions that supplement government institutions. i) The church is involved in formulation of educational curriculum. However the church differs with government on various issues such as a) Use of condoms (Some churches opposed to this) b) Use of live bullets by the law enforces when curbing riots ----- 483 # c) Fight on corruption a thorn to the church since state leaders are involved d) Issue of death penalty church been fighting against death penalty to convicts NB. The government lifted the death penalty as a form of punishment in the year 2009. Revision questions 1.state ways in which Christians can promote peace/unity in the society 2. Why should Christians take part in voting? TOPIC SEVEN: CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO SELECTED ISSUES RELATED TO MODERN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic, you should b able to: 1. Explain the Christian view on some issues related to modern science and technology 2. Explain the Christian view on the effects of modern science and technology on the environment LESSON ONE: DEFINITIONS Science subject field that deals with a systematic study of our surroundings and behaviour of materials in the universe It is based on observation, experimentation and measurement. Technology application of science to achieve desired objectives. Environment our surroundings both natural and human made i.e. mountains, lakes, land, forests, animals, buildings, flowers etc LESSON TWO: POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - ----- 484 # 1. State the various ways that science and technology has improved our lives 2. State the negative effects of science and technology Ways science and technology has improved human lives 1) Improvement of crop production a quality seeds, fertilizers leading to improved yields 2) Better nutrition, health care, medical services 3) Improvement of livestock production through artificial insemination, quality medicine leading to more milk production. 4) It has led to development of efficient means of transport land, air, seas 5) Work has been made easier and enjoyable. There is use of machines, automation, use of computers. 6) Peoples lives have been spared, saved e.g. through life saving machines (ICU), incubators 7) Business transactions are being done through the internet Communication has been made easy fax, email, short text messages on mobile phones etc 9) Research is ongoing for incurable diseases i.e. HIV / AIDS, cancer 10) There is better management of environment 11) Technology has made the world a global village 12) Through family planning methods, its easier to control population growth 13) Theres a better security system through use of scanners, alarms, electrified fences etc. 14) Improvement of learning through elearning 15) Theres easier movement from one country to another Negative effects of science and technology 1. People use medicine to commit suicide ----- 485 # 2. Increase of crime, fraud and death through modern means of communication 3. Destruction of family relationships 4. Breakdown of community names, values morals, breakdown of families 5. Terrorism 6. Greed for money / materialism 7. Unemployment replacement of personnel by machines 8. Health hazards such as accidents in factories 9. Pollution, air poisoning LESSON THREE: CHRISTIAN VIEW ON ISSUES RELATED TO SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the following terms euthanasia, blood transfusion, organ transplant, genetic engineering and plastic surgery 2. Describe Christians view on euthanasia, blood transfusion, organ transplant, human cloning, genetic engineering and plastic surgery 3. State the reasons for and against euthanasia, blood transfusion, organ transplant, human cloning, genetic engineering and plastic surgery a. Euthanasia b. Blood transfusion c. Organ transplant d. Genetic engineering e. Plastic surgery Euthanasia Its a Greek word, which means an easy and painless death. It is mercy killing ending a persons life so ----- 486 # as to alleviate them from experiencing pain. Its practiced with the sick persons knowledge It is involuntary when its practiced against or without the sick persons consent Its done by a) Injecting an overdose of sleeping pills to the sick person b) Switching off life support machine c) Exposing the person with chronic pneumonia to very cold air. Christians view on Euthanasia Christians are opposed to euthanasia for several reasons such as a) Life is sacred, a gift from God and only God can take away human life b) Suffering is part of human life c) Euthanasia is against medical ethos, which demands that doctors and nurses work for the sustenance of human life and alleviation of suffering but not to terminate it. d) Jesus has power over sickness and through his name all sickness are healed e) Accepting euthanasia discourages medical research on vaccines that may cure various diseases. f) Euthanasia discourages patients and makes them to lose hope in life. They may feel unwanted and rejected. Blood transfusion - Its the process of injecting a persons blood into another person through his/her veins. The giver is a donor the receiver is a recipient. Reasons for blood transfusion 1. When a person is suffering from acute anemia (little blood in the body) low blood level. ----- 487 # 2. To restore blood lost during fatal accidents, wars, or childbirth 3. To maintain blood levels for patients undergoing major operations 4. To correct the low haemoglobin level of some patients 5 Blood has to be screened for any diseases, and then kept in blood bank after determining the blood group. The transfusion should be in a hygienic way. The equipment used should be sterilized 6. Donors should not be below 16 years or above 65 years Alternatives to blood transfusion a) Volume expanders increase fluid levels in the body b) Growth factors intra operative / post operative c) Blood salvage same blood when on surgery is saved then transfused back to the patient Christian view on blood transfusion a) Some Christians believe it is wrong to take blood from a healthy person and transfuse it to another person. b) Blood is life and life cannot be taken from one person to another c) Blood transfusion is essential as it saves life d) Blood transfusion can transmit dangerous diseases like HIV / AIDS and Hepatitis B e) God has given Christians the intelligence and capability to make the right decision and choice Organ transplant - This is the removal of a defective organ and replacing it with a healthy one. Body organs transplanted are kidneys, heart and eyes small intestines, pan crease. - The purpose is to replace the damaged organ of a recipient ----- 488 # - Common transplants are the heart, kidney, eyes from living and the dead (heart) within a span of hours. Eyes can be transplanted from animals. Christian view on organ transplant a) It saves life hence acceptable to some b) Its transferring human life from one person to another c) Its wrong to transplant from animals view by some Christians d) Some support organ transplant by referring to the story of creation of Eve from parts of Adam e) It is part of human beings continuing with the creation work of God. f) It is an expression of love and concern for those suffering as taught by Jesus Christ. Genetic engineering - Its a scientific technique used by scientists to change the biological characteristics of living organisms by deliberately altering the structure of individual genes. - There are genetically modified foods, genetically engineered seeds, test tube babies, human clones, and genes of human insulin. Human cloning This is a form of genetic engineering. Its a creation of genetically identical copy of a human being, human cell. Twins are a form of natural cloning Theres therapeutic cloning and reproductive cloning (human cloning) Therapeutic cloning is when cells from an adult are used in creating medicine or for research Reproduction cloning is the making of human beings More than 90% of cloning has failed. Animals cloned have died young, had cancers or arthritis. ----- 489 # Human cloning is illegal worldwide Genetic cells are used to treat Alzheimer, heart attack, cancer Test tube babies are different from human cloning. Test tube babies are where the egg and sperm is fused together outside the body. In cloning, a needle like device is used to draw out the cells from an embryo, then preserved using chemicals, then put in a womb/uterus to grow. Some do not need a sperm cell, they use other body cells for fertilization. Reasons for advocating human cloning Can clone people whose genetic composition is of a genius, people with special abilities or talents Can be able to bring, revive back great extinct characteristics. Those who support it believes it can reduce immorality Reasons against human cloning 1. God is the sole creator. Cloning takes the place of God. 2. It de humanizes human beings purpose of human reproduction 3. It destroys uniqueness of each individual (Cloning is an exact copy) 4. It can be abused and used to create antisocial people (rapists, thieves) 5. May create deformed people 6. Its un-ethical, immoral experiment. Its destruction of the embryo hence abortion 7. 95% of clones have failed (animal) most animals died 8. Its illegal 9. Closed animals died of cancer, had arthritis, deformities and an early death 10. Cloning may bring a destructive copy of humans Advantages of genetic engineering ----- 490 # 1. Implanting genes that are diseases free in people, plant and animals could prevent diseases. 2. Genetic crops yield more 3. Helps to determine the biological parent in case of dispute on babies (DNA) 4. Helps to increase disease resistance in crops and altering animal traits in plants and animals 5. Assists in classifying blood during screening before its transfused to another person. Christian view of genetic engineering 1. Christians support genetic engineering that is beneficial to human beings e.g. Cure of genetic diseases, production of drugs, plant and animals 2. Human beings are made in Gods image and are loved by God with or without defects. 3. The dignity of the human being is eroded or disregarded and should be upheld. 4. Christians oppose cloning and test tube babies 5. Its against Gods will or teaching Plastic surgery - Its to change or mould the shape of something, to enhance or restore an area of the body - Its repairing or improving of damaged, diseased or unsatisfactory shaped parts of the body with pieces of skin or bone taken from other parts of the body. - Skin grafting is the most common type of plastic surgery - Plastic surgery is done on cleft lips i.e. cosmetic surgery, breast surgery reduction or enlargement, surgery done to look younger. Reasons for plastic surgery ----- 491 # - It can help restore ones confidence or self esteem - It enhances beauty, attractiveness or youthfulness - It enhances a persons life and can be a life changing procedure - It may help a person to get a new job Disadvantages - Its expensive - Can lead to transmission of diseases Christian views on plastic surgery - Some support it, as it has some benefits - Some Christian oppose plastic surgery in order to look younger - Some argue that some people do it because of a lack of self acceptance, low self esteem hence should work on such issues first. LESSON FOUR: THE CHRISTIAN VIEW ON THE EFFECTS OF MODERN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ON THE ENVIRONMENT (POLLUTION, DESERTIFICATION) Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State the various ways of caring for the environment In Genesis 1, man was given the responsibility of taking care of the environment Ways of taking care of the environment 1. Cleaning up the environment, clean up rivers 2. Educating people on the importance of conservation 3. Dispose industrial wastes properly 4. Enforce use of environment friendly fuel (unleaded fuel) 5. Factory owners to supply protective wear to factory workers 6. Planting of trees and flowers 7. Establishing airports, industries, and disco clubs away from residential areas. ----- 492 # 8. Advocate for laws to be passed to minimize noise from vehicles, aircrafts, entertainment centres. 9. Waste to be managed through Reuse e.g. bottles Recycle plastic bottles to be recycled to plastic bins, old newspapers to be recycled to tissue papers. Recover burning waste products to produce electricity Waste can be managed to reduce use of Throw away goods e.g. batteries to use of electricity. LESSON FIVE: POLLUTION AND ITS EFFECTS. Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the terms pollutant and pollution 2. Give examples of pollutants 3. State and explain the types of pollution 4. State the effects of the various types of pollution. Its introduction into the environment of substances or energy that is liable to cause hazards to human health, harm to living resources and ecological systems In simple terms pollution is the contamination of the environment. Substances that cause pollution are called pollutants. Some of the pollutants include; Industrial affluent Pesticides Insecticides Fertilizers Ultra violent rays from nuclear plants Dust Smoke Noise Waste heat ----- 493 # Exhaust gases from automobiles Types of pollution a) Water pollution p) Air pollution q) Land pollution r) Radiation pollution s) Sound pollution (noise) Water pollution This is the increase of substances in water in excess of its rightful chemical components thus making it unsuitable for human, animal or plant use. - Disposing domestic and industrial waste into rivers, lakes, seas etc pollutes water. - Disposing agricultural chemicals pesticides into water bodies. - Oil spilling into waters - Poor sanitation bathing or washing clothes in rivers or dams Effects of water pollution a. Causes diseases, which are communicable such as cholera, typhoid, and dysentery. b. Leads to death of marine life birds (Flamingo) fish by oil spills c. Mercury (metal) leads, silver is poisonous. They kill organisms. d. Water becomes unfit for human consumption Air pollution - Presence of contaminants in the atmosphere caused by a. Smoke b. Fumes c. Dust from mines, quarries - When there is an increased level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere thats pollution ----- 494 # - Other major atmospheric pollutants include gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), and sulphur dioxide (SO2) - Nitrogen Oxide (NO) i.e. fumes from vehicles, aircrafts, industries Effects (i) Leads to diseases such as bronchitis, asthma (ii) Leads to depletion of the Ozone layer leading to ultra violent rays of the sun penetrating to the earth causing skin cancer, cataracts (eye problems), low plant yields. (iii) Causes rusting of roofs (iv) Causes acid rains (v) Carbon dioxide (02) in the atmosphere has led to global warming. (vi) Formation of smog (thick fog), which can lead to accidents. (vii) Colored rain due to large amounts of dust in the atmosphere (viii) Eyesight loss due to gas leakages from industrial plants. Land pollution Land pollution is any physical or chemical alteration to land, which causes change in its use and renders it incapable of beneficial use without treatment. - Improper or excessive use of insecticides, pesticides makes land acidic - Land is also polluted by improper disposal of waste / garbage, broken glasses. Effects (i) Waste is an eye sore spoiling the beauty of the environment (ii) Broken glass can lead to injuries (iii) Open mining leaves pits, which are a danger to people and animals. Noise pollution - Experienced especially in urban centres, near roads, running water, mining areas, airports, music from bars, nightclubs etc. ----- 495 # - An instrument called sound meter measures noise. The lowest unit is O Decitel, which is okay. More than 80 decibels is harmful to the ear. Noise over 80 decibels can cause (effects) - Deafness, hearing problems - Psychological disorders frustrations, irritation - Insomnia - Shock due to sudden noise - Cracking of walls Noise can be minimized by Construction of sound proof buildings Location of residential areas away from industries, airports, bars, main roads Banning of unnecessary hooting, playing of loud music in public vehicles Installing silencers in generators Education people on the effects of noise pollution Pollution caused by radiation Mainly in developed countries Atomic explosions e.g. Hiroshima / Nagasaki in Japan in 1945. The side effects of mutations of born children. Some children born with deformities. The radiation caused chromosome mutations. Some mutations on the cells of the parent / grandparents. Nuclear power stations also a danger Medical equipment e.g. X ray machines when one is over exposed to these radiations (x rays) it can lead to development of cancer. LESSON SIX: DESERTIFICATION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - ----- 496 # 1. Define the term desertification 2. Describe the causes of desertification This is slow encroachment of desert like a condition to land that was previously productive making it desolate, uncultivatable and uninhabitable. Human activity accelerates creation of deserts. Causes of deserts 1. Natural a) Persistent rains in a semi arid area b) Exposure of an area to very high, very cold temperatures c) Inadequate rainfall for a long period of time 2. Human Human activities that lead to desertification are (i) Cutting down of trees (deforestation) for land use such as building, industries, and not replacing them. (ii) Use of water from wells to irrigate land. Its harmful especially salty water salt on soil salination is toxic to soils. (iii) Incorrect use of pesticides and fertilizers destroy soil nutrients. (iv) Industrialization industries emit carbon dioxide (CO2) leading to formation of acid rain, which leads to unproductive land hence desertification (v) Overgrazing especially among the pastoralist communities (vi) Poor farming methods like cultivation on riverbanks and slopes, which causes soil erosion, leading to desertification. LESSON SEVEN: SOLUTIONS TO DESERTIFICATION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1.state the solutions to desertification ----- 497 # Land can be restored through the following ways; (i) Removal of people, livestock from certain areas e.g. forests (ii) Installation of good drainage systems (iii) Reduction of water logging / salination (iv) Use of alternative sources of fuel such as wind, solar, biogas instead of cutting down trees to use as fuel (charcoal) (v) Advocate for penalties to those who pollute the environment factories (vi) Replace trees that are cut down (vii) Build water storage facilities to store rain water then use it for irrigation (viii) Educate people on the importance of the environment (ix) Use of manure instead of harmful fertilizers Emulate Prof. Wangari Maathai implanting trees 8th October 2004 she was awarded the Nobel peace prize, an international award, for her efforts in preserving the environment. Revision questions. 1. How can modern Christians evaluate scientific and technological discoveries 2. Why is the church in Kenya opposed to plastic surgery? 3. How has science and technology improved human life? 4. What are the consequences of science and technology in our society? C.R.E. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS TOPIC ONE CHRISTIAN ETHICS Q1. What is the meaning of Christian Ethics? This is the study of human conduct or behavior. ----- 498 # It is about how Christians make choices in their daily lives guided by Christian principles and value. Q2. What is the basis or sources or foundation of Christian Ethics? The Bible/Biblical scripture (holy) The natural law Human experience and reason The Christian community preachers Situation Ethics Secular/Civil Law Q3. List the basic life skills that one needs to be able to lead a better life (a) Critical thinking (b) Creative thinking (c) Decision making (d) Self-esteem (e) Assertiveness TOPIC TWO MALE/FEMALE RELATIONSHIPS Q1. Explain seven Christian teachings on male/female relationships Male/female were created as equal human beings: created in the image and likeness of God. Male/female created for companionship, help/ partners/ compliment each other. Both are co-creator with God done through procreation. Union between both is consummated in marriage. Relationship is based on love and respect/chastity. Man/husband is the head of the family. Each man to have his own wife and wife own husband. Husband and wife should not deny each other conjugal rights. Youth should abstain from sex until marriage. Male/female body is temple of the Lord. ----- 499 # Short periods of abstinence are allowed among married people but with consent from each other. Christians appreciate different roles of men and women in the church e.g. leadership in choir for women and men. TOPIC THREE. HUMAN SEXUALITY Q1. Explain the Traditional African understanding of human sexuality Human sexuality is regarded as sacred and secret in many African communities. The sacredness of sex is related to the power to transmit life procreation. It is taboo to discuss sex matters freely especially in the presence of children. Grandparents who are free from any tying job teach sex education. Young people are prepared for adult life in the context of age group e.g. games of sexual nature take place within an age group. The age group has control of each other and there is no sex whatsoever. During initiation ceremonies, vigorous sex education is provided to the initiates. They are taught about sex, its secrets and the mystery of manhood and womanhood. Girls are expected to remain virgins Rape offenders are severely punished. Boys and girls are not allowed to mix. Division of labour is on the basis of sex. Roles of boys and girls are taught from childhood e.g. by copying their parents. Q2. Explain Christian attitude towards human sexuality Sex is sacred. ----- 500 # Man and woman are equal before God. It is for procreation. Man and woman are complimentary. Both were created in the image of God. They became one in marriage. Sex is only allowed in marriage. Virginity is valued. Human beings have the ability to control sexual desires. Chastity is a virtue. All forms of irresponsible sexual behavior are condemned. Q3. In what ways is sex abused in Kenya? By practicing fornication/sex before marriage. Adultery sex outside marriage Through prostitution By practicing bestiality Through homosexuality/lesbianism/gayism Incest Rape/defilement of minors Masturbation Pornographic literature using of technological devices in sex Q4. Why do you think minors are defiled or sexually abused in Kenya daily? Lack of self-control among some men. Drugs and drug abuse. Permissiveness in society. Influence from the mass media. Mental illness mad people. Erosion of the African culture/moral values Devil worship/strange cults/false religion. Breakdown of religion values. ----- 501 # Irresponsible parenthood. Indecent dressing. Leniency of the Law/no punishment for criminal. Idleness Poverty Responsible Sexual Behaviour Q 5. What is the Christian teaching on responsible sexual behavior? Responsible sex is between male and female. Sexual intercourse is allowed between married people. Faithfulness is a virtue in this: Both partners must avoid adultery. Responsible sexual behavior means exercising self-control. It entails obedience to Gods commands hence a Christian has to shun forbidden sexual behavior e.g. fornication. Body temple of the Lord. Our sexual relationships should uphold human dignity and respect for our bodies. The Bible teaches that whatever we do with our bodies should be for the glory of God (1 Cor. 7:19-20). Q6. List the difference types of irresponsible sexual behavior Homosexuality (lesbianism, sodomy) Bestiality Masturbation Rape Incest Prostitution Fornication Abortion Q7. Explain the Christian teaching on responsible sexual behavior It defiles the body, which is the temple of God. ----- 502 # It is wickedness. It is unholy and dirty before God. It is spiritually unclean. Those involved break the commandment of God. It involves coveting a sin. Polygamy is condemned and considered irresponsible. Q8. State the effects of irresponsible sexual behavior It can lead to sexually transmitted diseases (AIDS). Can lead to pregnancy and then abortion. If married people are involved (adultery) divorce may occur. Separation Children suffer lack of parental care due to divorce as a result of adultery. It may lead to street children. It discourages young people from marrying. It can lead to fights, quarrels, misunderstanding and friction. Young people can chop out of school due to pregnancy/AIDS. Can lead to single parenthood. Withdrawing from family and society. Self-pity and loneliness. Psychological problems e.g. depression Stress Suicide and death. Unwanted/unexpected pregnancies. Aggressiveness and violence. LESSON THREE: THE FAMILY Q5. State the different types of families Nuclear family Single parent family Polygamous ----- 503 # Extended LESSON TWO: MARRIAGE Q1. Explain the Traditional African understanding of marriage Marriage is viewed as the focus of existence, i.e. the point where the three members of the community meet (i.e. living, departed and the unborn). A rhythm of life through which everybody must participate. Marriage is a duty/a must/compulsory Failure to marry means the person has rejected society and the society rejects him in turn. Those who do not marry are considered as sub-human or lawbreakers. Marriage is God ordained. Young boys and girls are prepared for this sacred institution during initiation. They are taught everything pertaining to marriage e.g. sex. Children cement the marriage. Q2. What is the importance of children in Traditional African Society They help their parents at old age. Cement a marriage: One without children is considered incomplete. Children (boys) provide security at home and the community. They help in the perpetuation of the family and community name. The departed are reborn through naming of children. Provide labour. It is through children that (new) members meet and get to know each other. Young children are introduced to their relatives e.g. during initiation, marriage etc. Children uphold the statue of parents. Q3. What is the Christian teaching about marriage? The church defines marriage as a covenant. The Bible teaches that marriage is a divine institution. ----- 504 # Marriage is for procreation. Marriage is for companionship. It is for fulfillment of mutual love. Marriage is a remedy against sin fornication. It should be monogamous. Marriage should be permanent no divorce. Without or with children marriage is complete. Sex outside marriage is forbidden. Q4. What is the importance of courtship period in Traditional African Societies? It helped in identifying a suitable marriage partner. The two families involved established a firm relationship. The boy and the girl had a chance to learn each others character. It gives an opportunity to know whether the boy and girl are related. Allows time for exchange of gifts between the two families, thus a firm relationship is established. Time to negotiate the bride-wealth. Boy and girl are instructed about their duties and responsibilities. Q5. Why are many people opting for celibacy instead of marriage today? Celibacy is used to refer to the unmarried. Many remain single today because of Christianity to serve God. Some are born Eunuchs cannot father children. Education one may want to pursue education Career demands too demanding to allow one get time for a family. Lack of guidance and counseling on marriage and family. Discouragement from failing marriages. Economic reasons one may not have money for a big house, wedding and bringing up a family. Poor health e.g. epilepsy ----- 505 # Economic independence whereby young people feel satisfied when they have enough money. Parental interference or whom their son should marry. Disappointing relationships. CHAPTER SIX CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO WORK Q1. What is work? Answer Work means any human activity, be it manual, intellectual or both. Q2. List any six reasons why people work People work for self-satisfaction and fulfillment. For personal development. In order to acquire basic needs of life. To give life meaning, direction and dignity. To provide service for the community. To acquire wealth and status in the community. In order to socialize and grow as a member of a community. To attain independence and stop depending on others. In order to help others e.g. beggars. Q3. Explain the Traditional African attitude towards work Work was understood as a fundamental dimension of human existence here on earth. It is through work that human beings were able to change, reorganize and restructure their society. It was regarded as a recreational activity as through it, people built their houses, places of worship, produced art like sculpture and carving. Work was highly valued and the dignity of work was taught early in life. ----- 506 # Each member had his own role to play e.g. men went out to hunt, herd etc accompanied with boys while mother did house work with the help of daughters. Grandparents taught the youth how to behave and baby seated. They believed work was Gods will and so they invoked Gods name through prayer, sacrifice to bless their work. They had freedom over their work. No supervision. They decided when to work, when to rest but rest came after work. Work was related to leisure, for people sang, danced and told stories as they worked. Through work, many people exploited talents or learned e.g. building houses, song etc. All were workers work was compulsory. Work brought people together solidarity. This is because they shared work (communal work). Q3. List some of the factors that have changed the attitude towards work in the modern society Level of education determine the type of work. Availability of job opportunities. Stiff competition Work is personal unlike in Traditional African Communities where it was social. Negative attitude to work. This is where some people hate manual work. People work for personal gain and gratification. Work is a commodity to be sold to the highest bidder. Q4. What are the rights of employers? They have a right to a fair taxation in their business. Get profits from their business. ----- 507 # Have association with other employers. Expect loyalty form their employees. Receive from their employees work input as agreed upon on the employment contract. Operate without being black mailed by trade unions. Open business ventures without Government restrictions. Q5. State the duties of employees To carry out their duties to the best of their ability without supervision e.g. be punctual, present etc. To respect and protect the property of the employer. To resort to peaceful means of solving problems, and not destructive ways e.g. strike. To work diligently for self fulfillment and development. To respect the employer and fellow employees. Q6. Why has child labour become common in Kenya? Definition: This is the employment of children on a full time basis. Reasons: Their labour is cheap. They are not unionisable and can therefore not fight for proper terms and conditions of service. They can easily be lured and fired. They do no have qualifications in any skill so as to negotiate for their terms. They are looked at as a source of income by their parents or guardians. Q7. What are the causes of unemployment in Kenya? High population There are too few job opportunities as compared to the many young people. Hatred for manual work many youth are looking for white-collar jobs despising the available blue jobs. ----- 508 # Bribery and corruption In the job market whereby the rich are able to give while the poor though with good qualifications cannot secure a job. Lack of skills and capital to start self-employment. Bad governance and poor economic policies from the government. SAPS Structural Adjustment of Programmes i.e. Policy not giving funds has led to poverty. International policies of globalization that have affected the agric sector that has been the greatest employer in Kenya. Retrenchment of workers in the Civil Service and Private Sectors. Increase in crime that has aggravated insecurity in the country. This has discouraged local and international investors. Q8. What can the Government do to reduce unemployment in Kenya? By creating more job opportunities. By starting more industries. Increase of workers by 10% after every 10 years. Encouraging self-employment whereby loans and space are given. Starting of a school curriculum (8.4.4.) starting that gears students into blue-collar jobs. Starting the District Funds for Rural Development = C.D.F. Stopping rural urban migration. By Africanisation of jobs sending away foreign workers. CHAPTER SEVEN CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO LEISURE: AND THE USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS Q1. Identify five (5) reasons why the taking of alcohol as a way of spending leisure is condemned It leads to conflicts/quarrels within the family. ----- 509 # Misuse of family resources. May lead to addiction. Leads to irresponsible sexual behaviours e.g. prostitution, adultery, and fornication. Could lead to loss of income. May lead to irresponsibility, which leads to accidents such as motor accidents. Q2. Write down 5 ways in which modern Christian use their leisure time Organize/attend religious seminars. Participate in church choir/concerts. Offers services to the aged. Read religious literature e.g. Bible. Keep the church and its environment clean. Have fellowship with other Christians. Initiate self-help projects to assist the needy. Provide guidance and counseling to the community. Preach the word of God. Visit relatives and friends. Be with family members. Listen to Christian preaching/songs on radio. Q3. Give 5 ways in which drug abuse could affect a Christian family Drains family resources. Fights in families may occur. Leads to diseases. Leads to family break-ups/separation/divorce. It reduces ones capacity to be productive in the family. Results in making wrong decisions/judgement. Leads to denial of conjugal rights. Leads to loss of religious values. Leads to poor role models for children. ----- 510 # Leads to crime/imprisonment. Q4. Identify ways in which Christians can overcome temptations to drug abuse Practicing self-control. Praying against being tempted. Seeking guidance and counseling. Avoiding the company of those who misuse drugs. Reading literature on the correct use of drugs. Participating in activities that promote proper use of drugs/healthy activities. Q5. Why is leisure important in the life of Christians? Gives one time to visit the sick/needy. For dedicating oneself to God/worshiping God. Provide an opportunity to fellowship with others. It allows one to develop the different talents given by God. It gives one an opportunity to meet new friends/family. One is able to read the word of God. Provides an opportunity for one to preach/evangelize. Provides an opportunity to take care of the environment. Provides an opportunity to guide and counsel others and be guided. Provides time to rest to gain lost energy. Q6. What factors have contributed to the misuse or leisure in Kenya today? Too much money/wealth/availability of drugs/contraceptives. Inadequate facilities. Lack of proper guidance/education on how to use leisure. Poverty Inability to make right decisions. Bad company/peer pressure Watching/reading phonographic materials/negative media. ----- 511 # Misunderstanding in families/frustrations. Inability to balance between different activities. Permissiveness Lack of role models Idleness/boredom/unemployment Q7. State the factors that have led to the misuse of drugs in Kenya today Poor role models. Stress/depression/rebellion. Peer pressure/curiosity. Irresponsible parenthood. Influence of mass media. Availability of drugs/wealth. Lack of guidance and counseling. Corruption/greed. Poverty Moral decay/permissiveness in the society. Lack of knowledge/ignorance on use of drugs. Idleness Urbanization/west culture. CHAPTER EIGHT CHRISTIAN RESPONSE TO ISSUES RELATED TO WEALTH, MONEY AND POVERTY Q1. Explain the biblical teaching on wealth It is a blessing from God. When wealth come with responsibility. Wealth can create a sense of false independence. It should be acquired in just and honest way. Wrong attitude to wealth leads to idolatry. One should seek spiritual wealth, which is permanent and more fulfilling. ----- 512 # It is wrong to discriminate others on basis of material possessions. Christians should share whatever wealth they have. Wealth is not supreme good. Wealth gives people independence so that they do not beg. Wealth may bring suffering and insecurity. God is the owner of wealth and people should realize that they are only stewards. Q2. Discuss the biblical teaching on acquisition and use of wealth Riches acquired through just and fair means are not condemned. Even if wealth is acquired through just means it should not be idolized. Failing to use wealth to glorify God. God is the source of all riches. Wealth is acquired through obedience to Gods laws. People ought to take care of their wealth not misuse. Wealth should be equally distributed and not concentrated in the hands of a few. Wealth should be used to develop the nations infrastructure. Q3. Explain ways in which people misuse wealth in Kenya today Indulge in alcohol and drugs. Engaging in immoral practices e.g. prostitution. Gambling which might lead to loss of wealth. Being luxurious/extravagant Unfair class competition among the wealthy. Using wealth to undermine others e.g. assassination Using wealth to promote crime. Engaging in risky/dangerous sports or projects e.g. motor racing, wrestling. Using wealth selfishly/lack of social concern. Using wealth to engage young people into immoral practices e.g. sex tourism. ----- 513 # Q4. Show how misuse of wealth leads to family instability One may indulge in alcohol/drug abuse at the expense of family needs. Engage in immorality/extra-marital sexual relations/prostitution. Leads to misunderstanding on how to use wealth/invest. One uses wealth to engage in gambling. Spoils children/encourages laziness. Arrogance/pride/showing off One becomes obsessed with wealth and fails to care for the family love has no time for the family. Inheritance squabbles in case of death. One fails to meet the basic needs for the family. Q5. Give ways in which Kenyan Government is alleviating levels of poverty Offering free education. Provision of C.D.F. Allocation of bursary to the needy. Creating and enabling environmental employment in formal and informal sectors (easy access to loans). Providing market for agricultural products e.g. K.C.C, Cereal Board. Provision of low cost health services. Improving infrastructure e.g. roads, electricity. Providing youth fund through the Ministry of Youth Affairs. Q6. State the factors that have contributed to high levels of poverty in Kenya today Geographical factors e.g. adverse climate conditions. Historical/colonialism and social factors e.g. poor family background. Political instability, which may lead to civil wars. Poor governance. Regional imbalance of natural resources. ----- 514 # Low level of technology. Unemployment Laziness Over dependence on foreign aid Abuse of alcohol and other drugs Lack of formal education hence no employment. CHAPTER NINE CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE Q1. State ways in which Christians can promote unity/peach in the society By reporting criminals to the police. By being good example to others as peacekeepers. Praying for criminals. Building and counseling criminals. Teaching the society the importance of keeping peace. Condemning evil and evildoers. Q2. Why should Christians take part in voting? They belong to the society and leadership affects them. It is a God-given duty. In order to choose righteous leaders who will encourage values/virtues. In order to help reduce bribery and corruption and other vices in the society. CHAPTER 10 CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO SELECTED ISSUES RELATED TO MODERN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT Q1. How can modern Christians evaluate scientific and technological discoveries? They should keep in mind that God gave them high-level power of thinking. Discoveries must be used intelligently to solve mans problems. ----- 515 # They should not be used as an insult to God who created all things e.g. in things like plastic surgery, test tube babies etc. Discoveries must be used intelligently to solve mans problems. Discoveries should not erode Christian values by increasing mans trust in scientific and technological production. Acknowledge God as the source of all truth including science. Should help man make moral decision and judgments e.g. effect of alcohol, smoking, etc. Man should not be a slave to scientific discoveries instead he should control it. Q2. Why is the church in Kenya opposed to plastic surgery? It is against Gods plan of old age and death. It is a sign of lack of appreciation to Gods work of creation. It can lead to death if the operation fails. It interferes with Gods image given at birth. May be very expensive. Emphasis on beauty and pleasing which are seen as idolatry. Certain diseases can be transmitted especially where tissues may be detached from a donor with an infectious disease. Can bring about other operations like diseases. Scientists use it to compete with Gods creation. Leads to vices such as pride. It may lead to criminal activities by the victim due to different appearances. It is a sign of lack of faith in Gods power of creation/healing. It is against human dignity. Q3. How have science and technology improved human life? ----- 516 # Modern methods of transport and communication have improved social interaction and faster movements. It has improved efficiency at work where machines are used. Has improved agricultural development hence increasing food production. Irrigation and wealth forecasting have too increased in food production. It has brought better health care through modern medical technology. Human beings are now better placed in terms of security matters by use of radar, alarms and electrical fencing. It has led to the creation of job opportunities through industrial development. Formal education and training has equipped human beings with new skills for survival. Trade has been promoted through the use of computers and the Internet. Q4. What are the consequences of science and technology in our society today? Unemployment is acute in our society today because computers have taken over. There is exploitation of workers by the employers because they want maximum profits. It has caused pollution and air poisoning. It has caused health hazards and accidents in factories, roads etc. Machines have replaced human labour. Families are separated due to employment whereby a mother lives in the rural with children while the father goes to town to work. It has destroyed family relationships and replaced it with individualis ----- |
**AGRICULTURE FORM III NOTES**<br><br>**17.0.0 Livestock Production (Selecting and Breeding) (12 Lessons)**<br><br>**18.0.0 Livestock Production (Livestock Rearing) (10 Lessons)**<br><br>**19.0.0 Farm Structures (18 Lessons)**<br><br>**20.0.0 Agricultural Economics II (Land Tenure and Land Reform) (20 Lessons)**<br><br>**21.0.0 Soil and Water Conservation (19 Lessons)**<br><br>**22.0.0 Weeds and Weed Control (15 Lessons)**<br><br>**23.0.0 Crop Pests and Diseases (14 Lessons)**<br><br>**24.0.0 Crop Productivity VI (Field Practices II) (17 Lessons)**<br><br>**25.0.0 Forage Crops (9 Lessons)**<br><br>**26.0.0 Livestock Health III (Diseases) (20 Lessons)**<br><br>**Livestock Production III** **(Selection and Breeding)** **Introduction**<br><br> The breeding of animals is under human control, and the breeders decide which <br><br>individuals shall produce the next generation. <br><br> The breeder makes a choice. The breeding of animals is based upon the fact that certain qualities are genetic <br><br>,hence valuable qualities are passed on from parents to off -springs. The qualities can be maintained or improved in the next generation. **The performance of an animal is influenced by two major factors;**<br><br> Genetic potential The environment, which includes: <br><br> Feeding, Health, Care The ecological conditions. <br><br> The genetic potential of an animal is inherited from its parents. <br><br>In selection and breeding animals with superior characteristics are selected and allowed to mate. <br><br>1 When this is done over a long period of time, it results in livestock improvement. <br><br>In the process they transmit the superior characteristics to their offspring. <br><br>**Reproduction and Reproductive Systems**<br><br> Reproduction is the process by which off-springs are produced. All farm animals multiply by means of sexual reproduction. <br><br>It begins with fertilization which is the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote. <br><br> Fertilization takes place internally in the body of the female. The embryo(zygote) formed develops inside body of mother, fed and protected until <br><br>end of gestation period. In poultry, the process is different in that eggs are fertilized internally but laid and development of the chick takes place outside during incubation. In both male and female, certain organs are specialized for the process of reproduction. <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> Some of these organs secret fluids which are necessary for the movement and survival <br><br>of the gametes(reproductive cells.) <br><br>***The testis:***<br><br> There are two testes hanging loosely between hind legs. Enclosed by loose skin (scrotum)scrotum regulate temperature of testis for <br><br>optimum production of sperms. <br><br> Produce spermatozoa(sperms)which are stored in coiled tube called epididymis. <br><br>***Epididymis:***Storage of spermatozoa. ***Sperm ducts:***<br><br> Conveys sperm from the testis and urine through the penis. sphincter muscles contract to allow each to pass separetly. <br><br>***Seminal vesicles produce fluid called semem.*** semen carries sperms out of penis in fluid form. <br><br>**Prostate gland**-produce fluid that neutralize the acidic effects of urine in the <br><br>urethra preventing death of sperms. <br><br>***Accessory glands:***Include seminal vesicles cowpers gland and prostate gland. ***Urethra**:*Conveys urine and semen. ***Penis:***<br><br> Surrounded by a sheath which is an extension of skin. It introduces sperms into the vagina of a cow through the vulva during mating*.* It is a copulatory organ, also used for urination. <br><br>3 <br><br>**Ovaries and fallopian tubes(oviduct)**<br><br> Two ovaries located in abdomen, left and right. Produce ova/eggs and hormones which control sexual cycle. Oestrogen produced by graafian follicle inside ovary induces oestrus After every 21 days the ovary releases a mature ovum and the cow comes on heat. The ovum travels through the fallopian tubes to the uterus. The release and movement of the ovum down to the uterus is called**ovulation.** The fertilized egg implants itself onto the endometrium(walls of uterus)and <br><br>ie. Heat period so that the cow shows signs of heat <br><br>If mating is done at this time, fertilization will take place. <br><br>develops into foetus. <br><br>***Fallopian tubes:*** Fertilization takes place here. Also a passage for the egg from the ovary to the uterus. ***The uterus:*** Embryo develops here. *The cervix:*Closes the uterus. ***The vagina and Vulva:*** Vulva is the external opening of female reproductive system. The foetus and urine are removed through the vulva. <br><br>It allows mating to take place so that sperms are deposited into the vagina. <br><br>**Pregnancy**<br><br> <br><br>Is period between fertilization of ova and the expulsion of the foetus through the vulva. <br><br>4 Also called**gestation period.** Ends with the birth of a calf. The reproductive tract undergoes a period of rest during which it is repaired and <br><br>In cattle gestation period is 270-285 days. <br><br>returns to normal. <br><br> During pregnancy, hormone called**progesterone**is produced by the placenta to <br><br>maintain the foetus in the uterus. <br><br>**Parturition(giving birth)**<br><br> Act of giving birth called parturition. This time the foetus expelled through the birth canal. <br><br>***When an animal is about to give birth, it shows signs;-***<br><br> Distended udder which produces thick milky fluid called colostrums. Swollen vulva producing thick mucus. Loose and slackened pelvic girdle. Visible pin bones. General restlessness. <br><br> Animal parturates within 2-3 hours after this signs. The correct presentation is with the front feet first ,and the head outstretched and <br><br>resting in between the fee. <br><br> Any other presentation called**mal-presentation or breech presentation**and <br><br>requires assistance. **Reproduction in Poultry**<br><br> The cock has no penis but a small opening near the vent through which sperms are <br><br>emitted. <br><br> Cock has testes within the body. The hen has elongated oviduct for formation of an egg. Fertilization occurs internally. During mating the cloaca of the hen and the vent of the cock fit into each other and <br><br>then semen is poured into the cloaca ,then sucked to the oviducts. <br><br>***The Reproductive System of a Hen***<br><br>5 <br><br>**Ovary**<br><br> Hen has two ovaries but one functional. Ova formed in ovaries. 3500-4000 ova present inside ovary held by follicle. Mature ovum released via rapture of follicle. It moves into oviduct received by the funnel. <br><br>**Funnel(infundibulum)**<br><br> Fertilization occurs here. Chalazae also added to yolk. Time here is 15 minutes. It is 11.6cm long. <br><br>**Magnum**<br><br> Thick albumen is added. Stays for 3hrs.its 33cm long. <br><br>**Isthmus** Shell membranes added. Determines shape of egg. Water, mineral salts and vitamins added. Takes 15 minutes. <br><br>Its 10.6cm long. <br><br>**Uterus(shell gland)** Calcium deposited 9ie.shell added around the egg. <br><br>6 Pigments added. Addition of albumin finished. Stays here for 18-22hours. **Vagina**<br><br> Short, 6.9cm long. For temporal storage of egg before laying **Cloaca**<br><br> Egg moves out of cloaca through the vent. The cloaca extents out to prevent the egg from breaking. <br><br>**NB;**<br><br> Egg formation not depended on fertilization. Egg formation takes 24-26hours. The components of egg are obtained from body reserves of the hens body. **Selection of a Breeding Stock**<br><br> Selection is used as a tool for livestock improvement. A breeding stock is a group of males and females which act as parents of future <br><br>generations. <br><br> Selection is the process of allowing certain animals to be parents of future generations <br><br>while culling others. <br><br> Culling is the removal of animals which do not perform to the desired level, from the <br><br>herd. <br><br> The animals retained have certain desirable characteristics which make them produce <br><br>more. <br><br> Selected animals make up the breeding stock. The breeding stock should pass the good qualities to their offsprings for better <br><br>performance, to improve the livestock. <br><br> Selection process repeated for many generations increases chances of formation of <br><br>desirable qualities in an animal. <br><br> Genetically termed as gene frequency(occurrence of the genes that carry desirable <br><br>characteristics.) <br><br> Selection increases occurrence of desirable genes and decreases occurance of <br><br>undesirable genes. <br><br> During selection, the characteristics to be selected for are first studied closely to ascertain that it is not influenced by the environment, but mainly by the genetic make- up. <br><br> Selection helps improve characteristics which are highly heritable. Heritability means the likelihood of a particular trait to be transmitted to the offspring and they are strongly inherited. <br><br> A character like milk yield is lowly heritable, i.e. it is weakly inherited and a bigger <br><br>percentage of the character is affected by the environment. <br><br>***The degree to which selection affects a character depends on the following*** ***factors;***<br><br> The heritability of the character The intensity with which the selection is done The interval between generations and kind of selection being practiced. <br><br>7 **Factors To Consider When Selecting A Breeding Stock.**<br><br> Age Level of performance Physical Fitness Health Body Conformation Temperament or Behaviour Quality of products Mothering Ability Adaptability Proliferation <br><br>**Age**<br><br> Young animals, Those that have not parturated for more than 3-times, should be selected. They have a longer productive life. Old animals are poor breeders and low producers. Production and breeding efficiency decline with age. <br><br>**Level of performance**<br><br> Animals with highest production level selected. Performance best indicated by records. <br><br>***Good performance of animal indicated by;***<br><br> High milk, wool and egg production, Good mothering ability High prepotency which is the ability of a parent to pass good qualities to their <br><br>offsprings. <br><br> The animals with poor performance should be culled. Good records kept and used by the farmer for this purpose. <br><br>**Physical Fitness** Animals selected should be free from any physical defect <br><br> e.g. <br><br> mono-eyed, limping, irregular number of teats, scrotal hernia, defective and weak backline Animals for breeding to be selected according to proper body <br><br>conformation. <br><br> A dairy cow should be wedge-shaped with a large udder, thin <br><br>legs, long neck. <br><br>**Temperament or Behaviour**<br><br> Animals with bad behaviors should be culled.eg Cannibalism, egg eating, aggressiveness, kicking <br><br>**Quality of products**<br><br> Select animals that give products of high quality. <br><br>**Mothering Ability**<br><br> Animals selected should have a good mothering ability, That is animals with good natural instinct towards their young <br><br>ones. <br><br> This will enable them to rear the young ones up to weaning. <br><br>**Adaptability**<br><br> Animals selected should be well adapted to the prevailing <br><br>climatic condition in the area. <br><br>**Prolificacy**<br><br> Animals selected should be highly prolific. That is, animals with the ability to give birth to many offsprings <br><br>at a time(larger litter). <br><br> This is a quality that should be considered when selecting pigs <br><br>and rabbits. <br><br>**Selection in cattle, and sheep,**<br><br>***Selection in cattle*** ***Consider the following;***<br><br> Level Of Performance Which Include; <br><br> Milk Yield Buter Content. Length Of Lactation Period. Calving Intervals. <br><br> Age Of The Animal, Fertility, Physical Fitness, Health Of The Animal, Body Conformation, Suitability Of The Enterprise-Milk Or Beef Carcass quality Twining rate <br><br> Age Suitability to the enterprise-wool or mutton Flocking instinct Health of the animal Physical fitness Fertility Fertility. <br><br>Inheritable defects <br><br>Inheritable defects. <br><br>***Selection in Goats***<br><br>***Consider the following:***<br><br> Fertility. Mothering ability. Growth rate. Twining rate Carcass quality/dressing percentage. Growth rate. Suitability to the enterprise - milk or mutton. Health of the animal. Age. <br><br>***Selection in Pigs***<br><br> Consider the following: Carcass quality/dressing percentage. Suitability to the enterprise (bacon or pork) Growth rate. Health of the animal. Mothering ability. Prolificacy. Number of teats. Temperament. Body formation. Age. Heredity defects <br><br>***Selection in Camels***<br><br> Health of the animal. <br><br> Age. Temperament. Foraging ability. <br><br>10 Fertility. Level of performance-milk, meat, fur and transport. <br><br>***Method of Selection***<br><br>***These include:***<br><br>**Mass selection**- Animals with superior characteristics are selected from a herd and <br><br>then allowed to mate among each other. <br><br>**Progeny testing**- assessing on the breeding value of an animal on the basis of <br><br>performance of its offsprings. <br><br>**Contemporary comparison**-comparison of performance between heifers of the <br><br>same age and sexual maturity. <br><br>***Breeding***<br><br> Process of mating selected males and females to produce offspring with the desired <br><br>characteristics. <br><br>***Reasons:***<br><br> To expand the inherited potential of the animal. To improve production. To overcome production problems created by the environment. To satisfy consumers taste. For economic reasons. <br><br>***Terms Used in Breeding***<br><br>***Inheritance***<br><br> Genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offsprings. The mechanism of inheritance is carried by the sex cells (gametes) and is controlled by <br><br>genes found in the chromosomes. <br><br> Genes are very tiny units of inheritance carrying particular characteristics, such as <br><br>colour, body shape and amount of milk production. Chromosomes are genetic materials which carry genes. They exist in pairs paternal and maternal) in the nucleus f the body cells. They are always constant in number. ***Dominant and Recessive Characteristics***<br><br> A dominant gene is one that suppresses the other. *A recessive gene*is one that is suppressed by the other. <br><br> It produces a dominant characteristic. <br><br>It produces a recessive characteristic. <br><br>***Hybrid and Hybrid Vigour***<br><br>**A hybrid**is an animal which is the product of crossing animals of two different breeds. **Hybrid vigour or heterosis**is increased vigour and performance resulting from <br><br>crossing two superior breeds. <br><br>11 ***Epistasis***<br><br> This is the masking of the effect of one gene by another gene which is non-allelic, that <br><br>is situated on different locus. <br><br>***Breeding Systems*** **Inbreeding**<br><br> Mating of animals which are related.*Reasons:* To increase genetic uniformity in a herd. Used to fix the required characteristics in new breeds. To increase phenotypic uniformity. To get proven sires. <br><br>***Limitations***<br><br> It can bring about loss of hybrid vigour. It may lead to decline in fertility. It may lead to high rate of pre-natal mortality. <br><br>***Systems of Inbreeding***<br><br>**Close Breeding**: mating between very closely related animals, for example sib- <br><br>mating and parents sib-mating. <br><br>**Line Breeding:**mating of distantly related animals that had a common ancestor for <br><br>example cousins. <br><br>**Outbreeding**<br><br> Mating of animals which are not related. ***Reasons:***<br><br> To introduce new genes in an existing breeding herd. To exploit heterosis resulting from a cross between two breeds. To develop a new breed or a grade animal. <br><br>**Limitations**<br><br> Lack of uniformity in animals that result from outbreeding. Desirable characteristics may be lost due to variation. <br><br>***Systems of Outbreeding***<br><br> Mating of animals from two different pure breeds. ***Out-Crossing*** Mating of unrelated animals from the same breed. ***Upgrading/Grading up*** Mating where the female of a cow grade stock (locals) is mated with a pure breed <br><br>***Cross-breeding***<br><br>sire. <br><br>12 The resultant animal is referred to as a high grade. <br><br>***Mating in Livestock***<br><br>***Mating in Cattle***<br><br> Heat signs occur every 21 days. The heat period last for 18-30 hours on average 24 hours. Cow should be served 12-18 hours after showing the first heat signs. <br><br>***Heat Signs***<br><br> Restlessness. Mounting on others and when mounted on she stands still. Rise in body temperature. Drop in milk production in lactating cows. Vulva swells and becomes reddish. Clear or slimy mucus from the vulva. Bellowing or mooing frequently. <br><br>***Mating in Pigs***<br><br> Heat signs in pigs occur after every 21 days. The heat lasts about 72 hours. Sows or gilts should be served in 18- 36 hours of the heat period. ***Signs of Heat*** Restlessness. Frequent urination. <br><br> Swelling and reddening of the vulva. <br><br> Clear or slimy discharge from the vulva. Frequent mounting on others. It responds very well to the 'riding test'. ***Mating in Rabbits***<br><br> Does are ready for mating 6-7 months of age. Heat signs occur every 14 days. The doe should be taken to the buck and not vice versa. <br><br>***Signs of Heat*** Restlessness. Frequent urination. Swollen vulva. The doe throws herself on the side. The doe rubs herself against the wall or any other solid object. The doe tries to contact other rabbits in the next hutch by peeping. <br><br>***Methods of Service in Livestock***<br><br>13 ***Natural Mating*** ***Advantages:***<br><br> Useful when heat signs of females cannot be easily detected. <br><br>It is more accurate. It is less laborious. <br><br>***Disadvantages***<br><br> Inbreeding is not easily controlled. Transmission of breeding diseases. Extra feed for the male is required. Large males can injure small females. Wastage of semen. It is cumbersome and expensive to transport a bull to remote areas. <br><br>***Artificial insemination***<br><br> Introduction of semen into the female reproductive tract by artificial means. ***Advantages***<br><br> There is economical use of semen. Sires that are unable to serve cows due to heavy weight or injury can produce semen <br><br>It controls transmission of breeding diseases. <br><br>to serve cows. It prevents large bulls from injuring small cows. It reduces the expenses of keeping a male animal. <br><br> A small scale farmer who cannot afford to buy a superior bull can have the cows served <br><br>at a low cost. <br><br> Semen can be stored for long. It helps to control inbreeding. It eliminates the threat of keeping dangerous bulls from the farm. It makes research work easier. <br><br>***Disadvantages***<br><br> Harmful characteristics can be spread quickly by one bull to the offsprings. Low chance of conception due to death of semen during storage. <br><br>It is laborious: ***Embryo Transplant***<br><br> <br><br>It is the implantation of an embryo (fertilized ova) from a high quality female (donor) in the uterus of a low grade female (recipient). <br><br>***Advantages***<br><br> Faster multiplication of an animal with superior characteristics . Embryos can be stored for a long period awaiting the availability by recipient females. <br><br>It is easier to transport embryos than the whole animal. <br><br>14 Low grade animals can be used in production and rearing of high quality animals. Offsprings of a superior female can spread quickly in an area. <br><br>It stimulates milk production in a female (recipient) that was not ready to produce milk. <br><br>***Disadvantages***<br><br> It is expensive. It requires skilled personnel. It requires special equipment for fertilization and storage of embryos. <br><br>***Signs of Parturition in Livestock***<br><br> Parturition is the act of giving birth in female animals. <br><br>***Parturition in Cattle***<br><br> The gestation period in cattle is 270-285 days averaging 280days. <br><br>***Signs of Parturition*** Restlessness Enlarged or swollen vulva. Clear mucus discharge from the vulva. Slackening of the pelvic muscles. Full and distended udder. Thick milky fluid from the teats. A water bag appears and bursts just before calving. <br><br>***Parturition in Pigs***<br><br> The gestation period in pigs is about 4 months or 3 months, 3 weeks and 3 days. <br><br>***Signs of Parturition*** Restlessness. The vulva turns red and swells. The udder becomes full with a milky fluid the sow starts to prepare a nest by collecting some beddings at one comer of the pen. <br><br>***Parturition in Rabbits***<br><br> The gestation period in rabbits is 28-32 days. <br><br>***Signs of Parturition***<br><br> Preparing a nest by plucking off hair from her belly. Goes off feeding Restlessness. The udder distends. **Introduction**<br><br> In the management of livestock there are many activities that are carried out on animals to enhance production. <br><br> They require care in feeding, health, breeding. <br><br> Specific management also important in bee and fish farming. <br><br>**Routing livestock rearing practices.**<br><br> A routine is a fixed/regular way of doing something. <br><br> done repeatedly after a certain period of time ***Feeding Practice***<br><br> Animals are fed to cater for both maintenance and production requirements. These are special types of feeding carried out on certain animals to cater for specific <br><br>needs. ***These include:***<br><br>***Flushing***<br><br> The practice of giving extra quality feed to an animal around service time. In sheep it is done 2-3 weeks before tupping and 3 weeks after tupping. In pigs it is done 3-4 weeks before service. <br><br>***Importance of Flushing***<br><br> It increases conception rates. It enhances implantation of the zygote. In sheep it increases twinning percentage by 15-20%. <br><br>***Steaming Up***<br><br> Giving extra quality feed to an animal during the last weeks of gestation. In cattle it is done 6-8 weeks before calving. <br><br>***Importance Steaming Up***<br><br> It provides nutrients for maximum foetal growth. It helps in the build up of energy for parturition. It ensures the birth of a healthy animal. It promotes good health of the mother. It increases and maintains high milk yield after birth. ***Creep Feeding***<br><br> Feeding of young animals from birth to weaning. <br><br>**Piglets** 5 weeks old - creep pellets mixed with sow and weaner meals. <br><br>10 days old - introduced to creep pellets. <br><br>16 8 weeks old - weaning. <br><br>**Lambs**<br><br> Run with their mothers for natural suckling. Bucks - introduced to succulent feeds and concentrates. <br><br>**Kids**<br><br> Meat goats kids suckle naturally. Dairy goats, fed on milk artificially, Given 0.5-1.25 litres up to the third week. Weaned at 6-8 weeks of age. <br><br>Introduced to concentrates at 3-4 months. <br><br>***Parasite and Disease Control Practices***<br><br>***Vaccination***<br><br> <br><br>Introducing active disease organsms which are reduced in strength or virulent into the animals' body to induce immunity. <br><br>**Administration of*Vaccination*done through:**<br><br> By injection. Orally through the mouth. By inhalation through the nose. Eye drops. <br><br>***Deworming***<br><br> Practice of killing/removing internal parasites by administering drugs known as <br><br>dewormers / antihelmitics. <br><br>***Hoof Trimming***<br><br> Cutting back overgrown hooves with the help of a hoof trimming knife, a hoof cutter <br><br>or a hoof rasp. <br><br>***Importance***<br><br> Facilitate easy movement. Control of foot rot disease. Facilitate mating - prevent the ram from injuring the ewe during tupping. ***Docking /tailing***<br><br> This is the removal (cutting oft) of tails in sheep during the first week after birth. <br><br>*Importance* Even distribution of body fat. Facilitate easy mating in adult life. Minimise fouling of the wool with faeces. Reduce incidences of blowfly infestation. <br><br>***Methods of Docking /tailing***<br><br> Cutting with sharp knife or scalpel. <br><br>17 Use of elastrator and rubber ring. <br><br>***Dipping and Spraying***<br><br> These are methods of applying acaricides on the animals to control external <br><br>parasites. <br><br>***Dusting*** <br><br>It is the application of chemical powders on the animal body or on the walls of the animal house to control external parasites. It is used to control stick-fast parasites and fleas in poultry. <br><br>***Breeding Practices***<br><br>These are practices carried out to enhance successful breeding. ***Crutching and Ringing***<br><br> <br><br>Crutching - cutting of wool around the external reproductive organs of female sheep. <br><br> Ringing - trimming wool around the sheath of the penis of the rams to facilitate <br><br>mating. ***Tupping and Serving***<br><br> Tupping refers to mating in sheep and goats. Serving refers to mating in cattle and pigs. <br><br>***Raddling***<br><br> <br><br>This is the practice of fitting the rams with breeding chutes which are painted in different colours during mating to identify mated ewes and to indicate the active rams hence help in culling of the weak rams. <br><br>***Identification*** The practice of putting identification marks on animal. **Branding**- burning marks on the animals skin. **Ear tagging**- placing marked plastic or metallic tags on the animals ears. **Ear notching**- cutting different shapes bearing different values on the ear lobes. **Tattooing**- use of permanent ink or dye to mark animals with light skin. **Neck strap or chain**- Fixing of tags round the animals neck with a chain or a strap. Importance/ purpose of Identification <br><br> Setting disputes in case animals get mixed up in the pasture. <br><br>record keeping <br><br>***Debeaking***<br><br> Cutting about of the upper beak with a knife, scissors or hot iron. <br><br> Control egg eating. Control cannibalism. <br><br>***Importance***<br><br>18 ***Tooth Clipping***<br><br> The removal (clipping) of the needle (canine) teeth in piglets 24 hours after birth. <br><br>***Culling***<br><br> Removal of undesirable animals from a herd. <br><br>***Dehorning***<br><br> Removal of horns or horn buds from an animal. <br><br>***Importance***<br><br> For easy transportation and feeding. Prevents destruction of farm structures. <br><br>It prevents animals from injuring each other. It makes the animal docile and therefore easy to handle. <br><br>***Shearing***<br><br> The practice of cutting wool from all over the body of a sheep. It starts at the age of 8 months and then done once a year. Should be done during the dry season. Tools used: wool shears. Care must be taken not to cut the skin, testicles, udder, vulva and penis. <br><br>***Castration***<br><br> It is the rendering unserviceable the testicles of a male animal. <br><br>***Importance***<br><br> To control breeding diseases. To control breeding. For faster growth rates. Increase quality of meat by removing unpleasant smell especially in goats. <br><br>***Methods Used:***<br><br>***Closed/bloodless method***<br><br> involves use of burdizzo or rubber ring and elastrator. Animals do not bleed but may not be 100% effective. <br><br>***Open method***<br><br> A surgical method used for castrating cocks, piglets and rabbits whose testes are <br><br>internal. <br><br> Also used for lambs, kids and calves. Animals bleed a lot. However, it is 100% effective. It is not recommended for mature adults. <br><br>***Caponisation*** It is the practice of making male birds lose their male characteristics by use of <br><br>hormones. <br><br> Hormones used include stilboestrol which is injected into the birds when they are <br><br>one day old and female hormones implanted beneath the skin at the neck. <br><br> Birds which have lost their male characteristics in this way are referred to as <br><br>capons. <br><br>***Management During Parturition***<br><br> Parturition is the act of giving birth to fully grown foetus. <br><br>***Parturition in Cattle***<br><br> Gestation period lasts 270-285 days after conception. When the signs of parturition are observed the cow should be separated from the rest <br><br>It is referred to as calving. <br><br>of the herd. <br><br> Normal calving should take 2 hours and the normal presentation is the muzzle, face or <br><br>fore head on top of the forelegs first. In case of other presentations the mother should be assisted. Provide the mother with plenty of water and feed after parturition. <br><br>If the after birth does not come out within 48 hours a veterinarian should be called to remove it. <br><br>***Parturition in Sheep***<br><br> Gestation lasts 21 weeks (150 days) after conception. The ewe lamb naturally without any problem. <br><br>It is referred to as lambing. <br><br>If complications arise the ewes should be assisted. ***Signs of Parturition in Sheep***<br><br> Udder becomes full. Teats are bright red in colour. Restlessness and bleating. Slackening of the hip muscles. <br><br>**After these signs 'are seen the ewes should be separated from the others.** The normal presentation is forelegs and head first. After birth the mother should be allowed to lick the lamb to ensure the coat is dry. <br><br>***Parturition in Goats***<br><br> It is referred to as kidding. It takes place 150 days after conception. Nannies carrying twins, kid a few days earlier. Kidding nannies should be kept in a clean dry place which should be well sheltered. Signs of parturition are similar to those of ewes. Kidding nannies should be kept with another female for company. ***Parturition in Pigs***<br><br> Gestation period 113-117 days ( 4 months). <br><br>It is referred to as farrowing. <br><br>***Signs of Farrowing***<br><br> The sow becomes restless. There is enlargement of the vulva . Muscles on each side of the tail slacken. There is loss of appetite. The udder and the teats become enlarged. The sow collects bedding material in one comer to build a nest. Milk present in the teats 24 hours before farrowing. <br><br>**After the signs are seen;**<br><br> Farrowing takes about 2-6 hours under normal condition. An attendant should be there to assist the mother and piglets. Ensure the removal of the after birth to prevent the sow from eating it. The sow should be fed well and given plenty of clean water. <br><br>***Parturition in Rabbits***<br><br> Provide a nesting box and plenty of dry soft beddings in the hutch towards the fourth <br><br>It is referred to as kindling. It takes place 28-32 days after conception. <br><br>week of gestation . <br><br>***Signs of Parturition*** ***Bee Keeping (Apiculture**)*<br><br> Bees are insects which live in very well organised colonies. <br><br>***Each colony consists of:***<br><br> Queens - fertile females that breed to ensure the continuity of the species. Drones - fertile males that mate with the queen for reproduction process. Workers - non-fertile or sterile females that maintain the colony. <br><br>***Duties of Workers***<br><br> They rear and nurse the brood (eggs, larvae and pupae), queen and drones. They collect nectar and make honey. They make the honey combs. They protect the hives. They clean the hive. <br><br>***Importance of Bees***<br><br> Collect nectar from flowers. Make honey - a nutritious product used by man as food. <br><br>21 Helps in crops pollination of plants. Bees produce wax used to make candles. They make propolis - a bee product which is medicinal. <br><br>***Routine Management***<br><br>***Siting/locating of an Apiary***<br><br>***Factors to consider;***<br><br> Nearness or accessibility to nectar or flower-producing vegetation. Areas with shade. Bees are sensitive to the sun's heat and require some shade to <br><br>protect them. <br><br> Safe distance from human residence and other livestock. Bees are stinging insects and can be a hazard to humans or other animals. Nearness to a source of water for use in their nutrition. A good distance from source of noise and other disturbances. Safety from predators for example honey badgers, ants (safari ants), birds and other <br><br>parasites such as wax moths. <br><br>***Feeding***<br><br> Normally bees are self-sufficient in providing their food from the honey they make. However, during the dry season, their feeding should be supplemented by providing a <br><br>solution (syrup) of sugar water or giving molasses. <br><br> This should be placed strategically so that it is easily accessible to the bees. <br><br>***Parasites***<br><br> Ants Wax moths Bee louse Honey badger <br><br>***Control of Parasites***<br><br> Use of physical barriers such as Vaseline/grease to control ants. Smoke the hive to control bee louse. Suspend the hive to control honey badgers. Burn infected combs to control wax moths. ***Diseases and Control***<br><br> African bees are seldom attacked by diseases. <br><br>**Harvesting Honey**<br><br>***Factors to consider;***<br><br>**Stage of ripening**: Honey must be harvested when it is fully mature. **Season of the year**: Harvested at the end of the rainy season. <br><br>***Procedure***<br><br> Blow light smoke through the hole. This makes bees suck honey and become engorged and docile. <br><br>22 Lower the hive to the ground. Open the hive to expose honey combs. Brush the bees off the honey combs. Cut the honey combs, leaving a small margin on the bars and keep them in a closed <br><br>container. <br><br>**Honey Processing**<br><br> Using heat in a water bath to melt the honey. Crushing and straining. Using a centrifugal extractor. **Precautions When Handling Bees**<br><br> Avoid excessive smoking. This kills the brood and lowers quality of the honey. Use protective clothing to avoid sting. Protect the hive from rain water. Use clean equipment and containers to avoid contamination of the honey. Use recommended method of extracting honey. Use recommended type of hive such as Kenya top bar hive. ***Fish Keeping (Aquaculture**)*<br><br>***Introduction***<br><br> The rearing or keeping of fish is called fish farming and is normally carried out in <br><br>specially prepared ponds. <br><br>***A good fish-pond should have the following features:***<br><br> Site should be on a fairly level ground with a permanent supply or source of water. The area should have clayey soil to avoid loss of water through seepage. Water must be free from any pollutants such as chemicals and other wastes. ***Construction should provide for:***<br><br> an inlet for fresh supply of water, a spill way channel to take off overflow or excess water, an outlet to drain off the water when it is necessary to replace pond water, a fence to keep off predators and other intruders. <br><br>***Feeding Fish***<br><br> Fish naturally feed on worms, insects and algae in the ponds. ***These sources of food must be supplemented by throwing in the pond ;***<br><br> kitchen wastes, chopped vegetable materials such as cabbage leaves, cereal brans brewers' grain . <br><br>***Management Practices to Ensure Maximum Harvest of Fish***<br><br> Control of stocking rate, that is to, have the recommended population of fish in a pond <br><br>at anyone time. Harvest at the correct maturity stage. This is done by using the fishing net with correct mesh sizes to avoid catching the <br><br>fingerlings. <br><br> Avoid water pollution in the ponds which may poison fish. Ensure adequate supply of food in the pond. Water in the ponds should be kept in motion to facilitate aeration. Maintain appropriate depth (level) of water. Control predators and/or thieves. Drain and refill ponds with fresh water as necessary. <br><br>***Harvesting Fish***<br><br> Harvesting or extracting fish from the fish ponds for consumption <br><br>***Two main methods:***<br><br>*Hook-and-line method:*<br><br> This is slow, injures small fish and is inefficient. It is only suitable for small-scale fishing. <br><br>*Use of fishing nets:*<br><br> This is the most efficient method as long as a net with the correct mesh sizes is <br><br>used. <br><br> Harvesting may be done 6-8 months after the introduction of fingerlings into the <br><br>fish pond. <br><br>***Maintenance of the Fish Pond***<br><br> Repairing the dyke or any structure on it. Cleaning the pond and removing foreign materials. Planting grass where necessary. Removing un desirable vegetation. Removing the silt. ***Fish Preservation***<br><br>***Practices before preservation:***<br><br> Clean the fish to remove mud and any worms. Removing scales and slime. Opening the fish on the side to remove the gut and the intestines referred to as <br><br>gutting. . <br><br> Cleaning the abdominal cavity thoroughly. Keeping fish in open containers. <br><br>**Methods of Preservation**<br><br> Freezing Salting Sun drying Smoking <br><br> Structures which help in restraining animals should be used whenever applicable. The correct methods of securing and casting animals should be used. Use as little force as possible. Equipment such as ropes, halters, lead stick and bull rings are used to handle animals <br><br>appropriately. **Introduction**<br><br> Farm structures are physical constructions on the farm used to increase efficiency in <br><br>production. <br><br>***Construction of Farm Structures***<br><br> Involves: ***Planning for farm structures ;*** ***Consider;***<br><br> Farm activities. Size of the enterprise. Future of the enterprise. Accessibility. Soil type. <br><br>***Siting farm structures;***<br><br>Consider: <br><br> The location of the homestead. Accessibility. Security. Drainage/topography. Wind direction. Relationship between the structures. Proximity to social amenities. Farmer's taste and preference. <br><br>***Materials for Construction*** ***Structural Materials and Use*** Factors which determine the type of materials to use are; <br><br> durability, strength, labour, availability, <br><br>25 ***Stones and Bricks***<br><br>***Advantages***<br><br> Stones and bricks are durable, easy to disinfect, resistant to weather and insects decay <br><br>and are easily available. <br><br>***Disadvantages***<br><br> They are bulky and require skilled labour to make them. <br><br>***Plastic and Synthetic Materials***<br><br> These include; <br><br> glass, <br><br> asbestos fibre <br><br> polythene materials. <br><br>***Advantages*** Light, cheep depending on quality, easy to disinfect, can be moulded into any shape, are durable, cannot be destroyed by insects and fungus are water-proof. <br><br>**Disadvantages**<br><br> Are easily destroyed, very expensive <br><br>fragile, <br><br>require skilled labour. <br><br>***Wood (Timber)***<br><br>***Advantages***<br><br> They are workable, cheap, can be re-used <br><br>26 ***Concrete*** e.g. in making blocks the ratio is 1:2:3; one part cement, two parts sand and three parts <br><br>Is a mixture of cement, sand, aggregate and water <br><br>aggregate. <br><br>***Uses***<br><br> Making posts for fencing. Making walls and floor of buildings. Making gabions and water channels to prevent erosion. Making water troughs. <br><br>***Advantages*** ***These materials are;***<br><br> durable, workable, easy to disinfect, cheap to maintain, fire resistant <br><br>Disadvantages <br><br> These materials are ; expensive, bulky, cannot be reused <br><br>require skilled labour, <br><br>**Animal handling structures**<br><br> The crush used when doing following activities; <br><br> Spraying livestock to control ticks, milking, examining sick animals, artificial insemination, treating animals, eg drenching, vaccination, dong routine jobs such as dehorning, identification marks, <br><br> The spray race-used in the control of ticks by spraying livestock with acaricides The dip- machakos type, and the pludge dip. This is used in the control of ticks by <br><br>dipping livestock Nearness to a source of water Topography Direction of the prevailing wind Direction of the sun Personal whims/tastes and preference Nearness to means of communication. <br><br>**Types of farm buildings**<br><br> Houses for farm animals. Stores for farm produce. Stores for equipment, tools and supplies. Buildings for growing crops e.g green house. Building for processing plant e.g milk plant. <br><br>**Parts of a building**<br><br> The foundation, The walls, The roof <br><br><br><br>Include; kingpost, rafters, struts, tie beam, rafter batten <br><br>28 <br><br>Include; <br><br> concrete floor, PVC sheet (damp-proof course) the compacted fill (hard core). <br><br>foundation wall, <br><br>***Fences*** Importance of Fence in a Farm Keep out intruders to the farm, Define the boundary lines of the farm. Paddocking of fields to make rotational grazing possible. Live fences serve as windbreaks. Fences are used in mixed farming to protect crops from. damage by livestock. Fences add aesthetic values to the farm. It is easy to control breeding. It is easy to isolate sick animals from the rest of the herd. <br><br>***Types of Fences***<br><br>29 Dead fences. Barbed wire fences. Electric fence. Concrete fence. Chicken wire fence (mesh wire fence). Woven wire fence (chain link). Wooden fence. <br><br>***Fencing Practice***<br><br> Materials include; <br><br> wires, staples, nails, posts, droppers concrete materials. Size of posts: <br><br> General purpose 2.5m by 25cm in diameter Strainer units and corner posts 3m by 30cm in diameter: Distance between the posts: <br><br> 3m between posts, 10m if droppers are to be used. 200m between strainer units. <br><br> Depth of holes - 60cm. <br><br>***Gate Posts, Gates and Strainer Units***<br><br> Gates should be hung on posts separate from the fence. Mechanical implements for example tractors require 4.0-4.5m width of gate. Entrance gates for pedestrians can be accommodated within the fence. <br><br>***Steps in Fencing***<br><br> Locate the corners Clear the fencing area. Mark gates, strainers, pass places and standards by pegging. Dig holes to proper depths. Fix the standard posts. Firm around posts or apply concrete. Fix wires on posts. Fix the droppers. <br><br> Land is an important factor of production. Without land it is impossible to practice the agricultural business. However the efficiency of utilization of land is influenced to a large extent by the condition <br><br>of holding the land. <br><br>***Land Tenure*** Land tenure is defined as the possession of the legal rights to the use of land. Various kinds of rights to the use of land give rise to different tenure systems. ***Land Tenure System*** All land tenure systems fall into two major classes, namely: ***Collective Tenure Systems***<br><br>***This includes:***<br><br>***Communal Tenure Systems*** This involves the possession of rights over land by the whole community. ***Advantages of Communal Tenure*** Landless problem does not exist. Land is not fragmented. Allows for free movement of animals in search of better pastures and water. Promotes community spirit among the members. ***Disadvantages of Communal Tenure*** No incentive among the users to conserve the land resources. Everybody strives to maximize returns from the land without the drive to invest, for <br><br>It works quite well under conditions of unlimited, land resources. <br><br>example, in terms of soil conservation and maintenance of soil fertility. <br><br> There is a tendency of overstocking and continuous cropping; which leads to soil erosion and loss of land productivity. <br><br> As a result of communal grazing of livestock, it is impossible to improve livestock through; <br><br> controlled breeding, proper feeding, disease and parasite control. <br><br> Since there is no title deed, (certificate of ownership) it is virtually impossible to secure <br><br>loans to develop the land. ***Co-operative Tenure System*** This category includes various collective arrangements under the government or other <br><br>authorities. <br><br> Farmers voluntarily group together and buy land which they subsequently operate on co- <br><br>operative basis. <br><br> Examples are co-operative ranches. ***Advantages of Co-operative Tenure*** No land disputes. Labour is well utilized. Profit is distributed according to the number of shares. Resource use is enhanced for high production. <br><br>***Disadvantages of co-operative tenure.*** Incase of poor management everybody will loose. <br><br>31 No individual title deed hence cannot secure loans. <br><br>***State ownership*** Land is owned by the whole state and is refered to as government land. ***Examples in Kenya;*** Areas not allocated to individuals Land under local county councils/cities and towns Land under forest, game reserve and parks, land for infra-structure and public utility <br><br>***Advantages of state ownership*** Generation of income for the state All the citizens benefit from whatever comes out of the land. ***Disadvantages*** Non-competitive in terms of production No individual motivation when working on the land. ***Individual Tenure system*** The various forms of individual land tenure are; **Owner operator,** **Plantation and Concestion,** **Land-lordism/Tenancy** ***The objective of land consolidation are :*** To save on time spent while moving from one piece of land to another. To facilitate effective and efficient farm planning. To create an incentive among land operators to invest on and develop land. To facilitate mechanization and improve production through efficiency. To improve level of production through effective supervision of the labour force and <br><br>sound farming methods, <br><br>***Land Fragmentation and Sub-division*** This is the subdividing of a (large) piece of land into smaller portions. Sometimes it becomes necessary to sub-divide land for the following reasons: <br><br> To sell part of the land. The parent may wish to subdivide and distribute his land among the sons, daughters <br><br>and other dependants. <br><br> The government may decide to subdivide large farms in order to settle landless <br><br>citizens. <br><br>***Land Adjudication and Registration*** Land adjudication involves; <br><br> Establishing the legitimate ownership, Measurements (to make permanent boundaries) Recording of land details. <br><br> Once land has been adjudicated, and any disputes concerning the same land are settled, And the owner is issued with a land title deed or certificate of legal ownership. <br><br>It is then registered in the "***Register of Land".*** ***Importance of land title deed***<br><br> The legal owner of the land has security of tenure and hence an incentive to invest and improve productivity. <br><br> A farmer can mortgage the land by offering land title certificate as a security to loaning <br><br>agencies to secure capital to finance development projects. If a farmer who cannot operate the farm, he can still earn income from it by leasing it. <br><br> Disputes concerning land boundaries and/or land ownership no longer arise. ***Land Settlement and Resettlement***<br><br>***Definition*** Land settlement means the occupation of land which was previously uninhabited. Land resettlement, on the other hand, is the transfer of people from an already densely <br><br>populated area to a sparsely populated one. <br><br>***Objectives*** To settle the landless citizens. To relieve population pressure in densely populated areas. To increase or promote agricultural productivity by farming on land that was previously <br><br>unused or lying idle. <br><br>34 **Soil and Water Conservation**<br><br>***Introduction***<br><br> Soil and water are two very important natural resources in farming. They should therefore be well maintained and used without wastage to sustain <br><br>continuous production. <br><br> Water loss during the rainy season should be prevented and excess water conserved <br><br>for use during scarcity. <br><br> Soil erosion must be controlled at whatever cost if soil is to be conserved. <br><br>**Soil Erosion** It is the removal and carrying away of the top soil by the action of water or wind. <br><br>***Factors Influencing Soil Erosion***<br><br> <br><br>***Amount and intensity of rainfall.*** The steeper the land the higher the velocity of surface runoff. The higher the velocity of surface runoff the greater is its erosive power/effect. ***Type of soil***for example sandy soils are more easily detached and carried away than <br><br>clayey soils. <br><br>***Soil depth***; The deeper the soil, the longer it takes to be saturated with water. <br><br> <br><br> ***Land use:***<br><br>***Overstocking***leads to bareness of the land and looseness of the soil. ***Deforestation***- indiscriminate removal of trees leads to exposure of soil to heavy rainfall and high temperatures. <br><br>***Indiscriminate burning of vegetation***exposes the soil to erosive agents. ***Clean weeding***leaves the soil bare. ***Ploughing along the slope.*** ***Monoculture***or continuous cultivation. ***Ground cover*** Trees act as windbreakers. Roots of vegetation cover hold the soil particles together. Leaf fall act as mulch which reduces erosion. Leaves of vegetation cover intercepts raindrops reducing their erosive power. <br><br> <br><br>***Agents of Erosion***<br><br>***Water***- moving water has erosive power. ***Wind***- wind carries away soil. ***Human beings***- through man's activities such as cultivation and mining. ***Animals***- through overgrazing and creating footpaths where soil erosion takes place. ***Types of Erosion***<br><br>***Raindrop (splash)***- displacement of the soil caused by raindrops. ***Sheet***- uniform removal of soil in thin layers from flat or gently sloping areas. ***Rill -***removal of soil from small bur well defined channels or rills. ***Gulley***- removal of soil from channels which become progressively deeper and wider. ***Riverbank Erosion***- removal of soil along river banks by the river water. ***Solifluction***- gravitational flow of soil saturated with water. ***Land slides***- mass movement of rock debris and soil down a slope, <br><br>***For example;***<br><br> Slip movement of earth or rock masses for a short distance. Debris slide - materials move at a greater speed. Debris fall - movement of materials/debris along vertical cliff. Rock fall - movement of rock down a very steep slope. Rock slides - mass of rock materials that slide along a bedding plate, a joint or a <br><br>fault face. ***Soil Erosion Control Measures***<br><br>***Soil conservation measures can be classified into:***<br><br> Biological or cultural control Physical or structural control <br><br>***Biological or Cultural Control Measures*** ***These measures are applicable where land slope is between 2-12%.***<br><br>***Grass strips/filter strips***; <br><br> These are narrow uncultivated strips along the contour left between cultivated <br><br>strips. ***Cover cropping***; <br><br> The establishment of a crop that spreads out over the surface of the soil to <br><br>provide it with a cover. <br><br>***Contour farming***; <br><br> Carrying out all land operations along the contour. <br><br>***Mulching***; <br><br> Covering of the soil with either organic or synthetic materials. <br><br>***Proper cropping systems***such as: <br><br> Crop rotation Correct spacing Inter-cropping Ridging/furrowing Strip cropping ***Controlled grazing***; <br><br> Proper stocking rate, rotational grazing. <br><br>***Strip cropping***; <br><br> Growing crops which give little ground cover in alternate strips with crops such as <br><br>beans which have a good ground cover. <br><br>***Afforestation/re-afforestation***. <br><br>***Afforestation***- growing of trees where non-existed. ***Re-afforestation***- growing of trees where they have been cut down. <br><br>36 ***Agroforestry***- land use that involves the growing of trees in combination with crops and pastures on the same piece of land. <br><br>***Physical or Structural Control Measures***<br><br> These are soil and water conservation measures which involve mechanical <br><br>constructions on the earth. <br><br> They are used in areas of moderate slope between 13-55%. <br><br>***They include:***<br><br>***Trash or stone lines***; <br><br> These are rows of heaped crop' residues or stones made along the contours. <br><br>***Filter strips***; <br><br> It involves the growing of an open crop in the upper side of the slope followed by <br><br>a dense crop to reduce speed of water. <br><br> This increases infiltration. <br><br>***Terraces;***<br><br> Are structures constructed across a slope to reduce the length of a slope thus <br><br>reducing run-off. <br><br>***Bench terraces;***<br><br> Are constructed where the slope is 35-55%. Tree crops are suitable for such areas. ***Importance of a Bench Terrace: -***<br><br> Reduces slope of the land. Conserves soil moisture. Better retention of soil fertility. <br><br>***Narrow based terraces***Cannot allow cultivation by machines. ***Broad based terraces***- Is wide enough to allow cultivation by machines. **Graded terraces:**<br><br> Have a drainage channel to lead off excess water to a vegetated place. They should be about 100m in length. <br><br>***Level terraces:***<br><br> Have no outlet channels, The aim is to have water infiltrating, Hence no water can flow from the ends of the terrace. <br><br>***Fanya juu:***<br><br> A ridge made by digging a channel and throwing the soil uphill. <br><br>***Fanya chini:***<br><br> In this case the soil is heaped on the lower side of the channel. <br><br>***Bunds:***heaps of soil (earth) made along the contour. **Cutoff drains:**<br><br> An open trench with an embankment on the lower side into which water from the <br><br>farm drains. <br><br>***Water from the trench should be discharged into;*** Natural waterways, Artificial waterways, Rocky ground Grassland <br><br>***Gabion/Porous dams***: <br><br> Galvanized wire mesh boxes filled with stones which are built across slopes and <br><br>gullies. <br><br>***Dams and reservoirs ;***<br><br> Dams - barriers built across a river/waterway to hold and store water. It reduces <br><br>speed of runoff. <br><br> Reservoirs - these are large storage tanks. <br><br>***Ridging -***heaps of soil to reduce the speed of water, They retain the water for some time. <br><br>***Water Harvesting Methods***<br><br> Water harvesting and storage should be done during the rainy seasons to avoid <br><br>wastage. <br><br>***This should be done using the following methods:***<br><br>***Roof catchment***- trapping and collection of rain water from roof tops. ***Rock catchment***- water is harvested by constructing a barrier on the lower side of a <br><br>large impervious rock to trap surface runoff from the rock. <br><br>***Weirs and dams.*** ***Dam***- a barrier constructed across a river or a dry valley so that it can hold water. ***Weirs***- barriers constructed across a river or a stream to raise the water level and still <br><br>allow water to flow over it. <br><br>***Ponds -***water retention excavations' made to hold excess surface water. ***Retention ditches/level terraces***.-These are terraces constructed with blocked <br><br>ends to retain water. ***Micro-Catchments***<br><br> A system of harvesting limited rainfall and storing the water in the ground for use by <br><br>the planted crops. <br><br>***Types of Microcatchments;***<br><br>***Triangular/V-shaped/Negarims***; V-shaped bunds measuring 25cm Are built with soil from the excavated planting holes to direct runoff water towards <br><br>the basin area around the base of each plant <br><br>***Semi-circular bunds***; <br><br> Formed around the growing plant to hold water around the plant. <br><br>***Trapezoidal bunds***; <br><br> Trapezoidal shaped bunds, which enclose a large area where the crops are grown. <br><br>***Contour bunds/furrows***; <br><br> These are furrows made along the contours between the rows of crops where <br><br>agroforestry trees are intercropped with annual crops. <br><br>***Planting holes/pits***; <br><br> These are extra large planting holes made and filled with dry plant materials <br><br>before filling in with soil. <br><br>***Use of Micro-Catchments***<br><br>38 Slow down the speed of surface runoff. Used during landscaping of the compound, parks and roadside nest areas. Reclamation of land for food crop in dry areas. Water collected and stored can be used for irrigation Afforestation in dry areas. **Weeds and Weed Control**<br><br>***Introduction***<br><br> Weeds cause heavy crop losses if not controlled. <br><br> Their control is important so as to maintain high quality and quantity produce. <br><br>***Definition:***<br><br> A weed is any plant growing where it is not required. <br><br> And whose economic disadvantages outweigh the advantages. ***Harmful Effects of Weeds***<br><br> Weeds compete with crops for nutrients, space, light and soil moisture. Some weeds, for example,*Striga spp*are parasitic to cultivated crops such as maize. Some weeds lower the quality of agricultural produce for example: <br><br> Mexican marigold gives undesirable flavour to milk if dairy cows feed on it. Devils horsewhip, black jack, bristly fox-tail and others get attached to sheep wool <br><br>thus lowering its quality. <br><br> Some weeds are poisonous to human beings and livestock for example: <br><br> Thorn apple*(Datura stramonium)* Sodom apple*(Solanum incanum)*<br><br> Some weeds have allelopathic effects to cultivated crops. Water weeds block irrigation channels. Aquatic weeds such as Salvinia in Lake Naivasha and water hyacinth in Lake Victoria <br><br>affect fishing. <br><br> Some weeds are alternate hosts for insects, pests and disease causing organisms for <br><br>example: Wild oat*(avena fatua)*is an alternate host for rusts. Mallow*(malva verticillata)*is an alternate host for cotton stainers. Weeds lower the quality of pasture for example: <br><br> Tickberry*(Lantana camara)* Nut grass*(Cyperus rotundus),* Manyatta grass*(Eleusine jaegeri)*<br><br> Some weeds irritate workers thus reducing the efficiency in which they are controlled <br><br>for example: Double thorn*(Oxygonum sinuatum),* Stinging nettle*(Urtica massaica)*, Devil's horse whip*(Achyranthes aspera).*<br><br>***Factors Contributing to the Competitive Ability of Weeds***<br><br>39 They produce large quantities of seeds for example pigweed and black jack. Their seeds remain viable in the soil for a long time awaiting conducive germination <br><br>conditions. <br><br> They have effective seed dispersal mechanisms. Some weeds propagate by means of elaborate underground storage structures. They are efficient in utilizing little moisture, nutrients and sunlight. Some have short life cycles. They have elaborate root systems for supporting the plant and absorbing nutrients <br><br>and water. <br><br>***Weed Classification***<br><br>***It is based on:***<br><br>***Life cycles***for example: <br><br>***Annuals***- complete their life cycle in only one season. ***Biennuals -***complete their life cycles in two seasons only. ***Perennials***- complete their life cycle in more than two seasons. **Morphology**- leaf formation such as size, shape and venation. ***Broad leaved weeds***for example black jack, lantana, pig weed, oxalis and others. ***Narrow leaved weeds***for example couch grass, setaria, nut-grass, manyatta grass <br><br> <br><br>and others. <br><br>**Habitat -**some weeds are terrestrial (grow on land) while others are aquatic (grow <br><br>on aquatic/marine conditions). ***Weed Identification***<br><br> Weeds are identified by their common (individual) names and botanical names. They are named according to specific features or according to person who identified <br><br>them. <br><br>**Common Name Botanical Name**<br><br> Black Jack *Bidens pilosa* Mexican marigold *Tagetes minuta* 0xalislsorrel ..*Oxalis spp.* Double thorn *Oxygonum sinuatum* Thorn apple ..*Datura stramonium* Couch grass ..*Digitaria scalarum* Nut grass ..*Cyperus rotundus* Wandering Jew *Commelina bengalensis* Sow thistle *Sonchus ole race us* Devil's horsewhip .*Achyranthes aspera* Macdonald's eye/ Gallant soldier.*Gallinsoga parviflora* Sodom apple .*Solanum incanum* Black night shade ..*Solanum nigrum* Chinese lantern.*Nicandra physalodes* Bracken fern ..*Pteridium aquillium*<br><br> Love grass/ Bristly foxtail .*Setaria verticillata* Cleavers *Gallium spurium* Stinging Nettle ..*Urtica massaica* Fat hen/Goose foot ...*Chenopodium spp.* Rape weed *Brassica nap us* Wild oats ...*Avena fatua* Lantana/Tick berry *Lantana camara* Water hyacinth .*Eichhornia crassipes* Striga/Witch weed *Striga hermontheca* Creeping indigo .*Indigofera spicata*<br><br>***Weed Control Methods*** ***The methods of weed control determined by:***<br><br> The weed being controlled. Weather conditions. Capital availability. Effect on environment. ***METHODS OF WEED CONTROL INCLUDE:***<br><br>***Chemical Weed Control*** <br><br> The use of chemicals known as herbicides to control weeds. <br><br>***Classification of Herbicides***<br><br>***Based on:*** ***Formulation -***the physical form of the herbicides for example: <br><br> Liquids Wettable powders Emulsion Dust <br><br>***Time of Application***<br><br> Pre-emergence - applied before the planted crop germinates. Post emergence - applied after the planted crop germinates. <br><br>***Selectivity***<br><br> Selective. Non selective. <br><br>***Mode of Action***<br><br> Contact - herbicides that kill only the parts of the plant which it comes into <br><br>contact. <br><br> Translocated systemic herbicides that will kill the whole plant even if it comes <br><br>into contact with only a small part of it. <br><br>***Methods of Herbicide Application***<br><br> Spraying - application of solutions. <br><br>41 Dusting - application of dusts. Fumigation - application of fumigants into the soil. <br><br>***Safety Measures in the Use of Chemicals***<br><br> Read manufacturer's instructions and follow them. Wear protective clothing such as overalls, breathing mask, gloves and boots. Avoid inhaling the herbicides. Wash thoroughly after handling chemicals. Do not blow or such blocked nozzles. Avoid herbicide drift to unintended crops and other plants. Avoid herbicide drift to livestock feed and water. Avoid spilling herbicides in pastures and fodder crops. Dispose off the empty containers properly for example burying them in the soil. Do not wash spraying equipment in water sources used by animals and human beings. Store chemicals in a safe place. Wash the spraying equipment thoroughly. Sink left over chemicals into the soil after the day's work. <br><br>***Advantages of Chemical Weed Control***<br><br> It is less laborious. <br><br> Effective in the control of difficult weeds such as couch grass and sedges. <br><br> Cheaper in large scale production than the use of manual or mechanical cultivation. <br><br>It does not disturb crop roots and other underground structures. It makes the control of weeds in certain crop easier. It is efficient in both wet and dry conditions. It does not destroy soil structure. <br><br>***Disadvantages of Chemical Weed Control***<br><br> Cause environmental pollution. Herbicides have long residual effects which may interfere with future crops. <br><br>It requires skilled labour in mixing and application. <br><br>It is very expensive. ***Mechanical Weed Control***<br><br> It involves the following operations: <br><br>***Tillage/Cultivation***<br><br> This is the opening and loosening up of the soil. It can be done by hand tools or tractor drawn implements. <br><br>***Advantages***<br><br> Cheap in small scale production. The earthing-up done during tillage encourages root growth. <br><br>Increases water and air infiltration into the soil. Incorporates crops residues into the soil. <br><br>42 ***Disadvantages***<br><br> Damage crop roots. <br><br>If done repeatedly it destroys soil structure. It is laborious and expensive in large scale production. It may not effectively control weeds. It may lead to soil erosion and loss of soil moisture. <br><br>***Slashing/Mowing*** <br><br> Mechanical removal of shoots from weeds. <br><br> It is effective in the control of annual weeds. <br><br>***Uprooting***<br><br> To allow mechanical cultivation or where weeds are scattered. <br><br>It is done when the crops are too close <br><br>**Cultural Weed Control**<br><br>***It involves the following practices:***<br><br> Mulching. Cover cropping. Crop rotation. Timely planting. Use of clean seed/planting materials. Proper spacing. Proper seedbed preparation. Flooding. <br><br>**Biological Weed Control**<br><br> The use of living organisms to control weeds. <br><br>***Examples are:***<br><br> Use of livestock to graze and control growth of weeds especially in plantations. Use of weed eating fish to control aquatic weeds. Use of moths to control cactus. ***Limitations:***the method is not reliable. **Legislative Weed Control/ Quarantine**<br><br> <br><br>It involves government laws and regulations which prevent the introduction and spread of foreign weeds in a country or an area. Done by KEPHIS. <br><br>***Limitations:***Only samples are checked while the bulk of the materials may have <br><br>some weed seeds. **Introduction**<br><br> Crop pests and diseases lead to high losses in crop production hence efficient control <br><br>measures are needed. <br><br> Proper control measures require the farmers to be able to; <br><br> Identify these organisms, Know their life cycles, feeding habits The damage they cause to crops. <br><br>***Crop Pests*** ***Definition of a Pest:***<br><br> <br><br>It is a living organism that destroys crops/ trees either directly or indirectly by introducing pathogens (disease causing germs). <br><br>***Classification of Pests*** ***Pests are classified according to the following:***<br><br>***Mode of Feeding*** Pests with biting and chewing mouth parts - they cause physical damage and <br><br>reduce the photosynthetic area of the plant. <br><br> Pests with piercing and sucking mouth parts - they suck out the nutritious plant sap <br><br>and in the process may introduce disease causing organisms. <br><br>***Crops Attacked***<br><br> Some crop pests attack specific crops for example, stem borers prefer cereal <br><br>crops. <br><br>***Stage of Growth of Crops Attacked***<br><br> There are pests of seedlings attack when the crop is young, for example <br><br>cutworms. <br><br> Pests of fruits - attack the crops at fruiting stage. Pests of grains attack the crops when the grains are formed. <br><br>***Field and Storage Pests***<br><br> Some pests attack the crops while in the field. Other pests attack the produce after it has been harvested and stored. ***Identification of Common Pests***<br><br>*Name of Pest* *Crop Attacked* *Damage Done* *Control Measures*<br><br>( i ( ) i i ) (iii) Grasses <br><br>Armyworms Cereal crops Defoliate the (i) Early planting <br><br>*(Spodoptera* Sugar cane whole plant (ii) Use of effective insecticides <br><br>*exempta)*<br><br>Cut worms *(Agrotis Spp.)*<br><br>Young seedlings <br><br>Cut the seedlings (i) Early planting at the stem base (ii) Use of soil applied insecticides <br><br> (fumigants) (iii) Flood/irrigation <br><br>Cotton, tomatoes, citrus, maize, beans, millet, other <br><br>Boll worms *(Heliathis migera)*<br><br>Eat and destroy the fruits and seeds 44 <br><br>(i) Crop rotation (ii) Field hygiene (iii) Spraying with insecticides Maize stalk borer *(Busseola fusca)* and *(Chilo partellus)*<br><br>Loopers *(Ascotis selena ria)*<br><br>Leaf Miner *( Leucoptera* *meyricki and L.* *caffeina)*<br><br>Stainers *(Dysdercus spp.)* legumes (iv) early planting <br><br>Maize sorghum <br><br>Destruction of the stem and young growing tissues <br><br>(i) Early planting (ii) Field hygiene (iii) Crop rotation (iv) Use of stalk borer dust. (i) Use of effective insecticides. (ii) Use of parasitic wasps, birds and chameleons ( Use of parasitic wasps i (natural enemies) ) (ii) Use of effective insecticides. <br><br>Make mines in the leaves reducing photosynthetic area. Stain the cotton lint reducing quality <br><br>( Use of parasitic tachinid i flies Spraying with insecticides. ( ) Control alternate hosts. ( i ( i i Crop rotation i i ) Natural enemies for ( v i example, i lady birds ) ) ) (ii) Overhead irrigation (iii) Use of insecticides Several crops such as citrus, maize, cotton, beans. cabbages and others <br><br>(i) Transmit viral diseases. (ii) Suck out sap leading to stunted growth. ***Other Crop Pests Include:*** Mealy bugs - coffee Thrips - coffee Beetles - field and storage pests. Birds - field pests - cereals and fruits. Rodents - field and storage pests ,cereals and tubers. Nematodes - soil borne pests - tomatoes, potatoes, sunflower, beans. <br><br>***Harmful Effects of Crop Pests***<br><br> Pests such as squirrels and rodents, unearth planted seeds, resulting in poor <br><br>germination. <br><br> Some pests like nematodes, termites and moles damage crop roots causing wilting <br><br>and death of the crops. <br><br> They lower the quality and quantity of farm produce. They increase the cost of production since farmers will incur expenses in purchasing <br><br>chemicals to control them. <br><br> They transmit diseases to crops for example, aphids transmit streak virus disease in <br><br>maize. <br><br> Chemicals used to control the pests cause pollution to the environment. They exterminate the crop by feeding on them for example eating embryo of the <br><br>seed. ***Control of Pests***<br><br> <br><br>If pest population causes damage beyond tolerance then it is said to have reached economic injury level (EIL) hence control measures should be effected before this level. <br><br>***Before any control measure is effected ,the following should be considered:***<br><br> Know the life cycle of the pest. Correct identification of the pest. Correct assessment of the damage. The weather conditions. The value of the crop in question. The cost factor of the control method. ***Methods of Controlling the Pests***<br><br> Cultural methods. Physical/mechanical measures Biological methods. Chemical methods. Integrated pest management. <br><br>***Cultural Methods:***<br><br> These are farming practices which aim at reducing the pest population by destroying the life cycle of the pests either by exposing them to adverse conditions or denying them food. <br><br>***These include:***<br><br>**Timely planting**to escape pest attack. **Timely harvesting.** **Proper tillage.** **Close season**: this is the period when a susceptible crop is not grown in order to <br><br>control a certain pest. <br><br>**Trap cropping**: These are crops which attract pests diverting them from the main <br><br>crop. The trap crop is grown together with the main crop. <br><br>**Crop rotation**: It breaks the life cycle of the pest. **Planting resistant varieties**: These are plants with natural protective mechanisms against pest for example hairy cotton against jassid bugs, goose necked sorghum against birds, high tillering in sorghum against shoot fly. <br><br>**Field hygiene:**This includes rogueing and removal of crop residues which harbour <br><br>pests from field. <br><br>**Alterations of environmental conditions**, such as, creating a microclimate which is not conducive to pests for example open pruning in coffee. <br><br>**Crop nutrition:**application of fertilizers and manures to make the crop strong and <br><br>able to escape pest attacks. <br><br>**Destruction of alternate hosts,**for example, weeds like mallow which harbour <br><br>cotton stainers. <br><br>**Use of clean planting materials**. This helps to prevent introduction of crop pests. **Proper spacing**: if well spaced some pests find it difficult to move from one plant to <br><br>another. <br><br>**Use of organic manure**, for example, farmyard manure discourages eel worms <br><br>(nematodes). ***Chemical Control***<br><br> Chemicals used to control pests are known as pesticides. Pesticides are administered through dusting, spraying or fumigating. <br><br>***Classification of Pesticides:***<br><br>Pesticides are classified on the basis of: <br><br>***Mode of Entry***<br><br> Stomach - ingested by the pest together with the crop materials. Contact - absorbed through the body tissues. Fumigants - through the breathing mechanism. Systemic - translocated to all parts. <br><br>***Mode of Action***<br><br> Respiratory poisons - interfere with breathing mechanisms. Coagulants - cause the blood of the pest to coagulate. Neurotoxins - act on the nervous system. Protoplasmic poisons - cause the cells to disintegrate. <br><br>***Target Pests***<br><br> Insecticides - kill insect pests Molluscicides - kill snails and slugs. Rodenticides - kill rodents. Nematocides - kill nematodes. ***Formulation .***<br><br> Dusts, granules and powders Emulsifiable concentrates. Miscible liquids. Wettable powders. Fumigants. <br><br>***Factors That Affect the Efficiency of Pesticides***<br><br> Concentration of the pesticides. Weather conditions at the time of application. Timing of application - efficiency is high if applied when the pest is most susceptible. Persistence of the pesticide having long residual effect in the soil. Resistance of the pests. <br><br>***Advantages of Chemical Pest Control***<br><br> Faster Low labour requirements. <br><br>Immediate results are achieved. <br><br>47 ***Disadvantages of Chemical Pest Control***<br><br> Expensive to buy. Cause pollution to the environment. Require skilled labour to apply. Some pesticides may kill beneficial organisms and predators. Some target pests may build up resistance. <br><br>***Mechanical Pest Control/Physical***<br><br> This involves the killing of the pests using physical methods. Or creating physical barriers to prevent pests from getting into contact with the crops <br><br>. ***Example:***<br><br> Flooding/irrigation; for example, moles are suffocated through flooding. Use of lethal temperatures: either too cold or too hot. Suffocation; commonly used in grain storage bins by being made air tight. Trapping and killing, for example, rats. Creation of physical barriers, such as, rat bafflers, sticky materials on tree trunks. Proper drying: this makes them too hard to be destroyed by pests. Scaring devices especially in rice plantations to control birds. Use of explosives thrown at breeding places of birds to kill or scare them away. <br><br>***Biological Pest Control***<br><br> ***Predator*** Parasitic wasp-------------------White fly in citrus, boll worms, stalk borers Birds--------------------------------- Crickets, locusts, caterpillar llars. **Lady Bird --------------------------Aphids** **Trachnid flies -------------------cotton stainer** **Praying mantis-----------------giant loppers** **Majimoto ants -----------------scales** **Cats ----------------------------------moles,rats,mice** **Brachonid wasps-------------mealy bugs** **Chicken ---------------cotton stainer, larvae of beetles, grasshoppers, crickets**<br><br>It involves the use of living organisms to reduce the pest population. <br><br>***Target Pest*** ***Advantages*** Cheap No environmental pollution Saves on labour. <br><br>***Disadvantages***<br><br> Takes too long to get the correct agent Difficult to control the pest effectively. <br><br>***Integrated Pest Management*** <br><br>It is a new method which involves the combination of the methods mentioned above. <br><br> The aim is to have least hazards to the user and to the environment. Example, attractant-pheromones are used to attract pests to one place where they <br><br>are sprayed and eradicated. <br><br>48 ***Legislative Method/Quarantine*** Legislative mearsures of pest control are effected by the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service(KEPHIS) through seed inspection. <br><br>***Crop Disease And Their Control***<br><br> A disease is any deviation from the normal performance or functions. A plant disease is any harmful physiological disorder in a plant caused by pathogenic agents such as virus, bacteria, fungi. The study of plant disease is called plant pathology. <br><br>***Economic importance of crop diseases***<br><br> They lower crop yield They reduce the quality of the produce thus reducing their market value They cause food poisoning. E.g ergot in wheat, afflatoxin in grain crops by fungus. They reduce photosynthetic area of the plant. <br><br>***Classification and identification of plant disease***<br><br> Plant disease are classified according to their causal agents; <br><br>***Fungal diseases;***<br><br> Fungi are non-green plant-like. Some are parasitic and others are saprophytic. ***Parasitic fungi divided into;***<br><br>***Obligate parasites-***those that depend on other living organisms for food. ***Falcultative parasites***-those that are able to live on both the living and dead tissues. ***Examples of fungal disease***<br><br>***Panama disease***(Fusarium oxysperiumbananas) ***Cigar-end rot***(Verticilium theobromae)-bananas ***Die back***attack the tips of shoots and roots ***Mildews***-foliar disease of several crops ***Armillaria root rot***(Armillaria mellea)-coffee and tea ***Damping off-disease***of seedlings in the nursery ***Anthracnose***(Colletotrichum spp)-coffee,beans,tomatoes. Fungus also cause damage to stored grains which are not properly dried or if the store is damp. Fungus cause food poisoning and lower seed viability for example***Aspergillus flavus***<br><br>which produces a highly toxic compound called***afflatoxin.***<br><br>***Examples of fungal disease***<br><br>Disease/cause Late blight (*Phytopthora* *infestans)* Crops attacked Members of Solanaceae family (potatoes, tomatos) Symptoms of attack Dry patches on the leaves and fruits (necrotic lesions) ***Control measures*** -Crop rotation -effective fungicides -treated seeds -resistant varieties <br><br>Rusts (*Pucinia* *spp)* Rice, wheat , sorghum, maize <br><br>Red and brown pistules on the leaves, shriveled grains Black powder mass on the spikes and the ear -resistant varieties -Recommended fungicides -Early planting -Field hygiene, -certified seeds, Smuts(*Ustilago* *spp)* Wheat, maize , sugarcane <br><br>49 -resistant varieties, -crop rotation -Seed dressing -Resistant varieties eg <br><br>-Small blue sports on leaves with grey centre. -Attack inflorescence to cause empty heads <br><br>sindano <br><br>-Destruction of affected plants -fungicides -Resistant varieties eg Ruiru 11 -Proper pruning -Effective fungicides -strippung <br><br>-Dark blotches spots on the flowers -Brown concentric rings on the leaves -Dark sunken wounds on the berries. ***Bacterial Diseases***<br><br> Bacteria are microscopic single-celled organisms which reproduce by binary fission ***Transmission;***Through irrigation water, seeds, fertilizers, manures, wind , raindrop splash, insects, soil and mechanical means. <br><br>***Symptoms of Bacterial Diseases***<br><br> Wilting Cankers(necrotic tissues)localized necrosis Gall formation in infected tissues. ***Examples of bacterial diseases***<br><br>***Crops*** ***Attacked*** ***Disease/Cause*** ***Symptoms of Attack***<br><br>1 Use of resistant varieties . for example Wairimu. <br><br>Halo blight *(Pseudomonas* *phaseolicola)*<br><br>Beans <br><br>i. Irregular dark lesions on leaves and pods. ii. Yellow band round the lesions called "halo". iii. Water soaked lesions <br><br>, <br><br>ii. Effective fungicide. iii. Crop rotation <br><br>l . <br><br>Fusarium wilt Tomatoes *(Fusarium* *oxysporum)*<br><br>Stunted growth. ii. Yellowing and shedding of leaves. iii. Wilting of the plant. <br><br>i. Use of resistant varieties. <br><br>Black arm *(Anthomonas* *malvacearum)*<br><br>Cotton <br><br>i. Small round spots on the cotyledons of young seedlings. ii. The spots elongate to form black lesions on the stem. <br><br>i. Field hygiene. ii. Use of certified seeds. <br><br>Bacterial wilt Tomatoes and Uniform. wilting of the whole i. Use of certified seeds. plant even with enough *(Pseudomonas*potatoes water. *solanacearum)* **Viral Diseases** Viruses are small living organisms which can only be seen under a very powerful electronic microscope. Viruses interfere with photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration and nitrogen <br><br>utilization <br><br>***Symptoms of Viral Infection***<br><br> Leaf chlorosis. Leaf curling. Mosaic(light green or yellow patches). Malformation(distortion)of plant parts. Rosettes; Development of abnormally short internode. <br><br>***Transmission*** Through the use of infected vegetative materials and insect vectors like aphids, mealybugs and leafhoppers. <br><br>***Viral diseases***<br><br>***crops*** ***Attacked*** ***Disease/Cause*** ***Symptoms of Attack*** ***Control Measures***<br><br>I Use of clean materials. . Treatment of seed 1 1 canes. . i Control leaf hopper. . ii. Use if certified seeds. iii. Field sanitation. i, Use of clean tools when <br><br>Ratton stunting Sugar cane <br><br>Red discoloration on the vascular bundles. <br><br>Maize streak Maize <br><br>Yellow stripes alternating with green, parallel to the midrib. <br><br>Greening disease <br><br>Citrus i. Yellow mottling of the leaves. <br><br>Die back. <br><br>i i . <br><br> budding. 1 Control of insect vectors. 1 i Control of aphids. . . ii. Use of clean materials. i Seed treatment. i i . of budding. <br><br>iii. Premature leaf fall. i. Yellow mottling. Leaf mosaic <br><br>Suzgar cane, cassava. sweet potatoes. Citrus <br><br>Necrosis of stem. <br><br>I I . I . i i . <br><br>Dwarfing of plants. Die back. i. Stripping affected fruits. ii. Use of clean equipment ***Other Causes of Crop Diseases***<br><br> Flooding forming ammonia which is poisonous to the crops causing a burning effect <br><br>on leaves. <br><br> Chemicals: some may be toxic. Poor weather: Extremes of day and night temperatures. Stress: such as irregular watering as in tomato blossom end rot. <br><br>***Control of Crop Diseases***<br><br> Cultural method: This involves use of Healthy planting materials. Practicing field hygiene. <br><br>51 Proper seedbed preparation. Proper spacing. Heat treatment of the planting materials for example sugar cane. Proper drying of cereals and pulses to 13%M.C. Growing disease resistant varieties. <br><br>***Legislative Method***<br><br> <br><br>Involves the imposing of regulations and laws especially in case of disease outbreaks to prevent the introduction and spread of diseases. <br><br>***Chemical Control***<br><br> Used as a last resort. <br><br>***Chemical control measures include:***<br><br> Seed dressing before planting. Soil fumigation to control soil borne diseases. Spraying: application of fungicides. **Introduction**<br><br> There are many crops cultivated in Kenya. <br><br> These crops are grown for various uses and require different ecological conditions. <br><br>***Definitions:***<br><br>***Hybrids*-**These are crop varieties developed by crossing two pure lines. <br><br>***Composites***- These are crop varieties developed through repeated mass selection. <br><br> <br><br>***Cultivars***- these are varieties of crops which are cultivated in a given area. <br><br>***Maize***<br><br>*Main growing areas:*Trans-Nzoia, Nakuru, Uasin Gishu, Laikipia districts and others. ***Ecological Requirements***<br><br>*Altitude:*Upto 2000m above sea level. *Temperature:*About 25C *Soils:*Freely draining, fertile loam soils. *Rainfall:*750-12S0rnm critical at silking and pollination stage. <br><br>***Varieties***<br><br>52 High altitude areas: Hybrids 611, 613 and 614C. Medium altitude areas: 511,512,622 and 632. Marginal rainfall areas: Katumani composite and Makueni composite. Coast regions: Coast composite and Katumani composite. <br><br>***Seedbed Preparation***<br><br> Ploughing should be deep and done during the dry season to eradicate weeds. Require medium tilth. Plant spacing 75-90cm x 20-30cm. Planting done at the onset of the rains. This helps to reduce pest attack. Dry planting in areas with inadequate rainfall is necessary. <br><br>***Field Maintenance**:*<br><br> Apply phosphatic fertilizer during planting at a rate of 120kg/ha P2O5 Also nitrogenous fertilizers as top dress at the rate of 200kg of ASN or CAN. Control weeds by cultivation, use of appropriate herbicides, uprooting, slashing and <br><br>mulching. ***Pest Control***<br><br>**Maize Stalk Borer:**<br><br> Nature of damage: Boring the leaves causing windowing effect, boring the stems <br><br>and cobs. <br><br> Control: Destruction of previous years crop residue, closed season and apply chemicals <br><br>***Maize*Weevils**: <br><br> it is a storage pest. *Damage:*Bores holes into the maize grains, eating the contents. *Control:*Proper hygiene and sanitation in the stores. Use of chemicals such as Actellic Super. <br><br>**Disease Control:**<br><br>***Rust***<br><br>*Cause:*Fungus. *Symptoms:*Red or brown pustules on the. leaves. *Control:*Plant resistant varieties and crop rotation. <br><br>***Smuts***<br><br>*Cause:*Fungus *Symptoms:*Black sooty mass of spores on maize heads or cobs(ear). *Control:*Crop rotation, growing resistant varieties and destruction of affected <br><br>plant parts. ***Maize Streak Virus***<br><br>53 *Cause:*Virus *Symptoms:*Yellow longitudinal stripes parallel to the midrib. *Control:*Certified seed, early planting and rogueing. <br><br>***Harvesting***<br><br> Harvest the crop 3-9 months after planting depending on variety. Maize stalks are cut and stocked in the field. Cobs removed by hand. For large scale harvesting, combined harvesters are used. Yields about 3,OOOkg and*4500kg/ha.*<br><br>***Bulrush Millet*** ***Areas where grown:***<br><br> Lower areas of Kirinyaga, Embu, Meru, Parts of Machakos Kerio Valley. <br><br>***Ecological Requirements***<br><br>***Altitude:***Does well in areas below 1200m. ***Rainfall:***500-600mrn per annum. ***Soils:***Light sandy soils. ***Varieties:***Serere 2A, 3A, 6A, 17,**<br><br>***Seed Bed Preparations***<br><br> Ploughing of land during the dry season. Soil should be of fine tilth since the seeds are small. ***Planting:***<br><br> Done at the onset of the rains. Planted by broadcasting and row planting at a spacing of 60cm x 15cm. <br><br>***Field Maintenance:***<br><br> Weeding is done until tillering. Top-dressing is done by use of sulphate of ammonia. <br><br>***Pest Control***<br><br>**Birds**<br><br>***Nature of Damage**:*Eats the seeds at milky stage. ***Control:***Bird scaring devices. <br><br>***Disease Control*** **Ergot**<br><br>***Cause:***Fungus. <br><br>54 ***Symptoms**:*Heads become sticky. ***Control:***Use of certified seeds, crop rotation and destruction of affected crops. <br><br>**Downy Mildew**<br><br>***Cause:***Fungus. ***Symptoms:***Long, whitish lines on the leaves. ***Control:***Crop rotation and field hygiene. <br><br>***Harvesting***<br><br> Done by cutting off the heads. Drying of the heads. Threshing and winnowing of the grains. Stored under well ventilated dry conditions. Yields about 1000kg/ha with good management. <br><br>***Finger Millet***<br><br>***Areas where grown**:*Western Kenya and Uganda. <br><br>***Ecological Requirements***<br><br>***Altitude:***0-2400m above sea level. <br><br>***Rainfall:***900mm, drought resistant in the early stages. ***Soils:***Free draining fertile soils. <br><br>**Varieties:**<br><br> Serere varieties developed at Serere in Uganda. Ultra lupin 5.18 oats. <br><br>***Land Preparations***<br><br> The seedbed should be thoroughly prepared to a fine tilth due to the small size of the <br><br>seeds. It also helps to control weeds. ***Field Operations***<br><br>***Planting***<br><br> Finger millet should be planted as early as possible in the season. <br><br>It is usually broadcasted by hand. If planted in rows, the furrows should be 30-33cm apart and the plants should be thinned to 5cm apart within the rows. <br><br>***Fertilizer Application***<br><br> Sulphate of ammonia at the rate of 125kg/ha is recommended for topdressing finger <br><br>millet. <br><br>***Weed Control***<br><br>55 Clean seedbed preparation Uprooting <br><br>**Pest Control**: <br><br> *Birds are controlled through scaring.*<br><br>***Disease Control***<br><br>***Head blast:*** *Cause:*Fungus *Symptoms:*Brown spots with grey centres on the leaves and stems below the <br><br>inflorescence. <br><br>*Control:*Use of resistant varieties. <br><br>***Harvesting***<br><br> Individual heads are cut with knives. Heads are dried, threshed and winnowed. Yields 1650kg/ha with good management. ***Sorghum***<br><br> <br><br>It is grown in Western, northern, Rift Valley, Eastern and some parts of Central Province. <br><br>***Ecological Requirements***<br><br>*Altitude:*0-1500m above sea level. *Rainfall:*420-630mm. It is drought resistant. *Soils:*Fairly fertile and well drained soils. <br><br>***Varieties***<br><br> Dobbs variety. Serena variety. <br><br>***Field Operations*** ***Planting***<br><br> Broadcasting the seeds on the firmly prepared seedbed. Intercropped with other crops especially maize and beans. Can be planted in pure stands at a spacing of 60cm**x*15cm***<br><br>***Fertilizer Application***<br><br> Responds well to farmyard manure (FYM). Inorganic fertilizers are not commonly used in growing sorghum. <br><br>***Pest Control***<br><br>56 ***Bird pests: They are the most common sorghum pests.*** ***They include***<br><br>***quelea,*** ***aethiopica (Sudan Dioch),*** ***weaver birds,*** ***starling bird*** ***bishop's bird.*** ***They are controlled through;***<br><br> killing them using explosives, use of flame throwers. <br><br> poison spraying in their breeding places <br><br> Sorghum shoot-fly controlled by early planting, closed season and application of <br><br>insecticides. <br><br> Stem borer - control by use of insecticides and field hygiene. ***Disease Control*** ***Common sorghum diseases include:***<br><br> Leaf blight Anthracnose. Sooty stripe. Loose smut Head smut <br><br>***Smuts are controlled by seed dressing-while the other diseases are controlled by growing***<br><br>***resistant varieties.***<br><br>***Harvesting***<br><br> Sorghum is ready for harvesting 3-4 months after planting. Heads are cut off using a sharp knife after which they are sun-dried, threshed, <br><br>winnowed and stored. <br><br> Up to 3000kg/hectare can be obtained with good management. ***Beans***<br><br> Grown in all provinces where maize is grown. <br><br>***Ecological Requirements***<br><br>***Altitude:***10.00-2100 metres above sea level. ***Rainfall**:*Average of*62Smm*per annum. ***Soils**:*Well drained loamy soils rich in organic matter. <br><br>***Varieties***<br><br>57 **Varieties for dry beans**: <br><br> Rose Coco, Mwezi Moja, Canadian Wonder, Wairimu, Haricot, Mwitemania. <br><br>**Variety for canning**: Mexican 142. **Varieties for French Beans**: <br><br> Primeur, Long Tom, Saza, Master Piece Monel. <br><br>***Seedbed Preparation***<br><br> Land should be prepared early. Primary and secondary cultivation done to control perennial weeds. <br><br>***Seed Selection and Treatment***<br><br> Select wholesome seeds free from damage and wrinkles. Seeds are dressed against bean fly. Seeds should be inoculated with appropriate bacteria (none dressed seeds) <br><br>***Planting***<br><br> Planted at the onset of the rains. Spacing*30-45cm*x*15cm.* Apply phosphatic fertilizer during planting time. Plant 2-4 seeds per hole. <br><br>***Field Maintenance***<br><br> Provide sticks for the climbing varieties. Control of weeds through shallow cultivation. Top-dress with nitrogenous fertilizer for example CAN. <br><br>***PestControl***<br><br>***Bean-Fly***<br><br>*Nature of damage:*Feeds on the stems causing swelling at the roots. This results in wilting and death. *Control:*Dressing of seeds, early planting and spraying with insecticides. <br><br>***Bean Bruchid (Storage Pest)***<br><br>*Nature of damage:*Make dark circular windows on the grains. *Control:*Clean stores, fumigation, and seed dressing. ***Diseases Control***<br><br>***Bean Anthracnose*** *Cause'*Fungus *Symptoms:*Brown or black lesions on the underside of the leaves, pods and <br><br>stems. <br><br>*Control:*Growing resistant varieties, crop rotation, destruction of crop residues <br><br>and spraying with fungicides. <br><br>***Bean Rust***<br><br>*Cause:*Fungus *Symptoms:*Red brown pustules on the leaves. *Control:*Planting resistant varieties and spraying copper fungicides. <br><br>***Harvesting***<br><br> Done during the dry season for dry beans and when the pods are dry. Threshing and winnowing done. Sorting of rotten, off types and damaged ones. Sold to National Cereals and Produce Board when dry. For French beans, pick the pods when soft and green. Market immediately to avoid shrivelling. ***Rice Production*** ***Areas where grown;***<br><br> Mwea Tabere Irrigation Scheme Ahero Pilot Scheme in Kano plains. Bunyala in Busia. Bura in Tana River. <br><br>***Land Preparation***<br><br> Plots of 0.4 hectare are made with bunds constructed around them. Plots are flooded for four days. Rotavators/jembes are used to work the flooded fields on the fifth day. The land is then levelled and allowed to drain. <br><br>***Water Control***<br><br> During land preparation, water level should be about 7.5-10cm. During levelling water level should be 5cm Water is drained off completely for direct sowing. For transplanted rice, water level should be 5cm at transplanting. Water level should be maintained at the height of plant until maturity. Water should be allowed to flow slowly through the fields. Old water should be changed every 2- 3 weeks if the flow of water is not possible. Water introduced should always be warm to ensure pollination. <br><br>59 ***Fertilizer Application***<br><br> S.A applied in the nursery. Rate of 25kg SA for every nursery unit of 18.5m x 18.5m. Phosphatic fertilizers broadcasted in the field. Rate of 120kg ha DSP before planting. S.A applied in the field in two splits before and after transplanting at a rate of <br><br>250kg/ha <br><br>***Flooding in Rice*** ***Flood water in rice production is important for the following reasons;*** It provides good conditions for growth such as high humidity. <br><br> Kills soil organisms. Prevents denitrification. <br><br>***Weed Control***<br><br> Controlled through flooding. Appropriate herbicides such as propanil and butachlor are also used. <br><br>***Harvesting of Industrial Crops***<br><br> cotton, pyrethrum, sugarcane, coffee and tea. <br><br>***Harvesting of Cotton***<br><br>***Stage of harvesting***<br><br> Takes 4 months to mature. Harvest when bolls are dry and fully opened. <br><br>***Method and Procedure***<br><br> In Kenya cotton is picked manually. Sort out grade AR (safi) from grade BR (fifi) into separate containers. <br><br>***Precautions***<br><br> Harvest during dry conditions to prevent dirtifying the lint. Avoid use of gunny bags to prevent contamination. Avoid picking leaves. Harvest on weekly basis. ***Harvesting of Pyrethrum***<br><br>***Stage of harvesting***<br><br> Takes 3-4 months to mature. Harvest the flowers with disc florets which have assumed a horizontal position. <br><br>***Methods and Procedure***<br><br> Pyrethrum is picked manually. Flowers are picked by twisting the heads so that no stem is attached. <br><br>60 ***Precaution***<br><br> Clean harvesting should be done. Avoid picking leaves. Flowers are placed in woven baskets. Overblown flowers are picked and thrown off. Pick the flowers when the dew is dry. Harvested flowers should be taken to the factory the same day. Avoid compaction of flowers in the basket. Harvesting interval, once in two weeks during the wet season and once in a month <br><br>during the dry season. <br><br>***Harvesting Sugarcane*** ***Stage of harvesting;***<br><br> Take 14-20 months for the plant crop to mature and 12-16 months for the ratoon crop. <br><br> Sampling of cane is done before harvesting to ascertain the correct sugar content. <br><br>***Methods and Procedures***<br><br> Cut the cane at the ground level to avoid yield loss. The green tops are removed from the canes. Harvesting matchet is used for cutting the cane. <br><br>***Precaution***<br><br> Cane should be harvested immediately at maturity to avoid lowering quality. The green tops should be removed immediately after cutting to avoid reduction of <br><br>sugar content by enzyme invertase. <br><br> Burnt cane should be harvested immediately after burning to prevent rapid inversion <br><br>to monosaccharides. <br><br> The cane should be processed within 48 hours. ***Harvesting of Coffee***<br><br>***Stage of harvesting;***<br><br> Takes 2-4 years depending on the pruning system. Harvest only ripe berries. <br><br>***Methods and Procedures;***<br><br> Hand picking is done so that ripe berries can be selected. During picking hooked sticks can be used to bend the tall trees. <br><br>***Precautions***<br><br> Only the uniformly ripe berries should be picked. Over-ripe and under-ripe berries should be dried and sold as buni. Ripe cherries should be processed on the same day they are picked. <br><br>***Harvesting Tea***<br><br>61 ***Stage of harvesting***<br><br> <br><br>It takes 2-4 years for tea to mature depending on the method of bringing young tea into bearing. <br><br>***Method and Procedures***<br><br> Tea harvesting is known as plucking. Fine plucking - 2 leaves and a bud are removed. Coarse plucking - 3 leaves and a bud are removed. A straight fitto(straight stick) is used to guide the plucker on the plucking table. Tipping is done by cutting off shoots that appear above the fitto. <br><br>***Precautions***<br><br> Plucked tea is placed in woven (well ventilated) baskets to prevent fermenting before <br><br>it reaches the factory. <br><br> The plucked tea should be kept in a cool place awaiting transport. Harvesting is done on a weekly basis under wet conditions and once after every two <br><br>It should be processed within the same day of harvesting. <br><br>weeks under dry conditions. <br><br> <br><br>**Forage Crops**<br><br>**Introduction** These are plants which either grow naturally or are cultivated by man to be used for feeding livestock. <br><br> The term forage crops include pasture and fodder crops. Fodder crops are purposely grown for feeding livestock. They are cut or uprooted when ready Pasture is a ground cover of grass or a mixture of grass and legumes grazed directly or cut and fed to livestock. **Classification of Pastures** **According to type of stand**. <br><br> Either pure Mixed stands. **According to ecological zones .**<br><br> Low altitude, Medium altitude, High altitude pastures **According to the establishment**. <br><br> Natural Artificial pastures*.* ***Examples of grasses***<br><br> Napier, Rhodes, Setaria, Molasses, Congo signal, kikuyu, star, Guatemala, Sudan <br><br>62 Guinea. ***Examples of legumes;***<br><br> Lucern, Clover, Desmodium, Glycine, Stylo, Centrio, <br><br>**Pasture Establishment**<br><br>**Seedbed Preparation**<br><br> This involves clearing the land, primary and secondary cultivation to a fine tilth <br><br>because the seeds are small. This is done during the dry season. <br><br>**Selection of planting materials**<br><br> Select seeds of high germination percentage, Free from impurities or buy certified seeds. If vegetative materials are used, select from high yielding, vigorous-growing and healthy plants. <br><br>**Treatment of legume seeds** Legume seeds are inoculated with the correct strain of bacteria which fix nitrogen for the crop. ***Planting*** This is done at the beginning of the rains <br><br>***Methods of sowing are;*** ***Direct sowing,*** ***Under sowing,*** ***Over-sowing***<br><br>**Oversowing** This is introduction of a pasture legume in an existing grass pasture. **Undersowing** The establishment of a pasture in an already existing crop which acts as a cover crop. <br><br>***Seeds rate depend;*** On purity of seeds, Pasture species Whether pure or mixed stand. Apply phosphatic fertilizer when planting and later top-dress with nitrogenous fertilizer. **Pasture management**<br><br>**Re-seeding or gapping;**Re-seeding is done if the grass is completely denudated. But if partially, gapping can be done **Control of weeds**by slashing, uprooting and mowing **Fertilization of pastures**-done by use of manures and nitrogenous fertilizer. **Topping**;This is the removal of stemmy fibrous material left behind after grazing.It **Control of pests**-done by trapping of moles, use of pesticides and biological allows new growth after the rains <br><br>means. ***Pasture Utilization***<br><br> Pastures should be utilized at maturity when nutritive value is high. <br><br>***It is utilized through the following methods:***<br><br>63 ***Common fodder Crops***<br><br>***Edible Cana***<br><br>***Altitude:***1500 - 2000m above sea level. ***Establishment:***Young tubers or bulbs are used. ***Spacing:***1m x 1m. ***Management:***Does well with application of farmyard manure and requires fertile <br><br>land. <br><br>***Utilization:***Tops and tubers are sliced and fed to livestock. ***Conservation:***Bulbs or tubers are sliced and stored. <br><br>***Napier Grass***<br><br>***Altitude:***0 - 2000m above sea level. ***Establishment:***Stem cuttings or splits. ***Spacing:***1 m x 50cm. <br><br>***Management:*** Apply phosphatic fertilizers during planting time. Top-dress with nitrogenous fertilizers in split application. Clean weeding when young. Cut when 6-8 weeks or 1m-1.5m in height. ***Utilization:***Cut stem is fed to livestock. ***Conservation:***Ensiled when in plenty. <br><br>***Types of Napier Grass:***<br><br>**Bana grass (**broad-leaved with hairy leaves) **Clone**(thin-stemmed and hairless) **French Cameroon**(thin-stemmed and not hairy). **Pakistan hybrid**(thin-leaved with hairy leaves). Used for silage making. ***Lucerne***<br><br>***Altitude:***1500 - 2500m above sea level. **Soil:**Deep red soil are ideal. ***Establishment:***Inoculated seeds are planted 30-50cm apart in the rows. ***Management:***Weeding and fertilizer application. ***Utilization**:*Cut wilted and fed to livestock before flowering stage. ***Conservation:***Hay, silage, dried materials such as cubes or pencils. <br><br>***Mangolds***<br><br> Root is utilized as livestock feed. Ripe ones are used. <br><br>Is a root crop. <br><br>***Kales***<br><br>64 Leaves used as livestock feeds. <br><br>***Guatemala Grass***<br><br> Leaves and stems used as livestock feed. <br><br>***Sorghum Grass*** ***Two varieties:*** **Columbus grass** **Sudan grass.** Established from seeds which are drilled or broadcasted. Columbus grass should be dried before feeding to animals to avoid hydrocyanic and <br><br>prussic acid poisoning. <br><br>***Desmodium (Desmodium spp)***<br><br>***Two varieties ;*** **Green leaf** **Silver leaf.** Established from seeds on thoroughly prepared clean beds. Can also be inter-planted with Napier grass. Cut and wilted before feeding to livestock. ***Agroforestry, trees used as fodder crops include:***<br><br> Leucaenia Calliandra Atriplex Sesbania. <br><br>***Forage Conservation***<br><br>***Forage can be conserved as;*** Hay, Silage Standing forage. <br><br>***Importance of forage conservation:***<br><br> To reserve excess forage for use during time of shortage. To avoid unnecessary wastage of forage. Conserved forage can be sold. To have sustained supply of feed for livestock throughout the year. <br><br>***Methods*** ***Hay Making***<br><br> This is the dehydration of green pastures to a moisture content of 16-20 per cent: <br><br>**Steps in hay making:**<br><br> Cut the crop when the sun is shining. Dry the materials for 1-2 days. Windrow the dry material to allow for further drying. Bale the dry materials for storage. <br><br> Store under shed or shelter. ***Factors Determining Quality of Hay***<br><br> Stage of growth at which forage is harvested. Leaf content of the forage material. Method of handling and curing the hay. Form in which material is fed to livestock. Species of forage used. Amount of foreign materials in forage. <br><br>***Silage Making***<br><br> This is a feed produced by conserving forage in succulent form through the process of <br><br>fermentation by anaerobic bacteria. <br><br>***Steps in silage making:***<br><br> Cut the crop and transport it to the silo, Material with a high moisture content is wilted in the sun for 4-48 hours before ensiling <br><br>. <br><br> Material is chopped to reasonable size pieces before filling in the silo. Spread the chopped material evenly. Check temperature if below 31C, needs further filling; if above 31 C compaction is <br><br>necessary. <br><br> Filling should be complete by the end of the third or fourth day. The silo is covered with 15cm of straw, sawdust then 15cm of soil to make it air and <br><br>water tight. <br><br> A trench is dug round the silo to keep off surface water. ***Factors Affecting the Quality of Silage***<br><br> Maturity stage of the crop when cut. <br><br> Type of crop. Moisture content of the material Additives such as molasses. Degree of compaction. Size of pieces ensiled. Amount of foreign materials included in the silage. Amount of leaf of the ensiled material. <br><br>***Standing Forage*** This is forage left in the field to be used during the dry season. ***Livestock diseases are classified according to causative agents as follows:***<br><br> Protozoan diseases -caused by protozoans. Bacterial diseases - caused by bacteria: VIral diseases - cause by virus. Nutritional diseases - brought about by nutritional disorders. <br><br>***Protozoan Diseases***<br><br> East coast Fever (ECF). Anaplasmosis (gall sickness) Coccidiosis Trypanosomiasis (Nagana) <br><br>**East coast Fever**<br><br>*Animals attacked:*Cattle *Cause:*Protozoan.*(Theileria parva)* It is a tick-borne disease transmitted by red-legged tick and brown ear tick. <br><br>***Symptoms***<br><br> Rise in body temperature. Swelling of lymph glands below the ear. Difficulties in breathing. Dullness. <br><br>***Control and Prevention***<br><br> Control of vectors through dipping and fencing. Treatment by use of clexon in the early stages. <br><br>***Anaplasmosis (gall sickness)***<br><br>***Animals attacke**d:*<br><br> Cattle between 2 months and 2 years. Poultry. Lambs and kids. Rabbits. <br><br>*Cause:*Protozoan*(Anaplasma marginale)* Transmitted by the blue tick contaminated surgical instruments and hypodermic needles. ***Coccidiosis of Poultry***<br><br>*Cause:*Protozoan*(Eimeria spp.)*<br><br>***Symptoms***<br><br> Sudden death of chicks. Whitish, yellow and blood stained diarrhoea. Ruffled feathers. Chicks become paralysed before dying. Chicks become anaemic and dull. <br><br>***Control***<br><br> Disinfection of chick house. Prevention of contamination of food and water with droppings. Use of prophylatic drugs for example, Coccidiostats. <br><br>***Trypanosomiasis (Nagana)***<br><br>*Animals attacked:*cattle, sheep and goats. *Cause:*Protozoan of the trypanosome species, *Vector-*tsetse flies. <br><br>***Symptoms***<br><br> Fever. Dullness. Anorexia/loss of appetite. Loss of body condition/emaciation. Swollen lymph nodes. Lachrimation which leads to blindness. Diarrhoea Rough coat and sometimes without hair and may be cracked. Swelling in parts of the belly. Drop in milk production in lactating cows. /' Loss of hair at tail end. Anaemia. Abortion may occur in pregnant females. <br><br> Foot rot. Contagious abortion. Scours. Blackquarter. Mastitis. Anthrax. Pneumonia. <br><br>***Fowl Typhoid***<br><br>*Animals attacked:*All domestic birds which include chicken, turkey and ducks. *Causes:*Bacteria*(**Salmonella gallinarum**}* ***Symptoms***<br><br> Depression/appearing very sick. Respiratory distress. Dullness. Drooping wings. Sleepy eyes. Anaemia resulting in pale and shrunken combs and wattles. Greenish yellow diarrhoea. <br><br>***Control***<br><br> Killing all affected birds and proper disposal of the carcasses. Maintaining hygiene in the poultry house. Ensuring that the house is dry and well ventilated. Obtaining chicks from reliable sources. Treatment using sulphur drugs which are mixed in drinking water or mash. For example: application of Furazolidone (Furazol) at the rate of 0.04% in mash for 10 <br><br>continuous days treats the disease effectively. <br><br>***Foot Rot*** It is also referred to as foul-in-the foot. ***Animals attacked**:*cattle, sheep and goats. However, it is most serious in sheep. *Cause:*Bacteria*(**Fusiformis necrophorus***and***Fusiformis nodosus**).*<br><br>***Symptoms***<br><br> Animal's foot becomes swollen. Lameness is observed. Pus and rotten smell come out of the hoof. Sheep are found kneeling while grazing when the front feet are affected. Animals spend most of their time lying down when the hind feet are affected. Emaciation due to lack of feeding. <br><br> Use of a foot bath of copper sulphate solution at 5-10% solution or formalin at 2-5% <br><br>solution. <br><br> Treating wounds on the feet with antiseptics. Affected animals should be given antibiotic injections. Avoid dampness and muddy conditions. <br><br>Isolation of sick animals from healthy ones. <br><br>***Contagious Abortion (Brucellosis/ Bang's Disease)*** *Animals attacked:*cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. <br><br>o It also affects man. <br><br>*Cause:*Bacteria <br><br>o***Brucella abortus***in cattle, o***Brucella suis***in pigs o***Brucella malitensis***in goats and sheep. <br><br>***Symptoms***<br><br> Spontaneous abortion or premature birth. Retained placenta if abortion occurs during the later stages of pregnancy. <br><br>Infertility in cows while bulls have low libido and inflamed testis also known as orchitis. <br><br> A yellowish brown, slimy, odourless discharge from the vulva may occur after the <br><br>abortion. <br><br>***Control***<br><br> Use of artificial insemination. Slaughtering affected animals followed by proper disposal of their carcasses. The attendant to the animals should avoid contact with the aborted foetus. A blood test should be carried out for all breeding animals to detect the infected ones. <br><br> Hygiene in the animals' houses. <br><br>***Scours (white Scours)***<br><br>*Animals atacked:*calves, piglets, lambs and kids. *Cause:*A bacterium which attacks young animals in the first week of life. <br><br>***Symptoms***<br><br> White or yellowish diarrhoea. Pungent smelling faeces. Fever. Anorexia/loss of appetite. Listlessness. Sunken eyes. Undigested milk and mucus with blood spots observed in the faeces. Faecal matter sticks to the hind quarters. Sudden death if no treatment is given. <br><br>***Control***<br><br> Maintaining hygiene in the young animal housing units. <br><br>70 Avoiding dampness on the floor of the house. Fingers of the attendant training calves to drink milk from a bucket must be <br><br>disinfected. <br><br> Calving should be carried out in a clean area. Have separate attendants for the infected calves to prevent disease spread. Replacing milk with warm water mixture. Treating affected animals with antibiotics. <br><br>***Black Quarter***<br><br> *Animals attacked:*All ruminants aged between 8 - 18 months. *Cause:*Bacteria*(**Clostridium chauvei***and***Chauvei septicum**)*<br><br>It is also known as black leg. <br><br>***Symptoms***<br><br> Lameness. Fever. Fast and heavy breathing. Cracking on the swollen parts if touched. Swelling of the affected parts usually the hindquarters, shoulders and chest or back. Dullness. Anorexia. Grunting and grinding of teeth. Animal stops chewing cud. <br><br>***Control***<br><br> Treating with recommended antibiotics. Vaccinating using black quarter vaccine known as blanthax. Burying the carcass deep or burning it completely. ***Mastitis*** *Animals attacked:*Goats, cows, pigs and human beings. *Cause:*Bacteria*(**Streptococcus spp.*or*Staphylococcus spp**.)*<br><br>Is an inflammation of the udder. <br><br>***Pre-disposing Factors:***<br><br> Weak sphincter muscles of the teats allowing free flow of milk. <br><br>Incomplete milking. Injuries on the udder and teats. <br><br>***Symptoms***<br><br> Milk is watery, blood stained or clotted. Swollen udder <br><br>***Control***<br><br> Proper milking techniques. Treatment by use of antibiotics. Culling of animals which are often attacked. <br><br>***Anthrax***<br><br>71 Attacks all domestic animals. Cause: Bacteria*(**Bacillus anthracis**)*<br><br>***Symptoms***<br><br> Sudden death. High fever. Grinding of the teeth. <br><br>***Pneumonia***<br><br> *Animals attacked:*Calves, kids, lambs, piglets and poultry. <br><br>It is an inflammation of the lungs. <br><br>***Cause:***<br><br> Bacteria (**Mycoplasma mycoides**) dust worms in the lungs. <br><br>***Symptoms***<br><br> Dullness. Anorexia/loss of appetite. Staring coat. Emaciation. Breathing rapidly. Abnormal lung sounds when breathing. Coughing if the chest is pressed. Fluctuating body temperature. Nasal discharge. <br><br>***Control***<br><br> Keeping young animals in warm pens. Proper sanitation. Treating using antibiotics. <br><br>Isolation of the affected animals. ***Viral Diseases***<br><br> Rinderpest. Foot and mouth disease (FMD). New Castle Fowl pox Gumboro African swine fever <br><br>***Rinderpest***<br><br>*Animal attacked:*Cattle and wild game. *Cause:*virus. <br><br>***Symptoms***<br><br>72 Harsh staring coat. Rise in temperature. Eye discharge (Lachrimation) Diarrhoea and dysentery. Ulcers in the mouth. ***Foot and Mouth Disease***<br><br>*Animals attacked:*Cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. *Cause:*Virus . <br><br>***Symptoms***<br><br> Sharp rise in temperature. Blisters in the mouth, hooves, udder and teats. Loss of appetite. <br><br>***Control***<br><br> Vaccination. Quarantine nursing wounds with disinfectant. <br><br>***New Castle***<br><br>*Animals attacked:*Poultry. *Cause:*Virus. <br><br>***Symptoms***<br><br> Difficulties in breathing. Beaks remain wide open and necks are strained. Birds become dull. The birds stand with eyes closed all the time. Anorexia/loss of appetite. Nasal discharges which force the birds to shake their heads to clear it. Birds walk with a staggering motion. Paralysis of wings and legs may occur. Birds have their beaks and wings down. Birds produce watery greenish diarrhoea. Birds lay soft shelled eggs. <br><br>***Control***<br><br> Killing all birds and burning them followed by cleaning and disinfecting the houses <br><br>before bringing in new stock. Vaccination should be done during the first 6 weeks and then 2-3 months later. Quarantine. <br><br>***FowlPox***<br><br>*Animals affected:*Poultry. *Cause:*A virus known as*avian fox.*<br><br>***Symptoms***<br><br>73 Two types of fowl pox with different symptoms. <br><br> Cutaneous type Diptheritic type The cutaneous type affects the skin and has the following signs: Loss appetite. The diptheritic type affects internal membranes and has the following symptoms: <br><br>Injuries on the combs and wattles, legs, vent and under the wings. <br><br>Injuries in the inside of the throat and mouth membranes resulting in difficult breathing and swallowing. <br><br> Eyes and nose produces a watery liquid. Loss of appetite. Dullness. Emaciation. <br><br>***Control***<br><br> Killing all affected birds followed by proper disposal of their carcasses. Vaccinating remaining healthy birds. <br><br>***Gumboro***<br><br> *Animals attacked:*Poultry. *Cause:*A virus known as Birma virus. <br><br>It is also referred to as poultry AIDS. <br><br>***Symptoms***<br><br> The glands above the vent (bursa) become swollen. Drop in egg production. Birds develop respiratory distress. Loss of appetite. Low water intake by birds. Loss of immunity making the birds more susceptible to opportunistic diseases. <br><br>***Control***<br><br> Vaccination. Administering vitamins and especially B12. <br><br>***African Swine Fever***<br><br>*Animals attacked:*All domesticated pigs. *Cause:*A virus known as Irido virus. ***Symptoms***<br><br> Fever. Loss of appetite. Depression/dullness. Emaciation. Coughing. Nasal discharge. Diarrhoea in serious conditions. <br><br>***Control*** Vaccination. Quarantine. Killing all affected animals and proper disposal of their carcasses. Double fencing to keep wild animals away. <br><br>Nutritional Diseases/Disorders <br><br>***Milk Fever***<br><br> <br><br>It is a non-infectious disease brought about by calcium deficiency in animals which have recently given birth. <br><br>*Animals attacked:*Cows, goats and pigs that have recently given birth. <br><br>***Causes:***<br><br> Due to low calcium levels in the blood. Which leads to an increase in the magnesium and sugar level in the blood. Mostly occurs in high producing cows in the first few months of lactation. This is because these animals loose more calcium through milk secretion than they <br><br>are getting from the diet. ***Symptoms***<br><br> Dullness. Muscular twitching causing the animal to tremble. Staggering as the animals move. Animal falls down ands becomes unconscious. The animal lies down on its side and the whole body stiffens. Body functions such as urination, defecation and milk secretion stops. <br><br> Stomach contents are drawn into the mouth which later cause lung fever when breathing in. Loss of appetite. <br><br>***Treatment***<br><br> <br><br>Intravenous injection of soluble calcium salt in form of calcium boro-gluconate ,60gms dissolved in 500cc of water. <br><br> Keeping the animal in a comfortable position on its sternum. Giving fresh water. <br><br>***Note**:*The animals suffering from milk fever should not be given medicine orally for the <br><br>following reasons: It will not be able to swallow medicine. <br><br> The medicine may get into the lungs thereby promoting lung fever. <br><br>***Control***<br><br> Partial milking for the first 10 days. High yielding cows should be given rations containing phosphorus and calcium. Giving high doses of Vitamin D. <br><br>***Bloat*** ***Symptoms***<br><br> The left side is blown up. Sudden death. <br><br>***Control***<br><br> Relieve by use of trocar and cannula. Chasing the animal around if noticed early. Drenching by use of stop bloat. Feeding ruminants with dry roughages during the wet season before grazing on lush <br><br>pastures. |
# **AGRICULTURE FORM III NOTES ** ###### **17.0.0 Livestock Production (Selecting and Breeding) (12 Lessons)** **18.0.0 Livestock Production (Livestock Rearing) (10 Lessons)** **19.0.0 Farm Structures (18 Lessons)** **20.0.0 Agricultural Economics II (Land Tenure and Land Reform) (20 Lessons)** **21.0.0 Soil and Water Conservation (19 Lessons)** **22.0.0 Weeds and Weed Control (15 Lessons)** **23.0.0 Crop Pests and Diseases (14 Lessons)** **24.0.0 Crop Productivity VI (Field Practices II) (17 Lessons)** **25.0.0 Forage Crops (9 Lessons)** **26.0.0 Livestock Health III (Diseases) (20 Lessons)** ## **Livestock Production III ** **(Selection and Breeding)** ##### **Introduction ** ###### The breeding of animals is under human control, and the breeders decide which individuals shall produce the next generation. The breeder makes a choice. The breeding of animals is based upon the fact that certain qualities are genetic,hence valuable qualities are passed on from parents to off -springs. The qualities can be maintained or improved in the next generation. ##### **The performance of an animal is influenced by two major factors; ** ###### Genetic potential The environment, which includes: Feeding, Health, Care The ecological conditions. The genetic potential of an animal is inherited from its parents. In selection and breeding animals with superior characteristics are selected and allowed to mate. 1 ----- ###### In the process they transmit the superior characteristics to their offspring. When this is done over a long period of time, it results in livestock improvement. ##### **Reproduction and Reproductive Systems** ###### Reproduction is the process by which off-springs are produced. All farm animals multiply by means of sexual reproduction. It begins with fertilization which is the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote. Fertilization takes place internally in the body of the female. The embryo(zygote) formed develops inside body of mother, fed and protected until end of gestation period. In poultry, the process is different in that eggs are fertilized internally but laid and development of the chick takes place outside during incubation. In both male and female, certain organs are specialized for the process of reproduction. Some of these organs secret fluids which are necessary for the movement and survival of the gametes(reproductive cells.) ##### ***Reproduction in Cattle *** ###### The male reproductive organs produce the male gametes,the spermatozoans. These are introduced into female reproductive system, where they fuse with the sperm to form zygote. 2 ----- ##### The testis: ###### There are two testes hanging loosely between hind legs. Enclosed by loose skin (scrotum)scrotum regulate temperature of testis for optimum production of sperms. Produce spermatozoa(sperms)which are stored in coiled tube called epididymis. ##### Epididymis: Storage of spermatozoa. Sperm ducts: ###### Conveys sperm from the testis and urine through the penis. sphincter muscles contract to allow each to pass separetly. ##### Seminal vesicles produce fluid called semem. ###### semen carries sperms out of penis in fluid form. ##### Prostate gland -produce fluid that neutralize the acidic effects of urine in the ###### urethra preventing death of sperms. ##### Accessory glands: Include seminal vesicles cowpers gland and prostate gland. Urethra : Conveys urine and semen. Penis: ###### Surrounded by a sheath which is an extension of skin. . It introduces sperms into the vagina of a cow through the vulva during mating It is a copulatory organ, also used for urination. 3 ----- ##### **Ovaries and fallopian tubes(oviduct)** ###### Two ovaries located in abdomen, left and right. Produce ova/eggs and hormones which control sexual cycle. Oestrogen produced by graafian follicle inside ovary induces oestrus ie. Heat period so that the cow shows signs of heat After every 21 days the ovary releases a mature ovum and the cow comes on heat. The ovum travels through the fallopian tubes to the uterus. ##### The release and movement of the ovum down to the uterus is called ovulation. ###### If mating is done at this time, fertilization will take place. The fertilized egg implants itself onto the endometrium(walls of uterus)and ###### develops into foetus. ##### ***: *** ***Fallopian tubes*** ###### Fertilization takes place here. Also a passage for the egg from the ovary to the uterus. ##### ***The uterus:*** ###### Embryo develops here. The cervix: Closes the uterus. ##### ***The vagina and Vulva: *** ###### Vulva is the external opening of female reproductive system. It allows mating to take place so that sperms are deposited into the vagina. The foetus and urine are removed through the vulva. ##### **Pregnancy ** ###### Is period between fertilization of ova and the expulsion of the foetus through the vulva. 4 ----- ##### Also called gestation period. ###### In cattle gestation period is 270-285 days. Ends with the birth of a calf. The reproductive tract undergoes a period of rest during which it is repaired and returns to normal. ##### During pregnancy, hormone called progesterone is produced by the placenta to ###### maintain the foetus in the uterus. ##### **Parturition(giving birth) ** ###### Act of giving birth called parturition. This time the foetus expelled through the birth canal. ##### ***When an animal is about to give birth, it shows signs;- *** ###### Distended udder which produces thick milky fluid called colostrums. Swollen vulva producing thick mucus. Loose and slackened pelvic girdle. Visible pin bones. General restlessness. Animal parturates within 2-3 hours after this signs. The correct presentation is with the front feet first,and the head outstretched and resting in between the fee. ##### Any other presentation called mal-presentation or breech presentation and ###### requires assistance. ##### **Reproduction in Poultry ** ###### The cock has no penis but a small opening near the vent through which sperms are emitted. Cock has testes within the body. The hen has elongated oviduct for formation of an egg. Fertilization occurs internally. During mating the cloaca of the hen and the vent of the cock fit into each other and then semen is poured into the cloaca,then sucked to the oviducts. ##### ***The Reproductive System of a Hen *** 5 ----- ##### **Ovary ** ###### Hen has two ovaries but one functional. Ova formed in ovaries. 3500-4000 ova present inside ovary held by follicle. Mature ovum released via rapture of follicle. It moves into oviduct received by the funnel. ##### **Funnel(infundibulum) ** ###### Fertilization occurs here. Chalazae also added to yolk. Time here is 15 minutes. It is 11.6cm long. ##### **Magnum** ###### Thick albumen is added. Stays for 3hrs.its 33cm long. ##### ** Isthmus ** ###### Its 10.6cm long. Shell membranes added. Determines shape of egg. Water, mineral salts and vitamins added. Takes 15 minutes. ##### **Uterus(shell gland) ** ###### Calcium deposited 9ie.shell added around the egg. 6 ----- ###### Pigments added. Addition of albumin finished. Stays here for 18-22hours. ##### **Vagina ** ###### Short, 6.9cm long. For temporal storage of egg before laying ##### **Cloaca ** ###### Egg moves out of cloaca through the vent. The cloaca extents out to prevent the egg from breaking. ##### **NB; ** ###### Egg formation not depended on fertilization. Egg formation takes 24-26hours. The components of egg are obtained from body reserves of the hens body. ##### **Selection of a Breeding Stock ** ###### Selection is used as a tool for livestock improvement. A breeding stock is a group of males and females which act as parents of future generations. Selection is the process of allowing certain animals to be parents of future generations while culling others. Culling is the removal of animals which do not perform to the desired level, from the herd. The animals retained have certain desirable characteristics which make them produce more. Selected animals make up the breeding stock. The breeding stock should pass the good qualities to their offsprings for better performance, to improve the livestock. Selection process repeated for many generations increases chances of formation of desirable qualities in an animal. Genetically termed as gene frequency(occurrence of the genes that carry desirable characteristics.) Selection increases occurrence of desirable genes and decreases occurance of undesirable genes. During selection, the characteristics to be selected for are first studied closely to ascertain that it is not influenced by the environment, but mainly by the genetic make- up. Selection helps improve characteristics which are highly heritable. Heritability means the likelihood of a particular trait to be transmitted to the offspring and they are strongly inherited. A character like milk yield is lowly heritable, i.e. it is weakly inherited and a bigger percentage of the character is affected by the environment. ##### ***The degree to which selection affects a character depends on the following *** ***factors ; *** ###### The heritability of the character The intensity with which the selection is done The interval between generations and kind of selection being practiced. 7 ----- ##### **Factors To Consider When Selecting A Breeding Stock. ** ###### Age Level of performance Physical Fitness Health Body Conformation Temperament or Behaviour Quality of products Mothering Ability Adaptability Proliferation ##### Age ###### Young animals, Those that have not parturated for more than 3-times, should be selected. They have a longer productive life. Old animals are poor breeders and low producers. Production and breeding efficiency decline with age. ##### **Level of performance** ###### Animals with highest production level selected. Performance best indicated by records. ***Good performance of animal indicated by; *** High milk, wool and egg production, Good mothering ability High prepotency which is the ability of a parent to pass good qualities to their offsprings. The animals with poor performance should be culled. Good records kept and used by the farmer for this purpose. ##### **Physical Fitness** ###### Animals selected should be free from any physical defect e.g. mono-eyed, limping, irregular number of teats, scrotal hernia, defective and weak backline ##### Health ###### Sick animals do not breed well and are expensive to keep. ##### Animals that are resistant to diseases pass these characteristics to their offsprings **Body Conformation ** 8 ----- ###### Animals for breeding to be selected according to proper body conformation. A dairy cow should be wedge-shaped with a large udder, thin legs, long neck. ##### **Temperament or Behaviour ** ###### Animals with bad behaviors should be culled.eg Cannibalism, egg eating, aggressiveness, kicking ##### **Quality of products ** ###### Select animals that give products of high quality. ##### **Mothering Ability ** ###### Animals selected should have a good mothering ability, That is animals with good natural instinct towards their young ones. This will enable them to rear the young ones up to weaning. ##### **Adaptability** ###### Animals selected should be well adapted to the prevailing climatic condition in the area. ##### **Prolificacy** ###### Animals selected should be highly prolific. That is, animals with the ability to give birth to many offsprings at a time(larger litter). This is a quality that should be considered when selecting pigs and rabbits. #### **Selection in cattle, and sheep, ** ##### ***Selection in cattle *** ###### ***Consider the following; *** Level Of Performance Which Include; Milk Yield Buter Content. Length Of Lactation Period. Calving Intervals. Age Of The Animal, Fertility, Physical Fitness, Health Of The Animal, Body Conformation, Suitability Of The Enterprise-Milk Or Beef ##### ***Selection in sheep *** ###### ***Consider the following; *** Level of performance which includes; Mothering ability Growth rate Wool quality 9 ----- ###### Carcass quality Twining rate Age Suitability to the enterprise-wool or mutton Flocking instinct Health of the animal Physical fitness Inheritable defects Fertility Inheritable defects. Fertility. ##### ***Selection in Goats*** *** Consider the following: *** ###### Fertility. Mothering ability. Growth rate. Twining rate Carcass quality/dressing percentage. Growth rate. Suitability to the enterprise - milk or mutton. Health of the animal. Age. ##### ***Selection in Pigs *** ###### Consider the following: Carcass quality/dressing percentage. Suitability to the enterprise (bacon or pork) Growth rate. Health of the animal. Mothering ability. Prolificacy. Number of teats. Temperament. Body formation. . Age Heredity defects ##### ***Selection in Camels *** ###### Health of the animal. Age. Temperament. . Foraging ability 10 ----- ###### Fertility. Level of performance-milk, meat, fur and transport. ##### ***Method of Selection *** ###### ***These include: *** ##### Mass selection - Animals with superior characteristics are selected from a herd and ###### then allowed to mate among each other. ##### Progeny testing - assessing on the breeding value of an animal on the basis of ###### performance of its offsprings. ##### Contemporary comparison -comparison of performance between heifers of the ###### same age and sexual maturity. ##### ***Breeding *** ###### Process of mating selected males and females to produce offspring with the desired characteristics. ##### ***Reasons: *** ###### To expand the inherited potential of the animal. To improve production. To overcome production problems created by the environment. To satisfy consumers taste. For economic reasons. ##### ***Terms Used in Breeding *** ***Inheritance *** ###### Genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offsprings. The mechanism of inheritance is carried by the sex cells (gametes) and is controlled by genes found in the chromosomes. Genes are very tiny units of inheritance carrying particular characteristics, such as colour, body shape and amount of milk production. Chromosomes are genetic materials which carry genes. They exist in pairs paternal and maternal) in the nucleus f the body cells. They are always constant in number. ##### ***Dominant and Recessive Characteristics *** ###### A dominant gene is one that suppresses the other. It produces a dominant characteristic. A recessive gene is one that is suppressed by the other. It produces a recessive characteristic. ##### ***Hybrid and Hybrid Vigour *** A hybrid is an animal which is the product of crossing animals of two different breeds. Hybrid vigour or heterosis is increased vigour and performance resulting from ###### crossing two superior breeds. 11 ----- ##### ***Epistasis *** ###### This is the masking of the effect of one gene by another gene which is non-allelic, that is situated on different locus. ##### ***Breeding Systems *** **Inbreeding ** ###### Mating of animals which are related. Reasons: To increase genetic uniformity in a herd. Used to fix the required characteristics in new breeds. To increase phenotypic uniformity. To get proven sires. ##### ***Limitations *** ###### It can bring about loss of hybrid vigour. It may lead to decline in fertility. It may lead to high rate of pre-natal mortality. ##### ***Systems of Inbreeding *** Close Breeding : mating between very closely related animals, for example sib###### mating and parents sib-mating. ##### Line Breeding: mating of distantly related animals that had a common ancestor for ###### example cousins. ##### **Outbreeding ** ###### Mating of animals which are not related. ##### ***Reasons: *** ###### To introduce new genes in an existing breeding herd. To exploit heterosis resulting from a cross between two breeds. To develop a new breed or a grade animal. ##### **Limitations ** ###### Lack of uniformity in animals that result from outbreeding. Desirable characteristics may be lost due to variation. ##### ***Systems of Outbreeding *** Cross-breeding ###### Mating of animals from two different pure breeds. ##### Out-Crossing ###### Mating of unrelated animals from the same breed. ##### Upgrading/Grading up ###### Mating where the female of a cow grade stock (locals) is mated with a pure breed sire. 12 ----- ###### The resultant animal is referred to as a high grade. ##### ***Mating in Livestock *** ***Mating in Cattle *** ###### Heat signs occur every 21 days. The heat period last for 18-30 hours on average 24 hours. Cow should be served 12-18 hours after showing the first heat signs. ##### *** Heat Signs *** ###### Restlessness. Mounting on others and when mounted on she stands still. Rise in body temperature. Drop in milk production in lactating cows. Vulva swells and becomes reddish. Clear or slimy mucus from the vulva. Bellowing or mooing frequently. ##### ***Mating in Pigs *** ###### Heat signs in pigs occur after every 21 days. The heat lasts about 72 hours. Sows or gilts should be served in 18- 36 hours of the heat period. ##### ***Signs of Heat *** ###### Restlessness. Frequent urination. Swelling and reddening of the vulva. Clear or slimy discharge from the vulva. Frequent mounting on others. It responds very well to the 'riding test'. ##### ***Mating in Rabbits *** ###### Does are ready for mating 6-7 months of age. Heat signs occur every 14 days. The doe should be taken to the buck and not vice versa. ##### ***Signs of Heat *** ###### Restlessness. Frequent urination. Swollen vulva. The doe throws herself on the side. The doe rubs herself against the wall or any other solid object. The doe tries to contact other rabbits in the next hutch by peeping. ##### ***Methods of Service in Livestock *** 13 ----- ##### ***Natural Mating *** ***Advantages: *** ###### It is more accurate. It is less laborious. Useful when heat signs of females cannot be easily detected. ##### ***Disadvantages *** ###### Inbreeding is not easily controlled. Transmission of breeding diseases. Extra feed for the male is required. Large males can injure small females. Wastage of semen. It is cumbersome and expensive to transport a bull to remote areas. ##### ***Artificial insemination *** ###### Introduction of semen into the female reproductive tract by artificial means. ##### ***Advantages *** ###### There is economical use of semen. It controls transmission of breeding diseases. Sires that are unable to serve cows due to heavy weight or injury can produce semen to serve cows. It prevents large bulls from injuring small cows. . It reduces the expenses of keeping a male animal A small scale farmer who cannot afford to buy a superior bull can have the cows served at a low cost. Semen can be stored for long. . It helps to control inbreeding It eliminates the threat of keeping dangerous bulls from the farm. It makes research work easier. ##### ***Disadvantages *** ###### Harmful characteristics can be spread quickly by one bull to the offsprings. It requires skilled labour. Low chance of conception due to death of semen during storage. It is laborious: ##### ***Embryo Transplant *** ###### It is the implantation of an embryo (fertilized ova) from a high quality female (donor) in the uterus of a low grade female (recipient). ##### ***Advantages *** ###### Faster multiplication of an animal with superior characteristics . It is easier to transport embryos than the whole animal. Embryos can be stored for a long period awaiting the availability by recipient females. 14 ----- ###### It stimulates milk production in a female (recipient) that was not ready to produce milk. Low grade animals can be used in production and rearing of high quality animals. Offsprings of a superior female can spread quickly in an area. ##### ***Disadvantages *** ###### It is expensive. It requires skilled personnel. It requires special equipment for fertilization and storage of embryos. ##### ***Signs of Parturition in Livestock *** ###### Parturition is the act of giving birth in female animals. ##### ***Parturition in Cattle *** ###### The gestation period in cattle is 270-285 days averaging 280days. ##### *** Signs of Parturition *** ###### Restlessness Enlarged or swollen vulva. . Clear mucus discharge from the vulva Slackening of the pelvic muscles. Full and distended udder. Thick milky fluid from the teats. A water bag appears and bursts just before calving. ##### ***Parturition in Pigs *** ###### The gestation period in pigs is about 4 months or 3 months, 3 weeks and 3 days. ##### *** Signs of Parturition *** ###### Restlessness. The vulva turns red and swells. The udder becomes full with a milky fluid the sow starts to prepare a nest by collecting . some beddings at one comer of the pen ##### ***Parturition in Rabbits *** ###### The gestation period in rabbits is 28-32 days. ##### *** Signs of Parturition *** ###### Preparing a nest by plucking off hair from her belly. Goes off feeding Restlessness. The udder distends. ## **Livestock Production IV ** **(Livestock Rearing Practice) ** 15 ----- ##### **Introduction ** ###### In the management of livestock there are many activities that are carried out on animals to enhance production. ###### They require care in feeding, health, breeding. Specific management also important in bee and fish farming. ##### **Routing livestock rearing practices. ** ###### A routine is a fixed/regular way of doing something. done repeatedly after a certain period of time ##### ***Feeding Practice *** ###### Animals are fed to cater for both maintenance and production requirements. These are special types of feeding carried out on certain animals to cater for specific needs. ***These include: *** ##### ***Flushing *** ###### The practice of giving extra quality feed to an animal around service time. In sheep it is done 2-3 weeks before tupping and 3 weeks after tupping. In pigs it is done 3-4 weeks before service. ***Importance of Flushing *** It increases conception rates. It enhances implantation of the zygote. In sheep it increases twinning percentage by 15-20%. ##### ***Steaming Up *** ###### Giving extra quality feed to an animal during the last weeks of gestation. In cattle it is done 6-8 weeks before calving. ***Importance Steaming Up*** It provides nutrients for maximum foetal growth. It helps in the build up of energy for parturition. It ensures the birth of a healthy animal. It promotes good health of the mother. It increases and maintains high milk yield after birth. ##### ***Creep Feeding *** ###### Feeding of young animals from birth to weaning. **Piglets ** 10 days old - introduced to creep pellets. 5 weeks old - creep pellets mixed with sow and weaner meals. 16 ----- ###### 8 weeks old - weaning. **Lambs ** Run with their mothers for natural suckling. Bucks - introduced to succulent feeds and concentrates. **Kids ** Meat goats kids suckle naturally. Dairy goats, fed on milk artificially, Given 0.5-1.25 litres up to the third week. Introduced to concentrates at 3-4 months. Weaned at 6-8 weeks of age. ##### ***Parasite and Disease Control Practices *** ***Vaccination *** ###### Introducing active disease organsms which are reduced in strength or virulent into the animals' body to induce immunity. **Administration of Vaccination done through: ** By injection. Orally through the mouth. By inhalation through the nose. Eye drops. ##### ***Deworming *** ###### Practice of killing/removing internal parasites by administering drugs known as dewormers / antihelmitics. ##### ***Hoof Trimming *** ###### Cutting back overgrown hooves with the help of a hoof trimming knife, a hoof cutter or a hoof rasp. *** Importance *** Facilitate easy movement. Control of foot rot disease. - . Facilitate mating prevent the ram from injuring the ewe during tupping ##### ***Docking /tailing *** ###### This is the removal (cutting oft) of tails in sheep during the first week after birth. *Importance * Even distribution of body fat. . Facilitate easy mating in adult life Minimise fouling of the wool with faeces. Reduce incidences of blowfly infestation. *** Methods of Docking /tailing *** . Cutting with sharp knife or scalpel 17 ----- ###### Use of elastrator and rubber ring. ##### ***Dipping and Spraying *** ###### These are methods of applying acaricides on the animals to control external parasites. ##### ***Dusting *** ###### It is the application of chemical powders on the animal body or on the walls of the animal house to control external parasites. It is used to control stick-fast parasites and fleas in poultry. ##### ***Breeding Practices *** ###### These are practices carried out to enhance successful breeding. ##### ***Crutching and Ringing *** ###### Crutching - cutting of wool around the external reproductive organs of female sheep. Ringing - trimming wool around the sheath of the penis of the rams to facilitate . mating ##### ***Tupping and Serving *** ###### Tupping refers to mating in sheep and goats. Serving refers to mating in cattle and pigs. ##### ***Raddling *** ###### This is the practice of fitting the rams with breeding chutes which are painted in different colours during mating to identify mated ewes and to indicate the active rams hence help in culling of the weak rams. ##### ***Identification *** ###### The practice of putting identification marks on animal. Branding - burning marks on the animals skin. Ear tagging - placing marked plastic or metallic tags on the animals ears. Ear notching - cutting different shapes bearing different values on the ear lobes. Tattooing - use of permanent ink or dye to mark animals with light skin. Neck strap or chain - Fixing of tags round the animals neck with a chain or a strap. Importance/ purpose of Identification record keeping Setting disputes in case animals get mixed up in the pasture. ##### ***Debeaking *** ###### Cutting about of the upper beak with a knife, scissors or hot iron. Importance Control egg eating. Control cannibalism. 18 ----- ##### ***Tooth Clipping *** ###### The removal (clipping) of the needle (canine) teeth in piglets 24 hours after birth. ##### ***Culling *** ###### Removal of undesirable animals from a herd. ##### ***Dehorning *** ###### Removal of horns or horn buds from an animal. *** Importance *** It prevents animals from injuring each other. It makes the animal docile and therefore easy to handle. For easy transportation and feeding. Prevents destruction of farm structures. ##### ***Shearing *** ###### The practice of cutting wool from all over the body of a sheep. It starts at the age of 8 months and then done once a year. Should be done during the dry season. Tools used: wool shears. Care must be taken not to cut the skin, testicles, udder, vulva and penis. ##### ***Castration *** ###### It is the rendering unserviceable the testicles of a male animal. ##### *** Importance *** ###### To control breeding diseases. To control breeding. For faster growth rates. Increase quality of meat by removing unpleasant smell especially in goats. ##### ***Methods Used: *** Closed/bloodless method ###### involves use of burdizzo or rubber ring and elastrator. Animals do not bleed but may not be 100% effective. ##### Open method ###### A surgical method used for castrating cocks, piglets and rabbits whose testes are internal. Also used for lambs, kids and calves. Animals bleed a lot. However, it is 100% effective. It is not recommended for mature adults. ##### Caponisation 19 ----- ###### It is the practice of making male birds lose their male characteristics by use of hormones. Hormones used include stilboestrol which is injected into the birds when they are one day old and female hormones implanted beneath the skin at the neck. Birds which have lost their male characteristics in this way are referred to as capons. ##### ***Management During Parturition *** ###### Parturition is the act of giving birth to fully grown foetus. ##### ***Parturition in Cattle *** ###### It is referred to as calving. Gestation period lasts 270-285 days after conception. When the signs of parturition are observed the cow should be separated from the rest of the herd. Normal calving should take 2 hours and the normal presentation is the muzzle, face or fore head on top of the forelegs first. In case of other presentations the mother should be assisted. Provide the mother with plenty of water and feed after parturition. If the after birth does not come out within 48 hours a veterinarian should be called to remove it. ##### ***Parturition in Sheep *** ###### It is referred to as lambing. Gestation lasts 21 weeks (150 days) after conception. The ewe lamb naturally without any problem. If complications arise the ewes should be assisted. ##### *** Signs of Parturition in Sheep *** ###### Udder becomes full. Teats are bright red in colour. Restlessness and bleating. Slackening of the hip muscles. **After these signs 'are seen the ewes should be separated from the others. ** The normal presentation is forelegs and head first. After birth the mother should be allowed to lick the lamb to ensure the coat is dry. ##### ***Parturition in Goats *** ###### It is referred to as kidding. It takes place 150 days after conception. Nannies carrying twins, kid a few days earlier. Kidding nannies should be kept in a clean dry place which should be well sheltered. Signs of parturition are similar to those of ewes. Kidding nannies should be kept with another female for company. 20 ----- ##### ***Parturition in Pigs *** ###### It is referred to as farrowing. Gestation period 113-117 days ( 4 months). ***Signs of Farrowing *** The sow becomes restless. There is enlargement of the vulva . Muscles on each side of the tail slacken. There is loss of appetite. The udder and the teats become enlarged. The sow collects bedding material in one comer to build a nest. Milk present in the teats 24 hours before farrowing. **After the signs are seen; ** Farrowing takes about 2-6 hours under normal condition. An attendant should be there to assist the mother and piglets. Ensure the removal of the after birth to prevent the sow from eating it. The sow should be fed well and given plenty of clean water. ##### ***Parturition in Rabbits *** ###### . It is referred to as kindling It takes place 28-32 days after conception. Provide a nesting box and plenty of dry soft beddings in the hutch towards the fourth week of gestation . *** Signs of Parturition *** The doe plucks off the fur from her body. Uses the fur to build a nest about 3-10 days earlier. ##### *Bee Keeping (Apiculture ) * ###### Bees are insects which live in very well organised colonies. ***Each colony consists of: *** Queens - fertile females that breed to ensure the continuity of the species. Drones - fertile males that mate with the queen for reproduction process. Workers - non-fertile or sterile females that maintain the colony. ***Duties of Workers *** They rear and nurse the brood (eggs, larvae and pupae), queen and drones. They collect nectar and make honey. They make the honey combs. They protect the hives. They clean the hive. ***Importance of Bees *** Collect nectar from flowers. Make honey - a nutritious product used by man as food. 21 ----- ###### Helps in crops pollination of plants. Bees produce wax used to make candles. They make propolis - a bee product which is medicinal. ##### ***Routine Management *** ***Siting/locating of an Apiary *** ###### ***Factors to consider; *** Nearness or accessibility to nectar or flower-producing vegetation. Areas with shade. Bees are sensitive to the sun's heat and require some shade to protect them. Safe distance from human residence and other livestock. Bees are stinging insects and can be a hazard to humans or other animals. Nearness to a source of water for use in their nutrition. A good distance from source of noise and other disturbances. Safety from predators for example honey badgers, ants (safari ants), birds and other parasites such as wax moths. ##### *** Feeding *** ###### Normally bees are self-sufficient in providing their food from the honey they make. However, during the dry season, their feeding should be supplemented by providing a solution (syrup) of sugar water or giving molasses. This should be placed strategically so that it is easily accessible to the bees. ##### ***Parasites *** ###### Ants Wax moths Bee louse Honey badger ***Control of Parasites *** Use of physical barriers such as Vaseline/grease to control ants. Smoke the hive to control bee louse. Suspend the hive to control honey badgers. Burn infected combs to control wax moths. ##### ***Diseases and Control *** ###### African bees are seldom attacked by diseases. ##### **Harvesting Honey ** ###### ***Factors to consider; *** Stage of ripening : Honey must be harvested when it is fully mature. Season of the year : Harvested at the end of the rainy season. ##### ***Procedure *** ###### Blow light smoke through the hole. This makes bees suck honey and become engorged and docile. 22 ----- ###### Lower the hive to the ground. Open the hive to expose honey combs. Brush the bees off the honey combs. Cut the honey combs, leaving a small margin on the bars and keep them in a closed container. ##### **Honey Processing ** ###### Using heat in a water bath to melt the honey. Crushing and straining. Using a centrifugal extractor. ##### **Precautions When Handling Bees ** ###### Avoid excessive smoking. This kills the brood and lowers quality of the honey. Use protective clothing to avoid sting. Protect the hive from rain water. Use clean equipment and containers to avoid contamination of the honey. Use recommended method of extracting honey. Use recommended type of hive such as Kenya top bar hive. ##### *Fish Keeping (Aquaculture ) * ***Introduction *** ###### The rearing or keeping of fish is called fish farming and is normally carried out in specially prepared ponds. ***A good fish-pond should have the following features: *** Site should be on a fairly level ground with a permanent supply or source of water. The area should have clayey soil to avoid loss of water through seepage. Water must be free from any pollutants such as chemicals and other wastes. ***Construction should provide for: *** an inlet for fresh supply of water, a spill way channel to take off overflow or excess water, an outlet to drain off the water when it is necessary to replace pond water, a fence to keep off predators and other intruders. ##### ***Feeding Fish *** ###### Fish naturally feed on worms, insects and algae in the ponds. ***These sources of food must be supplemented by throwing in the pond ; *** kitchen wastes, chopped vegetable materials such as cabbage leaves, cereal brans brewers' grain . ##### ***Management Practices to Ensure Maximum Harvest of Fish *** ###### Control of stocking rate, that is to, have the recommended population of fish in a pond at anyone time. 23 ----- ###### Harvest at the correct maturity stage. This is done by using the fishing net with correct mesh sizes to avoid catching the fingerlings. Avoid water pollution in the ponds which may poison fish. Ensure adequate supply of food in the pond. Water in the ponds should be kept in motion to facilitate aeration. Maintain appropriate depth (level) of water. Control predators and/or thieves. Drain and refill ponds with fresh water as necessary. ##### ***Harvesting Fish *** ###### Harvesting or extracting fish from the fish ponds for consumption ***Two main methods: *** Hook-and-line method: This is slow, injures small fish and is inefficient. It is only suitable for small-scale fishing. Use of fishing nets: This is the most efficient method as long as a net with the correct mesh sizes is used. Harvesting may be done 6-8 months after the introduction of fingerlings into the fish pond. ##### ***Maintenance of the Fish Pond *** ###### Repairing the dyke or any structure on it. Cleaning the pond and removing foreign materials. Planting grass where necessary. Removing un desirable vegetation. . Removing the silt ##### ***Fish Preservation *** ###### ***Practices before preservation: *** Clean the fish to remove mud and any worms. Removing scales and slime. Opening the fish on the side to remove the gut and the intestines referred to as . gutting. Cleaning the abdominal cavity thoroughly. Keeping fish in open containers. ##### **Methods of Preservation ** ###### Freezing Salting Sun drying Smoking ##### ***Appropriate Handling of Livestock During Management *** ###### Physical beating should be avoided. 24 ----- ###### Structures which help in restraining animals should be used whenever applicable. The correct methods of securing and casting animals should be used. Use as little force as possible. Equipment such as ropes, halters, lead stick and bull rings are used to handle animals ###### appropriately. ##### **Introduction ** ## **Farm Structures ** ###### Farm structures are physical constructions on the farm used to increase efficiency in production. ##### ***Construction of Farm Structures*** ###### Involves: ***Planning for farm structures ;*** ***Consider; *** Farm activities. Size of the enterprise. Future of the enterprise. Accessibility. Soil type. ***Siting farm structures; *** Consider: The location of the homestead. Accessibility. Security. Drainage/topography. Wind direction. Relationship between the structures. Proximity to social amenities. Farmer's taste and preference. ##### ***Materials for Construction *** ###### *** Structural Materials and Use *** ##### Factors which determine the type of materials to use are; ###### durability, strength, labour, availability, 25 ----- ###### workability, serviceability, cost sanitation. ##### ***Stones and Bricks *** ###### *** Advantages *** Stones and bricks are durable, easy to disinfect, resistant to weather and insects decay and are easily available. *** Disadvantages *** They are bulky and require skilled labour to make them. ##### ***Plastic and Synthetic Materials *** ###### These include; glass, asbestos fibre polythene materials. ***Advantages *** Light, cheep depending on quality, easy to disinfect, can be moulded into any shape, are durable, cannot be destroyed by insects and fungus are water-proof. **Disadvantages ** Are easily destroyed, fragile, very expensive require skilled labour. ##### ***Wood (Timber) *** ###### ***Advantages *** They are workable, cheap, can be re-used 26 ----- ###### are fairly strong. ***Disadvantages *** They can catch fire easily, decay if exposed to water are affected by fungus and insects. ##### ***Concrete *** ###### Is a mixture of cement, sand, aggregate and water e.g. in making blocks the ratio is 1:2:3; one part cement, two parts sand and three parts aggregate. *** Uses *** Making posts for fencing. Making walls and floor of buildings. Making gabions and water channels to prevent erosion. Making water troughs. ***Advantages *** ***These materials are; *** durable, workable, easy to disinfect, cheap to maintain, fire resistant Disadvantages These materials are ; expensive, require skilled labour, bulky, cannot be reused ##### **Animal handling structures ** ###### The crush used when doing following activities; Spraying livestock to control ticks, milking, examining sick animals, artificial insemination, treating animals, eg drenching, vaccination, dong routine jobs such as dehorning, identification marks, The spray race-used in the control of ticks by spraying livestock with acaricides The dip- machakos type, and the pludge dip. This is used in the control of ticks by dipping livestock ##### ***Farm Buildings *** ###### ***Factors to be considered in site selection; *** Security 27 ----- ###### Nearness to a source of water Topography Direction of the prevailing wind Direction of the sun Personal whims/tastes and preference Nearness to means of communication. ##### **Types of farm buildings ** ###### Houses for farm animals. Stores for farm produce. Stores for equipment, tools and supplies. Buildings for growing crops e.g green house. Building for processing plant e.g milk plant. ##### **Parts of a building ** ###### The foundation, The walls, The roof Include; kingpost, rafters, struts, tie beam, rafter batten 28 ----- ###### Include; concrete floor, foundation wall, PVC sheet (damp-proof course) the compacted fill (hard core). ##### ***Fences *** ###### Importance of Fence in a Farm Keep out intruders to the farm, Define the boundary lines of the farm. Paddocking of fields to make rotational grazing possible. Live fences serve as windbreaks. Fences are used in mixed farming to protect crops from. damage by livestock. Fences add aesthetic values to the farm. It is easy to control breeding. It is easy to isolate sick animals from the rest of the herd. ##### ***Types of Fences *** 29 ----- ###### Dead fences. Barbed wire fences. Electric fence. Concrete fence. Chicken wire fence (mesh wire fence). Woven wire fence (chain link). Wooden fence. ##### ***Fencing Practice *** ###### Materials include; wires, staples, nails, posts, droppers concrete materials. Size of posts: General purpose 2.5m by 25cm in diameter Strainer units and corner posts 3m by 30cm in diameter: Distance between the posts: 3m between posts, 10m if droppers are to be used. 200m between strainer units. Depth of holes - 60cm. ##### ***Gate Posts, Gates and Strainer Units *** ###### Gates should be hung on posts separate from the fence. Mechanical implements for example tractors require 4.0-4.5m width of gate. Entrance gates for pedestrians can be accommodated within the fence. ##### ***Steps in Fencing *** ###### Locate the corners Clear the fencing area. Mark gates, strainers, pass places and standards by pegging. Dig holes to proper depths. Fix the standard posts. Firm around posts or apply concrete. Fix wires on posts. Fix the droppers. ## **Agricultural Economics II ** **(Land Tenure and Land Reforms) ** ##### **Introduction ** 30 ----- ###### Land is an important factor of production. Without land it is impossible to practice the agricultural business. However the efficiency of utilization of land is influenced to a large extent by the condition of holding the land. ##### ***Land Tenure *** ###### Land tenure is defined as the possession of the legal rights to the use of land. Various kinds of rights to the use of land give rise to different tenure systems. ##### ***Land Tenure System *** ###### All land tenure systems fall into two major classes, namely: ##### ***Collective Tenure Systems*** ###### ***This includes: *** ##### *** Communal Tenure Systems *** ###### This involves the possession of rights over land by the whole community. It works quite well under conditions of unlimited, land resources. ##### *** Advantages of Communal Tenure *** ###### Landless problem does not exist. Land is not fragmented. Allows for free movement of animals in search of better pastures and water. . Promotes community spirit among the members ##### ***Disadvantages of Communal Tenure *** ###### No incentive among the users to conserve the land resources. Everybody strives to maximize returns from the land without the drive to invest, for example, in terms of soil conservation and maintenance of soil fertility. There is a tendency of overstocking and continuous cropping; which leads to soil erosion and loss of land productivity. As a result of communal grazing of livestock, it is impossible to improve livestock through; controlled breeding, proper feeding, disease and parasite control. Since there is no title deed, (certificate of ownership) it is virtually impossible to secure loans to develop the land. ##### ***Co-operative Tenure System *** ###### This category includes various collective arrangements under the government or other authorities. Farmers voluntarily group together and buy land which they subsequently operate on co- operative basis. Examples are co-operative ranches. ##### ***Advantages of Co-operative Tenure *** ###### No land disputes. Labour is well utilized. . Profit is distributed according to the number of shares Resource use is enhanced for high production. ##### ***Disadvantages of co-operative tenure.*** ###### Incase of poor management everybody will loose. 31 ----- ###### No individual title deed hence cannot secure loans. ##### *** State ownership*** ###### Land is owned by the whole state and is refered to as government land. ***Examples in Kenya; *** Areas not allocated to individuals Land under local county councils/cities and towns Land under forest, game reserve and parks, land for infra-structure and public utility ##### ***Advantages of state ownership *** ###### Generation of income for the state All the citizens benefit from whatever comes out of the land. ##### ***Disadvantages *** ###### Non-competitive in terms of production No individual motivation when working on the land. ##### ***Individual Tenure system *** ###### The various forms of individual land tenure are; Owner operator, Plantation and Concestion, **Land-lordism/Tenancy ** ##### ***Owner operator *** ###### This category includes all persons who operate on land to which they have absolute **individual rights. ** Examples are the majority of individual land owners in areas where demarcation and **registration of land has taken place and title deeds issued. ** ##### ***Advantages*** ###### The owner is free to make permanent production plans. The owner can pledge the land title deed to secure loans(credit) from lending agencies for further development An individual is motivated to work harder than when under communal arrangement Managerial failures usually affect small units of production and are therefore negligible. It is easy for the owner to get agricultural advice. ##### ***Disadvantages*** ###### Cost such as machinery for processing may be too high for the individual owner Innovation may be inadequate due to low levels of education. Lack of capital to invest. ##### ***Plantation and concession *** ###### In this form of land tenure, the individual is usually a company or a corporation. Most of them engage in the production of only one commodity They are rigid in their production plans and in most cases labour is hired on wage basis. 32 ----- ###### Example are coffee, tea, sugarcane, sisal estates in Kenya. ##### ***Advantages *** ###### High production from the land hence high economic gains Allows foreigners to use and develop land No land disputes Create employment for the local people Generate government revenue through taxation. ##### ***Disadvantages *** ###### Individuals own large pieces of land while others are landless Large areas of land may be left underdeveloped. Foreigners may repatriate profit to their countries. ##### ***Landlordism and tenancy *** ###### The arrangement here involves the ownership of land by one individual or group of individuals (landlord) who lease it to another individual (tenant). A legal lease specifies the length of time during which the tenure is operative; and that serves as a security of tenure to the tenant. The efficiency of production in this arrangement is greatly affected by the length of lease, its legal backing and rent payable. ##### ***Advantages *** ###### A person without land can get a chance to use land. A landlord who cannot operate the land, for any reason, can still earn income by leasing it to a needy tenant. It is a flexible arrangement; that is, it allows room for change of production plans should need arise. Security of tenure gives the tenant incentive to invest depending on the length of tenure. ##### ***Disadvantages *** ###### Poor land use and low production if the tenant does not have enough funds to improve on land. Tenants cannot produce long term crops, Landlords can exploit the tenants by overcharging. Lack of incentives to improve land by the tenants since it does not belong to them. ##### ***Land Reforms *** ***Definition *** ###### Land reform is any organized action designed to improve the structure of land tenure and land use. ##### ***Forms of Land Reform *** ***Land Consolidation *** ###### This means bringing or putting together, into one piece; fragmented parcels or pieces of land scattered over a large area. 33 ----- ##### ***The objective of land consolidation are : *** ###### To save on time spent while moving from one piece of land to another. To facilitate effective and efficient farm planning. To create an incentive among land operators to invest on and develop land. To facilitate mechanization and improve production through efficiency. To improve level of production through effective supervision of the labour force and sound farming methods, ##### ***Land Fragmentation and Sub-division *** ###### This is the subdividing of a (large) piece of land into smaller portions. Sometimes it becomes necessary to sub-divide land for the following reasons: To sell part of the land. The parent may wish to subdivide and distribute his land among the sons, daughters and other dependants. The government may decide to subdivide large farms in order to settle landless citizens. ##### ***Land Adjudication and Registration *** ###### Land adjudication involves; ###### Establishing the legitimate ownership, Measurements (to make permanent boundaries) Recording of land details. Once land has been adjudicated, and any disputes concerning the same land are settled, ##### " It is then registered in the Register of Land". ###### And the owner is issued with a land title deed or certificate of legal ownership. ##### ***Importance of land title deed *** ###### The legal owner of the land has security of tenure and hence an incentive to invest and improve productivity. A farmer can mortgage the land by offering land title certificate as a security to loaning agencies to secure capital to finance development projects. If a farmer who cannot operate the farm, he can still earn income from it by leasing it. Disputes concerning land boundaries and/or land ownership no longer arise. ##### ***Land Settlement and Resettlement *** ***Definition*** ###### Land settlement means the occupation of land which was previously uninhabited. Land resettlement, on the other hand, is the transfer of people from an already densely populated area to a sparsely populated one. ##### ***Objectives *** ###### To settle the landless citizens. To relieve population pressure in densely populated areas. To increase or promote agricultural productivity by farming on land that was previously unused or lying idle. 34 ----- ###### To create self-employment thus improving the living standards. Land reclamation, especially by creating tsetse fly-barriers. ### **Soil and Water Conservation ** ##### ***Introduction *** ###### Soil and water are two very important natural resources in farming. They should therefore be well maintained and used without wastage to sustain continuous production. Water loss during the rainy season should be prevented and excess water conserved for use during scarcity. Soil erosion must be controlled at whatever cost if soil is to be conserved. ##### **Soil Erosion ** ###### It is the removal and carrying away of the top soil by the action of water or wind. ##### ***Factors Influencing Soil Erosion *** Amount and intensity of rainfall. ###### The steeper the land the higher the velocity of surface runoff. The higher the velocity of surface runoff the greater is its erosive power/effect. ##### Type of soil for example sandy soils are more easily detached and carried away than ###### clayey soils. ##### Soil depth ; ###### The deeper the soil, the longer it takes to be saturated with water. ##### Land use: ###### Overstocking leads to bareness of the land and looseness of the soil. Deforestation - indiscriminate removal of trees leads to exposure of soil to heavy rainfall and high temperatures. Indiscriminate burning of vegetation exposes the soil to erosive agents. Clean weeding leaves the soil bare. Ploughing along the slope. Monoculture or continuous cultivation. ##### Ground cover ###### Trees act as windbreakers. Roots of vegetation cover hold the soil particles together. Leaf fall act as mulch which reduces erosion. Leaves of vegetation cover intercepts raindrops reducing their erosive power. ##### ***Agents of Erosion *** Water - moving water has erosive power. Wind - wind carries away soil. Human beings - through man's activities such as cultivation and mining. Animals - through overgrazing and creating footpaths where soil erosion takes place. 35 ----- ##### ***Types of Erosion *** Raindrop (splash) - displacement of the soil caused by raindrops. Sheet - uniform removal of soil in thin layers from flat or gently sloping areas. Rill - removal of soil from small bur well defined channels or rills. Gulley - removal of soil from channels which become progressively deeper and wider. Riverbank Erosion - removal of soil along river banks by the river water. Solifluction - gravitational flow of soil saturated with water. Land slides - mass movement of rock debris and soil down a slope, ###### ***For example; *** Slip movement of earth or rock masses for a short distance. Debris slide - materials move at a greater speed. Debris fall - movement of materials/debris along vertical cliff. Rock fall - movement of rock down a very steep slope. Rock slides - mass of rock materials that slide along a bedding plate, a joint or a fault face. ##### ***Soil Erosion Control Measures *** ###### ***Soil conservation measures can be classified into: *** Biological or cultural control Physical or structural control ##### ***Biological or Cultural Control Measures *** ***These measures are applicable where land slope is between 2-12%. *** Grass strips/filter strips ; ###### These are narrow uncultivated strips along the contour left between cultivated strips. ##### Cover cropping ; ###### The establishment of a crop that spreads out over the surface of the soil to provide it with a cover. ##### Contour farming ; ###### Carrying out all land operations along the contour. ##### Mulching ; ###### . Covering of the soil with either organic or synthetic materials ##### Proper cropping systems such as: ###### Crop rotation Correct spacing Inter-cropping Ridging/furrowing Strip cropping ##### Controlled grazing ; ###### Proper stocking rate, rotational grazing. ##### Strip cropping ; ###### Growing crops which give little ground cover in alternate strips with crops such as beans which have a good ground cover. ##### Afforestation/re-afforestation . Afforestation - growing of trees where non-existed. Re-afforestation - growing of trees where they have been cut down. 36 ----- ##### Agroforestry - land use that involves the growing of trees in combination with ###### crops and pastures on the same piece of land. ##### ***Physical or Structural Control Measures *** ###### These are soil and water conservation measures which involve mechanical constructions on the earth. They are used in areas of moderate slope between 13-55%. ***They include: *** ##### Trash or stone lines ; ###### These are rows of heaped crop' residues or stones made along the contours. ##### Filter strips ; ###### It involves the growing of an open crop in the upper side of the slope followed by a dense crop to reduce speed of water. This increases infiltration. ##### ***Terraces;*** ###### Are structures constructed across a slope to reduce the length of a slope thus reducing run-off. ##### ***Bench terraces;*** ###### Are constructed where the slope is 35-55%. Tree crops are suitable for such areas. ***Importance of a Bench Terrace: - *** Reduces slope of the land. Conserves soil moisture. Better retention of soil fertility. ##### Narrow based terraces Cannot allow cultivation by machines. Broad based terraces - Is wide enough to allow cultivation by machines. Graded terraces: ###### Have a drainage channel to lead off excess water to a vegetated place. They should be about 100m in length. ##### Level terraces: ###### Have no outlet channels, The aim is to have water infiltrating, Hence no water can flow from the ends of the terrace. ##### ***Fanya juu:*** ###### A ridge made by digging a channel and throwing the soil uphill. ##### ***Fanya chini:*** ###### In this case the soil is heaped on the lower side of the channel. ##### Bunds: heaps of soil (earth) made along the contour. Cutoff drains: ###### An open trench with an embankment on the lower side into which water from the farm drains. ***Water from the trench should be discharged into; *** Natural waterways, Artificial waterways, Rocky ground 37 ----- ###### Grassland ##### Gabion/Porous dams : ###### Galvanized wire mesh boxes filled with stones which are built across slopes and gullies. ##### Dams and reservoirs ; ###### Dams - barriers built across a river/waterway to hold and store water. It reduces speed of runoff. Reservoirs - these are large storage tanks. ##### Ridging - heaps of soil to reduce the speed of water, ###### They retain the water for some time. ##### ***Water Harvesting Methods *** ###### Water harvesting and storage should be done during the rainy seasons to avoid wastage. ***This should be done using the following methods: *** ##### Roof catchment - trapping and collection of rain water from roof tops. Rock catchment - water is harvested by constructing a barrier on the lower side of a ###### large impervious rock to trap surface runoff from the rock. ##### Weirs and dams. Dam - a barrier constructed across a river or a dry valley so that it can hold water. Weirs - barriers constructed across a river or a stream to raise the water level and still ###### allow water to flow over it. ##### Ponds - water retention excavations' made to hold excess surface water. Retention ditches/level terraces .-These are terraces constructed with blocked ###### ends to retain water. ##### *** Micro-Catchments *** ###### A system of harvesting limited rainfall and storing the water in the ground for use by the planted crops. ##### ***Types of Microcatchments; *** - Triangular/V shaped/Negarims ; V-shaped bunds measuring 25 cm ###### Are built with soil from the excavated planting holes to direct runoff water towards the basin area around the base of each plant ##### Semi-circular bunds ; ###### Formed around the growing plant to hold water around the plant. ##### Trapezoidal bunds ; ###### Trapezoidal shaped bunds, which enclose a large area where the crops are grown. ##### Contour bunds/furrows ; ###### These are furrows made along the contours between the rows of crops where agroforestry trees are intercropped with annual crops. ##### Planting holes/pits ; ###### These are extra large planting holes made and filled with dry plant materials before filling in with soil. ##### ***Use of Micro-Catchments *** 38 ----- ###### Slow down the speed of surface runoff. Used during landscaping of the compound, parks and roadside nest areas. Reclamation of land for food crop in dry areas. Water collected and stored can be used for irrigation Afforestation in dry areas. ## **Weeds and Weed Control ** ##### ***Introduction *** ###### Weeds cause heavy crop losses if not controlled. Their control is important so as to maintain high quality and quantity produce. ##### ***Definition: *** ###### A weed is any plant growing where it is not required. And whose economic disadvantages outweigh the advantages. ##### ***Harmful Effects of Weeds *** ###### Weeds compete with crops for nutrients, space, light and soil moisture. Some weeds, for example, Striga spp are parasitic to cultivated crops such as maize. Some weeds lower the quality of agricultural produce for example: . Mexican marigold gives undesirable flavour to milk if dairy cows feed on it Devils horsewhip, black jack, bristly fox-tail and others get attached to sheep wool thus lowering its quality. Some weeds are poisonous to human beings and livestock for example: Thorn apple (Datura stramonium) Sodom apple (Solanum incanum) Some weeds have allelopathic effects to cultivated crops. . Water weeds block irrigation channels Aquatic weeds such as Salvinia in Lake Naivasha and water hyacinth in Lake Victoria affect fishing. Some weeds are alternate hosts for insects, pests and disease causing organisms for example: Wild oat (avena fatua) is an alternate host for rusts. Mallow (malva verticillata) is an alternate host for cotton stainers. Weeds lower the quality of pasture for example: Tickberry (Lantana camara) Nut grass (Cyperus rotundus), Manyatta grass (Eleusine jaegeri) Some weeds irritate workers thus reducing the efficiency in which they are controlled for example: Double thorn (Oxygonum sinuatum), Stinging nettle (Urtica massaica), Devil's horse whip (Achyranthes aspera). ##### ***Factors Contributing to the Competitive Ability of Weeds *** 39 ----- ###### . They produce large quantities of seeds for example pigweed and black jack Their seeds remain viable in the soil for a long time awaiting conducive germination conditions. They have effective seed dispersal mechanisms. . Some weeds propagate by means of elaborate underground storage structures l . They are efficient in utilizing litt e moisture, nutrients and sunlight Some have short life cycles. They have elaborate root systems for supporting the plant and absorbing nutrients and water. ##### ***Weed Classification*** ###### *** It is based on: *** ##### Life cycles for example: ###### Annuals - complete their life cycle in only one season. Biennuals - complete their life cycles in two seasons only. Perennials - complete their life cycle in more than two seasons. ##### Morphology - leaf formation such as size, shape and venation. ###### Broad leaved weeds for example black jack, lantana, pig weed, oxalis and others. Narrow leaved weeds for example couch grass, setaria, nut-grass, manyatta grass and others. ##### Habitat - some weeds are terrestrial (grow on land) while others are aquatic (grow ###### on aquatic/marine conditions). ##### ***Weed Identification *** ###### Weeds are identified by their common (individual) names and botanical names. They are named according to specific features or according to person who identified them. ##### **Common Name Botanical Name** ###### Black Jack Bidens pilosa Mexican marigold Tagetes minuta 0xalislsorrel .. Oxalis spp. Double thorn Oxygonum sinuatum Thorn apple .. Datura stramonium Couch grass .. Digitaria scalarum Nut grass .. Cyperus rotundus Wandering Jew Commelina bengalensis Sow thistle Sonchus ole race us Devil's horsewhip . Achyranthes aspera Macdonald's eye/ Gallant soldier. Gallinsoga parviflora Sodom apple . Solanum incanum Black night shade .. Solanum nigrum Chinese lantern. Nicandra physalodes Bracken fern .. Pteridium aquillium 40 ----- ###### Love grass/ Bristly foxtail . Setaria verticillata Cleavers Gallium spurium Stinging Nettle .. Urtica massaica Fat hen/Goose foot ... Chenopodium spp. Rape weed Brassica nap us Wild oats ... Avena fatua Lantana/Tick berry Lantana camara Water hyacinth . Eichhornia crassipes Striga/Witch weed Striga hermontheca Creeping indigo . Indigofera spicata ##### ***Weed Control Methods *** ###### *** The methods of weed control determined by: *** The weed being controlled. Weather conditions. Capital availability. Effect on environment. ##### ***METHODS OF WEED CONTROL INCLUDE: *** Chemical Weed Control ###### The use of chemicals known as herbicides to control weeds. ##### ***Classification of Herbicides*** ***Based on: *** Formulation - the physical form of the herbicides for example: ###### Liquids Wettable powders Emulsion Dust ##### Time of Application ###### Pre-emergence - applied before the planted crop germinates. Post emergence - applied after the planted crop germinates. ##### Selectivity ###### Selective. Non selective. ##### ***Mode of Action *** ###### Contact - herbicides that kill only the parts of the plant which it comes into contact. Translocated systemic herbicides that will kill the whole plant even if it comes into contact with only a small part of it. ##### ***Methods of Herbicide Application *** ###### Spraying - application of solutions. 41 ----- ###### Dusting - application of dusts. - . Fumigation application of fumigants into the soil ##### ***Safety Measures in the Use of Chemicals*** ###### Read manufacturer's instructions and follow them. . Wear protective clothing such as overalls, breathing mask, gloves and boots Avoid inhaling the herbicides. Wash thoroughly after handling chemicals. Do not blow or such blocked nozzles. Avoid herbicide drift to unintended crops and other plants. Avoid herbicide drift to livestock feed and water. Avoid spilling herbicides in pastures and fodder crops. . Dispose off the empty containers properly for example burying them in the soil Do not wash spraying equipment in water sources used by animals and human beings. Store chemicals in a safe place. Wash the spraying equipment thoroughly. Sink left over chemicals into the soil after the day's work. ##### ***Advantages of Chemical Weed Control*** ###### It is less laborious. Effective in the control of difficult weeds such as couch grass and sedges. It does not disturb crop roots and other underground structures. It makes the control of weeds in certain crop easier. It is efficient in both wet and dry conditions. It does not destroy soil structure. Cheaper in large scale production than the use of manual or mechanical cultivation. ##### ***Disadvantages of Chemical Weed Control *** ###### . It requires skilled labour in mixing and application Cause environmental pollution. Herbicides have long residual effects which may interfere with future crops. It is very expensive. ##### ***Mechanical Weed Control*** ###### It involves the following operations: ##### ***Tillage/Cultivation *** ###### . This is the opening and loosening up of the soil It can be done by hand tools or tractor drawn implements. ##### ***Advantages *** ###### Cheap in small scale production. Increases water and air infiltration into the soil. Incorporates crops residues into the soil. The earthing-up done during tillage encourages root growth. 42 ----- ##### ***Disadvantages *** ###### If done repeatedly it destroys soil structure. It is laborious and expensive in large scale production. It may not effectively control weeds. It may lead to soil erosion and loss of soil moisture. Damage crop roots. ##### ***Slashing/Mowing*** ###### Mechanical removal of shoots from weeds. It is effective in the control of annual weeds. ##### ***Uprooting *** ###### It is done when the crops are too close To allow mechanical cultivation or where weeds are scattered. ##### **Cultural Weed Control** ###### ***It involves the following practices: *** Mulching. Cover cropping. Crop rotation. Timely planting. Use of clean seed/planting materials. Proper spacing. Proper seedbed preparation. Flooding. ##### **Biological Weed Control ** ###### The use of living organisms to control weeds. *** Examples are: *** Use of livestock to graze and control growth of weeds especially in plantations. Use of weed eating fish to control aquatic weeds. Use of moths to control cactus. ##### Limitations : the method is not reliable. **Legislative Weed Control/ Quarantine ** ###### It involves government laws and regulations which prevent the introduction and spread of foreign weeds in a country or an area. Done by KEPHIS. ##### Limitations: Only samples are checked while the bulk of the materials may have ###### some weed seeds. ## **Crop Pests and Diseases** 43 ----- ##### **Introduction ** ###### Crop pests and diseases lead to high losses in crop production hence efficient control measures are needed. Proper control measures require the farmers to be able to; Identify these organisms, Know their life cycles, feeding habits The damage they cause to crops. ##### ***Crop Pests *** ***Definition of a Pest: *** ###### It is a living organism that destroys crops/ trees either directly or indirectly by ###### introducing pathogens (disease causing germs). ##### ***Classification of Pests *** ###### ***Pests are classified according to the following: *** ##### Mod ***e of Feeding *** ###### Pests with biting and chewing mouth parts - they cause physical damage and reduce the photosynthetic area of the plant. Pests with piercing and sucking mouth parts - they suck out the nutritious plant sap and in the process may introduce disease causing organisms. ##### ***Crops Attacked *** ###### Some crop pests attack specific crops for example, stem borers prefer cereal crops. ##### ***Stage of Growth of Crops Attacked *** ###### There are pests of seedlings attack when the crop is young, for example cutworms. Pests of fruits - attack the crops at fruiting stage. Pests of grains attack the crops when the grains are formed. ##### ***Field and Storage Pests *** ###### Some pests attack the crops while in the field. Other pests attack the produce after it has been harvested and stored. ##### ***I dentification of Common Pests *** |Name of Pest|Crop Attacked|Damage Done|Control Measures| |---|---|---|---| |Armyworms (Spodoptera exempta)|Cereal crops Sugar cane (iii) Grasses|Defoliate the whole plant|(i) Early planting (ii) Use of effective insecticides| |Cut worms (Agrotis Spp.)|Young seedlings|Cut the seedlings at the stem base|(i) Early planting (ii) Use of soil applied insecticides (fumigants) (iii) Flood/irrigation| |Boll worms (Heliathis migera)|Cotton, citrus, maize, beans, millet,|Eat and destroy the fruits and seeds|(i) Crop rotation (ii) Field hygiene (iii) Spraying with insecticides| 44 ----- |Col1|legumes|Col3|(iv) early planting| |---|---|---|---| |Maize stalk borer (Busseola fusca) and (Chilo partellus)|Maize sorghum|Destruction of the stem and young growing tissues|(i) Early planting (ii) Field hygiene (iii) Crop rotation (iv) Use of stalk borer dust.| |Loopers (Ascotis selena ria)|Coffee|Make windows in crop leaves|(i) Use of effective (ii) Use of parasitic wasps, and chameleons| |Leaf Miner ( Leucoptera meyricki and L. caffeina)|Coffee|Make mines in the leaves reducing photosynthetic area.|Use of parasitic wasps ( enelmies) (ii) Use of effective| |Stainers (Dysdercus spp.)|Cotton|Stain the cotton lint reducing quality|Use of parasitic tachinid fSlpraying with insecticides. Control alternate hosts. Crop rotation| |Aphids (Aphis spp.)|Several crops as citrus, maize, cotton, beans. cabbages and others|(i) Transmit viral diseases. (ii) Suck out sap leading to stunted growth.|Natural enemies for lady birds (ii) Overhead irrigation (iii) Use of insecticides| ##### ***Other Crop Pests Include: *** ###### Mealy bugs - coffee Thrips - coffee Beetles - field and storage pests. Birds - field pests - cereals and fruits. Rodents - field and storage pests,cereals and tubers. Nematodes - soil borne pests - tomatoes, potatoes, sunflower, beans. ##### ***Harmful Effects of Crop Pests *** ###### Pests such as squirrels and rodents, unearth planted seeds, resulting in poor germination. Some pests like nematodes, termites and moles damage crop roots causing wilting and death of the crops. They lower the quality and quantity of farm produce. They increase the cost of production since farmers will incur expenses in purchasing chemicals to control them. They transmit diseases to crops for example, aphids transmit streak virus disease in maize. Chemicals used to control the pests cause pollution to the environment. They exterminate the crop by feeding on them for example eating embryo of the seed. 45 ----- ##### ***Control of Pests *** ###### If pest population causes damage beyond tolerance then it is said to have reached economic injury level (EIL) hence control measures should be effected before this level. ***Before any control measure is effected,the following should be considered: *** Know the life cycle of the pest. Correct identification of the pest. Correct assessment of the damage. The weather conditions. The value of the crop in question. The cost factor of the control method. ##### ***Methods of Controlling the Pests*** ###### Cultural methods. Physical/mechanical measures Biological methods. Chemical methods. Integrated pest management. ##### ***Cultural Methods:*** ###### These are farming practices which aim at reducing the pest population by destroying the life cycle of the pests either by exposing them to adverse conditions or denying them food. ***These include: *** ##### Timely planting to escape pest attack. ###### Timely harvesting. Proper tillage. Close season : this is the period when a susceptible crop is not grown in order to control a certain pest. ##### Trap cropping : These are crops which attract pests diverting them from the main ###### crop. The trap crop is grown together with the main crop. ##### Crop rotation : It breaks the life cycle of the pest. Planting resistant varieties : These are plants with natural protective mechanisms ###### against pest for example hairy cotton against jassid bugs, goose necked sorghum against birds, high tillering in sorghum against shoot fly. Field hygiene: This includes rogueing and removal of crop residues which harbour pests from field. ##### Alterations of environmental conditions, such as, creating a microclimate ###### which is not conducive to pests for example open pruning in coffee. ##### Crop nutrition: application of fertilizers and manures to make the crop strong and ###### able to escape pest attacks. ##### Destruction of alternate hosts, for example, weeds like mallow which harbour ###### cotton stainers. ##### Use of clean planting materials . This helps to prevent introduction of crop pests. 46 ----- ###### Proper spacing : if well spaced some pests find it difficult to move from one plant to another. ##### Use of organic manure, for example, farmyard manure discourages eel worms ###### (nematodes). ##### ***Chemical Control *** ###### Chemicals used to control pests are known as pesticides. Pesticides are administered through dusting, spraying or fumigating. ##### ***Classification of Pesticides: *** ###### Pesticides are classified on the basis of: ##### ***Mode of Entry *** ###### Stomach - ingested by the pest together with the crop materials. Contact - absorbed through the body tissues. Fumigants - through the breathing mechanism. Systemic - translocated to all parts. ##### ***Mode of Action *** ###### Respiratory poisons - interfere with breathing mechanisms. Coagulants - cause the blood of the pest to coagulate. Neurotoxins - act on the nervous system. Protoplasmic poisons - cause the cells to disintegrate. ##### ***Target Pests *** ###### Insecticides - kill insect pests Molluscicides - kill snails and slugs. Rodenticides - kill rodents. Nematocides - kill nematodes. ##### ***Formulation . *** ###### Dusts, granules and powders Emulsifiable concentrates. Miscible liquids. Wettable powders. Fumigants. ##### ***Factors That Affect the Efficiency of Pesticides *** ###### Concentration of the pesticides. Weather conditions at the time of application. Timing of application - efficiency is high if applied when the pest is most susceptible. Persistence of the pesticide having long residual effect in the soil. Resistance of the pests. ##### ***Advantages of Chemical Pest Control*** ###### Faster Immediate results are achieved. Low labour requirements. 47 ----- ##### ***Disadvantages of Chemical Pest Control *** ###### Expensive to buy. Cause pollution to the environment. Require skilled labour to apply. Some pesticides may kill beneficial organisms and predators. Some target pests may build up resistance. ##### ***Mechanical Pest Control/Physical *** ###### This involves the killing of the pests using physical methods. Or creating physical barriers to prevent pests from getting into contact with the crops . ##### *** Example: *** ###### Flooding/irrigation; for example, moles are suffocated through flooding. Use of lethal temperatures: either too cold or too hot. Suffocation; commonly used in grain storage bins by being made air tight. Trapping and killing, for example, rats. Creation of physical barriers, such as, rat bafflers, sticky materials on tree trunks. Proper drying: this makes them too hard to be destroyed by pests. Scaring devices especially in rice plantations to control birds. Use of explosives thrown at breeding places of birds to kill or scare them away. ##### ***Biological Pest Control *** ###### It involves the use of living organisms to reduce the pest population. ##### ***Predator Target Pest *** ###### Parasitic wasp-------------------White fly in citrus, boll worms, stalk borers Birds--------------------------------- Crickets, locusts, caterpillar llars. Lady Bird --------------------------Aphids Trachnid flies -------------------cotton stainer Praying mantis-----------------giant loppers Majimoto ants -----------------scales Cats ----------------------------------moles,rats,mice Brachonid wasps-------------mealy bugs Chicken ---------------cotton stainer, larvae of beetles, grasshoppers, crickets ##### ***Advantages *** ###### Cheap No environmental pollution Saves on labour. ##### ***Disadvantages *** ###### Takes too long to get the correct agent Difficult to control the pest effectively. ##### ***Integrated Pest Management *** ###### It is a new method which involves the combination of the methods mentioned above. The aim is to have least hazards to the user and to the environment. Example, attractant-pheromones are used to attract pests to one place where they are sprayed and eradicated. 48 ----- ##### ***Legislative Method/Quarantine *** ###### Legislative mearsures of pest control are effected by the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service(KEPHIS) through seed inspection. ##### ***Crop Disease And Their Control *** ###### A disease is any deviation from the normal performance or functions. A plant disease is any harmful physiological disorder in a plant caused by pathogenic agents such as virus, bacteria, fungi. The study of plant disease is called plant pathology. ##### ***Economic importance of crop diseases *** ###### They lower crop yield They reduce the quality of the produce thus reducing their market value They cause food poisoning. E.g ergot in wheat, afflatoxin in grain crops by fungus. They reduce photosynthetic area of the plant. ##### ***Classification and identification of plant disease *** ###### Plant disease are classified according to their causal agents; ##### ***Fungal diseases; *** ###### Fungi are non-green plant-like. Some are parasitic and others are saprophytic. *** Parasitic fungi divided into; *** ##### Obligate parasites- those that depend on other living organisms for food. Falcultative parasites -those that are able to live on both the living and dead ###### tissues. *** Examples of fungal disease *** Panama disease (Fusarium oxysperiumbananas) Cigar-end rot (Verticilium theobromae)-bananas Die back attack the tips of shoots and roots Mildews -foliar disease of several crops Armillaria root rot (Armillaria mellea)-coffee and tea Damping off-disease of seedlings in the nursery Anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp)-coffee,beans,tomatoes. Fungus also cause damage to stored grains which are not properly dried or if the ###### store is damp. ##### Fungus cause food poisoning and lower seed viability for example Aspergillus flavus which produces a highly toxic compound called afflatoxin. *** Examples of fungal disease *** |Disease/cause|Crops attacked|Symptoms of attack|Control measures| |---|---|---|---| |Late blight (Phytopthora infestans)|Members of Solanaceae family (potatoes, tomatos)|Dry patches on the leaves and fruits (necrotic lesions)|-Crop rotation -effective fungicides -treated seeds -resistant varieties| |Rusts (Pucinia spp)|Rice, wheat, sorghum, maize|Red and brown pistules on the leaves, shriveled grains|-resistant varieties -Recommended fungicides -Early planting| |Smuts(Ustilago spp)|Wheat, maize, sugarcane|Black powder mass on the spikes and the ear|-Field hygiene, -certified seeds,| 49 ----- |Col1|Col2|Col3|-resistant varieties, -crop rotation| |---|---|---|---| |Blasts(Piricularia oryzae)|Rice|-Small blue sports on leaves with grey centre. -Attack inflorescence to cause empty heads|-Seed dressing -Resistant varieties eg sindano -Destruction of affected plants -fungicides| |Coffee Berry Disease(CBD) (Colletotrichum coffeanum)|Coffee|-Dark blotches spots on the flowers -Brown concentric rings on the leaves -Dark sunken wounds on the berries.|-Resistant varieties eg Ruiru 11 -Proper pruning -Effective fungicides -strippung| ##### ***Bacterial Diseases *** ###### Bacteria are microscopic single-celled organisms which reproduce by binary fission ##### Transmission; Through irrigation water, seeds, fertilizers, manures, wind, ###### raindrop splash, insects, soil and mechanical means. ##### ***Symptoms of Bacterial Diseases *** ###### Wilting Cankers(necrotic tissues)localized necrosis Gall formation in infected tissues. ##### ***Examples of bacterial diseases*** |Disease/Cause|Crops Attacked|Symptoms of Attack|Control Measures|Col5| |---|---|---|---|---| |Halo blight (Pseudomonas phaseolicola)|Beans|i. Irregular dark lesions on leaves and pods. ii. Yellow band round the lesions called "halo". iii. Water soaked lesions|Use of resistant varieties for example Wairimu. ii. Effective fungicide. iii. Crop rotation|| |Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum)|Tomatoes|Stunted growth. ii. Yellowing and shedding of leaves. iii. Wilting of the plant.|i. Use of resistant varieties.|| |Black arm (Anthomonas malvacearum)|Cotton|i. Small round spots on the cotyledons of young seedlings. ii. The spots elongate to form black lesions on the stem.|i. Field hygiene. ii. Use of certified seeds.|| |Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum)|Tomatoes and potatoes|Uniform. wilting of the whole plant even with enough water.|i. Use of certified seeds. ii. Crop rotation.|| 50 ----- ##### **Viral Diseases ** ###### Viruses are small living organisms which can only be seen under a very powerful electronic microscope. Viruses interfere with photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration and nitrogen utilization ##### ***Symptoms of Viral Infection *** ###### Leaf chlorosis. Leaf curling. Mosaic(light green or yellow patches). Malformation(distortion)of plant parts. Rosettes; Development of abnormally short internode. ##### ***Transmission *** ###### Through the use of infected vegetative materials and insect vectors like aphids, mealybugs and leafhoppers. ***Viral diseases*** |Disease/Cause|crops Attacked|Symptoms of Attack|Control Measures| |---|---|---|---| |Ratton stunting|Sugar cane|Red discoloration on the vascular bundles.|Use of clean materials. Treatment of seed canes.| |Maize streak|Maize|Yellow stripes alternating with green, parallel to the midrib.|Control leaf hopper. ii. Use if certified seeds. iii. Field sanitation.| |Greening disease|Citrus|i. Yellow mottling of the leaves. Die back. iii. Premature leaf fall.|i, Use of clean tools when budding. Control of insect vectors.| |Leaf mosaic|Suzgar cane, cassava. sweet potatoes.|i. Yellow mottling. Necrosis of stem.|Control of aphids. ii. Use of clean materials. Seed treatment.| |Tristeza|Citrus|Dwarfing of Die back.|i. Stripping affected fruits. ii. Use of clean equipment of budding.| ##### ***Other Causes of Crop Diseases *** ###### Flooding forming ammonia which is poisonous to the crops causing a burning effect on leaves. Chemicals: some may be toxic. Poor weather: Extremes of day and night temperatures. Stress: such as irregular watering as in tomato blossom end rot. ##### ***Control of Crop Diseases *** ###### Cultural method: This involves use of Healthy planting materials. Practicing field hygiene. 51 ----- ###### Proper seedbed preparation. Proper spacing. Heat treatment of the planting materials for example sugar cane. Proper drying of cereals and pulses to 13%M.C. Growing disease resistant varieties. ##### ***Legislative Method *** ###### Involves the imposing of regulations and laws especially in case of disease outbreaks to prevent the introduction and spread of diseases. ##### ***Chemical Control *** ###### Used as a last resort. ***Chemical control measures include: *** Seed dressing before planting. Soil fumigation to control soil borne diseases. Spraying: application of fungicides. ## **Crop Production VI ** **(Field Practices II) ** ##### **Introduction ** ###### There are many crops cultivated in Kenya. These crops are grown for various uses and require different ecological conditions. ##### ***Definitions: *** - Hybrids These are crop varieties developed by crossing two pure lines. Composites - These are crop varieties developed through repeated ###### mass selection. ##### Cultivars - these are varieties of crops which are cultivated in a given area. ***Maize *** ###### Main growing areas: Trans-Nzoia, Nakuru, Uasin Gishu, Laikipia districts and others. ##### ***Ecological Requirements *** ###### Altitude: Upto 2000m above sea level. Temperature: About 25C Soils: Freely draining, fertile loam soils. Rainfall: 750-12S0rnm critical at silking and pollination stage. ##### Varieties 52 ----- ###### High altitude areas: Hybrids 611, 613 and 614C. Medium altitude areas: 511,512,622 and 632. Marginal rainfall areas: Katumani composite and Makueni composite. Coast regions: Coast composite and Katumani composite. ##### ***Seedbed Preparation *** ###### Ploughing should be deep and done during the dry season to eradicate weeds. Require medium tilth. Plant spacing 75-90cm x 20-30cm. Planting done at the onset of the rains. This helps to reduce pest attack. Dry planting in areas with inadequate rainfall is necessary. ##### *Field Maintenance : * ###### Apply phosphatic fertilizer during planting at a rate of 120kg/ha P2O5 Also nitrogenous fertilizers as top dress at the rate of 200kg of ASN or CAN. Control weeds by cultivation, use of appropriate herbicides, uprooting, slashing and mulching. ##### ***Pest Control *** Maize Stalk Borer: ###### Nature of damage: Boring the leaves causing windowing effect, boring the stems and cobs. Control: Destruction of previous years crop residue, closed season and apply chemicals ##### Maize Weevils : ###### it is a storage pest. Damage: Bores holes into the maize grains, eating the contents. Control: Proper hygiene and sanitation in the stores. Use of chemicals such as Actellic Super. ##### **Disease Control: ** Rust ###### Cause: Fungus. Symptoms: Red or brown pustules on the. leaves. Control: Plant resistant varieties and crop rotation. ##### Smuts ###### Cause: Fungus Symptoms: Black sooty mass of spores on maize heads or cobs(ear). Control: Crop rotation, growing resistant varieties and destruction of affected plant parts. ##### Maize Streak Virus 53 ----- ###### Cause: Virus Symptoms: Yellow longitudinal stripes parallel to the midrib. Control: Certified seed, early planting and rogueing. ##### ***Harvesting *** ###### Harvest the crop 3-9 months after planting depending on variety. Maize stalks are cut and stocked in the field. Cobs removed by hand. For large scale harvesting, combined harvesters are used. Yields about 3,OOOkg and 4500kg/ha. ##### ***Bulrush Millet *** ###### ***Areas where grown:*** Lower areas of Kirinyaga, Embu, Meru, Parts of Machakos Kerio Valley. ##### ***Ecological Requirements *** ###### Altitude: Does well in areas below 1200m. Rainfall: 500-600mrn per annum. Soils: Light sandy soils. Varieties: Serere 2A, 3A, 6A, 17, ##### ***Seed Bed Preparations *** ###### Ploughing of land during the dry season. Soil should be of fine tilth since the seeds are small. ##### ***Planting: *** ###### Done at the onset of the rains. Planted by broadcasting and row planting at a spacing of 60cm x 15cm. ##### ***Field Maintenance: *** ###### Weeding is done until tillering. Top-dressing is done by use of sulphate of ammonia. ##### ***Pest Control *** ** Birds ** ###### Nature of Damage : Eats the seeds at milky stage. Control: Bird scaring devices. ##### ***Disease Control *** **Ergot ** ###### Cause: Fungus. 54 ----- ###### Symptoms : Heads become sticky. Control: Use of certified seeds, crop rotation and destruction of affected crops. ##### **Downy Mildew** ###### Cause: Fungus. Symptoms: Long, whitish lines on the leaves. Control: Crop rotation and field hygiene. ##### ***Harvesting *** ###### Done by cutting off the heads. Drying of the heads. Threshing and winnowing of the grains. Stored under well ventilated dry conditions. Yields about 1000kg/ha with good management. ##### ***Finger Millet *** ###### Areas where grown : Western Kenya and Uganda. ##### ***Ecological Requirements *** ###### Altitude: 0-2400m above sea level. Rainfall: 900mm, drought resistant in the early stages. Soils: Free draining fertile soils. ##### **Varieties: ** ###### Serere varieties developed at Serere in Uganda. Ultra lupin 5.18 oats. ##### ***Land Preparations *** ###### The seedbed should be thoroughly prepared to a fine tilth due to the small size of the seeds. It also helps to control weeds. ##### ***Field Operations*** ***Planting *** ###### Finger millet should be planted as early as possible in the season. It is usually broadcasted by hand. If planted in rows, the furrows should be 30-33cm apart and the plants should be thinned to 5cm apart within the rows. ##### ***Fertilizer Application *** ###### Sulphate of ammonia at the rate of 125kg/ha is recommended for topdressing finger millet. ##### ***Weed Control *** 55 ----- ###### Clean seedbed preparation Uprooting ##### Pest Control : ###### Birds are controlled through scaring. ##### ***Disease Control*** ###### ***Head blast: *** Cause: Fungus Symptoms: Brown spots with grey centres on the leaves and stems below the inflorescence. Control: Use of resistant varieties. ##### *** Harvesting *** ###### Individual heads are cut with knives. Heads are dried, threshed and winnowed. Yields 1650kg/ha with good management. ##### ***Sorghum *** ###### It is grown in Western, northern, Rift Valley, Eastern and some parts of Central Province. ##### *** Ecological Requirements *** ###### Altitude: 0-1500m above sea level. Rainfall: 420-630mm. It is drought resistant. Soils: Fairly fertile and well drained soils. ##### *** Varieties *** ###### Dobbs variety. Serena variety. ##### *** Field Operations *** *** Planting *** ###### Broadcasting the seeds on the firmly prepared seedbed. Intercropped with other crops especially maize and beans. ##### Can be planted in pure stands at a spacing of 60cm x 15cm *** Fertilizer Application *** ###### Responds well to farmyard manure (FYM). Inorganic fertilizers are not commonly used in growing sorghum. ##### *** Pest Control *** 56 ----- ###### Bird pests: They are the most common sorghum pests. ##### They include ***quelea, *** ***aethiopica (Sudan Dioch), *** ***weaver birds, *** ***starling bird *** *** bishop's bird. *** ###### They are controlled through; killing them using explosives, poison spraying in their breeding places use of flame throwers. Sorghum shoot-fly controlled by early planting, closed season and application of insecticides. Stem borer - control by use of insecticides and field hygiene. ##### ***Disease Control *** ###### *** Common sorghum diseases include: *** Leaf blight Anthracnose. Sooty stripe. Loose smut Head smut *** Smuts are controlled by seed dressing-while the other diseases are controlled by growing *** ***resistant varieties. *** ##### ***Harvesting *** ###### Sorghum is ready for harvesting 3-4 months after planting. Heads are cut off using a sharp knife after which they are sun-dried, threshed, winnowed and stored. Up to 3000kg/hectare can be obtained with good management. ##### ***Beans *** ###### Grown in all provinces where maize is grown. ##### ***Ecological Requirements *** ###### Altitude: 10.00-2100 metres above sea level. Rainfall : Average of 62Smm per annum. Soils : Well drained loamy soils rich in organic matter. ##### ***Varieties *** 57 ----- ###### : ##### ** Varieties for dry beans** ###### Rose Coco, Mwezi Moja, Canadian Wonder, Wairimu, Haricot, Mwitemania. ##### Variety for canning : Mexican 142. Varieties for French Beans : ###### Primeur, Long Tom, Saza, Master Piece Monel. ##### ***Seedbed Preparation *** ###### Land should be prepared early. Primary and secondary cultivation done to control perennial weeds. ##### ***Seed Selection and Treatment *** ###### Select wholesome seeds free from damage and wrinkles. Seeds are dressed against bean fly. Seeds should be inoculated with appropriate bacteria (none dressed seeds) ##### ***Planting *** ###### Planted at the onset of the rains. Spacing 30-45cm x 15cm. Apply phosphatic fertilizer during planting time. Plant 2-4 seeds per hole. ##### ***Field Maintenance *** ###### Provide sticks for the climbing varieties. Control of weeds through shallow cultivation. Top-dress with nitrogenous fertilizer for example CAN. ##### ***PestControl *** ***Bean-Fly *** ###### Nature of damage: Feeds on the stems causing swelling at the roots. This results in wilting and death. Control: Dressing of seeds, early planting and spraying with insecticides. ##### Bean Bruchid (Storage Pest) ###### Nature of damage: Make dark circular windows on the grains. Control: Clean stores, fumigation, and seed dressing. 58 ----- ##### ***Diseases Control *** Bean Anthracnose ###### Cause' Fungus Symptoms: Brown or black lesions on the underside of the leaves, pods and stems. Control: Growing resistant varieties, crop rotation, destruction of crop residues and spraying with fungicides. ##### Bean Rust ###### Cause: Fungus Symptoms: Red brown pustules on the leaves. Control: Planting resistant varieties and spraying copper fungicides. ##### ***Harvesting *** ###### Done during the dry season for dry beans and when the pods are dry. Threshing and winnowing done. Sorting of rotten, off types and damaged ones. Sold to National Cereals and Produce Board when dry. For French beans, pick the pods when soft and green. Market immediately to avoid shrivelling. #### ***Rice Production*** ###### *** Areas where grown; *** Mwea Tabere Irrigation Scheme Ahero Pilot Scheme in Kano plains. Bunyala in Busia. Bura in Tana River. ##### ***Land Preparation *** ###### Plots of 0.4 hectare are made with bunds constructed around them. Plots are flooded for four days. Rotavators/jembes are used to work the flooded fields on the fifth day. The land is then levelled and allowed to drain. ##### ***Water Control *** ###### During land preparation, water level should be about 7.5-10cm. During levelling water level should be 5cm Water is drained off completely for direct sowing. For transplanted rice, water level should be 5cm at transplanting. Water level should be maintained at the height of plant until maturity. Water should be allowed to flow slowly through the fields. Old water should be changed every 2- 3 weeks if the flow of water is not possible. Water introduced should always be warm to ensure pollination. 59 ----- ##### ***Fertilizer Application *** ###### S.A applied in the nursery. Rate of 25kg SA for every nursery unit of 18.5m x 18.5m. Phosphatic fertilizers broadcasted in the field. Rate of 120kg ha DSP before planting. S.A applied in the field in two splits before and after transplanting at a rate of 250kg/ha ##### ***Flooding in Rice *** ###### ***Flood water in rice production is important for the following reasons; *** It provides good conditions for growth such as high humidity. Kills soil organisms. Prevents denitrification. ##### ***Weed Control *** ###### Controlled through flooding. Appropriate herbicides such as propanil and butachlor are also used. ##### ***Harvesting of Industrial Crops *** ###### cotton, pyrethrum, sugarcane, coffee and tea. ##### ***Harvesting of Cotton *** ###### ***Stage of harvesting *** Takes 4 months to mature. Harvest when bolls are dry and fully opened. ***Method and Procedure *** In Kenya cotton is picked manually. Sort out grade AR (safi) from grade BR (fifi) into separate containers. ***Precautions *** Harvest during dry conditions to prevent dirtifying the lint. Avoid use of gunny bags to prevent contamination. Avoid picking leaves. Harvest on weekly basis. ##### ***Harvesting of Pyrethrum *** ###### ***Stage of harvesting *** Takes 3-4 months to mature. Harvest the flowers with disc florets which have assumed a horizontal position. ***Methods and Procedure *** Pyrethrum is picked manually. Flowers are picked by twisting the heads so that no stem is attached. 60 ----- ###### ***Precaution *** Clean harvesting should be done. Avoid picking leaves. Flowers are placed in woven baskets. Overblown flowers are picked and thrown off. Pick the flowers when the dew is dry. Harvested flowers should be taken to the factory the same day. Avoid compaction of flowers in the basket. Harvesting interval, once in two weeks during the wet season and once in a month during the dry season. ##### ***Harvesting Sugarcane *** ###### ***Stage of harvesting; *** Take 14-20 months for the plant crop to mature and 12-16 months for the ratoon crop. Sampling of cane is done before harvesting to ascertain the correct sugar content. ***Methods and Procedures *** Cut the cane at the ground level to avoid yield loss. The green tops are removed from the canes. Harvesting matchet is used for cutting the cane. ***Precaution *** Cane should be harvested immediately at maturity to avoid lowering quality. The green tops should be removed immediately after cutting to avoid reduction of sugar content by enzyme invertase. Burnt cane should be harvested immediately after burning to prevent rapid inversion to monosaccharides. The cane should be processed within 48 hours. ##### ***Harvesting of Coffee *** ###### ***Stage of harvesting; *** Takes 2-4 years depending on the pruning system. Harvest only ripe berries. ***Methods and Procedures; *** Hand picking is done so that ripe berries can be selected. During picking hooked sticks can be used to bend the tall trees. ***Precautions *** Only the uniformly ripe berries should be picked. Over-ripe and under-ripe berries should be dried and sold as buni. Ripe cherries should be processed on the same day they are picked. ##### ***Harvesting Tea *** 61 ----- ###### ***Stage of harvesting *** It takes 2-4 years for tea to mature depending on the method of bringing young tea into bearing. ***Method and Procedures *** Tea harvesting is known as plucking. Fine plucking - 2 leaves and a bud are removed. Coarse plucking - 3 leaves and a bud are removed. A straight fitto(straight stick) is used to guide the plucker on the plucking table. Tipping is done by cutting off shoots that appear above the fitto. ***Precautions *** Plucked tea is placed in woven (well ventilated) baskets to prevent fermenting before it reaches the factory. The plucked tea should be kept in a cool place awaiting transport. It should be processed within the same day of harvesting. Harvesting is done on a weekly basis under wet conditions and once after every two weeks under dry conditions. ### **Forage Crops ** ##### **Introduction ** ###### These are plants which either grow naturally or are cultivated by man to be used for feeding livestock. The term forage crops include pasture and fodder crops. Fodder crops are purposely grown for feeding livestock. They are cut or uprooted when ready Pasture is a ground cover of grass or a mixture of grass and legumes grazed directly or cut and fed to livestock. ##### **Classification of Pastures ** ###### . ##### **According to type of stand** ###### Either pure Mixed stands. ##### **According to ecological zones . ** ###### Low altitude, Medium altitude, High altitude pastures . ##### **According to the establishment** ###### Natural Artificial pastures . ##### ***Examples of grasses*** ###### Napier, Rhodes, Setaria, Molasses, Congo signal, kikuyu, star, Guatemala, Sudan 62 ----- ###### Guinea. ##### ***Examples of legumes; *** ###### Lucern, Clover, Desmodium, Glycine, Stylo, Centrio, ##### **Pasture Establishment ** ** Seedbed Preparation ** ###### This involves clearing the land, primary and secondary cultivation to a fine tilth because the seeds are small. This is done during the dry season. ##### ** Selection of planting materials** ###### Select seeds of high germination percentage, Free from impurities or buy certified seeds. If vegetative materials are used, select from high yielding, vigorous-growing and healthy plants. ##### ** Treatment of legume seeds ** ###### Legume seeds are inoculated with the correct strain of bacteria which fix nitrogen for the crop. ##### *** Planting *** ###### This is done at the beginning of the rains ##### *** Methods of sowing are; *** ##### ***Direct sowing, *** ***Under sowing, *** ***Over-sowing *** **Oversowing ** ###### This is introduction of a pasture legume in an existing grass pasture. ##### **Undersowing ** ###### The establishment of a pasture in an already existing crop which acts as a cover crop. ##### *** Seeds rate depend; *** ###### On purity of seeds, Pasture species Whether pure or mixed stand. Apply phosphatic fertilizer when planting and later top-dress with nitrogenous fertilizer. ##### **Pasture management ** ##### Re-seeding or gapping ; Re-seeding is done if the grass is completely denudated. ###### But if partially, gapping can be done ##### Control of weeds by slashing, uprooting and mowing Fertilization of pastures -done by use of manures and nitrogenous fertilizer. Topping ;This is the removal of stemmy fibrous material left behind after grazing.It ###### allows new growth after the rains ##### Control of pests -done by trapping of moles, use of pesticides and biological ###### means. ##### ***Pasture Utilization *** ###### Pastures should be utilized at maturity when nutritive value is high. *** It is utilized through the following methods: *** 63 ----- ##### Direct grazing - this can be done through rotational grazing or herding. Zero grazing - this is where the pasture is cut and fed to the animals in the stalls. ***Common fodder Crops *** ***Edible Cana *** ###### Altitude: 1500 - 2000m above sea level. Establishment: Young tubers or bulbs are used. Spacing: 1m x 1m. Management: Does well with application of farmyard manure and requires fertile land. Utilization: Tops and tubers are sliced and fed to livestock. Conservation: Bulbs or tubers are sliced and stored. ##### *** Napier Grass *** ###### Altitude: 0 - 2000m above sea level. Establishment: Stem cuttings or splits. Spacing: 1 m x 50cm. ***Management: *** Apply phosphatic fertilizers during planting time. Top-dress with nitrogenous fertilizers in split application. Clean weeding when young. Cut when 6-8 weeks or 1m-1.5m in height. Utilization: Cut stem is fed to livestock. Conservation: Ensiled when in plenty. ***Types of Napier Grass: *** Bana grass ( broad-leaved with hairy leaves) Clone (thin-stemmed and hairless) French Cameroon (thin-stemmed and not hairy). Pakistan hybrid (thin-leaved with hairy leaves). Used for silage making. ##### ***Lucerne *** ###### Altitude: 1500 - 2500m above sea level. Soil: Deep red soil are ideal. Establishment: Inoculated seeds are planted 30-50cm apart in the rows. Management: Weeding and fertilizer application. Utilization : Cut wilted and fed to livestock before flowering stage. Conservation: Hay, silage, dried materials such as cubes or pencils. ##### *** Mangolds *** ###### Is a root crop. Root is utilized as livestock feed. Ripe ones are used. ##### *** Kales *** 64 ----- ###### Leaves used as livestock feeds. ##### *** Guatemala Grass *** ###### Leaves and stems used as livestock feed. ##### ***Sorghum Grass *** ###### ***Two varieties: *** ##### Columbus grass Sudan grass. ###### Established from seeds which are drilled or broadcasted. Columbus grass should be dried before feeding to animals to avoid hydrocyanic and prussic acid poisoning. ##### ***Desmodium (Desmodium spp) *** ###### ***Two varieties ;*** ##### Green leaf Silver leaf. ###### Established from seeds on thoroughly prepared clean beds. Can also be inter-planted with Napier grass. Cut and wilted before feeding to livestock. ##### ***Agroforestry, trees used as fodder crops include: *** ###### Leucaenia Calliandra Atriplex Sesbania. ##### ***Forage Conservation *** ###### ***Forage can be conserved as; *** Hay, Silage Standing forage. ##### ***Importance of forage conservation: *** ###### To reserve excess forage for use during time of shortage. To avoid unnecessary wastage of forage. Conserved forage can be sold. To have sustained supply of feed for livestock throughout the year. ##### ***Methods *** ***Hay Making *** ###### This is the dehydration of green pastures to a moisture content of 16-20 per cent: ##### **Steps in hay making : ** ###### Cut the crop when the sun is shining. Dry the materials for 1-2 days. Windrow the dry material to allow for further drying. Bale the dry materials for storage. 65 ----- ###### Store under shed or shelter. ##### ***Factors Determining Quality of Hay *** ###### Stage of growth at which forage is harvested. . Leaf content of the forage material r . Method of handling and cu ing the hay Form in which material is fed to livestock. Species of forage used. Amount of foreign materials in forage. ##### ***Silage Making *** ###### This is a feed produced by conserving forage in succulent form through the process of fermentation by anaerobic bacteria. ##### ***Steps in silage making: *** ###### Cut the crop and transport it to the silo, Material with a high moisture content is wilted in the sun for 4-48 hours before ensiling . Material is chopped to reasonable size pieces before filling in the silo. Spread the chopped material evenly. Check temperature if below 31C, needs further filling; if above 31 C compaction is necessary. Filling should be complete by the end of the third or fourth day. The silo is covered with 15cm of straw, sawdust then 15cm of soil to make it air and water tight. A trench is dug round the silo to keep off surface water. ##### ***Factors Affecting the Quality of Silage *** ###### Maturity stage of the crop when cut. Type of crop. Moisture content of the material Additives such as molasses. Degree of compaction. Size of pieces ensiled. Amount of foreign materials included in the silage. Amount of leaf of the ensiled material. ##### ***Standing Forage *** ###### This is forage left in the field to be used during the dry season. ## **Liv** **estock Health III: (Diseases) ** ##### **Introduction ** 66 ----- ###### ***Livestock diseases are classified according to causative agents as follows: *** Protozoan diseases -caused by protozoans. Bacterial diseases - caused by bacteria: VIral diseases - cause by virus. Nutritional diseases - brought about by nutritional disorders. ##### ***Protozoan Diseases *** ###### East coast Fever (ECF). Anaplasmosis (gall sickness) Coccidiosis Trypanosomiasis (Nagana) ##### **East coast Fever ** ###### Animals attacked: Cattle Cause: Protozoan. (Theileria parva) It is a tick-borne disease transmitted by red-legged tick and brown ear tick. ##### ***Symptoms *** ###### Rise in body temperature. Swelling of lymph glands below the ear. Difficulties in breathing. Dullness. ##### ***Control and Prevention *** ###### Control of vectors through dipping and fencing. Treatment by use of clexon in the early stages. ##### ***Anaplasmosis (gall sickness) *** ###### *Animals attacke d:* Cattle between 2 months and 2 years. Poultry. Lambs and kids. Rabbits. Cause: Protozoan (Anaplasma marginale) Transmitted by the blue tick contaminated surgical instruments and hypodermic needles. ##### ***Symptoms *** ###### Fever/rise in body temperature. Constipation or hard dung. Paleness in the gums, eyes and lips. Drop in milk production. ##### ***Control *** ###### Tick control. 67 ----- ###### Intramuscular injection of antibiotics and iron giving injections. Coccidiosis ##### ***Coccidiosis of Poultry *** ###### Cause: Protozoan (Eimeria spp.) ***Symptoms *** Sudden death of chicks. Whitish, yellow and blood stained diarrhoea. Ruffled feathers. Chicks become paralysed before dying. Chicks become anaemic and dull. ##### ***Control *** ###### Disinfection of chick house. Prevention of contamination of food and water with droppings. Use of prophylatic drugs for example, Coccidiostats. ##### ***Trypanosomiasis (Nagana) *** ###### Animals attacked: cattle, sheep and goats. Cause: Protozoan of the trypanosome species, Vector- tsetse flies. ***Symptoms *** Fever. Dullness. Anorexia/loss of appetite. Loss of body condition/emaciation. Swollen lymph nodes. Lachrimation which leads to blindness. Diarrhoea Rough coat and sometimes without hair and may be cracked. Swelling in parts of the belly. Drop in milk production in lactating cows. /' Loss of hair at tail end. Anaemia. Abortion may occur in pregnant females. ***Control *** Treating animals with trypanocidal drugs. Effective vector (Tsetse flies)control Confinement of wild animals in game parks. ##### ***Bacterial Diseases *** ###### Fowl typhoid 68 ----- ###### Foot rot. Contagious abortion. Scours. Blackquarter. Mastitis. Anthrax. Pneumonia. ##### ***Fowl Typhoid *** ###### Animals attacked: All domestic birds which include chicken, turkey and ducks. Causes: Bacteria ( Salmonella gallinarum } ***Symptoms *** Depression/appearing very sick. Respiratory distress. Dullness. Drooping wings. Sleepy eyes. Anaemia resulting in pale and shrunken combs and wattles. Greenish yellow diarrhoea. ***Control *** Killing all affected birds and proper disposal of the carcasses. Maintaining hygiene in the poultry house. Ensuring that the house is dry and well ventilated. Obtaining chicks from reliable sources. Treatment using sulphur drugs which are mixed in drinking water or mash. For example: application of Furazolidone (Furazol) at the rate of 0.04% in mash for 10 continuous days treats the disease effectively. ##### ***Foot Rot *** ###### It is also referred to as foul-in-the foot. Animals attacked : cattle, sheep and goats. However, it is most serious in sheep. Cause: Bacteria ( Fusiformis necrophorus and Fusiformis nodosus ). ***Symptoms *** Animal's foot becomes swollen. Lameness is observed. Pus and rotten smell come out of the hoof. Sheep are found kneeling while grazing when the front feet are affected. Animals spend most of their time lying down when the hind feet are affected. Emaciation due to lack of feeding. ***Control *** Hygiene in the living places. Regular foot examination and hoof trimming. 69 ----- ###### Use of a foot bath of copper sulphate solution at 5-10% solution or formalin at 2-5% solution. Treating wounds on the feet with antiseptics. Affected animals should be given antibiotic injections. Isolation of sick animals from healthy ones. Avoid dampness and muddy conditions. ##### ***Cont us Abortion B '*** ***agio (Brucellosis/ ang s Disease) *** ###### Animals attacked: cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. o It also affects man. Cause: Bacteria o Brucella abortus in cattle, o Brucella suis in pigs o Brucella malitensis in goats and sheep. ***Symptoms *** Spontaneous abortion or premature birth. Retained placenta if abortion occurs during the later stages of pregnancy. Infertility in cows while bulls have low libido and inflamed testis also known as orchitis. A yellowish brown, slimy, odourless discharge from the vulva may occur after the abortion. ***Control *** Use of artificial insemination. Slaughtering affected animals followed by proper disposal of their carcasses. The attendant to the animals should avoid contact with the aborted foetus. A blood test should be carried out for all breeding animals to detect the infected ones. H . ygiene in the animals' houses ##### ***Scours (white Scours) *** ###### Animals atacked: calves, piglets, lambs and kids. Cause: A bacterium which attacks young animals in the first week of life. ***Symptoms *** White or yellowish diarrhoea. Pungent smelling faeces. Fever. Anorexia/loss of appetite. Listlessness. Sunken eyes. . Undigested milk and mucus with blood spots observed in the faeces Faecal matter sticks to the hind quarters. . Sudden death if no treatment is given ***Control *** Maintaining hygiene in the young animal housing units. 70 ----- ###### Avoiding dampness on the floor of the house. Fingers of the attendant training calves to drink milk from a bucket must be disinfected. . Calving should be carried out in a clean area Have separate attendants for the infected calves to prevent disease spread. . Replacing milk with warm water mixture Treating affected animals with antibiotics. ##### ***Black Quarter *** ###### It is also known as black leg. Animals attacked: All ruminants aged between 8 - 18 months. Cause: Bacteria ( Clostridium chauvei and Chauvei septicum ) ***Symptoms *** Lameness. Fever. Fast and heavy breathing. Cracking on the swollen parts if touched. Swelling of the affected parts usually the hindquarters, shoulders and chest or back. Dullness. Anorexia. Grunting and grinding of teeth. Animal stops chewing cud. ***Control *** Treating with recommended antibiotics. Vaccinating using black quarter vaccine known as blanthax. Burying the carcass deep or burning it completely. ##### ***Mastitis *** ###### Is an inflammation of the udder. Animals attacked: Goats, cows, pigs and human beings. Cause: Bacteria ( Streptococcus spp. or Staphylococcus spp .) ***Pre-disposing Factors: *** Incomplete milking. Injuries on the udder and teats. Weak sphincter muscles of the teats allowing free flow of milk. ***Symptoms *** Milk is watery, blood stained or clotted. Swollen udder ***Control *** Proper milking techniques. Treatment by use of antibiotics. Culling of animals which are often attacked. ##### ***Anthrax *** 71 ----- ###### Attacks all domestic animals. Cause: Bacteria ( Bacillus anthracis ) ***Symptoms *** Sudden death. High fever. Grinding of the teeth. ##### ***Pneumonia *** ###### It is an inflammation of the lungs. Animals attacked: Calves, kids, lambs, piglets and poultry. ***Cause:*** Bacteria ( Mycoplasma mycoides ) dust w . orms in the lungs ***Symptoms *** Dullness. Anorexia/loss of appetite. Staring coat. Emaciation. Breathing rapidly. Abnormal lung sounds when breathing. Coughing if the chest is pressed. Fluctuating body temperature. Nasal discharge. ***Control *** Keeping young animals in warm pens. Proper sanitation. Isolation of the affected animals. Treating using antibiotics. ##### ***Viral Diseases *** ###### Rinderpest. Foot and mouth disease (FMD). New Castle Fowl pox Gumboro African swine fever ##### ***Rinderpest *** ###### Animal attacked: Cattle and wild game. Cause: virus. ***Symptoms *** 72 ----- ###### Harsh staring coat. Rise in temperature. Eye discharge (Lachrimation) Diarrhoea and dysentery. Ulcers in the mouth. ##### ***Foot and Mouth Disease *** ###### Animals attacked: Cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. Cause: Virus . ***Symptoms *** Sharp rise in temperature. Blisters in the mouth, hooves, udder and teats. Loss of appetite. ***Control *** Vaccination. Quarantine nursing wounds with disinfectant. ##### ***New Castle *** ###### Animals attacked: Poultry. Cause: Virus. ***Symptoms *** Difficulties in breathing. Beaks remain wide open and necks are strained. Birds become dull. The birds stand with eyes closed all the time. Anorexia/loss of appetite. Nasal discharges which force the birds to shake their heads to clear it. Birds walk with a staggering motion. Paralysis of wings and legs may occur. Birds have their beaks and wings down. Birds produce watery greenish diarrhoea. Birds lay soft shelled eggs. ***Control *** Killing all birds and burning them followed by cleaning and disinfecting the houses before bringing in new stock. Vaccination should be done during the first 6 weeks and then 2-3 months later. Quarantine. ##### ***FowlPox *** ###### Animals affected: Poultry. Cause: A virus known as avian fox. ***Symptoms *** 73 ----- ###### Two types of fowl pox with different symptoms. Cutaneous type Diptheritic type The cutaneous type affects the skin and has the following signs: Injuries on the combs and wattles, legs, vent and under the wings. Loss appetite. The diptheritic type affects internal membranes and has the following symptoms: Injuries in the inside of the throat and mouth membranes resulting in difficult breathing and swallowing. Eyes and nose produces a watery liquid. Loss of appetite. Dullness. Emaciation. ***Control *** Killing all affected birds followed by proper disposal of their carcasses. . Vaccinating remaining healthy birds ##### ***Gumboro *** ###### It is also referred to as poultry AIDS. Animals attacked: Poultry. Cause: A virus known as Birma virus. ***Symptoms *** The glands above the vent (bursa) become swollen. Drop in egg production. Birds develop respiratory distress. Loss of appetite. Low water intake by birds. Loss of immunity making the birds more susceptible to opportunistic diseases. ***Control *** Vaccination. Administering vitamins and especially B12. ##### ***African Swine Fever *** ###### Animals attacked: All domesticated pigs. Cause: A virus known as Irido virus. ***Symptoms *** Fever. Loss of appetite. Depression/dullness. Emaciation. . Coughing Nasal discharge. Diarrhoea in serious conditions. ***Control *** 74 ----- ###### Vaccination. Quarantine. Killing all affected animals and proper disposal of their carcasses. Double fencing to keep wild animals away. ##### Nutritional Diseases/Disorders ***Milk Fever *** ###### It is a non-infectious disease brought about by calcium deficiency in animals which have recently given birth. Animals attacked: Cows, goats and pigs that have recently given birth. ***Causes: *** Due to low calcium levels in the blood. Which leads to an increase in the magnesium and sugar level in the blood. Mostly occurs in high producing cows in the first few months of lactation. This is because these animals loose more calcium through milk secretion than they are getting from the diet. ***Symptoms *** Dullness. Muscular twitching causing the animal to tremble. Staggering as the animals move. Animal falls down ands becomes unconscious. The animal lies down on its side and the whole body stiffens. Body functions such as urination, defecation and milk secretion stops. Stomach contents are drawn into the mouth which later cause lung fever when breathing in. Loss of appetite. ***Treatment *** Intravenous injection of soluble calcium salt in form of calcium boro-gluconate,60gms dissolved in 500cc of water. Keeping the animal in a comfortable position on its sternum. Giving fresh water. Note : The animals suffering from milk fever should not be given medicine orally for the following reasons: It will not be able to swallow medicine. The medicine may get into the lungs thereby promoting lung fever. ***Control *** Partial milking for the first 10 days. High yielding cows should be given rations containing phosphorus and calcium. Giving high doses of Vitamin D. ##### ***Bloat *** ###### Animals attacked: Cattle and sheep. Cause: Accumulation of gases as a result of fermentation in the rumen. 75 ----- ###### ***Symptoms *** The left side is blown up. Sudden death. ***Control *** Relieve by use of trocar and cannula. Chasing the animal around if noticed early. Drenching by use of stop bloat. Feeding ruminants with dry roughages during the wet season before grazing on lush pastures. 76 ----- |
Form one <br><br>**CHAPTER 1**<br><br>**QURAN**<br><br>**Read [Q: 36:2]; [Q: 85:21];[Q: 17:9]**<br><br>**Meaning of the Quran**<br><br>The Quran is a religious book used by Muslims all over the world as a book of guidance. Most of the <br><br>world religions have their specific books which they use for reference. Do you know any religious <br><br>books used by members other faiths? Can you mention any of them? Just as every religion has its <br><br>own religious book, Muslims have the Quran as their main source of reference and they have a duty <br><br>to learn, understand and constantly refer to it. As a Muslim, have you read the Quran? Muslims <br><br>believe that the Holy Quran is the last book to be revealed by Allah. It is because of its important <br><br>position in the Islamic faith that throughout our course we shall be using the Quran as our immediate <br><br>source of reference. Can you remember the meaning of the word Quran from your Islamic Religious Education in <br><br>Primary school? <br><br>This word comes from an Arabic root*qara'a*which means "to read or to recite. Quran in Arabic <br><br>therefore literally means recitation or something that is continuously recited. It is equivalent in <br><br>meaning to*qira'ah,*as both come from the same verb *qara'a.*<br><br>This name is specifically mentioned in the text of the Quran as a reference to itself in several places. <br><br>From the verses you have read, you will learn that the Quran has been referred as a book of <br><br>guidance, a book full of wisdom and a Glorious. Read the following verses: <br><br>In Islam the word Quran is defined as the divine speech of Allah Subhanahu Wa Taala (S.W.T), sent <br><br>down upon the last Prophet Muhammad Peace be Upon Him (P.B.U.H), through the Angel Jibril <br><br>Aleihi Swalatu wa Salaam(A.S) to human kind. Since its revelation the Quran has remained the <br><br>same without being distorted. **Other Names of the Quran**<br><br>Do you know that the Quran is referred to with other different names? Mention some of these <br><br>names. For the names you have mentioned, it can be seen that some of the names of the Quran have <br><br>been referred to in the Quran itself while others are derived from the functions of the Quran. Among <br><br>these names are: *Furqaan*(criterion)***Blessed is He Who sent down the Criterion to His servant, that it***<br><br>***may be an admonition to all creatures.*** [Q: 25: 1] <br><br>*Nadhir (warner)**Verily this Quran Doth guide to that which is most right (or stable), and***<br><br>***giveth the Glad tidings to the believers who work deeds of righteousness, that they have a*** ***magnificent reward.***[Q: 17:9] <br><br> Rahma (mercy)***A guide and a Mercy to the doers of good***[Q: 31:3] *Tanzil*(revelation)***Verily this is a Revelation from the Lord of the Worlds.***[Q: 26: 192] *Dhikr*(reminder)***We have without doubt, send down the message; And We will assuredly***<br><br>***guard it (from corruption*)**[Q: 15: 9] <br><br>*Kitab*(The book)***We have revealed for you (O men) a Book in which is a message for*** ***you: will you not then understand.***[Q : 21:10] <br><br>*Hudan (Guidance)**We gave Moses the book, and made it a Guide to the children of Israel,***<br><br>***(commanding): Take not other than Me as disposer of (your) affair.***[*Q:17: 2:5*] All these names reflect one of the various aspects of the revealed words of Allah. Other <br><br>names include Nur (Light), Majid (Glorious), and Mubarak (Blessed) Bashir (Announcer), <br><br>among others. Can you mention the other names of the Holy Quran that have not been listed <br><br>above? **Need for the revelation of the Quran.**<br><br>In life everything has a reason and a purpose for its being, just as we have a purpose for coming to <br><br>school. Why do you think the Quran was revealed to humankind? Revelation of the Quran came at a <br><br>time when there was ignorance and the socity was full of social vices, a period referred to as <br><br>Jahiliya. Someof the reasons for revelation of the Quran are as follows: <br><br>****The earlier scriptures were tampered and interfered with by man thus losing their authenticity. Hence the revelation of the Quran was to correct the wrong message. ****The Quran was given to Prophet Muhammad, the seal of the prophet with a universal <br><br>message unlike the other books which were sent to particular generations at specific time. <br><br>For example The Torah (Taurat) was sent to the Children of Israel through Prophet Musa <br><br>(A.S) while Zabur was sent to the followers of Prophet Daud. Read the following two verses from the Holy Quran: Almighty Allah (S.W.T) Says*:**To the Thamud people (We sent) Salih, one of their own***<br><br>***brethren: He said: O my people! Worship Allah; ye have no other god but Him.Now has***<br><br>***come unto you a clear signfrom your Lord! This she camel of Allah is a sign unto you...***<br><br>[Q: 7:73] Almighty Allah (S.W.T) Says:***To the Ad people, (We send) Hud, one of their own***<br><br>***brethren: He said: O my people! Worship Allah! You have No other god but Him. Will***<br><br>***you not fear (Allah)?***[Q: 7:65] <br><br>****To fulfill Allahs promise as well as prophesies of the other earlier revealed scriptures on the <br><br>coming of the Quran and that of prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H*).* Almighty Allah (S.W.T)Says:***And remember, Jesus, the son of Mary, said: O children of***<br><br>***Israel! I am the messenger of Allah (sent) to you confirming the law (which came) before*** ***me and giving Glad Tidings of a messenger to come after mewhose name shall be***<br><br>***Ahmad.But when he came to them with clear signs, they said, This is evident sorcery.***[Q: <br><br>61:6] <br><br>****To narrate and summarizestories and events of the earlier generation in order to offer <br><br>teachings, lessons, warnings and guidance to shape community. Almighty Allah (S.W.T)Says**:*There is in, their stories,instructions for men endued with***<br><br>***understanding.It is not a tale invented,but a confirmation of what went before it-A detailed***<br><br>***exposition of all things,and a guide and a mercy to any such as believe.***[Q: 12: 111] <br><br>****Believe in One True God: The most important topic mentioned throughout the Quran is the belief in the One, True God. God informs us that He has no partner, no son, no equal, and that none has the right to be worshipped except Him alone. Nothing is comparable to God and none of His creation resembles Him. The Quran also rejects the notion of attributing human qualities and limitations to Allah (SWT). Almighty Allah (S.W.T) says,**And your god is One God. There is no god but He, the Most**<br><br>**Gracious, the Mos**t Merciful. [Q 2:163] <br><br>****Rejection All False Gods: Since Allah alone is the only One worthy of worship, false gods must be rejected. The Quranalso rejects the notion of attributing divine qualities to anyone or <br><br>anything other than Allah. Almighty Allah (S.W.T) Says:***And worship Allah and associate none with Him*** [Q: <br><br>4:36] <br><br>****To remind us of the Day of Judgment:This Holy Quranreminds us that everyone will taste <br><br>death and will be held accountable for all their actions and sayings: <br><br>Almighty Allah (S.W.T) says:*We shall set up scales of justice for the Day of Judgment, so*<br><br>*that not a soul will be dealt with unjustly in the least*[Q: 21:47] <br><br>****Fulfilling the Intended Way of Life**:**The purpose of life is to worship Allah alone, and live ones life according to the way of life prescribed by Allah. In Islam, worship is a <br><br>comprehensive term that includes all actions and sayings (whether private or public) that <br><br>Allah loves and is pleased with. Therefore, by doing what Allah commands, a Muslim is <br><br>worshipping God and fulfilling his purpose in life. Almighty Allah (S.W.T) says,***I have only created Jinns and men, that they may serve*** **a) The role of Angel Jibril** 1. He lowered the Quran from Lauhil Mahfudh (well preserved tablet), the seventh heaven to <br><br>Baitul Izza; the lowest heaven. <br><br>2. He lowered the Quran from Baitul-Izza to earthand revealedit in portions to the prophet <br><br>throughout his 23 years of prophet hood. <br><br>3. He taught the prophet how to recite the Holy Quran correctly. He would 4. He assisted the prophet in the order and arrangement of the Quran. He used to appear before the prophet at the beginning of every month of Ramadhan and the prophet used to recite all the chapters while Jibril would guide him on the order and arrangement. <br><br>5. He played an intermediary role between the Almighty Allah to the prophet (P.B.U.H). 6. He assisted the prophet in memorizing the Quran during revelation; he would only leave after <br><br>the prophet had grasped the verses. <br><br>*7.*Assisted the prophet in interpreting and understanding the QuranHe was the comforter of the prophet because revelation was a difficult experience.Aisha (R.A.) reported that*Al - Harith* *bin Hisham asked Allah Apostle (P.B.U.H) how the divine inspiration was revealed to Him.*<br><br>*Allahs Apostle replied; sometimes it is revealed like the ringing of a bell, this form of* *inspiration (wahyi) is the hardest of all and then this state passes off after I have grasped*<br><br>*what is inspired. Sometimes the Angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and I*<br><br>*grasp whatever he says.*<br><br>What are the other duties that Angel Jibril played in the life of the prophet apart from revealing the **b) REASON WHY THE QURAN WAS REVEALED IN PORTIONS**. <br><br>We have just learnt that Arch Angel Jibril lowered the Quran from Baitul-Izza and revealed it in <br><br>portions. What do you think are the reasons why the Quran was revealed in portions? Let us consider <br><br>the following points: <br><br>1. To address the prophet continuouslyin order to strengthen his heart. <br><br>Almighty Allah(S.W.T) says: <br><br>***You and those who disbelieve say why is the Quran not revealed to him all at once? but it is***<br><br>***like that in order that we may steady your heart with it, and I have arranged its component parts***<br><br>***in an orderly, consistent manner.***[Q: 25:3] ***(It is) a Quran which we have divided (into parts from time to time) in order that you might recite***<br><br>***it to men at intervals: We have revealed it by stages.***[Q: 17:106] <br><br>2. The process of revelation was a very difficult experience considering human ability and <br><br>limitations; therefore it was revealed in portions to ease the task. <br><br>3. To provide room for spiritual growth and development for the prophet and his companions. 4. To progressively implement the sharia of Allah(S.W.T) that is providing continuous <br><br>guidance. <br><br>5. To make it easy for the believers to understand and apply the rules of the Quran. 6. To make itsmemorization easier because the Arabs chiefly relied on memory to preserve <br><br>information. <br><br>Allah says (S.W.T)***(These are) the ones who wait and watch about you, if you do gain a***<br><br>***victory from Allah, they say: were we not with you? But if the unbelievers gain an advantage over***<br><br>***you, and did we not guard you from the believers?***[Q: 4:141] <br><br>7. Dealing with problems as they arise whenever a new happening emerges the Quran was there to provide the necessary solutions and answer. Example of this is when the Almighty Allah <br><br>says(S.W.T): <br><br>***And they ask you about Dhul Qarnayn tell them I will read to you a report.***[Q: 18:83] 8. An indication of the true source of the Quran as it was revealed in a period of 23 years <br><br>without any contradictions. The Almighty Allah says (S.W.T):***Wont they contemplate the Quran if it had come from***<br><br>***other than Allah; they would have found in it many contradictions?***[Q: 4:82] <br><br>*Mliki yawmi d-dn* .Master of the aay of Judgement 1:1 <br><br>*Iyyka nabudu wa iyyka nastan* worship eou alone we 1:1 and You alone we ask for help. <br><br>*Ihdin -ir al-mustaqm* :auide us to the straight path 1:6 <br><br>*ir al-lana anamta alayhim ayril mabi alayhim wal lln* 1:7 The path of those on whom you have bestowed your Grace, and not the path of those who earned your anger, nor of those who went astray. <br><br>**Teachings of the surah**<br><br>1. Allah is the most Gracious and most Merciful. 2. We should praise Allah for all the favors He has bestowed to us. 3. He is the controller and overall judge of everything during the Day of Judgment. 4. He is the only one worth of our devotion so all our prayers should be directed to Him. 5. Whoever needs any help should seek divine intervention of Allah. 6. Man should ask for Allahs guidance to the path of righteousness. 7. The path of righteousness is a favor from Allah(S.W.T). 8. Man should shun all evils to avoid the wrath of Allah. The worshipper is reminded not to <br><br>transgress. <br><br>9. Mankind should follow the teachings of Allah (S.W.T) in order to avoid His anger. 10. The recognition of the oneness of Allah brings us closer to Allah and keeps us far from Iblis. <br><br>**Importance of the sura**<br><br>1. Sura tul Fatiha brings us closer to Allah through the words of praise contained in it. 2. It is a supplication (dua) that the prophet recommended to be usedoften. <br><br>**|**P a g e 8 3. It is the opening chapter of the Quran. 4. Its the foundation of faith. 5. It is the mother of the Quran. 6. It is one of the pillars of prayers. 7. Its one among the surahs that no other prophet was given except Muhammad only. <br><br>**** ** (Q 105)** **Surat Al-Fl (The Elephant) -**<br><br>**Historical back ground to the revelation of Suratul Fiil.**<br><br>Suratul Fiil derived its roots from the incident of the elephants during the period of the birth of the <br><br>Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H). <br><br>The term Fiil refers to the elephants mentioned in the first verse of the Sura. These elephants were <br><br>used in the army of Abraha Al Ashram who was governor of Yemen on behalf of the King of <br><br>Ethiopia. He was sent to go and destroy the Al-Kaaba. <br><br>Abraha built a shrine at a place called Sanaa and had wanted the Arabs to perform Pilgrimage at the <br><br>shrine instead of the Kaaba which they refused. He became furious and decided to send an army to <br><br>go and destroy the Kaaba. <br><br>We shall now look at the meaning of its verses and their transliteration. <br><br> <br><br>*Bismillahi rrahmani rraheemi* In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. <br><br><br><br>*Alam tara kaifa faala rabbuka bi as-haabil fiil* 105:1 Have you (O Muhammad) not seen how your Lord dealt with the companions of the Elephant? <br><br>*Alam yajal Kaidahum fii tadhlil*<br><br>105:2 Did He not make their treacherous plan into misguidance? <br><br>**|**P a g e 9 <br><br>*Wa-arsala alaihim twairan abaabila.*<br><br>105:3 And He sent against them birds in flocks, <br><br>*Tarmihim bihijaa-ratin min sijiil* 105:4 Striking them with stones of baked clay, <br><br>*Fajaalahum kaasfinm ma kulin*<br><br>105:5 Then did He make them like an empty field of stalks and straw, <br><br>(of which the corn) has been eaten. <br><br>T**eachings of Suratul Fiil**<br><br>There are several lessons that can be learnt from this sura as follows; <br><br>****Al-Kaaba is protected by Allah. ****Allah is in position to destroy theplans of anybody who intends to harm others. ****Allah is very powerful and sees everything. ****No creature can fight the might of Allah ****Material possession of a man cannot defeat the Allahs property. ****Mankind should rely on Allah for anything because Allah protects. ****Allah does not allow evil to flourish. ****Allah gives protection to the righteous ****The wrong doers will always be punished by Allah. ****No one can prevail against Allah ****Allah has the ability to end a persons pride and arrogance. ****Allah wanted tohonor the birth of the prophet (P.B.U.H). <br><br>**|**P a g e 11 **Surat Al-`Ar (The Declining Day) - (Q 103)**<br><br>**Historical Background**<br><br>The early Muslims called it Al-`Asr. Also, in most of the books dedicated to explaining the Quran <br><br>(*tafsir*), this name is given to the*surah*. <br><br>The majority of scholars hold that it was sent in the Makkan Period at the early stages of Islam <br><br>where the Muslim population was small. The surah consists three verses, making it the shortest <br><br>chapter in the Quran but summarizes all the teachings of Islam because of its vast meaning. Imam <br><br>Shafi commended that Suratul Asr would have sufficed all the other Surahs of the Quran if they had <br><br>not been revealed. <br><br>We shall now look at the meaning of its verses and their transliteration. <br><br>*Bismillahi rrahmani rraheemi* <br><br>*In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful.*<br><br>*.*<br><br><br><br>*WaalAasri*<br><br>103: 1By*Al-'Asr*(the time). <br><br>**|**P a g e 11 *Inna al-insana lafee khusrin*<br><br>103: 2Verily! Man is in loss, <br><br><br><br>*Illa allatheena amanoo waAAamiloo alssalihati watawasaw bialhaqqi watawasaw bialssabri*<br><br>103: 2Except those who believe (in Islamic Monotheism) and do righteous good deeds, and <br><br>recommend one another to the truth (i.e. order one another to perform all kinds of good deeds (*Al-*<br><br>*Ma'ruf*)which Allah has ordained, and abstain from all kinds of sins and evil deeds (*Al-*<br><br>*Munkar*)which Allah has forbidden), and recommend one another to patience (for the sufferings, <br><br>harms, and injuries which one may encounter in Allah's Cause during preaching His religion of <br><br>Islamic Monotheism or*Jihad*, etc.). <br><br>**Teachings of the Surah**<br><br>1. The surah starts with an oath where Allah swears by the time (Asr) because it is only Allah (S.W.T) who has the sole right to swear by anything because everything belongs to Him. 2. It affirms great loss for those who reject aods message after it reached them correctly, and for those who accepted it but failed to live according to it. Loss means losing Allahs <br><br>blessings and favors for the unbelievers. <br><br>3. Those excluded from the state of loss include the believers, those who perform righteous <br><br>deeds, <br><br>4. It encourages one to follow the truth and enjoin one another to be patient. 5. They are also be committed to the truth of Islam. <br><br>**Suratul Nasr(The Divine Support) - (Q110)**<br><br>**Historical Background**<br><br>The Sura is called Suratul Nasr because it is a word that appears in the first verse of the chapter.It <br><br>literally means help. And here it refers to Allahs help that caused the conquest of Makkah. <br><br>**|**P a g e 12 This Sura was revealed after the conquest of Makkah. It was the time when many people were <br><br>embracing Islam, thus the Sura was to remind the Prophet and the Muslims believers at large to <br><br>consider the victory from Allah only. The victory in which multitudes of people from different tribes <br><br>embraced Islam was the victory from Allah (S.W.T)this is believed to be the last surah given to <br><br>Prophet Muhammad and a sign to his approaching death. <br><br>**Meaning and transliteration of Surat An-Nar**<br><br>*Bismillahi rrahmani rraheemi* <br><br><br><br>*Itha jaa nasru Allahi waalfathu*<br><br>110:1When the victory of Allah has come and the conquest, <br><br>*Waraayta alnnasa yadkhuloona fee deeni Allahi afwajan*<br><br>110:2And you see the people entering into the religion of Allah in multitudes, <br><br>*Fasabbih bihamdi rabbika waistaghfirhu innahu kana tawwaban* 110:3Then exalt [Him] with praise of your Lord and ask forgiveness of Him. Indeed, He is ever Accepting of repentance. <br><br>**TEACHINGS OF SURATUL NASR**<br><br>This surah has the following teachings <br><br> For any victory(help) people must glorify the praises Allah. <br><br>It recognizes Allah as the only source of help and victory. It is a sign of victory when people are seen accepting Islam in multitudes. <br><br>**|**P a g e 13 **Suggested study Questions and Activities**<br><br>**Answer the following Questions in your I.R.E revision exercise book.**<br><br>1. State the lessons Muslims can learn from Suratul Fiil. 2. Define the following term Ulumul Quran. 3. Discuss the need for the revelation of the Quran 4. What are the teachings of surah Asr? <br><br>**Activity:**<br><br>Narrate the story of Abraha Ashram in relation to Sura al Fiil. **The prophets initiative**<br><br>The prophet was devoted to teaching the MuslimUmma about the right way. He would come <br><br>up with an issue of which he felt that there was need for the Muslims to know about. In this <br><br>case he would talk to the Muslims to address it. <br><br>One instance is illustrated by the hadith below: Abu Hureira (RAA) narrates that the Prophet (P.B.U.H) used to say (in supplication),*O*<br><br>*Allah! Set right for me my religion, which is the safeguard of my affairs. And set right for me*<br><br>*the affairs of the world wherein is my living. Decree the hereafter to be good for me. And*<br><br>*make this life, for me, (a source of) abundance for every good and make my death (a source*<br><br>*of) comfort to me and protection against every evil.*(Muslim) <br><br>This is an example in which the prophet took an initiative to teach the Muslims the dua they <br><br>need to recite. *Whoever speaks in the Juma while the Imam is delivering the khutba is like a donkey who*<br><br>*is carrying books, and for he who tells him to be quiet, there will be no (reward for his)*<br><br>*Juma prayer.*Related by Ahmad) <br><br>The objective of this hadith is to teach about the importance of keeping quiet and attentively <br><br>listening to the Friday khutba when it is on. **As a response to questions asked by his companions**<br><br>The prophet was the leader and sole authority in all matters concerning the Muslims. People <br><br>would approach him with questions on religion, social, political and any other issues <br><br>affecting them. He was the resourceof reference in addressing peoples issues. Therefore, his <br><br>suggested solutions became part of hadith. Aisha (R.A) narrated: I asked the prophet about turning here and there in prayer. He replied: <br><br>*It is a kind of theft by which Satan takes away (a portion of) the persons prayer.*(Al- <br><br>Bukhari and At-Tirmidhi).The latters wordings are,*Avoid turning while you are engaged in*<br><br>*prayer for it leads to the destruction of your religion. If you have to do it, then do it in the*<br><br>*voluntary prayer.*<br><br>The hadith is an example that evolved through a question that the prophet had to respond to a <br><br>question that Aisha, his wife, asked on matters concerning turning during prayers. The other <br><br>hadith below shows another hadith that was as a result to questions asked. **Abu Huraira narrated that the prophet was asked:**<br><br>*Which kind of sadaqa was better? He replied, That which is given by one who does not have*<br><br>*much property. And begin by giving your dependents.*(Ahmad, Abu Dawoud. In Khuzaima, <br><br>Ibn Hibban) Al Hakim graded it as*sahih.*<br><br>This hadith is another evidence of evolution of hadith as a respond to questions from the <br><br>companions*.* **As a demand of circumstances**<br><br>rircumstances and situations would arise and the companions would demand the prophets <br><br>suggestions and solutions as their leader, hence their suggestions and solutions became Hadith. <br><br>Ibn Abbas(R.A) narrated that when the prophet sent Muadh bin Jabal to Yemen (as governor); he <br><br>said to him*:*<br><br>*You are going to a people who are people of the scripture. Invite them to testify that none has*<br><br>*the right to be worshipped but Allah and that I am His Messenger. If they obey you in this, then*<br><br>*teach them that Allah, the Glorious One, has enjoined five prayers upon them in every day and*<br><br>*night, and if they obey you in this, then tell them that Allah has made it obligatory for them to*<br><br>*pay zakat upon their assets and it is to be taken from the wealthy among them and given to the*<br><br>*poor among them.*(Al- Bukhari). Jabir bin Abdullah(R.A) narrated that the prophet visited a sick person and found him praying <br><br>while sitting on a cushion. The prophet pushed it aside and said to him: <br><br>*Pray while sitting on the ground if you can, and if you cannot, then pray by nodding your head,*<br><br>*and make a lower nodding for prostration than that for bowing (rukuu).*(Al- Baihaqi). **1. Interpretation on Jumaa prayer** ***Oyou, who believe, when the call is proclaimed to prayer on Friday, hasten earnestly to the***<br><br>***remembrance of Allah and leave off business: That is best for you but knew.***[Q: 62:9] ***Prophets Hadith***<br><br>*a) Abdullah bin Umar and Abu Huraira (R.A) narrated that they heard the messenger of* *Allah (P.B.U.H) say while standing on his pulpit, Those who are not attending Friday*<br><br>*prayer should stop doing so, otherwise Allah the Exalted will seal their hearts and they* *will be reckoned among the heedless*(Muslim) <br><br>*b) Ibn Umar (R.A) narrated that the messenger of Allah said, whoever catches only one* *rakat of the Jumaa prayer, or any other, he should then add to it another one, and his* *prayer will be complete*(AN-Nisai , Ibn-Maaja, Daraqutni) **2.** **Interpretation on Ribaa**<br><br>***Those who devour Ribaa will not stand except as stands one whom the Satan by his touch has***<br><br>***driven to madness. That is because they say, trade is like ribaa, but Allah has permitted trade***<br><br>***and forbidden ribaa. For who after receiving admonition from their Lord desist shall be pardoned***<br><br>***for their past; their case is for Allah to judge; but those who repeat (the offence) are companions***<br><br>***of the fire: they will abide therein (forever).***[Q: 2:275 -276] **Forms of Hadith.**<br><br>Hadith have been classified into four forms determined by the way they were presented by the <br><br>prophet. These forms are: <br><br> Fiil (what he did) Qaul (what he said) Sifat(his attributes) <br><br>Iqrar (what he silently approved) 1. Aisha (R.A) relates*, I never saw the messenger of God laughing in a way that the inside of*<br><br>*his mouth is apparent, he only used to smile.*(Al-Bukhari). <br><br>2. Narrated by Jaaber (God be pleased with him) relates that on the day of the Idd (feast), the prophet (peace be upon him) used to go to Idd prayer by one route and come back by another <br><br>route. (Al-Bukhari). <br><br>**Qaul**<br><br>This form of Hadith refers to sayings, reports or what came by word of mouth from the prophet <br><br>(P.B.U.H). An example of Qaul is the following: <br><br>Abu-Huraira (God be pleased with him) relates that the messenger of God peace be upon him said, <br><br>*A hypocrite has 3 signs by when he can be known: if he speaks he lies, if give a promise he never*<br><br>*fulfill it, if he is entrusted with something he betrays the trust.*(Al-Bukhari and Muslim) <br><br>**Iqrar** Ibn Abbas (R.A) narrated,*We used to pray two rakat after sunset (before the Maghrib prayer, and*<br><br>*the prophet would see us, but he did not order us to do so, nor did he prohibit.*(Muslim) aive more examples of hadith that emerged through the prophets own initiative. <br><br>**Sifat**<br><br>This refers to general appearance and especially bodily characteristics and the physical tributes the <br><br>prophet possessed.It includes the qualities and attributes that the prophet displayed in his life. The <br><br>Swahabas were able to observe his general conduct and follow them. Mention any attributes of the <br><br>prophet that you can see being practiced today.The following are examples of hadith that emerged as <br><br>a result of his Sifat: <br><br>*1. Narrated by Abu-Huraira (R.A) relates that Al- Hassan Ibn Ali (the prophets grandson* *(R.A) picked up a date from the dates set for charity and put it in his month. The messenger*<br><br>*of God said, Kikh Kikh (dirt! Keep away!) Throw it out. Do you not know that we (the* *Prophet (P.B.U.H) and his household) do not eat from charity? (Al-Bukhari and Muslim).*<br><br>*2. Narrated by Aisha (R.A) relates that the messenger of Allah (P.B.U.H) used to like using the* *right hand-side in all his affairs: his cleansing, combing his hair, putting on his footwear* *(Al-Bukhari and Muslim).* **Contributions of hadith to Islamic thought and culture** **Pillars of iman**<br><br>The literal meaning of Iman is to belief in or to have faith in something. <br><br>There are six pillars of Iman as mentioned in the Quran: ***The messenger believes in what***<br><br>***has been revealed to him from his Lord as do men of faith. Each one (of them)***<br><br>***believesinAllah, HisAngels, His books and His messengers. We make no distinctions (they***<br><br>***say) between one and another of His Messengers. And they say We hear and we obey :(***<br><br>***we seek) Your forgiveness our Lord and to you is the end of all journeys. [Q: 2:285]***<br><br>The prophet (saw) said*Iman is to believe in God, and His Angels, and His Scripture, and*<br><br>*His apostles, and to believe in the resurrection and the last day and the divine pre-*<br><br>*measurement of good and evil, and to have faith in all these things.(Muslim)* **TAWHEED:**<br><br>Literally Tawheed comes from the word Wah-hada,which means to make something <br><br>Waahid(singular). <br><br>Technically-Tawheed means attributing oneness to Allah and describing Him as being one <br><br>and unique.It is the first pillar of the six pillars of Iman and the most fundamental and <br><br>important teaching of all the prophets and messengers who all taught the believe in the <br><br>oneness of AllahIt is expressed in the hrimary Kalima**LA ILLA ILA LLAH**Meaning <br><br>there is no God but Allah, or there is no one who has the right to be worshipped except <br><br>Allah.Tawheed differentiate between a Muslim and a Kafir. Allah says** Say (O Muhammad). He is Allah the one. Allah, theself-sufficient master,**<br><br>**whom all creatures need. He begets not, nor was he begotten. And there is none equal**<br><br>**or comparable unto Him.**[Q112] <br><br>Allah says**:There is nothing like unto him and He is the All-Hearer, the All-sear.**[Q: <br><br>42: 11] <br><br>**|**P a g e 23 **1. Tawheed ar-rubabiyah.**<br><br>This concept of Tawheed is based on the belief of unifying Allah(SWT) as the sovereign <br><br>**Lord(Rabbi)**.And that He is the sole Lord of the universe who sustains and maintains all <br><br>creation with any need for it or for it.According to this category, since God is the real power <br><br>in existence, it is He Who gives all things the power to move and to change. Allah mentions <br><br>this concept in many Quranic verses: ***Say: who is it that sustains you (in life) from sky and from the earth? Or who is it that***<br><br>***has power over hearing and sight? And who is it that brings out the living from the dead***<br><br>***and the dead from the living? And who is that rules and regulates all affairs? They will***<br><br>***soon say Allah say, Will you not then show piety (to him)?***[Q: 10:31] <br><br>Allah (S.W.T) says***And if indeed thou ask them who it is that sends down rain from the***<br><br>***sky, and gives life therewith to the earth after its death, they will certainly reply Allah***<br><br>***say praise be to Allah! But most of them understand not.***[Q: 29:63] <br><br>**2. Tawheed al-Uluhiyah**<br><br>This means to believe that Allah (Swat) the most High is the one worth of true worship. <br><br>Therefore all acts of worship likeSalat, working, fasting, among others should be dedicated to <br><br>Allah alone. Hence its not permissible to associate anything in worship with Him. <br><br>Allah says,***To the Aadpeople (we sent) Hud, one of their (own) brethren: He said, O my*** Allah (SWT) also says**,*Say; Truly, my prayer and my service of sacrifice, my life and my***<br><br>***death, are (all) for Allah, The cherisher of the worlds.***[Q: 6:162] <br><br>**3. Tawheed al-asma wasifat. (Names and attributes).** <br><br>**|**P a g e 26 <br><br>**|**P a g e 27 <br><br>**|**P a g e 28 <br><br>**Significance of tawheed.**<br><br>I. II. III. IV. <br><br>It is the first fundamental principal of the Islamic Faith. It assures the creatures that the creator is near them and ready to answer their request. <br><br>It distances mankind from worshipping other than Allah. <br><br>It increases Taqwa since one is aware that Allah sees him wherever he may be and is aware <br><br>of even what is hidden in ones heart and mind. <br><br>V. VI. <br><br>It leads one to ensure his respect and maintain his dignity as a respect to his creator. <br><br>It gives an attitude of peace and contentment in a person since he knows that Allah will take <br><br>care of his needs if he in truly obedient and hardworking. It leads to unity and brotherhood amongst human beings. <br><br>VII. VIII. It makes a believer to be dutiful and upright, since he knows that Allah(S.W.T) will ask <br><br>everybody of his responsibility on the day of the judgment. Therefore he does his duties <br><br>whole heatedly and this keeps him ways from neglecting his duties and from sin. <br><br>IX. <br><br>It removes the fear of people since one strongly believes that not only his life but everything is in the hands of Allah. <br><br>X. <br><br>It removes greedy and jealously and the desire to achieve success through even evil means as one believes in the powers of Allah and not ones endeavor. <br><br>XI. XII. XIII. <br><br>It does not allow him to be proud or arrogant. It makes a believer brave and courageous. <br><br>It makes a believer to be patient and preserving for he will know that whatever the problem Allah(S.W.T) will have to solve it for his gradually. <br><br>**|**P a g e 29 **Shirk (polytheism)**<br><br>The term shirk comes from the Arabic word sharaka which means to associate or form <br><br>partners with. In the Islamic context shirk means ascribing a partner or rival to Allah (S.W.T) <br><br>in worship or His names and attributes. Allah (S.W.T) says,***Allah forgive not that partners should set up with Him; but He***<br><br>***forgives anything else to whom he pleases; to set up partners with god is to devise a sin***<br><br>***most heinous indeed.*[**Q: 4: 48] <br><br>Allah (S.W.T) says***Allah has said: Take not (for worship) two gods. For He is just one***<br><br>***God. Then fear me and me alone.***[Q: 16:51] **II.** **Shirk an- Niyyah wal Irada wal Qasd.**<br><br>It means intention, determination or purpose in acts of worship not for Allah but towards <br><br>others. Allah (S.W.T) says,***Whoever desires the life of the world and its glitters, to them***<br><br>***shall pay in full their deed therein, and they will have no domination therein. They are***<br><br>***those for whom there is nothing in the here after but fire and ruin is the deeds they did.***<br><br>***And of no effect that which they used to do.***[Q: 11:15-16] <br><br>Allah (S.W.T) says: <br><br>***Have you seen him whom takes for his God his own passion?***[Q: 25: 43] **III.** **Shirk Taah**. <br><br>This type means obeying any other authorities against the willAllah. Allah(S.W.T) <br><br>says,**They Jews and Christians took their rabbis and their monks to be their Lords**<br><br>**besides Allah, and Messiah son of Mariam while they were commanded (in Taurat and**<br><br>**lnjil) to worship none but Allah Lailla to Huwa. Praise and glory is to him for having**<br><br>**the partners they associate.**[Q: 9:31] **IV.** **Shirk al Mahaba**<br><br>This is showing the love that is due to Allah to others other than Him. Allah (S.W.T) says, <br><br>***And of mankind are some who take (for worship) others besides Allah as rivals. They***<br><br>***love them as they love Allah. But those who believe love Allah more. If only those who do***<br><br>***wrong could see, when they will see the torment that all power belongs to Allah is severe in***<br><br>***punishment.*** **2. Shirk al-asghar (minor shirk).**<br><br>It also termed as Ar-riya. <br><br>Ar-riya is any action which is performed in order to receive praise, fame or any other worldly <br><br>gain.It is performing Ibaada to show off for example performing swalat so that you can be <br><br>seen or praised.Any actions that are done out of showing off will not be rewarded by <br><br>Allah(S.W.T) Those who want but to be seen.[Q: 107:6] <br><br>Allah says***The hypocrites seek to deceive Allah but it is Allah who deceives them. When***<br><br>***they stand up to prayer, stand without earnestness, to be seen of men, But little do they***<br><br>***hold Allah in remembrance.***[Q: 4:142] <br><br>**3. Shirk al khafi**i.e Inconspicous Shirk. <br><br>Have you ever had a feeling of dissatistfaction n something? What are some of the things in <br><br>life that leave you dissatisfiedor makeyou keep wishing that you had better things than what <br><br>Allah (S.W.T) has provided you with? Having this feeling may lead you to performing Shirk al Khafi. <br><br>This type of Shirk involves being inwardly dissatisfied with the inevitable condition that has <br><br>being ordained for one by Allah (S.W.T) conscientiously lamenting that had you done or not <br><br>done such and such or had you approached such and such you would have had a better status. <br><br>It is one of the most dangerous forms of shirk as people cannot see when they are performing <br><br>it.This Shirk is so hidden and difficult that even the one committing it cannot recognize it. <br><br>The prophet said*ashirk alkhafii in the muslim nation is more inconspicuous than the*<br><br>*creeping of a black ant on a black rock in the pitch darkness of the night.* **Why Quran condemn shirk**<br><br>1. Shirk is the highest of the wrong doing according to the instructions given by Luqman to his son***. Behold, Luqman said to his son by way of instructions: o my son join not in worship*** ***(others) with Allah: for false worship is indeed the highest wrong doing.***[Q: 31:13] <br><br>2. When one attaches Allahs attributes to any of his creations, he or she undermines Allahs <br><br>sovereignty yet Allah is supposed to sovereign. 3. It is of all the sins, Allah (S.W.T) vows not to forgive anyone who commits it knowingly. This is because a person who commits such a sin undermines Allahs function as the creator, sustainer and destroyer of life.Allah (S.W.T) says***,Allah forgive not that partners should***<br><br>***set up with Him; but He forgives anything else to whom he pleases; to set up partners with*** ***god is to devise a sin most heinous indeed.***[ Q: 4: 48] 4. Belief in Shirk creates amenity in the society, since people will always be suspicious of each other and they will divot themselves with the belief in Allah as one who predetermines <br><br>peoples destiny. <br><br>5. Shirk makes man to have little or no confidence in God but in other things most especially in times of danger which defames the status of man as Allahs vicegerent as the best of his <br><br>creation. <br><br>***6.***Shirk makes a person to distance him or herself from Allah (S.W.T) yet man is supposed to always be nearest to God pray to him whenever he or she has a problem. Yet those who <br><br>practice other objects created by Allah***. And who is more astray than one who invokes*** **BELIEF IN ANGELS**<br><br>The belief in the angelsis the second pillar of Iman. <br><br>Angels are holy and pure creatures of Allah(S.W.T) to whom He Has bestowed the power to <br><br>perform specific divine duties. **O you who believe!Save yourselves and your families from a fire whose fuel is men and**<br><br>**stones, over which are (appointed) angels stern (and) severe, who flinch not (from**<br><br>**executing the commands they receive from Allah, but do (precisely) what they are**<br><br>**commanded.**[Q: 66:6] <br><br>From the above ayat, Angels do not execute their duties just for the sake of it but are <br><br>dedicated to their duties for which they were created. They are characterized by the following <br><br>main features: They are creatures of Allah that He created from Noor (light).Aisha(RAA)narrates <br><br>that the messenger of Allah says,*Angels were created from light, jinns were created* *from smokeless fire and Adam was created from that which was described to you (in*<br><br>*the Quran, which is clay.)*(Sahih Muslim.) Allah created them outside blood relationship, hence unlike human beings;they are <br><br>not associated with having such relations as parental (parent to child), fraternal (brother to brother/sister) or any other blood relation. <br><br>They are not associated with any gender like the human beings are.***And they make***<br><br>***into females Angels who themselves serve Allah Did they witness their creation?*** ***Their evidence will be recorded,and they will be called to account.***[Q: 43:19] iv. Allah has not bestowed unto them the feelings of hunger, thirst or such related <br><br>desires. This is told in the story of Nabii Ibrahim when Allah(S.W.T) send <br><br>messengers to him, ***There came our messengers to Abraham with glad tidings .They said, Peace!***<br><br>***He answered peace! and hastened to entertain them with a roasted calf. But***<br><br>***when he saw their hands went not towards the (meal), he felt some mistrust of***<br><br>***them, and conceived a fear of them. They said, Fear not: We have been sent***<br><br>***against the people of Lut.***[Q 11:69-70] <br><br>v. They were relieved by the divine powers of Allah, from fatigue, monotony and the <br><br>desire to either relax or sleep. <br><br>They have no definite bodies to be identified with but Allah has bestowed them with <br><br>the ability to be in any form that is relevant with the prevailing circumstance e.g. <br><br>Birds (when they appeared to Adam to teach him on burial), man (when they appeared to prophets Lut and Muhammad) or invisible (when they helped the <br><br>Muslims during the battle of Badr). <br><br>vii. Allah has prepared their abode (the place of their convergence) in heaven. **ANGELS AND THEIR DUTIES**<br><br>1. Jibril (Gabriel) <br><br>He communicated the revelation to all prophets by taking the divine message with the order <br><br>of Allah to the relevant recipients. <br><br>***Say, (O Muhammad) the Holy Spirit (i.e. Jibril) has brought it down from your Lord in***<br><br>***truth in order to strengthen those who believe, and as guide and glad tidings to the***<br><br>***Muslims.***[Q: 16:102] Allah to take the soul back to its creator. <br><br>He is in charge of removing souls at the time of death. <br><br>***And He is the subjugation over His servants and He sends over you guardian Angels***<br><br>***until, when death comes to one of you, our messengers (i.e. Angels of death) take him and***<br><br>***they do not fail (in their duties***).[Q: 6:61] <br><br>***Say: The Angel of death, put in charge of you, will (duly) take your souls.Then shall you***<br><br>***be brought back to your lord.***[Q: 32:11] <br><br>5. Atid and Raqiib (Kiraman Katibun) <br><br>Islam encourage sthe doing of good always thogh at times we may commit mistakes in life. <br><br>Are we aware that all the things we do in life are recorded? Just as we keep our records in a <br><br>diary, Allah has his Angels whom he has given the responsibility of keeping every human ***For each (such person, there are Angels in succession. Before him: they guard him by***<br><br>***command of Allah.Verily never will Allah change the condition of a people until they***<br><br>***change it themselves (with their own souls)*** [Q: 13:11] <br><br>6. Malik <br><br>He is in charge of Hell fire. <br><br>***And they will call, O Malik let your Lord put an end to us! Indeed, you will remain.***[Q: <br><br>43:77] 7. Ridhwan <br><br>He is in charge of paradise. In the Quran, Allah (SWT) mentions them as many Angels <br><br>welcoming those who used to do good deeds in the Janna (paradise). ***Gardens of perpetual***<br><br>***bliss: They shall enter there, as well as the righteous amoung their fathers, their spouses,***<br><br>***and their off springs: And Angels shall enter unto them from every gate (with the***<br><br>***salutation)***[Q: 13:23-24] <br><br>8. Munkar and Nakir <br><br>They are Angels in charge of questioning in the grave. They also discharge severe punishment to the <br><br>dead people who had committed sin. **Answer the following questions in your I.R.E revision excersise book.**<br><br>1. Explain the meaning of term Tawheed. 2. What are the characteristics of Angels? 3. Elaborate on the three types of shirk. Literal meaning: Shahada is a special sentence: La illaha ila Allah wa Muhammadun rasoolollah <br><br>(There is no (other) Lord except Allah and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah. <br><br>(Lailaha illa-Allahu Muhammad rasul Allah) **Measuring of Shahada.**<br><br>Shahada is the first pillar of Islam whichconsists of two main parts. <br><br>The first part of the shahada says: (Lailaha illa-Allahu Muhammad rasul Allah) <br><br>That there is non worthy of worship except Allah. <br><br>Thispart declares the absolute unity of Allah, his oneness as the only one who deserves to be <br><br>worshipped. Muslims are not supposed to render complete obedience for no human nor material <br><br>object possess power and authority equal to Him. <br><br>It is the gateway way to Islam. <br><br>The second part of the shahada says:Muhammadun rasoolollahMuhammad(P.B.U.H) is His <br><br>messenger. <br><br>The Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) as the messenger of Allah. <br><br>His being mentioned in the Shahada confirms that he is the universal and final prophet sent to all <br><br>mankind. <br><br>Mankind has the obligations in following the teachings and commandments of prophet Muhammad <br><br>(P.B.U.H). <br><br>They have a duty to adhere to the teachings in order to seek Allah Pleasure although he is the last in <br><br>the ladder of the prophets of Allah. **Significance of Shahada in the life of a Muslim.**<br><br>1. Shahada makes a believer to surrender all his/her life to God. This makes a believer to fulfill <br><br>aods command. <br><br>2. It produces in a believer a high degree of confidence and respect towards His creator. 3. Instills in a believer feeling of contentment for he/she will know that Allah(S.W.T) willtake <br><br>care of all his needs. In this process ofworship, there are certain known and prescribed invocations and acti <br><br>systematically performed starting with Takbeer (saying*Allah Akbar;*God is the Great) which <br><br>ending with Tasleem (saying:*as-salaam alaykum wa Rahmatul-lahi wabarakaatuh;*may All <br><br>Peace, Mercy, and Blessings be upon you) do you perform swalat? Can you demonstrate how sw <br><br>is performed? If you perform swalat regularly,you will discover that there are two types of sawlat, <br><br>obligatory and the voluntary prayers. We shall now look at each of these prayers in details. <br><br>**1. Fardn-ain( obligatory prayers)** These are prayers compulsory for every Muslim under the obligation by the shariah to perf <br><br>them.Failure to perform them pens one to punishment in the hereafter. <br><br>Allah(S.W.T) says in <br><br>***And establish regular prayers at the two ends of the day and at the approaches of the night***<br><br>***those things that are good remove those that evil:But that the word of the rememberance to th***<br><br>***who remember(their Lord)***[Q:11:114] <br><br>Let us now look at the obligatory prayers and the times prescribed for there performance accordin **2. Fardh kifaya** These are obligatory prayers which must be performed by atleast one muslim in the community.If it is <br><br>performed by a single Muslim, then the obligation is lifted from the others.Incase its not performed <br><br>by one at all the whole society gets sin.e.g Swalatul Janaza. Can you demonstrate before your friends <br><br>how this prayer is performed? **3. Sunnah prayers (optional)** These are prayers that are not compulsory for the muslims.They are performed to follow the <br><br>exemplary teachings of the prophet(P.B.U.H) and are therefore recommended. <br><br>Can you give examples of Sunnah prayers and mention the number of rakaats for each? Some of the <br><br>sunnah prayers are as follows: <br><br>**I. Tahhiyatul Masjid.**<br><br>The prayer of tahhiyat al-masjid (greeting of the masjid) is a confirmed sunna once a day, and <br><br>recommended thereafter. It consists of two rakaats and is best preformed before sitting down even <br><br>though the sunna is not lifted if one does sit first. One can intend this prayer along with their sunna or <br><br>fard if they do not have time to pray it. One should not pray the tahhiyat al-masjid during a disliked <br><br>time. **III. Tarawih**<br><br>Tarawih is an optional prayer in that can be done only during the Muslim fasting month ofRamadhan. <br><br>This prayer can be done alone, in a group, at home, or in a mosque or other public meeting area it. <br><br>Typically, Muslims gather together and perform tarawih as a group. Others may meet in their local <br><br>mosque, a meeting hall, or even in an outdoor field. The minimum number of raka'ah of Tarawih is <br><br>eight with a maximum of Twenty. It is also customary for the Imam in the main mosque to recite the <br><br>entire Qur'an during the fasting month by reading approximately one section per day. This practice of <br><br>reading the Qur'an completely is known as*khatm*(complete recitation). **IV. Witr prayer**<br><br>Witr prayer starts after a person prays the Isha prayer until dawn. Evidence for this is that the Prophet <br><br>(P.B.U.H) said:*Allah has prescribed for you a prayer (by which He may increase your reward),*<br><br>*which is Witr; Allah has enjoined it for you during the time between Isha prayer until dawn begins*. <br><br>(Narrated by al-Tirmidhi) <br><br>It is better to pray the witr prayer in the final third of the night because prayer at this time is witnessed <br><br>by the angels. However, if a person fears that he will not get up at the last third of the night then he or <br><br>she can pray it straight in the beginning third so that he or she does not miss the prayer. **V.** **Swalatu-l Istikhara**<br><br>*Istikhara*is Arabicword which means to ask Allah to guide one to the right thing.Have you been in a <br><br>difficult situation especially when you have to choose between two*permissible*alternatives? Mention <br><br>some of the difficult decision you have had to choose.Allah (S.W.T) provides an answer whenever a <br><br>Muslim is in such a difficult situation. This is by offering a two rakaat prayer to seek guidance. Sa d <br><br>ibn Waqas reported that the hrophet(h.B.U.H) said, *Istikharah (seeking guidance from Allah) is one*<br><br>*of the distinct favors (of Allah) upon man, and a good fortune for the son of Adam is tobe pleased*<br><br>*with the judgment of Allah. And a misfortune of the son of Adam is his failure to make istikharah*<br><br>*(seeking Allahs guidance), and a misfortune for the son of Adam is his displeasure with the judgment*<br><br>*of Allah*. After completing the two-rakats, one praises Allah (S.W.T) and sends salutations to the hrophet <br><br>(P.B.U.H) and recites the following supplication as narreted by Jabir. <br><br>*(O Allah! I ask guidance from Your knowledge, and Power from Your Might and I ask for Your*<br><br>*great blessings. You are capable and I am not. You know and I do not and You know the unseen. O*<br><br>*Allah! If You know that this job is good for my religion and my subsistence and in my Hereafter(or*<br><br>*said: If it is better for my present and later needs)then You ordain it for me and make it easy for me*<br><br>*to get, and then bless me in it, and if You know that this job is harmful to me in my religion and*<br><br>*subsistence and in the Hereafter(or said: If it is worse for my present and later needs)then keep it*<br><br>*away from me and let me be away from it. And ordain for me whatever is good for me, and make me*<br><br>*satisfied with it*). (Sahih Bukhari) **VII.** **Swalatu-l Dhuhaa**<br><br>It is the mid-morning Prayer. Its time starts when sun risesto the height of a spear and ends close to <br><br>midday. The best time is when mid-morning heat has intensified. The minimum number of rakaat is <br><br>two but can be prayed upto eight rakaats. **VIII. Qabliyya and Baadiya prayers**<br><br>These prayers are offered before or after the Fardh prayers. The number of rakaats varies from one <br><br>prayer to another. This can be illustrated by the table below: **Fardh swalat Number of rakaat before** **Number of rakaat after**<br><br>Fajr 2 None <br><br>Dhuhr 2 2 <br><br>Asr None None <br><br>Maghrib None 2 <br><br>Isha 2 2 **TWAHARA**<br><br>The term twahara is Arabicword which means cleanliness.It is used in Islam to imply a state of ritual <br><br>purity. This is a requirement in the observance of the acts of worship mention other instances where a <br><br>muslim is require to be pure. **Steps of performing ghusl.**<br><br>There are several essential steps that are followed in performing ghusl.These steps are also referred to <br><br>as**fardh**or integral steps and must be followed for ones Ghusl to be valid. These include the <br><br>following: **Sunna acts of Ghusl**<br><br>Apart from the Fardh steps, we have some acts that are included in the performance of ghusl but are <br><br>not compulsory. These are termed as sunnah or optional acts of ghusland include th efollowing: To perform tawwaf. <br><br>***Wudhu*Read [Q: 5:6]**<br><br>When you go to any mosque, you will notice people sitting or standing where there are waer points o <br><br>taps performing some preparations for prayers(swalat) Have you ever asked yourself why they do <br><br>so.The reason is for purification. You can remember what we learnt about Twahara. What did we say <br><br>about it? In this section,we shall look at wudhu as another way of attaining purity(Twahara) **Essential steps of wudhu**<br><br>These are fardh or obligatory acts.They must be observed by however is performing wudhu. Failure <br><br>to observe any of them will cosequencially render the process incomplete and your prayers null ansd <br><br>void. A muslim must therefore follow the following steps while perfoming Wudhu: Making the intention to perform udhu. <br><br> Washing the face from the top of the forehead to the chin and between the two ear lobes. <br><br> Washing both arms up to and including the elbows. <br><br> Wiping a part of the head with wet hands. <br><br> Washing both feet up to and including the ankles. Following the prescribed sequence without inter-changing any step. <br><br>Optional steps of performing wudhu In the performance of Wudhu, we have some steps that we observe and have not been mentioned IN <br><br>the above essentials. Could you mention any of these to you friend? The perfomance of these acts is <br><br>considered as following the example of our Prophet (P.B.U.H). They are referred to as the sunna acts <br><br>of wudhu and include the following: **Recommended acts (mustahab) of wudhu**<br><br> Reciting the kalima(shahada)after ablution. Avoiding worldly talk during the time for wudhu. Avoiding extravagance (wasting water) during ablution. Choosing a clean place for the performance of wudhu. <br><br>**Nullifiers of wudhu**<br><br>Wudhu is meant for perfomance of the acts of worship. A Muslim preparing for prayers can perform <br><br>wudhu and sustain it for the swalat of the rest of the day. However, there are certain acts that <br><br>invalidate wudhu (often referred to as "breaking wudhu").It is therefore important to note that the <br><br>absence of wudhu will imply that those intended acts of worship will not be valid.We must therefore ***Tayammum***<br><br>Supposing you were travelling and the time of prayer finds you at a place where there is no water, <br><br>How would you purify yourself for Swalat? Taking into consideration that swalat is a must for a <br><br>muslim and is performed at prescribed times; Allah (S.W.T) has given a solution to such an <br><br>eventuality in the Quran. Almighty Allah (S.W.T) says:***But if you are ill,or on a journey,or one***<br><br>***of you comes from offices of nature,or you have been in contact with women and you find no***<br><br>***water,then take for yourselves clean sand or earth and rub therewith your faces and hands.Allah***<br><br>***does not wish to place you in a difficulty, but to make you clean***[Q:5:6] <br><br>In reference to this verse, the use of clean sand for purification in preparation for swalat is refeerd to <br><br>as tayammum. 1. In case there is scarcity of water. This is when there is acute shortage of water or the available <br><br>water is insufficient for performing ablution. <br><br>2. For health reasons.If one is injured or ill and fears that use of water will worsen the condition. 3. If the water is too cold and it is likely to cause physical harm to the user. 4. If the process of getting water is dangerous or life threatening. 5. When the available water is reserved for domestic use. 6. Fear of missing a prayer by the time one gets to the source of water. 7. If the the available water is impure. <br><br>**Conditions of tayammum**<br><br>When performing Tayammum,you should consider the following three conditions: 1. One must use clean sand. 2. It should be performed at the time of that particular prayer. 3. The tayammum of one prayer ends at the termination of that particular prayer e.g one cannot <br><br>use tayammum of Dhuhr for another prayer. **Nullifiers of tayammum.**<br><br>As you learnt earlier, wudhu can be nullified by certain acts. Do you remember some of these acts? <br><br>Similarly,thre are acts that if done will nullify tayammum.These acts include the following: <br><br>1. All that nullifies wudhu will also nullify tayammum. 2. As soon as the cause for performing it is removed (i.e., the sick person recovers or pure water <br><br>is found). <br><br>3. Performance of fardh prayer. A Muslim is not supposed to perform two fardh prayers with the <br><br>same tayammum. <br><br>4. When one denounces Islam. **Significance of Swalat- (Prayers)**<br><br>As already seen, Swalat is the second pillar of Islam. It is a practical pillar since it must be observed <br><br>by following specific steps. The entire process of swalat which starts right from purification to its <br><br>actual performance leaves a positive impact on the Muslim and society at large. What is the <br><br>importance of swalat to you as a Muslim? How different is a society in which prayers are offered <br><br>from one in which they are not? In this section, we shall look at how prayers benefit the society both **Social Benefits**<br><br> <br><br>It trains a Muslim to avoid evil and shameful deeds. Allah(S.W.T) says***and established*** ***regular prayer for prayer restrains from shameful and evil deeds.***[Q: 29:45] <br><br> Prayer is a means of leveling all differences of rank, creed, color, status and nationality, thus promoting equality. This is achieved through the use of similar facilities by all, standing side by side during swalat regardless of the differences in status, race or rank. <br><br> Promotes leadership qualities. For example the choosing of an Imam among the Muslims who <br><br>is given and respect honor by all. <br><br> It encourages a Muslim to enjoin good and forbidevil. It brings cohesion and unity among Muslim who will meet at the mosque frequently thus <br><br>renewing their friendship. **Swalat ul jamaa**<br><br>Prayers are offered either individually or in congregation. When offered in congregation,it is refeered <br><br>Swalat ul Jamaa.Itis the performance of prayers together by more than one person. Mention any <br><br>prayers that are offered collectively.There are several prayers that are performed in <br><br>congregation,theseinclude the five daily prayers, Friday noon prayers, prayers during eclipse (solar <br><br>and lunar), the two Idd prayers (Al Fitri and Al Adha),swalatul Janaza(funeral prayers) and Al Istisqai <br><br>(prayer for seeking rain). **Conditions for Jamaa prayer.**<br><br>You must have noted during the performance of prayers in congregation, ther are certain things that <br><br>should be observed. Below, we are going to explain to you some of these conditions which you may <br><br>have performed unknowingly in your mosque or when you were attending a swalat in Jamaa. herforming Jamaa with ones family is highly recommended because it gives a chance to teach the young members how to pray. It encourages members of the family to perform prayers without laziness and enables the head of the family to monitor the <br><br>attitudes of the family members. A female Imam can only be allowed when leading other females otherwise she can neither lead males nor a congregation of both males and females. Generally, the women are not as compelled to perform Jamaa prayers as males because of their roles <br><br>as mothers andcaretakers of the family. A non Muslim is not allowed to lead a congregation prayer even if he is <br><br>knowledgeable and there is no one to lead prayers. <br><br> An insane cannot lead prayers. This is so because he might not comprehend the <br><br>pronunciation of words and format of the prayer. <br><br> When leading the prayers, the Imam should pronounce the words clearly without <br><br>substituting the sounds and syllables. <br><br> The Imam should be more knowledgeable over the rest in Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence) and aspects of swalat, among other branches of Islamic knowledge. When there is <br><br>more than one knowledgeable person, other attributes like piety should be considered. Where all of them are pious, then the oldest can be made the Imam. **Importance of swalat ul jamaa**<br><br>In most communities you will observe that members are encouraged to do most of the activities <br><br>together and in unity.Usually success is achieved when things are done in unity thus the Swahili <br><br>proverb;*umoja ni nguvu utengano ni udhaifu*(unity is strength).Can you mention some of the IbnAbbas (R.A) narrated that the messenger of Allah said,*If any one hears the Adhan but does not*<br><br>*cometo the congregational prayer,the prayer he offers will not be accepted unless he has an excus*e <br><br>(Ibn Maja,Ibn Hiban, Al Hakim) <br><br>The above two hadith can briefly illustrate to us how the prophet laid emphasis on the observance of <br><br>prayers in Jamaa. Let us also consider the following benefits of Jamaa prayers: <br><br>1. Muslims have a chance of converging five times a day to cement their brotherhood when <br><br>the prayers are performed at the mosque behind the Imam. <br><br>2. One can unite his family members and monitor their performance in ibadah by performing <br><br>prayers with them in Jamaa. <br><br>3. Muslims learn from others how to perform prayers correctly. This is of specific importance to children and new converts who need to learn religious practices from others who are experienced. <br><br>4. It promotes confidence in performance of prayers. 5. It promotes discipline since the maamumatare not supposed to preceed the Imam. Such <br><br>discipline makes and proves the Islamic system of worship to be orderly <br><br>6. It promotes strictness and concentration. 7. Develops and promotes leadership qualities. For example the selection of one of the <br><br>members to be an imam shows respect and honoraccorded to him. <br><br>8. The reward for Jamaa prayer is twenty seven times more than praying alone. 9. It promotesMuslims of different social, political, economic and professional background <br><br>keep off their differences and converge together for prayers. conditions experienced in the journey. Allah (S.W.T) Has not left out his favors and has given the <br><br>Muslim traveler privileges which include swalatul Musafir.This prayer can be performed inthree <br><br>ways.These are:Jamu Taqdim, Jamu Taakhir and Qasr. <br><br>Allah says***When you travel through the earth, there is no blame on you if you shorten the***<br><br>***prayers, for fear the unbelievers may attack you: For the unbelievers are unto enemies*.**[Q 4:101] **Jamu Taqdim**<br><br>This is to bring forward a prayer e.g. to bring forward Asr and pray it at Dhuhr time. <br><br>Muadh (R.A) narrated,*We set out with the prophet on the expedition of Tabuk and he combined*<br><br>*Dhuhr and Asr together*(Muslim) Other prayers for special occasions include the following; <br><br>**Kusuf wal Khusuf**<br><br>Have you ever witnessed either of the eclipses? What do you normally do when there is an eclipse of <br><br>the sun or the moon? Are you aware that Islam has offered a clear and definite practice to be done <br><br>during any of the eclipses? This is by performing two rakaat prayers. <br><br>Aisha(RA) Narrated that ,* The messenger of Allah recited the Quran aloud during the eclipse*<br><br>*prayer and performed a total of two rakaat*(Bukhari and Muslim) **Swalatul Istisqaa**<br><br>Allah (S.W.T) has created different seasons like summer, winter, spring and autumn. Some of these <br><br>seasons are favourable to man while others are harsh. These seasons are associated with different <br><br>conditions. Among theseconditions is drought. Have you ever experienceda drought condition? What <br><br>practices do the members of your community perform to ward off the drought? You will realize that <br><br>most communities offer sacrifices and prayers to their ancestors and other creatures besides <br><br>Allah(S.W.T). This is shirk and is totally forbidden in Islam.In the event of a drought, Islam <br><br>prescribes a special prayer to be performed. This prayer is referred to as Swalatul Istisqaa, which isA <br><br>two rakaat congregational prayer is offered. <br><br>Anas (RA) narrated that,*The messenger of Allah supplicated Allah for rain and he pointed with the*<br><br>*back of his hand to the sky.*(Muslim) **Swalatul Eid**<br><br>There are two Eid prayers which are performed in two different ocasions; <br><br>a) Idd-ul Fitr: It is a two rakaat prayer performed to mark the end of the month of Ramadhan. b) Idd-ul Adha: It is a two rakaat prayerperformed on the tenth of Dhul Hijja to mark the end of <br><br>the activities of Hajj. <br><br>Aisha (R.A) narrated that, the messenger of Allah said*, Breaking the fast at the end of Ramadhan is*<br><br>*(determined) when people break their fast and Idd ul Adha (the Idd of sacrifice)is determined when* <br><br>O Allah! Shower Your mercy upon Muhammad and the followers of Muhammad, as You showered <br><br>Your mercy upon Ibrahim and the followers of Ibrahim. Behold, You are Praiseworthy, Glorious. <br><br>Oh Allah! Shower Your blessing upon Muhammad, and the followers of Muhammad as You showered Your blessings upon Ibrahim and the followers of Ibrahim. Behold, You are Praiseworthy, <br><br>Glorious. <br><br>4. Then raise the hands, say Allahu Akbar and read the duaa. <br><br>**Duaa for an adult man or woman:**<br><br>Oh Allah! Forgive those of us that are alive and those of us that are dead; those of us that are present <br><br>**|**P a g e 59 and those of us who are absent; those of us who are young and those of us who are adults; our males <br><br>and our females. Oh Allah! Whomsoever You keep alive let him live as a follower of Islam and whomsoever You cause to die, let him die a Believer. <br><br>**Duaa for a boy:**<br><br><br><br>Oh! Allah, make him (this child) a source for our salvation and make him a source of reward and <br><br>treasure for us and make him an intercessor for us and one whose intercession is accepted. <br><br>**Duaa for a girl:**<br><br>Oh! Allah, make her (this child) a source for our salvation and make her a source of reward and <br><br>treasure for us and make her an intercessor for us and one whose intercession is accepted. <br><br>5. After the duaa, say Allahu Akbar, drop the hands and then turn the head both sides for salaam. <br><br>**Sijdat**<br><br>**Demonstration of a worshipper in the sujuud position.**<br><br>**|**P a g e 61 <br><br>Read [Q 7:206]; [Q:19:58];[Q:25:60];[Q:32:15];[Q:84:21] <br><br>Can you identify one thing that is common in all the verses you have read? It s evident that all these <br><br>verses mention the word*sijdah.*Sijadah is a very important act of worship in the life of a muslim and <br><br>that is why several verse of the Quran that mention it. You will also observe that sijdah is part of the <br><br>obligatory steps in swalat. <br><br>Sijda is an act ofworship which involvesprostration and glorification where by the fore head, palms <br><br>and the knees firmly touch the ground facing the direction of the Qibla. <br><br>Narrated al-Bara bin A-zib (R.A) that the messenger of Allah said*, Whenever you**prostrate**place*<br><br>*the palms of your hand (on the ground) and raise your elbows.*(Muslim) <br><br>**Types of Sijdats**<br><br>Besides sijda during swalat, there are other three types of Sijdat namely:- <br><br> Sijdatul Tilawa Sijdatul Shukr Sijdatul Sahw <br><br>**|**P a g e 61 **Sijdatul Tilawa** Earlier in this section, we have learnt that there are several verses in the Quran that mention the word <br><br>sijda.What do you do when you come across these verses? Definitely you will have to pause and <br><br>prostrate then continue with your recitation. This prostration is what is referred to as Tilawa. There are fourteen places of prostration in the Holy Quran as agreed upon by all the Muslim religious <br><br>scholars, while Imam Shafi suggests prostration at Quran 22:77 to make them a total of fifteen. <br><br>Allah says in the Quran,*But fall ye down in prostration to Allah and adore Him.*[Q 53:62] <br><br>Ibn Abbas(RA)narrated*, the messenger of Allah prostrated when he recited suratul Najm*[Q: 13] <br><br>**Quotation of verses in the quran that require prostration**<br><br>THE WORD NAME OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF <br><br>SURAH SURAH VERSE Al-Araf Walahu**Yasjuduuna**<br><br>Ar-Rad Walillaahi**yasjudu**<br><br>An Nahl Walillaahi**yasjudu**<br><br>Al-Isra Yakhirruuna <br><br>lil adhqaani**sujjadaa**<br><br>Kharruu**sujjadan**<br><br>**Yasjudu**lahu <br><br>Al-Hajj 22 77* **Wasjuduu**wabuduu <br><br>Al-Furqaan 25 60 Wa idha qiila <br><br>Lahumu**sjuduu**<br><br>An-Naml 27 25 Al-la**yasjuduu**lillaahi <br><br>As-Sajda 32 15 Kharruu**sujjadan**<br><br>Sad 38 24 Kharra**raakian**<br><br>Fussilat 41 37 **Wasjuduu**lillaahi <br><br>An-Najm 53 62 **fasjuduu**lillaahi <br><br>Al-Inshiqaq 84 21 Laa**yasjuduun**<br><br>Al Alaq 96 19 **Wasjud** This type of sijda is usually performed in swalat before the first salaam and just like the ordinary <br><br>prostration.For example, if one forgets to perfor the ruku,or sijdah or any other pillar of swalat. <br><br>Imran bin al-Hussein (R.A)*narrated the messenger of Allah led them in prayer and forgot (to do*<br><br>*something) so he made two prostrations and recited the tashahud and then said the Tasleem*. (Abu <br><br>Dawoud and At-Tirmidhy) **Sijdatul Shukr** Muslims should always be grateful and thankful to Allah (S.W.T) Prostration is one of the ways of <br><br>showing gratitude to Allah (S.W.T). This type of sijda is performed for the purposes of showing ones <br><br>gratefulness and appreciation towards Allah after attaining any good thing e.g. passing of examinations, getting a new born babysit is a way of thanking Allah.It can be performed in any place <br><br>that is clean. *Abu Bakar (R.A) narrated, Whenever the prophet received something which pleased him,he would*<br><br>*make the Sajda in gratitude to Allah*(Related by the six Imams except An-Nasai) **Meaning of zakat**<br><br>Every society will have people who are well off and those who need assistance. Have you met <br><br>people who may be friends, relatives, neighbours or even strangers and they needed your help? How <br><br>did you react to their request? In many cases, every society will have its own way of dealing with <br><br>such situations. Islam as a complete way of life has not been left behind. The plight of the poor and <br><br>the needy has been well taken care of by the institution of Zakat. It is one of the major religious <br><br>dutiesand the third pillar in Islam.Zakat was made obligatory on*Ummah*s of all prophets even before <br><br>Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) this is evident when we look into the Holy Quran where we see that <br><br>from ancient times Salah and Zakat were ordained as compulsory.For example, there is mentioning <br><br>about Prophet Ibraham and the Prophets of his race when Allah says in the Quran: <br><br>**|**P a g e 63 ***"And We made them leaders of men. They guided the people according to Our command, and We***<br><br>***inspired in them the doing of good deeds and right establishment of Salah and giving of Zakat***<br><br>***and they were worshippers of Us."***[Q: 21:73] <br><br>About Prophet Ismael it is said: ***"I shall smite with my punishment whom I will. Although My mercy embraced all things, but I***<br><br>***shall ordain it for those who will fear Me and give Zakat and those who will believe in Our***<br><br>***revelations."***[Q: 7:156] <br><br>"***And Allah said:O Children of Israel! I am with you, if you offer Salah, and give Zakat and***<br><br>***believe in My messengers and support those messengers who are to come, and lend unto Allah a***<br><br>***nice loan surely I shall remit your sins."***[Q: 5:12] <br><br>Before Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) the last Prophet was Prophet Issa. The commandment about <br><br>Salah and Zakat was given to him also by Allah, as is found in Suratul-Mariam: ***"And hath made me blessed wheresoever I may be, and hath enjoined upon me Salah and Zakat***<br><br>***so long as I remain alive."***[Q: 19:31) <br><br>This shows that the religion of Islam has been established from the beginning, in the ministry of <br><br>every prophet, on the two great pillars of Salah and Zakat, and it never happened that any Ummah <br><br>believing in Allah (S.W.T) was exempted from these two obligatory duties. Allah (S.WT) says,***And they have been commanded No more than this: To worship Allah,***<br><br>***Offering Him sincere devotion, being true in (faith); to establish regular prayers; And to practice***<br><br>***regular charity; and that is the religion Right and Straight.***[Q: 98:5] <br><br>There are three types of Zakat namely; Zakatul Maal, Zakatul-Fifr and Sadaqa. **Zakatul-maal**<br><br>Zakat-ul-Maal is the obligatory charity paid by an individual to the needy from the property which <br><br>he possesses. It is obligatory on an individual who possesses wealth equal toor above a minimum <br><br>amount called Nisab for an entire lunar year. Forthe purpose of calculating Zakat, different <br><br>categories of wealth are defined,this shall be demonstrated by the table (on page ) on <br><br>specific items on which Zakat is payable. <br><br>In terms of Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh), Zakatul-Maal is an obligatory duty (Fardh) on every <br><br>Muslim possessing wealth equal toor exceeding the prescribed amount ofNisab. It is a <br><br>prescribedwelfare-contribution from ones stored wealth. It is the right of Allah (S.W.T) on a <br><br>Muslim's wealth. Paying Zakat-ul-Maal is the responsibility of theowner. If one fails to carry out this <br><br>obligation, he is a sinner, consequently incurring Allah's displeasureand His punishment in the <br><br>hereafter. On the day of Eid -ul-Fitr, which marks the completion of the month ofRamadhan, every Muslim <br><br>possessing an amount of food in excess of his family's need for a day (24 hours) is mandated to pay <br><br>Zakat-ul-Fitr on his own behalf and for all his dependent(s).Zakat-ul-Fitr or Fitrah is "the one full <br><br>meal per person or cash equivalent to the cost of one full meal, given directly to the needy ofthe <br><br>community before Eid-ul-Fitr prayer. Arrangements for payingFitrah should be made ahead of time <br><br>so that it reaches the eligiblerecipients in time for them to make use of it on Eid day. The quantity <br><br>ofZakat-ul-Fitr traditionally amounts to one Sa`, which is equivalent to 21/2kilograms of food such as <br><br>wheat, barley, rice, or the like. Ibn Abbas (RA) narrated that, The messenger of Allah (P.B.U.H) enjoined Zakatul Fitr on the one <br><br>who fasts in the month of Ramadhan to purify him from any indecent act or speech and for the <br><br>purpose of providing food fortheneedy (Abu aawoud and Ibn Majah) **SADAQAH**<br><br>Sadaqah is an Arabic term widely used to cover all kinds of charity. <br><br>Although Sadaqah and Zakat are often used interchangeably, Sadaqah implies voluntary charity and <br><br>is not limited to giving out money or food. <br><br>All good deeds are considered Sadaqah and are rewarded by Allah (S.W.T)These even include <br><br>practices that may look simple such as removing a thorn from the path,helping the old to cross a <br><br>busy road among othersEvery Muslim is exhorted togive Sadaqah. charity), knowledge which brought benefit, and a virtuous son who makes supplication for him." <br><br>[Muslim] <br><br>Sadaqah Jariyah means Continuous Alms/Charity. A continuous charity is an action that someone <br><br>does that remains active even after the person is dead. For example, if a person digs a well then <br><br>people can use it for a very long time - even after the person dies. This type of charity is very <br><br>effective and serves better than just giving money as the person who initiated the action will get <br><br>thawab even after he dies. Sadaqah has no minimum amount. Zakat has a nisab- (the minimum amount one <br><br>must have before it becomes compulsory.) <br><br>Any amount can be given as sadaqa. There is a fixed amount to be paid on the saved <br><br>money or cash. **Conditions for zakat payment**<br><br>Even though payment of Zakat is a must to the able Muslims, certain conditions have to be observed. <br><br>These include the following: <br><br>i. One paying it must be a Muslim. ii. One must be a free man and not a slave. iii. One must be of sound mind (sane.) iv. v. vi. vii. <br><br>The giver of Zakat must have attained maturity. <br><br>The wealth to be paid should have reached nisab. <br><br>The wealth or property must have been in ones possession for a full year. <br><br>Zakat-ul- Fitr should be paid before one goes for the Eid prayers. **Differences between Zakat-ul-Fitr and Zakat-ul-Maal**<br><br>**Zakaat-ul Maal** **Zakaat-ul- Fitr**<br><br>1 The wealth must have been in It should be given in the month of Ramadhan before <br><br>Possession for one year. one goes for Idd Prayers. <br><br>It should be given on kg of the staple food 2 The rate should be calculated <br><br>according to the property to be <br><br>given out. <br><br>3 It should be given to recipient It can be given to any needy or destitute Muslim <br><br>prescribed in the Quran. <br><br>4 One may also give in the form This must represent the exact equivalent of the <br><br>market value of the kind and quality of the staple of cash. <br><br>food which would have otherwise been offered. e.g. **Condition for distribution of zakat**<br><br>During the distribution of Zakat, it is very important that it is done according to the sharia.The <br><br>following conditions should be considered: <br><br>1. The intention (Niyyat) should be for the sake of fulfilling Allahs command and not for <br><br>any other reasons. <br><br>2. It should be given to the recipients prescribed by the Quran. 3. It should be given promptly, when it is due. 4. Zakat of one place should not be transferred to another place. 5. The item payable for Zakat should not be exchanged for another item. For example it is permisable to use the nisab for animals when you are supposed to pay zakat for <br><br>mineralsbut one can convert the cows into currency and then a rate of the currency is given out for Zakat. **Items on which zakat is payable**<br><br>1. Domestic animals such as camels, sheep, oxen which are not kept as articles of trade. 2. Agricultural produce such crops and fruits of the field like wheat, barley, dates, raisins, <br><br>rice, maize and vegetables. <br><br>3. Gold, silver and other mineral products. 4. Dug out treasures whose ownership has not been identified for one year. 5. Trade and merchandise(goods for trade) 6. Savings from the sale of goods should be paid for Zakatafter a year. 7. Savings from the house rent and land rates. 8. Personal income. <br><br>**|**P a g e 69 **Items on which Zakat is not payable**<br><br>Even though Zakat is an obligatory Pillar in Islam and that one has to pay,there are certain items <br><br>which a Muslim is not supposed to give.These items include the following: <br><br>a. Private houses in which the owner dwells in. b. Animals used for transportation. c. Furniture, clothing Weapons or tools for daily use. d. Books which are not for sale. e. Jewellery or ornaments which have not reached nisab. f. Machinery used for manufacture of goods. **(d) Recipients of Zakat**<br><br>There are those people whom the Quran has singled out to be the rightful beneficiaries of Zakat.The <br><br>Quran has identified a list of deserving persons to whom Zakat should be given. <br><br>Allah says***Alms are for the poor and the needy, and those employed to administer the ( funds);***<br><br>***For those whose hearts have been recently reconciled to the truth; and for those in bondage and***<br><br>***in debt; in the course of Allah; and for the wayfarer:(Thus is it) ordained by Allah, and Allah is***<br><br>***full of knowledge and wisdom.***[Q: 9:60] <br><br>According to the above verse the recipients of Zakat are as follows: 7. Those on the course of Allah(Fisabillillah) <br><br>Zakat can be used to finance any form of struggle or course for the love of Allah (S.W.T) <br><br>such as aawa.sponsering students educational expence among others. **Importance of Zakat.**<br><br>Allah (S.WT) has prescribed the pillars in Islam for the benefit of humankind. These benefits <br><br>include social, spiritual and even economical. Let us now look at the importance of Zakat. **Spiritual Importance of Zakat.**<br><br>1. A believer gets rewards by fulfilling this third pillar of Islam. 2. It is a commandment of Allah (S.W.T)and therefore must be observed by every Muslim who <br><br>qualifies to give it. <br><br>3. Giving of Zakat purifies the wealth of the giver. 4. It blesses the wealth of the giver. 5. The institution of Zakat enables one to fulfill his religious obligation. 6. Develops spiritual growth and piety. **Social Importance**<br><br>1. Creates good relationship between the giver and receiver. 2. Remove jealously/ mistrust of the rich. 3. Restores hope, dignity and worthiness of the poor. 4. Reduces the gap between the rich and poor 5. Develops and fosters a healthy social relationship among members of the community. 6. Removes pride, selfishness or greed among rich. 7. Job creation for the Zakat collectors who secure employment. 8. Fighting corruption 9. Clearing debts of citizens 10. It helps foster equality among the Muslims. 11. Promotes unity and brotherhood among the Muslim Ummah. **Economic importance**<br><br>a. Zakat Helps raise living standards of the poor less, fortunate and the marginalized <br><br>communities. It helps the poor and needy by relieving their hardships and troubles. <br><br>b. c. Helps create a self supporting community which does not require financial or economic assistance in form of food or material. This enables the Muslim <br><br>communityto be self reliant and independent. <br><br>d. Zakat contributes to the national budget as it is a form of tax. e. It helps in the creation of job and employment opportunities. f. Those in debt are able to settle them from the Zakat. g. Zakat assists in improving the economy in the society by creating job opportunities for example the Zakatcollectors and distributors, clearance of debts and establishment <br><br>of social amenities. **Differences between Zakat and Tax**<br><br>**ZAKAT** **TAX**<br><br>It is the third pillar of Islam It is a law of the government or rather <br><br>the policies of state <br><br>It is only paid annually It can be paid monthly, weekly, daily or <br><br>even hourly. **The role played by Zakat in promoting integrity.**<br><br>Zakat plays a very important role in the promotion of integrity in the society through the <br><br>following ways: <br><br>1) It enhances the sense of responsibility in that the giverfeels obliged to perform the acts as an <br><br>obligatory duty upon him. <br><br>2) It also promotes loyalty which is an aspect of integrity. The giver shows loyalty to Allah who has commanded those with wealth to give it in charity. Zakat has been mentioned eighty two <br><br>(82) times in the Quran. <br><br>3) It assists in curbing vices such as theft, by regulating the owning of resources in the society <br><br>and creating a balance. <br><br>4) Giving of Zakat helps in minimizing vices such as jealousy and envy in that the receiver feels satisfied when he is given the share from it. And to the giver it reduces extravagance and greed for wealth. <br><br>5) It encourages hard work because every Muslim has an incentive to work since he is expected <br><br>to give something to the needy and earn thawab. <br><br>6) Zakat reduces injustices such as unfair distribution of wealth in that only the rightful <br><br>recipients are given. <br><br>7) Zakat promotes unity in the society by bringing together both the rich and the poor. **Suggested study Questions andActivities.**<br><br>**Answer the following questions in your I.R.E revision exercise book.**<br><br>1. a)Describe the performance of Sijdatul Tilawa, Sijdatul Shukr and Sijdatul <br><br>Sahw. **b)**Discuss the significance of shahada in the life of a Muslim. <br><br>3.a) Give the differences between Zakat-ul Fitr and Zakat-ul <br><br>maal. b)Expalin the items on which Zakat is payable**.**<br><br>**Activities**<br><br>1. Demonstrate the performance of udhu and identify the Sunnah acts. 2. Demonstrate the performance of swalatul Janaza. **CHAPTER 5**<br><br>**Akhlaq (morality)**<br><br>Akhlaq refers to the standard behaviour or code of conduct which an individual is expected to <br><br>uphold or observe according to his or her society. Therefore Islamic morality refers to the code of <br><br>conduct prescribed by the Quran and Hadith which a Muslim is expected to adhere to <br><br>The Islamic moral system stems from its primary creed of belief in One God as the Creator and <br><br>Sustainer of the Universe. Islam considers the human race to be a part of aods creation, and as His <br><br>subjects. From an Islamic perspective, the purpose of human life is to worship God, by leading this <br><br>worldly life in harmony with the Divine Will, and thereby achieving peace in this world, and <br><br>everlasting success in the life of the hereafter. Muslims look to the Glorious Quran and the <br><br>Traditions of the Prophet as their moral guides.Morality in Islam addresses every aspect of a Muslim <br><br>life, from greetings to international relations. Muslims must not only be morally healthy, but also <br><br>contribute to the moral health of the entire society. The almighty Allah says:***You are the best of the nations raised up for (the benefit of) men; you***<br><br>***enjoin what is right and forbid the wrong and believe in God; and if the followers of the book had***<br><br>***believed it would have been better for them; of them(some) are believers and most of them are***<br><br>***transgressors.***[Q: 3:110] <br><br>The prophet (P.B.U.H) summarized the conduct of a Muslim when he said: <br><br>*My Sustainer has given me nine commands: to remain conscious of Allah, whether in private or in*<br><br>*public; to speak justly, whether angry or pleased; to show moderation both when poor and when*<br><br>*rich, to reunite friendship with those who have broken off with me; to give to him who refuses me;*<br><br>*that my silence should be occupied with thought; that my looking should be an admonition; and that*<br><br>*I should command what is right.* ***It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces Towards east or West; but it is righteousness- to***<br><br>***believe in Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book, and the Messengers; to spend of***<br><br>***your substance, out of love for Him, for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for***<br><br>***those who ask, and for the ransom of slaves; to be steadfast in prayer, and practice regular***<br><br>***charity; to fulfill the contracts which ye have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain (or***<br><br>***suffering) and adversity, and throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the***<br><br>***Allah-fearing.***[Q: 2:177] <br><br>This verse emphasizes the Islamic belief that righteousness and piety is based on a true and <br><br>sincerefaith. The key to virtue and good conduct is a strong relation with God, who sees all, at all <br><br>times and everywhere. He knows the secrets of the hearts and the intentions behind all actions. <br><br>Therefore, Islam enjoins moral behavior in all circumstances.It may be possible to deceive the world, <br><br>but its not possible to deceive the rreator. Morality in Islam centers on certain basic beliefs and principles as follows: <br><br>a) Allah (S.W.T) is the creator and source of all goodness, truth and beauty. b) Man is a responsible, dignified and honorable agent of his Creator. c) Allah (SW.T) has put everything in the heavens and the earth in the service of <br><br>mankind. <br><br>d) By His Mercy and Wisdom, Allah (S.W.T) does not expect the impossible from man or hold him accountable for anything beyond his power. Nor does Allah (S.W.T) forbid man to enjoy the good things of life. <br><br>e) Moderation, practicality and balance are guarantees of high integrity and sound <br><br>morality. <br><br>f) All things are permissible in principle except what is singled out as obligatory, which must be observed and what is singled out as forbidden, which must be avoided. g) Mans ultimate responsibility is to Allah (S.W.T) and his highest goal is the pleasure <br><br>of his Creator. true and abandon what is false, uphold what is wrong, seek what is beautiful and wholesome and <br><br>avoid what is indicent.To him, simplicity and compassion are his trademarks, while he keeps away <br><br>from arrogance and pride. A man once asked the prophet (S.W.T) on virtues and he replied. <br><br>*Ask your heart. Virtue is that which satisfies the soul and comforts the heart, And sin (evil), is that*<br><br>*which perturbs the soul and troubles the heart even if people should pronounce it lawful.*(Ahmed <br><br>&Dearani) Islamic morality (Akhlaaq is divided into two dimensions <br><br>(a) Maarofoat (The Virtues ) (b) Munkaraat (The vices ) <br><br>**a) Maaroofaat [the virtues]**<br><br>These are deeds or practices which are permitted in Islam.They couldbe in the form of actions <br><br>gestures or statement. A Muslims is encouraged to acquire these virtues. The Holy Prophet <br><br>(P.B.U.H) said:*The most perfect amongst you in faith is the best of you in behavior.*<br><br>Examples of Maarufat <br><br>(i) (ii) (iii) Honoring the aged. (iv) <br><br>Visiting the sick and escorting the deceased to the grave. <br><br>Feeding the poor. <br><br>Trustworthiness: Muslims have to be people who keep their words in any promise, contracts among others. <br><br>(v) <br><br>Having contentment [Qanaa]or satisfaction with whatever Allah[sw] has decreed for him/her. <br><br>(vi) Self control (vii) Contentment (viii) Patience **b) Munkaraat [the vices]**<br><br>These are all kinds of bad practices or deeds that are prohibited in Islam. These vices can be in the <br><br>form of actions gestures or statements. Allah (S.W.T) has prohibited all forms of Munkaraat whether <br><br>practiced in the open or in secrecy. <br><br>Allah (S.W.T) says:***Say: The things that May Lord has indeed forbidden are: Shameful deeds***<br><br>***,whether open or secret; sins and trespasses against truth or reason; assigning of partners to***<br><br>***Allah, for which He Has given no authority and saying things about Allah of which you have no***<br><br>***knowledge.***[Q: 7:33] <br><br>Examples of Munkaraat <br><br>(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) Wishful thinking. (viii) Drug and substance abuse. (ix) Gambling and games of chances. (x) All forms of sexual perversions. <br><br>Arrogance and pride. <br><br>Slander and gossips. <br><br>Telling lies. <br><br>Calling one another by offensive nicknames. <br><br>Dissatisfaction and lack of contentment. <br><br>Looking down upon others because, class or wealth, race etc. **Significance of Islamic morality**<br><br>Islamic morality is intended to build in a Muslim a sound mind, peaceful soul and a strong <br><br>personality. <br><br> <br><br>Islamic morality is meant to build in the human being a sound mind and body and a peaceful soul. <br><br> <br><br>It makes a Muslim have a distinctive Islamic personality when interacting with others. Islamic moral values are meant to cultivate in a Muslim the best character in the most whole some manner. **Amr bil Maruf Wa Nahyi Anil Munkar. (Enjoining good and forbidding evil)**<br><br>Allah (S.W.T) commanded Muslims to always enjoin good and forbid evil in the <br><br>society.Commanding of good should start with self-restrain. This means avoidance of those acts <br><br>which displease Allah.Beinga practical religion, Islam teaches the Muslimsto strive to follow the <br><br>religious teachings and abide by its code of conduct and ethics. Allah says*,**Let there arise in you a band of people inviting to all that is good,enjoining what is***<br><br>***right and forbidding what is wrong:They arethe ones to attain felicity.***[Q: 3:104] <br><br>The prophet (P.B.U.H) also emphasize on the importance of morals in a hadith reported by Abu <br><br>Said Al-Khudri who says that the messenger of Allah says,*He of you who sees an abomination*<br><br>*should change it with his hand; if he could not, then with his tongue; if he could not, then in his*<br><br>*heart; and this is the faintest in faith.*(Muslim) It isalso very important to keep off evil so that we can preserve the purity of the soul and have it <br><br>more concentrated on performing ibadah.Muslims should keep reminding each other of the good <br><br>things expected from them and talk about the evil things and howthey can avoid them.And Allah <br><br>tells us in the Quran,***And remind, for indeed, the reminder benefits the believers.*** What benefits do you get as a Muslim when you practice and remind each other of good deeds? <br><br>On the other hand,the soul of the human being is very subtle to temptations which arise from <br><br>weaknesses to remain firm and steadfast in the path of Allah.The environment we stay in may also <br><br>affect our morals and divert us from the good path.If for example you walk with friends who <br><br>smoke,you need a very strong conviction and Iman(faith)so that you are not tempted to smoke.But in <br><br>as much as you may not be smoking,it is your religious duty to command good and forbid <br><br>evil.Therefore you should remind your friend of the evils of smoking. There are various ways in which a Muslim can command well and shun evil. Examples of such ways <br><br>are; observing the five daily prayers, fasting during the month of Ramadhan, speaking the truth, <br><br>visiting the sick, giving out charity,advising those doing the wrong among others. <br><br>Would you wish to be among the successful on the Day of Judgment? What are the things you need <br><br>to in order to attain this success? ***I swear by the time (Asr) surely man is in great loss, save those who believe and perform good***<br><br>***deeds and exhort each other on truth and exhort each other to endurance***[Q:103:1-3]. <br><br>Iman thus takes the first preference before good deeds. Good deeds that are not accompanied with <br><br>Iman are known to have no reward before Allah. Consider those who do good things just to be seen <br><br>and praised, the corrupt people who do good things in exchange of various favors not to mention the <br><br>philanthropists who give a lot of wealth for pleasure without bringing the intention of doing it for the <br><br>sake of Allah. Such deeds usually may lead to actions that are forbidden according to the doctrine of <br><br>Islam. <br><br>Obedience of Allahs commandments leads to righteous deeds in that in order for you to perform <br><br>them, you should first fear Allah. Iman and Swalihat cannot be separated because they are <br><br>interdependent in their functioning. Therefore in Islam, faith and good deeds go hand in hand. <br><br>Abu Said Al-Khudri (R.A) narrates that he heard the prophet (P.B.U.H) says:*Whenever anyone of*<br><br>*sees anything contrary to Allahs approval, he should change it with his hand, or if he cannot, then*<br><br>*by his tongue, if he cannot, then by his heart and that is the weakest faith.* **Suggested revision Questions and class activities.**<br><br>**Answer the following questions in your I.R.E revision exercise books.**<br><br>1. Explain the basic principles of Islamic morality. 2. Discuss the significance of commanding good and forbidding evil. <br><br>**Activity**<br><br>Identify the common vices you see being practiced in your neighbourhood.Suggest <br><br>ways of stopping them. We now have an idea idea about what a family is. Can youmention the people who constitute a <br><br>family?A family according to Islam isasocial institutionwhereby members are united by the same <br><br>ethical values hence have responsibilities over one another.This bond starts right from marriage and <br><br>includes but not limited to all the relations from either sides of the married couples. Are there any <br><br>other people who may not be staying with you but are part of your family? In Islam the concept of a <br><br>family stretches far beyond the father, mother and children.The following three factors keep <br><br>peopletogether and united in an Islamic society: <br><br> Kingship and blood ties-it involves the father /mother- child relations, brother-sister among others these are the strongest natural ties. It determines how members relatewith one another thus controlling their behavior. It binds together the family and assists people to live <br><br>peacefully. <br><br> Marital commitment-It includes husband-wife relations,the in-laws of either side. This helps <br><br>to keep the family together in that each member has defined roles to play. <br><br> Faith-It is the main binding factor which enhances the achievement of family goals and interests. It goes beyond the close relatives to include all the Muslims who are brothers and sisters. We should therefore be ready to accommodate our fellow Muslims when they need <br><br>our help since they form part of the larger Muslim family. **Importance of the family**<br><br>We have seen who comprise of a family.These entiremembers are kept together by a common goal <br><br>which should be directed towards benefitting the entire society. The things done within the smaller <br><br>unit of the society, which is the family, will have either direct or indirect impact to all the members <br><br>of the community.Let us look at the importance of the family: livelihood of his family while the wife has to fulfillthe functions as motherhoodsuch as child upbringing and household chores. <br><br> A family is a source of stability to the society, in thatstable families producemembers who fit <br><br>well in the wider society. <br><br> The family serves as a learning institution.Children brought up in family are taught Islamic morals, values, norms and traditions by the parents. The knowledge learnt during the <br><br>formative years is peculiar to the home environment. It happens that children brought up from different environment swillend up with different moral behavior. This is due to the <br><br>socialization skills taught in individual families or the moral and traditional practices that may be seen in the two environments.Are ther things that you learnt in your childhood and <br><br>are different from your friends? Mention some of them. **Marriage in Islam**<br><br>Marriage is a vital part of a Muslims life. In fact marriage is so important in Islam that it is declared <br><br>to be a half of a Muslims faith. As a Muslim one should live in accordance with the Islamic <br><br>Jurisprudence in the way shown by the Holy Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H). Allah (S.W.T) says,***Marry those among you who are single or the virtuous ones among your***<br><br>***slaves male or female: if they are in poverty, Allah will give them means out of His grace: for***<br><br>***Allah encompasses all, and He knows all things.***[Q: 24:32] <br><br>One can see from the above verse that the Creator of mankind has ordered us to marry.The Prophet <br><br>married and also encouraged others to marry Ibn Masud (R.A) narrated that the messenger of Allah (h.B.U.H) said to us*, O young people!*<br><br>*Whoever can marry among you should marry, for that will help him lower his gaze and protect his*<br><br>*chastity. Whoever is not able to marry is recommended to fast and that will be his shield.*(Bukhari <br><br>and Muslim) To fulfill Allahs (S.W.T) command.Marriage is a commandment from Allah (S.W.T) which must <br><br>therefore be fullfilled by every Muslim who is able. It isconsidered as completing half of ones <br><br>religion and we therefore earn Allahs rewards. Secondly, marriage secures a comfortable atmosphere for boththe husband and the wife.A Muslim <br><br>couple who follow the teachings of the Holy Quran willalways be a source of comfort for each other. <br><br>Their relationship should go beyond that of mere sexual enjoyment and should be based on a cordial <br><br>friendship accompanied by mutual understanding.The Holy Quran says:***"One of His signs is that*** ***He created for you spouses of your own species, so that you might find comfort with them. And***<br><br>***He put mutual love and affection in your hearts. Surely in this there are lessons for the thinking***<br><br>***people."***[Q: 30:21] <br><br>The other purpose is for procreation. Through marriage,a new generation of healthy, faithful and <br><br>virtuous children isborn. The family is the school for morals.The Holy Prophet (P.BU.H) said.*"As*<br><br>*soon as a suitor, who is religious and who has manners that satisfy you comes to you asking for a*<br><br>*matrimonial alliance, take action to join in marriage with him. If you do not do so, you will have*<br><br>*deviated from the right path and may be faced with a great crisis.* The fourth reason is for companionship. Marriage provides close interaction between the man and <br><br>the woman in mutual sharing of responsibilities and ideas. This relationship makes the husband and <br><br>the wife to live together harmoniously. For example, in our homes our parents consult each other on <br><br>matters related to our welfare like paying of our school fees, buying of our cloths among other <br><br>responsibilities. <br><br>Marriage helps to safeguard ones Iman (faith). It prevents one from committing immoral acts. Sins <br><br>such as intermingling with members of the opposite sex or having sexual relations outside marriage <br><br>are not acceptable in Islam because it creates immorality and immodesty. It promotes inter-family alliance. Through marriage, family ties are strengthened between the <br><br>families of the couple who become relatives. This promotes peace, harmony and friendship in the <br><br>society. <br><br>The other purpose of marriage is to safeguard the legitimacy of children who if begotten through <br><br>marriage are entitled to inheritance. <br><br>Marriage improves the couples social status through earning respect and dignity in the society. <br><br>**Conditions and regulations of marriage**<br><br>We have seen that the family begins with marriage. A marriage is valid only if the following <br><br>conditions are observed: **The formula (Al-Ssigha)**<br><br>This is the formula of marriage which includes the offer (Ijab) and the acceptance (Qabul). <br><br>The offer may be presented directly or through an agent which then gives room for the acceptance.In <br><br>this case,the process begins with the mans proposal which presents his full identification and <br><br>intention. On the other hand the woman has to state clearly her wishes and has the liberty to accept <br><br>or decline the offer.This first stage enhances familiarization to instill confidence. <br><br>**The contracting parties (al-Aqidaan)**<br><br>This refers to the bride and the groom who must satisfy conditions of marriage such as: <br><br> Be of sound mind <br><br> Have attained maturity <br><br> Must give their consent Abu Huraira(R.A) narrated that the prophet (S.A.W) said, A woman without a husband shall not be married until she gives consent,nor a virgin be married till her <br><br>consent is sought. They asked: How shall be her permission? He said, If she remains silent. (Agreed upon) <br><br> They should not belong to the prohibited degrees of marriage. <br><br>**Witnesses (as-shuhud)**<br><br>The issue of witnesses has been given great importance in Islam and therefore the marriageshould be contracted before two male Muslim witnesses whomust be mukhalaf (mature and sane). In <br><br>addition,they must understand the language in which the marriage ceremony is being conducted. <br><br>Regarding the witnesses, Ibn Abass reports that the prophet (S.A.W) said, The fornicatresses are <br><br>those who marry by themselves without witnesses. (At-Tirmidhy) **Guardianship(Al-Wilayat)**<br><br>The guardian is in charge of giving consent or permission for the marriage to proceed. Abu Musa <br><br>(R.A) narrates that the prophet said, There is no marriage without a guardian. (Ahmad,At- <br><br>Tirmidhy,Abu Dawoud, Ibn Majah) The Shariah gives the father the first position as the guardian. In <br><br>the case that the father is absent, then the guardianship will take the following order of merit: <br><br>o The grand father <br><br>o Full brother **The Muslim marriage ceremony** The actual Muslim wedding is known as a*nikah*. It is a simple ceremony, in which the bride does not have to be present so long as she sends two witnesses to the drawn-up agreement. Normally, the ceremony consists of reading from the Qur'an, and the exchange of vows in front of witnesses for both partners. No special religious official is necessary, but often the Imam is present and performs the ceremony. He may give a short sermon.**Lets now briefly look at what should be included in** **the sermon:** **The Sermon**<br><br>The assembly of nikah is addressed with a marriage sermon (khutba-tun-nikah) by the Muslim who is officiating the marriage. This should be done by a state appointed Muslim judge (Qadi) who also keeps the record of the marriage contract. However any trust worthy practicing Muslim can conduct the nikah ceremony. The documents of marriage contract/certificate are filed with the mosque (masjid) and local government for record. <br><br>The Prophet (S.A.W) made it his tradition to have marriage sermon delivered in the assembly to solemnize the marriage. The sermon invites the bride and the groom, as well as the participating guests in the assembly to a life of piety, mutual love, kindness, and social responsibility. The Khutbah-tun-Nikah begins with the praise of Allah. His help and guidance is sought. The Muslim confession of faith that 'There is none worthy of worship except Allah and Muhammad is His servant and messenger" is declared. The three Quranic verses (Quran 4:1, 3:102, 33:70-71) and one Prophetic saying (hadith) form the main text of the marriage. This hadith is: <br><br>'By Allah! Among all of you I am the most God-fearing, and among you all, I am the super most to save myself from the wrath of Allah, yet my state is that I observe prayer and sleep too. I observe fast and suspend observing them; I marry woman also. And he who turns away from my Sunnah has no relation with me". (Bukhari) <br><br>The Muslim officiating the marriage ceremony concludes the ceremony with a supplication (Dua) for bride, groom, their respective families, the local Muslim community, and the Muslim community at large (Ummah) <br><br>it is important for us to note here that marriage is considered as an act of worship (ibadah). It is therefore virtuous to conduct it in a Mosque keeping the ceremony simple. Islam advocates simplicity in ceremonies and celebrations. most cultures and traditions. Polygamycomes from two Greek words, namely*poly*meaning many <br><br>or more than, and*Gamy*which stands for marriage or a sexual union.Thus polygamy means <br><br>marrying more than one wife. <br><br>Islam permits polygamy and it should be clearly understood that it is a Sunnah practiced by the <br><br>prophet and his predecessors. This means that marriage to more than one wife is a continuation of <br><br>the practice established by the previous religions.For example; prophet Yaqub had four wives, <br><br>Prophet Ibrahim had two wives and Prophet Suleiman had several wives. Islam polished and reformed the old practice that was there before the advent of Prophet Muhammad <br><br>(P.B.U.H) that had a lot of violation brought in by pagans who had come after the previous <br><br>prophets.This was done by setting up certain rules and regulations to control this important feature in <br><br>the social life of Muslims. **Conditions for polygamy**<br><br>It should be noted with great care that it is not compulsory that one marries more than one wife but it <br><br>is permissible under very strict conditions.These conditions have been laid because of the challenges <br><br>that arise in the polygamous family. What are some of the disadvantages that you may have seen in <br><br>your society as a result of having more than one wife? Due to the reasons that you have mentioned, <br><br>the shariah has restricted polygamy to the following conditions:- <br><br>i. The number of wives must not exceed four at any one given time. If this condition is not fulfilled, then polygamy is absolutely forbidden because in such a case it <br><br>would bring injustice and means for misbehaving. <br><br>iii. One should be in a position to fulfill the wives conjugal rights before he commits himself to another one, because one of the main objectives of marriage is fulfillment of sexual desires. <br><br>iv. One should be financially able to sustain and support the wives and the children because <br><br>it is the mans responsibility to provide for the family. <br><br>Failure to observe the above conditions, a Muslim man is not encouraged to marry a second wife <br><br>because Allah (SWT) says: ***And if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly withthe orphaned girls marry other***<br><br>***women of your choice, two, three or four, but if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly***<br><br>***(with them), then only one or (the slaves) that your right hand possess. That is never to prevent***<br><br>***you from justice.***[Q: 4:3] i. If the wife is unable to bear children after years of marriage and it has been medically proven <br><br>that the wife is barren and there is nothing wrong with the husband then the husband is <br><br>permitted to marry another wife. It is howeverrecommended that the firs wife be provided for iv. For the sake of preservation and maintenance of the Muslim society.When men die either <br><br>naturally or in a battle and widows are left behind, it becomes necessary that they should be taken care of.The sharia therefore provides room for polygamy so that they can be married <br><br>and offered support and protection. v. <br><br>To increase the Muslim population through pro-creation. *Anas bin Malik (R.A) narrated that the Messenger of Allah (P.B.U.H) used to command us to*<br><br>*get married and would very strictly prohibit us from remaining in celibacy and say, Marry*<br><br>*the woman who is child bearing and loving for I shall over all the nations by your number on*<br><br>*the day of resurrection.*(Ahmad bin Hanbal. Ibn Hiban graded it as Sahih) **Marriage of Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h)**<br><br>Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) underwent a marriage life and it is from him that we emulate the best <br><br>practices of marital life. <br><br>By the time of his death, he had nine wives, however, this should not be perceived as a violation of <br><br>Allahs (S.W.T) instructions as he was the only one who had been permitted to do so by Allah <br><br>(S.W.T) due to the following reasons:- <br><br>i. To continue with the practice that Allah had prescribed to his predecessors like prophets <br><br>Ibrahim, Yaqub and Suleiman (A.S) To establish and implement the Islamic law. Allah (S.W.T) ordered the prophet (P.B.U.H) to <br><br>marry Zainab bint Jaash who had been married by his adopted son Zayyid bin al-Harith so that He could put to an end the Arab practice of referring to adopted sons their own. iv. For protection and security of the widows whose husbands had died in jihad wars. For <br><br>example his marriage to Saudah bint Zamah (widowed by Sakran bin Amro) and Zainab bint Khuzaimah(widow to Abdullah bin Jaash). v. To foster good relations between Muslims and non Muslims. For example his marriage to <br><br>Jurawrriya bint al Harith who was the daughter of a tribal chief of Banu Mustaliq clan of Arabia, Swafiyyah bint Huyay and Ummu Habibah. vi. To disseminate Islamic knowledge and in particular enforce domestic laws. He married <br><br>Aisha Bint Abu Bakar (R.A.) and Ummu Salamah (R.A.) who memorized a number of hadith <br><br>and used to train the other women on religious and family matters. <br><br>The prophet (P.B.U.H) married twelve wives whom the Muslims refer to us mothers of the believers <br><br>(Ummahaatul Muuminiin).The prophets wives have been given this honor because of the love, <br><br>dedication and support they showed to the prophet (P.B.U.H) <br><br>**The prophets Wives**<br><br>2). 1). Khadija bint Khuwaylid - She was twice widowed and was a wealthy merchant who commanded respect, honor and dignity among the Quraish. She was the prophets wife for <br><br>nearly twenty years and bore him four girls; Zainab, Ruqayyah, Ummu Kulthum and <br><br>Fatimah, as well as two sons; Qassim and Abdulla (both of whom passed away in infancy). SaudahbintZumaa - She was a widow whose husband passed on while returning from exile <br><br>in Abyssinia (Ethiopia). <br><br>3). Aisha, the daughter of Abu- Bakar as- Swiddiq (R.A) - She was a scholar of hrophets Sunna <br><br>(Hadith) and other sciences. <br><br>4). Hafswahbint Umar bin al- Khattab (R.A) - She was a widow. Her husband was martyred in <br><br>the battle of Badr. She married prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) in the second year of Hijra. <br><br>5). <br><br>ZainabBint Khuzaimah- She was known as the mother of the poor because of her kindness and special empathy to the underprivileged. Islam and prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) married her. <br><br>11). Maimunah bint al- Harith - She was the daughter of Harith of the Khawazin tribe. She was a <br><br>widow in Makkah and married the prophet (P.B.U.H) in the seventh year of Hijra. . <br><br>12). Mariyya al- Qibtwiyyah She was the last wife of the prophet (P.B.U.H). She was presented to the prophet as a gift by the King of Egypt after the prophet had sent an invitation to Egypt <br><br>and other countries to join Islam. She was the only one after Khadija to bear the prophet (P.B.U.H) a child called Ibrahim who also died in childhood. **Rights and duties of family members**<br><br>The bond in the family involves mutual expectation of rights and duties that have been prescribed by <br><br>the religion and enforced by the Islamic sharia. This implies, therefore, that every family member <br><br>has certain commitments to meet over the other. The role of each member depends on their position <br><br>in the family. Let us now look at the rights and duties of each family member. **Duties of the husband: Rights of the wife.**<br><br>Islam honours the husband as the head of the family. Infact Allah (S.W.T) emphasizes in the holy <br><br>Quran thus;***Men are the protectors and maintainers of women because Allah has given the one***<br><br>***more strength than the other and because they support them from their means...***[Q: 4:34]There <br><br>are certain duties which as a husband you have to observe towards your wife. They include the <br><br>following: 1. He should protect his wife from any social, physical or psychological harm. 2. He should consult with his wife in kindness in matters relating to the family. 3. He has the full responsibility of financially and materially supporting and maintaining his <br><br>wife. <br><br>4. He must be faithful to his wife and not keep any marital secrets from her. 5. He should respect the feelings of his wife and treat her with love, sympathy and <br><br>understanding. <br><br>6. He should fulfill the wifes matrimonial needs. 7. He should establish a rich Islamic atmosphere in the home. 8. He should keep the marriage life a secret. **Duties of a wife: The rights of the husband**<br><br>Allah (S.W.T) says in the Quran:***And those who pray, Our Lord! Grant unto us wives and off***<br><br>***springs who will be the comfort of our eyes, and give us (the grace) to lead the righteous.***[Q: <br><br>25:74] 1. They should be provided with both religious and secular education. 2. They should be given good names. 3. The parents should provide them with the basic needs like food, shelter and <br><br>clothing. <br><br>4. They should be given security and protection from external danger and influence <br><br>which may lead to misguidance or injury. <br><br>5. They have a right to be loved and shown affection. 6. They have a right to inherit from their parents after they have passed on. 7. They have a right to legitimacy and know his rightful father and <br><br>mother. **Rights of extended family members**<br><br>1. They should be assisted when they are in need. 2. Muslims should be kind and treat them with gentleness. 3. We should protect them from external attacks. 4. We should show them love and affection and talk to them nicely. 5. We should freely interact with them so that they can get a sense of belonging. <br><br>**CURRENT MAP OF ARABIA**<br><br>**|**P a g e 99 **CHAPTER 7**<br><br>**HISTORY OF ISLAM**<br><br>**PRE- ISLAMIC ARABIA**<br><br>Pre Islamic Arabia refers to the period before the prophet started preaching Islam.This period was <br><br>characterized by acts of Jahiliya which means the age in which ignorance, barbarism, darkness <br><br>from aods guidance were witnessed in the Arabian peninsula before the introduction of Islam. <br><br>The lives of the Arabs can be discussed in the following areas: Religious, social/moral, economic <br><br>and political. a. <br><br>Idolatry (Idol worship)Most of the Arabs were idolatrous.They used to curve idols from wood and stone which they used to worship. Each clan had its own idols to worship. They offered sacrifices to them and sought their blessings and guidance. <br><br>There were 360 idols in Makkah alone. The leading idols were Al Lata, Uzza, Manata and Hubbal. <br><br>b. Christians. These were the followers of Prophet Issa (A.S) and had settled at Najran <br><br>and followed the teachings of the Injil. <br><br>c. Magians. These were the people who worshipped fire. These fire worshippers <br><br>originated from Persia. <br><br>d. Hanifs or Hunafaa. These were the followers of prophet Ibrahim (A.S). These people worshiped and believed in one God as they embraced the teachings of prophet <br><br>Ibrahim and Ismail. Most of them accepted Islam when the prophet started peaching. <br><br>e. <br><br>Jews who practiced Judaism. These were the followers of prophet Musa (A.S) and were the descendants of Israel (Banu Israil). They followed the teachings of the book <br><br>of Taurat which was revealed to prophet Musa (A.S)They mostly dwelt in Yathrib and Khaybar. **2. Social and moral conditions.**<br><br>During pre-Islamic Arabia, the following social conditions were evident: <br><br>a. The Arabs engaged in leisure activities such as drinking, intoxication and <br><br>gambling.These activities were done mostly during social gatherings. <br><br>b. Women were denied their rights such as inheritance from their parents and husbands but instead were inherited as property and when a man died his son <br><br>would inherit all his wives except his own mother. <br><br>c. Women were denied the right to life since baby girls were buried alive because they were considered as weak and could not beable to defend their community from external aggression. <br><br>d. The women were also forced into sexual pervasions like prostitution and subjected to rape. They were also forced to marry more than one husband (polyandry). <br><br>e. Women were taken as articles of trade as they could be sold and be exchanged <br><br>with goods or merchandise in the market. <br><br>f. The art of poetry was highly cherished by the Arabs. They organized poetry <br><br>competitions in open places where poems with vulgar language were recited. g. The Arabs practiced polygamy without any limits and they would marry and <br><br>divorce women at will. **3. Economic conditions**<br><br>a) <br><br>They practiced Agriculture near the oasis where they used irrigation. This was done in areas ofYathrib, Taif and Southern parts of Arabia. <br><br>b) Tourism. Makkah had many historical sites which included the Kaaba. People from <br><br>several parts of the world toured those sites making the Arabs earn profit. <br><br>Nomadism: During this period the Arabs lived a nomadic life and wandered in the desert <br><br>with their animals in search of water and pasture. Most of them kept sheep, camels and goats as there source of livelihood. <br><br>Barter trade. Those who settled in the town(town dwellers) practiced barter trade. They used to exchange goods and commodities. **ALI** **MUHAMMAD**<br><br>**+ FATMA** **(+KHADIJA)**<br><br><br><br>**HASSAN** **HUSSEIN** **FATIMA UMM KULTHUM RUQAYYA ZAINAB ABDULLAH QASIM**<br><br>It is important to note that apart from Khadija, the prophet married other wives as we have seen in <br><br>the previous chapter. Among them Marria al Qibtiyya bore him a son by the name Ibrahim who died <br><br>at infancy. <br><br>**The Year of the Elephant**<br><br>The coming of the settler to Kenya and other parts of East Africa brought several changes to the <br><br>country. Some of which were adopted while others were unfriendly to the natives who reacted to <br><br>them leading to the struggle for independence. The country wanted to govern itself and control its <br><br>resources without any intterferance from the forign contries like Britain.It so happened that in the <br><br>year the prophet was born, Makka had been known as a center for pilgrimage in the entire Arabian <br><br>peninsular. The city was therefore growing rapidly which caused the neighbouring territories to start <br><br>envying it. <br><br>The Ethiopian governor of Yemen, Abraha al-Ashram was among those who envied the fameof the <br><br>Kaaba among the Arabs. He thereforeconstructed a big cathedral in Sanaa (the capital of eemen) <br><br>and ordered the Arabs to go there for pilgrimage instead. The order was ignored and this angered <br><br>Abrahawho in fury decided to demolish the Kaaba. He set off with a large army of 60,000 soldiers <br><br>and 13 elephants towards Makka. <br><br>He was riding on a huge elephant. It was an animal which the Arabs had not seen before, thus the <br><br>year came to be known as 'Amul-Fil (the year of the elephant), and it started an era for reckoning the <br><br>years in Arabia. <br><br>**|**P a g e 113 Abraha sent a message toBanu Hashim who were the custodians of the Kaaba at that time led by <br><br>Abdul Mutwalib and advised them to demolish the Kaaba or he would destroy the whole city. <br><br>'Abdul-Muttalib replied to this ultimatum in these words: "By Allah, we do not want to fight him. So <br><br>far as this House (the Ka'bah) is concerned, it is the House of Allah; if Allah wants to save His <br><br>House, He will save it, and if He leaves it unprotected, no one can save it." <br><br>On the second day, Abraha ordered his army to enter the Holy city of Makka and destroy the Kaaba. <br><br>'Abdul-Muttalib told the Makkans to leave the city and to seek refuge in the surrounding hills.But <br><br>he, together with some leading members of Quraish, remained within the precincts of the Ka'bah. <br><br>Abraha advanced with his army. Seeing the walls of the Ka'bah, he ordered its demolition. No <br><br>sooner had the army reached near the Ka'bah than a dark cloud of small birds (known in Arabic as Ababil) overshadowed the entire army of Abraha. Each bird had three pebbles: two in its claws and <br><br>one in its beak. A rain of the pebbles poured down from the birds, and in a few minutes, the whole <br><br>army was destroyed. Abraha himself was seriously wounded; he fled towards Yemen but died on the <br><br>way. <br><br>Allah (S.W.T)explains this event in the following chapter of the Quran: ***Have you not seen how your Lord dealt with the companions of the Elephant? Did He not make***<br><br>***their treacherous plan go astray? And He sent against them birds in flocks, striking them with***<br><br>***stones of baked clay, so He rendered them like straw eaten up.***[Qu'ran, 105] <br><br>Birth and early life of the prophet Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) was born on 12th of Rabiul-Awwal/22nd April 570 CE in Makkah in <br><br>the year of elephant.He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraish tribe. Abdul Mutalib, <br><br>hisgrandfather was the chief of Makkah at that time.He had five sons:Hamza,Abu <br><br>Talib,Abdullah,Abbas and Abu Lahab.The prophets father was Abdullah Ibn Abdul Mutalib.He <br><br>died a few days before the prophets birth in eathrib while he was coming from a business journey <br><br>in Syria. His mother was called Amina binti Wahab of the Banu Zuhras clan of Madina.She died on After the death of his mother, he was raised by his paternal grandfather Abdul Muttalib who was 80 <br><br>years of age. 'Abdul-Muttalib died two years later at the age of 82, leaving the care and custody of <br><br>the orphaned Muhammad (P.B.U.H) to Abu Talib his uncle who showed him affection even more <br><br>than his own children. He always kept the child in his company and travelled with him through the <br><br>caravan routes to Syria and Egypt in the north and northwest and Yemen in the south. It was during <br><br>one of this trade journeys that a Christian monk by the name Bahira noticed an applelike seal of <br><br>prophet hood below the shoulder of Muhammad (P.B.U.H). He advised his uncle to take great care <br><br>of the young Muhammad who was only twelve years and take him back to Makkah. As a young boy he looked after his uncles herds and he was also fond of sitting in the circles of the <br><br>elders to gain wisdom unlike other youths who indulged in social evils. Muhammad was popularly <br><br>known as al-Ameen for his unimpeachable character by the Makkans and visitors alike. The title <br><br>Al-Ameen means the Honest, the Reliable and the Trustworthy, and it signified the highest standard <br><br>of moral and public life. **Baath and first revelation**<br><br>The hrophets life attracted everybodys respect andhonor. He won the confidence of Khadija, his <br><br>wife, as well as other people in Makka from his positive character. For the next fifteen years, he <br><br>dedicated his life to meditation and worship contrary to the norms of social evils practiced at that <br><br>time. Unknowingly, he was protected by Allah (S.W.T) from the evils that prevailed and occupied <br><br>the culture of the people. <br><br>He used to go to the cave Hira at Jabal Nur (Mt. Nur) in the outskirts of Makka. In this place, he <br><br>would pray to Allah (S.W.T) for deliverance from the dirty practices that were common and the <br><br>darkness of worshipping idols. Every aspect of creation gave him the hope of a way of life that <br><br>would exclude him from the immoral practices. He would stay there for a number of days before <br><br>going home. This practice continued and became part of his programme. One night during the month of Ramadhan, at the age of forty**,**while in the cave, Jibril (S.A) came in <br><br>human form and told him, I am Jibril, and you are Allahs messenger Then he told the hrophet, <br><br>Read!The prophet answered him, I cannot read, Jibril squeezed him hard and repeated the same <br><br>words while the prophet gave the same answer. On the third time the prophet asked, What shall I <br><br>read? Jibril told him: <br><br>**Read in the name of your lord who created**<br><br>**Who created man from a clot.**<br><br>**Read:Andthe Lord is the most Bounteous,**<br><br>**Who teaches by the pen,**<br><br>**Teaches man that which he knew not [Q: 96:1-5]**<br><br>Muhammad repeated the words until they permanently stuck in his memory before the <br><br>disappearance of Jibril (A.S). These verses marked the first revelation of the Quran that would <br><br>continue for the next twenty three years of his life. <br><br>After the sudden disappearance of Jibril (A.S), he could still re-visualize him and could recall the <br><br>words. A mixture of fear and shock had engulfed him. He could not stay in the cave, so he went back ***O you wrapped up (in a mantle).***<br><br>***Stand and warn (the people) Arise and deliver thy warning!***<br><br>***And thy Lord do you magnify!***<br><br>***And thy garments keep free from stain!***<br><br>***And all abomination shun!***<br><br>***But for thy Lords (cause) be patient and constant...*[Q: 74:1-7]**<br><br>This was an indicator of a turning point to the life of Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) from an <br><br>ordinarily viewed Muhammad of theBanu Hashim clan, to a globally esteemed and divinely <br><br>distinguished role model in the service of Allah (S.W.T). Unlike the other men of Makka, he had <br><br>been anointed as the last messenger of Allah (S.W.T.), an opportunity that never before or after <br><br>would be shared with, or seized by any other creature. He had received the honor of undertaking the <br><br>divine responsibility of leading others in the worship of Allah (S.W.T). He had a mission of <br><br>delivering the rest of mankind from idolatry and directing them towards the worship of Allah <br><br>(S.W.T). The shape of the moral pattern of life lay in his effort as per the will of Allah (S.W.T). It was inclusions of his name into the chain of prophets of Allah (S.W.T), and above that a seal of that <br><br>chain of Prophet Hood. Above all, he had been bestowed with the great honor of receiving the <br><br>Quran, which is the seal of the divine books of Allah (S.W.T), for the guidance of mankind and a <br><br>testimony to all creatures. of preaching the religion in secrecy nearly forty people had converted to Islam and accepted to <br><br>follow the Islamic teachings. Allah (S.W.T) commanded the prophet (P.B.U.H) to preach to the <br><br>people openly and warn them against polytheism. Almighty Allah (S.W.T) says,***Therefore expound openly what you are commanded, and turn***<br><br>***away from those who join false gods with Allah.***[Q: 15:94] <br><br>After the prophet was commanded to preach openly, he gathered the Makkanpeople at MountSafa <br><br>and addressed them on the Oneness of Allah(S.W.T). The hrophet thus said, eou see if I were to <br><br>tell you that there were some horse men in the valley planning to raid you, will you believe me? <br><br>They said: ees, we have only witnessed the truth from you. He said, I am a Warner to you before <br><br>a severe torment.Although the people had known the prophet as avery honest person, they refused <br><br>to accept him as a prophet. His own uncle called Abu Lahab cursed the prophet by telling him, May <br><br>you Perish this day. Have you called us here for such a thing (believing in one God) that you made <br><br>us to gather here? Allah was angered by Abu Lahabs remarks on the hrophet (h.B.U.H) and a <br><br>Surah was revealed called Suratul- Lahab. In this surah, Allah the Almighty condemned Abu Lahab together with his wife. <br><br>Allah says in the Quran, <br><br>***Perish the hands of the father of flame! Perish he!***<br><br>***No profit to him from his wealth, and all his gains!***<br><br>***Burnt soon will he be in a fire of blazing flame!***<br><br>***His wife shall carry the (cracking) wood as fuel!***<br><br>***A twisted rope of palm leaf fibre round her (own) neck!*[Q: 111]** **Persecution**<br><br>What do you understand by the word persecution? In your live experience,have you undergone any <br><br>hardships? Mention a few of these situations to your friend. Persecution refers to the subjection of <br><br>pain to an individual or group of people in order to discourage them from carrying out their <br><br>endeavors. <br><br>The Quraish were not pleased to see that several people were embracing Islam. They held meetings <br><br>to plan how they would stop the prophet and his companions from preaching and practicing Islam. <br><br>Under the leadership of Abu Lahab, the prophets own uncle, plans were put in place to stop the <br><br>spread of Islam. The new and weak converts were to be subjected to intimidation, threats and <br><br>physical torture. Several other methods were used to punish and discourage the Prophet of Allah and <br><br>his companions for accepting Islam as the true and only religion. The prophet and the early Muslims were pelted with stones as they walked in the <br><br>streets of Makka. <br><br> Abu Lahab forced his two sons who had married Ruqayyah and UmmuKulthum <br><br>(daughters of the prophet) to divorce them. <br><br> UmmuJamil Bint Harb, who was Abu Suffiyyans sister and the wife of Abu <br><br>Lahab,used to tie bundles of thorns with ropes and place them on the prophets path. The Makkans used to rebuke the Muslims and abuse them whenever they saw them. UmmulJamil recited the follwing words of disrespect; We have disobeyed the dispraised one, rejected his call and alienated ourselves from his religion. <br><br> Uqbah bin AbiMuait put the intenstines of the camel on the shoulders of the prophet <br><br>while he was in Swalat. Walid ibn Mughira would speak ill about the prophetscharacter Allah (S.W.T) says, <br><br>***Heed not the type of despicable man,ready with oaths, a slanderer going about*** ***(all) good,transgressing beyond*** ***with*** ***bounds,deep in sin.***[Q:68:10 12] <br><br>***calumnies,*** ***(habitually) hindering***<br><br> The Quraish barred the prophet and the Muslims from offering prayers in the public <br><br>and in the Kaaba. <br><br> Some companions of the prophet like Bilal bin Rabah and Ammar bin Yassir were <br><br>tied on donkeys and dragged through the town in the scorching sand. <br><br> In other cases, iron armors were put on the companions who would then be left in the <br><br>hot sun to fry.This happened to Bilal bin Rabah. <br><br> Female slaves like An-Nahdiyah and Zanirah were mistreated by their masters and <br><br>denied food for embracing Islam until Abubakar paid for their freedom. <br><br> Khabbab bin Al-Arath, who was a slave would be dragged by her hair, and her neck was twisted then she was thrown into the fire until her back was burnt. <br><br> Muslims were also killed cruelly. Summaiya was bayoneted with a red hot iron by <br><br>Abu Jahal until she died. <br><br> Ammar and his parents were forced to repeatedly lie on burning sand as they were <br><br>severely beaten. <br><br> Bilal bin Rabah was severely beaten by his master Umayyah bin Khalaf. He would be dragged through the streets on bear chest.A heavy stone was placed on his chest to force him to denounce Islam. <br><br> Uthman bin Affan used to be wrapped in a mat of palm leaves then fire would be set <br><br>under him. <br><br> Musab bin Umair was denied food and water by her mother and when she saw that <br><br>he was not ready to denounce Islam, she expelled him from her house. **Migration to Abyssinia (615 C.E)**<br><br>Abyssinia is the current Ethiopia. Islam was getting many converts day by day despite the torture <br><br>they got from the Quraish. When the persecutions became unbearable to the newly converted <br><br>Muslims, the prophet (P.B.U.H) advised them to migrate to Abyssinia. It was a Christian King called <br><br>Negus(Najash Ash-ham) who was known for his tolerance and knowledge about religious issues and <br><br>was very hospitable. **Results of the Muslims migration to Abyssinia**<br><br>We have seen that after several persecutions, the prophet advised the Muslims to migrate. This <br><br>migration was a sigh of relief for them and the following were the results: <br><br>1. Muslims lived peacefully in Abyssinia. 2. There was intermarriage between the Abyssinians and the Muslims. 3. Many Abyssinians converted to Islam at that time. 4. Trade flourished in Abyssinia. 5. Muslims were able to practice their faith freely and peacefully. 6. The disappointed Quraish decided to look to intensify their persecutions against the prophet <br><br>and the Muslims who had been left in Makkah. **Boycott of the Banu Hashim (617-620 C.E)**<br><br>The pagans were not happy to see theBanu Hashim protecting the Prophet. In their struggle to get rid <br><br>of the prophet they met at a place called Wadi-l Muhassab, an oath was taken and an <br><br>agreementwritten by Bagheed bin Amir bin Hashim was signed. It contained the following rules: <br><br> The other Arab tribes should not conduct any business dealings with the Banu Hashim. No inter-marriage was to take place between them and any other tribe. There should be neither social relations norinteractions like visiting them. There should be no communication whatsoever. The Banu Hashim should not enter the Kaaba. This boycott took place between 617-620 C.E and the Banu Hashim and the sympathizers of the <br><br>prophet were confined in a mountainous valley known as Shib Abu Talib which was hostile for <br><br>human habitation. This lasted for a period of three years. The agreement and was attached at the <br><br>Kaaba. The prophet cursed him and his hand got paralyzed <br><br>As time went by, the Makkans developed mixed feelings and some started sympathizing with their <br><br>expelled kinsmen.A special group was formed to campaign for abolishing the agreement.Abu Jahal <br><br>was consulted several times but he refused.After a hot argument, it was discovered that the whole <br><br>piece of paper on which the agreement had been written had been eaten by ants.The boycott was <br><br>therefore lifted and the Muslims were allowed to come back to Makka. **Circumstances that led to the Boycott of the Banu Hashim**<br><br>1. Failure of the Makkans to convince the newly converted Muslims to go back to their <br><br>traditional religion. <br><br>2. Failure by the Makkans to bring back the Muslims from Abyssinia. 3. Islam was against the Makkans religion. 4. Makkans were alarmed by the increasing number of Muslims. 5. The Makkans failure to stop the prophet from preaching Islam. 6. Failure of the Makkans to persuade Abu Twalib, whohad persistently promised to protect the <br><br>prophet, to stop his nephew from preaching Islam. <br><br>7. The Makkans were alarmed by the conversion of Umar bin Khattab to Islam. 8. Islam was rapidly spreading beyond Makka e.g. Abyssinia. **The Year of Sorrow (Am-ul Huzn)**<br><br>How do you morn a berievement or a loss? It may be loss of money or any other important item in <br><br>life. It is normal for any human being to feel a sense of lose once someone close to him or her dies. <br><br>This was no exception for the prophet when helost two pillars of support; that is, his dear wife, <br><br>Khadija who gave him financial and moral support, and his uncle Abu Twalib who always protected <br><br>him from the malice of the Quraish. The prophet as a human being was bereaved, depressed and <br><br>tensed. Therefore Allah (S.W.T) granted him a miraculous journey to uplift his spirit towards Islam. <br><br>We shall now look at the miraculous journey also known as Isra wal Miraaj. **Israai wal miraaj (620 C.E)**<br><br>This episode is in two parts starting with the Israai. This term literally means a night journey.It is the <br><br>famous miraculous night journey embarked by the prophet (P.B.U.H) escorted by Angel Jibril (A.S) <br><br>from Makkah to Jerusalem in Masjidul Maqdas. Allah (S.W.T) says:- <br><br>***Glorified be He who carried His servant by night from the inviolable place of worship***<br><br>***(Makkah)to the far distant place of worship (Jerusalem) the neighborhood where of we have***<br><br>***blessed that we might show him of our tokens! Lo! He only He is the hearer, the seer.***[Q: 17:1] <br><br>The second part which is Miiraaj literally means a ladder.This is the ascension of the prophet <br><br>(P.B.U.H) from Jerusalem (BaitulMaqdis) through the space to the seventh heaven during. This <br><br>remarkable journey took place in the year 620 C.E **Significance of Israai wal Miraaj**<br><br> It signified that prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) was the leader of the two Qiblasi.e. <br><br>BaitulMaqdis and Masjidul Haraam in Makkah. <br><br> It showed that prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) was a true successor of the messengers before <br><br>him. <br><br> Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) was declared as the leader (Imam for the generations to <br><br>come). <br><br> It pre-ordained that Islamic religion was to stay up to the end of time (Yaum-ul-mahshar). It clearly indicated the finality of prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) It distinguished between the true believers and false ones. Some Muslims denounced Islam after the episode of Israai & Miiraaj when Abu Jahal doubted about the journey, the prophet (P.B.U.H) confronted them in the morning with facts about his whole journey. <br><br> It clearly strengthened the faith of Abu Bakr who was the first to believe in the prophet when <br><br>he came back. <br><br> It signified the position and the status of Majid Aqswaa to Muslims and as the gateway to Majid Haraam. <br><br> It shows the prominence of Swalat and its position in a Muslims life. It was in the journey of <br><br>Miiraaj that the prophet was given the five daily prayers. <br><br> The journey highlighted the penalties for certain social evils in the society such as backbiting, fornication (Zinaa), denying orphans their wealth, those who desist from paying <br><br>Zakat; among other evils. <br><br> The journey underscored the importance of Masjid Aqswaa as a holy or sacred trust to all <br><br>Muslims and it is their religious obligation to guard it from any form of destruction. <br><br> It signifies how Allah honors the prophet by bestowing upon him such a miraculous journey. **Beginning of the Muslim Mission**<br><br>Madinatu-Rasool (the city of the prophet) is the name of the settlement originally referred to as <br><br>Yathrib. It was inhabited by the Arab tribes of Aws and Khazraj as well as certain Jewish tribes. The <br><br>two tribes of Aws and Khazraj used to visit Makka during the pilgrimage season and also to attend to <br><br>business affairs. The prophet (P.B.U.H) used to preach to every group that came for pilgrimage or <br><br>for business in his quest to present Islam to them. It was during these visits that he met with six <br><br>people from the tribe of Khazraj who accepted Islam. The prophet then asked them if they would <br><br>support him in propagating Islam in Yathrib as his base. Due to the clashes between Aus and <br><br>Khazraj, this group agreed with the prophet on people who would go and preach the message of <br><br>Islam and peace to the other tribes in Yathrib. They requested the prophet to postpone this request <br><br>till the following year. When they reached Yathrib, Allah (S.W.T) had willed the spread of Islam in <br><br>Yathrib and the tribes of Aus and Khazraj sorted out most of their differences. At the end of the year, they returned to Makka with a group of ten Khazrajites and two Aws. They agreed to meet the <br><br>prophet at the valley of Aqaba which is in Mina. The Yathribites then promised the prophet and <br><br>Muslims their support to Yathrib- a journey referred to as*Hijra.* **Terms of the First Covenant of Aqaba (621C.E)**<br><br>Have you been involved in any agreement with your friend? What were some of the reasons that led <br><br>to the two of you entering into this agreement? Thi scould be termed as a covenant. Itis an agreement <br><br>usually formal entered into by two or more persons to do or not to get involved in something. It may <br><br>contain some set of rules which we refer to as terms that govern the conduct of those involved. <br><br>This happened when the prophet met some Yathribitesat the valley of Aqaba. They agreed on the <br><br>following: <br><br>i. ii. iii. After their discussion, the prophet chose Musab bin Umair and Abdullah bin Umm Makhtum to <br><br>They should worship one God. <br><br>They should abstain from evils. <br><br>They should obey the laws of Allah (SWT) and His prophet. <br><br>teach the Yathribites more about Islam. When these people returned to Yathrib, they propagated <br><br>Islam to such an extent that Islam was the only topic in every home. **The Second Covenant of Aqaba (622 C.E)**<br><br>In the year 622 C.E, during the next pilgrimage, a group of 72 Yathribites including two women <br><br>came to Makka. They met the prophet and his uncle Abbas at Aqaba, who addressed them thus, My <br><br>nephew has always been regarded as the noblest and held in high esteem by his people. If you wish <br><br>to take him to Madina, first, be sure that you are able to uphold the agreement, fulfill your covenant, <br><br>and protect him against his enemies. If you are unable to do so, then do not take this responsibility <br><br>and leave him with his people instead. The leader of the eathribites replied: We are taking full <br><br>responsibility. In fact this is the very reason we are pledging this allegiance to him. <br><br>They, therefore, promised to defend him fully and were prepared not to break this agreement under <br><br>any circumstance. They also swore to worship one God and leave according to the teachings of <br><br>Islam. The prophet accepted their offer to migrate to Yathrib and he appointed twelve leaders from <br><br>among them saying, eou are responsible to your people just as the disciples ofIssa bin Maryam family members from migrating until a year later. Meanwhile, the other Muslims continued leaving <br><br>in small groups. They travelled for several days through the rocky and dusty villages until they <br><br>reached the first village, known as Quba which is 1 km south of eathrib. They were received <br><br>warmly by the Yathribites and they stayed here for a period of two weeks. The Yathribites <br><br>welcomed them into their homes selflessly and this earned the Yathribites the title*Ansaar*which <br><br>means helpers. <br><br>Abubakar (RA) and Ali (RA) were not among this first group that arrived in Yathrib. This is because <br><br>the prophet had planned that Abubakar should migrate with him. Upon learning this, Abubakar <br><br>purchased two camels in preparation for the journey. **Migration of the Prophet (P.B.U.H) to Madina**<br><br>The Quraish sensed more danger when they realized that over one hundred Muslim families had <br><br>already settled in Madina. They were afraid that the Muslims would join forces with the two tribes in <br><br>Madina i.e. Aus and Khazraj and become very powerful. Therefore, they called for a meeting at Dar- <br><br>un Nadwa to discuss measures that would be taken against the prophet. In the meeting, the following <br><br>three suggestions were put forward:- <br><br>i. ii. iii. <br><br>The prophet should be tied in chains and imprisoned behind strong bars. <br><br>The prophet to be banished from Makkah. <br><br>The prophet to be eliminated by way of murdering him. After a long discussion, they all agreed on Abu Jahals advice that the prophet should be killed. In <br><br>order that no single person or clan could be blamed, they chose one man from each of the twelve <br><br>tribes to participate in the murder. However, Allah had already informed the prophet about the evil <br><br>plan of the pagans and through Angel Jibril He instructed him to Madina the same night they had <br><br>plotted to kill him. He therefore, asked Abubakar to prepare for their departure. <br><br>Meanwhile, the prophets house had already been surrounded by a number of youth from the various <br><br>tribes of the Quraish. The prophet asked Ali (R.A) to stay behind and lay on the prophets bed and in <br><br>the morning return all the valuables that had been kept under the custody of the prophet to their <br><br>owners. The prophet then emerged from his house and flung a handful of sand in the direction of the <br><br>pagans while reciting the opening verses of Surat Yasin. This resulted in them falling asleep and <br><br>they did not see the prophet leave for Abubakars house. They then emerged from the backdoor of Meanwhile the Quraish leaders were very upset upon learning that the prophet had escaped and left <br><br>Ali on his bed. They dispatched search parties all around Makka and promised a hundred camel <br><br>reward for whoever captured the prophet dead or alive. The Makkans were motivated by the reward <br><br>and they started combing the entire area until some group entered the entrance to the cave. They <br><br>even employed a Bedouin fortune teller who had the skills of tracing footsteps. He trailed the <br><br>Prophet and Abubakar until he reached the entrance of the cave of Thaur. Abubakar was afraid that <br><br>they might be caught but the prophet comforted him by reminding him that Allah was with them. <br><br>Allah hid them from being seen by the pagans when he inspired a spider to weave a web across the <br><br>entrance of the cave. (This is referred to as the miracle of the cave).Furthermore a pigeon laid an egg <br><br>at the entrance by the will of Allah and then a nearby tree bent its branches until they covered the <br><br>entrance into the cave. Finally, the group carrying out the search with the advice ofUmayyah bin <br><br>Khalaf left the place without entering the cave after arguing that there were no traces of anyone having gone into the cave.This miracle of the cave teaches us that: <br><br> Muslimsshould always relay on Allah (S.W.T) for their protection. All creations obey the command of Allah(S.W.T). <br><br>Islam is the true religion chosen by Allah(S.W.T) <br><br>They remained hidden in the cave for three days. During this period, Abdullah, the son of Abubakar <br><br>used to update them at night with the news of Makkah while Asma bint Abubakar brought them <br><br>food. By the end of the three days, the Makkan troupes had already given up their search. On the <br><br>fourth day, the freed slave of Abubakar brought them the two camels that had been bought by <br><br>Abubakar. He was accompanied by Abdullah bin Ariqeet who was to guide them through a secret <br><br>route to Madina. **The prophets arrival at Quba**<br><br>The Ansaars were eagerly awaiting the prophets arrival. They kept checking every day in the plains <br><br>but there was no sign until one day when one Jew who had been ascended a high tower spotted the **Arrival in Madina**<br><br>The prophet and the Muslims set out for Madina on a Friday of Rabiul Awwal 622 C.E. The <br><br>inhabitants of Madina woke up early awaiting the arrival of the prophet (P.B.U.H). As he entered the <br><br>city his camel was surrounded by excited Ansaar as they called out Takbeer in joy. Each of the <br><br>families tried to tag at the camels reins so that it would stop at their homes. They were offering their <br><br>homes, wealth and lives to the prophet (h.B.U.H). The prophet thus said, Leave the camel as it is, <br><br>for it is guided by Allah (and will stop wherever it is ordered to stop). Finally the camel sat down in <br><br>the home ofAbu Ayub Khalid Al Ansaari in an area inhabited by Banu An-Najjar. He stayed in this <br><br>home until a house was built for him. The people of Yathrib agreed to change its name to Madina <br><br>tun Nabi which the city of the prophet or Madinatul Munawwara; The city of light. Upon arrival in <br><br>Madina, the prophet had the following tasks to perform: **i.**<br><br>**Construction of a Mosque** Have you been involved in the construction of any building? What are some of the materials <br><br>that must be available during any such construction? Among the things you have mentined is <br><br>the palce where the construction has to take place. When the Muslims came to Madina, they <br><br>did not have enough land to carry out all their activities.This therefore prompted Abubakar <br><br>to purchase the piece of land on which the prophets camel had rested when they first arrived <br><br>in Madina. It belonged to two orphans who had decided to give it free of charge but the <br><br>prophet insisted that they had to be paid. The construction of the prophets mosque began <br><br>immediately with both the Ansaar and the Muhajirun taking up various tasks. The prophet <br><br>actively took part by carrying bricks as he recited various verses of the Quran and Dua. One <br><br>of the duas he said was, O Allah! No bliss is there but that of the hereafter I beseech you to <br><br>forgive the immigrants and the helpers.The ninety square meter mosque was completed by **ii. Rehabilitation of the Muhajirun from Makkah**<br><br>It was the main test of the prophet in ensuring that Islamic brotherhood was going to be <br><br>established. The Ansaar had been taking care of the Muhajirun who left most of their <br><br>belongings in Makka. The prophet united both the Ansaar and Muhajirun and the former <br><br>were to continue sharing their wealth with the latter. They even adopted some of them into <br><br>their homes and built homes for others. Employment was provided to them from large <br><br>plantations while financial support was given to others to start up small businesses. This was <br><br>a very unique and historical bond and it came to be referred t as*Muwakhaat*. The prophet <br><br>had achieved in establishing the Muslim brotherhood within a few months. **iii.**<br><br>**Fostering Unity Among the Tribes of Madina** The prophet had an important task of regulating the lives of all the citizen of Madina who <br><br>included the Jews, Christians the paganthe two Arab tribes of Aws and Khazraj and the <br><br>Ansaar and Muhajirun in order to foster unity and harmony.He therefore it was necessary for <br><br>him to established the Madinan charter which constituted a set of rules and regulations <br><br>meant to govern all the citizens of Madina and is commonly known as The Madinan <br><br>constitution. **Relationship between the Ansaar and Muhajirun**<br><br>1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. <br><br>The Ansaar and Muhajirun were united by the bond of Islamic brotherhood. <br><br>The Ansaar showed charity by sharing their wealth with the Muhajirun. The Ansaar also adapted their fellow brother into their homes. <br><br>They even built houses for others. <br><br>Some found jobs for them to do on the plantations. <br><br>Others gave the Muhajirun in support in starting their own businesses. **Madinan Constitution**<br><br>Any organization will always have its own rule and regulations to govern them. It is because of the <br><br>individual differences of the members of the society or country that it becomes necessary to <br><br>formulate laws that will harmonise all the operations of the organization. These set of rules or laws <br><br>are included in the document we call a constitution.A constitution can be defined as a law <br><br>determining the fundamental political principles of a government or an organisation. In Kenya, for <br><br>example, we had a refurundum in 2007 to vote for the new constitution which was passed by the <br><br>Kenyans. It consists of a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which <br><br>a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up or constitute, what the entity <br><br>is. When these principles are written down into a single collection or set of legal documents, those <br><br>documents may be said to comprise a written constitution. <br><br>The Madinan constitution therefore was an agreement between the Muslims and the other Arabian <br><br>tribes in Madina, the Jews, Christians and Polytheists to regulate relations and ensure peace between <br><br>all of them. It was a written agreement and the first political agreement between Muslims and non <br><br>Muslims whose principles were based on the Quran and Sunnah. Its also the first constitution and The Ansaar and Muhajirun shall <br><br>constitute one group of Umma to <br><br>the exclusion of others. <br><br>All Muhajirun shall take the 2. <br><br>responsibility of their own wards, <br><br>shall pay blood among them and <br><br>shall also ransom their prisoners in **|**P a g e 122 <br><br>the event of war. <br><br>The people of Banu Aws and 3. <br><br>the six other tribes will be **Importance of the Madinan Constitution**<br><br>a. It was an attempt to bring reconciliation of all the tribes and prevent the Madinan <br><br>tribes from frequent tribal wars. <br><br>b. It outlined the principles for establish good relationship between the Muslims and non <br><br>Muslims. <br><br>c. The prophetsposition as the supreme leader and controller of all affairs of Madina as <br><br>a state and arbitrator of any dispute so as to bring peace was declared. <br><br>d. The constitution summarized the rights of all the Madina citizens such as; freedom of <br><br>speechthought and worship. <br><br>e. Itensured protection of life and property and discouraged all types of crimes like <br><br>murder, stealing among others. <br><br>f. The Muslims and Islam were protected against the plots of the Jews and the <br><br>hypocrites. <br><br>g. It proved the Prophet as a great leader. He was able to organize Madina and free it <br><br>from tyranny, tribalism, selfishness and dictatorship. **Challenges in Madina**<br><br>Even though the prophet was welcomed in Madina, his stay was not peaceful because of the <br><br>mayhem caused by the Quraish of Makka and a few tribes in Madina. They include the <br><br>following: 1. A clan of Khazraj headed by Abdullah ibn Ubayy who had been expecting to take over as a <br><br>king of Yathrib. He therefore pretended to revert to Islam together with his supporters <br><br>(Munafiqun). They had not been happy with the prophets advancement and started causing <br><br>mischief among the believers. <br><br>2. The Jews staying in Madina also opposed the prophet when the verse came directing Muslims to change the Qibla from Jerusalem to Makka. (Read Q: 2:146)They secretly contacted the Makkan Pagans and started to work against the interest of the Muslims. They <br><br>also rejected Prophet Mohammad because the messenger they had expected to come was to be from their tribe. <br><br>3. The Quraish started sending troops to kill the prophet and his companions. 4. Often, they interfered with business activities by looting the towns and destroyed the Arab <br><br>trade in the region by paralyzing all business activities. <br><br>5. They also sent raiding parties with the intention of destroying fruit trees, plantations and <br><br>carrying away animals. <br><br>6. The Makkans conspired with the Munafiqun to rebel against the prophet and Muslims. 7. The Quraish went ahead to form alliances with other tribes with the aim of to dislodging aespite all these challenges, the prophet remained patient awaiting Allahs command <br><br>**Hijra as a Turning Point in the History of Islam**<br><br>1. The prophet received a warm welcome from the people of Yathrib who were eager to <br><br>learn Islam as compared to the Makkan Quarish who used to persecute Muslims. There was rapid spread of Islam after Hijra as opposed to earlier on. <br><br>2. 3. <br><br>After Hijra, Islam came to triumph over the pagan religions and was soon the religion for the whole of Arabian Peninsula and even expanded further. <br><br>Muslims were able to conduct their affairs peacefully in Yathrib Madina resulting in the <br><br>expansion of trade and an organized army. The first mosque Masjidul Quba was constructed and Muslims could pray freely. 5. Muslims were able to fight in defense of their religion and won in most of the battles <br><br>because of the strength they built after travelling to Madina. Hijra marks the beginning of the Islamic Calendar at the time of Umar al Khattab <br><br>Muslims got a city of their own and changed the name Yathrib to Madina. **Importance of Hijra in the history of Islam**<br><br>1. There was rapid spread of Islam outside Makka since the Muslims were no longer in fear <br><br>of Quraish attack. <br><br>2. Islam came to triumph over the pagan religion and was soon considered the religion for <br><br>the entire Arabian Peninsula. <br><br>3. Muslims were living in peace and could therefore conduct their affairs without interference. This resulted in expansion of trade and consequently stabilizing their <br><br>economy. <br><br>4. Due to the prevailing peace, the prophet was able to organize the Muslim army in <br><br>readiness for the defense of the religion. <br><br>5. The first mosque (Masjidul Quba) was constructed and thus the Muslims were able to <br><br>freely worship. <br><br>6. The prophet got ample time to teach the new Muslim community Islamic laws and <br><br>regulations to guide the affairs of the Muslim state. <br><br>7. The prophet and the Muslims got a city of their own and changed the name Yathrib to <br><br>Madina. <br><br>8. The year of Hijra i.e. 622 AD marked the beginning of the Islamic calendar. The Quraish, promising support to the Munafiqun, encouraged them to get rid of the Muslims in <br><br>Madina by all means. <br><br>Abdullah bin Ubayy, driven by the failed attempt for leadership, complied with the Quraish and <br><br>organized themselves to fight the Muslims, but without success. <br><br>The people from Madina were threatened when they went for Umra because of the presence of <br><br>Muslims in their land. Verbal and written provocations were sent to the Muslims in Madina with all <br><br>sorts of threats and hatching of plans to expel the Muslims from this important geographical position <br><br>i.e. the passage to Syria. <br><br>Finally, permission to fight was given to the Muslims by Allah when the ayats were sent down that: <br><br>***To those, against whom war is made, permission is given to (fight), because they were***<br><br>***wronged-and verily, Allah is Most powerful for their aid.*[Q: 22:39]**<br><br>Reasons that made the Quraish fight in the battle of Badr; o The Quarish were angry because the Muslims had escaped from them. o Islam challenged the old religion of the Quarish so the Makkans did not like the <br><br>spread of the new faith. <br><br>o The Quarish feared that Muslims would block their caravans to the North. o Confrontation between the Makkans and the Muslims who had been send to defend <br><br>the caravan. <br><br>o The Makkans were jealousy of the conversion of prominent people like Hamza and <br><br>Umar bin Khattab to Islam. a. Assert their might and instill fear among the Quarish who had always seen them as <br><br>weak. <br><br>b. Compensate for the loss the Muslims had gone through while they were in Makka. c. Cut off the access of the Quraish traders to Syria. **Events of the Battle**<br><br>Madina was a trade link to Syria used by all the traders.In the year 624 C.E the prophet was <br><br>informed of a large caravan belonging toQuraish led by Abu Sufyan that was travelling from Sham <br><br>(Syria) with worthy goods and was to pass through Madina. <br><br>The prophet then told the Muslims, Here is the caravan of the Quraish well loaded with wealth and <br><br>merchandise. This is an opportunity which we cannot afford to miss The prophet thus led to attack <br><br>the caravan in revenge of what the Quraish had done to them. The prophet left Abdullah Ibu <br><br>UmmiMakhtum and Lubaba Bin Abdumundhir to take care of the Muslim affairs in Madina. There <br><br>were only forty people guarding this caravan. The Muslim did not manage to intercept the caravan because the news of the Muslims plan had <br><br>reached Abu Sufyan who managed to use a different route. He even informed the Quraish through a <br><br>letter that he had managed to escape using the sea rout but Abu Jahal insisted by saying that the <br><br>Arabs should see, hear and understand that we are powerful people. The Quraish had set out more <br><br>than 1000 people with 750 camels, 100 horses, 600 of the men were wearing iron amours. When he learnt about the plan of the Quraish, he then consulted with his companions and they <br><br>agreed to go ahead and fight the Quraish army. Muslim army had only 313 men armed with swords, <br><br>76 camels and two horses. The prophet said to his companions, Allah promised me one of the two <br><br>either the caravan or the army. This was justified by the following revelation: ***Just as your Lord ordered you out of your houses in truth,even though a party among the***<br><br>***disbelievers dislike disputing with you concerning the truth after it was made clear,as if they were***<br><br>***being driven to death and they (actually)saw it. Behold God promised you one of the two parties***<br><br>***(enemy), that should be yours; you wished that the one unarmed should be yours but God willed***<br><br>***to justify the truth according to his words and the roots of the unbelievers.*[Q: 8:5-7].** ***To those against whom war is made permission is granted to fight because they are wronged and***<br><br>***verily God is most powerful for their aid. They are who have been expelled from their homes in***<br><br>***defiance of right (for no cause) except that they say Our Lord is our God*[**Q**: 22: 29-40].** ***Fight in the cause of God those who fight you, but do not transgress limits, for God loves not***<br><br>***transgressors. And slay them wherever you catch them, turn them out from where they have***<br><br>***turned you out for tumult and oppression are worse than killing but fight them not at the sacred***<br><br>***mosque unless they first reward of those who suppress faith. But if they cease, God is oft-***<br><br>***forgiving, most merciful***[**Q: 2: 190-192]** The tribes of Bani Adiy and Ibn Zuhraafter learning that their trade caravans were safe, they did not <br><br>participate in this battle.The prophet sent Ali Bin Talib, Zubeir Bin Awwam and Saad Abi Waqqas <br><br>to the wells of Badr to find out about the Quraish army. They found out that it consisted of Utba and <br><br>Shayba sons of Rabia, Hakim Ibu Khizam, Tuamin Bin Adiy, Nufalah Bin Khuwaylid,Abdul <br><br>Baghtary bin Hisham, Iraath Bin Amr, Annadhar Bin Aswad, Umayyad Bin KhalafandAmr Bin <br><br>Hisham(Abu Jahal). This was a very strong army but the Muslims had to go for war. Habbab Bin <br><br>Mundhir suggested that they should camp at the water source to deny the Quraish access. When the <br><br>Quraish reached Badr, they rushed for water but the Muslims stopped them. The prophet allowed <br><br>them access to the water, a move which touched Hakim Bin Hazath who suggested to Utba Rabin to <br><br>give up the battle. However Abu Jahal opposed him. ***Angels ranks on ranks.***[Q: 8:9] <br><br>The Quraish saw the number of Muslims increasing and they started retreating.The Muslims fought <br><br>with courage and emerged victorious in this battle. The Muslims considered their victory as having <br><br>come from Allah. It is said in the Quran by Allah**(S.W.T),*It is not you who slew them; It was***<br><br>***Allah: When you threw (a handful of dust) it was not your act but Allahs: Inorder that He might***<br><br>***test the believers by a gracious trial from Himself: For God is He who hears and knows (all***<br><br>***things.)***[Q8:17] <br><br>By the end of the battle, 70 enemies were killed and 70 others taken as captives. Only 14 Muslims <br><br>were killed. The relatives of the 70 captives were told to pay a ransom or the captives should teach <br><br>Muslims how to read and write in order to get their freedom. **Importance of the Battle**<br><br>a. It dealt a big blow to the dignity and honor of the Quarish who had considered <br><br>themselves superior for many years. <br><br>b. It is considered as a symbol for success of the power of truth over falsehood. c. The assistance that Muslims got from Allah (S.W.T) strengthened their faith. d. The victory of the Muslims gave assured continuity to Islamwhich would have come <br><br>to an end had they been defeated. <br><br>e. The prophets position as a spiritualand a state leaderwas confirmed by the Muslims <br><br>victory. <br><br>f. <br><br>It strengthened the spirit and moral of the prophet to continue with his mission of preaching Islam. **Reasons for the Muslims victory**<br><br> They had complete faith and confidence in Allah despite their number being few.On this Allah (SWT) says,***O ye who believe! If you will aid (The cause of Allah) He will aid you,*** ***and plant your feet firmly.***[Q: 47:7] <br><br> Unity of opinion within them.The prophet would ask for advice from the Muslim army <br><br>before they decided on any matter. <br><br> They showed obedience, love and respect to the Prophet as their leader. Muslims love for the hereafter gave them courage to keep fighting,since they knew of <br><br>Allah(SWT) promise for those who fight for His course <br><br> They were courageous, determined and zealous to win over the Quraish. Muslims were fighting for a proper reason that to ensure that the truth triumphs over <br><br>falsehood. Just before the battle began, Abdullah bin Ubayy the leaders of the hypocrites pulled out with an <br><br>army of 300 men and returned to Madina in the pretence of protecting Madina from within.As usual, <br><br>the battle began with single combats who were involved then the general attack developed.The <br><br>prophet placed 50 archives to protect the entrance into the hill with clear instructions not to leave <br><br>their outcome. <br><br>When the Quraish were being defeated, they started running away leaving their booty behind, the <br><br>Muslims soldiers became greedy of the booty and they left the entrance unguarded and went for the <br><br>left booty. <br><br>Khalid bin Walid, the commander of the Quarish army saw the unguarded passage and instructed a <br><br>section of the enemy to make a surprise attack from behind the hill of Uhud.This sudden attack <br><br>caused confusion among the Muslims such that they thought the prophet had died until when he <br><br>shouted, Iam Mohammed Bin Abdullah.Iam the messenger of Allah. I have come with the truth. <br><br>These words gave courage to the companions who started fighting again.Sayyiduna Abu-Bakr and <br><br>Ali ran to the prophet and protected him from being killed. He was hit on the face by falling rocks and spears and he lost two teeth. <br><br>When the Muslims turned the tide of the battle, the Quarish started fleeing out of fear of defeat. The <br><br>Muslims suffered a great loss in this battle. Seventy Muslims lost their lives among them Hamza the <br><br>uncle of the prophet. His body was mutilated and Hind the wife of Abusufian ate his kidney. The <br><br>prophet vowed to revenge the death of his uncle but Allah(S.W.T) sent the following verse: <br><br>And if you punish, inflict the same punishment as has been afflicted on you. But if you bear <br><br>patiently, it is certainly better for those who are patient; be patient for the reward of your patience is <br><br>from Allah (S.W.T). ao not feel sad nor distress yourself because of their plotting.[Q: 16:127] <br><br>Only 22 Quarish were killed. Following this verse, the prophet was patient and did not revenge. <br><br>**IMPORTANCE OF THE BATTLE OF UHUD**<br><br>1. It showed the significance of the Muslims to follow their leaders commands i.e. the <br><br>archers left the entrance unguarded disregarding the prophets not to leave the passage. <br><br>2. 3. 4. <br><br>It awakened the believers to their responsibility as protectors of their divine mission It taught Muslims to bear hardships in their mission. <br><br>It explains the status of the prophet as the believed messenger of Allah and the love and mercy Allah had towards the Muslims. <br><br>5. 6. 7. <br><br>The Muslims learnt that they shouldnt be greedy for wealth <br><br>They learnt that victory and defeat are in the hands of Allah <br><br>They learnt never to under estimate an enemy. **The Battle of Khandaq (The Trench)**<br><br>This is also called the battle of Al Ahzab (tribes) because it was planned by the Jewish tribes <br><br>together with the Makkans in 5 A.H (627 C.E).The defeat of the Muslims at Uhud had lowered their <br><br>prestige with the Arab tribes. Some tribes which had previously supported Muslims started drifting <br><br>towards the Quarish. They even started attacking the different small Muslim groups. The Jews, despite the treaty (Madina Constitution) with the Muslims were still very bitter and <br><br>showed it openly. They had expected a prophet who would give them dominion and wealth, not one <br><br>who would equate them to the Arabs. When they learnt that they could not use the prophet for their <br><br>own ends, they tried to shake his mission and seduce his followers. They even declared the pagan <br><br>religion as superior to Islam. They then joined forces with the Makkans and broke the treaty. The <br><br>prophet had thus to take action and he expelled the two Jewish tribes; Banu Nadhir and Banu <br><br>Qaynuqa from Madina. <br><br>A grand plan was now hatched to finish the Muslims. The Jews and Makkans incited all the tribes to <br><br>raise arms against the Muslims in Madina. They also joined forces with the Jews of Oasis Khaybar <br><br>and Banu Quraizah and had gathered an army of 24,000 men, led by Abu Sufyan. This was to bar <br><br>any entrance into the city of Madina by the attacking Quraish. When the attacking army reached Madina, they found the 15 inch ditch obstructing. They made <br><br>several attempts to cross but they could not and thus they decided to lay a siege for about 27 days. At <br><br>last continuous failure and increasing difficulties like lack of food, created distrust among the allies. <br><br>On the 27thday of the siege, a terrible cyclone with heavy rains created havoc in the enemy. They <br><br>decided to raise the siege and return to their homes. **Results of this battle**<br><br>1. Muslims became victorious over the Quraish in this battle. 2. Islam established itself as the absolute master of Madina. 3. Muslims were able to take full control of Madina without interference from the Makkans 4. It gave more prestige to the prophet and the Muslims making the Arab tribes to have an <br><br>admiration of Islam. <br><br>5. Swafiyyah, the daughter of the Jewish chief (a tribe which had bitterly opposed the Muslims) was married by the prophet (P.B.U.H) after this battle thus decreasing the differences <br><br>between the Jews and the Muslims. **The Treaty of Hudaibiyah (6th Dhul Qad 6 A.H/628 C.E)**<br><br>The next year after the battle of Khandaq, the prophet together with 1400 Muslims left Madina for <br><br>Makka to perform Umra (lesser pilgrimage). Muslims were instructed by the prophet not to carry <br><br>any weapons except swords since it waspurely a religious journey. Due to the strenuous relationship <br><br>with the Makkan Quraish, they could not enter Makka directly. Therefore, theycamped at the valley <br><br>of Hudaibiyah, a few milesaway from Makka and sent word to Makka that they had come for Umra <br><br>and not to wage war. The first messenger Kharash bin Umayya was arrested immediately but later <br><br>released; his camels legs were chopped off. Uthman was sent as a second emissary but he was <br><br>locked up in a room full of smoke for three days. Due to this, a battle almost started between the two <br><br>but was suspended when Uthman was released unharmed.At night, the Makkans used to sneak into <br><br>the Muslims army to spy but they learnt that the Muslims were carrying out their activities very peacefully. This finally convinced the Quraish leaders that the Muslims had not come for war and <br><br>they agreed to send representativeled by Suhali Ibn Amirto sign a truce with the Muslims in which <br><br>the following terms were agreed:- <br><br>o There should be no hostilities between the Muslims and Makkans for ten years. o The prophet and the Muslims was to return to Madina that year without performing <br><br>pilgrimage <br><br>o Makkan Muslims who left their people without permission were to be returned to Makka and never be allowed to stay in Madina while Muslims who escaped from Madina to Makka would be welcomed and never returned to the Muslims. <br><br>o No arms apart from swords would be carried by the Muslims when they go to Makka <br><br>the following year <br><br>o Any Arab tribe was free to befriend itself with the Muslims or pagan Quarish. o None of the terms would be changed for the next ten years. Most of the terms of the truce were friendly to the Quarish and there was a general dissatisfaction <br><br>among the Muslims until when Allah (S.W.T) revealed the following verse about the treaty, <br><br>***Lo, we have given you (Mohammad) a signal victory that Allah (S.W.T) may forgive you of the***<br><br>***sin that which is past and that which is to come, and may perfect his favors unto you and may***<br><br>***guide you on a right path, And that Allah (S.W.T) may help you with strong help***[ Q:48:1-3] **Lessons from the treaty of Hudaibiyah**<br><br>1. 2. 3. <br><br>Allah (S.W.T) is always on the side of those who are sincere. <br><br>Muslims should always have faith in Allah (S.W.T). <br><br>Victory always comes from Allah (S.W.T) especially to those who are pious and <br><br>determined. <br><br>4. 5. 6. 7. 8. <br><br>Muslims should always aspire to spread peace despite intimidation <br><br>Muslims should be patient at all times and in all situations. <br><br>Muslims cant enter into agreement with non-Muslims for sake of peace <br><br>The prophet was a recognized, wise and an able leader <br><br>Forgiveness should be fostered in the hearts of Muslims When this Negus later died in Rajab 9 A.H the prophet announced his death and observed the funeral <br><br>prayer in absentia for him.He was succeeded by another King to whom the prophet sent a letter but <br><br>however it is not confirmed as to whether he accepted Islam or not. b) Persia <br><br>Abdallah Ibn Hudhaifa was sent with a letter to Perevez the emperor of Persia inviting him to <br><br>Islam..The king was arrogant and proud and after reading it he got infuriated and mistreated the <br><br>envoy. He thought that the language in the letter was too harsh for an emperor and also the prophets <br><br>name should nothave appeared above his, he therefore tore the letter into pieces. He then sent his <br><br>men to arrest the prophet and bring him to his palace.When the envoy reported back to the prophet, <br><br>he prayed for the Persian Empire to disintegrate.No sooner had the Persia emperors envoy reached <br><br>Madina than the Prophet (P.B.U.H) received divine inspiration that Perevez had died.His successor <br><br>was unable to maintain the unity in the emperor leading to its complete disintegration. <br><br>c) Roman Empire. <br><br>Dihya bin Khalifa al-Kalbi was sent to king Heraclius of Byzantine. He welcomed him well, read the <br><br>letter but did not embrace Islam, however he send them with many presents to take to the prophet. <br><br>The tribe of Judham intercepted the convoy at a place called Husma and robed them. When the prophet heard of this, he dispersed an army and inflicted heavy losses on those people. One the <br><br>prophet ordered that all the captives and spoils of war be returned. <br><br>d) Egypt. <br><br>Hatiib bin Abi Baltaah was send to the king of Egypt (Muqawqis) called Juraij bin Matta.He read the <br><br>letter and accepted the message though he was disappointed that the prophet did not come from <br><br>Syria as it was expected. However he sent presents two maids from noble Coptic families, Maria, <br><br>and Syrin; clothing, and stead for riding on but he did not accept Islam The prophet married Maria <br><br>who bore him Ibrahim while Syrin was married to Hassan bin Thabit al Ansaari. <br><br>Find out more other leaders to whom the prophet send emissaries. **The fall of Khaybar (7 A.H)**<br><br>Khaybar was a strong fold of the two Jewish tribes of Banu Nadhir and Banu Qainuqa. It is about <br><br>200 miles from Madina. These Jews with the help of neibouring Arab tribes were planning to attack <br><br>Madina. They had joined forces with the Bedouins of Ghatafah.The prophet learned of their plot and <br><br>gathered 1,400 men including 200 horse men. When the Muslims reached Khaibar and saw their <br><br>opponents, the prophet prayed, O Allah, we wish prosperity and we seek your refuge from evils <br><br>there from. <br><br>The Muslims stopped at a place150 miles in the valley of at Raji to prevent the men of Khaibar from <br><br>reinforcing the Jews. There were eight fortressess at Khaibar all garrisoned with armed men.They <br><br>included; the fortresses of Naim, Ubai, An-Nizar, AZ-Zubair, As-Sab bin Muath, Al Watih, As- <br><br>Sulalim and Al- Qamus. A fierce fight took place around these fortresses and in a few days the Muslims had captured all of them. This was after a siege of 20 days. The booty was shared among <br><br>the victorious Muslims. The Jews were however allowed to retain their lands on condition that they <br><br>would pay half of the produce to the Islamic state. The prophet then married Swafiyyah a daughter <br><br>of a leading Jewish chief in order to strengthen the friendship with the Jews. **The conquest of Makka. (20th Ramadhan5.A.H)**<br><br>When Islam was well established in the hearts of the Muslims, Allah decided that the time had come <br><br>for His Messenger and his community to enter Makkah. They would purify the Ka'bah so that it <br><br>would be a blessed place of guidance for the whole world. They would restore Makkah to its <br><br>previous status and the sacred city would offer security for all people once again. <br><br>The terms of the treaty of Hudaibiyah had given freedom of association to both Muslims and <br><br>theQuraish.The Muslims befriended the Banu Khuzaah while the Quraish allied with the BanuBakr. <br><br>These two tribes had been enemy since the Pre Islamic time but now they were to respect the terms <br><br>of the treaty of Hudaibiyah and stop attacking each other. <br><br>For some years, the Quarish respected the treaty of Hudaibiyah until when the Banu Bakr attacked <br><br>the tribe of Banu Khuzaah which was allied to theMuslims at a place called Al-Wateer.The <br><br>Quraishsupported the tribe of BanuBakr with men and arms. They attacked the Banu Khuzaah at Out of the three conditions, the Quraish accepted the cancellation of the treaty. <br><br>The prophet then gathered 10,000 armed men and headed for Makkah. As they were advancing <br><br>towards Makka, more and more tribes joined them on the way. At Juufa,Al Abnas bin Abdul <br><br>Mutwalib came to join them. The army marched and camped at Marr a Zahran.When Makkans <br><br>heard of the news, they sent Abusufian to spy on the Muslims camp. He was however detected by <br><br>Abbas the uncle of the prophet and Muslim guards presented him to the prophet. The prophet did not <br><br>punish him but made him stand on a high ground to see the spectacle of the Muslim army marching <br><br>towards Makkah. <br><br>The prophet divided his forces into different groups with each having its leader. Abu ubaida bin <br><br>jarrah led the Muhajirun accompanied by the prophet himself. Zubeir Bin Awwam was on the left <br><br>moving in a parallel column. The western entrance of the city was controlled by Saad Bin Ubaid <br><br>while Khalid Bin Walid with the Bedouin contingent was to circle the whole city on the west and <br><br>enter it from the south. The uncle of the prophet Abass, who had embraced Islam, was escorting Abusufyan. He adviced him <br><br>to embrace Islam which he did.Abusufyan had wanted negotiations but the Muslim army refused and <br><br>entered Makkah. The prophet instructed them not to shed any blood.tIn order to reakize this goal,and <br><br>conquer Makka peacefully,he made the following announcement; Those who shelter in the kaaba <br><br>are safe, those who shelter in Abu Sufyans house are safe and those who stay in their own houses are <br><br>safe. <br><br>Despite the peaceful entry of Muslims into Makka, a group of Makkans rushed and attacked the <br><br>Muslim group under Khalidbin Walid. As a result two Muslims and twelve non believers were <br><br>killed. <br><br>The prophet then entered the Kaaba and cast down all idols while recitingthe following verse of the <br><br>Quran, <br><br>***The truth has come and false hood gone, verily falsehood is ever vanishing.***<br><br>[Q: 17:81] The Makkan leaders who had been oppressing the Muslims were among the crowd and the prophet <br><br>asked them, ao you know how I am going to treat you?They replied, eou are a noble brother and <br><br>noble nephew we expect nothing but good from you.The prophet said, There is no revenging <br><br>against you today and you are all free. The prophet then climbed on the hill of swafa and gave a <br><br>sermon to all the Makkans to swear loyalty to Islam. Men and women came to accept Islam. Hind, <br><br>the wife of Abu Jahal was among the women. The prophet forgave her. He also forgave Ikrimah Bin <br><br>Abu Jahal who also accepted Islam. The prophet remained in Makkah for 15 days. After the <br><br>conquest of Makka the prophet organized his troupes to go and attack the Roman Empire at Tabuk <br><br>and the Banu Khawazin and Banu Thaqif. **Significance of the conquest of Makkah**<br><br>1. 2. <br><br>It showed the purity of the Kaaba as the house of Allah and a place for monotheism. <br><br>Victory meant the supremacy of the Great Lord rather than ambition for power. This is <br><br>why the prophet first thanked Allah and then purified the Kaaba. <br><br>3. By the Prophets act of forgiveness, he was laying emphasis on the noble Islamic <br><br>principle of brotherhood and peace. <br><br>Many Makkans embraced Islam and even women pledged to worship non but Allah and <br><br>to lead a clean life. <br><br>5. It singles out the hrophets unique character of patience and wisdom. The battle took place in the field of Hunaian on Saturday 19th of Shawwal about nineteen days after <br><br>the conquest of Makka. The enemy marched at night towards the Muslimarmy under their leader <br><br>Malik bin Auf and strategically hid in the valley. The next day in the morning, the prophet was <br><br>organizing his forces for the battle not knowing that the enemies troupes were hiding in the nearby <br><br>valley.The enemy then longed a surprised attack which disorganized the Muslim who scattered in all <br><br>directions looking for safety passing the prophet unaware. Abass ibn Abdul Mutwilib shouted <br><br>loudly unto the Muslims. <br><br>O Ansaar, O Muhajirun O men who pledge their allegiance under the tree, where are you <br><br>going?The messenger of Allah is here. rome back to him. The Muslims were gripped with shame <br><br>over their cowardly conduct since they had always pledged to die with the prophet. They came back <br><br>shouting At your command! They lounged a counter attack. Soon the enemy realized they would <br><br>face complete defeat and they started fleeing leaving behind their children, women and property. <br><br>Even though the Muslims were victorious, they paid dearly a number of Muslims were wounded and twelve killed. The victory however brought supremacy to the Muslims. The enemy ran and took <br><br>refuge at the city of Thaqif the capital of the tribe. The Muslims decided to lay a siege on the city. <br><br>When the help of Aws, the Muslims bombarded Taif, their Orchard were destroyed until the enemy <br><br>sent an appeal to the prophet to stop the destruction upon which he temporarily withdrew the Muslim <br><br>army. The Muslims then went to share the booty of the Khawazin. Some of the enemies surrendered and <br><br>embraced Islam. Those converts requested for the release of their women and children a request <br><br>which was granted by the prophet. This gesture of mercy pleased them so much that more and more <br><br>embraced Islam. In this battle, 6000 men were taken as captives. It sohappenedthat Bani saad was among the <br><br>prisoners. This was the tribe which had suckled the prophet, a woman who claimed to be Shima and <br><br>had been a foster sister to the prophet 60 year ago reminded the prophet of the scar (white mark) he <br><br>had caused her when she was carrying him on the back. This memory touched the prophet and he <br><br>freed all the prisoners from BanuThaqif and Banu Saad. Later on he released all the other prisoners <br><br>the prophet then went back to Madina. **The farewell address**<br><br>At the age of 63 years, the prophet (P.B.U.H) went to perform pilgrimage in 10 A.H. This is called <br><br>Hijatul Widaa (The farewell pilgrimage) More than one hundred thousand Muslims camefor Hajj on <br><br>the 9th of ahul Hijja at the valley of Arafat. This was to be the prophets last pilgrimage. It was <br><br>during this Hajj that Sura al Nasr was revealed which was received as an announcement of the <br><br>prophets approaching death. After the pilgrimage, theprophet then made his farewell address in <br><br>which he said: <br><br>O people, listen to me for I do not know whether you will find me amongst you next year. O <br><br>people, verily, your blood, your property and your honor are sacred and inviolable until you appear <br><br>before your Lord, as this day and this month is sacred for all verily you will meet your Lord and <br><br>your will answerable to your action. <br><br>Have I not conveyed my message? Allah is my witness. He who has any trust on him should restore <br><br>it to the person who deposited it with him. Beware; no one committing a crime is responsible for it **Demise of the prophet.(12th Rabiul-Awwal 11 A.H/632 C.E)**<br><br>After the farewell address, the prophet returned to Madina at the end of the month of Dhul Hijja. On <br><br>Monday 12th Saffar the prophet felt a severe headache and his health started deteriorating.During this <br><br>period of illness, he spent most of his time in the house of Lady Aisha. Occasionally, he would go <br><br>out to meet the Muslims, advice them and ask for the congregations forgiveness.When his condition <br><br>grew worse and he could not lead the Muslims in prayer, he requested Abubakar to take charge of <br><br>the religious duties. On the last day of his life, the prophet could be heard saying, With those on <br><br>whom you have bestowed your grace, with the prophet and the truthful ones, themartyrs and the <br><br>good doers. O Allah, forgive me and have mercy upon me and join me to the most exalted <br><br>companionship on high He repeated the last words three times. auring all this time, Aisha (RAA) <br><br>was sprinkling water on his forehead until when finally the prophet passed on at the age of 63. His ***a) Brotherhood and equality of mankind***<br><br>Islam is the religion of the Unity of God and the Equality of Mankind. Lineage, riches and family <br><br>pride are accidental things; virtue and the service of humanity are the real matters of merit. <br><br>Distinctions of colour, race and creed are non-existent within the bounds of Islam. All humans <br><br>comprise one family. Islam has succeeded in welding the 'black' and the 'white' into one fraternal <br><br>whole. The strict rule of brotherhood is set firm with the following saying of the Prophet <br><br>Muhammad (P.B.U.H*):"No one of you is a believer in God until he loves for his brother what he*<br><br>*loves for himself."* ***b) Elimination of racism***<br><br>Racism is one of the severe diseases eating up the human society in this day and age. Everyone <br><br>remembers how black Africans were transported across the oceans, packed in specially designed <br><br>ships, thought of, and treated like livestock. They were made slaves, forced to change their names, <br><br>religion and language. They were not entitled to hope for true freedom, and were denied the least of <br><br>human rights: basic needs. Even though among some Western people, the attitude to non-Westerners <br><br>has fortunately changed little in modern times, the political and social condition of black people <br><br>often remain the same, even where they live amid the native Westerners as theoretically equal <br><br>fellow-citizens; that of despised inferiors. When Allahs Messenger, (h.B.U.H) was raised as a hrophet, the same kind of racism, under the <br><br>name of tribalism, was prevalent in Makkah. The Quraish considered themselves as peculiar, and <br><br>Arabs in general, thought they weresuperior to all the other races of the world. Allah's Messenger <br><br>came with the Divine Message and proclaimed that no Arab is superior over a non-Arab, and no <br><br>white is superior over black and superiority in the eyes of Allah(S.W.T) is by righteousness and <br><br>fearing Him alone (Surat Al-Hujurat, 49:13). He also declared that even if an Abyssinian Black <br><br>Muslim were to rule over Muslims, he should be obeyed. The message of Islam is for the entire human race. According to Islam, Allah (S.W.T) is the God of <br><br>the entire world and Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) is a messenger for the whole of mankind. Islam <br><br>unites the entire human race under one banner without any kind of discrimination. Allah (S.W.T) says***"O Mankind! We have created you from a male and female, and made you***<br><br>***into nations and tribes, that you may know one another. Verily, the most honorable of you in the***<br><br>***sight of Allah is he who has most Taqwa among of you. Verily, Allah is All-Knowing, All-***<br><br>***Aware."***[Q: 49:13] <br><br>Allah (S.W.T) says,***"And one of His signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth and the***<br><br>***diversity of your tongues and colors; most surely there are signs in this for the learned."***[Q: 30:22] <br><br>With this verse, Islam declares equality among people as one human race, one humanity, that is <br><br>because Islam respectsa person as a creation of Allah(S.W.T) and not for any other reason; Islam <br><br>does not distinguish between two races, or two groups of people, or between two colors, and the <br><br>Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) addressed the people signifying that concept during the farewell <br><br>pilgrimage, saying: "O People! Your God is one; your father is one; no preference of an Arab over ***c) Eradication of slavery***<br><br>Apart from giving the slaves their rights, Islam also took a step ahead and discouraged slavery from <br><br>being practiced. It is seen in history that slaves were mistreated in the non-Islamic world. Not only <br><br>were they verbally abused, but also physically hurt. During the period of his prophet hood, <br><br>Muhammad worked diligently to do what he could to cut down on their numbers. Islam closed most <br><br>of the doors leading to slavery and encouraged the freeing of slaves in many ways. He constantly <br><br>exhorted those who owned slaves to treat them kindly and well. He insisted that they must treat the <br><br>slaves fairly and with mercy. The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) says: ***If the owner of a slave beat his slave or abused him, the only compensation that he could***<br><br>***make was to set the slave free. (Sahih Muslim)***<br><br>The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) alwaysencouraged and devised ways of freeing slaves on every pretext. <br><br>He said: *If a person owning a slave sets him free, God will, in recompense save every part of his*<br><br>*body.Corresponding to every part of the slaves body from the torment of Hell.*(Sahih Muslim) <br><br>Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) with Divine Inspiration from Allah (S.W.T) forbade such acts. <br><br>Masters could not abuse their slaves and had to give them the same food as they ate and dress them <br><br>in the clothes they wore. Narrated by Al-Ma'rur, I met Abu ahar who was wearing a cloak, and his slave, too, was wearing a <br><br>similar one. I asked about the reason for it. He replied, "I abused a person by calling his mother with <br><br>bad names." The Prophet said to me,*'O Abu Dhar! Did you abuse him by calling his mother with*<br><br>*bad names you still have some characteristics of ignorance. Your slaves are your brothers and Allah*<br><br>*has put them under your command. So whoever has a brother under his command should feed him of*<br><br>*what he eats and dress him of what he wears. Do not ask them (slaves) to do things beyond their*<br><br>*capacity (power) and if you do so, then help them.' [*Bukhari, Vol.1, Book 2, #29] In another Hadith, The Prophet said, "Your servants and your slaves are your brothers. Anyone who <br><br>has slaves should give them from what he eats and wears. He should not charge them with work <br><br>beyond their capabilities. If you must set them to hard work, in any case, I advise you to help <br><br>them" (Al-Bukhari). ***d) Improvement of status of women***<br><br>The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) was very serious in improving the condition of women in society <br><br>and on securing for them a position of dignity and fair and equitable treatment. <br><br>Just before his death, one of the injunctions he addressed to Muslims and laid stress upon was <br><br>that they should always treat women with kindness and consideration. Holy Prophet (peace and <br><br>blessings of Allah be upon him) said: If a man has daughters and he makes arrangement to have <br><br>them educated and takes pains with their upbringing, aod would save him from the torment of Hell. <br><br>(Tirmidhi) Allah be upon him) says in this regard, It is the duty of every Muslim man and Muslim woman to <br><br>seek knowledge. <br><br>The Holy Quran says: <br><br>He it is who created you from a single soul and made there from its mate, that he might find <br><br>comfort in her. And when he knows her, she bears a light burden and goes about with it. And <br><br>when she grows heavy, they both pray to Allah, their Lord, saying,***If thou gives us a good***<br><br>***child, we will surely be of the thankful.***[Q: 7:190] <br><br>In connection with the respect, honor and status of woman as a mother, the Holy Prophet <br><br>(P.B.U.H) has a great regard.*Once, a Companion consulted him to seek advice to participate*<br><br>*in a war, when he askaed, Do you have a mother? He said, Yes. Then Holy Prophet*<br><br>*(P.B.U.H) said, Be with her, because paradise is under her feet.*(Nasai) <br><br>haradise lies under the feet of your mothers. This indicates the outstanding status of woman <br><br>in Islam far superior than granted by any other religion of the world. No other religion comes close to the prominence given to women by the Holy Prophet of Islam. <br><br>Once a companion of the Holy Prophet of Islam asked, O Apostle of Allah! To whom should <br><br>I show kindness? He replied, eour mother, next your mother, next your mother, and then <br><br>comes your father, and then your relatives in order of relationship. (Abu aawud) <br><br>**|**P a g e 148 ***e)*** ***Religious Tolerance***<br><br>Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) was a role model for religious freedom, for instance when the <br><br>Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) entered the city of Medina, he made a formal constitution with the <br><br>large Jewish population of the city, and indeed, this was a historic moment and in this constitution it <br><br>guaranteed religious freedom for those who were and werent Muslims.Once the people <br><br>of Mecca said to Prophet Muhammad that if god did not want them to worship idols then why He <br><br>does not forcefully prevent them from doing so. Then God sent the following message: **(O*Muhammad) This is not a new excuse; those who left before them made, the same excuses. Is***<br><br>***there anything upon the messengers except the dear conveying of the message [Q: 16: 3])***<br><br>The Quran clearly says that religion cannot be forced on anyone. It says, **Answer the following questions in your I.R.E revision exercise book.**<br><br>1. a) Narrate the early life of the prophet. <br><br>b) Identify the methods of persecutions experienced by the early Muslims. <br><br>2. a) Give reasons why Muslims migrated to Abbysinia. <br><br>b) Outline the lessons Muslims learn from the battle of Uhud. <br><br>3. a) How did the treaty of Hudaibiyya prove a success for the Muslims? <br><br>b) Write down ten teachings we learn from the prophets farewell pilgrimage. <br><br>4. a) Explain the lessons the Muslims learnt in the battle of uhud. <br><br>b) Discuss the challenges faced by the Muslims when they first arrived in madina. <br><br>**Activities.**<br><br>1. Compare the practices of todays Muslims with that of the Arabs during the <br><br>Jahiliya. Are there any similarities? <br><br>2. Dramatize how the battle of Badr was fought. 3. Compare and contrast the conquest of Makka with the unsuccessful attack by <br><br>Abraha Ashram during the year of the elephant **CHAPTER 8**<br><br>**MUSLIM SCHOLARS**<br><br>In every society we have prominent people whose prominence may be due to their leadership <br><br>positions or their general role towards the improvement of the society. Most of these personalities <br><br>are our heroes and we get motivated by them and have them as our role models. Do you know of any <br><br>such people in our contry? How have you been inspired by them? In the history of Islam, several <br><br>challenges have been met by the champions of Islam. In every century, we had leaders who <br><br>spereheaded the reforms and struggle for spread of Islam. We are therefore going to study some of <br><br>these schorlars in our secondary syllabus. In each form, two scholars will be studied starting with <br><br>Sheikh al Amin Ali bin Mazrui and Abdallah Swaleh al Farsi.Let us now look at the Sheik al Amin <br><br>Ali bin Mazrui. **His birth and early life.**<br><br>His full name was Sheik Al-Amin bin Ali Abdallah al Mazrui from the Mazrui family. This was the <br><br>family which had been given the guardianship of Mombasa town after the expulsion of the <br><br>Portuguese by the Sultan of Oman since they originated from Oman. His grand father,Abdallah al- <br><br>Mazrui was an Islamic scholar belonging to the Shafi School of law. He was born in Mombasa 1891 <br><br>on 15th Jamadu-Thani 1380 A.H/27th January 189.His father passed away when he was four years <br><br>old and thus his paternal Uncle Sheikh Suleiman bin Ali-Mazrui took the responsibility of raising <br><br>him who later married him off to his own daughter. He died on 1st April 1947 having left behind <br><br>three children, among them two sons (Harith Al-Amin Al-Mazrui-former Liwali of Lamu and <br><br>Professor Ali Mazrui-Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology) and a daughter. **His Educational background.**<br><br>He started his elementary education under his Uncle Sheikh Suleiman bin Ali who was a great <br><br>scholar of that time and had studied various branches of knowledge. This branches included; Quran, <br><br>Arabic language, Fiqh among others. His great thirst for knowledge made him travel to Zanzibar to <br><br>further his education under the eminent scholars of Zanzibar likeSheikhAbdallahMohammad bin <br><br>Salim Bakathir and Sayyid Ahmed Bin Abu Bakar bin Sumeyt.He later went to Lamu and graduated <br><br>from Riyadh mosque under the supervision of re-known scholars of that time. He was a brilliant <br><br>student and outstanding in all the subjects and he used to emerge top of the class.He was able to <br><br>bring reforms in some of the Islamic scholarly works across the world. <br><br>Among the Muslim scholars who greatly influenced him are the following: <br><br>1. Sheikh Jamalu-ddin Al-Afghani 2. Sheikh Muhammad Abdul 3. Sayyid Mohammad Rashid Ridha **His works**<br><br>1. He wrote Hidaayatul Atfaal (Guidance of children) which is an introductory book to Islam <br><br>for the children. <br><br>2. He book entitled Masomo ya dini (religious studies) is essential for the Swahili speakers. 3. Majmaul Bahrayn (The meeting of two seas) is another essential publication in the study of <br><br>Islamic religion. **Achievements and Contributions of Al Amin Ali bin Mazrui.**<br><br> He authoured many publications. Typical among them being, He was the first to write books in Kiswahili to cater for the learning needs of his immediate <br><br>community. <br><br> He established Madrassatul Ghazali-l Islamiyya, a learning institution in which he taught <br><br>Islamic studies to students from all over East Africa. <br><br> He donated most of his scholarly works to the libraries at the coast. Become the Kadhi of Mombasa in 1932. He gave many Islamic lecturers in the mosques other Islamic institutions. He become the Chief Kadhi of Kenya in 1937after the death of his uncle Suleiman bin Ali al <br><br>Mazrui. <br><br> He is known for his efforts in propagating Islam all over East Africa. He used move all <br><br>around East Africa giving lectures. <br><br> He was a writer, poet and editor of Kiswahili and Arabic languages. **Sheikh Abdullah Swaleh al-Farsy**<br><br>**Birth and early life**<br><br>He was born on 12thof February, 1912 at Jongeani village in the Island of Zanzibar. He came from a <br><br>large and well established family; respected for the servicesthey used to provide in both educational <br><br>and civil life to the citizens of Zanzibar and PembaHe was the eldest child in this family. He studied <br><br>Quran recitation from Fatma Hamid Said who was a student of a renowned scholar, Sheikh Amin <br><br>Ahmed. <br><br>At a very young age, sheikh Abdullah memorized the Quran with its correct recitation and a large <br><br>portion of Hadith. He did not engage in leisurely activities as the other young people. At the age of <br><br>twenty years he was so fluent and competent in Arabic Grammar and Nahwi that he could write <br><br>poems in Arabic. **Educational back ground**<br><br>After completing the first phase of Islamic traditional education at Masjid Barza,Sheikh al-Farsy <br><br>joined the first government school in Zanzibar at the age of ten;the Central Primary School of <br><br>Zanzibar. He was so dedicated to attaining religious and secular education and he made use of both <br><br>the afternoons and evenings to study. He was always seen engrossed in any new Islamic book and <br><br>spent most times in his home library reading. <br><br>Zanzibar had retained some of the centuries old Islamic educational institutions. He therefore learnt <br><br>from intellectual scholars like Sheikh Abubakar bin Abdullah Bakathir, Sheikh Ahmed bin <br><br>Muhammad Al- Mlomry who taught him twenty five books and Sheikh Sayyid Alawy bin Abdul <br><br>Wahab who taught him twelve books on Fiqh and Arabic. He then went to Kenya to seek more <br><br>knowledge where he studied tafsir under Sheikh Al Amin bin Ali. He also studied Risalatul Jamiaat, <br><br>a book on basicprinciples of Fiqh from Sayyid Hamid Maasab. While he was in the secular school, he always emerged ahead of the other students in every subject. <br><br>His excellence led him to completing eight year primary education in five years. He then joined a <br><br>Teachers Training rollege from which he graduated in1932. <br><br>He became a primary school teacher between 1932 and 1947 and, following a series of promotions <br><br>for his good work, he was appointed the Inspector General of primary schools in Zanzibar and <br><br>Pemba between 1949 and 1952. He later became the principal of Muslim Academy between 1952 <br><br>and 1956, before being appointed the head teacher of the Arabic Medium School. In 1960, he went <br><br>to perform Hajj after which he left the ministry of education in 1967 and became a teacher at the <br><br>Teachers Training rollege. the preachers to defend Christianity. This Quran translation was also to clarify the misconception of <br><br>the Qadianis who preached of the coming of another Prophet after Muhammad by the name Mirza <br><br>Gulam Ahmad from Qadiani village in India. <br><br>Sheikh Abdullah Swaleh al Farsy passed on (died) on 9th November, 1982, just eight months after he <br><br>had left Kenya to join his family in Muscat, Oman. **His works**<br><br>1. He translated the Quran in Kiswahili i.e. Qurani Takatifu. Its first copy was published in <br><br>1969. <br><br>2. He wrote the biography of the prophet. 3. He also wrote the biography of Imam Shaffi. 4. His Kiswahili publication was sura za swala na tafsiri zake. 5. He also authored upotofu wa tafsiri ya Makadiani. *6.*He used to write the translation of the Quran in the weekly*Mwongozo wa Zanzibar*<br><br>Magazine. <br><br>7. He wrote a book entitled*Bida*in which he fought against innovations (Bida). 8. He wrote a book on mirath (inheritance). **His achievements and contributions**<br><br>1. He served in the field of education as a head teacher in Muslim Academy, Secondary School <br><br>and Arabic Medium School. <br><br>2. He was appointed the Inspector General of primary schools in Zanzibar and Pemba to <br><br>spearhead the quality of education in these states. <br><br>3. He proposed that community schools be staffed with Islamic teachers who should be paid by <br><br>the government. **Suggested study questions and class activities**<br><br>**Answer the following questions in your I.R.E revision exercise books.**<br><br>1. Describe the early life of Sheikh Abdallah Swaleh Al-Farsy. 2. Explain the contributions made by Abdallah Swaleh Al-Farsy to the spread of <br><br>Islam in East Africa. <br><br>3. Discuss the contribution made by Sheikh Al-Amin Mazrui in promoting <br><br>education in Kenya <br><br>4. Outline the literary works left behind by of Al-Amin Ali Mazrui. Activities <br><br>1. Compare the achievements and contributions of Sheikh Al Amin bin Mazrui <br><br>and Abdallah Swaleh al Farsy. <br><br>2. Find out from your immediate community some of the prominent Muslim scholars and identify the common factors that can be attributed to their success in the field of Academics. |
# Form one **CHAPTER 1** **QURAN** **Read [Q: 36:2]; [Q: 85:21];[Q: 17:9]** **Meaning of the Quran** The Quran is a religious book used by Muslims all over the world as a book of guidance. Most of the world religions have their specific books which they use for reference. Do you know any religious books used by members other faiths? Can you mention any of them? Just as every religion has its own religious book, Muslims have the Quran as their main source of reference and they have a duty to learn, understand and constantly refer to it. As a Muslim, have you read the Quran? Muslims believe that the Holy Quran is the last book to be revealed by Allah. It is because of its important position in the Islamic faith that throughout our course we shall be using the Quran as our immediate source of reference. Can you remember the meaning of the word Quran from your Islamic Religious Education in Primary school? This word comes from an Arabic root *qara'a* which means "to read or to recite. Quran in Arabic therefore literally means recitation or something that is continuously recited. It is equivalent in meaning to *qira'ah,* as both come from the same verb *qara'a.* This name is specifically mentioned in the text of the Quran as a reference to itself in several places. From the verses you have read, you will learn that the Quran has been referred as a book of guidance, a book full of wisdom and a Glorious. Read the following verses: In Islam the word Quran is defined as the divine speech of Allah Subhanahu Wa Taala (S.W.T), sent down upon the last Prophet Muhammad Peace be Upon Him (P.B.U.H), through the Angel Jibril Aleihi Swalatu wa Salaam(A.S) to human kind. Since its revelation the Quran has remained the same without being distorted. **|** P a g e 1 ----- **Other Names of the Quran** Do you know that the Quran is referred to with other different names? Mention some of these names. For the names you have mentioned, it can be seen that some of the names of the Quran have been referred to in the Quran itself while others are derived from the functions of the Quran. Among these names are: - *Furqaan* (criterion) ***Blessed is He Who sent down the Criterion to His servant, that it*** ***may be an admonition to all creatures.*** [Q: 25: 1] - *Nadhir (warner)* ***Verily this Quran Doth guide to that which is most right (or stable), and*** ***giveth the Glad tidings to the believers who work deeds of righteousness, that they have a*** ***magnificent reward.*** [Q: 17:9] - Rahma (mercy) ***A guide and a Mercy to the doers of good*** [Q: 31:3] - *Tanzil* (revelation) **** ***Verily this is a Revelation from the Lord of the Worlds.*** [Q: 26: 192] - *Dhikr* (reminder) ***We have without doubt, send down the message; And We will assuredly*** ***guard it (from corruption*** **)** [Q: 15: 9] - *Kitab* (The book) ***We have revealed for you (O men) a Book in which is a message for*** ***you: will you not then understand.*** [Q : 21:10] - *Hudan (Guidance)* ***We gave Moses the book, and made it a Guide to the children of Israel,*** ***(commanding): Take not other than Me as disposer of (your) affair.*** [ *Q:17: 2:5* ] All these names reflect one of the various aspects of the revealed words of Allah. Other names include Nur (Light), Majid (Glorious), and Mubarak (Blessed) Bashir (Announcer), among others. Can you mention the other names of the Holy Quran that have not been listed above? **a)** **Ulumul Quran** The term *Ulum means a science.* Itrefers to the detailed scientific study of a subject. If you look at the various subjects you are offered in Form one, you will notice that each of them has a different approach of studying it.These approaches are what we refer to as Ulum (theScience).The Quran, being a wide subject area of study also has its unique features that must be studied in a particular way. Therefore, *Ulumul Quran* is a scientific study that includes a variety of fields related to Al Quran such as its: - Revelation. - Collection and compilation. - Order and arrangement of suras. **|** P a g e 2 ----- - Translation of the Quran (tafsir). - Reasons for the translation of the suras ( Asbaabu Nnuzul) - Characteristics of language - Style of writing and theme - Recitation (Tajweed) among other We are going to look at one of the above areas in our next discussion. **Need for the revelation of the Quran.** In life everything has a reason and a purpose for its being, just as we have a purpose for coming to school. Why do you think the Quran was revealed to humankind? Revelation of the Quran came at a time when there was ignorance and the socity was full of social vices, a period referred to as Jahiliya. Someof the reasons for revelation of the Quran are as follows: **** The earlier scriptures were tampered and interfered with by man thus losing their authenticity. Hence the revelation of the Quran was to correct the wrong message. **** The Quran was given to Prophet Muhammad, the seal of the prophet with a universal message unlike the other books which were sent to particular generations at specific time. For example The Torah (Taurat) was sent to the Children of Israel through Prophet Musa (A.S) while Zabur was sent to the followers of Prophet Daud. Read the following two verses from the Holy Quran: Almighty Allah (S.W.T) Says *:* ***To the Thamud people (We sent) Salih, one of their own*** ***brethren: He said: O my people! Worship Allah; ye have no other god but Him.Now has*** ***come unto you a clear signfrom your Lord! This she camel of Allah is a sign unto you...*** [Q: 7:73] Almighty Allah (S.W.T) Says: ***To the Ad people, (We send) Hud, one of their own*** ***brethren: He said: O my people! Worship Allah! You have No other god but Him. Will*** ***you not fear (Allah)?*** [Q: 7:65] **** To fulfill Allahs promise as well as prophesies of the other earlier revealed scriptures on the coming of the Quran and that of prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H *).* Almighty Allah (S.W.T)Says: ***And remember, Jesus, the son of Mary, said: O children of*** ***Israel! I am the messenger of Allah (sent) to you confirming the law (which came) before*** **|** P a g e 3 ----- ***me and giving Glad Tidings of a messenger to come after mewhose name shall be*** ***Ahmad.But when he came to them with clear signs, they said, This is evident sorcery.*** [Q: 61:6] **** To narrate and summarizestories and events of the earlier generation in order to offer teachings, lessons, warnings and guidance to shape community. Almighty Allah (S.W.T)Says **:** ***There is in, their stories,instructions for men endued with*** ***understanding.It is not a tale invented,but a confirmation of what went before it-A detailed*** ***exposition of all things,and a guide and a mercy to any such as believe.*** [Q: 12: 111] **** Believe in One True God: The most important topic mentioned throughout the Quran is the belief in the One, True God. God informs us that He has no partner, no son, no equal, and that none has the right to be worshipped except Him alone. Nothing is comparable to God and none of His creation resembles Him. The Quran also rejects the notion of attributing human qualities and limitations to Allah (SWT). Almighty Allah (S.W.T) says, **And your god is One God. There is no god but He, the Most** **Gracious, the Mos** t Merciful. [Q 2:163] **** Rejection All False Gods: Since Allah alone is the only One worthy of worship, false gods must be rejected. The Quranalso rejects the notion of attributing divine qualities to anyone or anything other than Allah. Almighty Allah (S.W.T) Says: ** ***And worship Allah and associate none with Him*** [Q: 4:36] **** To remind us of the Day of Judgment:This Holy Quranreminds us that everyone will taste death and will be held accountable for all their actions and sayings: Almighty Allah (S.W.T) says: *We shall set up scales of justice for the Day of Judgment, so* *that not a soul will be dealt with unjustly in the least* [Q: 21:47] **** Fulfilling the Intended Way of Life **:** The purpose of life is to worship Allah alone, and live ones life according to the way of life prescribed by Allah. In Islam, worship is a comprehensive term that includes all actions and sayings (whether private or public) that Allah loves and is pleased with. Therefore, by doing what Allah commands, a Muslim is worshipping God and fulfilling his purpose in life. Almighty Allah (S.W.T) says, ***I have only created Jinns and men, that they may serve*** ***Me.*** [ **Q: 51:56]** **|** P a g e 4 ----- **REVELATION** Revelation is the divine communication of Allah (S.W.T) to his creatures. In this communication, Allah (S.W.T) either uses the Arch Angel Jibril or any by other methods which shall be studies in Form Two. An example of this communication is when Allah (S.W.T) revealed to the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) the first five verses of Sura al-Alaqa through Angel Jibril. Refer to [Q: 96:1-5] The above paragraph shows us thatthe Almighty Allah (S.W.T) communicates to his Prophets in the form of revelations. Allah (S.W.T) says in the Holy Quran that; ***It is not fitting for a man that Allah should speak to him except by inspiration, or from behind a*** ***veil, or by sending of a messenger to reveal, with Allahs permission, what Allah will; for He is*** ***most High, Most Wise.*** **[Q: 42:51]** From the verse we have readwe see the Arch Angel Jibril acting as an intermediary between Allah (S.W.T) andthe prophets as the bearer of the revelation.Angel Jibril undertook the following duties in the revelation of the Quran: **a)** **The role of Angel Jibril** 1. He lowered the Quran from Lauhil Mahfudh (well preserved tablet), the seventh heaven to Baitul Izza; the lowest heaven. 2. He lowered the Quran from Baitul-Izza to earthand revealedit in portions to the prophet throughout his 23 years of prophet hood. 3. He taught the prophet how to recite the Holy Quran correctly. He would 4. He assisted the prophet in the order and arrangement of the Quran. He used to appear before the prophet at the beginning of every month of Ramadhan and the prophet used to recite all the chapters while Jibril would guide him on the order and arrangement. 5. He played an intermediary role between the Almighty Allah to the prophet (P.B.U.H). 6. He assisted the prophet in memorizing the Quran during revelation; he would only leave after the prophet had grasped the verses. *7.* Assisted the prophet in interpreting and understanding the QuranHe was the comforter of the prophet because revelation was a difficult experience.Aisha (R.A.) reported that *Al - Harith* *bin Hisham asked Allah Apostle (P.B.U.H) how the divine inspiration was revealed to Him.* *Allahs Apostle replied; sometimes it is revealed like the ringing of a bell, this form of* *inspiration (wahyi) is the hardest of all and then this state passes off after I have grasped* *what is inspired. Sometimes the Angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and I* *grasp whatever he says.* What are the other duties that Angel Jibril played in the life of the prophet apart from revealing the Quran? **|** P a g e 5 ----- **b)** **REASON WHY THE QURAN WAS REVEALED IN PORTIONS** . We have just learnt that Arch Angel Jibril lowered the Quran from Baitul-Izza and revealed it in portions. What do you think are the reasons why the Quran was revealed in portions? Let us consider the following points: 1. To address the prophet continuouslyin order to strengthen his heart. Almighty Allah(S.W.T) says: ***You and those who disbelieve say why is the Quran not revealed to him all at once? but it is*** ***like that in order that we may steady your heart with it, and I have arranged its component parts*** ***in an orderly, consistent manner.*** [Q: 25:3] ***(It is) a Quran which we have divided (into parts from time to time) in order that you might recite*** ***it to men at intervals: We have revealed it by stages.*** [Q: 17:106] 2. The process of revelation was a very difficult experience considering human ability and limitations; therefore it was revealed in portions to ease the task. 3. To provide room for spiritual growth and development for the prophet and his companions. 4. To progressively implement the sharia of Allah(S.W.T) that is providing continuous guidance. 5. To make it easy for the believers to understand and apply the rules of the Quran. 6. To make itsmemorization easier because the Arabs chiefly relied on memory to preserve information. Allah says (S.W.T) ***(These are) the ones who wait and watch about you, if you do gain a*** ***victory from Allah, they say: were we not with you? But if the unbelievers gain an advantage over*** ***you, and did we not guard you from the believers?*** [Q: 4:141] 7. Dealing with problems as they arise whenever a new happening emerges the Quran was there to provide the necessary solutions and answer. Example of this is when the Almighty Allah says(S.W.T): ***And they ask you about Dhul Qarnayn tell them I will read to you a report.*** [Q: 18:83] 8. An indication of the true source of the Quran as it was revealed in a period of 23 years without any contradictions. The Almighty Allah says (S.W.T): ***Wont they contemplate the Quran if it had come from*** ***other than Allah; they would have found in it many contradictions?*** [Q: 4:82] **SURAT UL FATIHA** **|** P a g e 6 ----- Al-Fti h a is the first srah (chapter) of the Quran, and was one of the earliest portions of the Quran revealed to the prophet Mu ha mmad by the angel Jibril. The word Fatiha comes from the Arabic root verb Fataha which means an *opening*, *beginning* or *commencemen* t. Therefore it is referred to as Fatihat ul Kitab (the opening chapter of the Book) or simply Surat ul Fatiha (The Opening Chapter). The idea of *opening* or *beginning* is significant in several ways: first, this is the opening verse of the Quran, secondly, this is said to be the first complete srah that was revealed to the Prophet, but more importantly this name also symbolizes the fact that the grace of Allh has opened the doors of Life to us and that as we begin to live our lives in harmony with the ways of Allh, the heart truly begins to open, thereby allowing us to begin to allow the Divine Presence of Allah(S.W.T) to consciously manifest openly through our daily lives, and thus, it is we that have been opened by His Power. It is also called sab al mathani .i.e. the seven ayahs as these are seven ayahs that no equivalent of them has ever been sent to the previous prophets before. It is called Umm ul Kitab i.e. the mother of the whole book because it encompasses the theme of recognition of Allah, belief in Him and worshipping Him only and genuinely. Let us now look at the Arabic transliteration and meaning of its verses. *Bismillhi r-ramni r-ram* 1:1 In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful. *Al amdu lillhi rabbi l-lamn* The r herisher and, h raise and thanks be to Allah 1:2 Sustainer of the worlds, *Ar ramni r-ram* ,Most Merciful,Most aracious 1:3 **|** P a g e 7 ----- *Mliki yawmi d-dn* .Master of the aay of Judgement 1:1 *Iyyka nabudu wa iyyka nastan* worship eou alone we 1:1 and You alone we ask for help. *Ihdin -ir al-mustaqm* :auide us to the straight path 1:6 *ir al-lana anamta alayhim ayril mabi alayhim wal lln* 1:7 The path of those on whom you have bestowed your Grace, and not the path of those who earned your anger, nor of those who went astray. **Teachings of the surah** 1. Allah is the most Gracious and most Merciful. 2. We should praise Allah for all the favors He has bestowed to us. 3. He is the controller and overall judge of everything during the Day of Judgment. 4. He is the only one worth of our devotion so all our prayers should be directed to Him. 5. Whoever needs any help should seek divine intervention of Allah. 6. Man should ask for Allahs guidance to the path of righteousness. 7. The path of righteousness is a favor from Allah(S.W.T). 8. Man should shun all evils to avoid the wrath of Allah. The worshipper is reminded not to transgress. 9. Mankind should follow the teachings of Allah (S.W.T) in order to avoid His anger. 10. The recognition of the oneness of Allah brings us closer to Allah and keeps us far from Iblis. **Importance of the sura** 1. Sura tul Fatiha brings us closer to Allah through the words of praise contained in it. 2. It is a supplication (dua) that the prophet recommended to be usedoften. **|** P a g e 8 ----- 3. It is the opening chapter of the Quran. 4. Its the foundation of faith. 5. It is the mother of the Quran. 6. It is one of the pillars of prayers. 7. Its one among the surahs that no other prophet was given except Muhammad only. **Su** **rat** **Al-Fl (The Elephant) -** **** **** **** **** **(Q 105)** **Historical back ground to the revelation of Suratul Fiil** **.** Suratul Fiil derived its roots from the incident of the elephants during the period of the birth of the Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H). The term Fiil refers to the elephants mentioned in the first verse of the Sura. These elephants were used in the army of Abraha Al Ashram who was governor of Yemen on behalf of the King of Ethiopia. He was sent to go and destroy the Al-Kaaba. Abraha built a shrine at a place called Sanaa and had wanted the Arabs to perform Pilgrimage at the shrine instead of the Kaaba which they refused. He became furious and decided to send an army to go and destroy the Kaaba. We shall now look at the meaning of its verses and their transliteration. ## *Bismillahi rrahmani rraheemi* In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. *Alam tara kaifa faala rabbuka bi as-haabil fiil* 105:1 Have you (O Muhammad) not seen how your Lord dealt with the companions of the Elephant? *Alam yajal Kaidahum fii tadhlil* 105:2 Did He not make their treacherous plan into misguidance? **|** P a g e 9 ----- *Wa-arsala alaihim twairan abaabila.* 105:3 And He sent against them birds in flocks, *Tarmihim bihijaa-ratin min sijiil* 105:4 Striking them with stones of baked clay, *Fajaalahum kaasfinm ma kulin* 105:5 Then did He make them like an empty field of stalks and straw, (of which the corn) has been eaten. T **eachings of Suratul Fiil** There are several lessons that can be learnt from this sura as follows; **** Al-Kaaba is protected by Allah. **** Allah is in position to destroy theplans of anybody who intends to harm others. **** Allah is very powerful and sees everything. **** No creature can fight the might of Allah **** Material possession of a man cannot defeat the Allahs property. **** Mankind should rely on Allah for anything because Allah protects. **** Allah does not allow evil to flourish. **** Allah gives protection to the righteous **** The wrong doers will always be punished by Allah. **** No one can prevail against Allah **** Allah has the ability to end a persons pride and arrogance. **** Allah wanted tohonor the birth of the prophet (P.B.U.H). **|** P a g e 11 ----- **Surat Al-`Ar (The Declining Day) -** ** ** **(Q 103)** **Historical Background** The early Muslims called it Al-`Asr. Also, in most of the books dedicated to explaining the Quran ( *tafsir* ), this name is given to the *surah* . The majority of scholars hold that it was sent in the Makkan Period at the early stages of Islam where the Muslim population was small. The surah consists three verses, making it the shortest chapter in the Quran but summarizes all the teachings of Islam because of its vast meaning. Imam Shafi commended that Suratul Asr would have sufficed all the other Surahs of the Quran if they had not been revealed. We shall now look at the meaning of its verses and their transliteration. *Bismil* *lah* *i rr* *ahma* *ni rra* *h* *eemi* ### *In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful.* *.* *WaalAasri* 103: 1By *Al-'Asr* (the time). **|** P a g e 11 ----- *Inna al-ins* *an* *a lafee khusrin* 103: 2Verily! Man is in loss, *Ill* *a* *alla* *the* *ena* *am* *anoo waAAamiloo al* *ssal* *i* *hat* *i wataw* *asa* *w bial* *ha* *qqi wataw* *asa* *w bial* *ssa* *bri* 103: 2Except those who believe (in Islamic Monotheism) and do righteous good deeds, and recommend one another to the truth (i.e. order one another to perform all kinds of good deeds ( *Al-* *Ma'ruf* )which Allah has ordained, and abstain from all kinds of sins and evil deeds ( *Al-* *Munkar* )which Allah has forbidden), and recommend one another to patience (for the sufferings, harms, and injuries which one may encounter in Allah's Cause during preaching His religion of Islamic Monotheism or *Jihad*, etc.). **Teachings of the Surah** 1. The surah starts with an oath where Allah swears by the time (Asr) because it is only Allah (S.W.T) who has the sole right to swear by anything because everything belongs to Him. 2. It affirms great loss for those who reject aods message after it reached them correctly, and for those who accepted it but failed to live according to it. Loss means losing Allahs blessings and favors for the unbelievers. 3. Those excluded from the state of loss include the believers, those who perform righteous deeds, 4. It encourages one to follow the truth and enjoin one another to be patient. 5. They are also be committed to the truth of Islam. **Suratul Nasr(The Divine Support) -** ** ** **(Q110)** **Historical Background** The Sura is called Suratul Nasr because it is a word that appears in the first verse of the chapter.It literally means help. And here it refers to Allahs help that caused the conquest of Makkah. **|** P a g e 12 ----- This Sura was revealed after the conquest of Makkah. It was the time when many people were embracing Islam, thus the Sura was to remind the Prophet and the Muslims believers at large to consider the victory from Allah only. The victory in which multitudes of people from different tribes embraced Islam was the victory from Allah (S.W.T)this is believed to be the last surah given to Prophet Muhammad and a sign to his approaching death. **Meaning and transliteration of Surat An-Nar** # Bismil l ah i rr a h m an i rr a he e mi *Itha jaa nasru Allahi waalfathu* [110:1When the victory of Allah has come and the conquest,](http://quran.com/) *Waraayta alnnasa yadkhuloona fee deeni Allahi afwajan* [110:2And you see the people entering into the religion of Allah in multitudes,](http://quran.com/) [110:3Then exalt [Him] with praise of your Lord and ask forgiveness of Him. Indeed, He is ever](http://quran.com/) Accepting of repentance. **TEACHINGS OF SURATUL NASR** This surah has the following teachings - It recognizes Allah as the only source of help and victory. - It is a sign of victory when people are seen accepting Islam in multitudes. - For any victory(help) people must glorify the praises Allah. **|** P a g e 13 ----- - heople should glorify Allahs name and also ask for forgiveness. They should also seek Allahs forgiveness with confidence, as he is the one who accepts peoples repentance. **Suggested study Questions and Activities** **Answer the following Questions in your I.R.E revision exercise book.** 1. State the lessons Muslims can learn from Suratul Fiil. 2. Define the following term Ulumul Quran. 3. Discuss the need for the revelation of the Quran 4. What are the teachings of surah Asr? **Activity:** Narrate the story of Abraha Ashram in relation to Sura al Fiil. **CHAPTER 2** **HADITH** The literal meaning of hadith is news, statement, report, stories or narrations. **|** P a g e 14 ----- Technically, the term hadith refers to the prophetic sayings, reports, statement which came forth from the prophets gems or mouth. It also includes the prophets action and deeds. The term hadith is sometimes used to refer to Sunnah although there is a difference between the two as follows: |fferences between Hadith and Sunna|Col2| |---|---| |Hadith|Sunnah| |This is what the prophet said or what he taught|This refers to what he did or his actions| |Is what the prophet kept quiet about or approved|Is the way in which he conducted the affairs of the Ummah.| |It is the prophets interpretation of the Quran|It is his actual reading of the Quran| |Is the prophets treaties and declaration|Is the implementation of those treaties and declarations| |Is the prophets guidance on how to behave towards others|Is how he related to other people| |This is the prophets instruction on how to worship|Refers to the demonstrationsand howhe conducted the religious acts.| **EVOLUTION OF HADITH** The term evolution has been used to refer to the origin, beginning or emergence. Therefore, evolution of Hadith traces the origin and gradual development of hadith **|** P a g e 15 ----- It can best be looked into by studying the drivers of evolution. These are the factors that made the Prophet to come up with the volumes of hadith and sunnah Muslims today rely on as a significant code of reference after the Quran. There are four ways in which contributed to the evolution of hadith: 1. Through the prophets own initiative 2. As a response asked by his companions 3. As a demand of circumstances 4. As an interpretation of the Quran **The prophets initiative** The prophet was devoted to teaching the MuslimUmma about the right way. He would come up with an issue of which he felt that there was need for the Muslims to know about. In this case he would talk to the Muslims to address it. One instance is illustrated by the hadith below: Abu Hureira (RAA) narrates that the Prophet (P.B.U.H) used to say (in supplication), *O* *Allah! Set right for me my religion, which is the safeguard of my affairs. And set right for me* *the affairs of the world wherein is my living. Decree the hereafter to be good for me. And* *make this life, for me, (a source of) abundance for every good and make my death (a source* *of) comfort to me and protection against every evil.* (Muslim) This is an example in which the prophet took an initiative to teach the Muslims the dua they need to recite. *Whoever speaks in the Juma while the Imam is delivering the khutba is like a donkey who* *is carrying books, and for he who tells him to be quiet, there will be no (reward for his)* *Juma prayer.* Related by Ahmad) The objective of this hadith is to teach about the importance of keeping quiet and attentively listening to the Friday khutba when it is on. The third instance is when Al Mughira bin Shuba said: **|** P a g e 16 ----- *I was with the prophet (during an expedition). He started to perform ablution and I was* *about to remove his socks (khuff), when he said, Leave them, for I put them on while I was* *in a state of purity, and he wiped over them* **.** (Bukahari and Muslim) **As a response to questions asked by his companions** The prophet was the leader and sole authority in all matters concerning the Muslims. People would approach him with questions on religion, social, political and any other issues affecting them. He was the resourceof reference in addressing peoples issues. Therefore, his suggested solutions became part of hadith. Aisha (R.A) narrated: I asked the prophet about turning here and there in prayer. He replied: *It is a kind of theft by which Satan takes away (a portion of) the persons prayer.* (Al Bukhari and At-Tirmidhi).The latters wordings are, *Avoid turning while you are engaged in* *prayer for it leads to the destruction of your religion. If you have to do it, then do it in the* *voluntary prayer.* The hadith is an example that evolved through a question that the prophet had to respond to a question that Aisha, his wife, asked on matters concerning turning during prayers. The other hadith below shows another hadith that was as a result to questions asked. **Abu Huraira narrated that the prophet was asked:** *Which kind of sadaqa was better? He replied, That which is given by one who does not have* *much property. And begin by giving your dependents.* (Ahmad, Abu Dawoud. In Khuzaima, Ibn Hibban) Al Hakim graded it as *sahih.* This hadith is another evidence of evolution of hadith as a respond to questions from the companions *.* Ibn Abbas narrated that a woman from the tribe of Juhainah came to the prophet and said, *My* *mother vowed to perform Hajj but she died before fulfilling her vow. Should I perform Hajj on* **|** P a g e 17 ----- *her behalf?* The prophet said, *Yes, perform Hajj on her behalf. Had there been a debt on your* *mother, would you have paid it or not? So pay off her debt to Allah, for He is most deserving of* *settlement of His debt.* (Al- Bukhari.) **As a demand of circumstances** r ircumstances and situations would arise and the companions would demand the prophets suggestions and solutions as their leader, hence their suggestions and solutions became Hadith. Ibn Abbas(R.A) narrated that when the prophet sent Muadh bin Jabal to Yemen (as governor); he said to him *:* *You are going to a people who are people of the scripture. Invite them to testify that none has* *the right to be worshipped but Allah and that I am His Messenger. If they obey you in this, then* *teach them that Allah, the Glorious One, has enjoined five prayers upon them in every day and* *night, and if they obey you in this, then tell them that Allah has made it obligatory for them to* *pay zakat upon their assets and it is to be taken from the wealthy among them and given to the* *poor among them.* (Al- Bukhari). This hadith shows a situation where the prophet had to give instructions to a potential leader on the duties he should carry out. Another instance is explained in the hadith below: Jabir bin Abdullah(R.A) narrated that the prophet visited a sick person and found him praying while sitting on a cushion. The prophet pushed it aside and said to him: *Pray while sitting on the ground if you can, and if you cannot, then pray by nodding your head,* *and make a lower nodding for prostration than that for bowing (rukuu).* (Al- Baihaqi). The other hadith below shows another circumstance that the prophet had to give decisions: Anas narrated that the prophet narrated that the prophet passed by a fallen date in the street and said *:* *Were it not for my doubt that this might have been given for charity, I would have eaten* *it.* (Bukhari and Muslim **As an interpretation of the Quran** The verses of the Quran were revealed to the prophet (h.B.U.H).It was the duty of the prophet to explain the meaning and application of those verses to his companions. Therefore his **|** P a g e 18 ----- explanations and commentaries became Hadith. This proves that prophet had a duty of giving further clarification whenever the need arose as Allah says in the Holy Quran: ***With clear signs and books (We sent the messengers). And we have also sent down to you (O*** ***Muhammad ) the Dhikr [reminder] that is Quran, that you may explain clearly to men what is*** ***sent to them that they may give thought.*** [Q: 16:44] Following are examples of how the prophet interpreted the Quran using Hadith. **1.** **Interpretation on Jumaa prayer** ***Oyou, who believe, when the call is proclaimed to prayer on Friday, hasten earnestly to the*** ***remembrance of Allah and leave off business: That is best for you but knew.*** [Q: 62:9] ***Prophets Hadith*** *a)* *Abdullah bin Umar and Abu Huraira (R.A) narrated that they heard the messenger of* *Allah (P.B.U.H) say while standing on his pulpit, Those who are not attending Friday* *prayer should stop doing so, otherwise Allah the Exalted will seal their hearts and they* *will be reckoned among the heedless* (Muslim) *b)* *Ibn Umar (R.A) narrated that the messenger of Allah said, whoever catches only one* *rakat of the Jumaa prayer, or any other, he should then add to it another one, and his* *prayer will be complete* (AN-Nisai, Ibn-Maaja, Daraqutni) **2.** **Interpretation on Ribaa** ***Those who devour Ribaa will not stand except as stands one whom the Satan by his touch has*** ***driven to madness. That is because they say, trade is like ribaa, but Allah has permitted trade*** ***and forbidden ribaa. For who after receiving admonition from their Lord desist shall be pardoned*** ***for their past; their case is for Allah to judge; but those who repeat (the offence) are companions*** ***of the fire: they will abide therein (forever).*** [Q: 2:275 -276] **Prophets Hadith** **|** P a g e 19 ----- *Abu Huraira (R.A) narrates that the messenger of Allah said: whenever gold is exchanged with* *gold it should be equivalent in amount and quality, and whenever silver is exchanged for silver it* *should be equivalent in amount and quality. Whoever gives more or asks for more, this is considered* *ribaa.* (Muslim) **Forms of Hadith.** Hadith have been classified into four forms determined by the way they were presented by the prophet. These forms are: - Fiil (what he did) - Qaul (what he said) - Iqrar (what he silently approved) - Sifat(his attributes) **Fiil** This form of Hadith refers to the virtuous deeds or actions done by the Prophet (P.B.U.H). The following are examples of the prophets Hadith: 1. Aisha (R.A) relates *, I never saw the messenger of God laughing in a way that the inside of* *his mouth is apparent, he only used to smile.* (Al-Bukhari). 2. Narrated by Jaaber (God be pleased with him) relates that on the day of the Idd (feast), the prophet (peace be upon him) used to go to Idd prayer by one route and come back by another route. (Al-Bukhari). **Qaul** This form of Hadith refers to sayings, reports or what came by word of mouth from the prophet (P.B.U.H). An example of Qaul is the following: Abu-Huraira (God be pleased with him) relates that the messenger of God peace be upon him said, *A hypocrite has 3 signs by when he can be known: if he speaks he lies, if give a promise he never* *fulfill it, if he is entrusted with something he betrays the trust.* (Al-Bukhari and Muslim) **Iqrar** **|** P a g e 21 ----- Iqrar is also referred to as Takrir. It refers the deeds done by the Swahabas when the prophet kept quiet about them instead of disapproving them or rather he silently approved them. His silent approval was like giving them a go ahead to continue with the deeds. An example of this form of Hadith is as follows: Ibn Abbas (R.A) narrated, *We used to pray two rakat after sunset (before the Maghrib prayer, and* *the prophet would see us, but he did not order us to do so, nor did he prohibit.* (Muslim) aive more examples of hadith that emerged through the prophets own initiative. **Sifat** This refers to general appearance and especially bodily characteristics and the physical tributes the prophet possessed.It includes the qualities and attributes that the prophet displayed in his life. The Swahabas were able to observe his general conduct and follow them. Mention any attributes of the prophet that you can see being practiced today.The following are examples of hadith that emerged as a result of his Sifat: *1.* *Narrated by Abu-Huraira (R.A) relates that Al- Hassan Ibn Ali (the prophets grandson* *(R.A) picked up a date from the dates set for charity and put it in his month. The messenger* *of God said, Kikh Kikh (dirt! Keep away!) Throw it out. Do you not know that we (the* *Prophet (P.B.U.H) and his household) do not eat from charity? (Al-Bukhari and Muslim).* *2.* *Narrated by Aisha (R.A) relates that the messenger of Allah (P.B.U.H) used to like using the* *right hand-side in all his affairs: his cleansing, combing his hair, putting on his footwear* *(Al-Bukhari and Muslim).* **Contributions of hadith to Islamic thought and culture** 1) The content of hadith provides an explanation of the verses of the Quran thus enhancing its understanding and application of its teachings. For example; the holy Quran gives a ruling that Muslims should pay Zakat without outlining the details of how much, on which items or when to give the Zakat. We learn all these details from the hadith. 2) The study of Hadith has made tremendous contributions to the growth and development of Islamic sharia. Muslim jurists like the four imams of the schools of thought studied the sciences of hadith and simplified its understanding and application. 3) Hadith have provided a clear guidance on the code of conduct expected from the Muslims. Muslims should adhere to specific mannerisms of walking, sleeping eating among others as taught by our prophet(P.B.U.H) 4) Hadith have summarised the prophets exemplary life which Muslims emulate to mould their character. **|** P a g e 21 ----- 5) Hadith is the second source of sharia after the Quran. This was confirmed by the prophet in his farewell address confirmed when he said Verily, I have left among you the book of Allah and the sunnah of his apostle which if you hold fast you shall never go astray. **|** P a g e 22 ----- **CHAPTER 3** **Pillars of iman** The literal meaning of Iman is to belief in or to have faith in something. There are six pillars of Iman as mentioned in the Quran: ***The messenger believes in what*** ***has been revealed to him from his Lord as do men of faith. Each one (of them)*** ***believesinAllah, HisAngels, His books and His messengers. We make no distinctions (they*** ***say) between one and another of His Messengers. And they say We hear and we obey :(*** ***we seek) Your forgiveness our Lord and to you is the end of all journeys. [Q: 2:285]*** The prophet (saw) said *Iman is to believe in God, and His Angels, and His Scripture, and* *His apostles, and to believe in the resurrection and the last day and the divine pre-* *measurement of good and evil, and to have faith in all these things.(Muslim)* **TAWHEED:** Literally Tawheed comes from the word Wah-hada,which means to make something Waahid(singular). Technically-Tawheed means attributing oneness to Allah and describing Him as being one and unique.It is the first pillar of the six pillars of Iman and the most fundamental and important teaching of all the prophets and messengers who all taught the believe in the oneness of AllahIt is expressed in the hrimary Kalima **LA ILLA ILA LLAH** Meaning there is no God but Allah, or there is no one who has the right to be worshipped except Allah.Tawheed differentiate between a Muslim and a Kafir. Allah says ** Say (O Muhammad). He is Allah the one. Allah, theself-sufficient master,** **whom all creatures need. He begets not, nor was he begotten. And there is none equal** **or comparable unto Him.** [Q112] Allah says **:There is nothing like unto him and He is the All-Hearer, the All-sear.** [Q: 42: 11] **|** P a g e 23 ----- **Categories of tawheed** **1.** **Tawheed ar-rubabiyah.** This concept of Tawheed is based on the belief of unifying Allah(SWT) as the sovereign **Lord(Rabbi)** .And that He is the sole Lord of the universe who sustains and maintains all creation with any need for it or for it.According to this category, since God is the real power in existence, it is He Who gives all things the power to move and to change. Allah mentions this concept in many Quranic verses: ***Say: who is it that sustains you (in life) from sky and from the earth? Or who is it that*** ***has power over hearing and sight? And who is it that brings out the living from the dead*** ***and the dead from the living? And who is that rules and regulates all affairs? They will*** ***soon say Allah say, Will you not then show piety (to him)?*** [Q: 10:31] Allah (S.W.T) says ***And if indeed thou ask them who it is that sends down rain from the*** ***sky, and gives life therewith to the earth after its death, they will certainly reply Allah*** ***say praise be to Allah! But most of them understand not.*** [Q: 29:63] **2.** **Tawheed al-Uluhiyah** This means to believe that Allah (Swat) the most High is the one worth of true worship. Therefore all acts of worship likeSalat, working, fasting, among others should be dedicated to Allah alone. Hence its not permissible to associate anything in worship with Him. Allah says, ***To the Aadpeople (we sent) Hud, one of their (own) brethren: He said, O my*** ***people! Worship Allah! You have no other god but him. Will you not fear (Allah)?*** [Q: 7:65] Allah (SWT) also says **,** ***Say; Truly, my prayer and my service of sacrifice, my life and my*** ***death, are (all) for Allah, The cherisher of the worlds.*** [Q: 6:162] **3.** **Tawheed al-asma wasifat. (Names and attributes).** **|** P a g e 24 ----- This category helps us to understand who our creator is through His names and qualities through which we know that Allah (SWT) is beyond our imagination and bears no resemblance. Allah says ***And (All) the most beautiful names belongs to Allah, so call on him by*** ***them.*** [Q: 7: 180] **Attributes of Allah** The Prophet *said Allah has ninety nine names, i.e. one hundred minus one, and whoever* *guards [or counts] them (i.e. believes in their meaning and acts accordingly), will enter* *paradise: And Allah is witr (one) and loves the witr.* **|** P a g e 25 ----- **|** P a g e 26 ----- **|** P a g e 27 ----- **|** P a g e 28 ----- **Significance of tawheed.** I. It is the first fundamental principal of the Islamic Faith. II. It assures the creatures that the creator is near them and ready to answer their request. III. It distances mankind from worshipping other than Allah. IV. It increases Taqwa since one is aware that Allah sees him wherever he may be and is aware of even what is hidden in ones heart and mind. V. It leads one to ensure his respect and maintain his dignity as a respect to his creator. VI. It gives an attitude of peace and contentment in a person since he knows that Allah will take care of his needs if he in truly obedient and hardworking. VII. It leads to unity and brotherhood amongst human beings. VIII. It makes a believer to be dutiful and upright, since he knows that Allah(S.W.T) will ask everybody of his responsibility on the day of the judgment. Therefore he does his duties whole heatedly and this keeps him ways from neglecting his duties and from sin. IX. It removes the fear of people since one strongly believes that not only his life but everything is in the hands of Allah. X. It removes greedy and jealously and the desire to achieve success through even evil means as one believes in the powers of Allah and not ones endeavor. XI. It does not allow him to be proud or arrogant. XII. It makes a believer brave and courageous. XIII. It makes a believer to be patient and preserving for he will know that whatever the problem Allah(S.W.T) will have to solve it for his gradually. **|** P a g e 29 ----- **Shirk (polytheism)** The term shirk comes from the Arabic word sharaka which means to associate or form partners with. In the Islamic context shirk means ascribing a partner or rival to Allah (S.W.T) in worship or His names and attributes. Allah (S.W.T) says, ***Allah forgive not that partners should set up with Him; but He*** ***forgives anything else to whom he pleases; to set up partners with god is to devise a sin*** ***most heinous indeed.*** **[** Q: 4: 48] Allah (S.W.T) says ***Allah has said: Take not (for worship) two gods. For He is just one*** ***God. Then fear me and me alone.*** [Q: 16:51] **Forms of shirk.** There are three forms of shirk, namely: 1. Shirk al-akbar-major. 2. Shirk al-asghar minor. 3. Shirk al-khafii inconspicious/hidden. **1.** **shirk-akbar** ( **major shirk)** This form of shirk is manifested in the following four ways: a. Shirk ad-dua. b. Shirk a-niyaah. c. Shirk al-Taah. d. Shirk al -mahabah. **I.** **Shirkad-dua** **|** P a g e 31 ----- It implies invoking supplication or praying to others besides Allah(S.W.T) such as to supplicate to the dead in the grave or worship via the ancestors. **Allah(SWT) Says,** ***And when they embark on a ship, they invoke Allah, making the faith*** ***pure for him only, but when he brings them safely to land behold, they give a share of their*** ***worship to others.[Q:29:65]*** **II.** **Shirk an- Niyyah wal Irada wal Qasd.** It means intention, determination or purpose in acts of worship not for Allah but towards others. Allah (S.W.T) says, ***Whoever desires the life of the world and its glitters, to them*** ***shall pay in full their deed therein, and they will have no domination therein. They are*** ***those for whom there is nothing in the here after but fire and ruin is the deeds they did.*** ***And of no effect that which they used to do.*** [Q: 11:15-16] Allah (S.W.T) says: ***Have you seen him whom takes for his God his own passion?*** [Q: 25: 43] **III.** **Shirk Taah** . This type means obeying any other authorities against the willAllah. Allah(S.W.T) says, **They Jews and Christians took their rabbis and their monks to be their Lords** **besides Allah, and Messiah son of Mariam while they were commanded (in Taurat and** **lnjil) to worship none but Allah Lailla to Huwa. Praise and glory is to him for having** **the partners they associate.** [Q: 9:31] **|** P a g e 31 ----- **IV.** **Shirk al Mahaba** This is showing the love that is due to Allah to others other than Him. Allah (S.W.T) says, ***And of mankind are some who take (for worship) others besides Allah as rivals. They*** ***love them as they love Allah. But those who believe love Allah more. If only those who do*** ***wrong could see, when they will see the torment that all power belongs to Allah is severe in*** ***punishment.*** **2.** **Shirk al-asghar (minor shirk).** It also termed as Ar-riya. Ar-riya is any action which is performed in order to receive praise, fame or any other worldly gain.It is performing Ibaada to show off for example performing swalat so that you can be seen or praised.Any actions that are done out of showing off will not be rewarded by Allah(S.W.T) Those who want but to be seen.[Q: 107:6] Allah says ***The hypocrites seek to deceive Allah but it is Allah who deceives them. When*** ***they stand up to prayer, stand without earnestness, to be seen of men, But little do they*** ***hold Allah in remembrance.*** [Q: 4:142] **3.** **Shirk al khafi** i.e Inconspicous Shirk. Have you ever had a feeling of dissatistfaction n something? What are some of the things in life that leave you dissatisfiedor makeyou keep wishing that you had better things than what Allah (S.W.T) has provided you with? Having this feeling may lead you to performing Shirk al Khafi. This type of Shirk involves being inwardly dissatisfied with the inevitable condition that has being ordained for one by Allah (S.W.T) conscientiously lamenting that had you done or not done such and such or had you approached such and such you would have had a better status. It is one of the most dangerous forms of shirk as people cannot see when they are performing it.This Shirk is so hidden and difficult that even the one committing it cannot recognize it. The prophet said *ashirk alkhafii in the muslim nation is more inconspicuous than the* *creeping of a black ant on a black rock in the pitch darkness of the night.* **|** P a g e 32 ----- While commenting on this Hadith Ibin Abbas said that kind of shirk is like when one tells his friends *. You and God what you wished is what happened If it was not so and so.* Hadith narrated by Abu Said Al-Khudri that the Prophet (sallallahu alayhi wassallam) said, *Should I not inform you of what I fear more for you than Al-Masih-ul-Dajjal (the* *Antichrist)?* The people said, *Yes, O Messenger of Allah.* He said, *It is the hidden Shirk;* *a person stands up in Salah (Prayer) and tries to make it perfect when he realizes that others* *are looking at him.* (Related by Imam Ahmad) **Why Quran condemn shirk** 1. Shirk is the highest of the wrong doing according to the instructions given by Luqman to his son ***. Behold, Luqman said to his son by way of instructions: o my son join not in worship*** ***(others) with Allah: for false worship is indeed the highest wrong doing.*** [Q: 31:13] 2. When one attaches Allahs attributes to any of his creations, he or she undermines Allahs sovereignty yet Allah is supposed to sovereign. 3. It is of all the sins, Allah (S.W.T) vows not to forgive anyone who commits it knowingly. This is because a person who commits such a sin undermines Allahs function as the creator, sustainer and destroyer of life.Allah (S.W.T) says ***,Allah forgive not that partners should*** ***set up with Him; but He forgives anything else to whom he pleases; to set up partners with*** ***god is to devise a sin most heinous indeed.*** [ Q: 4: 48] 4. Belief in Shirk creates amenity in the society, since people will always be suspicious of each other and they will divot themselves with the belief in Allah as one who predetermines peoples destiny. 5. Shirk makes man to have little or no confidence in God but in other things most especially in times of danger which defames the status of man as Allahs vicegerent as the best of his creation. ***6.*** Shirk makes a person to distance him or herself from Allah (S.W.T) yet man is supposed to always be nearest to God pray to him whenever he or she has a problem. Yet those who practice other objects created by Allah ***. And who is more astray than one who invokes*** **|** P a g e 33 ----- ***,besides Allah,such as will not answer to the day of judgment, and who(in fact)are*** ***unconscious of their call(to them)*** [Q: 46:5] 7. Shirk makes an individual not to be dutiful and upright, one who performs shirk does not his carry out or her duties whole heartedly and this makes her or him near to sinking all the time. 8. Shirk makes a person behave like a coward as he or she will always be thinking that even objects which have no life can protect her or him from any danger or misfortune e.g. wearing of emulates. **BELIEF IN ANGELS** The belief in the angelsis the second pillar of Iman. Angels are holy and pure creatures of Allah(S.W.T) to whom He Has bestowed the power to perform specific divine duties. **O you who believe!Save yourselves and your families from a fire whose fuel is men and** **stones, over which are (appointed) angels stern (and) severe, who flinch not (from** **executing the commands they receive from Allah, but do (precisely) what they are** **commanded.** [Q: 66:6] From the above ayat, Angels do not execute their duties just for the sake of it but are dedicated to their duties for which they were created. They are characterized by the following main features: i. They are creatures of Allah that He created from Noor (light).Aisha(RAA)narrates that the messenger of Allah says, *Angels were created from light, jinns were created* *from smokeless fire and Adam was created from that which was described to you (in* *the Quran, which is clay.)* (Sahih Muslim.) **|** P a g e 34 ----- ii. Allah created them outside blood relationship, hence unlike human beings;they are not associated with having such relations as parental (parent to child), fraternal (brother to brother/sister) or any other blood relation. iii. They are not associated with any gender like the human beings are. ***And they make*** ***into females Angels who themselves serve Allah Did they witness their creation?*** ***Their evidence will be recorded,and they will be called to account.*** [Q: 43:19] iv. Allah has not bestowed unto them the feelings of hunger, thirst or such related desires. This is told in the story of Nabii Ibrahim when Allah(S.W.T) send messengers to him, ***There came our messengers to Abraham with glad tidings .They said, Peace!*** ***He answered peace! and hastened to entertain them with a roasted calf. But*** ***when he saw their hands went not towards the (meal), he felt some mistrust of*** ***them, and conceived a fear of them. They said, Fear not: We have been sent*** ***against the people of Lut.*** [Q 11:69-70] v. They were relieved by the divine powers of Allah, from fatigue, monotony and the desire to either relax or sleep. vi. They have no definite bodies to be identified with but Allah has bestowed them with the ability to be in any form that is relevant with the prevailing circumstance e.g. Birds (when they appeared to Adam to teach him on burial), man (when they appeared to prophets Lut and Muhammad) or invisible (when they helped the Muslims during the battle of Badr). vii. Allah has prepared their abode (the place of their convergence) in heaven. viii. They diligently praise Allah and glorify Him in deeds and articulation. **ANGELS AND THEIR DUTIES** 1. Jibril (Gabriel) He communicated the revelation to all prophets by taking the divine message with the order of Allah to the relevant recipients. ***Say, (O Muhammad) the Holy Spirit (i.e. Jibril) has brought it down from your Lord in*** ***truth in order to strengthen those who believe, and as guide and glad tidings to the*** ***Muslims.*** [Q: 16:102] **|** P a g e 35 ----- 2. Mikail He is in charge of rain. ***Whoever is an enemy to Allah and His Angels and His Messengers and Jibril and Mikail-*** ***then indeed Allah is an enemy to the disbelievers.*** [Q: 2:98] 3. Israfiil Do you know about the day of judgement? On the day the horn will be blown to call every one to accont for his deeds. The Angel in charge of blowing this trumpet is known as Israfiil. Even though his name is not mentioned in the Quran his duty has been mentioned when Allah (S.W.T) says, ***And the horn will be blown. That is the day of the threat.*** [Q: 50:20] ***The trumpet shall be sounded, behold! When people will rush forth from their graves to*** ***their Lord.*** [Q: 36:51] 4. Israiil Allah (S.W.T) has said in the holy Quran that every living thing shall test death. During theremoval of the souls, a special Angel called Malakul-Maut (The Angel of death) is sent by Allah to take the soul back to its creator. He is in charge of removing souls at the time of death. ***And He is the subjugation over His servants and He sends over you guardian Angels*** ***until, when death comes to one of you, our messengers (i.e. Angels of death) take him and*** ***they do not fail (in their duties*** ).[Q: 6:61] ***Say: The Angel of death, put in charge of you, will (duly) take your souls.Then shall you*** ***be brought back to your lord.*** [Q: 32:11] 5. Atid and Raqiib (Kiraman Katibun) Islam encourage sthe doing of good always thogh at times we may commit mistakes in life. Are we aware that all the things we do in life are recorded? Just as we keep our records in a diary, Allah has his Angels whom he has given the responsibility of keeping every human **|** P a g e 36 ----- beings record. The Quran refers to them as Kiraman Katibun. They are angels in charge of recording good and evil deeds of individuals. ***When the two receivers (recording Angels receive), seated on the right and left.*** [Q: 50:17] ***For each (such person, there are Angels in succession. Before him: they guard him by*** ***command of Allah.Verily never will Allah change the condition of a people until they*** ***change it themselves (with their own souls)*** [Q: 13:11] 6. Malik He is in charge of Hell fire. ***And they will call, O Malik let your Lord put an end to us! Indeed, you will remain.*** [Q: 43:77] 7. Ridhwan He is in charge of paradise. In the Quran, Allah (SWT) mentions them as many Angels welcoming those who used to do good deeds in the Janna (paradise). ***Gardens of perpetual*** ***bliss: They shall enter there, as well as the righteous amoung their fathers, their spouses,*** ***and their off springs: And Angels shall enter unto them from every gate (with the*** ***salutation)*** [Q: 13:23-24] 8. Munkar and Nakir They are Angels in charge of questioning in the grave. They also discharge severe punishment to the dead people who had committed sin. **Suggested study questions and class activities.** **Answer the following questions in your I.R.E revision excersise book.** 1. Explain the meaning of term Tawheed. 2. What are the characteristics of Angels? 3. Elaborate on the three types of shirk. **Activity.** **|** P a g e 37 ----- Find out how shirk is manifested in your community. **CHAPTER 4** **DEVOTIONAL ACTS** **Pillars of Islam** There are five pillars of Islam which are the frame work of a Muslim life. These are the basic beliefs that shape the Muslim thought, deeds and society. Diagram of the pillars of the pillars of Islam: Meaning of Shahada The word Shahada is an Arabic term which means to testify or to bear witness. **S** **HAHADA** **|** P a g e 38 ----- Literal meaning: Shahada is a special sentence: La illaha ila Allah wa Muhammadun rasoolollah (There is no (other) Lord except Allah and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah. (Lailaha illa-Allahu Muhammad rasul Allah) **Measuring of Shahada.** Shahada is the first pillar of Islam whichconsists of two main parts. The first part of the shahada says: (Lailaha illa-Allahu Muhammad rasul Allah) That there is non worthy of worship except Allah. Thispart declares the absolute unity of Allah, his oneness as the only one who deserves to be worshipped. Muslims are not supposed to render complete obedience for no human nor material object possess power and authority equal to Him. It is the gateway way to Islam. The second part of the shahada says:Muhammadun rasoolollahMuhammad(P.B.U.H) is His messenger. The Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) as the messenger of Allah. His being mentioned in the Shahada confirms that he is the universal and final prophet sent to all mankind. Mankind has the obligations in following the teachings and commandments of prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H). They have a duty to adhere to the teachings in order to seek Allah Pleasure although he is the last in the ladder of the prophets of Allah. **Significance of Shahada in the life of a Muslim.** 1. Shahada makes a believer to surrender all his/her life to God. This makes a believer to fulfill aods command. 2. It produces in a believer a high degree of confidence and respect towards His creator. 3. Instills in a believer feeling of contentment for he/she will know that Allah(S.W.T) willtake care of all his needs. **|** P a g e 39 ----- 4. It makes a believer to be brave and courageous as he will know that it is Allah who owns his life. 5. It recognizes and re-affirms that prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) is the chosen messenger of Allah (S.W.T) 6. It makes believers develop trust and heed to the guidelines of the prophet. 7. It gives an opportunity to the believers to know how Allah (S.W.T) has honoredProphet Mohammad. (P.B.U.H). 8. Gives Allah the absolute right to be worshipped. 9. It affirms that prophet Muhammad(P.B.U.H) is the chosen messenger of Allah(S.W.T) 10. When uttered by a Muslim on his death will lead one to enter paradise. **4.22 Swalat read Q: 4:103** As-Salah: In the Arabic language it means *prayer* (Invocation). Salat, which is the second pillar of Islam, may be defined as a special a process of worshipping A which includes supplication of duas, glorification of Allahs name, prostrations in order to seek blessings and forgiveness. In this process ofworship, there are certain known and prescribed invocations and acti systematically performed starting with Takbeer (saying *Allah Akbar;* God is the Great) which ending with Tasleem (saying: *as-salaam alaykum wa Rahmatul-lahi wabarakaatuh;* may All Peace, Mercy, and Blessings be upon you) do you perform swalat? Can you demonstrate how sw is performed? If you perform swalat regularly,you will discover that there are two types of sawlat, obligatory and the voluntary prayers. We shall now look at each of these prayers in details. **1.** **Fardn-ain( obligatory prayers)** These are prayers compulsory for every Muslim under the obligation by the shariah to perf them.Failure to perform them pens one to punishment in the hereafter. Allah(S.W.T) says in ***And establish regular prayers at the two ends of the day and at the approaches of the night*** ***those things that are good remove those that evil:But that the word of the rememberance to th*** ***who remember(their Lord)*** [Q:11:114] Let us now look at the obligatory prayers and the times prescribed for there performance accordin Islamic Sharia. **|** P a g e 41 ----- **i.** **Fajr** This is the morning prayer which consists of two rakats(units).Its time occurs when a vertical pillar of faint light appears in the east and spreads on the horizon,distinct from the darkness of night.This is just before sunrise. Quran recitation is loud for the two rakaats. **ii.** **Dhur** This is the early afternoon prayer.It consist of four rakaat (units) and its time occurs after the sun has gone (passed over head) after reaching the highest point in the sky.) **iii.** **Asr** This prayer is said in the late afternoon.It consist of four rakaat(units) **iv.** **Maghrib** This is the sunset prayer.It consists of three rakaat(units).It has the shortest duration which starts immediately after the sun has set.Quran recitation is loud for the first two rakaats. **v.** **Isha** This prayer is performed immediately after Maghrib prayer.It consists of four rakaat in which the first two Rakaat are recited aloud.Its time extends to the later part of the night. **2.** **Fardh kifaya** These are obligatory prayers which must be performed by atleast one muslim in the community.If it is performed by a single Muslim, then the obligation is lifted from the others.Incase its not performed by one at all the whole society gets sin.e.g Swalatul Janaza. Can you demonstrate before your friends how this prayer is performed? **3.** **Sunnah prayers (optional)** These are prayers that are not compulsory for the muslims.They are performed to follow the exemplary teachings of the prophet(P.B.U.H) and are therefore recommended. Can you give examples of Sunnah prayers and mention the number of rakaats for each? Some of the sunnah prayers are as follows: **I.** **Tahhiyatul Masjid.** The prayer of tahhiyat al-masjid (greeting of the masjid) is a confirmed sunna once a day, and recommended thereafter. It consists of two rakaats and is best preformed before sitting down even though the sunna is not lifted if one does sit first. One can intend this prayer along with their sunna or fard if they do not have time to pray it. One should not pray the tahhiyat al-masjid during a disliked time. **|** P a g e 41 ----- **II.** **Tahajjud** This prayer is performed at night and it is recommended that it be performed after first going to sleep [for some part of the evening. Its time falls between the prayer times of the isha'a prayers and the Fajr](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isha%27a) prayers. It is also recommended that the prayers be done in the last third of the night. Muslims believe that the reward is greater for those who do this prayer at a later time. The Tahajjud prayer consists of a minimum of tworakaatand the maximum number is unlimited. It's reported about the Messenger of Allah (Allah bless him and give him peace) that he said: "Adhere to night prayer, for it is the habit of the righteous before you, and a means of drawing nearer to your Lord; it is an expiation for sins, and a deterrent from wrongdoing." [Tirmidhi & al-Hakim] **III.** **Tarawih** [Tarawih is an optional prayer in that can be done only during the Muslim fasting month ofRamadhan.](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim) This prayer can be done alone, in a group, at home, or in a mosque or other public meeting area it. Typically, Muslims gather together and perform tarawih as a group. Others may meet in their local [mosque, a meeting hall, or even in an outdoor field. The minimum number of raka'ah of Tarawih is](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque) eight with a maximum of Twenty. It is also customary for the Imam in the main mosque to recite the [entire Qur'an during the fasting month by reading approximately one section per day. This practice of](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur%27an) reading the Qur'an completely is known as *khatm* (complete recitation). **IV.** **Witr prayer** Witr prayer starts after a person prays the Isha prayer until dawn. Evidence for this is that the Prophet (P.B.U.H) said: *Allah has prescribed for you a prayer (by which He may increase your reward),* *which is Witr; Allah has enjoined it for you during the time between Isha prayer until dawn begins* . (Narrated by al-Tirmidhi) It is better to pray the witr prayer in the final third of the night because prayer at this time is witnessed by the angels. However, if a person fears that he will not get up at the last third of the night then he or she can pray it straight in the beginning third so that he or she does not miss the prayer. **|** P a g e 42 ----- One should make the night prayers and odd number and thus the Witr prayer is an odd number of rakkats. It may consist of one, three, five, seven, nine or any other odd number. Most Muslims perform three rakaats. If you are praying the witr prayer and dawn is approaching then you should pray one rakkat so that you can pray witr before the start of dawn. **V.** **Swalatu-l Istikhara** *Istikhara* is Arabicword which means to ask Allah to guide one to the right thing.Have you been in a difficult situation especially when you have to choose between two *permissible* alternatives? Mention some of the difficult decision you have had to choose.Allah (S.W.T) provides an answer whenever a Muslim is in such a difficult situation. This is by offering a two rakaat prayer to seek guidance. Sa d ibn Waqas reported that the hrophet(h.B.U.H) said, *Istikharah (seeking guidance from Allah) is one* *of the distinct favors (of Allah) upon man, and a good fortune for the son of Adam is tobe pleased* *with the judgment of Allah. And a misfortune of the son of Adam is his failure to make istikharah* *(seeking Allahs guidance), and a misfortune for the son of Adam is his displeasure with the judgment* *of Allah* . After completing the two-rakats, one praises Allah (S.W.T) and sends salutations to the hrophet (P.B.U.H) and recites the following supplication as narreted by Jabir. *(O Allah! I ask guidance from Your knowledge, and Power from Your Might and I ask for Your* *great blessings. You are capable and I am not. You know and I do not and You know the unseen. O* *Allah! If You know that this job is good for my religion and my subsistence and in my Hereafter(or* *said: If it is better for my present and later needs)then You ordain it for me and make it easy for me* *to get, and then bless me in it, and if You know that this job is harmful to me in my religion and* *subsistence and in the Hereafter(or said: If it is worse for my present and later needs)then keep it* *away from me and let me be away from it. And ordain for me whatever is good for me, and make me* *satisfied with it* ). (Sahih Bukhari) **|** P a g e 43 ----- **VI.** **Tahiyyatul-Masjid** This is the prayer of salutation to the mosque and is performed upon entering the mosque .It consists of two rakaats. In case a person who was sitting inside the mosque went out of it, and then returned to it after a short period of time then he is not required to perform the prayer of salutation to the mosque. However, if he performs this prayer he will be rewarded for doing so. **VII.** **Swalatu-l Dhuhaa** It is the mid-morning Prayer. Its time starts when sun risesto the height of a spear and ends close to midday. The best time is when mid-morning heat has intensified. The minimum number of rakaat is two but can be prayed upto eight rakaats. **VIII.** **Qabliyya and Baadiya prayers** These prayers are offered before or after the Fardh prayers. The number of rakaats varies from one prayer to another. This can be illustrated by the table below: |Fardh swalat|Number of rakaat before|Number of rakaat after| |---|---|---| |Fajr|2|None| |Dhuhr|2|2| |Asr|None|None| |Maghrib|None|2| |Isha|2|2| **TWAHARA** The term twahara is Arabicword which means cleanliness.It is used in Islam to imply a state of ritual purity. This is a requirement in the observance of the acts of worship mention other instances where a muslim is require to be pure. Ritual purity is attained through three ways;Ghusl(ritual bath),udhu(ablution)and tayammum(dry **|** P a g e 44 ----- ablution)Let us now discuss each of the three ways: *Ghusl* Its a form of a ritual bath which involves the washing of a whole body.The following conditions makes it compulsory for a muslim to perform ghusl: After sexual intercourse After completing menstruation(Heidh) Immediately after giving birth. When a person dies its the duty of the Muslims to wash the body. After completing the post birth bleeding(Nifas) Ejeculation of sperms when one is asleep or awake. There Are other instances when the ritual Baath becomes optional.Can you mention any of them? Let us consider the following occasions: Before going for Friday prayers. Before going for the two Idd prayers (Idd ul adha and Idd ul Fitr) After washing the deadbody. When a non Muslim converts to Islam. Before performing prayers for the rain. Before praying holy city of Makka. Before standing at Arafat during Hajj. **|** P a g e 45 ----- Before going round the Kaaba. Before running between the two hillocks of swafa and marwa(Sai) Before entering the Holy city of Madina. Before throwing pebbles at Mina during the three days. **Steps of performing ghusl.** There are several essential steps that are followed in performing ghusl.These steps are also referred to as **fardh** or integral steps and must be followed for ones Ghusl to be valid. These include the following: Niyyat (Intention) - eou must declare your intention of cleansing to seek Allahs pleasure and to perform the acts of worship. Removal of impurities.These are those substances that block the penetration of water into the skin. Can you give examples of such impurities? Ensuring that water reaches all the parts of the body from the head to the toe. **Sunna acts of Ghusl** Apart from the Fardh steps, we have some acts that are included in the performance of ghusl but are not compulsory. These are termed as sunnah or optional acts of ghusland include th efollowing: Starting with the basmallah Performingudhu. Washing the whole body three times. **|** P a g e 46 ----- Passing the hands all over the body. Starting from the right then left. Reciting a dua after Ghusl. **Acts forbidden while in the state of janaba(impurity)** Even though the performance of the acts of Ibada earns a Muslim reward,in the state of ritual impurity,it is forbidden for a muslim to indulge in the following: Recitation of Quran Performing of prayers Entering the mosque Touching the Quran Performing Tawaff during Hajj. In addition,a woman in menstruation is forbidden to perfom the following acts: Recitation of the Quran. Holding or touching Quran. Performing swalat Observing any tipes of fast whether Fardh or Sunnah. Having sexual relations with the husband. **|** P a g e 47 ----- Entering the mosque. To be divorced. To perform tawwaf. ***Wudhu*** **Read [Q: 5:6]** When you go to any mosque, you will notice people sitting or standing where there are waer points o taps performing some preparations for prayers(swalat) Have you ever asked yourself why they do so.The reason is for purification. You can remember what we learnt about Twahara. What did we say about it? In this section,we shall look at wudhu as another way of attaining purity(Twahara) Wudhu therefore is an is an Arabic word which means ablution .It involves washing ones face, hands, head and feet in order to perform the acts of ibada.There are essential steps of performing Wudhu **Essential steps of wudhu** These are fardh or obligatory acts.They must be observed by however is performing wudhu. Failure to observe any of them will cosequencially render the process incomplete and your prayers null ansd void. A muslim must therefore follow the following steps while perfoming Wudhu: Making the intention to perform udhu. Washing the face from the top of the forehead to the chin and between the two ear lobes. Washing both arms up to and including the elbows. Wiping a part of the head with wet hands. Washing both feet up to and including the ankles. Following the prescribed sequence without inter-changing any step. Optional steps of performing wudhu In the performance of Wudhu, we have some steps that we observe and have not been mentioned IN the above essentials. Could you mention any of these to you friend? The perfomance of these acts is considered as following the example of our Prophet (P.B.U.H). They are referred to as the sunna acts of wudhu and include the following: **|** P a g e 48 ----- Reciting: *Bismillahir-Rahmanir-Rahim* (in the Name of aod, the All-Merciful, and the All Compassionate) before you starttaking wudhu. Brushing of the teeth. Washing the palms up to the wrists three times, including the parts between the fingers. Cleaningthemouth with a brush or a finger and gargling three times. Rinsing the nostrils three times. Passing ones wet fingers through the beards. To run water through ones fingers and toes. Performingeach act three times. Starting with the right hand side before the left. Wiping the whole head and the back of the neck Wiping the ears in and out. Taking the entire udhu at once without breaking. Reciting dua during and after Wudhu. Performing the acts systematically. Washing the parts one after the other without pausing, so that no part dries up before completion of wudhu. Facing the direction of Qibla during the performance of wudhu. **Recommended acts (mustahab) of wudhu ** Reciting the kalima(shahada)after ablution. Avoiding worldly talk during the time for wudhu. Avoiding extravagance (wasting water) during ablution. Choosing a clean place for the performance of wudhu. **Nullifiers of wudhu** Wudhu is meant for perfomance of the acts of worship. A Muslim preparing for prayers can perform wudhu and sustain it for the swalat of the rest of the day. However, there are certain acts that invalidate wudhu (often referred to as "breaking wudhu").It is therefore important to note that the absence of wudhu will imply that those intended acts of worship will not be valid.We must therefore **|** P a g e 49 ----- have the knowledge of the things that willbreak wudhu. These are what we refer to as nulliers.The following are among the acts that nullify *wudhu* : 1. Coming out of either solid, liquid or gas/wind from the two private parts (front and back) 2. Emission of blood, pus or yellow matter from a wound, boil, pimple, or something similar to such an extent that it flows beyond the wounds mouth. 3. Vomiting a mouthful of matter. 4. Physical contact for pleasure between men and women without any obstacle (e.g., clothes). 5. Loss of consciousness through sleep, drowsiness, and any such condition that may affect the proper functioning of the mind. 6. Temporary insanity, fainting, hysteria, or intoxication. 7. Touching the private parts with bear hands(without any barrier) ***Tayammum*** Supposing you were travelling and the time of prayer finds you at a place where there is no water, How would you purify yourself for Swalat? Taking into consideration that swalat is a must for a muslim and is performed at prescribed times; Allah (S.W.T) has given a solution to such an eventuality in the Quran. Almighty Allah (S.W.T) says: ***But if you are ill,or on a journey,or one*** ***of you comes from offices of nature,or you have been in contact with women and you find no*** ***water,then take for yourselves clean sand or earth and rub therewith your faces and hands.Allah*** ***does not wish to place you in a difficulty, but to make you clean*** [Q:5:6] In reference to this verse, the use of clean sand for purification in preparation for swalat is refeerd to as tayammum. Even though the word tayammum literally means an aim or a purpose, in this context it refers to dry ablution where clean sand is used to wipe the face and the limbs as an alternative of wudhu. Hudhaifa (R.A) narrated that the Messenger of Allah (P.B.U.H) said *: And the soil of the earth has* **|** P a g e 51 ----- *been made for us as a means with which to purify ourselves (for prayer) when we cannot find water.* (Muslim) **Reasons for performing Tayammum** Even though the sharia allows the use of pure sand for purification,it is only permissible on specific occasions.This occasions may be necessitated by the following reasons: 1. In case there is scarcity of water. This is when there is acute shortage of water or the available water is insufficient for performing ablution. 2. For health reasons.If one is injured or ill and fears that use of water will worsen the condition. 3. If the water is too cold and it is likely to cause physical harm to the user. 4. If the process of getting water is dangerous or life threatening. 5. When the available water is reserved for domestic use. 6. Fear of missing a prayer by the time one gets to the source of water. 7. If the the available water is impure. **Conditions of tayammum** When performing Tayammum,you should consider the following three conditions: 1. One must use clean sand. 2. It should be performed at the time of that particular prayer. 3. The tayammum of one prayer ends at the termination of that particular prayer e.g one cannot use tayammum of Dhuhr for another prayer. **Essential steps of tayammum.** Besides the three conditions of perfoming Tayammum,the following steps should be followed while in the actual process: 1. You must make the intention of performing tayammum. 2. Strike the first heap of pure soil lightly with the palms of both hands and passing the palms over the face one time. 3. Strike the second heap of pure soil with ones palms and rubbing the right and left arms **|** P a g e 51 ----- alternately from the fingertips to the elbows. 4. Follow the order above. **Nullifiers of tayammum.** As you learnt earlier, wudhu can be nullified by certain acts. Do you remember some of these acts? Similarly,thre are acts that if done will nullify tayammum.These acts include the following: 1. All that nullifies wudhu will also nullify tayammum. 2. As soon as the cause for performing it is removed (i.e., the sick person recovers or pure water is found). 3. Performance of fardh prayer. A Muslim is not supposed to perform two fardh prayers with the same tayammum. 4. When one denounces Islam. **Significance of Swalat- (Prayers)** As already seen, Swalat is the second pillar of Islam. It is a practical pillar since it must be observed by following specific steps. The entire process of swalat which starts right from purification to its actual performance leaves a positive impact on the Muslim and society at large. What is the importance of swalat to you as a Muslim? How different is a society in which prayers are offered from one in which they are not? In this section, we shall look at how prayers benefit the society both spiritually and socially. **Social Benefits** - It trains a Muslim to avoid evil and shameful deeds. Allah(S.W.T) says ***and established*** ***regular prayer for prayer restrains from shameful and evil deeds.*** [Q: 29:45] Prayer is a means of leveling all differences of rank, creed, color, status and nationality, thus promoting equality. This is achieved through the use of similar facilities by all, standing side by side during swalat regardless of the differences in status, race or rank. Promotes leadership qualities. For example the choosing of an Imam among the Muslims who is given and respect honor by all. It encourages a Muslim to enjoin good and forbidevil. It brings cohesion and unity among Muslim who will meet at the mosque frequently thus renewing their friendship. **|** P a g e 52 ----- It encourages a Muslim to be timeconcious since each prayer is conducted at a prescribed time; you are expected to arrive in the mosque or area of conducting the prayers in good time. It instills self-respect, self-discipline, self-control, love, peace and harmony. **Spiritual Benefits** - It is the second pillar of Islam which therefore be observed by every Muslim. - It makes a Muslim realize his duty is to worship Allah (S.W.T) alone.Allah (S.W.T) says: ***Verily I am Allah; there is no God but I: So serve non other than Me (only)*** ***and establish regular player for my remembrance.*** [Q:20:40] - It is a sign of obedience for all those who perform prayers since it is a command from Allah. - Is a means through which Muslims communicate directly to God thus discouraging polytheism (shirk). - Prayers distinguish believers from non-believers since they are only performed by those who believe in Allah (S.W.T) and if performed by the non believer, then it does not become acceptable. **Swalat ul jamaa** Prayers are offered either individually or in congregation. When offered in congregation,it is refeered Swalat ul Jamaa.Itis the performance of prayers together by more than one person. Mention any prayers that are offered collectively.There are several prayers that are performed in congregation,theseinclude the five daily prayers, Friday noon prayers, prayers during eclipse (solar and lunar), the two Idd prayers (Al Fitri and Al Adha),swalatul Janaza(funeral prayers) and Al Istisqai (prayer for seeking rain). **Conditions for Jamaa prayer.** You must have noted during the performance of prayers in congregation, ther are certain things that should be observed. Below, we are going to explain to you some of these conditions which you may have performed unknowingly in your mosque or when you were attending a swalat in Jamaa. It should be conducted at an accessible place where anybody is not deprived of the chance to attend it ie the place should be open and accessible to all. The place should be such that people are neither shy nor scared from entering or **|** P a g e 53 ----- attending. herforming Jamaa with ones family is highly recommended because it gives a chance to teach the young members how to pray. It encourages members of the family to perform prayers without laziness and enables the head of the family to monitor the attitudes of the family members. The Imam should understand the steps to be followed and he should follow them. Both the imam and the followers must be at the same place. The followers in two mosques can not be led by the same Imam. The followers should not perform any step before the Imam for example one should follow the Imam when going for rukuu, sijda or any other step. A female Imam can only be allowed when leading other females otherwise she can neither lead males nor a congregation of both males and females. Generally, the women are not as compelled to perform Jamaa prayers as males because of their roles as mothers andcaretakers of the family. A non Muslim is not allowed to lead a congregation prayer even if he is knowledgeable and there is no one to lead prayers. An insane cannot lead prayers. This is so because he might not comprehend the pronunciation of words and format of the prayer. When leading the prayers, the Imam should pronounce the words clearly without substituting the sounds and syllables. The Imam should be more knowledgeable over the rest in Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence) and aspects of swalat, among other branches of Islamic knowledge. When there is more than one knowledgeable person, other attributes like piety should be considered. Where all of them are pious, then the oldest can be made the Imam. **Importance of swalat ul jamaa** In most communities you will observe that members are encouraged to do most of the activities together and in unity.Usually success is achieved when things are done in unity thus the Swahili proverb; *umoja ni nguvu utengano ni udhaifu* (unity is strength).Can you mention some of the **|** P a g e 54 ----- activities that are done communually in your society? Similarly, in Islam the prophet(P.B.U.H)highly recommended the Jamaat prayers as stated in the following hadiths: Abu Huraira (R.A) narrated that a blind man came to the prophet (P.B.U.H) and said to him *, O* *messenger of Allah, I have no one to guide me to the mosque.(He was asking for the permission of* *the prophet to pray in his house) the prophet (P.B.U.H) gave himpermission to pray at home, but* when he turned to go back, the prophet called him and said, *do you hear the Adhan?* the blind man said, *Yes* the prophet then said, *then respond to it (by coming to the mosque)* (related by Muslim.) IbnAbbas (R.A) narrated that the messenger of Allah said, *If any one hears the Adhan but does not* *cometo the congregational prayer,the prayer he offers will not be accepted unless he has an excus* e (Ibn Maja,Ibn Hiban, Al Hakim) The above two hadith can briefly illustrate to us how the prophet laid emphasis on the observance of prayers in Jamaa. Let us also consider the following benefits of Jamaa prayers: 1. Muslims have a chance of converging five times a day to cement their brotherhood when the prayers are performed at the mosque behind the Imam. 2. One can unite his family members and monitor their performance in ibadah by performing prayers with them in Jamaa. 3. Muslims learn from others how to perform prayers correctly. This is of specific importance to children and new converts who need to learn religious practices from others who are experienced. 4. It promotes confidence in performance of prayers. 5. It promotes discipline since the maamumatare not supposed to preceed the Imam. Such discipline makes and proves the Islamic system of worship to be orderly 6. It promotes strictness and concentration. 7. Develops and promotes leadership qualities. For example the selection of one of the members to be an imam shows respect and honoraccorded to him. 8. The reward for Jamaa prayer is twenty seven times more than praying alone. 9. It promotesMuslims of different social, political, economic and professional background keep off their differences and converge together for prayers. **Prayers for special occasion** **|** P a g e 55 ----- Even though we have prayers prescribed for particular times, Islam gives room for certain prayers to be offerd during special occasions. Can you mention any prayers that are offered at times other than the time for the normal daily prayers? How differently are these prayers performed? In addition to what you have mentioned we shall consider the following as special acassions: **Swalatul Musafir: (Prayer of a Traveler)** **Read [Q:4:101]** In normal life situation people travel from one place to another for various reasons.Suggest some of the reasons as t why people travel. At one point you must have also travelled from your home area to another place, either far or near. Can you recall the furthest place you have travelled to? In Arabic language, a traveler is known as a musafir. But in thecontext of special prayer,a musafir is a Muslim who sets out intending to travel for more than 77 kilometers regardless of the mode of transport. He is regarded a musafir the moment he comes out of the boundaries of his town or city. During traveling, a muslim may not be in a position to offer the prayers in the normal way due to the conditions experienced in the journey. Allah (S.W.T) Has not left out his favors and has given the Muslim traveler privileges which include swalatul Musafir.This prayer can be performed inthree ways.These are:Jamu Taqdim, Jamu Taakhir and Qasr. Allah says ***When you travel through the earth, there is no blame on you if you shorten the*** ***prayers, for fear the unbelievers may attack you: For the unbelievers are unto enemies*** **.** [Q 4:101] **Jamu Taqdim** This is to bring forward a prayer e.g. to bring forward Asr and pray it at Dhuhr time. Muadh (R.A) narrated, *We set out with the prophet on the expedition of Tabuk and he combined* *Dhuhr and Asr together* (Muslim) **Jamu Taakhir** This is delaying of one prayer and performing it at the time ofthe next prayer. For example, delaying Dhuhr and then performing it with Asr during Asr time.Anas (R.A) narrated that: *Whenever the* *messenger of Allah started on a journey before the sun had passed its meridian (before noon) he* *would delay the Dhuhr prayer till the time of Asr* (Bukhari and Muslim) **Qasr** It is the shortening of the 4 rakaats prayer to perform then in two rakats.For example, Dhuhr, Asr and Isha can all be shortened to two rakaats. **|** P a g e 56 ----- There is no reduction of rakaats for the fajr and maghrib swalaats. One has to offer them completely as he normally does. Anas (R.A) narrated: *We travelled with the prophet from Madina to Makka and he used to pray two* *rakaat prayers until we returned to Madina.* (Bukhari and Muslim) Other prayers for special occasions include the following; **Kusuf wal Khusuf** Have you ever witnessed either of the eclipses? What do you normally do when there is an eclipse of the sun or the moon? Are you aware that Islam has offered a clear and definite practice to be done during any of the eclipses? This is by performing two rakaat prayers. Aisha(RA) Narrated that, * The messenger of Allah recited the Quran aloud during the eclipse* *prayer and performed a total of two rakaat* (Bukhari and Muslim) **Swalatul Istisqaa** Allah (S.W.T) has created different seasons like summer, winter, spring and autumn. Some of these seasons are favourable to man while others are harsh. These seasons are associated with different conditions. Among theseconditions is drought. Have you ever experienceda drought condition? What practices do the members of your community perform to ward off the drought? You will realize that most communities offer sacrifices and prayers to their ancestors and other creatures besides Allah(S.W.T). This is shirk and is totally forbidden in Islam.In the event of a drought, Islam prescribes a special prayer to be performed. This prayer is referred to as Swalatul Istisqaa, which isA two rakaat congregational prayer is offered. Anas (RA) narrated that, *The messenger of Allah supplicated Allah for rain and he pointed with the* *back of his hand to the sky.* (Muslim) **Swalatul Eid** There are two Eid prayers which are performed in two different ocasions; a) Idd-ul Fitr: It is a two rakaat prayer performed to mark the end of the month of Ramadhan. b) Idd-ul Adha: It is a two rakaat prayerperformed on the tenth of Dhul Hijja to mark the end of the activities of Hajj. Aisha (R.A) narrated that, the messenger of Allah said *, Breaking the fast at the end of Ramadhan is* *(determined) when people break their fast and Idd ul Adha (the Idd of sacrifice)is determined when* **|** P a g e 57 ----- *people offer their sacrifices.* (At-Tirmidhy) **Swalatul JanaizaFuneral Prayer:** Can you recall one of the fardh al kifaya prayers which must be performed by at least one Muslim in the community? Salatul Janazah is Fardh Kafayah, that is, if one performs the prayer then all are free of the responsiblity. Jamma (congregation) is not a condition for this prayer as it is sufficient even if one person prays.This is a prayer performed for the dead. When a muslim passes on, it is the responsibility of those who are around him during the time of his or her death to wash the body and pray for it.On the prayer of Janaiza, Aisha (R.A) narrated, *By Allah, the messenger of Allah offered* *funeral prayer in mosque for the sons of* Baida (Sahl and suhail). [Muslim] **There are two parts of this Prayer: ** To say Allahu Akbar Qiyam, which has three sunna Muaqada:Sana, Durood and Duaa for the deceased **How to perform swalatul Janaza** 1. Niyyat: The performer should make the intention, I make the niyyat for the prayer of this janaza for Allah, duaa for this deceased, behind this imam. 2. Takbiratul-Ihram: The perfomers shouldraise their hands to their ears and fold their hands underneath the navel as usual whilst saying Allahu Akbar and read Sana, **Sana:** Glory be to You Oh Allah, and praise be to You, and blessed is Your name, and exalted is Your Majesty, and there is none to be served besides You. 3. Then raise the hands, say Allahu Akbar and read the duroode Ibraheem; **Duroode Ibraheemi:** **|** P a g e 58 ----- O Allah! Shower Your mercy upon Muhammad and the followers of Muhammad, as You showered Your mercy upon Ibrahim and the followers of Ibrahim. Behold, You are Praiseworthy, Glorious. Oh Allah! Shower Your blessing upon Muhammad, and the followers of Muhammad as You showered Your blessings upon Ibrahim and the followers of Ibrahim. Behold, You are Praiseworthy, Glorious. 4. Then raise the hands, say Allahu Akbar and read the duaa. **Duaa for an adult man or woman:** Oh Allah! Forgive those of us that are alive and those of us that are dead; those of us that are present **|** P a g e 59 ----- and those of us who are absent; those of us who are young and those of us who are adults; our males and our females. Oh Allah! Whomsoever You keep alive let him live as a follower of Islam and whomsoever You cause to die, let him die a Believer. **Duaa for a boy:** Oh! Allah, make him (this child) a source for our salvation and make him a source of reward and treasure for us and make him an intercessor for us and one whose intercession is accepted. **Duaa for a girl:** Oh! Allah, make her (this child) a source for our salvation and make her a source of reward and treasure for us and make her an intercessor for us and one whose intercession is accepted. 5. After the duaa, say Allahu Akbar, drop the hands and then turn the head both sides for salaam. **Sijdat** **Demonstration of a worshipper in the sujuud position.** **|** P a g e 61 ----- **Types of Sijdats** Besides sijda during swalat, there are other three types of Sijdat namely: - Sijdatul Tilawa - Sijdatul Shukr - Sijdatul Sahw **|** P a g e 61 ----- **Sijdatul Tilawa** Earlier in this section, we have learnt that there are several verses in the Quran that mention the word sijda.What do you do when you come across these verses? Definitely you will have to pause and prostrate then continue with your recitation. This prostration is what is referred to as Tilawa. There are fourteen places of prostration in the Holy Quran as agreed upon by all the Muslim religious scholars, while Imam Shafi suggests prostration at Quran 22:77 to make them a total of fifteen. Allah says in the Quran, *But fall ye down in prostration to Allah and adore Him.* [Q 53:62] Ibn Abbas(RA)narrated *, the messenger of Allah prostrated when he recited suratul Najm* [Q: 13] **Quotation of verses in the quran that require prostration** |NAME OF SURAH|NUMBER OF SURAH|NUMBER OF VERSE|THE WORD| |---|---|---|---| |Al-Araf|7|206|WalahuYasjuduuna| |Ar-Rad|13|15|Walillaahi yasjudu| |An Nahl|16|49|Walillaahi yasjudu| |Al-Isra|17|107|Yakhirruuna lil adhqaani sujjadaa| |Mary am|19|58|Kharruu sujjadan| |Al-Hajj|22|18|Yasjudu lahu| |Al-Hajj|22|77*|Wasjuduu wabuduu| |Al-Furqaan|25|60|Wa idha qiila Lahumusjuduu| |An-Naml|27|25|Al-la yasjuduu lillaahi| |As-Sajda|32|15|Kharruu sujjadan| |Sad|38|24|Kharraraakian| |Fussilat|41|37|Wasjuduu lillaahi| |An-Najm|53|62|fasjuduu lillaahi| |Al-Inshiqaq|84|21|Laa yasjuduun| |Al Alaq|96|19|Wasjud| **|** P a g e 62 ----- **Sijdatul Sahw** Human beings have a tendancy of frogeting. At times we forget and even skip certain steps during the performance of swalat. In such an eventuality, what do you do? Whenever a worshipper omits by forgetting to perform an important pillar of swalat (Arkanu swalat) he is supposed to perform sijdatu-Sahwi(prostration for forgetfulness) This type of sijda is usually performed in swalat before the first salaam and just like the ordinary prostration.For example, if one forgets to perfor the ruku,or sijdah or any other pillar of swalat. Imran bin al-Hussein (R.A) *narrated the messenger of Allah led them in prayer and forgot (to do* *something) so he made two prostrations and recited the tashahud and then said the Tasleem* . (Abu Dawoud and At-Tirmidhy) **Sijdatul Shukr** Muslims should always be grateful and thankful to Allah (S.W.T) Prostration is one of the ways of showing gratitude to Allah (S.W.T). This type of sijda is performed for the purposes of showing ones gratefulness and appreciation towards Allah after attaining any good thing e.g. passing of examinations, getting a new born babysit is a way of thanking Allah.It can be performed in any place that is clean. *Abu Bakar (R.A) narrated, Whenever the prophet received something which pleased him,he would* *make the Sajda in gratitude to Allah* (Related by the six Imams except An-Nasai) **5.00 ZAKAT** **Meaning of zakat** Every society will have people who are well off and those who need assistance. Have you met people who may be friends, relatives, neighbours or even strangers and they needed your help? How did you react to their request? In many cases, every society will have its own way of dealing with such situations. Islam as a complete way of life has not been left behind. The plight of the poor and the needy has been well taken care of by the institution of Zakat. It is one of the major religious dutiesand the third pillar in Islam.Zakat was made obligatory on *Ummah* s of all prophets even before Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) this is evident when we look into the Holy Quran where we see that from ancient times Salah and Zakat were ordained as compulsory.For example, there is mentioning about Prophet Ibraham and the Prophets of his race when Allah says in the Quran: **|** P a g e 63 ----- ***"And We made them leaders of men. They guided the people according to Our command, and We*** ***inspired in them the doing of good deeds and right establishment of Salah and giving of Zakat*** ***and they were worshippers of Us."*** [Q: 21:73] About Prophet Ismael it is said: ***"He enjoined upon his people Salah and Zakat and was acceptable in the sight of his Lord."*** [Q: 19:55] Prophet Moses prayed for his ummah: ***"O God! Bestow upon us the well-being of this world as also the well-being of the Hereafter."*** Do you know in reply to it what Allah answered? ***"I shall smite with my punishment whom I will. Although My mercy embraced all things, but I*** ***shall ordain it for those who will fear Me and give Zakat and those who will believe in Our*** ***revelations."*** [Q: 7:156] " ***And Allah said:O Children of Israel! I am with you, if you offer Salah, and give Zakat and*** ***believe in My messengers and support those messengers who are to come, and lend unto Allah a*** ***nice loan surely I shall remit your sins."*** [Q: 5:12] Before Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) the last Prophet was Prophet Issa. The commandment about Salah and Zakat was given to him also by Allah, as is found in Suratul-Mariam: ***"And hath made me blessed wheresoever I may be, and hath enjoined upon me Salah and Zakat*** ***so long as I remain alive."*** [Q: 19:31) This shows that the religion of Islam has been established from the beginning, in the ministry of every prophet, on the two great pillars of Salah and Zakat, and it never happened that any Ummah believing in Allah (S.W.T) was exempted from these two obligatory duties. Let us now define Zakat. Literally the term Zakat is Arabic word which means both 'purification' and 'growth' . It refers to the purification of a believer'swealth and soul. Wealth purification denotes the mobilization of assets for **|** P a g e 64 ----- the purpose of financial growth and justified distribution. Purification of the soul implies freedom from hatred, jealousy, selfishness, uneasiness and greed. Almighty Allah (S.W.T) says, ***And be*** ***steatfast in prayer; practice regular charity; and bow down your heads with those who bow down*** ***(in worship).*** [Q: 2:43] Technically, it involves distributing a portion of ones wealth to those prescribed by the Quran. OtherQuranic connotations also include the purification of sin. It is **o** ne of the most important principles of Islam and the third pillar . Allah (S.WT) says, ***And they have been commanded No more than this: To worship Allah,*** ***Offering Him sincere devotion, being true in (faith); to establish regular prayers; And to practice*** ***regular charity; and that is the religion Right and Straight.*** [Q: 98:5] There are three types of Zakat namely; Zakatul Maal, Zakatul-Fifr and Sadaqa. **Zakatul-maal** Zakat-ul-Maal is the obligatory charity paid by an individual to the needy from the property which he possesses. It is obligatory on an individual who possesses wealth equal toor above a minimum amount called Nisab for an entire lunar year. Forthe purpose of calculating Zakat, different categories of wealth are defined,this shall be demonstrated by the table (on pag e ) on specific items on which Zakat is payable. In terms of Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh), Zakatul-Maal is an obligatory duty (Fardh) on every Muslim possessing wealth equal toor exceeding the prescribed amount ofNisab. It is a prescribedwelfare-contribution from ones stored wealth. It is the right of Allah (S.W.T) on a Muslim's wealth. Paying Zakat-ul-Maal is the responsibility of theowner. If one fails to carry out this obligation, he is a sinner, consequently incurring Allah's displeasureand His punishment in the hereafter. **Zakat-ul-fitr** **|** P a g e 65 ----- Zakatu-ul-Fitr is Zakat on the individual. It is a special charity paid to the needy onor before the day of Eid -ul-Fitr, which is the first day of the month ofShawwal following the month of Ramadhan. Zakat-ul-Fitr is paid asatonement for any shortcomings in the worship of Fasting during the month of Ramadan. On the day of Eid -ul-Fitr, which marks the completion of the month ofRamadhan, every Muslim possessing an amount of food in excess of his family's need for a day (24 hours) is mandated to pay Zakat-ul-Fitr on his own behalf and for all his dependent(s).Zakat-ul-Fitr or Fitrah is "the one full meal per person or cash equivalent to the cost of one full meal, given directly to the needy ofthe community before Eid-ul-Fitr prayer. Arrangements for payingFitrah should be made ahead of time so that it reaches the eligiblerecipients in time for them to make use of it on Eid day. The quantity ofZakat-ul-Fitr traditionally amounts to one Sa`, which is equivalent to 2 [1] / 2 kilograms of food such as wheat, barley, rice, or the like. Ibn Abbas (RA) narrated that, The messenger of Allah (P.B.U.H) enjoined Zakatul Fitr on the one who fasts in the month of Ramadhan to purify him from any indecent act or speech and for the purpose of providing food fortheneedy (Abu aawoud and Ibn Majah) **SADAQAH** Sadaqah is an Arabic term widely used to cover all kinds of charity. Although Sadaqah and Zakat are often used interchangeably, Sadaqah implies voluntary charity and is not limited to giving out money or food. All good deeds are considered Sadaqah and are rewarded by Allah (S.W.T)These even include practices that may look simple such as removing a thorn from the path,helping the old to cross a busy road among othersEvery Muslim is exhorted togive Sadaqah. The Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) said *:Every Muslim has to give Sadaqah.* The people asked: *OProphet of Allah, what about the one who has nothing?* Hereplied: *He should work with his* *hand to giveSadaqah.* They asked: *If he cannot find (work)?* Hereplied: *He should help the* *needy who ask for help.* Theyasked: *If he cannot do that?* He replied: *He should then do good* *deeds and shun evil, for this will be taken asSadaqah.* (Sahih al-Bukhari) **|** P a g e 66 ----- Muslims practice charity and earn rewards from Allah (S.W.T) by doing good deeds all their lives.They can continue earning Allahs rewards even after their death.This is called perpetual Sadaqah(sadaqatul-Jariyah) Abu Hurayra (R.A) narrated that the Messenger of Allah (P.B.U.H) said, "When the son of Adam dies, his actions are cut off except for three: Sadaqah Jariyah (on-going charity), knowledge which brought benefit, and a virtuous son who makes supplication for him." [Muslim] Sadaqah Jariyah means Continuous Alms/Charity. A continuous charity is an action that someone does that remains active even after the person is dead. For example, if a person digs a well then people can use it for a very long time - even after the person dies. This type of charity is very effective and serves better than just giving money as the person who initiated the action will get thawab even after he dies. **DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ZAKAT AND SADAQAH** |ZAKAT|SADAQA| |---|---| |Zakat is a pillar of Islam|Sadaqah is an act of charity.| |Zakat has a nisab- (the minimum amount one must have before it becomes compulsory.)|Sadaqah has no minimum amount.| |There is a fixed amount to be paid on the saved money or cash.|Any amount can be given as sadaqa.| |Zakat is paid on specific and particular items.|Sadaqah is paid on anything one wish to give from.| |There is fixed period within which one must pay Zakat.|Sadaqah can be paid at any time.| |Zakat is payable to specific recipients mentioned in the Quran.|Sadaqah can be given to any person in need whether a Muslim or a non Muslim.| **|** P a g e 67 ----- **Conditions for zakat payment** Even though payment of Zakat is a must to the able Muslims, certain conditions have to be observed. These include the following: i. One paying it must be a Muslim. ii. One must be a free man and not a slave. iii. One must be of sound mind (sane.) iv. The giver of Zakat must have attained maturity. v. The wealth to be paid should have reached nisab. vi. The wealth or property must have been in ones possession for a full year. vii. Zakat-ul- Fitr should be paid before one goes for the Eid prayers. **Differences between Zakat-ul-Fitr and Zakat-ul-Maal** |Col1|Zakaat-ul Maal|Zakaat-ul- Fitr| |---|---|---| |1|The wealth must have been in Possession for one year.|It should be given in the month of Ramadhan before one goes for Idd Prayers.| |2|The rate should be calculated according to the property to be given out.|It should be given on 21/ kg of the staple food 2| |3|It should be given to recipient prescribed in the Quran.|It can be given to any needy or destitute Muslim| |4|One may also give in the form of cash.|This must represent the exact equivalent of the market value of the kind and quality of the staple food which would have otherwise been offered. e.g.| **|** P a g e 68 ----- |Col1|Col2|cash, animals,minerals,fruits among others.| |---|---|---| |5|The nisab depends on the amount of wealth.|The value is determined by the number of dependants in the family.| |6|It purifies wealth|It purifies saum| |7|It is given at any time of the year when it is due.|Given only in the month of Ramadhan| **Condition for distribution of zakat** During the distribution of Zakat, it is very important that it is done according to the sharia.The following conditions should be considered: 1. The intention (Niyyat) should be for the sake of fulfilling Allahs command and not for any other reasons. 2. It should be given to the recipients prescribed by the Quran. 3. It should be given promptly, when it is due. 4. Zakat of one place should not be transferred to another place. 5. The item payable for Zakat should not be exchanged for another item. For example it is permisable to use the nisab for animals when you are supposed to pay zakat for mineralsbut one can convert the cows into currency and then a rate of the currency is given out for Zakat. **Items on which zakat is payable** 1. Domestic animals such as camels, sheep, oxen which are not kept as articles of trade. 2. Agricultural produce such crops and fruits of the field like wheat, barley, dates, raisins, rice, maize and vegetables. 3. Gold, silver and other mineral products. 4. Dug out treasures whose ownership has not been identified for one year. 5. Trade and merchandise(goods for trade) 6. Savings from the sale of goods should be paid for Zakatafter a year. 7. Savings from the house rent and land rates. 8. Personal income. **|** P a g e 69 ----- **INSERT NISAB RATES FROM INTERNET** |Agricultural produce|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5| |---|---|---|---|---| |||||| |||||| |||||| |||||| **Items on which Zakat is not payable** Even though Zakat is an obligatory Pillar in Islam and that one has to pay,there are certain items which a Muslim is not supposed to give.These items include the following: a. Private houses in which the owner dwells in. b. Animals used for transportation. c. Furniture, clothing Weapons or tools for daily use. d. Books which are not for sale. e. Jewellery or ornaments which have not reached nisab. f. Machinery used for manufacture of goods. **(d)** **Recipients of Zakat** There are those people whom the Quran has singled out to be the rightful beneficiaries of Zakat.The Quran has identified a list of deserving persons to whom Zakat should be given. Allah says ***Alms are for the poor and the needy, and those employed to administer the ( funds);*** ***For those whose hearts have been recently reconciled to the truth; and for those in bondage and*** ***in debt; in the course of Allah; and for the wayfarer:(Thus is it) ordained by Allah, and Allah is*** ***full of knowledge and wisdom.*** [Q: 9:60] According to the above verse the recipients of Zakat are as follows: 1. The poor(Fuqara) **|** P a g e 71 ----- These are the Muslims who do not have any means of livelihood and material possession to support themselves and their families. 2. The needy(Masaakin) These are the Muslims who lack sufficient means of livelihood to meet their basic requirements. 3. Zakat collectors(Aamil) They are the Muslims who have been entrusted with the responsibility of collecting and distributing Zakat.They receive it as their source of income. 4. The new converts(Mualaf) They are also referred to as sympathizers. They are the people who have just embraced Islam and need help to settle down and strengthen their faith. 5. The captives(Riqab) These are prisoners of war or hostages who need to be ransomed in order to secure their freedom. 6. Debtors(Gharimin) These are Muslims who have incurred debts through halal transactions. Zakat can be used to pay off there debts which they incurred to meettheir basic needs. 7. Those on the course of Allah(Fisabillillah) Zakat can be used to finance any form of struggle or course for the love of Allah (S.W.T) such as aawa.sponsering students educational expence among others. 8. The wayfarers(Ibnu Sabil) These are stranded travelers on lawful journey who are in difficulty and may need assistance to cater for their travel and basic needs. **|** P a g e 71 ----- **Importance of Zakat.** Allah (S.WT) has prescribed the pillars in Islam for the benefit of humankind. These benefits include social, spiritual and even economical. Let us now look at the importance of Zakat. **Spiritual Importance of Zakat.** 1. A believer gets rewards by fulfilling this third pillar of Islam. 2. It is a commandment of Allah (S.W.T)and therefore must be observed by every Muslim who qualifies to give it. 3. Giving of Zakat purifies the wealth of the giver. 4. It blesses the wealth of the giver. 5. The institution of Zakat enables one to fulfill his religious obligation. 6. Develops spiritual growth and piety. **Social Importance** 1. Creates good relationship between the giver and receiver. 2. Remove jealously/ mistrust of the rich. 3. Restores hope, dignity and worthiness of the poor. 4. Reduces the gap between the rich and poor 5. Develops and fosters a healthy social relationship among members of the community. 6. Removes pride, selfishness or greed among rich. 7. Job creation for the Zakat collectors who secure employment. 8. Fighting corruption 9. Clearing debts of citizens 10. It helps foster equality among the Muslims. 11. Promotes unity and brotherhood among the Muslim Ummah. **|** P a g e 72 ----- 12. It fosters love among the Muslims. **Economic importance** a. Zakat Helps raise living standards of the poor less, fortunate and the marginalized communities. b. It helps the poor and needy by relieving their hardships and troubles. c. Helps create a self supporting community which does not require financial or economic assistance in form of food or material. This enables the Muslim communityto be self reliant and independent. d. Zakat contributes to the national budget as it is a form of tax. e. It helps in the creation of job and employment opportunities. f. Those in debt are able to settle them from the Zakat. g. Zakat assists in improving the economy in the society by creating job opportunities for example the Zakatcollectors and distributors, clearance of debts and establishment of social amenities. **Differences between Zakat and Tax** |ZAKAT|TAX| |---|---| |It is the third pillar of Islam|It is a law of the government or rather the policies of state| |It is only paid annually|It can be paid monthly, weekly, daily or even hourly.| |The rate of Zakat is fixed till the day of judgment.|Its rate keeps fluctuating or rather it is determined by the amount of income one earns.| |It is a commandment of Allah (S.W.T) Q2: 110|It is authorized by the government, King or the ruler of the state.| **|** P a g e 73 ----- |It is payable on ones saving|It is calculated from the gross salary or net profit.| |---|---| |It is rewarded by Allah and therefore cannot be evaded|It is rewarded by the state ruler or government hence one is fined for not giving it out.| **The role played by Zakat in promoting integrity.** Zakat plays a very important role in the promotion of integrity in the society through the following ways: 1) It enhances the sense of responsibility in that the giverfeels obliged to perform the acts as an obligatory duty upon him. 2) It also promotes loyalty which is an aspect of integrity. The giver shows loyalty to Allah who has commanded those with wealth to give it in charity. Zakat has been mentioned eighty two (82) times in the Quran. 3) It assists in curbing vices such as theft, by regulating the owning of resources in the society and creating a balance. 4) Giving of Zakat helps in minimizing vices such as jealousy and envy in that the receiver feels satisfied when he is given the share from it. And to the giver it reduces extravagance and greed for wealth. 5) It encourages hard work because every Muslim has an incentive to work since he is expected to give something to the needy and earn thawab. 6) Zakat reduces injustices such as unfair distribution of wealth in that only the rightful recipients are given. 7) Zakat promotes unity in the society by bringing together both the rich and the poor. **|** P a g e 74 ----- **Suggested study Questions andActivities.** **Answer the following questions in your I.R.E revision exercise book.** 1. a)Describe the performance of Sijdatul Tilawa, Sijdatul Shukr and Sijdatul Sahw. b)Identify the various methods of purification 2.a)Give the acts which invalidate wudhu. **b)** Discuss the significance of shahada in the life of a Muslim. 3.a) Give the differences between Zakat-ul Fitr and Zakat-ul maal. b)Expalin the items on which Zakat is payable **.** **Activities** 1. Demonstrate the performance of udhu and identify the Sunnah acts. 2. Demonstrate the performance of swalatul Janaza. **|** P a g e 75 ----- **CHAPTER 5** **Akhlaq (morality)** Akhlaq refers to the standard behaviour or code of conduct which an individual is expected to uphold or observe according to his or her society. Therefore Islamic morality refers to the code of conduct prescribed by the Quran and Hadith which a Muslim is expected to adhere to The Islamic moral system stems from its primary creed of belief in One God as the Creator and Sustainer of the Universe. Islam considers the human race to be a part of aods creation, and as His subjects. From an Islamic perspective, the purpose of human life is to worship God, by leading this worldly life in harmony with the Divine Will, and thereby achieving peace in this world, and everlasting success in the life of the hereafter. Muslims look to the Glorious Quran and the Traditions of the Prophet as their moral guides.Morality in Islam addresses every aspect of a Muslim life, from greetings to international relations. Muslims must not only be morally healthy, but also contribute to the moral health of the entire society. The almighty Allah says: ***You are the best of the nations raised up for (the benefit of) men; you*** ***enjoin what is right and forbid the wrong and believe in God; and if the followers of the book had*** ***believed it would have been better for them; of them(some) are believers and most of them are*** ***transgressors.*** [Q: 3:110] The prophet (P.B.U.H) summarized the conduct of a Muslim when he said: *My Sustainer has given me nine commands: to remain conscious of Allah, whether in private or in* *public; to speak justly, whether angry or pleased; to show moderation both when poor and when* *rich, to reunite friendship with those who have broken off with me; to give to him who refuses me;* *that my silence should be occupied with thought; that my looking should be an admonition; and that* *I should command what is right.* The alorious Quran says: **|** P a g e 76 ----- ***It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces Towards east or West; but it is righteousness- to*** ***believe in Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book, and the Messengers; to spend of*** ***your substance, out of love for Him, for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for*** ***those who ask, and for the ransom of slaves; to be steadfast in prayer, and practice regular*** ***charity; to fulfill the contracts which ye have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain (or*** ***suffering) and adversity, and throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the*** ***Allah-fearing.*** [Q: 2:177] This verse emphasizes the Islamic belief that righteousness and piety is based on a true and sincerefaith. The key to virtue and good conduct is a strong relation with God, who sees all, at all times and everywhere. He knows the secrets of the hearts and the intentions behind all actions. Therefore, Islam enjoins moral behavior in all circumstances.It may be possible to deceive the world, but its not possible to deceive the r reator. Morality in Islam centers on certain basic beliefs and principles as follows: a) Allah (S.W.T) is the creator and source of all goodness, truth and beauty. b) Man is a responsible, dignified and honorable agent of his Creator. c) Allah (SW.T) has put everything in the heavens and the earth in the service of mankind. d) By His Mercy and Wisdom, Allah (S.W.T) does not expect the impossible from man or hold him accountable for anything beyond his power. Nor does Allah (S.W.T) forbid man to enjoy the good things of life. e) Moderation, practicality and balance are guarantees of high integrity and sound morality. f) All things are permissible in principle except what is singled out as obligatory, which must be observed and what is singled out as forbidden, which must be avoided. g) Mans ultimate responsibility is to Allah (S.W.T) and his highest goal is the pleasure of his Creator. **Dimensions of Islamic morality** In the beginning of this chapter, we have learnt that Akhlaq involves moral values and that Allah (S.W.T) always wants us to lead a pious life. Islamic morality is measured in two ways: Maarufat (virtues) and Munkaraat (vices) It entirely deals with the relationship between man and the other and creatures of the universe, man and his innermost self. The Muslims relationship with Allah (S.W.T) should be one of love and **|** P a g e 77 ----- obedience, complete trust, stead fastness and active devotion;it is this kind of behaviour that should inspire and nourish morality at the human level. In relating to his fellow men, a Muslim should show kindness, care and respect to relatives, neighbours and strangers whatever their status in the society. He must also honor the legitimate rights of others as much as he fulfills his own. A Muslim should also use nature for the benefit of humanity as signs of Allaah (S.W.T) without waste of humility as signs of Allaah (S.W.T) without waste or excess. A Muslims moral obligation is also to stand for what is right and fight what is wrong, seek what is true and abandon what is false, uphold what is wrong, seek what is beautiful and wholesome and avoid what is indicent.To him, simplicity and compassion are his trademarks, while he keeps away from arrogance and pride. A man once asked the prophet (S.W.T) on virtues and he replied. *Ask your heart. Virtue is that which satisfies the soul and comforts the heart, And sin (evil), is that* *which perturbs the soul and troubles the heart even if people should pronounce it lawful.* (Ahmed &Dearani) Islamic morality (Akhlaaq is divided into two dimensions (a) Maarofoat (The Virtues ) (b) Munkaraat (The vices ) **a)** **Maaroofaat [the virtues]** These are deeds or practices which are permitted in Islam.They couldbe in the form of actions gestures or statement. A Muslims is encouraged to acquire these virtues. The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) said: *The most perfect amongst you in faith is the best of you in behavior.* Examples of Maarufat (i) Visiting the sick and escorting the deceased to the grave. (ii) Feeding the poor. (iii) Honoring the aged. (iv) Trustworthiness: Muslims have to be people who keep their words in any promise, contracts among others. (v) Having contentment [Qanaa]or satisfaction with whatever Allah[sw] has decreed for him/her. (vi) Self control (vii) Contentment (viii) Patience **|** P a g e 78 ----- (ix) Trust in responsibility (x) Truthfulness Mention other things that are classified as maarufat. **b)** **Munkaraat [the vices]** These are all kinds of bad practices or deeds that are prohibited in Islam. These vices can be in the form of actions gestures or statements. Allah (S.W.T) has prohibited all forms of Munkaraat whether practiced in the open or in secrecy. Allah (S.W.T) says: ***Say: The things that May Lord has indeed forbidden are: Shameful deeds*** ***,whether open or secret; sins and trespasses against truth or reason; assigning of partners to*** ***Allah, for which He Has given no authority and saying things about Allah of which you have no*** ***knowledge.*** [Q: 7:33] Examples of Munkaraat (i) Arrogance and pride. (ii) Slander and gossips. (iii) Telling lies. (iv) Calling one another by offensive nicknames. (v) Dissatisfaction and lack of contentment. (vi) Looking down upon others because, class or wealth, race etc. (vii) Wishful thinking. (viii) Drug and substance abuse. (ix) Gambling and games of chances. (x) All forms of sexual perversions. **Significance of Islamic morality** Islamic morality is intended to build in a Muslim a sound mind, peaceful soul and a strong personality. - Islamic morality is meant to build in the human being a sound mind and body and a peaceful soul. - It makes a Muslim have a distinctive Islamic personality when interacting with others. - Islamic moral values are meant to cultivate in a Muslim the best character in the most whole some manner. **|** P a g e 79 ----- - It strengthensthe bonds between human beings and Allah thus developing a strong taqwa. - Islamic morality guards the Muslims external behaviors and his manifest deeds to be in line with Allah (S.W.T) the teachings of Islam. - It shields a Muslims from evil since it guards his external behavior and his manifest deeds to be in line with Allah(S.W.T) - It promotes positive thinking by guiding individual Muslims to be occupied with constructive ideas and serious pursuits of how to lead a positive life on this earth and the hereafter. - It discourages a Muslimfrom practicing prohibitions such as use of intoxicants. - The Munkaraat have been prohibited by Allah (S.W.T) for the spiritual and mental well being of man as well as for the moral and material benefit of humanity. - It promotes peace and harmony in the society in that the prohibitions discourage vices. - It generates affection and respect between the members of the family and the society in general hence promoting brotherhood. - Allah has promised rewards for those who abide by the Islamic morals and avoid evils deeds. **Amr bil Maruf Wa Nahyi Anil Munkar. (Enjoining good and forbidding evil)** Allah (S.W.T) commanded Muslims to always enjoin good and forbid evil in the society.Commanding of good should start with self-restrain. This means avoidance of those acts which displease Allah.Beinga practical religion, Islam teaches the Muslimsto strive to follow the religious teachings and abide by its code of conduct and ethics. Allah says *,* ***Let there arise in you a band of people inviting to all that is good,enjoining what is*** ***right and forbidding what is wrong:They arethe ones to attain felicity.*** [Q: 3:104] The prophet (P.B.U.H) also emphasize on the importance of morals in a hadith reported by Abu Said Al-Khudri who says that the messenger of Allah says, *He of you who sees an abomination* *should change it with his hand; if he could not, then with his tongue; if he could not, then in his* *heart; and this is the faintest in faith.* (Muslim) **|** P a g e 81 ----- Islam is a complete way of life and a very practical religion.Even though it isenshrined in laws, beliefs and practices, morals form the basis of each and every act of Ibada. For exampleIslam prohibits the use of intoxicants as they interfere with normal functioning of the body and mind hence one cannot attend to his religious duties. It isalso very important to keep off evil so that we can preserve the purity of the soul and have it more concentrated on performing ibadah.Muslims should keep reminding each other of the good things expected from them and talk about the evil things and howthey can avoid them.And Allah tells us in the Quran, ***And remind, for indeed, the reminder benefits the believers.*** What benefits do you get as a Muslim when you practice and remind each other of good deeds? On the other hand,the soul of the human being is very subtle to temptations which arise from weaknesses to remain firm and steadfast in the path of Allah.The environment we stay in may also affect our morals and divert us from the good path.If for example you walk with friends who smoke,you need a very strong conviction and Iman(faith)so that you are not tempted to smoke.But in as much as you may not be smoking,it is your religious duty to command good and forbid evil.Therefore you should remind your friend of the evils of smoking. There are various ways in which a Muslim can command well and shun evil. Examples of such ways are; observing the five daily prayers, fasting during the month of Ramadhan, speaking the truth, visiting the sick, giving out charity,advising those doing the wrong among others. Would you wish to be among the successful on the Day of Judgment? What are the things you need to in order to attain this success? **Morality based on iman and swalihat** The good morals of anybody are shaped by the faith that he possesses and the dutifulness towards his creator. Surat ul Asr supports that: **|** P a g e 81 ----- ***I swear by the time (Asr) surely man is in great loss, save those who believe and perform good*** ***deeds and exhort each other on truth and exhort each other to endurance*** [Q:103:1-3]. Iman thus takes the first preference before good deeds. Good deeds that are not accompanied with Iman are known to have no reward before Allah. Consider those who do good things just to be seen and praised, the corrupt people who do good things in exchange of various favors not to mention the philanthropists who give a lot of wealth for pleasure without bringing the intention of doing it for the sake of Allah. Such deeds usually may lead to actions that are forbidden according to the doctrine of Islam. Obedience of Allahs commandments leads to righteous deeds in that in order for you to perform them, you should first fear Allah. Iman and Swalihat cannot be separated because they are interdependent in their functioning. Therefore in Islam, faith and good deeds go hand in hand. Abu Said Al-Khudri (R.A) narrates that he heard the prophet (P.B.U.H) says: *Whenever anyone of* *sees anything contrary to Allahs approval, he should change it with his hand, or if he cannot, then* *by his tongue, if he cannot, then by his heart and that is the weakest faith.* **Suggested revision Questions and class activities.** **Answer the following questions in your I.R.E revision exercise books.** 1. Explain the basic principles of Islamic morality. 2. Discuss the significance of commanding good and forbidding evil. **Activity** Identify the common vices you see being practiced in your neighbourhood.Suggest ways of stopping them. **CHAPTER 6** **MUAMALAT** **The family** Every living creation of Allah (S.W.T) belongs to a specific family. The idea of a family can be well understood if we bear in mind our surrounding environment. Let us take an example of a busy city during the day. Busy with men,women and children, moving all over.Inthe evening, during the rush hours, you will see everyone getting into a matatu and the streets will remain empty. Where do all **|** P a g e 82 ----- these people go to? Ask yourself why they cant remain in the streets until the next day. They must go and look for shelter, company, a good meal among other needs which are provided for within this social institution we call a family. We now have an idea idea about what a family is. Can youmention the people who constitute a family?A family according to Islam isasocial institutionwhereby members are united by the same ethical values hence have responsibilities over one another.This bond starts right from marriage and includes but not limited to all the relations from either sides of the married couples. Are there any other people who may not be staying with you but are part of your family? In Islam the concept of a family stretches far beyond the father, mother and children.The following three factors keep peopletogether and united in an Islamic society: Kingship and blood ties-it involves the father /mother- child relations, brother-sister among others these are the strongest natural ties. It determines how members relatewith one another thus controlling their behavior. It binds together the family and assists people to live peacefully. Marital commitment-It includes husband-wife relations,the in-laws of either side. This helps to keep the family together in that each member has defined roles to play. Faith-It is the main binding factor which enhances the achievement of family goals and interests. It goes beyond the close relatives to include all the Muslims who are brothers and sisters. We should therefore be ready to accommodate our fellow Muslims when they need our help since they form part of the larger Muslim family. **Importance of the family** We have seen who comprise of a family.These entiremembers are kept together by a common goal which should be directed towards benefitting the entire society. The things done within the smaller unit of the society, which is the family, will have either direct or indirect impact to all the members of the community.Let us look at the importance of the family: **|** P a g e 83 ----- - Provide room for procreation to enhance the widening of the larger society.Being a very important unit of the society,procreation forms part of the responsibilities of those who get married to ensure continuity of the lineage and general growth of the society. - A family serves as strong founding unit or rather the first school for the children where the values habit and rites are passed to the children, preparing them to fit in the wider society. The children need to therefore allow their parents and other family members to give them guidance and ask for their advice. - A family offers security needs and provides a sense of belonging and identity in that it bonds an individual to a respective family giving him/her confidence. - A family serves as a foundation stone to the society. A family is founded through marriage which promotes interfamily alliance through matrimonial relation. It brings people of different social status and race together hence removing social prejudice in the society. - A family acts as barometer to regulate the moral conduct of certain individuals in the society. Thiscontributes topeace and harmonious as it provides a set of rules to be observed e.g. marriage shields indecency. - A family promotes a sense of responsibility in that each member has specific roles to play in order to achieve the goals of the family for example; the husband is responsible for livelihood of his family while the wife has to fulfillthe functions as motherhoodsuch as child upbringing and household chores. - A family is a source of stability to the society, in thatstable families producemembers who fit well in the wider society. - The family serves as a learning institution.Children brought up in family are taught Islamic morals, values, norms and traditions by the parents. The knowledge learnt during the formative years is peculiar to the home environment. It happens that children brought up from different environment swillend up with different moral behavior. This is due to the socialization skills taught in individual families or the moral and traditional practices that may be seen in the two environments.Are ther things that you learnt in your childhood and are different from your friends? Mention some of them. **Nikah (Marriage)** **Definition of Marriage** (Nikah) What is marriage? Nikah is an Arabic term used for marriage which means a contract. Marriage is a mutual contract or legal union between a man and a woman, sane and mature who have expressed **|** P a g e 84 ----- their willingness to stay as a husband and wife in order to become a pious family and a society. The contract must be guided by the Quran and Sunnah of the prophet (P.B.U.H) **Marriage in Islam** Marriage is a vital part of a Muslims life. In fact marriage is so important in Islam that it is declared to be a half of a Muslims faith. As a Muslim one should live in accordance with the Islamic Jurisprudence in the way shown by the Holy Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H). Allah (S.W.T) says, ***Marry those among you who are single or the virtuous ones among your*** ***slaves male or female: if they are in poverty, Allah will give them means out of His grace: for*** ***Allah encompasses all, and He knows all things.*** [Q: 24:32] One can see from the above verse that the Creator of mankind has ordered us to marry.The Prophet married and also encouraged others to marry Ibn Masud (R.A) narrated that the messenger of Allah (h.B.U.H) said to us *, O young people!* *Whoever can marry among you should marry, for that will help him lower his gaze and protect his* *chastity. Whoever is not able to marry is recommended to fast and that will be his shield.* (Bukhari and Muslim) **Purpose of marriage** The basic objectives of marriage in Islam are: To fulfill Allahs (S.W.T) command.Marriage is a commandment from Allah (S.W.T) which must therefore be fullfilled by every Muslim who is able. It isconsidered as completing half of ones religion and we therefore earn Allahs rewards. Secondly, marriage secures a comfortable atmosphere for boththe husband and the wife.A Muslim couple who follow the teachings of the Holy Quran willalways be a source of comfort for each other. Their relationship should go beyond that of mere sexual enjoyment and should be based on a cordial friendship accompanied by mutual understanding.The Holy Quran says: ***"One of His signs is that*** **|** P a g e 85 ----- ***He created for you spouses of your own species, so that you might find comfort with them. And*** ***He put mutual love and affection in your hearts. Surely in this there are lessons for the thinking*** ***people."*** [Q: 30:21] The other purpose is for procreation. Through marriage,a new generation of healthy, faithful and virtuous children isborn. The family is the school for morals.The Holy Prophet (P.BU.H) said. *"As* *soon as a suitor, who is religious and who has manners that satisfy you comes to you asking for a* *matrimonial alliance, take action to join in marriage with him. If you do not do so, you will have* *deviated from the right path and may be faced with a great crisis.* It ensures financial competence in the community. A Muslim man must provide means of living to his wife and children, even if the wife is wealthy or earns a salary. The fourth reason is for companionship. Marriage provides close interaction between the man and the woman in mutual sharing of responsibilities and ideas. This relationship makes the husband and the wife to live together harmoniously. For example, in our homes our parents consult each other on matters related to our welfare like paying of our school fees, buying of our cloths among other responsibilities. Marriage helps to safeguard ones Iman (faith). It prevents one from committing immoral acts. Sins such as intermingling with members of the opposite sex or having sexual relations outside marriage are not acceptable in Islam because it creates immorality and immodesty. It promotes inter-family alliance. Through marriage, family ties are strengthened between the families of the couple who become relatives. This promotes peace, harmony and friendship in the society. The other purpose of marriage is to safeguard the legitimacy of children who if begotten through marriage are entitled to inheritance. Marriage improves the couples social status through earning respect and dignity in the society. **Conditions and regulations of marriage** We have seen that the family begins with marriage. A marriage is valid only if the following conditions are observed: **|** P a g e 86 ----- **The formula (Al-Ssigha)** This is the formula of marriage which includes the offer (Ijab) and the acceptance (Qabul). The offer may be presented directly or through an agent which then gives room for the acceptance.In this case,the process begins with the mans proposal which presents his full identification and intention. On the other hand the woman has to state clearly her wishes and has the liberty to accept or decline the offer.This first stage enhances familiarization to instill confidence. **The contracting parties (al-Aqidaan)** This refers to the bride and the groom who must satisfy conditions of marriage such as: - Be of sound mind - Have attained maturity - Must give their consent Abu Huraira(R.A) narrated that the prophet (S.A.W) said, A woman without a husband shall not be married until she gives consent,nor a virgin be married till her consent is sought. They asked: How shall be her permission? He said, If she remains silent. (Agreed upon) - They should not belong to the prohibited degrees of marriage. **Witnesses (as-shuhud)** The issue of witnesses has been given great importance in Islam and therefore the marriageshould be contracted before two male Muslim witnesses whomust be mukhalaf (mature and sane). In addition,they must understand the language in which the marriage ceremony is being conducted. Regarding the witnesses, Ibn Abass reports that the prophet (S.A.W) said, The fornicatresses are those who marry by themselves without witnesses. (At-Tirmidhy) **Guardianship(Al-Wilayat)** The guardian is in charge of giving consent or permission for the marriage to proceed. Abu Musa (R.A) narrates that the prophet said, There is no marriage without a guardian. (Ahmad,At Tirmidhy,Abu Dawoud, Ibn Majah) The Shariah gives the father the first position as the guardian. In the case that the father is absent, then the guardianship will take the following order of merit: `o` The grand father `o` Full brother **|** P a g e 87 ----- `o` Uncle (the fathers brother) In case the guardian declines to give consent for a reason which is not valid according to theSharia,then the Kadhi actsas the guardian. **Dowry (Al-Mahr)** Allah (S.W.T) says in the Quran, And give the women (on marriage) their dowry as a free gift, but if they,of their own good pleasure emit any part of it to you, take it and enjoy it with right good cheer.[Q: 1:1] Dowry is the obligatory gift given to the woman in marriage.It can either include a service or other material things like money, property or any other assets.This can be paid either in full or partially on the day of Nikah.Thewoman is given the right to request for whatever dowry she wants. This should be done on measurable termswithout over burdening the groom.In the event where the woman asks for divorce she is obliged to return the dowry. The following diagram respresents the components of an Islamic marriage. Summary of the conditions for marriage: **|** P a g e 88 ----- **The Muslim marriage ceremony** The actual Muslim wedding is known as a *nikah* . It is a simple ceremony, in which the bride does not have to be present so long as she sends two witnesses to the drawn-up agreement. Normally, the ceremony consists of reading from the Qur'an, and the exchange of vows in front of witnesses for both partners. No special religious official is necessary, but often the Imam is present and performs the ceremony. He may give a short sermon. **Lets now briefly look at what should be included in** **the sermon:** **The Sermon** The assembly of nikah is addressed with a marriage sermon (khutba-tun-nikah) by the Muslim who is officiating the marriage. This should be done by a state appointed Muslim judge (Qadi) who also keeps the record of the marriage contract. However any trust worthy practicing Muslim can conduct the nikah ceremony. The documents of marriage contract/certificate are filed with the mosque (masjid) and local government for record. The Prophet (S.A.W) made it his tradition to have marriage sermon delivered in the assembly to solemnize the marriage. The sermon invites the bride and the groom, as well as the participating guests in the assembly to a life of piety, mutual love, kindness, and social responsibility. The Khutbah-tun-Nikah begins with the praise of Allah. His help and guidance is sought. The Muslim confession of faith that 'There is none worthy of worship except Allah and Muhammad is His servant and messenger" is declared. The three Quranic verses (Quran 4:1, 3:102, 33:70-71) and one Prophetic saying (hadith) form the main text of the marriage. This hadith is: 'By Allah! Among all of you I am the most God-fearing, and among you all, I am the super most to save myself from the wrath of Allah, yet my state is that I observe prayer and sleep too. I observe fast and suspend observing them; I marry woman also. And he who turns away from my Sunnah has no relation with me". (Bukhari) The Muslim officiating the marriage ceremony concludes the ceremony with a supplication (Dua) for bride, groom, their respective families, the local Muslim community, and the Muslim community at large (Ummah) it is important for us to note here that marriage is considered as an act of worship (ibadah). It is therefore virtuous to conduct it in a Mosque keeping the ceremony simple. Islam advocates simplicity in ceremonies and celebrations. There are certain things which are basic to all Muslim marriages. Marriages have to be declared publicly. They should never be undertaken in secret. The publicity is usually achieved by having a **|** P a g e 89 ----- large feast, or *walimah* - a party specifically for the purpose of announcing publicly that the couple are married and entitled to each other. Aisha (R.A) narrated that the prophet said, hroclaim this marriage and solemnize it in mosques and beat aafs over it.(At-Tirmidhy-Rare Hadith)This is usually held after the consummation of the marriage. The relatives, neighbours, and friends are invited in order to make them aware of the marriage. Both rich and poor of the family and community are invited to the marriage feasts. It is recommended that Muslims attend marriage ceremonies and marriage feasts upon invitation. Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) said: "...and he who refuses to accept an invitation to a marriage feast, verily disobeys Allah and His Prophet". (Ahmad & Abu Dawood) **POLYGAMY** The word holygamy may not be a familiar one although it is the commonest type of marriage in most cultures and traditions. Polygamycomes from two Greek words, namely *poly* meaning many or more than, and *Gamy* which stands for marriage or a sexual union.Thus polygamy means marrying more than one wife. Islam permits polygamy and it should be clearly understood that it is a Sunnah practiced by the prophet and his predecessors. This means that marriage to more than one wife is a continuation of the practice established by the previous religions.For example; prophet Yaqub had four wives, Prophet Ibrahim had two wives and Prophet Suleiman had several wives. Islam polished and reformed the old practice that was there before the advent of Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) that had a lot of violation brought in by pagans who had come after the previous prophets.This was done by setting up certain rules and regulations to control this important feature in the social life of Muslims. **Conditions for polygamy** It should be noted with great care that it is not compulsory that one marries more than one wife but it is permissible under very strict conditions.These conditions have been laid because of the challenges that arise in the polygamous family. What are some of the disadvantages that you may have seen in your society as a result of having more than one wife? Due to the reasons that you have mentioned, the shariah has restricted polygamy to the following conditions: i. The number of wives must not exceed four at any one given time. **|** P a g e 91 ----- ii. The husband should be equally fair to all his wives in relation to lifes daily needs such as providing them with clothing, feeding and housing without favor or discrimination to any one of them. Also on the basis of emotional side such as spending the same number of nights with each one equally. It should be noted that for a man to favor emotionally all of his wives is sometimes beyond the human ability; however, one should not abuse this fact by unjustly mistreating any of the wives. Abu Huraira (R.A) narrated that the prophet (P.B.U.H) said *: Whoever has two wives and inclines to* *one of them, will come on the day of judgment with one of his sides paralyzed.If one of you had two* *wives and did not treat them equally according to others justly, he would come at the Day of* *Judgment walking lamely.* (Related by Ahmad and the four Imams with a sound chain of narrators) If this condition is not fulfilled, then polygamy is absolutely forbidden because in such a case it would bring injustice and means for misbehaving. iii. One should be in a position to fulfill the wives conjugal rights before he commits himself to another one, because one of the main objectives of marriage is fulfillment of sexual desires. iv. One should be financially able to sustain and support the wives and the children because it is the mans responsibility to provide for the family. Failure to observe the above conditions, a Muslim man is not encouraged to marry a second wife because Allah (SWT) says: ***And if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly withthe orphaned girls marry other*** ***women of your choice, two, three or four, but if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly*** ***(with them), then only one or (the slaves) that your right hand possess. That is never to prevent*** ***you from justice.*** [Q: 4:3] **Reasons for polygamy** We have already discussed the conditions of polygamy. We shall now focus our attention on the following reasons for the institution of polygamy. i. If the wife is unable to bear children after years of marriage and it has been medically proven that the wife is barren and there is nothing wrong with the husband then the husband is permitted to marry another wife. It is howeverrecommended that the firs wife be provided for **|** P a g e 91 ----- by the husband and given all the rights she deserves.the first wife continues to enjoy her rights such as support and maintenance. ii. The population of women is higher than that of men therefore polygamy provides an opportunity to the otherwise would be unmarried women to get married. This safe guards the society against social evils like adultery and prostitution. iii. If the wife suffers from contagious or other terminal illness which prevents her from honoring her conjugal obligation, plurality of wives serves the purpose for the man. iv. For the sake of preservation and maintenance of the Muslim society.When men die either naturally or in a battle and widows are left behind, it becomes necessary that they should be taken care of.The sharia therefore provides room for polygamy so that they can be married and offered support and protection. v. To increase the Muslim population through pro-creation. *Anas bin Malik (R.A) narrated that the Messenger of Allah (P.B.U.H) used to command us to* *get married and would very strictly prohibit us from remaining in celibacy and say, Marry* *the woman who is child bearing and loving for I shall over all the nations by your number on* *the day of resurrection.* (Ahmad bin Hanbal. Ibn Hiban graded it as Sahih) **Marriage of Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h)** Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) underwent a marriage life and it is from him that we emulate the best practices of marital life. By the time of his death, he had nine wives, however, this should not be perceived as a violation of Allahs (S.W.T) instructions as he was the only one who had been permitted to do so by Allah (S.W.T) due to the following reasons: i. To continue with the practice that Allah had prescribed to his predecessors like prophets Ibrahim, Yaqub and Suleiman (A.S) **|** P a g e 92 ----- ii. To eradicate the Quraish traditionsand prejudices. Thats why the hrophet married from different ethnic groups, clans and among the Quraish tribe.Before this, the Quraish used to see themselves as superior beings to other tribes. iii. To establish and implement the Islamic law. Allah (S.W.T) ordered the prophet (P.B.U.H) to marry Zainab bint Jaash who had been married by his adopted son Zayyid bin al-Harith so that He could put to an end the Arab practice of referring to adopted sons their own. iv. For protection and security of the widows whose husbands had died in jihad wars. For example his marriage to Saudah bint Zamah (widowed by Sakran bin Amro) and Zainab bint Khuzaimah(widow to Abdullah bin Jaash). v. To foster good relations between Muslims and non Muslims. For example his marriage to Jurawrriya bint al Harith who was the daughter of a tribal chief of Banu Mustaliq clan of Arabia, Swafiyyah bint Huyay and Ummu Habibah. vi. To disseminate Islamic knowledge and in particular enforce domestic laws. He married Aisha Bint Abu Bakar (R.A.) and Ummu Salamah (R.A.) who memorized a number of hadith and used to train the other women on religious and family matters. The prophet (P.B.U.H) married twelve wives whom the Muslims refer to us mothers of the believers (Ummahaatul Muuminiin).The prophets wives have been given this honor because of the love, dedication and support they showed to the prophet (P.B.U.H) **The prophets Wives** 1). Khadija bint Khuwaylid - She was twice widowed and was a wealthy merchant who commanded respect, honor and dignity among the Quraish. She was the prophets wife for nearly twenty years and bore him four girls; Zainab, Ruqayyah, Ummu Kulthum and Fatimah, as well as two sons; Qassim and Abdulla (both of whom passed away in infancy). 2). SaudahbintZumaa - She was a widow whose husband passed on while returning from exile in Abyssinia (Ethiopia). 3). Aisha, the daughter of Abu- Bakar as- Swiddiq (R.A) - She was a scholar of hrophets Sunna (Hadith) and other sciences. 4). Hafswahbint Umar bin al- Khattab (R.A) - She was a widow. Her husband was martyred in the battle of Badr. She married prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) in the second year of Hijra. 5). ZainabBint Khuzaimah- She was known as the mother of the poor because of her kindness and special empathy to the underprivileged. **|** P a g e 93 ----- 6). UmmuSalamah (Hind bint Abi Umayyah bin Mugheerah) - Her father was one of the famous Quraish leaders. Her husband was martyred in the battle of Uhud. 7). Juwairiyyah bint al-Harith: - She was among the hostages during the battle between the believers and Banu Mustaliq. Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) married her so as to save her from humiliation.Her name was Barrah before her marriage to the holy prophet (P.B.U.H) 8). ZainabbintJash - She was the daughter of the prophets paternal aunt and the divorced wife of his adopted son,Zaid bin Al- Harith. 9). Ummu Habibah - She was the daughter of Abu Sufyan. Her husband denounced Islam after migration to Abyssinia. When he later died the prophet (P.B.U.H) married her to alleviate her from the problems she was facing. 10). SwafiyyahbintHuyay - She was a daughter of a Jewish chief of Banu Nadhir. Her father was one of the greatest opponents of Islam. Later their tribe was banished from Madina after the fall of Khaybar in the seventh year of Hijra. She was among the captives who converted to Islam and prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) married her. 11). Maimunah bint al- Harith - She was the daughter of Harith of the Khawazin tribe. She was a widow in Makkah and married the prophet (P.B.U.H) in the seventh year of Hijra. . 12). Mariyya al- Qibtwiyyah She was the last wife of the prophet (P.B.U.H). She was presented to the prophet as a gift by the King of Egypt after the prophet had sent an invitation to Egypt and other countries to join Islam. She was the only one after Khadija to bear the prophet (P.B.U.H) a child called Ibrahim who also died in childhood. **Rights and duties of family members** The bond in the family involves mutual expectation of rights and duties that have been prescribed by the religion and enforced by the Islamic sharia. This implies, therefore, that every family member has certain commitments to meet over the other. The role of each member depends on their position in the family. Let us now look at the rights and duties of each family member. **Rights of the parents:** These are the duties which should be performed by the children towards their parents. Allah says in the Quran, eour Lord Has decreed that: 1. They should be treated with kindness. 2. Children should take care of them when they get old or need their help. 3. They should remember them in the prayers. **|** P a g e 94 ----- 4. Do not turn away from them in case they need you. 5. Obey them in whatever they ask you and are in accordance with the sharia. 6. Pay their debts when they pass on. 7. Show them a good send off when they die. 8. Children should continue praying for their parents even after they have died. **Duties of the husband: Rights of the wife.** Islam honours the husband as the head of the family. Infact Allah (S.W.T) emphasizes in the holy Quran thus; ***Men are the protectors and maintainers of women because Allah has given the one*** ***more strength than the other and because they support them from their means...*** [Q: 4:34]There are certain duties which as a husband you have to observe towards your wife. They include the following: 1. He should protect his wife from any social, physical or psychological harm. 2. He should consult with his wife in kindness in matters relating to the family. 3. He has the full responsibility of financially and materially supporting and maintaining his wife. 4. He must be faithful to his wife and not keep any marital secrets from her. 5. He should respect the feelings of his wife and treat her with love, sympathy and understanding. 6. He should fulfill the wifes matrimonial needs. 7. He should establish a rich Islamic atmosphere in the home. 8. He should keep the marriage life a secret. **Duties of a wife: The rights of the husband** Allah (S.W.T) says in the Quran: ***And those who pray, Our Lord! Grant unto us wives and off*** ***springs who will be the comfort of our eyes, and give us (the grace) to lead the righteous.*** [Q: 25:74] **|** P a g e 95 ----- Anas bin Malik (R.A)narrated that the prophet said, *If a woman says her prayers, fasts her month* *(Ramadhan), guards her private parts and obeys her husband, she may enter paradise by any* *door(gate). (Related by Abu Nuaim).* The wife is therefore expected perform the following duties; 1. She should not observe any Sunnah fast when the husband is present except with his permission. 2. She should not allow anybody in the house without his permission. 3. She is answerable to her husband in ensuring that duties of worship are observed by all family members in the house. 4. She should fulfill the conjugal rights of the husband. 5. She should not leave the house for visiting friends and relatives without her husbands permission. 6. She should keep herself neat and clean to guard her husband from external temptations. 7. She should not take advantage of her sexual obligation to manipulate her husband. 8. She should not receive gifts or favors from other men without the consent of the husband. 9. She should take care of the husbands property. **Rights of the children: Duties of the parents** Just as thechildren should observe certain obligations towards their parents, so should the parents to their children. Some of these duties include the following: 1. They should be provided with both religious and secular education. 2. They should be given good names. 3. The parents should provide them with the basic needs like food, shelter and clothing. 4. They should be given security and protection from external danger and influence which may lead to misguidance or injury. 5. They have a right to be loved and shown affection. 6. They have a right to inherit from their parents after they have passed on. 7. They have a right to legitimacy and know his rightful father and mother. **|** P a g e 96 ----- **Rights of extended family members** 1. They should be assisted when they are in need. 2. Muslims should be kind and treat them with gentleness. 3. We should protect them from external attacks. 4. We should show them love and affection and talk to them nicely. 5. We should freely interact with them so that they can get a sense of belonging. **Suggested study questions and activities.** **Answer the following questions in your I.R.E revision exercise books.** 1. a) What is Nikah (Marriage) in Islam? b) Explain the purpose of Marriage in Islam. c) Give reasons why the family is the basic unit of the society. 2. a) Highlight the conditions and regulations of marriage. b) Discuss the roles of each family member in the society. **Activity** Visit your local Kadhis office and find out how an Islamic marriage is conducted. **|** P a g e 97 ----- **Map of Arabia before the advent of Islam** **Map of Arabia showing the major trade routes during the pre Islamic Arabia** **|** P a g e 98 ----- **CURRENT MAP OF ARABIA** **|** P a g e 99 ----- **CHAPTER 7** **HISTORY OF ISLAM** **PRE- ISLAMIC ARABIA** Pre Islamic Arabia refers to the period before the prophet started preaching Islam.This period was characterized by acts of Jahiliya which means the age in which ignorance, barbarism, darkness from aods guidance were witnessed in the Arabian peninsula before the introduction of Islam. The lives of the Arabs can be discussed in the following areas: Religious, social/moral, economic and political. **1.** **Religious Conditions** The following religious groups and worship practices prevailed in Arabia during the pre-Islamic era; a. Idolatry (Idol worship)Most of the Arabs were idolatrous.They used to curve idols from wood and stone which they used to worship. Each clan had its own idols to worship. They offered sacrifices to them and sought their blessings and guidance. There were 360 idols in Makkah alone. The leading idols were Al Lata, Uzza, Manata and Hubbal. b. Christians. These were the followers of Prophet Issa (A.S) and had settled at Najran and followed the teachings of the Injil. c. Magians. These were the people who worshipped fire. These fire worshippers originated from Persia. d. Hanifs or Hunafaa. These were the followers of prophet Ibrahim (A.S). These people worshiped and believed in one God as they embraced the teachings of prophet Ibrahim and Ismail. Most of them accepted Islam when the prophet started peaching. e. Jews who practiced Judaism. These were the followers of prophet Musa (A.S) and were the descendants of Israel (Banu Israil). They followed the teachings of the book of Taurat which was revealed to prophet Musa (A.S)They mostly dwelt in Yathrib and Khaybar. **|** P a g e 111 ----- **2.** **Social and moral conditions.** During pre-Islamic Arabia, the following social conditions were evident: a. The Arabs engaged in leisure activities such as drinking, intoxication and gambling.These activities were done mostly during social gatherings. b. Women were denied their rights such as inheritance from their parents and husbands but instead were inherited as property and when a man died his son would inherit all his wives except his own mother. c. Women were denied the right to life since baby girls were buried alive because they were considered as weak and could not beable to defend their community from external aggression. d. The women were also forced into sexual pervasions like prostitution and subjected to rape. They were also forced to marry more than one husband (polyandry). e. Women were taken as articles of trade as they could be sold and be exchanged with goods or merchandise in the market. f. The art of poetry was highly cherished by the Arabs. They organized poetry competitions in open places where poems with vulgar language were recited. g. The Arabs practiced polygamy without any limits and they would marry and divorce women at will. **3.** **Economic conditions** a) They practiced Agriculture near the oasis where they used irrigation. This was done in areas ofYathrib, Taif and Southern parts of Arabia. b) Tourism. Makkah had many historical sites which included the Kaaba. People from several parts of the world toured those sites making the Arabs earn profit. c) Nomadism: During this period the Arabs lived a nomadic life and wandered in the desert with their animals in search of water and pasture. Most of them kept sheep, camels and goats as there source of livelihood. d) Barter trade. Those who settled in the town(town dwellers) practiced barter trade. They used to exchange goods and commodities. **4.** **Political Conditions** **|** P a g e 111 ----- Arabia did not have a centralized government.There was a chieftainship political system where each tribe was led by a tribal chief. The tribal chief was appointed on the basis of merit while age was consideredas one of the important factors. This was because the Arabs associated old age with wisdom and experience.The Bedouins who were in the desert led and independent life under tribal leaders.Tribal clashes were very common among the Arabs of that time. Most of the conflicts were as a result of revenge missions. In some of the parts, there were Kings who ruled their subjects. **Life history of Prophet Mohammad** **FAMILY TREE OF THE PROPHET** **QURAISH** **QUSWAYY** **ABD MANAF** **HASHIM** **ABDUL MUTWALIB (SHAYBA)** **|** P a g e 112 ----- It is important to note that apart from Khadija, the prophet married other wives as we have seen in the previous chapter. Among them Marria al Qibtiyya bore him a son by the name Ibrahim who died at infancy. **The Year of the Elephant** The coming of the settler to Kenya and other parts of East Africa brought several changes to the country. Some of which were adopted while others were unfriendly to the natives who reacted to them leading to the struggle for independence. The country wanted to govern itself and control its resources without any intterferance from the forign contries like Britain.It so happened that in the year the prophet was born, Makka had been known as a center for pilgrimage in the entire Arabian peninsular. The city was therefore growing rapidly which caused the neighbouring territories to start envying it. The Ethiopian governor of Yemen, Abraha al-Ashram was among those who envied the fameof the Kaaba among the Arabs. He thereforeconstructed a big cathedral in Sanaa (the capital of eemen) and ordered the Arabs to go there for pilgrimage instead. The order was ignored and this angered Abrahawho in fury decided to demolish the Kaaba. He set off with a large army of 60,000 soldiers and 13 elephants towards Makka. He was riding on a huge elephant. It was an animal which the Arabs had not seen before, thus the year came to be known as 'Amul-Fil (the year of the elephant), and it started an era for reckoning the years in Arabia. **|** P a g e 113 ----- When news of the advance of Abraha's army reached Makka, the people of Makka were frightened by the large well, equipped army and of course the elephants which they had never seen before. Abraha sent a message toBanu Hashim who were the custodians of the Kaaba at that time led by Abdul Mutwalib and advised them to demolish the Kaaba or he would destroy the whole city. 'Abdul-Muttalib replied to this ultimatum in these words: "By Allah, we do not want to fight him. So far as this House (the Ka'bah) is concerned, it is the House of Allah; if Allah wants to save His House, He will save it, and if He leaves it unprotected, no one can save it." On the second day, Abraha ordered his army to enter the Holy city of Makka and destroy the Kaaba. 'Abdul-Muttalib told the Makkans to leave the city and to seek refuge in the surrounding hills.But he, together with some leading members of Quraish, remained within the precincts of the Ka'bah. Abraha advanced with his army. Seeing the walls of the Ka'bah, he ordered its demolition. No sooner had the army reached near the Ka'bah than a dark cloud of small birds (known in Arabic as Ababil) overshadowed the entire army of Abraha. Each bird had three pebbles: two in its claws and one in its beak. A rain of the pebbles poured down from the birds, and in a few minutes, the whole army was destroyed. Abraha himself was seriously wounded; he fled towards Yemen but died on the way. Allah (S.W.T)explains this event in the following chapter of the Quran: ***Have you not seen how your Lord dealt with the companions of the Elephant? Did He not make*** ***their treacherous plan go astray? And He sent against them birds in flocks, striking them with*** ***stones of baked clay, so He rendered them like straw eaten up.*** [Qu'ran, 105] Birth and early life of the prophet Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) was born on 12 [th] of Rabiul-Awwal/22 [nd] April 570 CE in Makkah in the year of elephant.He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraish tribe. Abdul Mutalib, hisgrandfather was the chief of Makkah at that time.He had five sons:Hamza,Abu Talib,Abdullah,Abbas and Abu Lahab.The prophets father was Abdullah Ibn Abdul Mutalib.He died a few days before the prophets birth in eathrib while he was coming from a business journey in Syria. His mother was called Amina binti Wahab of the Banu Zuhras clan of Madina.She died on **|** P a g e 114 ----- the return journey from Madina where they had gone to visit the grave of the prophets father at a place called Abwa when he was six years old. After a few months, according to the age-long custom of the Arabs, the child was entrusted to a Bedouin woman Halima Bint Dhuib by name, of the tribe of Bani-Sa'd, for his upbringing. It was the practice of the Arabs to send their children to the country-side so that they would grow up strong, healthy and learn the refined language of the Bedouin. He lived with the Banu Sad clan for four years before his mother took him back under her care. After the death of his mother, he was raised by his paternal grandfather Abdul Muttalib who was 80 years of age. 'Abdul-Muttalib died two years later at the age of 82, leaving the care and custody of the orphaned Muhammad (P.B.U.H) to Abu Talib his uncle who showed him affection even more than his own children. He always kept the child in his company and travelled with him through the caravan routes to Syria and Egypt in the north and northwest and Yemen in the south. It was during one of this trade journeys that a Christian monk by the name Bahira noticed an applelike seal of prophet hood below the shoulder of Muhammad (P.B.U.H). He advised his uncle to take great care of the young Muhammad who was only twelve years and take him back to Makkah. As a young boy he looked after his uncles herds and he was also fond of sitting in the circles of the elders to gain wisdom unlike other youths who indulged in social evils. Muhammad was popularly known as al-Ameen for his unimpeachable character by the Makkans and visitors alike. The title Al-Ameen means the Honest, the Reliable and the Trustworthy, and it signified the highest standard of moral and public life. **Marriage to lady khadija** Upon hearing of Muhammads good character, Khadija Bint Khuwaylid, a rich merchant widow, asked Muhammad (P.B.U.H) to take some merchandise for trade to Syria. It is written that in the trade caravans, her merchandise usually equaled that of the whole tribe put together. She was the daughter of Khuwaylid ibn Asad ibn 'Abdul-'Uzza ibn Qusayi. Soon after this trip Khadija realized that Muhammad had brought more profits than she had been getting previously.Muhammad was twenty-five when Khadija proposed marriage to him through her friend Nafisa who immediately went to inform him. He accepted the proposal and requested his uncle to discuss the matter with Khadijas uncle Umar ibn Asad. At that time, Khadija was twice widowed and forty years old. Theygot six children; four daughters and two sons. His first son Qassim died at **|** P a g e 115 ----- the age of two. His second son Abdullah died in infancy. The four daughters were: Zainab, Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum, and Fatimah (R.A) **Baath and first revelation** The hrophets life attracted everybodys respect andhonor. He won the confidence of Khadija, his wife, as well as other people in Makka from his positive character. For the next fifteen years, he dedicated his life to meditation and worship contrary to the norms of social evils practiced at that time. Unknowingly, he was protected by Allah (S.W.T) from the evils that prevailed and occupied the culture of the people. He used to go to the cave Hira at Jabal Nur (Mt. Nur) in the outskirts of Makka. In this place, he would pray to Allah (S.W.T) for deliverance from the dirty practices that were common and the darkness of worshipping idols. Every aspect of creation gave him the hope of a way of life that would exclude him from the immoral practices. He would stay there for a number of days before going home. This practice continued and became part of his programme. One night during the month of Ramadhan, at the age of forty **,** while in the cave, Jibril (S.A) came in human form and told him, I am Jibril, and you are Allahs messenger Then he told the hrophet, Read!The prophet answered him, I cannot read, Jibril squeezed him hard and repeated the same words while the prophet gave the same answer. On the third time the prophet asked, What shall I read? Jibril told him: **Read in the name of your lord who created** **Who created man from a clot.** **Read:Andthe Lord is the most Bounteous,** **Who teaches by the pen,** **Teaches man that which he knew not [Q: 96:1-5]** Muhammad repeated the words until they permanently stuck in his memory before the disappearance of Jibril (A.S). These verses marked the first revelation of the Quran that would continue for the next twenty three years of his life. After the sudden disappearance of Jibril (A.S), he could still re-visualize him and could recall the words. A mixture of fear and shock had engulfed him. He could not stay in the cave, so he went back home while still having this vision his mind. At home he related what had happened to Khadija. She **|** P a g e 116 ----- had a strong belief that her husband could neither be injured nor harmed by evils and spirits because of the record of virtues that he practiced. He was quite depressed by the occasion. More often he would see Jibril in his vision wherever he was and he would tell Khadija, dathiruni i.e. cover me up. There was a duration in which the revelation paused after the first verses of Surat ul Alaq this period is known as Fatra, but still the prophet would see the vision of Jibril (A.S) and say, dathiruni i.e. cover me up. After a while Jibril appeared again, and this time with the first seven verses of Surat ul Mudathir: ***O you wrapped up (in a mantle).*** ***Stand and warn (the people) Arise and deliver thy warning!*** ***And thy Lord do you magnify!*** ***And thy garments keep free from stain!*** ***And all abomination shun!*** ***But for thy Lords (cause) be patient and constant...*** **[Q: 74:1-7]** This was an indicator of a turning point to the life of Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) from an ordinarily viewed Muhammad of theBanu Hashim clan, to a globally esteemed and divinely distinguished role model in the service of Allah (S.W.T). Unlike the other men of Makka, he had been anointed as the last messenger of Allah (S.W.T.), an opportunity that never before or after would be shared with, or seized by any other creature. He had received the honor of undertaking the divine responsibility of leading others in the worship of Allah (S.W.T). He had a mission of delivering the rest of mankind from idolatry and directing them towards the worship of Allah (S.W.T). The shape of the moral pattern of life lay in his effort as per the will of Allah (S.W.T). It was inclusions of his name into the chain of prophets of Allah (S.W.T), and above that a seal of that chain of Prophet Hood. Above all, he had been bestowed with the great honor of receiving the Quran, which is the seal of the divine books of Allah (S.W.T), for the guidance of mankind and a testimony to all creatures. **Early Muslim community** After receiving Wahyi, the prophets mission was to preach Islam to the entire Ummah. It was his obligation to preach the oneness of Allah to the Quraish who were worshipping Idols and offering **|** P a g e 117 ----- sacrifices to them. Most of the people were unbelievers and practiced polytheism. The prophet started preaching in secret and mostly to his family members and close friends. He managed to get a few followers who accepted to convert to Islam. Among the very first people to convert came from his family household.These included Khadija Binti Khuwaylid (hrophets first wife), his cousin Ali bin Abi Talib (RA),and Abubakar Assidiq(R.A), the prophets dearest friend and Zaid bin Harith (R.A), his adopted son. Several other people in Makka embraced Islam and strengthened the religion making it gain popularity. The first early converts included among others; Uthman Bin Affan, Saad Bin Abi Waqas, Zubeir Bin Awwam, Talha Bin Ubaidullah, Abdurrahman Bin Auf and Az-Zuhri. After three years of preaching the religion in secrecy nearly forty people had converted to Islam and accepted to follow the Islamic teachings. Allah (S.W.T) commanded the prophet (P.B.U.H) to preach to the people openly and warn them against polytheism. Almighty Allah (S.W.T) says, ***Therefore expound openly what you are commanded, and turn*** ***away from those who join false gods with Allah.*** [Q: 15:94] After the prophet was commanded to preach openly, he gathered the Makkanpeople at MountSafa and addressed them on the Oneness of Allah(S.W.T). The hrophet thus said, eou see if I were to tell you that there were some horse men in the valley planning to raid you, will you believe me? They said: ees, we have only witnessed the truth from you. He said, I am a Warner to you before a severe torment.Although the people had known the prophet as avery honest person, they refused to accept him as a prophet. His own uncle called Abu Lahab cursed the prophet by telling him, May you Perish this day. Have you called us here for such a thing (believing in one God) that you made us to gather here? Allah was angered by Abu Lahabs remarks on the hrophet (h.B.U.H) and a Surah was revealed called Suratul- Lahab. In this surah, Allah the Almighty condemned Abu Lahab together with his wife. Allah says in the Quran, ***Perish the hands of the father of flame! Perish he!*** ***No profit to him from his wealth, and all his gains!*** ***Burnt soon will he be in a fire of blazing flame!*** ***His wife shall carry the (cracking) wood as fuel!*** ***A twisted rope of palm leaf fibre round her (own) neck!*** **[Q: 111]** **|** P a g e 118 ----- **Persecution** What do you understand by the word persecution? In your live experience,have you undergone any hardships? Mention a few of these situations to your friend. Persecution refers to the subjection of pain to an individual or group of people in order to discourage them from carrying out their endeavors. The Quraish were not pleased to see that several people were embracing Islam. They held meetings to plan how they would stop the prophet and his companions from preaching and practicing Islam. Under the leadership of Abu Lahab, the prophets own uncle, plans were put in place to stop the spread of Islam. The new and weak converts were to be subjected to intimidation, threats and physical torture. Several other methods were used to punish and discourage the Prophet of Allah and his companions for accepting Islam as the true and only religion. **Methods of persecution** Each of the leaders among the Quraish began persecuting any one in their clan who was following Islam.They used various methods among them were the following: The prophet and the early Muslims were pelted with stones as they walked in the streets of Makka. Abu Lahab forced his two sons who had married Ruqayyah and UmmuKulthum (daughters of the prophet) to divorce them. UmmuJamil Bint Harb, who was Abu Suffiyyans sister and the wife of Abu Lahab,used to tie bundles of thorns with ropes and place them on the prophets path. The Makkans used to rebuke the Muslims and abuse them whenever they saw them. UmmulJamil recited the follwing words of disrespect; We have disobeyed the dispraised one, rejected his call and alienated ourselves from his religion. Uqbah bin AbiMuait put the intenstines of the camel on the shoulders of the prophet while he was in Swalat. **|** P a g e 119 ----- Walid ibn Mughira would speak ill about the prophetscharacter Allah (S.W.T) says, ***Heed not the type of despicable man,ready with oaths, a slanderer going about*** ***with*** ***calumnies,*** ***(habitually)*** ***hindering*** ***(all)*** ***good,transgressing*** ***beyond*** ***bounds,deep in sin.*** [Q:68:10 12] The Quraish barred the prophet and the Muslims from offering prayers in the public and in the Kaaba. Some companions of the prophet like Bilal bin Rabah and Ammar bin Yassir were tied on donkeys and dragged through the town in the scorching sand. In other cases, iron armors were put on the companions who would then be left in the hot sun to fry.This happened to Bilal bin Rabah. Female slaves like An-Nahdiyah and Zanirah were mistreated by their masters and denied food for embracing Islam until Abubakar paid for their freedom. Khabbab bin Al-Arath, who was a slave would be dragged by her hair, and her neck was twisted then she was thrown into the fire until her back was burnt. Muslims were also killed cruelly. Summaiya was bayoneted with a red hot iron by Abu Jahal until she died. Ammar and his parents were forced to repeatedly lie on burning sand as they were severely beaten. Bilal bin Rabah was severely beaten by his master Umayyah bin Khalaf. He would be dragged through the streets on bear chest.A heavy stone was placed on his chest to force him to denounce Islam. Uthman bin Affan used to be wrapped in a mat of palm leaves then fire would be set under him. Musab bin Umair was denied food and water by her mother and when she saw that he was not ready to denounce Islam, she expelled him from her house. **Migration to Abyssinia (615 C.E)** Abyssinia is the current Ethiopia. Islam was getting many converts day by day despite the torture they got from the Quraish. When the persecutions became unbearable to the newly converted Muslims, the prophet (P.B.U.H) advised them to migrate to Abyssinia. It was a Christian King called Negus(Najash Ash-ham) who was known for his tolerance and knowledge about religious issues and was very hospitable. **|** P a g e 111 ----- Abyssinia was a peaceful country and far away from Makkah. This would help the Muslims to settle down and continue with their new faith. Fourteen men and one woman sneaked through the rough desert and fled to Abyssinia. Each day the number of the asylums gradually increased. The prophet (P.B.U.H) was left behind to continue with the propagation of Islam. The Makkans were infuriated by the news of the Muslims migration to Abyssinia. They sent delegations to the court of King Negus to ask him to hand the Muslims back to them. This was in the year 615 C.E. King Negus was a good listener, wise and just. He listened to both parties and disapproved the Quraish allegations against the Muslims and gave the Muslims freedom of staying in Abyssinia for as long as they would not interfere with the peace. **Results of the Muslims migration to Abyssinia** We have seen that after several persecutions, the prophet advised the Muslims to migrate. This migration was a sigh of relief for them and the following were the results: 1. Muslims lived peacefully in Abyssinia. 2. There was intermarriage between the Abyssinians and the Muslims. 3. Many Abyssinians converted to Islam at that time. 4. Trade flourished in Abyssinia. 5. Muslims were able to practice their faith freely and peacefully. 6. The disappointed Quraish decided to look to intensify their persecutions against the prophet and the Muslims who had been left in Makkah. **Boycott of the Banu Hashim (617-620 C.E)** The pagans were not happy to see theBanu Hashim protecting the Prophet. In their struggle to get rid of the prophet they met at a place called Wadi-l Muhassab, an oath was taken and an agreementwritten by Bagheed bin Amir bin Hashim was signed. It contained the following rules: The other Arab tribes should not conduct any business dealings with the Banu Hashim. No inter-marriage was to take place between them and any other tribe. There should be neither social relations norinteractions like visiting them. There should be no communication whatsoever. The Banu Hashim should not enter the Kaaba. **|** P a g e 111 ----- Food and water supply was not allowed to reach them. This boycott took place between 617-620 C.E and the Banu Hashim and the sympathizers of the prophet were confined in a mountainous valley known as Shib Abu Talib which was hostile for human habitation. This lasted for a period of three years. The agreement and was attached at the Kaaba. The prophet cursed him and his hand got paralyzed As time went by, the Makkans developed mixed feelings and some started sympathizing with their expelled kinsmen.A special group was formed to campaign for abolishing the agreement.Abu Jahal was consulted several times but he refused.After a hot argument, it was discovered that the whole piece of paper on which the agreement had been written had been eaten by ants.The boycott was therefore lifted and the Muslims were allowed to come back to Makka. **Circumstances that led to the Boycott of the Banu Hashim** 1. Failure of the Makkans to convince the newly converted Muslims to go back to their traditional religion. 2. Failure by the Makkans to bring back the Muslims from Abyssinia. 3. Islam was against the Makkans religion. 4. Makkans were alarmed by the increasing number of Muslims. 5. The Makkans failure to stop the prophet from preaching Islam. 6. Failure of the Makkans to persuade Abu Twalib, whohad persistently promised to protect the prophet, to stop his nephew from preaching Islam. 7. The Makkans were alarmed by the conversion of Umar bin Khattab to Islam. 8. Islam was rapidly spreading beyond Makka e.g. Abyssinia. **Effects of Boycott of the Banu Hashim** 1. It resulted in the death of Khadija and Abu Twalib (the strong pillars of the prophet P.B.U.H). 2. Spread of Islam came to a standstill for sometime in Makka. 3. The Muslims suffered economic hardships. 4. It inflicted mental torture to the prophet and the Muslims werepsychologically affected. **|** P a g e 112 ----- 5. The Muslims became weak due to hunger and starvation. 6. Others became seriously sick while others died. 7. The attention of the prophet was diverted from preaching to attending to the welfare of the Muslims. 8. It restricted the prophets audience to outsiders since they would not move outside the cave. 9. It strengthened the prophets determination to continue with his mission. **The Year of Sorrow (Am-ul Huzn)** How do you morn a berievement or a loss? It may be loss of money or any other important item in life. It is normal for any human being to feel a sense of lose once someone close to him or her dies. This was no exception for the prophet when helost two pillars of support; that is, his dear wife, Khadija who gave him financial and moral support, and his uncle Abu Twalib who always protected him from the malice of the Quraish. The prophet as a human being was bereaved, depressed and tensed. Therefore Allah (S.W.T) granted him a miraculous journey to uplift his spirit towards Islam. We shall now look at the miraculous journey also known as Isra wal Miraaj. **Israai wal miraaj (620 C.E)** This episode is in two parts starting with the Israai. This term literally means a night journey.It is the famous miraculous night journey embarked by the prophet (P.B.U.H) escorted by Angel Jibril (A.S) from Makkah to Jerusalem in Masjidul Maqdas. Allah (S.W.T) says: ***Glorified be He who carried His servant by night from the inviolable place of worship*** ***(Makkah)to the far distant place of worship (Jerusalem) the neighborhood where of we have*** ***blessed that we might show him of our tokens! Lo! He only He is the hearer, the seer.*** [Q: 17:1] The second part which is Miiraaj literally means a ladder.This is the ascension of the prophet (P.B.U.H) from Jerusalem (BaitulMaqdis) through the space to the seventh heaven during. This remarkable journey took place in the year 620 C.E **Reasons for Israai wal Miraaj** **|** P a g e 113 ----- Allah wanted to console the Prophet (P.B.U.H) from the hardships he had been experiencing from the Quraish in terms of persecutions. Allah (S.W.T) wanted to give the prophet (P.B.U.H) an opportunity to experience His great power and Might so as to fill his heart with full confidence, belief, faith and reliance on Him. To prepare the prophet (P.B.U.H) for the great mission that was ahead of him such as migration (Hijra) and the everlasting confrontation with polytheism (Kufr). To give the believers hope and courage to look forward tobetter days ahead from their noble religion of Islam. **Significance of Israai wal Miraaj** It signified that prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) was the leader of the two Qiblasi.e. BaitulMaqdis and Masjidul Haraam in Makkah. It showed that prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) was a true successor of the messengers before him. Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) was declared as the leader (Imam for the generations to come). It pre-ordained that Islamic religion was to stay up to the end of time (Yaum-ul-mahshar). It clearly indicated the finality of prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) It distinguished between the true believers and false ones. Some Muslims denounced Islam after the episode of Israai & Miiraaj when Abu Jahal doubted about the journey, the prophet (P.B.U.H) confronted them in the morning with facts about his whole journey. It clearly strengthened the faith of Abu Bakr who was the first to believe in the prophet when he came back. It signified the position and the status of Majid Aqswaa to Muslims and as the gateway to Majid Haraam. It shows the prominence of Swalat and its position in a Muslims life. It was in the journey of Miiraaj that the prophet was given the five daily prayers. The journey highlighted the penalties for certain social evils in the society such as backbiting, fornication (Zinaa), denying orphans their wealth, those who desist from paying Zakat; among other evils. The journey underscored the importance of Masjid Aqswaa as a holy or sacred trust to all Muslims and it is their religious obligation to guard it from any form of destruction. It signifies how Allah honors the prophet by bestowing upon him such a miraculous journey. **|** P a g e 114 ----- **The Prophets Mission in Madina** **Beginning of the Muslim Mission** Madinatu-Rasool (the city of the prophet) is the name of the settlement originally referred to as Yathrib. It was inhabited by the Arab tribes of Aws and Khazraj as well as certain Jewish tribes. The two tribes of Aws and Khazraj used to visit Makka during the pilgrimage season and also to attend to business affairs. The prophet (P.B.U.H) used to preach to every group that came for pilgrimage or for business in his quest to present Islam to them. It was during these visits that he met with six people from the tribe of Khazraj who accepted Islam. The prophet then asked them if they would support him in propagating Islam in Yathrib as his base. Due to the clashes between Aus and Khazraj, this group agreed with the prophet on people who would go and preach the message of Islam and peace to the other tribes in Yathrib. They requested the prophet to postpone this request till the following year. When they reached Yathrib, Allah (S.W.T) had willed the spread of Islam in Yathrib and the tribes of Aus and Khazraj sorted out most of their differences. At the end of the year, they returned to Makka with a group of ten Khazrajites and two Aws. They agreed to meet the prophet at the valley of Aqaba which is in Mina. The Yathribites then promised the prophet and Muslims their support to Yathrib- a journey referred to as *Hijra.* **Terms of the First Covenant of Aqaba (621C.E)** Have you been involved in any agreement with your friend? What were some of the reasons that led to the two of you entering into this agreement? Thi scould be termed as a covenant. Itis an agreement usually formal entered into by two or more persons to do or not to get involved in something. It may contain some set of rules which we refer to as terms that govern the conduct of those involved. This happened when the prophet met some Yathribitesat the valley of Aqaba. They agreed on the following: i. They should worship one God. ii. They should abstain from evils. iii. They should obey the laws of Allah (SWT) and His prophet. After their discussion, the prophet chose Musab bin Umair and Abdullah bin Umm Makhtum to teach the Yathribites more about Islam. When these people returned to Yathrib, they propagated Islam to such an extent that Islam was the only topic in every home. **|** P a g e 115 ----- **The Second Covenant of Aqaba (622 C.E)** In the year 622 C.E, during the next pilgrimage, a group of 72 Yathribites including two women came to Makka. They met the prophet and his uncle Abbas at Aqaba, who addressed them thus, My nephew has always been regarded as the noblest and held in high esteem by his people. If you wish to take him to Madina, first, be sure that you are able to uphold the agreement, fulfill your covenant, and protect him against his enemies. If you are unable to do so, then do not take this responsibility and leave him with his people instead. The leader of the eathribites replied: We are taking full responsibility. In fact this is the very reason we are pledging this allegiance to him. They, therefore, promised to defend him fully and were prepared not to break this agreement under any circumstance. They also swore to worship one God and leave according to the teachings of Islam. The prophet accepted their offer to migrate to Yathrib and he appointed twelve leaders from among them saying, eou are responsible to your people just as the disciples ofIssa bin Maryam were responsible to him and I am responsible to my people. The twelve agreed to represent the prophet in Yathrib until his arrival. **|** P a g e 116 ----- **Muslim Emigration to Madina** The following map illustrates the route that was used by the Muslims during Hijra. You must have learnt in History about migration of people from one region to another. For example, the Bantu speaking people are said to have originated from Shungwaya in the Congo basin to come and settle in the parts of East Africa. What are some of the reasons that may lead to such migration? In History of Islam however, the reasons you have given may not apply. The prophet had the responsibility of ensuring that Islam spread far and wide and had to protect the few who had converted to Islam. This started when the Quraish learnt of the pledge of Aqaba and intensified their torture against the Muslims. As a result of this the prophet permitted the Muslims to secretly start migrating to Madina. The noble swahabas (companions) obeyed immediately and they started migrating. Among the first to migrate were Abu Salama, his wife and son. However, Ummu Salama was prevented by her **|** P a g e 117 ----- family members from migrating until a year later. Meanwhile, the other Muslims continued leaving in small groups. They travelled for several days through the rocky and dusty villages until they reached the first village, known as Quba which is 1 km south of eathrib. They were received warmly by the Yathribites and they stayed here for a period of two weeks. The Yathribites welcomed them into their homes selflessly and this earned the Yathribites the title *Ansaar* which means helpers. Abubakar (RA) and Ali (RA) were not among this first group that arrived in Yathrib. This is because the prophet had planned that Abubakar should migrate with him. Upon learning this, Abubakar purchased two camels in preparation for the journey. **Migration of the Prophet (P.B.U.H) to Madina** The Quraish sensed more danger when they realized that over one hundred Muslim families had already settled in Madina. They were afraid that the Muslims would join forces with the two tribes in Madina i.e. Aus and Khazraj and become very powerful. Therefore, they called for a meeting at Dar un Nadwa to discuss measures that would be taken against the prophet. In the meeting, the following three suggestions were put forward: i. The prophet should be tied in chains and imprisoned behind strong bars. ii. The prophet to be banished from Makkah. iii. The prophet to be eliminated by way of murdering him. After a long discussion, they all agreed on Abu Jahals advice that the prophet should be killed. In order that no single person or clan could be blamed, they chose one man from each of the twelve tribes to participate in the murder. However, Allah had already informed the prophet about the evil plan of the pagans and through Angel Jibril He instructed him to Madina the same night they had plotted to kill him. He therefore, asked Abubakar to prepare for their departure. Meanwhile, the prophets house had already been surrounded by a number of youth from the various tribes of the Quraish. The prophet asked Ali (R.A) to stay behind and lay on the prophets bed and in the morning return all the valuables that had been kept under the custody of the prophet to their owners. The prophet then emerged from his house and flung a handful of sand in the direction of the pagans while reciting the opening verses of Surat Yasin. This resulted in them falling asleep and they did not see the prophet leave for Abubakars house. They then emerged from the backdoor of **|** P a g e 118 ----- Abubakars house and headed towards the cave of Thaur.They entered and hid in the cave. The prophet immediately went to sleep because of the long journey they had gone through. He was woken up by the tears of the Abubakar who was feeling pain because he had been stung by a poisonous insect. The prophet then immediately used his saliva to apply on Abubakars foot and the pain stopped immediately. Meanwhile the Quraish leaders were very upset upon learning that the prophet had escaped and left Ali on his bed. They dispatched search parties all around Makka and promised a hundred camel reward for whoever captured the prophet dead or alive. The Makkans were motivated by the reward and they started combing the entire area until some group entered the entrance to the cave. They even employed a Bedouin fortune teller who had the skills of tracing footsteps. He trailed the Prophet and Abubakar until he reached the entrance of the cave of Thaur. Abubakar was afraid that they might be caught but the prophet comforted him by reminding him that Allah was with them. Allah hid them from being seen by the pagans when he inspired a spider to weave a web across the entrance of the cave. (This is referred to as the miracle of the cave).Furthermore a pigeon laid an egg at the entrance by the will of Allah and then a nearby tree bent its branches until they covered the entrance into the cave. Finally, the group carrying out the search with the advice ofUmayyah bin Khalaf left the place without entering the cave after arguing that there were no traces of anyone having gone into the cave.This miracle of the cave teaches us that: - Islam is the true religion chosen by Allah(S.W.T) - Muslimsshould always relay on Allah (S.W.T) for their protection. - All creations obey the command of Allah(S.W.T). They remained hidden in the cave for three days. During this period, Abdullah, the son of Abubakar used to update them at night with the news of Makkah while Asma bint Abubakar brought them food. By the end of the three days, the Makkan troupes had already given up their search. On the fourth day, the freed slave of Abubakar brought them the two camels that had been bought by Abubakar. He was accompanied by Abdullah bin Ariqeet who was to guide them through a secret route to Madina. **The prophets arrival at Quba** The Ansaars were eagerly awaiting the prophets arrival. They kept checking every day in the plains but there was no sign until one day when one Jew who had been ascended a high tower spotted the **|** P a g e 119 ----- approaching group. He then shouted, He for whom you have been waiting has arrived. The prophet was then hosted by Banu Aws. He remained at Quba for a few days in which the Muslims undertook the task of constructing the first mosque called the mosque of piety. The prophet worked in participation with other Muslims until the mosque was completed. Ali (RA) joined them while they had camped at Quba. **Arrival in Madina** The prophet and the Muslims set out for Madina on a Friday of Rabiul Awwal 622 C.E. The inhabitants of Madina woke up early awaiting the arrival of the prophet (P.B.U.H). As he entered the city his camel was surrounded by excited Ansaar as they called out Takbeer in joy. Each of the families tried to tag at the camels reins so that it would stop at their homes. They were offering their homes, wealth and lives to the prophet (h.B.U.H). The prophet thus said, Leave the camel as it is, for it is guided by Allah (and will stop wherever it is ordered to stop). Finally the camel sat down in the home ofAbu Ayub Khalid Al Ansaari in an area inhabited by Banu An-Najjar. He stayed in this home until a house was built for him. The people of Yathrib agreed to change its name to Madina tun Nabi which the city of the prophet or Madinatul Munawwara; The city of light. Upon arrival in Madina, the prophet had the following tasks to perform: **i.** **Construction of a Mosque** Have you been involved in the construction of any building? What are some of the materials that must be available during any such construction? Among the things you have mentined is the palce where the construction has to take place. When the Muslims came to Madina, they did not have enough land to carry out all their activities.This therefore prompted Abubakar to purchase the piece of land on which the prophets camel had rested when they first arrived in Madina. It belonged to two orphans who had decided to give it free of charge but the prophet insisted that they had to be paid. The construction of the prophets mosque began immediately with both the Ansaar and the Muhajirun taking up various tasks. The prophet actively took part by carrying bricks as he recited various verses of the Quran and Dua. One of the duas he said was, O Allah! No bliss is there but that of the hereafter I beseech you to forgive the immigrants and the helpers.The ninety square meter mosque was completed by **|** P a g e 121 ----- an additional two rooms to accommodate his family and aplace was also reserved to the North to cater for thehomeless. **ii.** **Rehabilitation of the Muhajirun from Makkah** It was the main test of the prophet in ensuring that Islamic brotherhood was going to be established. The Ansaar had been taking care of the Muhajirun who left most of their belongings in Makka. The prophet united both the Ansaar and Muhajirun and the former were to continue sharing their wealth with the latter. They even adopted some of them into their homes and built homes for others. Employment was provided to them from large plantations while financial support was given to others to start up small businesses. This was a very unique and historical bond and it came to be referred t as *Muwakhaat* . The prophet had achieved in establishing the Muslim brotherhood within a few months. **iii.** **Fostering Unity Among the Tribes of Madina** The prophet had an important task of regulating the lives of all the citizen of Madina who included the Jews, Christians the paganthe two Arab tribes of Aws and Khazraj and the Ansaar and Muhajirun in order to foster unity and harmony.He therefore it was necessary for him to established the Madinan charter which constituted a set of rules and regulations meant to govern all the citizens of Madina and is commonly known as The Madinan constitution. **Relationship between the Ansaar and Muhajirun** 1. The Ansaar and Muhajirun were united by the bond of Islamic brotherhood. 2. The Ansaar showed charity by sharing their wealth with the Muhajirun. 3. The Ansaar also adapted their fellow brother into their homes. 4. They even built houses for others. 5. Some found jobs for them to do on the plantations. 6. Others gave the Muhajirun in support in starting their own businesses. **|** P a g e 121 ----- **Madinan Constitution** Any organization will always have its own rule and regulations to govern them. It is because of the individual differences of the members of the society or country that it becomes necessary to formulate laws that will harmonise all the operations of the organization. These set of rules or laws are included in the document we call a constitution.A constitution can be defined as a law determining the fundamental political principles of a government or an organisation. In Kenya, for example, we had a refurundum in 2007 to vote for the new constitution which was passed by the Kenyans. It consists of a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which [a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up or constitute, what the entity](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(polity)) is. When these principles are written down into a single collection or set of legal documents, those documents may be said to comprise a written constitution. The Madinan constitution therefore was an agreement between the Muslims and the other Arabian tribes in Madina, the Jews, Christians and Polytheists to regulate relations and ensure peace between all of them. It was a written agreement and the first political agreement between Muslims and non Muslims whose principles were based on the Quran and Sunnah. Its also the first constitution and the greatest political document ever known in History. **We shall now look at the major terms of this document:** As we have mentioned above, any constitution will comprise of rules to govern those who agree to adhere to it. The Madinan constitution also had its terms as follows: |The Ansaar and Muhajirun shall constitute one group of Umma to the exclusion of others. All Muhajirun shall take the 2. responsibility of their own wards, shall pay blood among them and shall also ransom their prisoners in the event of war. The people of Banu Aws and 3. the six other tribes will be|Col2| |---|---| ||| P a g e 122| ----- **Importance of the Madinan Constitution** a. It was an attempt to bring reconciliation of all the tribes and prevent the Madinan tribes from frequent tribal wars. b. It outlined the principles for establish good relationship between the Muslims and non Muslims. c. The prophetsposition as the supreme leader and controller of all affairs of Madina as a state and arbitrator of any dispute so as to bring peace was declared. d. The constitution summarized the rights of all the Madina citizens such as; freedom of speechthought and worship. e. Itensured protection of life and property and discouraged all types of crimes like murder, stealing among others. f. The Muslims and Islam were protected against the plots of the Jews and the hypocrites. g. It proved the Prophet as a great leader. He was able to organize Madina and free it from tyranny, tribalism, selfishness and dictatorship. **|** P a g e 123 ----- **Challenges in Madina** Even though the prophet was welcomed in Madina, his stay was not peaceful because of the mayhem caused by the Quraish of Makka and a few tribes in Madina. They include the following: 1. A clan of Khazraj headed by Abdullah ibn Ubayy who had been expecting to take over as a king of Yathrib. He therefore pretended to revert to Islam together with his supporters (Munafiqun). They had not been happy with the prophets advancement and started causing mischief among the believers. 2. The Jews staying in Madina also opposed the prophet when the verse came directing Muslims to change the Qibla from Jerusalem to Makka. (Read Q: 2:146)They secretly contacted the Makkan Pagans and started to work against the interest of the Muslims. They also rejected Prophet Mohammad because the messenger they had expected to come was to be from their tribe. 3. The Quraish started sending troops to kill the prophet and his companions. 4. Often, they interfered with business activities by looting the towns and destroyed the Arab trade in the region by paralyzing all business activities. 5. They also sent raiding parties with the intention of destroying fruit trees, plantations and carrying away animals. 6. The Makkans conspired with the Munafiqun to rebel against the prophet and Muslims. 7. The Quraish went ahead to form alliances with other tribes with the aim of to dislodging Islam and the Muslims. 8. The Quraish leaders spread negative information about the prophet i.e. they said that he was a seeker chased from his motherland in order to discourage people from embracing Islam. aespite all these challenges, the prophet remained patient awaiting Allahs command **Hijra as a Turning Point in the History of Islam** 1. The prophet received a warm welcome from the people of Yathrib who were eager to learn Islam as compared to the Makkan Quarish who used to persecute Muslims. 2. There was rapid spread of Islam after Hijra as opposed to earlier on. 3. After Hijra, Islam came to triumph over the pagan religions and was soon the religion for the whole of Arabian Peninsula and even expanded further. 4. Muslims were able to conduct their affairs peacefully in Yathrib Madina resulting in the expansion of trade and an organized army. 5. The first mosque Masjidul Quba was constructed and Muslims could pray freely. **|** P a g e 124 ----- 6. Muslims were able to fight in defense of their religion and won in most of the battles because of the strength they built after travelling to Madina. 7. Hijra marks the beginning of the Islamic Calendar at the time of Umar al Khattab 8. Muslims got a city of their own and changed the name Yathrib to Madina. **Importance of Hijra in the history of Islam** 1. There was rapid spread of Islam outside Makka since the Muslims were no longer in fear of Quraish attack. 2. Islam came to triumph over the pagan religion and was soon considered the religion for the entire Arabian Peninsula. 3. Muslims were living in peace and could therefore conduct their affairs without interference. This resulted in expansion of trade and consequently stabilizing their economy. 4. Due to the prevailing peace, the prophet was able to organize the Muslim army in readiness for the defense of the religion. 5. The first mosque (Masjidul Quba) was constructed and thus the Muslims were able to freely worship. 6. The prophet got ample time to teach the new Muslim community Islamic laws and regulations to guide the affairs of the Muslim state. 7. The prophet and the Muslims got a city of their own and changed the name Yathrib to Madina. 8. The year of Hijra i.e. 622 AD marked the beginning of the Islamic calendar. **|** P a g e 125 ----- **The Battle of BADR(2A.H/624 C.E) 17** **[th]** **Ramadhan** The prophets effort to enter into peace treaties with the Jews and other tribes while in Madina was an attempt to have a community that was founded on security, harmony and freedom. However, this did not go well with the Quraish who were bitter about the migration of the prophet and his companions. They were not happy to see the Muslims settle in Madina where they were becoming famous in their ways of life while the Islamic faith was becoming more prominent. Abdullah bin Ubayy bin Salul had been previously promised leadership by the Aus and the Khazraj of Madina. However, with the migration of the prophet in Madina, majority of the in habitants voluntarily became Muslims and preferred the leadership of the prophet over anybody else. This made Abdullah bin Ubayy together with his sympathizers to be Muslims but not absolutely dedicated. They became enemies of Islam from within. They pretended to be Muslims but actually did everything to spoil Islam and secretly oppose it. These people came to bb e referred to as the Munafiqun (hypocrites). They collaborated with the Quraish to give important information and also help them weaken the Muslims. **|** P a g e 126 ----- The Quraish, promising support to the Munafiqun, encouraged them to get rid of the Muslims in Madina by all means. Abdullah bin Ubayy, driven by the failed attempt for leadership, complied with the Quraish and organized themselves to fight the Muslims, but without success. The people from Madina were threatened when they went for Umra because of the presence of Muslims in their land. Verbal and written provocations were sent to the Muslims in Madina with all sorts of threats and hatching of plans to expel the Muslims from this important geographical position i.e. the passage to Syria. Finally, permission to fight was given to the Muslims by Allah when the ayats were sent down that: ***To those, against whom war is made, permission is given to (fight), because they were*** ***wronged-and verily, Allah is Most powerful for their aid.*** **[Q: 22:39]** Reasons that made the Quraish fight in the battle of Badr; `o` The Quarish were angry because the Muslims had escaped from them. `o` Islam challenged the old religion of the Quarish so the Makkans did not like the spread of the new faith. `o` The Quarish feared that Muslims would block their caravans to the North. `o` Confrontation between the Makkans and the Muslims who had been send to defend the caravan. `o` The Makkans were jealousy of the conversion of prominent people like Hamza and Umar bin Khattab to Islam. Muslims fought in the battle so as to: a. Assert their might and instill fear among the Quarish who had always seen them as weak. b. Compensate for the loss the Muslims had gone through while they were in Makka. c. Cut off the access of the Quraish traders to Syria. **|** P a g e 127 ----- **Events of the Battle** Madina was a trade link to Syria used by all the traders.In the year 624 C.E the prophet was informed of a large caravan belonging toQuraish led by Abu Sufyan that was travelling from Sham (Syria) with worthy goods and was to pass through Madina. The prophet then told the Muslims, Here is the caravan of the Quraish well loaded with wealth and merchandise. This is an opportunity which we cannot afford to miss The prophet thus led to attack the caravan in revenge of what the Quraish had done to them. The prophet left Abdullah Ibu UmmiMakhtum and Lubaba Bin Abdumundhir to take care of the Muslim affairs in Madina. There were only forty people guarding this caravan. The Muslim did not manage to intercept the caravan because the news of the Muslims plan had reached Abu Sufyan who managed to use a different route. He even informed the Quraish through a letter that he had managed to escape using the sea rout but Abu Jahal insisted by saying that the Arabs should see, hear and understand that we are powerful people. The Quraish had set out more than 1000 people with 750 camels, 100 horses, 600 of the men were wearing iron amours. When he learnt about the plan of the Quraish, he then consulted with his companions and they agreed to go ahead and fight the Quraish army. Muslim army had only 313 men armed with swords, 76 camels and two horses. The prophet said to his companions, Allah promised me one of the two either the caravan or the army. This was justified by the following revelation: ***Just as your Lord ordered you out of your houses in truth,even though a party among the*** ***disbelievers dislike disputing with you concerning the truth after it was made clear,as if they were*** ***being driven to death and they (actually)saw it. Behold God promised you one of the two parties*** ***(enemy), that should be yours; you wished that the one unarmed should be yours but God willed*** ***to justify the truth according to his words and the roots of the unbelievers.*** **[Q: 8:5-7].** **|** P a g e 128 ----- The prophet then received Wahyipermitting them to fight thus: ***To those against whom war is made permission is granted to fight because they are wronged and*** ***verily God is most powerful for their aid. They are who have been expelled from their homes in*** ***defiance of right (for no cause) except that they say Our Lord is our God*** **[** Q **: 22: 29-40].** ***Fight in the cause of God those who fight you, but do not transgress limits, for God loves not*** ***transgressors. And slay them wherever you catch them, turn them out from where they have*** ***turned you out for tumult and oppression are worse than killing but fight them not at the sacred*** ***mosque unless they first reward of those who suppress faith. But if they cease, God is oft-*** ***forgiving, most merciful*** [ **Q: 2: 190-192]** The tribes of Bani Adiy and Ibn Zuhraafter learning that their trade caravans were safe, they did not participate in this battle.The prophet sent Ali Bin Talib, Zubeir Bin Awwam and Saad Abi Waqqas to the wells of Badr to find out about the Quraish army. They found out that it consisted of Utba and Shayba sons of Rabia, Hakim Ibu Khizam, Tuamin Bin Adiy, Nufalah Bin Khuwaylid,Abdul Baghtary bin Hisham, Iraath Bin Amr, Annadhar Bin Aswad, Umayyad Bin KhalafandAmr Bin Hisham(Abu Jahal). This was a very strong army but the Muslims had to go for war. Habbab Bin Mundhir suggested that they should camp at the water source to deny the Quraish access. When the Quraish reached Badr, they rushed for water but the Muslims stopped them. The prophet allowed them access to the water, a move which touched Hakim Bin Hazath who suggested to Utba Rabin to give up the battle. However Abu Jahal opposed him. Traditionally the Arab battles used to start with a combat between a few pairs were appointed from the two armies before the main battle; this is referred to as a duel. In this battle it involved Hamza Bin Abdul Muttalib, Ali Bin Abu Twalib and Ubeid Bin Harith from the Muslims side, againstUtba bin Rabia, his brother Shayba bin Rabia and Utbas son al Walid from the Quraish. Shayba was defeated and killed by Hamza; Walid was also killed by Ali. Ubeid and Utba drew each dealt a death blow to the other but Ubeid died on the way back while Utba died on the sport. **|** P a g e 129 ----- As the Quraish army was advancing Prophet raised his hands and prayed to Allah (S.W.T) and said, O Allah! Should this group (of Muslims) be defeated today, you will no longer be worshipped. As a result of this dua, Allah sent angels to assist the Muslims. Allah says in theQuranthus: ***Remember*** ***you implored the assistance of your Lord and He answered you; I will assist you with a thousand*** ***Angels ranks on ranks.*** [Q: 8:9] The Quraish saw the number of Muslims increasing and they started retreating.The Muslims fought with courage and emerged victorious in this battle. The Muslims considered their victory as having come from Allah. It is said in the Quran by Allah **(S.W.T),** ***It is not you who slew them; It was*** ***Allah: When you threw (a handful of dust) it was not your act but Allahs: Inorder that He might*** ***test the believers by a gracious trial from Himself: For God is He who hears and knows (all*** ***things.)*** [Q8:17] By the end of the battle, 70 enemies were killed and 70 others taken as captives. Only 14 Muslims were killed. The relatives of the 70 captives were told to pay a ransom or the captives should teach Muslims how to read and write in order to get their freedom. **Importance of the Battle** a. It dealt a big blow to the dignity and honor of the Quarish who had considered themselves superior for many years. b. It is considered as a symbol for success of the power of truth over falsehood. c. The assistance that Muslims got from Allah (S.W.T) strengthened their faith. d. The victory of the Muslims gave assured continuity to Islamwhich would have come to an end had they been defeated. e. The prophets position as a spiritualand a state leaderwas confirmed by the Muslims victory. f. It strengthened the spirit and moral of the prophet to continue with his mission of preaching Islam. **|** P a g e 131 ----- **Reasons for the Muslims victory** They had complete faith and confidence in Allah despite their number being few.On this Allah (SWT) says, ***O ye who believe! If you will aid (The cause of Allah) He will aid you,*** ***and plant your feet firmly.*** [Q: 47:7] Unity of opinion within them.The prophet would ask for advice from the Muslim army before they decided on any matter. They showed obedience, love and respect to the Prophet as their leader. Muslims love for the hereafter gave them courage to keep fighting,since they knew of Allah(SWT) promise for those who fight for His course They were courageous, determined and zealous to win over the Quraish. Muslims were fighting for a proper reason that to ensure that the truth triumphs over falsehood. **The battle of uhud: (3 a.h/625 c.e)** **Map of the battle of uhud** **|** P a g e 131 ----- This battle took place by the hill of Uhud which is about three miles outside Makka.The Quraish advanced towards the Muslims in this battle due to the following reasons; 1. They wanted to revenge against the Muslims after a humiliating defeat at the battle Badr. 2. The Quarish wanted to re-establish their supremacy among the Arabs which they had lost during the battle of Badr. 3. They wanted to kill the prophet and bring Islam to an end before it was too late. 4. The Quarish wanted to guarantee the safety of its caravan route to Syria which had been the main cause for the battle of Uhud. **Events of the battle** Abbas, the prophets uncle informed him of the plan by the Quarish to attack the Muslims.The prophet preferred to remain in Madina to wait for the Quarish to attack but after consultation with the majority. A force of 1000 men set outfor the battle. The Quarish had gathered 3000 men, well equipped and better trained than their first army. This army was being led by Abusufian.They also brought several women to cheer them as they fought. **|** P a g e 132 ----- Just before the battle began, Abdullah bin Ubayy the leaders of the hypocrites pulled out with an army of 300 men and returned to Madina in the pretence of protecting Madina from within.As usual, the battle began with single combats who were involved then the general attack developed.The prophet placed 50 archives to protect the entrance into the hill with clear instructions not to leave their outcome. When the Quraish were being defeated, they started running away leaving their booty behind, the Muslims soldiers became greedy of the booty and they left the entrance unguarded and went for the left booty. Khalid bin Walid, the commander of the Quarish army saw the unguarded passage and instructed a section of the enemy to make a surprise attack from behind the hill of Uhud.This sudden attack caused confusion among the Muslims such that they thought the prophet had died until when he shouted, Iam Mohammed Bin Abdullah.Iam the messenger of Allah. I have come with the truth. These words gave courage to the companions who started fighting again.Sayyiduna Abu-Bakr and Ali ran to the prophet and protected him from being killed. He was hit on the face by falling rocks and spears and he lost two teeth. When the Muslims turned the tide of the battle, the Quarish started fleeing out of fear of defeat. The Muslims suffered a great loss in this battle. Seventy Muslims lost their lives among them Hamza the uncle of the prophet. His body was mutilated and Hind the wife of Abusufian ate his kidney. The prophet vowed to revenge the death of his uncle but Allah(S.W.T) sent the following verse: And if you punish, inflict the same punishment as has been afflicted on you. But if you bear patiently, it is certainly better for those who are patient; be patient for the reward of your patience is from Allah (S.W.T). ao not feel sad nor distress yourself because of their plotting.[Q: 16:127] Only 22 Quarish were killed. Following this verse, the prophet was patient and did not revenge. **IMPORTANCE OF THE BATTLE OF UHUD** 1. It showed the significance of the Muslims to follow their leaders commands i.e. the archers left the entrance unguarded disregarding the prophets not to leave the passage. 2. It awakened the believers to their responsibility as protectors of their divine mission 3. It taught Muslims to bear hardships in their mission. 4. It explains the status of the prophet as the believed messenger of Allah and the love and mercy Allah had towards the Muslims. 5. The Muslims learnt that they shouldnt be greedy for wealth 6. They learnt that victory and defeat are in the hands of Allah 7. They learnt never to under estimate an enemy. **|** P a g e 133 ----- 8. The Makkans regarded it as their first defeat over the Muslims. 9. Muslims learnt to be patient and a verse was revealed telling the prophet to show patience to the martyrs of his uncle Hamza. 10. It clearly differentiated the hypocrites like, Abdullah Ibn Ubayy from the true Muslims. 11. Muslims learnt that Allah doesnt grant victory without a proper cause. 12. Muslims learnt the importance of consultation. 13. It teaches leaders to accept the opinion of the majority. 14. Women are allowed to participate in battles as long as their presence doesnt cause an alarm e.g. Ummu Ammarah who was injured while protecting the prophet. **The Battle of Khandaq (The Trench)** This is also called the battle of Al Ahzab (tribes) because it was planned by the Jewish tribes together with the Makkans in 5 A.H (627 C.E).The defeat of the Muslims at Uhud had lowered their prestige with the Arab tribes. Some tribes which had previously supported Muslims started drifting towards the Quarish. They even started attacking the different small Muslim groups. The Jews, despite the treaty (Madina Constitution) with the Muslims were still very bitter and showed it openly. They had expected a prophet who would give them dominion and wealth, not one who would equate them to the Arabs. When they learnt that they could not use the prophet for their own ends, they tried to shake his mission and seduce his followers. They even declared the pagan religion as superior to Islam. They then joined forces with the Makkans and broke the treaty. The prophet had thus to take action and he expelled the two Jewish tribes; Banu Nadhir and Banu Qaynuqa from Madina. A grand plan was now hatched to finish the Muslims. The Jews and Makkans incited all the tribes to raise arms against the Muslims in Madina. They also joined forces with the Jews of Oasis Khaybar and Banu Quraizah and had gathered an army of 24,000 men, led by Abu Sufyan. This was to bar any entrance into the city of Madina by the attacking Quraish. **|** P a g e 134 ----- The messengers from Banu Khuza'a reached the prophet afterfour days, warning him of the armies that were to arrive in a week. The Muslims could not be able to fight such a big army in the open field. The prophet therefore gathered the Madinans to discuss the best strategy of overcoming the enemy. Meeting the enemy in the open, and waiting for them inside the city were both suggested. Lastly, the outnumbered Muslims opted to engage in a defensive battle by digging deep trenches to act as a [barrier along the northern front. This suggestion was introduced by Salman al Farsy, aPersian. Every](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salman_the_Persian) [capable Muslimin Madina including the prophet himself contributed to the digging of large and deep](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim) trench in six days. It was dug on the northern side only to obstruct any entry into the city. The other parts of Madina weresurrounded by Rocky Mountains and trees, impenetrable to large armies.Muslims established their headquarters at the hillock of Sala' a position which would give them an advantage in case the enemy crossed the trench.The final army that would defend the city from the invasion consisted of 3,000 men, and included all inhabitants of Madina over the age of 15, [except the Banu Qurayzawho had supplied the Muslims with some instruments for digging the](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banu_Qurayza) trench. When the attacking army reached Madina, they found the 15 inch ditch obstructing. They made several attempts to cross but they could not and thus they decided to lay a siege for about 27 days. At last continuous failure and increasing difficulties like lack of food, created distrust among the allies. On the 27 [th] day of the siege, a terrible cyclone with heavy rains created havoc in the enemy. They decided to raise the siege and return to their homes. **Results of this battle** 1. Muslims became victorious over the Quraish in this battle. 2. Islam established itself as the absolute master of Madina. 3. Muslims were able to take full control of Madina without interference from the Makkans 4. It gave more prestige to the prophet and the Muslims making the Arab tribes to have an admiration of Islam. 5. Swafiyyah, the daughter of the Jewish chief (a tribe which had bitterly opposed the Muslims) was married by the prophet (P.B.U.H) after this battle thus decreasing the differences between the Jews and the Muslims. **|** P a g e 135 ----- 6. The power of Munafiqun was finally broken and the Arabs all over the provinces started admiring the Muslims. **The Treaty of Hudaibiyah (6** **[th]** **Dhul Qad 6 A.H/628 C.E)** The next year after the battle of Khandaq, the prophet together with 1400 Muslims left Madina for Makka to perform Umra (lesser pilgrimage). Muslims were instructed by the prophet not to carry any weapons except swords since it waspurely a religious journey. Due to the strenuous relationship with the Makkan Quraish, they could not enter Makka directly. Therefore, theycamped at the valley of Hudaibiyah, a few milesaway from Makka and sent word to Makka that they had come for Umra and not to wage war. The first messenger Kharash bin Umayya was arrested immediately but later released; his camels legs were chopped off. Uthman was sent as a second emissary but he was locked up in a room full of smoke for three days. Due to this, a battle almost started between the two but was suspended when Uthman was released unharmed.At night, the Makkans used to sneak into the Muslims army to spy but they learnt that the Muslims were carrying out their activities very peacefully. This finally convinced the Quraish leaders that the Muslims had not come for war and they agreed to send representativeled by Suhali Ibn Amirto sign a truce with the Muslims in which the following terms were agreed: `o` There should be no hostilities between the Muslims and Makkans for ten years. `o` The prophet and the Muslims was to return to Madina that year without performing pilgrimage `o` Makkan Muslims who left their people without permission were to be returned to Makka and never be allowed to stay in Madina while Muslims who escaped from Madina to Makka would be welcomed and never returned to the Muslims. `o` No arms apart from swords would be carried by the Muslims when they go to Makka the following year `o` Any Arab tribe was free to befriend itself with the Muslims or pagan Quarish. `o` None of the terms would be changed for the next ten years. Most of the terms of the truce were friendly to the Quarish and there was a general dissatisfaction among the Muslims until when Allah (S.W.T) revealed the following verse about the treaty, ***Lo, we have given you (Mohammad) a signal victory that Allah (S.W.T) may forgive you of the*** ***sin that which is past and that which is to come, and may perfect his favors unto you and may*** ***guide you on a right path, And that Allah (S.W.T) may help you with strong help*** [ Q:48:1-3] **|** P a g e 136 ----- This verse proved to be true by the events which followed the treaty of Hudaibiyah i.e. 1. Muslims got a break of rest from the Makkan attacks. 2. Muslims were able to mix freely with any tribe they wanted. 3. There were many Makkans who got a closer view of Islam through the interaction and were able to embrace Islam e.g. Khalidbin Walid, Suhail bin Amir, Amr bin alAs. 4. It showed that the prophet was a great leader. 5. The Prophet was able to send teachers to other parts of Arabia. 6. The prophet had enough time to concentrate on his divine mission because there was peace and tranquility. 7. It assured safe access of the Muslims to Makka their holy city the following year. 8. It made the Makkan Quarish recognize Islam as an equal power with them as they withdrew from the war arena. **Lessons from the treaty of Hudaibiyah** 1. Allah (S.W.T) is always on the side of those who are sincere. 2. Muslims should always have faith in Allah (S.W.T). 3. Victory always comes from Allah (S.W.T) especially to those who are pious and determined. 4. Muslims should always aspire to spread peace despite intimidation 5. Muslims should be patient at all times and in all situations. 6. Muslims cant enter into agreement with non-Muslims for sake of peace 7. The prophet was a recognized, wise and an able leader 8. Forgiveness should be fostered in the hearts of Muslims **The Prophets Invitation of Foreign Rulers to Islam** With peace having been established in Arabia after signing the treaty of Hudaibiyya, the prophet decided to concentrate more on his divine mission. He started by sending envoys to the following areas: a) Abyssinia. The prophet sent Amr bin Umayyah Ad-Damri to the Negus of Abyssinia by the name Ashamah.This delegation was warmly received and treated well. Some sources say that the king embraced Islamsecretly since Abyssinia was a r hristian country. He replied, In the name of Allah the Most Gracious the Most Merciful. O prophet of Allah! And mercy and blessings from Allah beside whom there is no god.I have received your letter in which you have mentioned about Jesus **|** P a g e 137 ----- and by the Lord of the heaven and the, Jesus is not more than what yousay. We fully acknowledge that which you have been sent to us and we have entertained your cousin and his companions. I bear witness that you are the messenger of Allah true and confirming (those who have come before you).I pledge to you through your cousin and surrender myself through him to the Lord of the worlds. When this Negus later died in Rajab 9 A.H the prophet announced his death and observed the funeral prayer in absentia for him.He was succeeded by another King to whom the prophet sent a letter but however it is not confirmed as to whether he accepted Islam or not. b) Persia Abdallah Ibn Hudhaifa was sent with a letter to Perevez the emperor of Persia inviting him to Islam..The king was arrogant and proud and after reading it he got infuriated and mistreated the envoy. He thought that the language in the letter was too harsh for an emperor and also the prophets name should nothave appeared above his, he therefore tore the letter into pieces. He then sent his men to arrest the prophet and bring him to his palace.When the envoy reported back to the prophet, he prayed for the Persian Empire to disintegrate.No sooner had the Persia emperors envoy reached Madina than the Prophet (P.B.U.H) received divine inspiration that Perevez had died.His successor was unable to maintain the unity in the emperor leading to its complete disintegration. c) Roman Empire. Dihya bin Khalifa al-Kalbi was sent to king Heraclius of Byzantine. He welcomed him well, read the letter but did not embrace Islam, however he send them with many presents to take to the prophet. The tribe of Judham intercepted the convoy at a place called Husma and robed them. When the prophet heard of this, he dispersed an army and inflicted heavy losses on those people. One the prophet ordered that all the captives and spoils of war be returned. d) Egypt. Hatiib bin Abi Baltaah was send to the king of Egypt (Muqawqis) called Juraij bin Matta.He read the letter and accepted the message though he was disappointed that the prophet did not come from Syria as it was expected. However he sent presents two maids from noble Coptic families, Maria, and Syrin; clothing, and stead for riding on but he did not accept Islam The prophet married Maria who bore him Ibrahim while Syrin was married to Hassan bin Thabit al Ansaari. Find out more other leaders to whom the prophet send emissaries. **|** P a g e 138 ----- **The fall of Khaybar (7 A.H)** Khaybar was a strong fold of the two Jewish tribes of Banu Nadhir and Banu Qainuqa. It is about 200 miles from Madina. These Jews with the help of neibouring Arab tribes were planning to attack Madina. They had joined forces with the Bedouins of Ghatafah.The prophet learned of their plot and gathered 1,400 men including 200 horse men. When the Muslims reached Khaibar and saw their opponents, the prophet prayed, O Allah, we wish prosperity and we seek your refuge from evils there from. The Muslims stopped at a place150 miles in the valley of at Raji to prevent the men of Khaibar from reinforcing the Jews. There were eight fortressess at Khaibar all garrisoned with armed men.They included; the fortresses of Naim, Ubai, An-Nizar, AZ-Zubair, As-Sab bin Muath, Al Watih, As Sulalim and Al- Qamus. A fierce fight took place around these fortresses and in a few days the Muslims had captured all of them. This was after a siege of 20 days. The booty was shared among the victorious Muslims. The Jews were however allowed to retain their lands on condition that they would pay half of the produce to the Islamic state. The prophet then married Swafiyyah a daughter of a leading Jewish chief in order to strengthen the friendship with the Jews. **The conquest of Makka. (20** **[th]** **Ramadhan5.A.H)** When Islam was well established in the hearts of the Muslims, Allah decided that the time had come for His Messenger and his community to enter Makkah. They would purify the Ka'bah so that it would be a blessed place of guidance for the whole world. They would restore Makkah to its previous status and the sacred city would offer security for all people once again. The terms of the treaty of Hudaibiyah had given freedom of association to both Muslims and theQuraish.The Muslims befriended the Banu Khuzaah while the Quraish allied with the BanuBakr. These two tribes had been enemy since the Pre Islamic time but now they were to respect the terms of the treaty of Hudaibiyah and stop attacking each other. For some years, the Quarish respected the treaty of Hudaibiyah until when the Banu Bakr attacked the tribe of Banu Khuzaah which was allied to theMuslims at a place called Al-Wateer.The Quraishsupported the tribe of BanuBakr with men and arms. They attacked the Banu Khuzaah at night who had to take refuge in the Holy sanctuary. This event led to the aggrieved Banu Khuzaah to seek for justice from the Muslims. As a result the prophet laid down three conditions for the Quraish: **|** P a g e 139 ----- 1. To pay blood money for the victims of Banu Khuzaah. 2. To end their friendship with Banu Bakr. 3. To consider the truce of Hudaibiyah to have been nullified. Out of the three conditions, the Quraish accepted the cancellation of the treaty. The prophet then gathered 10,000 armed men and headed for Makkah. As they were advancing towards Makka, more and more tribes joined them on the way. At Juufa,Al Abnas bin Abdul Mutwalib came to join them. The army marched and camped at Marr a Zahran.When Makkans heard of the news, they sent Abusufian to spy on the Muslims camp. He was however detected by Abbas the uncle of the prophet and Muslim guards presented him to the prophet. The prophet did not punish him but made him stand on a high ground to see the spectacle of the Muslim army marching towards Makkah. The prophet divided his forces into different groups with each having its leader. Abu ubaida bin jarrah led the Muhajirun accompanied by the prophet himself. Zubeir Bin Awwam was on the left moving in a parallel column. The western entrance of the city was controlled by Saad Bin Ubaid while Khalid Bin Walid with the Bedouin contingent was to circle the whole city on the west and enter it from the south. The uncle of the prophet Abass, who had embraced Islam, was escorting Abusufyan. He adviced him to embrace Islam which he did.Abusufyan had wanted negotiations but the Muslim army refused and entered Makkah. The prophet instructed them not to shed any blood.tIn order to reakize this goal,and conquer Makka peacefully,he made the following announcement; Those who shelter in the kaaba are safe, those who shelter in Abu Sufyans house are safe and those who stay in their own houses are safe. Despite the peaceful entry of Muslims into Makka, a group of Makkans rushed and attacked the Muslim group under Khalidbin Walid. As a result two Muslims and twelve non believers were killed. The prophet then entered the Kaaba and cast down all idols while recitingthe following verse of the Quran, ***The truth has come and false hood gone, verily falsehood is ever vanishing.*** [Q: 17:81] **|** P a g e 141 ----- A green flag was hoisted on the Kaaba and Bilal bin Rabah then made the Adhan and the prophet led a thanks giving prayer (SwalatulShukr).The prophet then addressed a huge gathering and said,There is no god except Allah .No one can be associated with him. He has fulfilled his promise. He has helped his servant and has shattered all bands alone. All the prides, all the prices of the family are under my heal. All the men are descendants of Adam and Adam was made of clay. The Makkan leaders who had been oppressing the Muslims were among the crowd and the prophet asked them, ao you know how I am going to treat you?They replied, eou are a noble brother and noble nephew we expect nothing but good from you.The prophet said, There is no revenging against you today and you are all free. The prophet then climbed on the hill of swafa and gave a sermon to all the Makkans to swear loyalty to Islam. Men and women came to accept Islam. Hind, the wife of Abu Jahal was among the women. The prophet forgave her. He also forgave Ikrimah Bin Abu Jahal who also accepted Islam. The prophet remained in Makkah for 15 days. After the conquest of Makka the prophet organized his troupes to go and attack the Roman Empire at Tabuk and the Banu Khawazin and Banu Thaqif. **Significance of the conquest of Makkah** 1. It showed the purity of the Kaaba as the house of Allah and a place for monotheism. 2. Victory meant the supremacy of the Great Lord rather than ambition for power. This is why the prophet first thanked Allah and then purified the Kaaba. 3. By the Prophets act of forgiveness, he was laying emphasis on the noble Islamic principle of brotherhood and peace. 4. Many Makkans embraced Islam and even women pledged to worship non but Allah and to lead a clean life. 5. It singles out the hrophets unique character of patience and wisdom. Question: compare and contrast the conquest of Makka and the unsuccessful attack by Abraha in the year of the elephant. **The Battle of Hunain** The conquest of Makka triggered mass conversion of Arabs to Islam in many parts of the Arabian Peninsula.Although a large number of Makkans and neighboring tribes embraced Islam, some only **|** P a g e 141 ----- accepted Mohammed as a ruler of Arabia but didnt believe in his prophet hood.Among the tribes that were opposing the Muslims included: Khawazin, Thaqif, Jusham, Saad Bin Bakr and Bani Hilal .The prophet was informed that the tribes of Khawazin and Thaqif were preparing to fight the Muslims. The prophet at once proceeded towards them with an army of 12,000 men including recently converted Muslims and about 2000 non Muslim of Makka who had accompanied them as allies. The enemies were 4000. The Muslims were over confident because this was the biggest army they had ever raised. The battle took place in the field of Hunaian on Saturday 19 [th] of Shawwal about nineteen days after the conquest of Makka. The enemy marched at night towards the Muslimarmy under their leader Malik bin Auf and strategically hid in the valley. The next day in the morning, the prophet was organizing his forces for the battle not knowing that the enemies troupes were hiding in the nearby valley.The enemy then longed a surprised attack which disorganized the Muslim who scattered in all directions looking for safety passing the prophet unaware. Abass ibn Abdul Mutwilib shouted loudly unto the Muslims. O Ansaar, O Muhajirun O men who pledge their allegiance under the tree, where are you going?The messenger of Allah is here. r ome back to him. The Muslims were gripped with shame over their cowardly conduct since they had always pledged to die with the prophet. They came back shouting At your command! They lounged a counter attack. Soon the enemy realized they would face complete defeat and they started fleeing leaving behind their children, women and property. Even though the Muslims were victorious, they paid dearly a number of Muslims were wounded and twelve killed. The victory however brought supremacy to the Muslims. The enemy ran and took refuge at the city of Thaqif the capital of the tribe. The Muslims decided to lay a siege on the city. When the help of Aws, the Muslims bombarded Taif, their Orchard were destroyed until the enemy sent an appeal to the prophet to stop the destruction upon which he temporarily withdrew the Muslim army. The Muslims then went to share the booty of the Khawazin. Some of the enemies surrendered and embraced Islam. Those converts requested for the release of their women and children a request which was granted by the prophet. This gesture of mercy pleased them so much that more and more embraced Islam. **|** P a g e 142 ----- The prophet then sent the Khawazin to go and tell Malik bin Auf that if he converted to Islam, his family would be given back to him and an additional gift of 100 camels. He happily converted and the prophet fulfilled his promise to him. The following verses were revealed following the events of Hunain, 9:25-28 Assuredly Allah did help you in many battle fields and on the day of Hunain: Behold! Your great numbers elated you, but they availed you not; the land, for all that is wide, did constrain and you turned back in retreat. But Allah did pour His calm on the Messenger and on the believers, and sent down forces which you saw not: He punished the unbelievers, thus does he reward those without faith The Muslims learnt that victory is in the hands of Allah and that number is not significant to victory. They also had to be faithful to their leaders and show trust in Allah. In this battle, 6000 men were taken as captives. It sohappenedthat Bani saad was among the prisoners. This was the tribe which had suckled the prophet, a woman who claimed to be Shima and had been a foster sister to the prophet 60 year ago reminded the prophet of the scar (white mark) he had caused her when she was carrying him on the back. This memory touched the prophet and he freed all the prisoners from BanuThaqif and Banu Saad. Later on he released all the other prisoners the prophet then went back to Madina. **The farewell address** At the age of 63 years, the prophet (P.B.U.H) went to perform pilgrimage in 10 A.H. This is called Hijatul Widaa (The farewell pilgrimage) More than one hundred thousand Muslims camefor Hajj on the 9 [th] of ahul Hijja at the valley of Arafat. This was to be the prophets last pilgrimage. It was during this Hajj that Sura al Nasr was revealed which was received as an announcement of the prophets approaching death. After the pilgrimage, theprophet then made his farewell address in which he said: O people, listen to me for I do not know whether you will find me amongst you next year. O people, verily, your blood, your property and your honor are sacred and inviolable until you appear before your Lord, as this day and this month is sacred for all verily you will meet your Lord and your will answerable to your action. Have I not conveyed my message? Allah is my witness. He who has any trust on him should restore it to the person who deposited it with him. Beware; no one committing a crime is responsible for it **|** P a g e 143 ----- but himself. Neither the son is responsible of the crime of the father nor is the father responsible for the crime of the son. O people! Listen to my words and understand them. You must know that a Muslim is a brother of the Muslim and they form one brotherhood. Nothing of his brother is lawful for a Muslim except what he himself allows willfully. So you should not oppress one another. Behold all practices of paganism and ignorance is under my feet. The blood revenges of the days of ignorance are remitted. Usury is forbidden but you will be entitled to recover your principal. Do not wrong and you shall not be wronged. Be kind to your women folk verily they have got certain rights over you. Verily I have left among you the book of Allah (S.W.T) and the Sunna of his apostle which if you hold fast you shall never go astray. And feed your slaves; and cloth them with the clothes that you yourselves wear. Behold, worship your lord; offer prayers five times a day, observe fast in the month of Ramadhan,make pilgrimage to the house, pay readily the Zakat on your property and obey whatever I command you only then will you get into the heaven. What lessons do you learn from this farewell address? **Demise of the prophet.(12** **[th]** **Rabiul-Awwal 11 A.H/632 C.E)** After the farewell address, the prophet returned to Madina at the end of the month of Dhul Hijja. On Monday 12 [th] Saffar the prophet felt a severe headache and his health started deteriorating.During this period of illness, he spent most of his time in the house of Lady Aisha. Occasionally, he would go out to meet the Muslims, advice them and ask for the congregations forgiveness.When his condition grew worse and he could not lead the Muslims in prayer, he requested Abubakar to take charge of the religious duties. On the last day of his life, the prophet could be heard saying, With those on whom you have bestowed your grace, with the prophet and the truthful ones, themartyrs and the good doers. O Allah, forgive me and have mercy upon me and join me to the most exalted companionship on high He repeated the last words three times. auring all this time, Aisha (RAA) was sprinkling water on his forehead until when finally the prophet passed on at the age of 63. His body was washed and then a grave dug at the very place he had died and the prophet was burried. **|** P a g e 144 ----- **ACHIEVEMENT OF THE PROPHET** ***a)*** ***Brotherhood and equality of mankind*** Islam is the religion of the Unity of God and the Equality of Mankind. Lineage, riches and family pride are accidental things; virtue and the service of humanity are the real matters of merit. Distinctions of colour, race and creed are non-existent within the bounds of Islam. All humans comprise one family. Islam has succeeded in welding the 'black' and the 'white' into one fraternal whole. The strict rule of brotherhood is set firm with the following saying of the Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H *):"No one of you is a believer in God until he loves for his brother what he* *loves for himself."* ***b)*** ***Elimination of racism*** Racism is one of the severe diseases eating up the human society in this day and age. Everyone remembers how black Africans were transported across the oceans, packed in specially designed ships, thought of, and treated like livestock. They were made slaves, forced to change their names, religion and language. They were not entitled to hope for true freedom, and were denied the least of human rights: basic needs. Even though among some Western people, the attitude to non-Westerners has fortunately changed little in modern times, the political and social condition of black people often remain the same, even where they live amid the native Westerners as theoretically equal fellow-citizens; that of despised inferiors. When Allahs Messenger, (h.B.U.H) was raised as a hrophet, the same kind of racism, under the name of tribalism, was prevalent in Makkah. The Quraish considered themselves as peculiar, and Arabs in general, thought they weresuperior to all the other races of the world. Allah's Messenger came with the Divine Message and proclaimed that no Arab is superior over a non-Arab, and no white is superior over black and superiority in the eyes of Allah(S.W.T) is by righteousness and fearing Him alone (Surat Al-Hujurat, 49:13). He also declared that even if an Abyssinian Black Muslim were to rule over Muslims, he should be obeyed. **|** P a g e 145 ----- Allah's Messenger eradicated the problem of racial discrimination so successfully that superiority is not by birth or colour or blood, but by God-fearing and righteousness. The message of Islam is for the entire human race. According to Islam, Allah (S.W.T) is the God of the entire world and Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) is a messenger for the whole of mankind. Islam unites the entire human race under one banner without any kind of discrimination. Allah (S.W.T) says ***"O Mankind! We have created you from a male and female, and made you*** ***into nations and tribes, that you may know one another. Verily, the most honorable of you in the*** ***sight of Allah is he who has most Taqwa among of you. Verily, Allah is All-Knowing, All-*** ***Aware."*** [Q: 49:13] Allah (S.W.T) says, ***"And one of His signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth and the*** ***diversity of your tongues and colors; most surely there are signs in this for the learned."*** [Q: 30:22] With this verse, Islam declares equality among people as one human race, one humanity, that is because Islam respectsa person as a creation of Allah(S.W.T) and not for any other reason; Islam does not distinguish between two races, or two groups of people, or between two colors, and the Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) addressed the people signifying that concept during the farewell pilgrimage, saying: "O People! Your God is one; your father is one; no preference of an Arab over non-Arab nor of a non-Arab over an Arab or red over black nor black over red except for the most righteous. Verily the most honored of you is the most righteous." ***c)*** ***Eradication of slavery*** Apart from giving the slaves their rights, Islam also took a step ahead and discouraged slavery from being practiced. It is seen in history that slaves were mistreated in the non-Islamic world. Not only were they verbally abused, but also physically hurt. During the period of his prophet hood, Muhammad worked diligently to do what he could to cut down on their numbers. Islam closed most of the doors leading to slavery and encouraged the freeing of slaves in many ways. He constantly exhorted those who owned slaves to treat them kindly and well. He insisted that they must treat the slaves fairly and with mercy. The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) says: **|** P a g e 146 ----- ***If the owner of a slave beat his slave or abused him, the only compensation that he could*** ***make was to set the slave free. (Sahih Muslim)*** The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) alwaysencouraged and devised ways of freeing slaves on every pretext. He said: *If a person owning a slave sets him free, God will, in recompense save every part of his* *body.Corresponding to every part of the slaves body from the torment of Hell.* (Sahih Muslim) Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) with Divine Inspiration from Allah (S.W.T) forbade such acts. Masters could not abuse their slaves and had to give them the same food as they ate and dress them in the clothes they wore. Narrated by Al-Ma'rur, I met Abu ahar who was wearing a cloak, and his slave, too, was wearing a similar one. I asked about the reason for it. He replied, "I abused a person by calling his mother with bad names." The Prophet said to me, *'O Abu Dhar! Did you abuse him by calling his mother with* *bad names you still have some characteristics of ignorance. Your slaves are your brothers and Allah* *has put them under your command. So whoever has a brother under his command should feed him of* *what he eats and dress him of what he wears. Do not ask them (slaves) to do things beyond their* *capacity (power) and if you do so, then help them.' [* Bukhari, Vol.1, Book 2, #29] In another Hadith, The Prophet said, "Your servants and your slaves are your brothers. Anyone who has slaves should give them from what he eats and wears. He should not charge them with work beyond their capabilities. If you must set them to hard work, in any case, I advise you to help them" (Al-Bukhari). ***d)*** ***Improvement of status of women*** The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) was very serious in improving the condition of women in society and on securing for them a position of dignity and fair and equitable treatment. Just before his death, one of the injunctions he addressed to Muslims and laid stress upon was that they should always treat women with kindness and consideration. Holy Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) said: If a man has daughters and he makes arrangement to have them educated and takes pains with their upbringing, aod would save him from the torment of Hell. (Tirmidhi) **|** P a g e 147 ----- Before Islam, women were sold as personal commodities. Female children were buried alive because they were considered as curse for family. It is Islam that gave every respect and honor to women, and brought them at the level of men; otherwise women were mistreated in every sphere of life. Islam always provides equal rights and equal opportunities for men and women, as the Holy Quran says: Surely, men who submit themselves to God and women who submit themselves to Him, and believing men and believing women, and obedient men and obedient women, and truthful men and truthful women, and men steadfast in their faith and steadfast women, and men who are humble and women who are humble, and men who give alms and women who give alms, and men who fast and women who fast, and men who guard their chastity and women who guard their chastity and men who remember Allah much and women who remember HimAllah has prepared for all of them forgiveness and a great reward. (Holy Quran, 33:36) Islam also permits equal opportunities to women to seek knowledge with men. It is entirely a wrong notion; such concept is never presented by Islam. The Holy Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) says in this regard, It is the duty of every Muslim man and Muslim woman to seek knowledge. The Holy Quran says: He it is who created you from a single soul and made there from its mate, that he might find comfort in her. And when he knows her, she bears a light burden and goes about with it. And when she grows heavy, they both pray to Allah, their Lord, saying, ***If thou gives us a good*** ***child, we will surely be of the thankful.*** [Q: 7:190] In connection with the respect, honor and status of woman as a mother, the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) has a great regard. *Once, a Companion consulted him to seek advice to participate* *in a war, when he askaed, Do you have a mother? He said, Yes. Then Holy Prophet* *(P.B.U.H) said, Be with her, because paradise is under her feet.* (Nasai) haradise lies under the feet of your mothers. This indicates the outstanding status of woman in Islam far superior than granted by any other religion of the world. No other religion comes close to the prominence given to women by the Holy Prophet of Islam. Once a companion of the Holy Prophet of Islam asked, O Apostle of Allah! To whom should I show kindness? He replied, eour mother, next your mother, next your mother, and then comes your father, and then your relatives in order of relationship. (Abu aawud) **|** P a g e 148 ----- ***e)*** ***Religious Tolerance*** Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) was a role model for religious freedom, for instance when the Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) entered the city of Medina, he made a formal constitution with the large Jewish population of the city, and indeed, this was a historic moment and in this constitution it guaranteed religious freedom for those who were and werent Muslims.Once the people of Mecca said to Prophet Muhammad that if god did not want them to worship idols then why He does not forcefully prevent them from doing so. Then God sent the following message: **(O** ***Muhammad) This is not a new excuse; those who left before them made, the same excuses. Is*** ***there anything upon the messengers except the dear conveying of the message [Q: 16: 3])*** The Qur [] an clearly says that religion cannot be forced on anyone. It says, ***"There is no compulsion in (accepting) the religion (of Islam)*** Why? Because: ***"truly the right way has become clearly distinct from error." [Q: 2:25]*** **|** P a g e 149 ----- **Suggested study questions and activities.** **Answer the following questions in your I.R.E revision exercise book.** 1. a) Narrate the early life of the prophet. b) Identify the methods of persecutions experienced by the early Muslims. 2. a) Give reasons why Muslims migrated to Abbysinia. b) Outline the lessons Muslims learn from the battle of Uhud. 3. a) How did the treaty of Hudaibiyya prove a success for the Muslims? b) Write down ten teachings we learn from the prophets farewell pilgrimage. 4. a) Explain the lessons the Muslims learnt in the battle of uhud. b) Discuss the challenges faced by the Muslims when they first arrived in madina. **Activities.** 1. Compare the practices of todays Muslims with that of the Arabs during the Jahiliya. Are there any similarities? 2. Dramatize how the battle of Badr was fought. 3. Compare and contrast the conquest of Makka with the unsuccessful attack by Abraha Ashram during the year of the elephant **CHAPTER 8** **MUSLIM SCHOLARS** In every society we have prominent people whose prominence may be due to their leadership positions or their general role towards the improvement of the society. Most of these personalities are our heroes and we get motivated by them and have them as our role models. Do you know of any such people in our contry? How have you been inspired by them? In the history of Islam, several challenges have been met by the champions of Islam. In every century, we had leaders who spereheaded the reforms and struggle for spread of Islam. We are therefore going to study some of these schorlars in our secondary syllabus. In each form, two scholars will be studied starting with Sheikh al Amin Ali bin Mazrui and Abdallah Swaleh al Farsi.Let us now look at the Sheik al Amin Ali bin Mazrui. **Sheikh Al Amin Mazrui (1891AD-1974 AD)** **|** P a g e 151 ----- **His birth and early life.** His full name was Sheik Al-Amin bin Ali Abdallah al Mazrui from the Mazrui family. This was the family which had been given the guardianship of Mombasa town after the expulsion of the Portuguese by the Sultan of Oman since they originated from Oman. His grand father,Abdallah al Mazrui was an Islamic scholar belonging to the Shafi School of law. He was born in Mombasa 1891 on 15 [th] Jamadu-Thani 1380 A.H/27 [th] January 189.His father passed away when he was four years old and thus his paternal Uncle Sheikh Suleiman bin Ali-Mazrui took the responsibility of raising him who later married him off to his own daughter. He died on 1 [st] April 1947 having left behind three children, among them two sons (Harith Al-Amin Al-Mazrui-former Liwali of Lamu and Professor Ali Mazrui-Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology) and a daughter. **His Educational background.** He started his elementary education under his Uncle Sheikh Suleiman bin Ali who was a great scholar of that time and had studied various branches of knowledge. This branches included; Quran, Arabic language, Fiqh among others. His great thirst for knowledge made him travel to Zanzibar to further his education under the eminent scholars of Zanzibar likeSheikhAbdallahMohammad bin Salim Bakathir and Sayyid Ahmed Bin Abu Bakar bin Sumeyt.He later went to Lamu and graduated from Riyadh mosque under the supervision of re-known scholars of that time. He was a brilliant student and outstanding in all the subjects and he used to emerge top of the class.He was able to bring reforms in some of the Islamic scholarly works across the world. Among the Muslim scholars who greatly influenced him are the following: 1. Sheikh Jamalu-ddin Al-Afghani 2. Sheikh Muhammad Abdul 3. Sayyid Mohammad Rashid Ridha **His works** 1. He wrote Hidaayatul Atfaal (Guidance of children) which is an introductory book to Islam for the children. 2. He book entitled Masomo ya dini (religious studies) is essential for the Swahili speakers. 3. Majmaul Bahrayn (The meeting of two seas) is another essential publication in the study of Islamic religion. **|** P a g e 151 ----- 4. He wrote a weekly paper known as Al-Islah which constituted both Islamic teachings and political issuesin Kiswahili and Arabic using the Arabic script. The message in this paper was aimed at positively changing the societal way of thinking. 5. He translated part of the Quran into Kiswahili, that is Sura al Fatiha, Al Baqara and and a few verse of Al-Imran. **Achievements and Contributions of Al Amin Ali bin Mazrui.** He authoured many publications. Typical among them being, He was the first to write books in Kiswahili to cater for the learning needs of his immediate community. He established Madrassatul Ghazali-l Islamiyya, a learning institution in which he taught Islamic studies to students from all over East Africa. He donated most of his scholarly works to the libraries at the coast. Become the Kadhi of Mombasa in 1932. He gave many Islamic lecturers in the mosques other Islamic institutions. He become the Chief Kadhi of Kenya in 1937after the death of his uncle Suleiman bin Ali al Mazrui. He is known for his efforts in propagating Islam all over East Africa. He used move all around East Africa giving lectures. He was a writer, poet and editor of Kiswahili and Arabic languages. **Sheikh Abdullah Swaleh al-Farsy** **Birth and early life** He was born on 12 [th] of February, 1912 at Jongeani village in the Island of Zanzibar. He came from a large and well established family; respected for the servicesthey used to provide in both educational and civil life to the citizens of Zanzibar and PembaHe was the eldest child in this family. He studied Quran recitation from Fatma Hamid Said who was a student of a renowned scholar, Sheikh Amin Ahmed. At a very young age, sheikh Abdullah memorized the Quran with its correct recitation and a large portion of Hadith. He did not engage in leisurely activities as the other young people. At the age of twenty years he was so fluent and competent in Arabic Grammar and Nahwi that he could write poems in Arabic. **|** P a g e 152 ----- **Educational back ground** After completing the first phase of Islamic traditional education at Masjid Barza,Sheikh al-Farsy joined the first government school in Zanzibar at the age of ten;the Central Primary School of Zanzibar. He was so dedicated to attaining religious and secular education and he made use of both the afternoons and evenings to study. He was always seen engrossed in any new Islamic book and spent most times in his home library reading. Zanzibar had retained some of the centuries old Islamic educational institutions. He therefore learnt from intellectual scholars like Sheikh Abubakar bin Abdullah Bakathir, Sheikh Ahmed bin Muhammad Al- Mlomry who taught him twenty five books and Sheikh Sayyid Alawy bin Abdul Wahab who taught him twelve books on Fiqh and Arabic. He then went to Kenya to seek more knowledge where he studied tafsir under Sheikh Al Amin bin Ali. He also studied Risalatul Jamiaat, a book on basicprinciples of Fiqh from Sayyid Hamid Maasab. While he was in the secular school, he always emerged ahead of the other students in every subject. His excellence led him to completing eight year primary education in five years. He then joined a Teachers Training r ollege from which he graduated in1932. He became a primary school teacher between 1932 and 1947 and, following a series of promotions for his good work, he was appointed the Inspector General of primary schools in Zanzibar and Pemba between 1949 and 1952. He later became the principal of Muslim Academy between 1952 and 1956, before being appointed the head teacher of the Arabic Medium School. In 1960, he went to perform Hajj after which he left the ministry of education in 1967 and became a teacher at the Teachers Training r ollege. In 1960, he was appointed the chief Kadhi of Zanzibar, a post he held for seven years. It was after the bloody CRUSADE incident in the name of Zanzibar Revolution in 1964 that he migrated to Kenya. He was hosted by Sheikh Muhammad Kassim Al-Mazrui his former class mate in the class of Al-Amin Ali Mazrui. Since his reputation as a scholar had reached far including Kenya, Sheikh Muhammad Kassim Al-Mazrui recommended him to the late Jomo Kenyatta for the post of Chief Kadhi of Kenya. He accepted the appointment and served for fourteen years until his retirement in 1980. **|** P a g e 153 ----- In addition to teaching and preaching, he was a prolific writer. He used mwongozo wa Zanzibari to translate the Quran and answer questions from the masses. He wrote the biography of the prophet and that of Imam Shaffi. He also wrote a Kiswahili translation of the Quran in order to counter the translation of Dr. David Living Stone and Fr.Godfrey Dale of the University Mission to Central Africa (U.M.C.A) church of Zanzibar who had written a very shallow translation that was used by the preachers to defend Christianity. This Quran translation was also to clarify the misconception of the Qadianis who preached of the coming of another Prophet after Muhammad by the name Mirza Gulam Ahmad from Qadiani village in India. Sheikh Abdullah Swaleh al Farsy passed on (died) on 9 [th] November, 1982, just eight months after he had left Kenya to join his family in Muscat, Oman. **His works** 1. He translated the Quran in Kiswahili i.e. Qurani Takatifu. Its first copy was published in 1969. 2. He wrote the biography of the prophet. 3. He also wrote the biography of Imam Shaffi. 4. His Kiswahili publication was sura za swala na tafsiri zake. 5. He also authored upotofu wa tafsiri ya Makadiani. *6.* He used to write the translation of the Quran in the weekly *Mwongozo wa Zanzibar* Magazine. 7. He wrote a book entitled *Bida* in which he fought against innovations (Bida). 8. He wrote a book on mirath (inheritance). **His achievements and contributions** 1. He served in the field of education as a head teacher in Muslim Academy, Secondary School and Arabic Medium School. 2. He was appointed the Inspector General of primary schools in Zanzibar and Pemba to spearhead the quality of education in these states. 3. He proposed that community schools be staffed with Islamic teachers who should be paid by the government. **|** P a g e 154 ----- 4. He travelled to Nyasaland (Malawi) and Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) to give lectures on Islamic Religious Education. 5. In his position as a Chief Kadhi of both Zanzibar and Kenya he lodged defence against all accusations directed to Islam and Muslims. 6. He called for the establishment of separate schools for the Muslims. 7. He wrote books strongly supporting provision of education and saw illiteracy as a menace to both the government and its citizen. 8. He urged the East African Muslims to adhere to the teachings of the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet. As a result a number of young men became interested in studying Islam. 9. He used the voice of Kenya radio to aireducative programs about Islam. 10. He wrote several religious books in both Arabic and Kiswahili that enlightened Muslims about their religion. 11. He travelled throughout East Africa giving public speeches and lectures about Islam which resulted in many embracing Islam. 12. He volunteered free services to the Radio of Zanzibar to propagate Islam. 13. He started campaigns against Bida (innovations) and refused Qadianism. 14. In Kenya, he was exposed to public debate where he criticized some of the traditional beliefs including shirk and traditional dances. 15. He became a catalyst to the young men by giving mosque seminars. **Suggested study questions and class activities** **Answer the following questions in your I.R.E revision exercise books.** 1. Describe the early life of Sheikh Abdallah Swaleh Al-Farsy. 2. Explain the contributions made by Abdallah Swaleh Al-Farsy to the spread of Islam in East Africa. 3. Discuss the contribution made by Sheikh Al-Amin Mazrui in promoting education in Kenya 4. Outline the literary works left behind by of Al-Amin Ali Mazrui. Activities 1. Compare the achievements and contributions of Sheikh Al Amin bin Mazrui and Abdallah Swaleh al Farsy. 2. Find out from your immediate community some of the prominent Muslim scholars and identify the common factors that can be attributed to their success in the field of Academics. **|** P a g e 155 ----- |
**FORM I**<br><br>1.0.0 Introduction to Agriculture (8 Lessons) <br><br>2.0.0 Factors Influencing Agriculture (24 Lessons) <br><br>3.0.0. Farm Tools And Equipment (7 Lessons) <br><br>4.0.0 Crop Production I (Land Preparation) (7 Lessons) <br><br>5.0.0 Water Supply, Irrigation And Drainage (10 Lessons) <br><br>6.0.0 Soil Fertility I (Organic Manures) (6 Lessons) <br><br>7.0.0 Livestock Production I (Common Breeds) (7 Lessons) <br><br>8.0.0 Agricultural Economics I (Basic Concepts and Farm Records) (7**Lessons)** **Introduction to Agriculture**<br><br>***Definition of Agriculture***<br><br> Agriculture is the science and art of cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock. **As a science,**it involves***experimentation***and***application of scientific***<br><br>***knowledge***in such areas as; Soil analysis, Control of pests and diseases, Farm machinery and structures, Crop and livestock breeding. <br><br>***As an art, it involves the use of learned skills in;***<br><br> Tilling the land, Construction, Measurement, Harvesting of crops, Feeding and handling of livestock Marketing. <br><br>**Branches of Agriculture** ***Crop Farming (Arable Farming)***<br><br> The practice of growing crops on cultivated land. **It is subdivided into:**<br><br>***Field crops Cultivation***: <br><br> maize, beans, potatoes, coffee, tea, cotton to name but a few. <br><br>***Horticulture:***<br><br> It involves the growing of perishable crops which have high value. It is further subdivided into: <br><br>***Floriculture -***the growing of flowers. ***Olericulture***- the growing of vegetables. ***Pomoculture***- the growing of fruits. <br><br>***Livestock Farming***<br><br> This branch deals with the rearing of livestock for various products. <br><br>***It is further subdivided into:***<br><br>***Pastoralism:***This is the rearing of mammalian livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats, <br><br>rabbits, pigs and camels. <br><br>***Fish Farming (Aquaculture):***This is the practice of rearing fish and other aquatic <br><br>organisms , in ponds. <br><br>***Bee Keeping (Apiculture):***This involves the rearing of bees in structures known as <br><br>beehives. <br><br>***Poultry Keeping**:*This is the keeping of domesticated birds. <br><br>***Agricultural Economics***<br><br> <br><br>It deals with the allocation of scarce resources (land, labour, capital and management) for agricultural production. <br><br>***Agricultural Engineering***<br><br> This branch of agriculture deals with the use and maintenance of farm tools, machinery <br><br>and structures. ***Large Scale Farming***<br><br> Refers to the farming practice under large areas of land over 20 hectares. <br><br> It is used mainly for commercial purposes. <br><br> The system is highly mechanized. <br><br>***Advantages*** Results in high yields. Due to economics of scale high profit is realized. <br><br>***Disadvantages*** Lack of diversification may lead to total failure in case of unfavorable conditions. High level of management is required. Heavy capital investment. Requires skilled and qualified manpower. <br><br>***Small Scale Farming***<br><br> Refers to farming carried out on a small area of land less than 5 hectares. Family or casual labour can be engaged during the peak periods. Most of the Kenyan farmers are small scale due to unavailability of farmland. ***Advantages*** Requires low capital investment. Possible where land is a limiting factor. Does not require high management level unless under intensive system. ***Disadvantages*** Uneconomical 10 mechanize due to small size. Low production. Provides limited employment. Labour intensive. Difficult to specialize. <br><br>***Methods of Farming***<br><br> A method of farming is an established way of carrying out farming activities. The following are the common methods of farming: <br><br>***Mixed Farming***<br><br> ***Advantages*** Mutual benefit between crops and livestock. Crops supply feed for animals while animals supply manure for crops. Acts as an insurance against total loss by the farmer. The farmer is assured of an income throughout the year. There is maximum utilization of the resources. Animals can be used in the farm activities particularly draught animals. Ensures proper utilization of labour and land throughout the year. <br><br>It is the practice of growing crops and keeping of livestock on the same land. Its common in high potential areas. <br><br>***Disadvantages***<br><br> High initial capital. Lack of specialization. Land can be a limiting factor if both enterprises are to be raised. Requires high level of management for both enterprises. <br><br> ***Nomadic-Pastoralism*** This is the practice of livestock rearing whereby animals are moved from one place to <br><br>another in search of water and pastures. It is practiced in the arid and semi-arid areas where in most cases beef animals are kept. ***Nomadic pastoralism is gradually changing to ranching with the introduction of:***<br><br> Efficient disease and parasite control measures. Extension services. <br><br>Improved pasture species, improved livestock breeds and supplementary feeding. <br><br>Improved infra-structure such as roads, water supply, cattle dipping facilities. <br><br>***Advantages***<br><br> Serves as the backbone of beef industry in Kenya. Proper way of utilizing the arid and semi arid areas. Source of income to the pastoral communities. ***Disadvantages***<br><br> <br><br>It encourages the spread of livestock pests and diseases due to communal watering points, grazing and dipping facilities. <br><br> There is a tendency to increased soil erosion and land degradation. Source of conflicts and ethnic tension among the nomadic communities for the <br><br>control of good pastures and water. <br><br> Difficult to control breeding and breeding diseases. High rate of inbreeding leading to poor quality livestock. Low production of milk, meat, hides and skins due to wastage of energy in traveling <br><br>from one place to another in search of pastures and water. <br><br> High death rates as a result of walking for long distances. ***Shifting Cultivation*** <br><br>It is a traditional method of cultivating a piece of land until the soil is exhausted and crop yields decline. <br><br> The land is abandoned and the farmer shifts to a new field as the previous land is left <br><br>fallow to regain its fertility. <br><br>***Advantages***<br><br> Land is allowed to rest and regain its fertility. No build up of pests and diseases. Soil structure is restored. The cost of production is low since inorganic fertilizers and pesticides are not used. Crop produce are chemical free. <br><br>***Disadvantages***<br><br> Not practical where land is a limiting factor. Farm planning and acquisition of credits for land development is 'not possible. Lack of soil conservation measures Not possible to grow perennial crops. Low output per unit area due to poor farming methods. Where fire is used to clear the land organic matter is destroyed. <br><br>It is a cumbersome method due to constant movement. <br><br>***Organic Farming***<br><br> <br><br>It is a fanning method where crops are grown and livestock reared without the use of agrochemicals. It is a method of farming which has been adopted to reduce the long term effect of the agro-chemicals on crops which may eventually end up in man and livestock. Agro-chemicals are also expensive thus organic farming reduces the cost of Provides***food***to the population to meet nutritional requirements and to enable man <br><br>to engage in other activities of farming. <br><br> Provides***employment***. This for example can be direct as a labourer in the farm, tea <br><br>plucker or indirect for example, working in agricultural based industries. <br><br> Source of***raw materials***for industries for example cotton lint for textile industry. Provides***foreign exchange***- through exporting agricultural produce. Provides***market for industrial goods***agriculture is a consumer of the finished <br><br>goods from agro-based industries. <br><br> Source of***income***- farmers as well as the government get revenue from the sale of <br><br>agricultural produce and tax payment. ***Cultural practices and religious beliefs:***<br><br> These activities hinder important changes in a society that may bring agricultural <br><br>development. ***Market forces:***<br><br> Demand and supply forces which affect prices of commodities in a free market. <br><br>***Biotic Factors***<br><br>These are living organisms which affect agricultural production. ***Pests -***Destructive organisms which destroy crops. ***Parasites***- These are invertebrates which live in or on other living organisms. ***Decomposers -***Organisms which act on plants and animal tissues to form manure. ***Pathogens***- Micro-organisms which cause diseases. ***Predators***- Animals that kill and feed on other animals. ***Pollinators***- They transfer pollen grains from the stamens to the pistil of a flower. ***Nitrogen fixing bacteria***-They are micro-organisms which convert atmospheric <br><br>nitrogen to nitrates ready for use by the plants. <br><br>***Climatic Factors(weather elements).***<br><br> Rainfall, Temperature, Wind, Relative humidity Light. ***Weather***- Atmospheric conditions of a place at a given time period. ***Climate***- weather conditions of a place observed and recorded for a period of 30-40 years. <br><br>***Rainfall***<br><br>**Supplies Water:** Which is necessary for the life process in plants and animals. Which makes the plant turgid hence provides support. Acts as a solvent for plant nutrients. Cools the plant during transpiration. Which is used as a raw material in photosynthesis. <br><br>***When plants lack enough water they respond in different ways as follows:***<br><br> By closing the stomata to restrict water loss. Hastens maturity. Some will roll their leaves. <br><br>***Other plants have developed permanent adaptation to water stress such as:***<br><br> Growing needle like leaves. Develop fleshy leaves for water storage. Develop long roots. Wilting and death in extreme conditions. <br><br>***Important Aspects of Rainfall:***<br><br>***Rainfall reliability***; <br><br> This is the dependency on the timing of the onset of the rains. <br><br>***Amount of rainfall***; <br><br> Quantity of rain that falls in a given area within a given year. <br><br>***Rainfall distribution***; <br><br> The number of wet months in a year. <br><br>***Rainfall intensity***; <br><br> Amount of rainfall that falls in an area within a period of 1 hour. ***Temperature***<br><br> This is the degree of hotness or coldness of a place measured in degrees Celsius. ***Cardinal range***of temperature is the temperature required by plant to grow and <br><br>thrive well. <br><br>***Optimum range of temperatures***- the best temperature for the best performance of <br><br>plants. ***Light***<br><br> Provide radiant energy harnessed by green plant for photosynthesis. <br><br>***Important aspects of light:*** ***Light intensity***; <br><br> The strength with which light is harnessed by chlorophyll for photosynthesis. <br><br>***Light duration***; <br><br> The period during which light is available to plants per day. Plant response to light duration is known as***photoperiodism.*** ***Short-day plants*-**require less than 12 hours of daylight to flower and seed. ***Long-day plants***- require more than 12 hours of daylight to flower and seed. ***Day-neutral plants***require 12 hours of daylight to flower and seed. <br><br>***Light wavelength;***<br><br> This is the distance between two - successive crests of a wavelength. It dictates the difference between natural and artificial light. Chlorophyll absorbs certain wavelengths of light. **Edaphic Factors Influencing Agriculture**<br><br> These are soil factors. Soil is the natural material that covers the surface of the earth, Made of weathered rock particles and decomposed animal and plant tissues, and on <br><br>which plants grow. <br><br>***Importance of Soil***<br><br> Provides anchorage to the plants by holding their roots firmly. Provides plants with mineral salts/ nutrients which are necessary for their growth. Provide the plants with water. Contains oxygen necessary for respiration of the plants and soil micro-organisms. <br><br>***Soil Formation:***<br><br> Soil is formed through weathering process. Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of the parent rock near the surface of the <br><br>earth to a stable substance. <br><br> Weathering process is a combination of disintegration (breakdown) and synthesis <br><br>(build up) process. <br><br> Weathering process is continuous. <br><br>***Types of Weathering***<br><br> Physical weathering Chemical weathering Biological weathering ***Agents of Weathering*** ***Physical Agents of Weathering***<br><br> ***Wind -***carry materials which hit against each other to break into fragments. ***Water***- intensity of rainfall causes breakdown of rock. ***Moving ice***- has grinding effects which tear off rock particles. ***Extreme temperature***cause rocks to expand and contract suddenly peeling off their <br><br>Include wind, water, moving ice and temperature. <br><br>surface. ***Chemical Weathering***<br><br> Affects the chemical composition and structure of the rock. <br><br>Involves processes such as ; Hydrolysis, Hydration, Carbonation Oxidation. <br><br>***Hydration;***<br><br> The process by which soluble minerals in the rocks absorb water and expand <br><br>weakening the rock thus leading to disintegration. <br><br>***Hydrolysis;***<br><br> The process whereby water dissolves soluble minerals in the rock weakening it. <br><br>***Oxidation**;* *T*he reaction of rock minerals with oxygen to form oxides which break easily. <br><br>***Carbonation**;*<br><br>*T*he process whereby carbonic acids formed when rain water dissolves carbon <br><br>dioxide, <br><br> It reacts with calcium carbonates in limestone causing it to disintegrate. <br><br>***Biological Weathering*** ***This involves the action of living organisms, plants and animals on the rocks.***<br><br>***Burrowing animals***, for example, termites and moles bring soil particles to the <br><br>surface exposing them to other agents of weathering. <br><br>***Big animals***like, elephants, buffaloes, camels and cattle exert a lot of pressure on the rocks as they step on them due to their heavy weights causing the rocks to disintegrate. <br><br>***Earthworms***take part in the decomposition of plant matter with the soil particles. ***Man's activities***like, mining and quarrying expose rocks to the surface during <br><br>excavation. These activities breakdown large rocks into smaller rock particles. <br><br>***Plant roots***force their way through the cracks in the rocks thus widening and <br><br>splitting them. <br><br>***Humic acids***formed when plant tissues decompose react with the rocks weakening <br><br>them further. <br><br>***Plant remains***-decompose adding humus into the soil. **Factors influencing soil formation**<br><br>***Climate-***(rainfall, temperature and wind) ***Biotic factors***- living organisms. ***Parent material***- Nature and properties of the original rock from which the soil is <br><br>formed. <br><br>**Time -**length of time during which the soil forming processes have taken place. ***Topography***- influences the movement of disintegrated materials. <br><br> <br><br>It is the vertical arrangement of different layers of soil from the ground surface to the bedrock. <br><br> These layers are also referred to as***horizons.*** The layers show differences in their contents and physical properties such as colour, <br><br>texture and structure. <br><br> The layers include: organic matter region, top soil, sub-soil, weathered rocks and parent material. <br><br>***Organic Matter Region***<br><br> First layer of the soil found on the surface. Made up of leaves and other plant remains at various stages of decomposition. Some soil organisms may also be found here. <br><br>***Top Soil***<br><br> Has a dark colour due to the presence of humus. ***Sub-Soil*** <br><br>Is rich in plant nutrients and well aerated. It is a zone of maximum leaching (zone of eluviations) <br><br>It is compact and less aerated. It is a zone of accumulation of leached material (zone of aluviation) from the top layers. <br><br> Deep rooted crops have their roots growing up to this region. Hard pans normally form in this layer ***Weathered Rocks***<br><br> Rocks at various stages of disintegration are found in this zone. Most of the materials found in this zone originate from the parent rock. <br><br>It is also called substratum. <br><br>***Parent Rock***<br><br> The water table is on the surface of this rock. <br><br>It exists as a solid mass which is un-weathered. It is the source of the inorganic composition of the soil. <br><br>***Soils Formed in Situ and Soils Deposited***<br><br> Soil formed in the same place and remains there is said to be***in situ**.* However, soil can be formed due to deposition of soil particles carried from its <br><br>original site of formation to another area which is usually in the lower areas of slopes. <br><br> Such soils are said to have been formed through deposition. ***Soil Formed in Situ*** ***Soil Deposited***<br><br>l.Has the colour of the parent rock 1. Has the characteristics of when: it came from. <br><br>2. Shallower 2. Deeper <br><br>3. Less rich in plant nutrients 3. Richer in plant nutrients <br><br>4. Easily eroded 4. Not easily eroded <br><br>5. Less silty 5. More silty <br><br>6. Have the same chemical composition 6. Differ in chemical composition from the <br><br>as that of the underlying parent rock. underlying parent rock. ***Soil Depth***<br><br> This is the distance between top soil layer and the bottom soil layer in a profile. Deep soils are more suitable for crop growth since they contain more nutrients. Have a larger surface are for root expansion. Deep soils facilitate good drainage and aeration. <br><br>It dictates root penetration and growth <br><br>***Soil Constituents***<br><br>***Organic Matter***- Dead and decaying plants and animal remains ***Living Organisms***- Soil organisms and plant roots. Micro-organisms (bacteria, protozoa and fungi) Invertebrates -termites, Earthworms and molluscs. Higher animals - rodents and others. <br><br>***Inorganic or Mineral Matter***<br><br> Formed from the parent materials. Supply plant nutrients Form the skeleton and framework of the soil. ***Air***<br><br> Found in the pore spaces of the soil. Used for root and organism respiration Used for germination of seeds. Helps in decomposition of organic matter. Regulates soil temperature. Regulates the movement of water through capillary action. <br><br>***Water***<br><br> Dissolves mineral salts Maintain turgidity in plants. Used for germination of seeds Used by soil organisms. Regulate soil temperature Dictates the amount of air in the soil. <br><br>***Water in the soil exists in three forms namely:***<br><br>***Superfluous/Gravitational Water***<br><br> Found in the large spaces (macro-pores) in the soil particles. Held by gravitation forces. When the pores are saturated, the soil is said to be waterlogged. It moves and may cause leaching. <br><br>***Hygroscopic Water***<br><br> Water found in thin films on the soil particles. Held by strong adhesive forces between water and soil particles. Does not move and hence not available for plant use. ***Capillary Water***<br><br> Occupy micro-pores in the soil particles. Held by cohesive forces between water molecules. Moves through capillary action Available to plants for use. <br><br>***Soil Structure***<br><br> This is the arrangement of soil particles in a soil horizon. ***Types of Soil Structure *** Single-grained Crumby Granular Prismatic Columnar Platy Blocky <br><br>***Importance of Soil Structure on Crop Production***<br><br>***Soil Structure Influences*** Soil aeration Soil drainage and water holding capacity. Plants root penetrability and anchorage. Microbial activities in the soil. Circulation of gases in the soil. <br><br>***Farming practices which improve the soil structure are:***<br><br> Application of inorganic manure into the soil. Tilling the land at the right moisture content. Crop rotation. Minimum tillage. Cover cropping. Mulching. <br><br>***Soil Texture***<br><br> It refers to the relative proportion of the various sizes of the mineral particles of soil. <br><br>***Importance of Soil Texture on Crop Production;***<br><br> Affects the organic matter content <br><br>Influences soil fertility Influences the drainage of the soil. Influences soil aeration. Influences water holding capacity. Influences the capillarity or movement of water in the soil. <br><br>***Soil Textural Classes*** ***Sandy Soils***<br><br> Made up largely of sand particles. Have large pore spaces hence poor in water retention. Easy to till (light soils). Freely draining. Low fertility due to leaching of minerals. Easily erodible. <br><br>***Clayey Soils***<br><br> Made up largely of clayey particles. Have small pore spaces hence good in moisture retention. Difficult to till (heavy soils). Poorly 'drained. Expand when wet, crack when dry. High capillary. Rich in plant nutrients. <br><br>***Loam Soils***<br><br> About equal amounts of sand and clay. Moderately good in both moisture and air retention. Fertile soils. <br><br>**Soil Colour**<br><br> This depends on the, mineral composition of the parent rock and the organic matter <br><br>content. <br><br> Soils containing a lot of iron are brownish, yellowing and reddish in colour. Soils with a lot of silica are white. Soils with a lot of humus are dark or grey. Soil pH affects the choice of fertilizers and the availability of nutrients to crops. At low pH the concentration of available iron and aluminium in the soil solution may increase to toxic levels, which is harmful to plants. Very acidic or low pH inhibit the activity of soil micro-organisms. ***Garden Tools and Equipment***<br><br> Tools 1 Panga . 2 Jembe/hand hoe . 3 Fork iembe . 4 Rake . <br><br>Uses <br><br>Cutting and shallow cultivation, making holes. <br><br>Cultivation, digging, shallow planting holes and trenches. <br><br>Cultivation, digging out roots, harvesting of root crops. <br><br>Collecting trash, breaking large clods, levelling, removing stones from a seedbed and spreading organic manure. <br><br>5 Spade . <br><br>Scooping and carrying of soil, sand, concrete mixture and manure. Measuring weight. <br><br>6 Spring balance . 7 Trowel . <br><br>Scooping seedlings during transplanting and .digging planting holes for seedlings. Bending tall branches when pruning. <br><br>8 Pruning hook . 9 Secateur . 10. Tape measure <br><br>Cutting young stems and pruning branches. <br><br>Measuring distances. <br><br>11. Axe Cutting big trees and roots and splitting logs of wood. <br><br>12. Soil auger Making holes for fencing posts. <br><br>13. mattock Digging hard soils <br><br>14. sprinklers Overhead irrigation. <br><br>15. Watering can Watering plants in nursery bed. <br><br>16. Wheel barrow Transportation of soil, fertilizers, farm produce, tools and equipment. <br><br>17. Levelling board For levelling a nursery bed. <br><br>18. Pruning saw Cutting old wood stems and pruning big branches. <br><br>19. Hose pipe For conveying water from a tap to where it is need. <br><br>20. Knap sack sprayer Applying agro-chemical by spraying. <br><br>21. Garden shear Trimming hedges. <br><br>22. Pruning knife Removal of small shoots. ***Livestock Production Tools and Equipment***<br><br>Tools Uses <br><br>1 Drenching gun . 2 Bolus gun/dosing gun . 3 Wool Shears . 4 Hypodermic syringe . 5 Stirrup (bucket) pump . 6 Thermometer . 7 Burdizzo . 8 Halter . 9 Trimming knife . Elastrator <br><br>Administering liquid drugs to animals orally. <br><br>Administering solid drugs or tablets to animals orally. <br><br>Cutting off wool from sheep. <br><br>Administering drugs by injection for example in vaccination. <br><br>Application of acaricide by hand spraying. <br><br>Taking body temperatures of farm animals. <br><br>Used in bloodless method of castration. <br><br>Rope designed to restrain the animal. <br><br>Cutting short the overgrown hooves. <br><br>Stretching rubber ring during castration, dehorning and docking <br><br>of lambs. <br><br>Iron dehorner Applies heat on the horn bud to prevent growth of horns. <br><br>Nose ring Fixed into the nose of a bull to restrain it. <br><br>Strip cup Detecting mastitis in milk products. <br><br>Trocar and cannula Relieving a bloated animal of gases particularly ruminants. <br><br>Hard broom For scrubbing the floor. <br><br>Ear notcher Making ear notches in livestock. <br><br> Bucket For holding milk during milking. <br><br>Milk chum For holding milk after milking. <br><br>Milk strainer/sieve Removing foreign particles from milk for example hairs and sediments. Tying or tethering animals. <br><br>Used by the milker to sit on while milking. <br><br>Weighing milk after milking. <br><br>Removal of canine teeth of piglets soon after birth. <br><br>Cutting fodder into small bits. <br><br>Cutting grown horns. ***Workshop Tools and Equipment***<br><br>Uses <br><br> Tightening and loosening nuts and bolts. <br><br> Cutting small wires and thin metal and gripping firmly. <br><br> Sharpening tools, smoothening or shaping edges of metals, <br><br> Smoothening and shaping of wooden structures. <br><br> Making grooves in wood. <br><br> Cutting and shaping metal. <br><br> Driving screws in or out of wood or metal. <br><br>. - Cutting across the grain of wood. <br><br> Cutting along the grain of wood. <br><br> Cutting metals. <br><br> Cutting branches of trees. **Tools**<br><br>1 Spanner . 2 Pliers . 3 Files . 4 Rasps . 5 Chisels (wood) . 6 Cold chisel . 7 Screw drivers . 8 Saws . Cross cut saw <br><br> Rip saw <br><br> Hack saw Bow saw <br><br> Tenonlback saw <br><br> Coping saw Compass/keyhole saw <br><br> Cutting Joints on wood and fine sawing. Cutting curves on thin wood. Cutting either along or across the grain of wood especially when cutting key holes. Cutting metal sheets. <br><br>9 Tin snip . 1 Braces and bits. 0 1 Drill and bits . 1 1 Hammer . 2 Claw hammer . Ball pein <br><br> Boring holes in wood. , <br><br> Boring holes in metal work and woodwork. = <br><br> Driving in, removing and straightening nails. <br><br> Driving in nails, rivets and straightening metal. Also used on cold chisel Hammering or hitting wood chisel. <br><br> Fine finishing of wood. <br><br> Smoothening curved surfaces of wood such as handles of jembes, axes. 1 Mallet 3 1 Jack plane . 4 1 Scrappers/spokeshave . 5 . 1 Measuring equipment 6 Metre ruler . Try square <br><br>~ <br><br> Measuring short length -. <br><br> Measuring length angles and to ascertain squareness. <br><br>1 Marking gauge 7 1 Fencing pliers . 8 1 Vice and clamps . 9 . Tools 2 Spirit level 0 . <br><br> Marking parallel lines to the edge of wood. <br><br> Cutting wires, hammering staples when fencing. <br><br> Firmly holding pieces of work together. Melting soldering rods when repairing or fabricating metal <br><br>sheets. <br><br>Brushing rough surfaces. <br><br>Marking and laying out. <br><br>Marking the point of drilling. <br><br>Applying paint on surfaces. <br><br>Ramming hardware, breaking stones. <br><br>Tightening wires during fencing. <br><br>Fix rivets when joining pieces of metal. <br><br>Removing long nails from wood, straining fencing wires and <br><br>digging fencing holes. 2 Soldering gun l . 2 Wire brush 2 2 Divider . 3 2 Centre punch . 4 2 Paint brush . 5 2 Sledge hammer . 6 2 Wire strainer . 7 2 Riveting machine . 8 2 Claw bar . 9 . <br><br>*Plumbing and Masonry Tools*<br><br>Tools Uses <br><br>l Pipe wrench . 2 Pipe cutter . 3 Levelling rod . 4 Mason's trowel . 5 Wood float . 6 Mason's square . 7 Plumb bob . 8 Shovel . <br><br>Holding, tightening and loosing metallic pipes. <br><br>Cutting PVC pipes. <br><br>Levelling the floor during construction. <br><br>Placing mortar between construction stones and bricks. <br><br>Create a level surface on walls and floors. <br><br>Ascertain verticalness. <br><br>Spreading screed over floors and walls. <br><br>Mixing and scooping concrete or mortar, measuring cement. ***Primary Cultivation*** This is the initial breaking of land. <br><br>It is done early before the onset of the rains to: Give time for soil organisms to act on organic matter. Allow gaseous exchange to take place, thus carbon dioxide diffuses out of the soil <br><br>while oxygen enters into the soil. <br><br> Allow other operations to take place in time. <br><br>**Reasons for primary cultivation:**<br><br> Remove weeds. Burry organic matter. Open up soil for infiltration of water and air. Expose pests and disease causing organisms. Soften the soil for easy planting. <br><br>***Operations in primary cultivation***<br><br>***Hand digging***; ***Use of hand tools ;*** Jembes, Mattocks, Fork-jembes. <br><br>***Mechanical cultivation***; ***Use of mouldboard ploughs;***<br><br> Disc ploughs, Chisel ploughs, Subsoilers Rippers. <br><br>***Use of Ox-Ploughs***; ***Which can be drawn by;***<br><br> Oxen, Donkeys, Camels ***Depth of Cultivation***<br><br>***Depends on:***<br><br> The type of crop to be planted/size of seed. The implements available. The type of soil. <br><br>***Choice of Implement***<br><br>***Determined by:***<br><br> The condition of land. The type of tilth required/type of crop. Depth of cultivation. ***Secondary Tillage***<br><br> These are refinement practices on the seedbed that follow primary cultivation. It is also known as harrowing. <br><br>***Reasons for secondary Tillage:***<br><br> To remove the germinating weeds. To break soil clods to produce required tilth. To level the seedbed for uniform planting. To incorporate organic matter/manure into the soil. <br><br>***Factors determining number of secondary cultivation:***<br><br> Soil moisture content. Size of the planting materials. Condition of the soil after primary cultivation. Slope of the land. **Tertiary Operations:**<br><br>***Ridging ;***<br><br> The process of digging soil on a continuous line and heaping on one side to produce <br><br>a furrow and a bund (ridge). <br><br> It is important for root crops, to allow root expansion and for soil and water <br><br>conservation. <br><br>***Rolling:***<br><br> It is the compaction of the soil to produce a firm surface which increases seed-soil <br><br>contact and prevents wind erosion. <br><br>***Levelling;***<br><br> Production of an even, uniform surface which promotes uniform planting. <br><br>**Subsoiling:**<br><br> This is deep cultivation into the subsoil layer to break up any hardpan which might have <br><br>developed. <br><br>***It is done for the following reasons:-*** To facilitate drainage. Bring up leached nutrients to the surface. Increase aeration of the soil. To improve root penetration. The implements used include***chisel plough***and***subsoilers.*** Use of herbicides. Mulching and cover-cropping. Timely operations to prevent weed infestation. Strip cultivation. Uprooting and slashing of weeds. <br><br>***Reasons for Minimum Tillage***<br><br> To reduce cost of cultivation. To control soil erosion. To preserve soil moisture. To prevent root exposure and damage. To reconstruct destroyed soil structure. **Water Supply, Irrigation and Drainage**<br><br>**Introduction**<br><br> Water is a very important natural resource. It is necessary for both crops and livestock. <br><br>***Uses of water in the farm;*** Cleaning equipment. Processing farm produce, for example, coffee. Drinking by livestock and man. Mixing agro-chemicals such as acaricide, fungicides and herbicides. Providing power in water mills to grind grain crops. Cooling engines. Construction work. <br><br> Irrigation in dry areas. <br><br>***Sources of Water in the Farm*** ***Three major sources of water in the farm:***<br><br>***Surface water***: ***Includes water from;***<br><br> Rivers, Streams Dams. <br><br>***Ground water***: ***Includes water from;*** Springs, Wells Boreholes. ***Rain water:*** ***This is water tapped in various ways such as;***<br><br> Rooftops Rock surface, when it is raining and stored in various ways. ***Collection and Storage of Water***<br><br>**Dams:**<br><br> These are structures constructed across rivers and channels. They collect and store water for use during the dry season. <br><br>***Weirs:***<br><br> These are structures constructed across rivers to raise the water level for easy <br><br>pumping. <br><br> Unlike in the dams water flows over the barrier created across the river. <br><br>***Water Tanks:***<br><br> These are structures made of concrete, stone, metal sheets and plastics. They store water from rain or that which has been pumped from other sources. Tanks should be covered to prevent contamination from dust. ***Pumps and Pumping of Water***<br><br> Pumping is the lifting of water from one point to another by use of mechanical force. Water is pumped from the various sources and then conveyed to where it is required <br><br>for use or storage. ***Types of Water Pumps***<br><br>***Used to lift water from its source.*** Centrifugal pumps Piston or reciprocating pumps Semi-rotary pumps and Hydram <br><br>***Conveyance of Water***<br><br> This is the process of moving water from one point, usually the source or point of <br><br>storage to where it will be used or stored. <br><br>***Piping***; <br><br> This is where water is moved through pipes. <br><br> The common types of pipes include: <br><br> Metal pipes Plastic pipes Hose pipes ***Use of Containers**:*<br><br> In this case water is drawn and put in containers . drums, jerry cans, pots, gourds, tanks and buckets . Which are carried by animals, bicycles, human beings and vehicles. <br><br>***Use of Canals:***<br><br> In this case water is conveyed from a high point to a lower one along a gradual slope to avoid soil erosion. <br><br> Water conveyed through this way is mostly used for irrigation and livestock. <br><br>***Water Treatment***<br><br> Raw water contains impurities which may be dissolved, floating or suspended in water. ***These impurities are grouped into three categories, namely:*** ***Physical impurities***: these are dissolved impurities detected by colour, taste and <br><br>smell. <br><br>***Chemical impurities:***these are dissolved impurities detected by use of chemical <br><br>analysis. ***Biological impurities:***these are microorganisms in water such as bacteria, viruses <br><br>and algae. <br><br>***Importance of Treating Water***<br><br> To kill disease causing microorganisms such as cholera and typhoid bacteria that thrive <br><br>in dirty water. <br><br> To remove chemical impurities such as excess fluoride which may be harmful to human <br><br>beings. <br><br> To remove smells and bad taste. To remove sediments of solid particles such as soil, sand and sticks. <br><br>***Methods of Treating Water***<br><br>***Aeration:***this is the removal of smell and odour from water by fine spraying or <br><br>bubbling of air. <br><br>***Sedimentation:***this is where water is put in large containers so that solid particles <br><br>such as sand, metal and others can settle at the bottom. <br><br>***Filtration:***this is passing water through fine granular materials to remove solid <br><br>particles and biological substances. <br><br>***Coagulation:***addition of chemicals which precipitate impurities and help in <br><br>softening of hard water. <br><br>***Chlorination:***Sterilization to destroy disease causing organisms. <br><br>***Irrigation***<br><br> <br><br>It is the artificial application of water to crops in dry areas or where water is not enough. It is one of the methods of land reclamation in case of arid and semi arid areas. <br><br>***Factors to Consider in Identifying and Assessing the Potential of Land for Irrigation*** ***Development***<br><br> Topography of the land Soil type Type of crop to be grown Water availability Human factors such as skill, capital availability and economic activities. <br><br>***Types of Irrigation***<br><br>***Surface irrigation***: <br><br> This includes flood irrigation and basin irrigation. It is used in flat areas. The problem with this method is loss of water through seepage. It also increases soil salinity. <br><br>***Sub-surface Irrigation:***<br><br> This involves the use of porous pipes or perforated pipes. It is used in slopy areas and where water is inadequate. <br><br>***Overhead or Sprinkler Irrigation*:**<br><br> It is used in any area which is not steep. ***Drainage***<br><br> This is a method of removing excess water or lowering the water table from a marshy <br><br>water-logged land. It is also a method of land reclamation. <br><br>***Importance of Drainage as a Method of Land Reclamation***<br><br> To increase soil aeration. To raise soil temperature. To increase microbial activities in the soil. To reduce toxic substances from the soil. To increase soil volume for exploitation by plant roots. <br><br>***Methods of Drainage*** Use of open ditches. Use of underground drain pipes. French drains. Cambered beds. Pumping out water from the soil. Planting tree species which absorb a lot of water for example eucalyptus. <br><br>***Water Pollution***<br><br> This is the process by which harmful substances get into the water. The harmful substance is referred to as a**pollutant.**<br><br>***Agricultural practices which pollute water include:***<br><br> Use of inorganic fertilizers. Use of pesticides. Poor cultivation practices such as over cultivation, cultivating along the river banks. Overgrazing which leads to erosion of soil thus causing siltation in water sources. ***Methods of Preventing Water Pollution***<br><br> Soil conservation measures which minimize soil losses through erosion. Fencing off the water sources. Adopting organic farming practices for example controlling pests and weed using non- <br><br>chemical techniques. <br><br> Planting grass along river banks to minimize siltation in rivers. Proper disposal of empty chemical containers. ***Introduction***<br><br> Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to provide crops with the required nutrients in <br><br>their proper proportions. <br><br>***Characteristics of a Fertile Soil***<br><br>***Good depth***- Good soils give roots greater volume to obtain plant nutrients and <br><br>provide strong anchorage. <br><br>***Good aeration***- for the respiration of plant roots and use by soil organisms. ***Good water holding capacity***- ensures provision of adequate water for plant growth. ***Proper drainage***- ensures provision of adequate air for plant growth. ***Correct soil pH***- different crops have different soil pH requirements. ***Adequate nutrients supply***- it should supply the required nutrients in the correct <br><br>amounts and in a form available to plants. <br><br>***Free from excessive***infestation of soil borne pests and diseases. ***How soil loses fertility***<br><br>***Leaching**:*vertical movement of dissolved minerals from the top to the lower <br><br>horizons of the soil profile. <br><br>***Soil erosion***- The removal and carrying away of the top fertile soil from one place to <br><br>another. <br><br>***Monocropping***- This is the practice of growing one type of crop on a piece' of a land <br><br>over a long time. <br><br>***Continuous cropping -***crops take away a lot of nutrients from the soil which are <br><br>never returned. <br><br>***Growing crops continuously***without giving the soil time to rest makes the soil <br><br>infertile. <br><br>***Change in soil pH***- changes in soil pH affect the activity of soil microorganisms as well <br><br>as the availability of soil nutrients. <br><br>***Burning of vegetation***- burning of vegetation cover destroys organic matter. It also <br><br>exposes the soil to the agents of soil erosion. <br><br>***Accumulation of salts***- soils with a lot of salts are said to be saline. State of having too <br><br>much salt in the soil is referred to as soil salinity. <br><br> Salts accumulation cause water deficiency in plants. It may also lead to change in soil <br><br>pH. Contour cultivation, Strip cropping, Cut off drains Planting cover crops. <br><br>***Crop Rotation ;***<br><br> Practice of growing different crops on the same field in different seasons in an <br><br>orderly sequence. ***Control of Soil pH***: <br><br> Application of liming materials such as***limestone, quicklime, magnesium***<br><br>***carbonate and slaked lime if the soil is acidic.***<br><br> Application of acidic fertilizers if the soil is alkaline. Application of manures. <br><br>***Proper drainage;*** ***Done through:***<br><br> Breaking hard pan. Construction of water channels. Growing crops on cambered bed Pumping out water from the soil. <br><br>***Weed control:***<br><br> Use of herbicides. Slashing Uprooting. Mulching Use of proper farming practices such as early planting, correct spacing and cover <br><br>crops. <br><br>***Intercropping*** Farming practice where different crops species are grown together in the field. <br><br> <br><br>***Minimum Tillage;*** Use of herbicides. Uprooting of weeds. Slashing weeds Mulching Strip cultivation. ***Use of Inorganic Fertilizer***; <br><br> Chemical compounds manufactured to apply specific plant nutrients for example <br><br>calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN). <br><br>***Use of Manure;***<br><br> Well decomposed manures release nutrients into the soil and increase its water <br><br>holding capacity. <br><br>***Organic Manures***<br><br> Manures are derived from plants and animal remains. <br><br> They supply organic matter to the soil which after decomposition releases plant <br><br>nutrients. <br><br> The end product of this decomposition is known as humus. It influences soil chemical properties and soil temperature. Manures supply a wide range of essential plant nutrients. <br><br>***Importance of Organic Matter in the Soil***<br><br> Provides food and shelter for soil micro-organisms. Buffers soil pH/moderates soil pH. Reduces the toxicity of plant poisons in the soil. Moderates soil temperature by its dark colour. <br><br>Increases the soil water holding capacity of the soil. Improves soil fertility by releasing a wide range of nutrients into the soil. <br><br>Improves the soil structure. <br><br>***Limitations in the Use of Manure***<br><br> They are bulky - low nutritive value per unit volume. Laborious in application and transport. They spread diseases, pests and weeds. Loss of nutrients if poorly stored. If not fully decomposed crops may not benefit from them. <br><br>***Types of Organic Manures***<br><br> Green manure. Farm yard manure. Compost manure <br><br>***Green Manure***<br><br> Made from green plants which are grown for the purpose of incorporating into the soil. <br><br>***Characteristics of plants used for preparation for green manure:***<br><br> Have fast growth rates. Have high nitrogen content. Capable of rotting quickly. Capable of growing in poor conditions. <br><br>***Preparation of Green Manure***<br><br> Plant the green manure crop in the field. Allow the crop to grow up to flowering stage. Incorporate it into the soil through ploughing. Allow the crop to decompose for two weeks. Prepare the field for planting the major crop. <br><br>***Reasons why green manure is not commonly used/limitations:***<br><br> Most of the plants used as green manure are food crops. Green manure crops may use most of the soil moisture. Most of the nutrients are used up by soil micro-organisms in the process of <br><br>decomposing the green manure. Planting of the major crop is delayed. <br><br>***Farm Yard Manure (FYM)*** Is a mixture of animal waste and crop residues used as beddings in animal houses. <br><br>***Factors that Determine the Quality of FYM***<br><br> The types of the animals used. Types of food eaten Types of litter used. Method of storage. Age of farmyard manure. Age of the animals used. <br><br>***Preparation of FYM***<br><br> Provide beddings in the houses of farm animals. Animals deposit their droppings and urine on the beddings. Animals mix them through trampling. The beddings together with dung are removed and heaped under shed to <br><br>decompose. <br><br> After sometime, the materials decompose and FYM is formed. It can then be used in the farm <br><br>***Compost Manure***<br><br> *Is*manure prepared from heaped (composted) organic materials. <br><br>***Factors to consider in selecting site for making compost manure:***<br><br> A well drained place. Direction of the prevailing wind. Size of the farm. Accessibility. <br><br>***Preparation of Compost Manure*** ***Two methods:***<br><br>***Four heaps method*** ***Indore Method (Pit Method)*** ***Indore Method (Pit Method)*** ***Procedure ;***<br><br> Select a sheltered place with a shade and near the field. Dig a pit with the dimension 1.2m x 1.2m x 1.2m. Place the materials in the following order: Hedge cuttings or maize stalks to a depth of 30cm as a foundation A layer of grass, green weeds or leaves and kitchen wastes to 30cm. A well rotten manure/poultry droppings. Wood ash and phosphatic fertilizers. A layer of topsoil to introduce microorganism for the decomposition of organic <br><br>remains. ***Note:***Some water should be sprinkled to the materials to initiate the decomposition <br><br>process and regulate temperatures. <br><br>***Four heaps method:***<br><br><br><br>***Procedure***<br><br> Clear the site. Level the site Four posts 2m high are fixed 1.2m apart from four corners of the heap. Fix wood planks on the sides. Materials are placed in two heaps as in the pit method, The two heaps make up heap 1. After 3-4 weeks, the decomposed material from heap 1 is transferred to heap II. After another 3 - 4 weeks the material is transferred to heap III. After 3-4 weeks it is ready for use in the farm. <br><br>***Indicators of well decomposed manure***<br><br> Absence of bad odour. Materials are lighter. Manure is brown in colour. <br><br>***Advantages of Compost Manure***<br><br> One does not have to own livestock in order to prepare it. A lot of manure can be produced within a short time. A variety of materials can be used in its preparation. Uses locally available materials thus cheaper than the artificial fertilizers. Improves the soil structure. <br><br>***Limitations of Compost Manure***<br><br> Large quantities of compost manure are required to supply enough plant nutrients. <br><br>It releases nutrients slowly into the soil. <br><br>Its preparation is labour intensive. ***General characteristics***: They have no humps. They have low tolerance to high temperatures hence popular in cool climates of the <br><br>Kenya highlands .. <br><br> They are highly susceptible to tropical diseases. They have fast growth rates leading to early maturity. They are good producers of both meat and milk. They cannot walk for long distances. They have short calving intervals of one calf per year if well managed. <br><br>***Exotic cattle breeds fall under the following groups:*** Dairy cattle breeds. Beef cattle breeds. Dual purpose breeds. <br><br>***Dairy Cattle Breeds*** They include; Friesian, Ayrshire, Guernsey Jersey. <br><br>***Characteristics of Dairy Cattle***<br><br> Wedge or triangular in shape. Large stomach. Docile with mild temperament. Large, well suspended udders and teats. Lean bodies. Lean and smooth neck. Large and long mammary milk wells and veins. Cylindrical; uniform and well spaced teats. Wide and well set hindquarters to accommodate the udder. <br><br>***Friesian-Holstein (largest of all dairy breeds)***<br><br>***Origin:***Holland ***Colour:***Black and white ***Size:***Cow weighs 550-680kgs Bull weighs 950 kg. Highest milk producers of all dairy breeds about 9150 kg per lactation but with least <br><br>butterfat content; 3.5% ***Beef Cattle***<br><br>***Examples:***<br><br> Aberdeen Angus, <br><br> Hereford, <br><br> Shorthorns, <br><br> Galloway, <br><br> American Brahman, <br><br> charolais <br><br> Santa Getrudis. <br><br>***Characteristics of Beef Cattle***<br><br> Blocky or square conformation. Have thick muscles or are well fleshed. Early maturing. Deep chest and girth and short legs. Straight top and lower lines. <br><br>***AberdeenAngus***<br><br>***Origin:***North East Scotland. ***Colour:***Black ***Shape:***Cylindrical, compact and deep; It is polled. <br><br>***Size:*** Mature bulls weigh 900kg. Mature cows weigh 840kgs. ***Hereford***<br><br> It is found in Timau area of Kenya <br><br>***Origin:***England. ***Colour:***Deep red and white-faced. ***Size:***Average weight of bulls is 1000kg. Cows weigh 840kgs. It is found in areas such as Naivasha. <br><br>***Shorthorn***<br><br>***Origin:***England. Has easy fleshing ability ***Colour**:*Red, Roan or white ***Shape**:*Cylindrical, compact and deep. ***Size:***<br><br>It is polled. <br><br> Bulls weigh 700-900kg, cows weigh 545-630kgs. <br><br>***Galloway***<br><br>***Origin:***Scotland. ***Colour:***Black Kept in the highland areas like Molo in Kenya. <br><br>***Charolais***<br><br>***Origin:***France. ***Colour:***Creamy white. ***Size:***Bulls weigh 1200kg, cows weigh 1000kgs. It is found in ranches in Laikipia District. ***Dual Purpose Breeds*** ***Examples: Sahiwal, Red Poll and Simmental.***<br><br>***Sahiwal***<br><br>***Origin:***India and Pakistan .. ***Colour**: r*eddish brown. ***Size:***Bulls weigh 650kg, and**cows**400kg. Milk production averages 2700-3000 per lactation with a butter fat content of 3.7%. It has a pendulous udders which does not let down milk easily. It is therefore said to be a difficult milker. It is kept in semi-arid areas such as Naivasha. <br><br>***Red Poll***<br><br>***Origin:***England. ***Colour:***Deep red with a white nose. ***Conformation**:*Polled-deep girth and short legs. *Kept in semi-arid*areas such as Nakuru, Mogotio. <br><br>***Simmental***<br><br>***Origin:***Switzerland. ***Colour:***Light red and white patches on the head. ***Conformation:*** It has broad and straight back, with well-sprung ribs and deep girth. It is well fleshed at rear quarters, well suspended udders and large teats. <br><br>**Sheep Breeds:** ***Purpose of Keeping Sheep;*** Meat (mutton). Wool production. <br><br>***Exotic Sheep***<br><br>***Wool breeds***-for example merino. ***Dual purpose-***for example Corriedale, Romney marsh. ***Mutton breeds***-for example Hampshire Down, Dorpers. <br><br>***Merino***<br><br>***Origin**:*Spain <br><br>***Characteristics:*** Rams have horns which are spiral in shape. <br><br>It has white face and its lips and nostrils are pink in colour. <br><br>It is susceptible to foot rot, worm and respiratory diseases. ***Corriedale***<br><br>***Origin:***New Zealand. <br><br>***Size:***Rams 85 - 90kg. Ewes 60-- 85 kg This is a dual-purpose breed with white open face and white spots on the legs. It is hornless and hardy. <br><br>***Romney Marsh***<br><br>***Origin:***England. ***Size:***Rams 100 - 115kg. Ewes 84- 100 kg It is a dual-purpose breed which s hornless with wide poll and black nostrils and lips. It is average in prolificacy. It is resistant to foot rot diseases and worm infestation. <br><br>***Hampshire Down***<br><br>***Origin:***England. ***Size**:*Rams 125kg. Ewes 80-100 kg Fleece is of poor quality because of the black fibres. Lambing percentage is 125-140. <br><br>It is a mutton breed which is early maturing, hardy and prolific. <br><br>***Dorper*** Is a crossbreed of Dorset horn and black head Persian sheep. It is mutton breed. <br><br>***Dorset Horn***<br><br> Dual purpose breed of sheep. Indigenous Breeds of Sheep Their bodies are covered with hair. Their classification is based on their tails and their names vary according to different <br><br>tribes. ***Characteristics;*** Thin tailed sheep found in West Africa. Fat tailed such as Maasai sheep. Fat rumped sheep. <br><br>***Maasai Sheep***<br><br> Found in South Western Kenya and Northern Tanzania. Size: Ram 38kg, Ewe 20-30kg. Colour: Red and brown. These are early maturing with long legs and small pointed horns. <br><br>**Black Head Persian Sheep**<br><br>***Origin:***South Africa ***Colour:***White with black head and neck. It is polled with a big dewlap, fat rump and a curved tail.. <br><br>***Goats*** ***Goats well adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions because of the following*** ***characteristics:***<br><br> They feed on a wide range of vegetation. They require very little amount of water. They are tolerant to high temperatures. They are fairly resistant to diseases. They can walk long distances without losing weight. ***Exotic Breeds*** ***Boer goat***<br><br>***Origin:***South Africa ***Colour:***White Has long ears and long hair on their bodies. <br><br>***Anglo-Nubian***<br><br>***Origin:***North East Africa ***Breeds*** ***Large White***<br><br>***Origin:***Britain _Kept for bacon and pork production. Long, large and white in colour. Ears straight and erect. Has dished face and snout. Most prolific and with good mothering ability. Fairly hardy. <br><br>***Landrace***<br><br>***Origin:***Denmark White and longer than large white._ Ears drooping. Good for bacon production. Very prolific with good mothering ability._ Requires high level of management. <br><br>***Wessex Saddle***<br><br>***Back Origin**:*England ***Colour:***Black with white forelegs and shoulders. Straight snout and drooping ears._ Good for bacon and pork. Good for keeping outdoors. Excellent mothering instincts. <br><br>**Other pig breeds include**: <br><br> Berkshire, <br><br> Middle-white <br><br> Duroc Jersey pig. <br><br>***Pigs can be crossed to obtain hybrids or crosses.***<br><br>***Advantages of Crosses***<br><br> Early maturing. _Increase in body length. _High proportion of lean meat to fat. <br><br>Increased litter size._ ***Poultry Breeds*** ***There are three types of chicken breeds:***<br><br> The light breeds kept for egg production. The heavy breeds kept for meat production. Dual purpose breeds - kept for both eggs and meat production. <br><br>***Characteristics of Light Breeds***<br><br> Never go broody hence poor sitters. Excellent layers (over 220 eggs per year). Poor meat producers (hens can attain 2kg; cocks 3kgs) Very nervous and exhibit high degree of cannibalism. Hen's comb is large and bent over one eye and cock's comb is large with 5 - 6 <br><br>serrations. <br><br>***Examples:***<br><br> Leghorns, Anconas, Silkies, Minorcas. <br><br>***Characteristics of Heavy Breeds***<br><br> Can lay few eggs and provide good meat as broilers. Can go broody. Heavier and bigger in size. Grow fast. <br><br>***Examples:***<br><br> Light Sussex, Cornish Dark White. <br><br>***Characteristics of Dual-Purpose Breeds***<br><br> Go broody. Have good meat. Disease resistant (do not require high standard of management). Rarely exhibit cannibalism. ***Dromedary (Camelus dromedarius)***<br><br>***Origin:***Arabia and Syria Are single humped, have light body Good for racing and rapid transport. <br><br>***Bacterian (Camelus bacterianus)***<br><br>***Origin:***Central Asia Has double humps, heavier and has shorter legs. Can live in cold regions hence its thick and long coat acts as insulation. Capable of shedding the coat during spring. <br><br>Terms used to describe livestock in different age, sex and use. <br><br>*Livestock* *Species* *Adult* *Female* *Replacement Stock* *Female* *Male* *Young* *One*<br><br>*Users)*<br><br>*Male*<br><br>Dairy - milk Beef-meat Mutton - meat Wool sheep -wool <br><br>Cattle Bull Cow Bullock Heifer Calf <br><br>Sheep Ram Ewe Ram Hogget Lamb <br><br>Goat Buck or Doe or Buck Doe Kid Dairy - milk <br><br>Billy Nanny Mutton - meat Pigs Boar Piglet <br><br>Pork - meat Bacon -cured Broilers - meat Layers - eggs Meat <br><br>Poultry Cock Chick <br><br>Rabbits Buck Doe Kindling <br><br>Camel Bull Cow Calf <br><br>Pack, trained for riding, racing milk, meat, fur <br><br>**Agricultural Economics I** **(Basic Concepts and Farm Records)**<br><br>**Introduction**<br><br> Economics is the study of how man and society chooses to allocate scarce productive resources to produce various commodities, over time, and distribute them among various consumers in society. It attempts to explain how man can best use the limited resources to produce goods and services which satisfies his needs with minimum wastage or loss of these resources <br><br> <br><br>**Example;**<br><br> food, clothing shelter <br><br> Agricultural economics is therefore defined as a science that aims at maximizing output while minimizing costs by combining the limited supplies of goods and services for use by the society over a certain period of time. <br><br>**These are;** land, capital, labour management <br><br>***Basic economic Principles***<br><br>***Scarcity***<br><br> Economic scarcity means resources are limited in supply relative to demand. This principle implies that there is no time that man can have enough resources to <br><br>satisfy all his need or desires <br><br>***Choice/Preference***<br><br> Human wants are many and varied and means of satisfying them are limited. Therefore, man has to make a choice among the alternatives in order to use the <br><br>resources available. <br><br> Man does this by satisfying the most pressing needs first. This is called**scale of preference.** ***Opportunity Cost***<br><br> Opportunity cost is the revenue forgone from the best alternative. Where there are no alternatives the opportunity cost is equal to zero. Opportunity cost helps in decision making. <br><br> It exists only where there are alternatives. <br><br>**Farm Records**<br><br> Farm records are documents kept in the farm They show farm activities carried out over a long period of time Or information kept in the farm in written form, about the farm and all activities in it. ***Uses of Farm Records***<br><br> Show the history of the farm Show whether the farm is making a profit or loss. Show all the assets and liabilities of the farm which can be used to value the farm. Help in supporting insurance claims on death, theft, fire or loss of farm assets. Help in tax assessment to avoid over taxation. Used as a guide in planning and budgeting. Helps to detect losses or theft in the farm. Make it easy to share profits or losses in partnerships. Help in settling disputes among heirs to estate if the farmer dies without a will. Provide labour information on terminal benefits for a worker. <br><br>***Type of Farm Records***<br><br>**Production Records**- Show the total yield and yield per unit of each enterprise. <br><br>**Inventory Records**- A record of all permanent and consumable goods in the farm. <br><br>***Consumable Goods Inventory***<br><br>*Date*<br><br>*Commodity* *Item*<br><br>*Quantity* *Date* *Issued to* *Quantity*<br><br>*balallce* *Stock* **Field Operation Records**- Show in details all field practices carried out together <br><br>with the input used for all the crop enterprises. <br><br>**Breeding Records** <br><br> Show all the breeding activities in the farm. From these records it is possible to select the prolific animals and cull the <br><br>infertile ones. <br><br>**Feeding Records** A record of the types of feeds used in the farm and their <br><br>quantities. <br><br>**Health Records** <br><br> Indicates the health conditions of the animals in the farm. <br><br>***From these records it is possible to:*** Agriculture: General <br><br>agrarian reform agricultural subsidies agriculture agronomy animal husbandry aquaculture aquaponics <br><br> baler binder black earth bog lime bone meal catch crop calcareous soil chernozem clearcutting colter combine commune compost collective farm cover crop creamery cultivation cultivator dairying dip disk plow drainage dry farming ensilage Good Agricultural Practices Green Revolution grain guano harrow harvester hay baler hoe humus hydroponics <br><br>fallow land farming fertilizer forestry incubator irrigation kibbutz kolkhoz lariat lasso land reform liming lister loam loess manure market gardening marl middlebuster moldboard mower mulch organic farming pasture peat picker plant breeding planter plough plow podzol prairie soil rake ranch reaper reclamation of land root crop rotation of crops Rothamsted sericulture share sharecropping separator, cream silage silo silviculture soil soiling soilless gardening straw strip cropping superphosphate **Plants & Animals**<br><br> Agriculture and Horticulture Animals Biographies Botany Microbes, Algae, and Fungi Plants Zoology and Veterinary Medicine <br><br>*The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,*6th ed. Copyright 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. |
### # **FORM I ** ###### 1.0.0 Introduction to Agriculture (8 Lessons) 2.0.0 Factors Influencing Agriculture (24 Lessons) 3.0.0. Farm Tools And Equipment (7 Lessons) 4.0.0 Crop Production I (Land Preparation) (7 Lessons) 5.0.0 Water Supply, Irrigation And Drainage (10 Lessons) 6.0.0 Soil Fertility I (Organic Manures) (6 Lessons) 7.0.0 Livestock Production I (Common Breeds) (7 Lessons) 8.0.0 Agricultural Economics I (Basic Concepts and Farm Records) (7 Lessons) ## **Introduction to Agriculture ** #### *** Definition of Agriculture *** ###### Agriculture is the science and art of cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock. #### As a science, it involves experimentation and application of scientific knowledge in such areas as; ###### Soil analysis, Control of pests and diseases, Farm machinery and structures, Crop and livestock breeding. #### ***As an art, it involves the use of learned skills in; *** ###### Tilling the land, Construction, Measurement, Harvesting of crops, Feeding and handling of livestock Marketing. #### **Branches of Agriculture ** ***Crop Farming (Arable Farming) *** ###### The practice of growing crops on cultivated land. ----- ###### ** It is subdivided into: ** : #### ***Field crops Cultivation*** ###### maize, beans, potatoes, coffee, tea, cotton to name but a few. #### Horticulture: ###### It involves the growing of perishable crops which have high value. It is further subdivided into: #### Floriculture - the growing of flowers. Olericulture - the growing of vegetables. Pomoculture - the growing of fruits. ***Livestock Farming *** ###### This branch deals with the rearing of livestock for various products. ***It is further subdivided into: *** #### Pastoralism: This is the rearing of mammalian livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats, ###### rabbits, pigs and camels. #### Fish Farming (Aquaculture ): This is the practice of rearing fish and other aquatic ###### organisms, in ponds. #### Bee Keeping (Apiculture ): This involves the rearing of bees in structures known as ###### beehives. #### Poultry Keeping : This is the keeping of domesticated birds. ***Agricultural Economics *** ###### It deals with the allocation of scarce resources (land, labour, capital and management) for agricultural production. #### ***Agricultural Engineering *** ###### This branch of agriculture deals with the use and maintenance of farm tools, machinery and structures. #### ***Farming Systems *** ###### A farming system is the organization of the various enterprises in a farm. *** It is determined by the following factors: *** Resources available (land, labour, capital and management). Skills of the farmer. Environmental factors such as climate, soil type and topography. Government policy. Farmer's choice and preference. Enterprise requirement. Social-cultural factors. #### ***The following are systems of farming: *** ###### *: * #### ***Extensive System*** ----- ###### It is a system where a large piece of land with low investment of resources per unit area is carried out. #### ***Advantages *** ###### It is cheap. Does not require high level of management. Requires less labour. #### ***Disadvantages *** ###### Low profit per unit area. Cannot be practiced where land is limited. Low output per unit area. The land is under-utilized, *: * #### ***Intensive Farming*** ###### This system utilizes the factors of production to the maximum and involves high level of management. #### ***Advantages *** ###### Maximum utilization of the resources. Can be practiced even where land is a limiting factor. Results in high yields. #### ***Disadvantages *** ###### Labour intensive. High capital investment is required. Requires high level of management. Can lead to high loses in case of poor management. #### ***Large Scale Farming *** ###### Refers to the farming practice under large areas of land over 20 hectares. It is used mainly for commercial purposes. The system is highly mechanized. #### ***Advantages *** ###### Results in high yields. Due to economics of scale high profit is realized. #### ***Disadvantages *** ###### Lack of diversification may lead to total failure in case of unfavorable conditions. High level of management is required. Heavy capital investment. Requires skilled and qualified manpower. #### ***Small Scale Farming *** ###### Refers to farming carried out on a small area of land less than 5 hectares. Family or casual labour can be engaged during the peak periods. Most of the Kenyan farmers are small scale due to unavailability of farmland. ----- #### ***Advantages *** ###### Requires low capital investment. Possible where land is a limiting factor. Does not require high management level unless under intensive system. #### ***Disadvantages *** ###### Uneconomical 10 mechanize due to small size. Low production. Provides limited employment. Labour intensive. Difficult to specialize. #### ***Methods of Farming *** ###### A method of farming is an established way of carrying out farming activities. The following are the common methods of farming: #### ***Mixed Farming *** ###### It is the practice of growing crops and keeping of livestock on the same land. Its common in high potential areas. #### ***Advantages *** ###### Mutual benefit between crops and livestock. Crops supply feed for animals while animals supply manure for crops. Acts as an insurance against total loss by the farmer. The farmer is assured of an income throughout the year. There is maximum utilization of the resources. Animals can be used in the farm activities particularly draught animals. Ensures proper utilization of labour and land throughout the year. #### *** Disadvantages *** ###### High initial capital. Lack of specialization. Land can be a limiting factor if both enterprises are to be raised. Requires high level of management for both enterprises. #### ***Nomadic-Pastoralism *** ###### This is the practice of livestock rearing whereby animals are moved from one place to ###### another in search of water and pastures. It is practiced in the arid and semi-arid areas where in most cases beef animals are ###### kept. *** Nomadic pastoralism is gradually changing to ranching with the introduction of: *** ###### Improved pasture species, improved livestock breeds and supplementary feeding. Efficient disease and parasite control measures. Improved infra-structure such as roads, water supply, cattle dipping facilities. Extension services. #### *** Advantages *** ###### Serves as the backbone of beef industry in Kenya. Proper way of utilizing the arid and semi arid areas. Source of income to the pastoral communities. ----- #### *** Disadvantages *** ###### It encourages the spread of livestock pests and diseases due to communal watering points, grazing and dipping facilities. There is a tendency to increased soil erosion and land degradation. Source of conflicts and ethnic tension among the nomadic communities for the control of good pastures and water. Difficult to control breeding and breeding diseases. High rate of inbreeding leading to poor quality livestock. Low production of milk, meat, hides and skins due to wastage of energy in traveling from one place to another in search of pastures and water. High death rates as a result of walking for long distances. #### ***Shifting Cultivation *** ###### It is a traditional method of cultivating a piece of land until the soil is exhausted and crop yields decline. The land is abandoned and the farmer shifts to a new field as the previous land is left fallow to regain its fertility. #### *** Advantages *** ###### Land is allowed to rest and regain its fertility. No build up of pests and diseases. Soil structure is restored. The cost of production is low since inorganic fertilizers and pesticides are not used. Crop produce are chemical free. #### *** Disadvantages *** ###### Not practical where land is a limiting factor. Farm planning and acquisition of credits for land development is 'not possible. It is a cumbersome method due to constant movement. Lack of soil conservation measures Not possible to grow perennial crops. Low output per unit area due to poor farming methods. Where fire is used to clear the land organic matter is destroyed. #### ***Organic Farming *** ###### It is a fanning method where crops are grown and livestock reared without the use of agrochemicals. It is a method of farming which has been adopted to reduce the long term effect of the agro-chemicals on crops which may eventually end up in man and livestock. Agro-chemicals are also expensive thus organic farming reduces the cost of production. Organically produced goods fetch high market prices. #### *** Advantages *** ###### Cheap and cost effective. Make use of the locally available materials Useful in improving the soil structures. No side effects from the crops and livestock products. No environmental pollution. #### ***Agro-Forestry *** ----- ###### This is the practice of integrating trees and crops on the same piece of land. #### With land resources becoming more scarce, agroforestry is becoming more important. **Examples of common agroforestry trees and shrubs include: ** ###### Cajanus cajan Grevillea robusta Sesbania sesban Calliandra calothyrsus Casuarina equisetifolia Leucaena leucocephala ***Trees selected for agroforestry should have the following characteristics: *** Able to grow fast. Deep roots to minimize competition for nutrients. Should be preferably leguminous. #### *** Advantages *** ###### Trees reduce soil erosion in a given area. Leguminous trees add nitrates into the soil thus improving the soil fertility. Some trees can be used as livestock fodder to provide a high level of proteins. They are important sources of wood fuel and timber. There is maximum utilization of land. #### ***Importance of Agriculture to the Economy of Kenya *** Provides food to the population to meet nutritional requirements and to enable man ###### to engage in other activities of farming. #### Provides employment . This for example can be direct as a labourer in the farm, tea ###### plucker or indirect for example, working in agricultural based industries. #### Source of raw materials for industries for example cotton lint for textile industry. Provides foreign exchange - through exporting agricultural produce. Provides market for industrial goods agriculture is a consumer of the finished ###### goods from agro-based industries. #### Source of income - farmers as well as the government get revenue from the sale of ###### agricultural produce and tax payment. ## **Factors Influencing Agriculture ** #### ***Introduction *** ***Agricultural production is influenced by external factors: *** ###### Human factors Biotic factors Climatic factors Edaphic factors. #### **Human Factors ** ----- ###### These are human characteristics which affect the way decisions are made and operations carried out. : #### ***Level of education and technology*** ###### Skills Technological ad van cements . #### Human health/HIV-AIDS : ###### These affect the strength, the vigour, vision and the determination to work. HIV/AIDS is the biggest threat to human health today and has long lasting effects on agriculture, such as; Shortage of farm labour. Loss of family support. Low living standards leading to despondency and hopelessness. Increased criminal activities. More time spent by the Government and NGO's in Carring for the sick. #### ***Economy;*** ###### Stability in the countries' economy affect agricultural production. #### **Government Policy:** ###### These are governmental laws which have been enacted to protect farmers, land and livestock. *** They include: *** Food policy Policies on control of livestock parasites and diseases. Policies on marketing of both local and export products and others. : #### ***Transport and communication*** ###### For agricultural goods to move from the farm to the consumers. #### ***Cultural practices and religious beliefs: *** ###### These activities hinder important changes in a society that may bring agricultural development. #### ***Market forces:*** ###### Demand and supply forces which affect prices of commodities in a free market. #### ***Biotic Factors *** ###### These are living organisms which affect agricultural production. #### Pests - Destructive organisms which destroy crops. Parasites - These are invertebrates which live in or on other living organisms. Decomposers - Organisms which act on plants and animal tissues to form manure. Pathogens - Micro-organisms which cause diseases. Predators - Animals that kill and feed on other animals. Pollinators - They transfer pollen grains from the stamens to the pistil of a flower. Nitrogen fixing bacteria -They are micro-organisms which convert atmospheric ###### nitrogen to nitrates ready for use by the plants. #### ***Climatic Factors(weather elements). *** ###### Rainfall, Temperature, Wind, Relative humidity Light. ----- #### Weather - Atmospheric conditions of a place at a given time period. Climate - weather conditions of a place observed and recorded for a period of 30-40 years. ***Rainfall *** ###### **Supplies Water: ** Which is necessary for the life process in plants and animals. Which makes the plant turgid hence provides support. Acts as a solvent for plant nutrients. Cools the plant during transpiration. Which is used as a raw material in photosynthesis. *** When plants lack enough water they respond in different ways as follows: *** By closing the stomata to restrict water loss. Hastens maturity. Some will roll their leaves. *** Other plants have developed permanent adaptation to water stress such as: *** Growing needle like leaves. Develop fleshy leaves for water storage. Develop long roots. Wilting and death in extreme conditions. #### ***Important Aspects of Rainfall: *** Rainfall reliability ; ###### This is the dependency on the timing of the onset of the rains. #### Amount of rainfall ; ###### Quantity of rain that falls in a given area within a given year. #### Rainfall distribution ; ###### The number of wet months in a year. #### Rainfall intensity ; Amount of rainfall that falls in an area within a period of 1 hour. ***Temperature *** ###### This is the degree of hotness or coldness of a place measured in degrees Celsius. #### Cardinal range of temperature is the temperature required by plant to grow and ###### thrive well. Optimum range of temperatures - the best temperature for the best performance of plants. #### ***Effects of Temperatures on Crop Production: *** ***Low temperatures: *** ###### Slow the growth rate of crops due to slowed photosynthesis and respiration. High incidences of disease infection. Improves quality of crops such as tea and pyrethrum. #### ***High Temperatures *** ###### Increase evaporation rate leading to ----- ###### Wilting. Hastens the maturity of crops. Increase disease and pest infection. Improves quality of crops such as pineapples, oranges and pawpaws. #### ***Wind *** ###### ***Wind is moving air. *** #### ***Good effects of wind include: *** ###### Seed dispersal Cooling of land Pollination in crops Brings rain bearing clouds #### ***Negative effects of wind: *** ###### Increases the rate of evaporation of water. Causes lodging of cereals and distorts perennial crops. Increases evapo-transpiration. Spreads diseases and pests. Destroys farm structures. #### **Relative humidity ** ###### The amount of water vapour in the air Affects the rate of evapo-transpiration. Forms dew which supplies soil with moisture under dry conditions. High humidity induce rooting in cuttings. Increases disease multiplication and spread. #### ***Light *** ###### Provide radiant energy harnessed by green plant for photosynthesis. ***Important aspects of light: *** #### Light intensity ; ###### The strength with which light is harnessed by chlorophyll for photosynthesis. #### Light duration ; ###### The period during which light is available to plants per day. #### Plant response to light duration is known as photoperiodism. ###### #### Short-day plants require less than 12 hours of daylight to flower and seed. Long-day plants - require more than 12 hours of daylight to flower and seed. Day-neutral plants require 12 hours of daylight to flower and seed. ***Light wavelength; *** ###### This is the distance between two - successive crests of a wavelength. It dictates the difference between natural and artificial light. Chlorophyll absorbs certain wavelengths of light. ----- #### **Edaphic Factors Influencing Agriculture ** ###### These are soil factors. Soil is the natural material that covers the surface of the earth, Made of weathered rock particles and decomposed animal and plant tissues, and on which plants grow. #### ***Importance of Soil *** ###### Provides anchorage to the plants by holding their roots firmly. Provides plants with mineral salts/ nutrients which are necessary for their growth. Provide the plants with water. Contains oxygen necessary for respiration of the plants and soil micro-organisms. #### ***Soil Formation:*** ###### Soil is formed through weathering process. Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of the parent rock near the surface of the earth to a stable substance. Weathering process is a combination of disintegration (breakdown) and synthesis (build up) process. Weathering process is continuous. #### ***Types of Weathering *** ###### Physical weathering Chemical weathering Biological weathering #### ***Agents of Weathering *** ***Physical Agents of Weathering *** ###### Include wind, water, moving ice and temperature. Wind - carry materials which hit against each other to break into fragments. Water - intensity of rainfall causes breakdown of rock. Moving ice - has grinding effects which tear off rock particles. Extreme temperature cause rocks to expand and contract suddenly peeling off their surface. #### ***Chemical Weathering *** ###### Affects the chemical composition and structure of the rock. Involves processes such as ; Hydrolysis, Hydration, Carbonation Oxidation. #### ***Hydration;*** ###### The process by which soluble minerals in the rocks absorb water and expand weakening the rock thus leading to disintegration. #### ***Hydrolysis;*** ###### The process whereby water dissolves soluble minerals in the rock weakening it. #### Oxidation ; ----- ###### T he reaction of rock minerals with oxygen to form oxides which break easily. #### Carbonation ; ###### T he process whereby carbonic acids formed when rain water dissolves carbon dioxide, It reacts with calcium carbonates in limestone causing it to disintegrate. #### ***Biological Weathering *** ###### ***This involves the action of living organisms, plants and animals on the rocks. *** #### Burrowing animals, for example, termites and moles bring soil particles to the ###### surface exposing them to other agents of weathering. #### Big animals like, elephants, buffaloes, camels and cattle exert a lot of pressure on ###### the rocks as they step on them due to their heavy weights causing the rocks to disintegrate. #### Earthworms take part in the decomposition of plant matter with the soil particles. Man's activities like, mining and quarrying expose rocks to the surface during ###### excavation. These activities breakdown large rocks into smaller rock particles. #### Plant roots force their way through the cracks in the rocks thus widening and ###### splitting them. #### Humic acids formed when plant tissues decompose react with the rocks weakening ###### them further. #### Plant remains -decompose adding humus into the soil. **Factors influencing soil formation ** Climate- (rainfall, temperature and wind) Biotic factors - living organisms. Parent material - Nature and properties of the original rock from which the soil is ###### formed. #### Time - length of time during which the soil forming processes have taken place. Topography - influences the movement of disintegrated materials. ----- ###### It is the vertical arrangement of different layers of soil from the ground surface to the bedrock. These layers are also referred to as horizons. The layers show differences in their contents and physical properties such as colour, texture and structure. The layers include: organic matter region, top soil, sub-soil, weathered rocks and parent material. #### ***Organic Matter Region *** ###### First layer of the soil found on the surface. Made up of leaves and other plant remains at various stages of decomposition. Some soil organisms may also be found here. #### ***Top Soil *** ###### Has a dark colour due to the presence of humus. Is rich in plant nutrients and well aerated. It is a zone of maximum leaching (zone of eluviations) #### ***Sub-Soil *** ###### It is compact and less aerated. It is a zone of accumulation of leached material (zone of aluviation) from the top layers. Deep rooted crops have their roots growing up to this region. Hard pans normally form in this layer ----- #### ***Weathered Rocks *** ###### It is also called substratum. Rocks at various stages of disintegration are found in this zone. Most of the materials found in this zone originate from the parent rock. #### ***Parent Rock *** ###### It exists as a solid mass which is un-weathered. It is the source of the inorganic composition of the soil. The water table is on the surface of this rock. #### ***Soils Formed in Situ and Soils Deposited*** ###### Soil formed in the same place and remains there is said to be in situ . However, soil can be formed due to deposition of soil particles carried from its original site of formation to another area which is usually in the lower areas of slopes. Such soils are said to have been formed through deposition. |Soil Formed in Situ|Soil Deposited| |---|---| |l.Has the colour of the parent rock|1. Has the characteristics of when: it came from.| |2. Shallower|2. Deeper| |3. Less rich in plant nutrients|3. Richer in plant nutrients| |4. Easily eroded|4. Not easily eroded| |5. Less silty|5. More silty| |6. Have the same chemical composition as that of the underlying parent rock.|6. Differ in chemical composition from the underlying parent rock.| #### ***Soil Depth *** ###### This is the distance between top soil layer and the bottom soil layer in a profile. It dictates root penetration and growth Deep soils are more suitable for crop growth since they contain more nutrients. Have a larger surface are for root expansion. Deep soils facilitate good drainage and aeration. #### ***Soil Constituents *** Organic Matter - Dead and decaying plants and animal remains Living Organisms - Soil organisms and plant roots. ###### Micro-organisms (bacteria, protozoa and fungi) Invertebrates -termites, Earthworms and molluscs. Higher animals - rodents and others. #### ***Inorganic or Mineral Matter *** ###### Formed from the parent materials. ----- ###### Supply plant nutrients Form the skeleton and framework of the soil. #### Air ###### Found in the pore spaces of the soil. Used for root and organism respiration Used for germination of seeds. Helps in decomposition of organic matter. Regulates soil temperature. Regulates the movement of water through capillary action. #### Water ###### Dissolves mineral salts Maintain turgidity in plants. Used for germination of seeds Used by soil organisms. Regulate soil temperature Dictates the amount of air in the soil. #### *** Water in the soil exists in three forms namely: *** ***Superfluous/Gravitational Water *** ###### Found in the large spaces (macro-pores) in the soil particles. Held by gravitation forces. When the pores are saturated, the soil is said to be waterlogged. It moves and may cause leaching. #### ***Hygroscopic Water *** ###### Water found in thin films on the soil particles. Held by strong adhesive forces between water and soil particles. Does not move and hence not available for plant use. #### ***Capillary Water *** ###### Occupy micro-pores in the soil particles. Held by cohesive forces between water molecules. Moves through capillary action Available to plants for use. #### ***Soil Structure *** ###### This is the arrangement of soil particles in a soil horizon. #### ***Types of Soil Structure *** ###### Single-grained Crumby Granular Prismatic Columnar Platy Blocky ----- #### ***Importance of Soil Structure on Crop Production *** ***Soil Structure Influences *** ###### Soil aeration Soil drainage and water holding capacity. Plants root penetrability and anchorage. Microbial activities in the soil. Circulation of gases in the soil. #### ***Farming practices which improve the soil structure are: *** ###### Application of inorganic manure into the soil. Tilling the land at the right moisture content. Crop rotation. Minimum tillage. Cover cropping. Mulching. #### ***Soil Texture *** ###### It refers to the relative proportion of the various sizes of the mineral particles of soil. #### *** Importance of Soil Texture on Crop Production; *** ###### Influences soil fertility Affects the organic matter content ----- ###### Influences the drainage of the soil. Influences soil aeration. Influences water holding capacity. Influences the capillarity or movement of water in the soil. #### ***Soil Textural Classes*** *** Sandy Soils *** ###### Made up largely of sand particles. Have large pore spaces hence poor in water retention. Easy to till (light soils). Freely draining. Low fertility due to leaching of minerals. Easily erodible. #### *** Clayey Soils *** ###### Made up largely of clayey particles. Have small pore spaces hence good in moisture retention. Difficult to till (heavy soils). Poorly 'drained. Expand when wet, crack when dry. High capillary. Rich in plant nutrients. #### ***Loam Soils *** ###### About equal amounts of sand and clay. Moderately good in both moisture and air retention. Fertile soils. #### **Soil Colour ** ###### This depends on the, mineral composition of the parent rock and the organic matter content. Soils containing a lot of iron are brownish, yellowing and reddish in colour. Soils with a lot of silica are white. Soils with a lot of humus are dark or grey. #### ***Soil pH *** ###### This refers to the acidity or alkalinity of the soil solution/the concentration of hydrogen ions in the soil solution. Soil pH is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) or the hydroxyl ions (OH) in the soil solution. A pH of less than 7 means that the soil is acidic. A pH of more than 7 means that the soil is alkaline. As the hydroxyl ions (OH) in the soil increase the soil becomes more alkaline. #### ***Influence of Soil pH Crop Growth *** ###### It determines the type of crop to be grown in a particular area. Most crops are affected by either very acidic or very basic soil pH. ----- ###### Soil pH affects the choice of fertilizers and the availability of nutrients to crops. At low pH the concentration of available iron and aluminium in the soil solution may increase to toxic levels, which is harmful to plants. Very acidic or low pH inhibit the activity of soil micro-organisms. # **Farm Tools and Equipment ** #### Introduction ###### Farm tools and equipment perform specific jobs in the farm. They make work easier and more efficient. They can be classified according to their uses as follows: #### ***Garden Tools and Equipment *** |Tools|Uses| |---|---| |Panga|Cutting and shallow cultivation, making holes.| |Jembe/hand hoe|Cultivation, digging, shallow planting holes and trenches.| |Fork iembe|Cultivation, digging out roots, harvesting of root crops.| |Rake|Collecting trash, breaking large clods, levelling, removing stones from a seedbed and spreading organic manure.| |Spade|Scooping and carrying of soil, sand, concrete mixture and manure.| |Spring balance|Measuring weight.| |Trowel|Scooping seedlings during transplanting and .digging planting holes for seedlings.| |Pruning hook|Bending tall branches when pruning.| |Secateur|Cutting young stems and pruning branches.| |10. Tape measure|Measuring distances.| |11. Axe|Cutting big trees and roots and splitting logs of wood.| |12. Soil auger|Making holes for fencing posts.| |13. mattock|Digging hard soils| |14. sprinklers|Overhead irrigation.| |15. Watering can|Watering plants in nursery bed.| |16. Wheel barrow|Transportation of soil, fertilizers, farm produce, tools and equipment.| |17. Levelling board|For levelling a nursery bed.| |18. Pruning saw|Cutting old wood stems and pruning big branches.| |19. Hose pipe|For conveying water from a tap to where it is need.| |20. Knap sack sprayer|Applying agro-chemical by spraying.| |21. Garden shear|Trimming hedges.| |22. Pruning knife|Removal of small shoots.| ----- |23. Meter ruler|Measuring distances.| |---|---| |24. Garden fork|Shallow digging.| #### ***Livestock Production Tools and Equipment *** |Tools|Uses| |---|---| |Drenching gun|Administering liquid drugs to animals orally.| |Bolus gun/dosing gun|Administering solid drugs or tablets to animals orally.| |Wool Shears|Cutting off wool from sheep.| |Hypodermic syringe|Administering drugs by injection for example in vaccination.| |Stirrup (bucket) pump|Application of acaricide by hand spraying.| |Thermometer|Taking body temperatures of farm animals.| |Burdizzo|Used in bloodless method of castration.| |Halter|Rope designed to restrain the animal.| |Trimming knife|Cutting short the overgrown hooves.| |Elastrator|Stretching rubber ring during castration, dehorning and docking of lambs.| |Iron dehorner|Applies heat on the horn bud to prevent growth of horns.| |Nose ring|Fixed into the nose of a bull to restrain it.| |Strip cup|Detecting mastitis in milk products.| |Trocar and cannula|Relieving a bloated animal of gases particularly ruminants.| |Hard broom|For scrubbing the floor.| |Ear notcher|Making ear notches in livestock.| |Bucket|For holding milk during milking.| |Milk chum|For holding milk after milking.| |Milk strainer/sieve|Removing foreign particles from milk for example hairs and sediments.| |Rope|Tying or tethering animals.| |Milking stool|Used by the milker to sit on while milking.| |Weighing balance|Weighing milk after milking.| |Teeth clipper|Removal of canine teeth of piglets soon after birth.| |Chaff cutter|Cutting fodder into small bits.| |Dehorning wire|Cutting grown horns.| ----- #### ***Workshop Tools and Equipment *** |Tools|Uses| |---|---| |Spanner|Tightening and loosening nuts and bolts.| |Pliers|Cutting small wires and thin metal and gripping firmly.| |Files|Sharpening tools, smoothening or shaping edges of metals,| |Rasps|Smoothening and shaping of wooden structures.| |Chisels (wood)|Making grooves in wood.| |Cold chisel|Cutting and shaping metal.| |Screw drivers Saws Cross cut saw Rip saw Hack saw Bow saw Tenonlback saw Coping saw Compass/keyhole saw Tin snip|Driving screws in or out of wood or metal. Cutting across the grain of wood. Cutting along the grain of wood. Cutting metals. Cutting branches of trees. Cutting Joints on wood and fine sawing. Cutting curves on thin wood. Cutting either along or across the grain of wood especially when cutting key holes. Cutting metal sheets.| |Braces and bits.|Boring holes in wood. ,| |Drill and bits|Boring holes in metal work and woodwork. =| |Hammer|| |Claw hammer|Driving in, removing and straightening nails.| |Ball pein Mallet|Driving in nails, rivets and straightening metal. Also used on cold chisel Hammering or hitting wood chisel.| |Jack plane|Fine finishing of wood.| |Scrappers/spokeshave|Smoothening curved surfaces of wood such as handles of| |Measuring equipment|jembes, axes. ~| |Metre ruler Try square Marking gauge|Measuring short length -. Measuring length angles and to ascertain squareness. Marking parallel lines to the edge of wood.| |Fencing pliers|Cutting wires, hammering staples when fencing.| |Vice and clamps|Firmly holding pieces of work together.| |Tools Uses|Col2| |---|---| |Spirit level|Measuring horizontal or vertical levels.| ----- |Soldering gun|Melting soldering rods when repairing or fabricating metal sheets.| |---|---| |Wire brush|Brushing rough surfaces.| |Divider|Marking and laying out.| |Centre punch|Marking the point of drilling.| |Paint brush|Applying paint on surfaces.| |Sledge hammer|Ramming hardware, breaking stones.| |Wire strainer|Tightening wires during fencing.| |Riveting machine|Fix rivets when joining pieces of metal.| |Claw bar|Removing long nails from wood, straining fencing wires and digging fencing holes.| ###### *Plumbing and Masonry Tools * |Tools|Uses| |---|---| |Pipe wrench|Holding, tightening and loosing metallic pipes.| |Pipe cutter|Cutting PVC pipes.| |Levelling rod|Levelling the floor during construction.| |Mason's trowel|Placing mortar between construction stones and bricks.| |Wood float|Create a level surface on walls and floors.| |Mason's square|Ascertain verticalness.| |Plumb bob|Spreading screed over floors and walls.| |Shovel|Mixing and scooping concrete or mortar, measuring cement.| #### ***Care and Maintenance of Tools and Equipment *** ###### Reasons for Maintenance To increase durability. To increase efficiency. Reduce costs of replacement. For safety of the user/avoid accidents. . Avoid damage to the tool #### ***Methods *** ###### . Use tools for the right work . Proper handling when using tools or equipment Clean and oil tools after work. Keep tools in there right place. Replace and repair worn-out parts Sharpen cutting or digging edges Grease moving parts to reduce friction ----- ###### Use safety devices in the workshop to reduce accidents and breakages # **CROP PRODUCTION 1 ** ## **(Land Preparation) ** #### **Introduction ** ###### A piece of land which is prepared is known as seedbed. A seedbed is a piece of land that is prepared ready to receive planting materials. #### **Seedbed Preparation ** ###### ***Reasons for Seedbed Preparation; *** To enable water to infiltrate. To kill weeds To improve soil aeration. To destroy pests and diseases. To incorporate organic matter in the soil. For easy planting. To facilitate root penetration. #### ***Operations in Land Preparation *** ***Land Clearing *** ###### Clearing of land is necessary when: Opening up a virgin land. A stalk growing crop was previously planted. There is long interval between primary and secondary cultivation. Land was left fallow for a long time. #### ***Procedure *** ###### Tree felling and removal of stumps and roots. Burning Slashing Use of chemicals. #### Note : Burning should be avoided where possible since it; ###### Leads to loss of organic matter, Kills soil organisms ----- ###### Destroys soil structure and plant nutrients. #### ***Primary Cultivation *** ###### This is the initial breaking of land. It is done early before the onset of the rains to: Give time for soil organisms to act on organic matter. Allow gaseous exchange to take place, thus carbon dioxide diffuses out of the soil whil il. e oxygen enters into the so Allow other operations to take place in time. #### **Reasons for primary cultivation: ** ###### Remove weeds. Burry organic matter. Open up soil for infiltration of water and air. Expose pests and disease causing organisms. Soften the soil for easy planting. #### ***Operations in primary cultivation *** Hand digging ; ###### *** Use of hand tools ; *** Jembes, Mattocks, Fork-jembes. #### Mechanical cultivation ; ###### *** Use of mouldboard ploughs; *** Disc ploughs, Chisel ploughs, Subsoilers Rippers. #### Use of Ox-Ploughs ; ###### *** Which can be drawn by; *** Oxen, Donkeys, Camels #### ***Depth of Cultivation*** ###### *** Depends on: *** The type of crop to be planted/size of seed. The implements available. The type of soil. #### ***Choice of Implement*** ###### *** Determined by: *** The condition of land. The type of tilth required/type of crop. Depth of cultivation. ----- #### ***Secondary Tillage *** ###### These are refinement practices on the seedbed that follow primary cultivation. It is also known as harrowing. ***Reasons for secondary Tillage: *** . To remove the germinating weeds To break soil clods to produce required tilth. To level the seedbed for uniform planting. To incorporate organic matter/manure into the soil. #### ***Factors determining number of secondary cultivation : *** ###### Soil moisture content. Size of the planting materials. Condition of the soil after primary cultivation. Slope of the land. #### **Tertiary Operations: ** ***Ridging ; *** ###### The process of digging soil on a continuous line and heaping on one side to produce a furrow and a bund (ridge). It is important for root crops, to allow root expansion and for soil and water conservation. #### ***Rolling:*** ###### It is the compaction of the soil to produce a firm surface which increases seed-soil contact and prevents wind erosion. #### Levelling; ###### Production of an even, uniform surface which promotes uniform planting. #### **Subsoiling: ** ###### This is deep cultivation into the subsoil layer to break up any hardpan which might have developed. ***- *** ***It is done for the following reasons:*** . To facilitate drainage Bring up leached nutrients to the surface. Increase aeration of the soil. To improve root penetration. #### The implements used include chisel plough and subsoilers. **Minimum Tillage: ** ###### This is the application of a combination of farming practices with the aim of reducing the disturbance of the soil. ***Examples of which include: *** ----- ###### Use of herbicides. Mulching and cover-cropping. Timely operations to prevent weed infestation. Strip cultivation. Uprooting and slashing of weeds. #### ***Reasons for Minimum Tillage *** ###### To reduce cost of cultivation. To control soil erosion. To preserve soil moisture. To prevent root exposure and damage. ###### To reconstruct destroyed soil structure. ## **Water Supply, Irrigation and Drainage ** #### **Introduction ** ###### Water is a very important natural resource. It is necessary for both crops and livestock. #### ***Uses of water in the farm; *** ###### Cleaning equipment. Irrigation in dry areas. Processing farm produce, for example, coffee. Drinking by livestock and man. Mixing agro-chemicals such as acaricide, fungicides and herbicides. Providing power in water mills to grind grain crops. Cooling engines. Construction work. #### ***Sources of Water in the Farm *** ###### ***Three major sources of water in the farm: *** #### Surface water : ###### *** Includes water from; *** Rivers, Streams Dams. #### Ground water : ###### ***Includes water from; *** Springs, Wells Boreholes. #### Rain water: ###### ***This is water tapped in various ways such as; *** Rooftops Rock surface, when it is raining and stored in various ways. ----- #### ***Collection and Storage of Water *** Dams: ###### These are structures constructed across rivers and channels. They collect and store water for use during the dry season. #### Weirs: ###### These are structures constructed across rivers to raise the water level for easy pumping. Unlike in the dams water flows over the barrier created across the river. #### Water Tanks: ###### These are structures made of concrete, stone, metal sheets and plastics. They store water from rain or that which has been pumped from other sources. Tanks should be covered to prevent contamination from dust. #### ***Pumps and Pumping of Water *** ###### Pumping is the lifting of water from one point to another by use of mechanical force. Water is pumped from the various sources and then conveyed to where it is required for use or storage. #### *** Types of Water Pumps *** ###### ***Used to lift water from its source. *** Centrifugal pumps Piston or reciprocating pumps Semi-rotary pumps and Hydram #### ***Conveyance of Water *** ###### This is the process of moving water from one point, usually the source or point of storage to where it will be used or stored. #### Piping ; ###### This is where water is moved through pipes. The common types of pipes include: Metal pipes Plastic pipes Hose pipes : #### ***Use of Containers*** ###### In this case water is drawn and put in containers . drums, jerry cans, pots, gourds, tanks and buckets . Which are carried by animals, bicycles, human beings and vehicles. #### ***Use of Canals:*** ###### In this case water is conveyed from a high point to a lower one along a gradual slope to avoid soil erosion. . Water conveyed through this way is mostly used for irrigation and livestock #### ***Water Treatment *** ###### Raw water contains impurities which may be dissolved, floating or suspended in water. ***These impurities are grouped into three categories, namely: *** #### Physical impurities : these are dissolved impurities detected by colour, taste and ###### smell. #### Chemical impurities: these are dissolved impurities detected by use of chemical ###### analysis. ----- #### Biological impurities: these are microorganisms in water such as bacteria, viruses ###### and algae. #### ***Importance of Treating Water *** ###### To kill disease causing microorganisms such as cholera and typhoid bacteria that thrive in dirty water. To remove chemical impurities such as excess fluoride which may be harmful to human beings. To remove smells and bad taste. To remove sediments of solid particles such as soil, sand and sticks. #### ***Methods of Treating Water *** Aeration: this is the removal of smell and odour from water by fine spraying or ###### bubbling of air. #### Sedimentation: this is where water is put in large containers so that solid particles ###### such as sand, metal and others can settle at the bottom. #### Filtration: this is passing water through fine granular materials to remove solid ###### particles and biological substances. #### Coagulation: addition of chemicals which precipitate impurities and help in ###### . softening of hard water #### Chlorination: Sterilization to destroy disease causing organisms. ### ***Irrigation *** ###### It is the artificial application of water to crops in dry areas or where water is not enough. It is one of the methods of land reclamation in case of arid and semi arid areas. ***Factors to Consider in Identifying and Assessing the Potential of Land for Irrigation *** ***Development *** Topography of the land Soil type Type of crop to be grown Water availability Human factors such as skill, capital availability and economic activities. #### ***Types of Irrigation *** ###### : #### ***Surface irrigation*** ###### This includes flood irrigation and basin irrigation. It is used in flat areas. The problem with this method is loss of water through seepage. It also increases soil salinity. #### : ***Sub-surface Irrigation*** ###### This involves the use of porous pipes or perforated pipes. It is used in slopy areas and where water is inadequate. #### Overhead or Sprinkler Irrigation : ###### It is used in any area which is not steep. ----- ###### #### ***Drip or Trickle Irrigation:*** ###### It is used where water is little and in relatively sloppy and flat areas. ### ***Drainage *** ###### This is a method of removing excess water or lowering the water table from a marshy water-logged land. It is also a method of land reclamation. #### *** Importance of Drainage as a Method of Land Reclamation *** ###### To increase soil aeration. To raise soil temperature. To increase microbial activities in the soil. To reduce toxic substances from the soil. To increase soil volume for exploitation by plant roots. #### *** Methods of Drainage *** ###### Use of open ditches. Use of underground drain pipes. French drains. Cambered beds. Pumping out water from the soil. Planting tree species which absorb a lot of water for example eucalyptus. #### ***Water Pollution *** ###### This is the process by which harmful substances get into the water. The harmful substance is referred to as a pollutant. #### ***Agricultural practices which pollute water include: *** ###### . Use of inorganic fertilizers Use of pesticides. Poor cultivation practices such as over cultivation, cultivating along the river banks. Overgrazing which leads to erosion of soil thus causing siltation in water sources. #### ***Methods of Preventing Water Pollution*** ###### Soil conservation measures which minimize soil losses through erosion. Fencing off the water sources. Adopting organic farming practices for example controlling pests and weed using non- chemical techniques. Planting grass along river banks to minimize siltation in rivers. Proper disposal of empty chemical containers. ## **Soil Fertility I ** **(Organic Manures) ** ----- #### ***Introduction *** ###### Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to provide crops with the required nutrients in their proper proportions. #### ***Characteristics of a Fertile Soil *** ###### Good depth - Good soils give roots greater volume to obtain plant nutrients and provide strong anchorage. Good aeration - for the respiration of plant roots and use by soil organisms. Good water holding capacity - ensures provision of adequate water for plant growth. Proper drainage - ensures provision of adequate air for plant growth. Correct soil pH - different crops have different soil pH requirements. Adequate nutrients supply - it should supply the required nutrients in the correct amounts and in a form available to plants. Free from excessive infestation of soil borne pests and diseases. #### ***How soil loses fertility *** ###### Leaching : vertical movement of dissolved minerals from the top to the lower horizons of the soil profile. Soil erosion - The removal and carrying away of the top fertile soil from one place to another. Monocropping - This is the practice of growing one type of crop on a piece' of a land over a long time. Continuous cropping - crops take away a lot of nutrients from the soil which are never returned. Growing crops continuously without giving the soil time to rest makes the soil infertile. Change in soil pH - changes in soil pH affect the activity of soil microorganisms as well as the availability of soil nutrients. Burning of vegetation - burning of vegetation cover destroys organic matter. It also exposes the soil to the agents of soil erosion. Accumulation of salts - soils with a lot of salts are said to be saline. State of having too much salt in the soil is referred to as soil salinity. Salts accumulation cause water deficiency in plants. It may also lead to change in soil pH. #### ***Maintenance of Soil Fertility *** ###### ***Soil fertility is maintained through the following methods: *** #### ***Control of Soil Erosion ; *** ###### Terracing, ----- ###### Contour cultivation, Strip cropping, Cut off drains Planting cover crops. #### ***Crop Rotation ; *** ###### Practice of growing different crops on the same field in different seasons in an orderly sequence. : #### ***Control of Soil pH*** Application of liming materials such as limestone, quicklime, magnesium ***carbonate and slaked lime if the soil is acidic. *** ###### Application of acidic fertilizers if the soil is alkaline. Application of manures. #### ***Proper drainage;*** ###### *** Done through: *** Breaking hard pan. Construction of water channels. Growing crops on cambered bed Pumping out water from the soil. #### Weed control: ###### Use of herbicides. Slashing Uprooting. Mulching Use of proper farming practices such as early planting, correct spacing and cover crops. #### ***Intercropping*** ###### Farming practice where different crops species are grown together in the field. #### ***Minimum Tillage; *** ###### Use of herbicides. Uprooting of weeds. Slashing weeds Mulching Strip cultivation. #### Use of Inorganic Fertilizer ; ###### Chemical compounds manufactured to apply specific plant nutrients for example calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN). #### ***Use of Manure; *** ###### Well decomposed manures release nutrients into the soil and increase its water holding capacity. #### ***Organic Manures *** ###### Manures are derived from plants and animal remains. ----- ###### They supply organic matter to the soil which after decomposition releases plant nutrients. The end product of this decomposition is known as humus. It influences soil chemical properties and soil temperature. Manures supply a wide range of essential plant nutrients. #### ***Importance of Organic Matter in the Soil*** ###### Increases the soil water holding capacity of the soil. Improves soil fertility by releasing a wide range of nutrients into the soil. Provides food and shelter for soil micro-organisms. Improves the soil structure. Buffers soil pH/moderates soil pH. Reduces the toxicity of plant poisons in the soil. Moderates soil temperature by its dark colour. #### ***Limitations in the Use of Manure *** ###### They are bulky - low nutritive value per unit volume. Laborious in application and transport. They spread diseases, pests and weeds. Loss of nutrients if poorly stored. If not fully decomposed crops may not benefit from them. #### ***Types of Organic Manures *** ###### Green manure. Farm yard manure. Compost manure #### ***Green Manure *** ###### Made from green plants which are grown for the purpose of incorporating into the soil. ***Characteristics of plants used for preparation for green manure: *** Have fast growth rates. Have high nitrogen content. Capable of rotting quickly. Capable of growing in poor conditions. #### ***Preparation of Green Manure *** ###### Plant the green manure crop in the field. Allow the crop to grow up to flowering stage. Incorporate it into the soil through ploughing. Allow the crop to decompose for two weeks. Prepare the field for planting the major crop. #### ***Reasons why green manure is not commonly used/limitations: *** ###### Most of the plants used as green manure are food crops. Green manure crops may use most of the soil moisture. Most of the nutrients are used up by soil micro-organisms in the process of decomposing the green manure. ----- ###### Planting of the major crop is delayed. #### ***Farm Yard Manure (FYM) *** ###### Is a mixture of animal waste and crop residues used as beddings in animal houses. #### ***Factors that Determine the Quality of FYM*** ###### The types of the animals used. Types of food eaten Types of litter used. Method of storage. Age of farmyard manure. Age of the animals used. #### ***Preparation of FYM *** ###### Provide beddings in the houses of farm animals. Animals deposit their droppings and urine on the beddings. Animals mix them through trampling. The beddings together with dung are removed and heaped under shed to decompose. After sometime, the materials decompose and FYM is formed. It can then be used in the farm #### ***Compost Manure *** ###### Is manure prepared from heaped (composted) organic materials. #### ***Factors to consider in selecting site for making compost manure: *** ###### A well drained place. Direction of the prevailing wind. Size of the farm. Accessibility. #### ***Preparation of Compost Manure *** ###### ***Two methods: *** Four heaps method ***Indore Method (Pit Method) *** #### ***Indore Method (Pit Method) *** ***Procedure ; *** ###### Select a sheltered place with a shade and near the field. #### Dig a pit with the dimension 1.2m x 1.2m x 1.2m. ###### Place the materials in the following order: #### Hedge cuttings or maize stalks to a depth of 30cm as a foundation ###### A layer of grass, green weeds or leaves and kitchen wastes to 30cm. A well rotten manure/poultry droppings. Wood ash and phosphatic fertilizers. A layer of topsoil to introduce microorganism for the decomposition of organic remains. ----- ###### Note: Some water should be sprinkled to the materials to initiate the decomposition process and regulate temperatures. #### ***Four heaps method: *** ***Procedure *** ###### Clear the site. Level the site #### Four posts 2m high are fixed 1.2m apart from four corners of the heap. ###### Fix wood planks on the sides. Materials are placed in two heaps as in the pit method, #### The two heaps make up heap 1. After 3-4 weeks, the decomposed material from heap 1 is transferred to heap II. ###### After another 3 - 4 weeks the material is transferred to heap III. After 3-4 weeks it is ready for use in the farm. #### ***Indicators of well decomposed manure *** ###### Absence of bad odour. Materials are lighter. Manure is brown in colour. #### ***Advantages of Compost Manure *** ###### One does not have to own livestock in order to prepare it. A lot of manure can be produced within a short time. A variety of materials can be used in its preparation. Uses locally available materials thus cheaper than the artificial fertilizers. Improves the soil structure. #### ***Limitations of Compost Manure *** ###### It releases nutrients slowly into the soil. Large quantities of compost manure are required to supply enough plant nutrients. Its preparation is labour intensive. ----- ###### It may induce soil-borne pests and diseases. # **Livestock Production: ** ### **(Common Breeds)** #### **Introduction ** ###### The term livestock is used to refer to all domesticated animals. These animals include cattle, sheep, goats, poultry, pigs, rabbits, camels, bees, fish and donkeys. #### ***The importance of keeping livestock: *** ###### Source of food. Source of income. Cultural values. Source of animal power. Provision of raw materials for industries. Farmyard manure from the animals is used in maintaining soil fertility. Cattle dung is used in the production of biogas. #### ***Cattle Breeds *** ###### Cattle can be classified into two groups based on their origin. *** These are; *** Indigenous cattle. Exotic cattle. #### ***Indigenous Cattle *** ###### Zebus ***They are small in size and with a distinct hump and include: *** Nandi, Bukedi Maasai cattle. The Borana These are the cattle kept in the Northern parts of Kenya. They are larger than the Zebus. Indigenous cattle are hardy hence able to tolerate the harsh environmental conditions in the tropics. They are the major suppliers of beef in Kenya. #### ***Exotic Cattle *** ###### Foreign cattle from the temperate regions. ----- #### They have distinct breed characteristics and are classified into various breeds. General characteristics : ###### They have no humps. They have low tolerance to high temperatures hence popular in cool climates of the Kenya highlands .. They are highly susceptible to tropical diseases. They have fast growth rates leading to early maturity. They are good producers of both meat and milk. They cannot walk for long distances. They have short calving intervals of one calf per year if well managed. ***Exotic cattle breeds fall under the following groups: *** Dairy cattle breeds. Beef cattle breeds. Dual purpose breeds. #### ***Dairy Cattle Breeds *** ###### They include; Friesian, Ayrshire, Guernsey Jersey. #### ***Characteristics of Dairy Cattle *** ###### Wedge or triangular in shape. Large stomach. Docile with mild temperament. Large, well suspended udders and teats. Lean bodies. Lean and smooth neck. Large and long mammary milk wells and veins. Cylindrical; uniform and well spaced teats. Wide and well set hindquarters to accommodate the udder. #### ***Friesian-Holstein (largest of all dairy breeds) *** ###### Origin: Holland Colour: Black and white Size: Cow weighs 550-680kgs Bull weighs 950 kg. Highest milk producers of all dairy breeds about 9150 kg per lactation but with least butterfat content; 3.5% #### ***Ayrshire *** ###### Origin: Scotland Colour : White with brown markings. Size: Cow weighs 360-590kgs Bulls weighs 500-720kg. *** Conformation: *** Straight top lines, horns are long and face upwards. ----- ###### Milk production is second to Friesian about 61OOkg per lactation with butter content of about 4%. #### ***Guernsey *** ###### Origin: Guernsey Island off the coast of France. Colour: Yellowish brown to red with white legs, switch and girth .. Size: Bulls 540-770kg. Cow weighs 450- 500kgs *** Conformation: *** Udders are less symmetrical. Average milk production is about 5185kg per lactation with a butterfat content of 4.5% hence the yellow colour of milk. #### **Jersey (smallest of all the dairy breeds) ** ###### Origin: England Colour: Yellow brown with black muzzle and switch. Size: Bulls weigh 540-700kg. Cow weighs 350-450kgs *** Conformation: *** Dished forehead, have straight top-line and level rumps with sharp withers. Have protruding black eyes. Average milk production 1270kg per lactation of butterfat content 5%. They tolerate high temperatures. #### ***Beef Cattle *** ###### ***Examples: *** Aberdeen Angus, Hereford, Shorthorns, Galloway, American Brahman, charolais Santa Getrudis. #### ***Characteristics of Beef Cattle *** ###### Blocky or square conformation. Have thick muscles or are well fleshed. Early maturing. . Deep chest and girth and short legs Straight top and lower lines. #### ***AberdeenAngus *** ###### Origin: North East Scotland. Colour: Black Shape: Cylindrical, compact and deep; It is polled. *** Size: *** ----- ###### . Mature bulls weigh 900kg Mature cows weigh 840kgs. It is found in Timau area of Kenya #### ***Hereford *** ###### Origin: England. Colour: Deep red and white-faced. Size: Average weight of bulls is 1000kg. Cows weigh 840kgs. It is found in areas such as Naivasha. #### ***Shorthorn *** ###### Origin: England. Has easy fleshing ability Colour : Red, Roan or white Shape : Cylindrical, compact and deep. It is polled. *** Size:*** Bulls weigh 700-900kg, cows weigh 545-630kgs. #### ***Galloway *** ###### Origin: Scotland. Colour: Black . Kept in the highland areas like Molo in Kenya #### ***Charolais *** ###### Origin: France. Colour: Creamy white. Size: Bulls weigh 1200kg, cows weigh 1000kgs. It is found in ranches in Laikipia District. #### ***Dual Purpose Breeds *** ###### *** Examples: Sahiwal, Red Poll and Simmental. *** #### ***Sahiwal *** ###### Origin: India and Pakistan .. Colour : r eddish brown. Size: Bulls weigh 650kg, and cows 400kg. Milk production averages 2700-3000 per lactation with a butter fat content of 3.7%. It has a pendulous udders which does not let down milk easily. It is therefore said to be a difficult milker. It is kept in semi-arid areas such as Naivasha. #### *** Red Poll *** ###### Origin: England. ----- ###### Colour: Deep red with a white nose. Conformation : Polled-deep girth and short legs. Kept in semi-arid areas such as Nakuru, Mogotio. #### *** Simmental *** ###### Origin: Switzerland. Colour: Light red and white patches on the head. ***Conformation: *** It has broad and straight back, with well-sprung ribs and deep girth. It is well fleshed at rear quarters, well suspended udders and large teats. #### **Sheep Breeds: ** ###### ***Purpose of Keeping Sheep; *** Meat (mutton). Wool production. #### ***Exotic Sheep *** ###### Wool breeds -for example merino. Dual purpose- for example Corriedale, Romney marsh. Mutton breeds -for example Hampshire Down, Dorpers. #### ***Merino *** ###### Origin : Spain ***Characteristics:*** It has white face and its lips and nostrils are pink in colour. Rams have horns which are spiral in shape. It is susceptible to foot rot, worm and respiratory diseases. #### ***Corriedale *** ###### Origin: New Zealand. Size: Rams 85 - 90kg. Ewes 60-- 85 kg . This is a dual-purpose breed with white open face and white spots on the legs It is hornless and hardy. #### ***Romney Marsh *** ###### Origin: England. Size: Rams 100 - 115kg. Ewes 84- 100 kg It is a dual-purpose breed which s hornless with wide poll and black nostrils and lips. It is average in prolificacy. It is resistant to foot rot diseases and worm infestation. #### ***Hampshire Down *** ###### Origin: England. ----- ###### Size : Rams 125kg. Ewes 80-100 kg It is a mutton breed which is early maturing, hardy and prolific. Fleece is of poor quality because of the black fibres. . Lambing percentage is 125-140 #### ***Dorper *** ###### Is a crossbreed of Dorset horn and black head Persian sheep. It is mutton breed. #### ***Dorset Horn *** ###### Dual purpose breed of sheep. Indigenous Breeds of Sheep Their bodies are covered with hair. Their classification is based on their tails and their names vary according to different tribes. ***Characteristics; *** Thin tailed sheep found in West Africa. Fat tailed such as Maasai sheep. Fat rumped sheep. #### ***Maasai Sheep *** ###### Found in South Western Kenya and Northern Tanzania. Size: Ram 38kg, Ewe 20-30kg. Colour: Red and brown. These are early maturing with long legs and small pointed horns. #### **Black Head Persian Sheep ** ###### Origin: South Africa Colour: White with black head and neck. It is polled with a big dewlap, fat rump and a curved tail.. #### ***Goats *** ###### ***Goats well adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions because of the following *** ***characteristics: *** They feed on a wide range of vegetation. They require very little amount of water. They are tolerant to high temperatures. They are fairly resistant to diseases. They can walk long distances without losing weight. #### ***Indigenous Goat Breeds *** ###### Galla (white in colour). Adult female can weigh 25kg. Somali (Boran): Found in Northern Kenya (white in colour). Turkana/Samburu: (Long hair and bearded. ----- ###### Mubende: (Black) (40-45kg). These are small and hardy and are kept for meat and milked by the pastoralists. #### ***Exotic Breeds *** ***Boer goat *** ###### Origin: South Africa Colour: White Has long ears and long hair on their bodies. #### ***Anglo-Nubian*** ###### Origin: North East Africa Colour: Roan and White These have long legs, lopped ears and are polled. They produce 1-2 litres of milk per, day. #### ***Jumnapari *** ###### Origin: India Colour: White, black and fawn. They are horned, have large lopped ears Produce 1-1.5_litres of milk per day. #### ***Toggenburg *** ###### Origin: Switzerland Colour: White patches on the body, white stripes on the face and neck. Erect forward pointing ears and polled. Can produce 2-3 of milk per day. #### ***Saanen *** ###### Origin: Switzerland. Colour: White They have erect, forward pointing ears and polled. Can produce 2-3 Iitres of milk per day. #### ***Angora *** ###### Origin: Angora in Asia. Colour : White It is kept for wool production. #### ***French alpine. Pigs *** ###### ***Characteristics:*** They are sparsely haired and therefore cannot withstand cold. Pigs wallow when it is hot due to absence of sweat glands. ----- ###### They breathe fast when it is hot. They have bristles instead of hair. #### ***Breeds *** ***Large White *** ###### Origin: Britain _ Kept for bacon and pork production. Long, large and white in colour. Ears straight and erect. Has dished face and snout. Most prolific and with good mothering ability. Fairly hardy. #### ***Landrace *** Origin: Denmark ###### White and longer than large white. _ Ears drooping. Good for bacon production. Very prolific with good mothering ability. _ Requires high level of management. #### ***Wessex Saddle *** ###### Back Origin : England Colour: Black with white forelegs and shoulders. Straight snout and drooping ears. _ Good for bacon and pork. Good for keeping outdoors. Excellent mothering instincts. #### Other pig breeds include : ###### Berkshire, Middle-white . Duroc Jersey pig ***Pigs can be crossed to obtain hybrids or crosses. *** #### ***Advantages of Crosses *** ###### Increased litter size. _ Early maturing. _ Increase in body length. _ High proportion of lean meat to fat. ----- #### ***Poultry Breeds *** ###### ***There are three types of chicken breeds: *** The light breeds kept for egg production. The heavy breeds kept for meat production. Dual purpose breeds - kept for both eggs and meat production. #### ***Characteristics of Light Breeds *** ###### Never go broody hence poor sitters. Excellent layers (over 220 eggs per year). Poor meat producers (hens can attain 2kg; cocks 3kgs) Very nervous and exhibit high degree of cannibalism. Hen's comb is large and bent over one eye and cock's comb is large with 5 - 6 serrations. *** Examples: *** Leghorns, Anconas, Silkies, Minorcas. #### ***Characteristics of Heavy Breeds *** ###### Can lay few eggs and provide good meat as broilers. Can go broody. Heavier and bigger in size. Grow fast. *** Examples: *** Light Sussex, Cornish Dark White. #### ***Characteristics of Dual-Purpose Breeds *** ###### Go broody. Have good meat. Disease resistant (do not require high standard of management). Rarely exhibit cannibalism. *** Examples: Rhode Island Red. *** #### ***Hybrids *** ###### These are developed by crossing two different breeds. They are superior in performance. Can attain 2kg in 56 days for broilers and layover 200 eggs per year for layers. ***Examples: *** Shavers, Thombers Isabrown. #### ***Rabbits *** ----- ###### ***Kept for the following reasons: *** To provide meat, fur, hair or wool. To provide skin for leather. To provide manure. As pet animals. Used for research purposes. #### ***Breeds *** Californian white : white, very prolific black ears, nose and feet). New Zealand white : (white with pink eyes - good for meat). Flemish giant (dark grey - good for meat). Angora rabbit (white, kept for wool production). Chinchillah (greyish, kept for its fur). Earlops (white with droopy ears). Kenya white ( white, smallest of breeds). ***Camels *** ###### *** Kept for; *** Transport, Racing, To provide milk, meat and wool. ***There are two species of camels. *** #### ***Dromedary (Camelus dromedarius) *** ###### Origin: Arabia and Syria Are single humped, have light body Good for racing and rapid transport. #### ***Bacterian (Camelus bacterianus)*** ###### Origin: Central Asia Has double humps, heavier and has shorter legs. Can live in cold regions hence its thick and long coat acts as insulation. Capable of shedding the coat during spring. #### Terms used to describe livestock in different age, sex and use. |Livestock|Col2|Adult|Replacement Stock|Col5|Young|Users)| |---|---|---|---|---|---|---| |Species|Male|Female|Male|Female|One|| |Cattle|Bull|Cow|Bullock|Heifer|Calf|Dairy - milk Beef-meat| |Sheep|Ram|Ewe|Ram|Hogget|Lamb|Mutton - meat Wool sheep -wool| |Goat|Buck or|Doe or|Buck Billy|Doe Nanny|Kid|Dairy - milk Mutton - meat| ----- |Pigs|Boar|Sow|Boar|Gilt|Piglet|Pork - meat Bacon -cured| |---|---|---|---|---|---|---| |Poultry|Cock|Hen|Cockerel|Pullet|Chick|Broilers - meat Layers - eggs| |Rabbits|Buck|Doe|Buck|Doe|Kindling|Meat| |Camel|Bull|Cow|Bull|Heifer|Calf|Pack, trained for riding, racing milk, meat, fur| # **Agricultural Economics I ** **(Basic Concepts and Farm Records) ** #### **Introduction ** ###### Economics is the study of how man and society chooses to allocate scarce productive resources to produce various commodities, over time, and distribute them among various consumers in society. It attempts to explain how man can best use the limited resources to produce goods and services which satisfies his needs with minimum wastage or loss of these resources ** Example;** food, clothing shelter Agricultural economics is therefore defined as a science that aims at maximizing output while minimizing costs by combining the limited supplies of goods and services for use by the society over a certain period of time. These are; land, capital, labour management #### ***Basic economic Principles *** ***Scarcity *** ###### Economic scarcity means resources are limited in supply relative to demand. This principle implies that there is no time that man can have enough resources to satisfy all his need or desires #### ***Choice/Preference *** ###### Human wants are many and varied and means of satisfying them are limited. Therefore, man has to make a choice among the alternatives in order to use the resources available. Man does this by satisfying the most pressing needs first. #### This is called scale of preference. ----- #### ***Opportunity Cost *** ###### Opportunity cost is the revenue forgone from the best alternative. It exists only where there are alternatives. Where there are no alternatives the opportunity cost is equal to zero. Opportunity cost helps in decision making. #### **Farm Records ** ###### Farm records are documents kept in the farm They show farm activities carried out over a long period of time Or information kept in the farm in written form, about the farm and all activities in it. #### ***Uses of Farm Records *** ###### Show the history of the farm Show whether the farm is making a profit or loss. Show all the assets and liabilities of the farm which can be used to value the farm. Help in supporting insurance claims on death, theft, fire or loss of farm assets. Help in tax assessment to avoid over taxation. Used as a guide in planning and budgeting. Helps to detect losses or theft in the farm. Make it easy to share profits or losses in partnerships. Help in settling disputes among heirs to estate if the farmer dies without a will. Provide labour information on terminal benefits for a worker. #### ***Type of Farm Records *** Production Records - Show the total yield and yield per unit of each enterprise. Inventory Records - A record of all permanent and consumable goods in the farm. ***Consumable Goods Inventory *** ###### #### Field Operation Records Show in details all field practices carried out together ###### with the input used for all the crop enterprises. #### **Breeding Records** ###### . Show all the breeding activities in the farm From these records it is possible to select the prolific animals and cull the infertile ones. #### Feeding Records A record of the types of feeds used in the farm and their ###### quantities. #### Health Records ###### Indicates the health conditions of the animals in the farm. *** From these records it is possible to: *** ----- ###### . 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[share](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/share-agriculture.html) - [sharecropping](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/sharecropping.html) - [separator, cream](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/separator-cream.html) - [silage](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/silage.html) - [silo](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/silo.html) - [silviculture](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/silviculture.html) - [soil](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/soil.html) - [soiling](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/soiling.html) - [soilless gardening](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/soilless-gardening.html) - [straw](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/straw.html) - [strip cropping](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/strip-cropping.html) - [superphosphate](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/superphosphate.html) ----- - [terrace](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/terrace.html) - [thrashing](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/thrashing.html) - [threshing](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/threshing.html) - [tractor](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/tractor.html) - [truck farming](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/truck-farming.html) - [water gardening](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/water-gardening.html) - winnowing #### **Plants & Animals** - [Agriculture and Horticulture](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/0paaghort.html) - [Animals](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/0paanim.html) - [Biographies](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/0pabio.html) - [Botany](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/0pabot.html) - [Microbes, Algae, and Fungi](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/0pamon.html) - [Plants](http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/0paplant.html) - Zoology and Veterinary Medicine ###### The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. ----- |
MATUMIZIYALUGHA Kiimbo Jinsisautiinavyopandanakushukamtuanapoongea. Huibuamaanahalisiyamanenoyanayosemwakamaifuatavyo: Sentensizataarifa Mtotoanaandikabarua. Sentensizamaswali Mtotoanaandikabarua? Sentensizamshangao Mtotoanaandikabarua! Sentensizaamri Kachezeeninje! Sentensizarai/ombi Nisaidie/eni. <br><br>Zoezi <br><br>a)Elezamaanayakiimbokwakutoamifano. b)Tambuasentensizifuatazonizaainaganikutokananakiimbo. i) Watuwanakulanyoka? ii) Watuwanakulanyoka. iii)Watuwanakulanyoka. iv)Tafadhalinisaidie. Silabi Tamkomojakatikaneno/herufimojaauzaidiambazohutamkwapamoja. MiundoMiwiliyaSilabizaKiswahili <br><br> Silabiwazi Huishiakwairabuk.m.o-a,(I)i-ga(KI),mbu-zi(KKI)nau-ngwa(KKKI) Silabifunge <br><br> Huishiakwakonsonantik.m.m-tu(K) Zoezi <br><br>a)Ukitoamifano,fafanuamiundomiwiliyasilabizaKiswahili. b)Tenganishasilabikatikamanenoyafuatayo: <br><br>i) inkisari ii)baiskeli. Shadda/Mkazo Mkazounaowekwakwenyesilabifulaniyanenoikiwaimetamkwakwamsisitizo. Alamayaritifaahutumiwakutambulishashadda. Huwekwakwenyesilabiyapilikutokayamwisho,kwenyevitenzivishirikishivyasilabimoja aukubadilishamaanayaneno. kalamu,Imba,thumni,leta,n.k. Kitabukimezani. Barabara(njia),barabara(sawasawa),walakini(lakini),walakini(kasoro/dosari/ila) Zoezi a)Wekashadakatikamanenohaya: i) imba ii) baba b)Onyeshakwakupigamstariilikoshadakatikamanenoyafuatayo: i) malaika ii) nge SautizaKiswahili Kunamakundimawiliyasautizakiswahili: a)Irabu Sautiambazohutamkwakwaulainibilahewakuzuiliwakatikaalazasauti. b)Konsonanti Sautiambazowakatiwakutamkwahewahuzuiliwakatikaalazasauti. AinazaAlazaSauti a)Alatuli Ambazohazisogeimtuakitamkak.m.meno,ufizi,kaakaagumu,kaakaalainina <br><br>koo/koromeo. <br><br>b)Alasogezi Ambazohusogeamtuakitamkak.m.midomonaulimi. Matamshi/UainishajiwaIrabu <br><br> a) <br><br>b)aniyakatikatinachinikinywaninamidomoikiwaimeviringa. c)eniyambelenakatikinywaninamidomoikiwaimetandazwa. d)iniyambelenajuukinywaninamidomoikiwaimetandazwa. e)oniyanyumanakatikinywaninamidomoikiwaimeviringa. f) uniyanyumanajuukinywaninamidomoikiwaimeviringa. <br><br>Zoezi <br><br>a)TajamakundimawiliyasautizaKiswahili. b)YatofautishemakundiyasautizaKiswahiliuliyotajakatika(a) c)Toamifanomiwilimiwiliyairabuambazohutamkwa: <br><br>i) midomoikiwaimeviringa ii)midomoikiwaimetandazwa d)Elezajinsiirabu/e/inavyotamkwa. e)Tajaainambilizaalazakutamkianautoemfanomfanommojammoja. <br><br>Matamshi/UainishajiwaKonsonanti MIDOMO MDOMO MAHALI MENO UFIZI KAAKAA <br><br>KAAKAA LAINI k g <br><br>KOROMEO <br><br>AINA VIPASUO <br><br>MENO GUMU <br><br>(H) (GH) VIPASUO (GH) (H) KWAMIZO (GH) NAZALI (VINGONGO) VIKWAMIZO (H) (VIKWARUZO)(GH) KITAMBAZA KIMADENDE NUSUIRABU VIYEYUSHO Huainishwakulingananainapotamkiwa,kuwepoaukutokuwepokwamtetemekokatika nyuzizasautinajinsihewainavyozuiliwakatikaalak.m./p/niyamidomo,kipasuona sighuna. Vipasuo Konsonantiambazowakatiwakutamkwahewahusukumwa,huzuiliwakabisana <br><br>p b t d <br><br>ch j ny m n ng' <br><br>f v th dh <br><br>s z l r <br><br>sh gh h <br><br>w y <br><br>kuachiliwakwaghaflanampasukomdogokutokea. <br><br> Vikwamizo/Vikwaruzo Konsonantiambazowakatiwakutamkwahewahupitishwakatikatiyaalakwakukwamizwa. Vipasuokwamizo/kwaruzo Konsonantiambayowakatiwakutamkwahewahusukumwanjekwanguvu,huzuiliwa <br><br>kabisahalafumwanyamdogohuachwahewaipitekwakukwamizwa. <br><br> Nazali/Vingongo Konsonantiambazowakatiwakutamkwakunakiasichahewahuachiliwanakupitiapuani Kitambaza <br><br> Konsonantiambayowakatiwakutamkwahewahusukumwakwanguvu,kuzuiliwana kuachiliwaipitekandoyaulimi <br><br> Kimadende Konsonantiambayowakatiwakutamkwahewahusukumwa,kuzuiliwanakuachiliwana <br><br>kusababishanchayaulimikupigapigaufizimfululizo. <br><br> Nusuirabu/Viyeyusho <br><br> Konsonantiambazowakatiwakutamkwahewahupitishwakatikatiyaalakwaulainikama milimak.m.Kilimanjaro Mitok.m.Tana maziwak.m.Victoria baharik.m.Hindi Mabarak.m.Africa katikautamkajiwairabu. Zoezi <br><br>a)Tambuakikwamizochakaakaalaininakiyeyushochamidomo. b)Tambuakonsonantiambazosizaorodhahiinauelezekwanini:/m/,/n/,/ny/,/ng/,/f/,/b/ c)Tofautishakonsonanti/p/na/dh/. d)Tajakonsonantimbilimbiliambazohujulikanakama: <br><br>i)viyeyusho ii)vikwaruzo AinazaManeno Nomino(N) Nenolinalotajakiumbe,kitu,hali,mahali,tendo,dhana,n.k. <br><br>Aina <br><br> NominozaPekee Ambazohutajakitukwakutumiajinalake/ambazohutambulishaupekeewakituhicho. Mwanzonihuandikwakwaherufikubwa. majinayawatuk.m.Kamau mahalik.m.Mombasa sikuk.m.Alhamisi miezik.m.Disemba miakak.m.1930 NomonozaKawaida/Jumla Majinayajumlayaviumbe/vituvinavyoonyeshaumbilelajinsimojak.m.mtu,gari,kalamu, n.k. <br><br> NominozaJamii Majinayamakundiyaviumbeauvituk.m.bunge,jamii,halaiki,bundan.k. NominozaWingi Majinayavituvitokeavyokwawingijapokimsingihazinaumojaauwingik.m.maji,mate, <br><br>maziwa,mahubiri,marashi,mchanga,ngeu,poda,unga,n.k. <br><br> NominozaDhahania Majinayaviumbeaumamboyakudhani/yasiyowezakugusikak.m.k.m ujinga,werevu, <br><br>malaika,shetani,amani,imani,roho,wazo,dhana,n.k. <br><br> NominozaVitenziJina Vitenzivyenyekiambishiawalikuambavyohuwezapiakutumikakamanominok.m. <br><br>Kuchezakwakekunaudhi. Zoezi <br><br>1.Sahihishajedwalilifuatalo <br><br>nomin o <br><br>aina Juma kisu maziw a bunda amani kuomb a <br><br>wingi dhahania pekee kitenzijina kawaida/jum la wingi <br><br>2.Bainishanominokatikasentensiifuatayo a)KuendeshabaiskelikwakasikulimfanyaHasaniaangushebundalanotialilokuwaanaenda <br><br>kununuliamchanga. <br><br>SentensiyaKiswahili Sentensinifungulamanenolinalojitoshelezakimaanalinalotumiwakatikamawasiliano. <br><br>Sifa <br><br>a)Huwanaujumbeuliokamilika. b)Huwanampangiliomaalum wamaneno. c)Huwanamuundowakiimanakiarifu. <br><br>Aina <br><br> SentensiSahili Sentensirahisiaunyepesi. <br><br>Sifa a)Huwafupi. b)Huwanakitenzikimojapekee. c)Huwasilishadhanamoja. d)Yawezakuwayanenomojaauzaidi. e)Yawezakuwanakiimakilichododoshwa. Wataenda. Watotowawiliwanaelekeauwanjani. Gachikunimsichanamtiifu. SentensiAmbatano Inayoundwakwakuunganishasentensisahilimbili. Sifa <br><br>a)Huwanavishazihuruviwili. b)Huwanakiunganishi. c)Huwanavitenziviwiliauzaidi. d)Hutoazaidiyawazomoja. e)Yawezakuwanaviimavilivyododoshwa. Mwanafunzialipitamtihaniingawahakuwaanasomakwabidii. Mariaaliendeleakupikakwautaratibuhukuakiimbawimbo. SentensiChangamano Ambayohuwanakishazitegemezikilichochopekwandani. <br><br>Sifa <br><br>a)Huwanakishazitegemezichenyekitenzikinachovumishanominokwakuirejelea. b)Huwanakishazihurukimojaauzaidi. c)Huwanavirejeshi(ambanaO)auenye. Tundaalilonunuajanalimeoza. Mwizialiibapesazilizokuwakabatini. KundiNomino(KN)naKundiTenzi(KT) KundiNominonisehemukatikasentensiinayoarifukuhusunominonahutokeamwanzoni sentensi. <br><br>Virai Vikundivyamanenovitumiwavyonabinadamuvisivyonamaanakamili. Tungozinayoundwakwamanenoaghalabumawiliauzaidiyanayoashiriakitukimojana <br><br>inayojengwajuuyanenokuu. <br><br>Aina KiraiNomino(Kn) g)t+V+E <br><br> KiraiKivumishi(Kv) <br><br><br><br>a)V+E b)V+U+V+E c)V+V+U+V+E d)V+N+V+E <br><br> Kiraikielezi(Ke)/Chagizo <br><br>a)E b)E+E c)E+E+E <br><br> KiraiKitenzi <br><br>a)T b)T+E c)T+N d)T+N+T e)TS+T f) t+N Zoezi Bainishaviraikatikasentensiifuatayo <br><br> KiraiKihusishi(Kh) <br><br>a)H+N b)H+N+V c)H+N+V+E <br><br>a)Mzazinawatotowawiliwerevusanawaliwasilishulenileoasubuhikablayamwalimu. Vishazi Kundilamanenolenyekiimanakiarifulikiwandaniyasentensikuu. <br><br>Aina <br><br> VishaziHuru Vifunguvyamanenokatikasentensiambavyohutoamaanakamili. VishaziTegemezi Vifunguvyamanenokatikasentensiambavyohavitoimaanakamili. Aina a)Vishazitegemezivyaviunganishik.m.Alimwadhibuingawahakuwanamakosa. b)Vishazitegemezivyavirejeshik.m.Polisiwalimpatamtotoaliyekuwaamepotea. VishaziViambatani Vinavyoundwakwavishazihuruviwilivikiwavimeunganishwak.m.Babaanalalanamama <br><br>anapika. <br><br>Zoezi <br><br>BainishaVishaziKatikaSentensiZifuatazo <br><br>a)Mwalimuamewasili. b)Aminaambayenidaktariatakuja. c)Ametajirikajapohakupataelimu. d)Mwalimuanafundishanawanafunziwanaandika. e)Tumeanzishashirikailitunyanyuehalizetu. f) Unawezakuamuakunyamazaaukujitetea. Shamirisho/Yambwa Aina ShamirishoKipozi/YambwaTendwa Nominoinayoathiriwanakitenzi. ShamirishoKitondo/YambwaTendewa Nominoinayotendewakitendo. ShamirishoAla/YambwaKitumizi Mamaalimpikiababachakulakwasufuria. Babaalipikiwachakulanamamakwasufuria. Sufuriailitumiwanamamakumpikiababachakula. a)Chakula(ShamirishoKipozi/YambwaTendwa) b)Baba(ShamirishoKitondo/Yambwaatendewa) c)Sufuria(ShamirishoAla/YambwaKitumizi) NgelizaNomino MakundiyanominokatikalughayaKiswahiliyenyesifazinazofananakisarufi. A-WA Huwanamajinayawatu,vilema,viumbe,vyeonaviumbevyakiroho,n.k. HuchukuamiundokamavileM-WA,M-MI,KI-VI,n.k. mtu-watu, mkulima-wakulima mtume-mitume mkizi-mikizi kiwete-viwete U-I Huwanamajinayamimea,sehemuzamwili,vifaa,matendo,maumbile,n.k. HuchukuamuundowaM-MI. Mchungwa-michungwa Mkoko-mikoko mkono-mikono mfupa-mifupa msumari-misumari U-YA Huwanamajinayahali,matendo,n.k. HuchukuamuundowaU-MA. Ugonjwa-magonjwa upana-mapana uasi-maasi uchungu-machungu YA-YA HuchukuamuundowaMA-MA. Huwananominozipatikanazokwawingi. Hazibadilikikatikaumojanawingi. manukato mauti maziwa marashi mahubiri KI-VI Nimajinayavifaa,sehemuzamwili,vitu,udogo,lugha,n.k. HuchukuamiundoKI-VInaCH-VY. kisu-visu kitabu-vitabu chakula-vyakula chanda-vyanda LI-YA Huwanamajinayasehemuzamwili,dhana,vifaa,ukubwa,n.k. <br><br> kibyongo-vibyongo nabii-manabii kuku-kuku Waziri-Mawaziri jeneza-majeneza wazo-mawazo tunda-matunda jua-majua ziwa-maziwa ua-maua wembe-nyembe uwanja-nyanja ujumbe-jumbe ukoo-koo waraka-nyaraka waya-nyaya HuchukuamuundowaJI-MA,JI-ME,JA-MA,JE-MAn.k. jicho-macho jina-majina jitu-majitu goma-magoma jambo-mambo janga-majanga jembe-majembe I-I Huwananominodhahanianavituvisivyowezakuhesabika. Hazibadilikikatikaumojanawingi. sukari amani chai mvua Imani I-ZI Huhusishanominodhahanianavitu. Hazibadilikikatikaumojanawingi. nyumba baiskeli karatasi redio meza U-ZI HuchukuamiundoW-NY,U-NY,U-F,n.k. wayo-nyayo wakati-nyakati uso-nyuso ufa-nyufa ufunguo-funguo ufagio-fagio U-U Huwananominozadhahanianavituvisivyowezakuhesabika. Hazibadilikikimaumbo. HuchukuaUauW. Ujinga Ulafi Ulaji Werevu KU Nominozinazoundwakutokananavitenzik.m.kuombakwakekumemsaidia. PAKUMU Ngeliyamahali. Huwananominomojamahali. a)PA(mahalikaribuaupanapodhihirika)k.m.Kitabukipopale. b)KU(mahalimbaliaukusikodhihirika)k.m.Mahalikulekunafaa. c)MU(ndaniya)k.m.Mahalimlemnasiafu. <br><br> chumvi subira imani amani furaha Zoezi <br><br>a)TungasentensiukitumianominokutokakatikangeliyaU-ZI. b)Andikakwawingi.Makaribishoaliyopewayalimfurahisha. c)Andikakatikaukubwawingi:Pakamweupeamenaswamguuni. d)Andikakatikawingiwahaliyaudogo:Mtualiumwanambwa. e)Hukuukitoamifano,fafanuamiundomitatuyamajinakatikangeliyaLI-YA. f) Tambuangeli/viwakilishingelivyanominozifuatazo: <br><br>i)chakula ii)shairi iii)mtwana Uundajiwamaneno Nominokutokananamziziwakitenzi a)danganya-kudanganya, <br><br>c)unda-kuunda,muundaji,uundaji,muundo d)funika-kufunika,kifuniko,mfunikaji, <br><br>ufunikaji <br><br>mdanganyifu,udanganyifu Kitenzikutokananamziziwanomino <br><br>b)soma-kusoma,masomo,msomi,usomaji a)mlo-kula b)mlevi-kulewa,kulevuka c)mwimbaji-kuimba Nominokutokananamziziwanomino a)mwimbaji-kuimba,wimbo,uimbaji, kiimbo <br><br>b)mchezo-kucheza,uchezaji,mchezaji c)ulaghai-kulaghai,mlaghai d)hesabu-kuhesabu,uhesabu e)mdhalimu-kudhulumu,dhuluma, <br><br>udhalimu f) sahihi-kusahihisha,kusahihika g)-sikivu-kusikia h)-danganyifu-kudanganya Kivumishikutokananamziziwakitenzi a)dunisha-duni b)Haramisha-haramu c)fupisha-fupi d)sahilisha-sahili e)tukuka-tukufu f) fahamu-fahamivu g)teua-teule h)nyamaza-nyamavu i) ongoka-ongofu j) sahihisha-sahihi k)danganya-danganyifu Kitenzikutokananakielezi a)haraka-harakisha b)zaidi-zidisha c)bidii-bidiisha d)hima-himiza Nominokutokananamziziwa <br><br>kivumishi <br><br>a)-refu-mrefu,urefu,urefushaji b)-baya-mbaya,ubaya c)-zuri-mzuri,uzuri d)-kali-mkali,ukali e)-eupe-mweupe,weupe Kivumishikutokananamziziwa <br><br>nomino a)ujinga-jinga b)werevu-erevu c)mzuri-zuri d)mpumbavu-pumbavu e)mpyoro-pyoro Kitenzikutokananamziziwakivumishi a)haramu-kuharamisha,kuharamika b)halali-kuhalalisha,kuhalalika c)-fupi-kufupisha,kufupika d)bora-kuboresha,kuboreka e)-refu-kurefusha,kurefuka <br><br>Zoezi <br><br>a)Undanenoulilopewakatikamabanokutokananamanenoyafuatayo: i) zingatia(kivumishi) ii) sahili(kitenzi) iii)taliki(nomino) <br><br>b)Undanominokutokananamiziziyamanenoyafuatayokishautungesentensi. i)-kali ii)lia Vitenzi Kitenzininenolinaloelezakuhusujambolinalofanywa. AinazaVitenzi Kitenzihalisi Kinachofahamishatendohalisi. Hutokeapekeyakek.m.Bokeanachezampira. Kitenzikikuu(T) Kinachoelezatendokuukatikasentensi. Hutokeapamojanakitenzikisaidizik.m.Babaanatakakulala. KitenziKisaidizi(Ts) Kinachosaidiakitenzikikuu Manenoyanayowezakutumiwakamavitenzivisaidizi ngali kuwa taka pasa bidi huenda VitenziSambamba Vinavyofuatanamojakwamoja/vinavyotokeakwamfululizo. Hutumikakutoamaelezokuhusutendomojamaalum kwauwazizaidi. Wachezajihuendawanawezakushindamchezowaleo. VitenziVishirikishi(t) <br><br> kuja weza kwisha stahili wahi maliza Vinavyoshirikishavitukihali,kitabiaaukimazingira. <br><br>Aina <br><br>a)VitenziVishirikishiVikamilifu Ambavyohuchukuaviambishi. Mamaalikuwamgonjwa/jikoni/muuguzi. Aishaangalikitandani/mkaidi/mwanafunzi. b)VitenziVishirikishiVipunguvu Ambavyohavichukuiviambishi kukanusha si/siko siko hayuko hali/haliko kuyakinisha ni/niko ndiko yuko li/liko <br><br>Viwakilishi(W)naVivumishi(V) Viwakilishiniviambishiaumanenoyanayotumiwabadalayanomino. Vivumishinimanenoyanayotoahabarizaidikuhusunomino. VIVUMISHI Viulizi VIWAKILISHI Viulizi <br><br> Kipikimepotea?(W. Manenoyakuulizia. Mizizinipi,-ngapinagani. Kiulizi) <br><br> Amechukuakitabukipi?(V.kiulizi) <br><br> Amenunuliwamangapi? Ganiimefungwa? a-unganifu a-unganifu <br><br> Manenoyanayoundwakwaviwakilishi WaJumaanalia.(W.a- <br><br>ngelinakiishioa. unganifu) <br><br> Hutoamaanayaumilikaji Mtotowashangaziamelala.(V.a- <br><br> Chamlevihuliwana <br><br>mgema. <br><br>unganifu) <br><br>Vimilikishi Vimilikishi <br><br> Hutoamaanayaumilikaji. Mizizi <br><br> Usichukuechake.(W. <br><br>kimilikishi) <br><br>naf si 1 2 3 kuyakinish a -angu -ako -ake kukanus ha -etu -enu -ao <br><br> Kiatuchangukimepotea.(V.kimilikishi). Sifa Sifa <br><br> Manenoyakusifuaukuelezajinsi Alichukuacheupe.(W.Sifa) <br><br>nominoilivyok.m.-fupi,-baya,-kali,- dogo,n.k. <br><br> Mtimrefuumeanguka.(V.sifa) <br><br>Vionyeshi/viashiria <br><br> Manenoyakuonyeshanominoilipo. Huwazakaribu,wastaninambalik.m. <br><br>hili,hilo,lile. <br><br> Kiatuhikikimechafuka.(V. <br><br>kionyeshi/kiashiria) <br><br>Viashiriavisisitizi Viashiriavisisitizi Manenoyakutiliamkazonomino Kukuhukundiko <br><br>yakizingatiailipo. kulinyesha.(W.kisisitizi) <br><br> Huwayakaribu,wastaninambali. Huundwakwakutumiakiwakilishingeli <br><br>katikakionyeshichakwanzak.m.kikihiki -vivi-hivi,lilihili-yayahaya,n.k. <br><br> Chumviiihiiilimwagika.(V.kisisitizi) Virejeshi Virejeshi <br><br> Hurejeleanominoaukukumbusha <br><br> Ambayealiniibianinamjua. Aliyeniibianinamjua. Ambayehulanyasini <br><br>kuihusu. <br><br> Huwaamba-na-o-rejeshi. Mtotoambayeanalalaniwake. Watotowanaolalaniwao.(V.kirejeshi) Mnyamaambayehuwindwaninguruwe. Mnyamaawindwayeninguruwe. <br><br>ngombe. <br><br> Alayenyasiningombe. Idadi idadi <br><br> Hutajaidadiyanomino Aina a)Idadihalisi(iliyodhahiri)k.m.-moja,sita, <br><br> Nipekuminakimoja.(V. <br><br>idadihalisi). <br><br> Amechukuamachachetu. <br><br>n.k. (V.idadiyajumla) <br><br>b)Idadiyajumla(isiyodhahiri)k.m.- <br><br>chache,-kadhaingi,n.k. <br><br> Mwalimummojanawanafunzisita <br><br>wameenda.(V-idadihalisi) <br><br> Vitabuvichachevimechukuliwana watotokadha.(V.idadiyajumla) Pekee Hutoataarifazaidikuhusunominokwa Pekee Mwenyemachohaambiwi <br><br>njiayapekee. a)enye(umilikaji) Msichanamwenyemaringoniyule.(V. <br><br>tazama.(W.pekee) Yenyeweyaliivajana. Kiliharibikachote. Popotepaliposafishwa Pekee) <br><br>b)enyewe(halisiaukusisitiza) Baruayenyeweniliipelekaposta. c) ote(bilakubakisha) Chakulachotekimeliwa. d)-o-ote(bilakubagua) <br><br>pamechafuka. <br><br> Ametorokeakwingine. Nyingineyoniliwekakatika <br><br>chakula. <br><br>Mtuyeyoteanawezakuugua. e) -ingine(sehemuyabaadhiyavitu) Mikufumingineimeibwa. f) -ingine-o(mbalina/zaidiya) Nyuzinyinginezozilikatika. Nomino/majina <br><br> Nomino/majinaambayohutumikakama <br><br>vivumishi <br><br> Mtumzeehutembeakwamkongojo.(V. <br><br>jina/nomino) <br><br> Ngeli Viwakilishingeliambavyo huwakilishanominok.m.Liliiva jana-Yaliivajana. Nafsi <br><br> Manenoauviambishi vinavyotajianafsi. <br><br>Aina a)Nafsihuru <br><br> Manenoyakutajianafsi. naf si 1 2 3 <br><br>umoj a Mimi Wew e yeye <br><br>Sisi Nyinyi wao <br><br> Yeyenimtiifu.(W.nafsi <br><br>huru) <br><br>b)Nafsitegemezi/viambata <br><br> Viambishiambavyo <br><br>hutajanafsi. umoj a ni u a naf si 1 2 3 wing i tu m wa <br><br> Walisahaukumwambia. (W.nafsitegemezi) <br><br>Vielezi(E) Viambishiaumanenoyanayoelezazaidikuhusukivumishi,kitenziaukielezikingine. Yeyenimweupesana/ajabu/kwelikweli/kupindukia/pepepe. Alikulapolepolesana. <br><br>Aina a)VielezivyaNamna/Jinsi Ambavyohuelezavilejambolilifanyika. Aina Vielezinamnamfanano Vinavyoelezavilejambolilifanyikakwakufananishananominoauvivumishi. HuchukuaviambishiKInaVI. Anakulakifisi. Tulifanyakazivizuri. Vielezinamnaviigizi Manenoambayokiasilinivielezik.m.sana,haraka,ghafla,mno,kabisa,pole,barabaran.k. Mwendapolehajikwai. Vielezinamnahali Huelezahaliyatendo. Alilelewakwashida. Alilewachakari Vielezinamnavikariri Huelezeavilejambolilifanyikakwakurudiwarudiwa Alinijibukimzahamzaha. Tembeapolepole. Yeyehufanyakaziyakehivihivi/ovyoovyo Mbwaalibwekabwe!Bwe!Bwe! Vielezinamnaala WalimpigaStephanomawe/kwamawe. VieleziNamnaViigizi Huelezavilekitendokilitendekakwakutumiatanakali. Mbunialiangukamajinichubwi! b)VielezivyaIdadi/Kiasi Manenoambayohutajakitendokimetendekamarangapi. Aina Vielezivyaidadihalisi Tulivamiwamaramoja. Vielezivyaidadiyajumla Alitorokamarakadha/nyingi/chache. c)Vielezivyamahali Hutajamahalikitendokilitendekea. Aina Vielezivyamahalivyamanenokamili NdegeilipofikaNairobi,ilituachini. Vielezivyamahalivyaainayaviambishi Niviambishipo,ko,monani. Alipolalapalikuwanasiafu. Wanachezauwanjani. d)Vielezivyawakati Hutajakitendokililifanyikawakatigani. Aina Vielezivyawakativyamanenokamili Raisatawasilikesho/mwakaujao. Kielezichawakatichakiambishi(poyawakati) <br><br> Nililalanilipofikanyumbani Viunganishi(U) <br><br> Nenoaufungulamanenolakuunganishia. Aina Vyakujumuishapamoja na aidha(pia) isitoshe kadhalika(pia)) tena mbalina faukaya(zaidiya) Vyakukatizailikupambanua walakini(lakini) bali(lakini) ijapokuwa(hatakama) ingawa(hatakama) Vyakuonyeshakinyumechamambo ilhali lichaya Kuonyeshamasharti budi(lazima) lazima sharti ikiwa(kama) bidi Vyasababu kwa kwasababu maadamu(kwakuwa) madhali(kwakuwa) kwavile/maana kwaajili/minajiliya mintaarafu(kutokanana) VyakuonyeshaChaguo au ama wala bighairi(bilayakujali)k.m.Minghairivitu <br><br>vilivyokwenyekabativinginevyo unawezakuvichukua. <br><br> seuze/sembuse(kulinganishaili <br><br>kuonyeshatofauti) <br><br> labda(pengine) Viunganishivinginenamaanazake ila(isipokuwa) laiti(kama) lau(kama) mradi(bora) angalau(borazaidi) Vihusishi(H) Manenoyanayoonyeshauhusiano. Aina Mahali juuya,miongonimwa,katika,mpaka, Simuyarununuinalia. Jumbalamikutanolimeandaliwa. Kiatuchangozihudumu. Kikomechaplastikiniduni. Ulinganisho Zaidiya,kuliko,kuzidi,kushinda. Kiwango Zaidiya,katiya,takriban,karibu Vyahali Mithiliya,kwaniabaya f) mshangao/mshtuko Eti!Salaale!Ajabu!Msaliamtume! <br><br>Lahaula! <br><br>g)kubeza Mawe!Ngo!Mmm!Mwangalie! h)kusisitiza Hata i) kutakiaheri inshallah hadi Wakati kablaya,baadaya,tangu,hadi,mpaka Sababu kwa,kwani,kwasababu,mintaarafuya Ala Alimkatakwakisu. A-unganifu Vihisishi(I) Manenoyanayotoahisiazamoyoni. a)furaha Hoyee!Haleluya!Alhamdulilahi! b)hasira Kefle!Ah!He! c)majuto Kumbe!Jamani!Olewangu!Laiti d)huzuni/huruma Pole!Ole!Maskini! e)kuitikia Bee!Labela!Naam!Ehee!Ahaa! MwingilianowaManeno Haliyamanenokuwanamatumizitofautimifano: W kuwaV Huyuanalia. Mtotohuyuanalia. VkuwaW Vikombevizurivitavunjika. Vizurivitaliwa. VkuwaN Mtimrefuhaupandiki. Mrefualikufajanajioni. VkuwaE Viatuvibayavitachomwa. Uliifanyakazivibaya. Mtumjinganihuyu. Anaongeakijinga. NkuwaV TajirialimdharauRazaro. Mtutajirihuheshimiwa. NkuwaE Nairobinimjimkuu. AmewasiliNairobi. Kitotokinalia. Unaongeakitoto. Harakahainabaraka. Fanyaharakatuondokehapa. Sindanoyababuimepotea Alidungwasindano/kwasindanona <br><br>daktari. EkuwaN Niliwasilijana. Janayanguhaikuwanzuri. TkuwaN Natakakulalasasa. Kulalakwakekunaudhi. NkuwaU Ilayakeimemwathirisana. Watuwoteilayeyewalikwenda. Kichwachangukinawalakini. Nimekulawalakinisijashiba. EkuwaI Mwendapolehajikwai. Pole!Usijaliutapona. Amepakarangisawasawa. Sawasawa!Sikumojatutakutana. HkuwaE Mofimu Kipashiokidogozaidikatikalughakisichowezakuvunjwavunjwazaidibilakupotezamaana <br><br> Pakaamepandajuuyamti. Ameingiakatikachoo. TkuwaE Mtotoakiliaatatapika. Aliingiaakilia. NkuwaI Gegeanachezaalayakeyamuziki. Ala!Waniwekeauchafukatikachakula? <br><br>yake. <br><br>Aina Mofimuhuru Nenolisilowezakugawanywakatikavipandembalimbalinalinalojisimamianakuwana maanakamili. <br><br> Kuku,baba,mama,sana,labda,janan.k. Mofimutegemezi Isiyowezakujisimamianakujitoshelezakisarufi,mifano: Mzizi(Sehemuyanenoinayobeba <br><br> Mahali Alipoingia. Alikoingia. Alimoingia. Virejeshi Lililonunuliwa. Alijikata. Mtendwa/watendwa/kitendwa/vitendw <br><br>maanakuunaisiyowezakubadilishwa) <br><br>a/shamirisho Alichikichukua. Kilichowaua. Mnyambuliko/kauli Alimpigia. Alimlilia Alinikosea. Alimtolea. Kiishio a,e,i,u m-tu,samahe-k-a,n.k. Nafsi Tumesahau Ngeli Lilianguka. Yalianguka. Kikanushi Sikumpiga Halijaoza. Huli. Njeo/wakati Liliiva. Analia. Tutaimba. Alipoenda. Hali Me,nge,ngali,hu,ki,ka,n.k. Viambishi Viungovyenyemaanavinavyofungamanishwanamziziwanenoilikulipamaanambalimbali. <br><br>Aina <br><br> ViambishiAwali Ambavyohutokeakablayamzizi. A-li-ye-ku-kata-a ViambishiTamati Ambavyohutokeabaadayamzizik.m.ki-pig-ishw-a-cho MnyambulikowaVitenzi Kunyambuakitenzinikukiongezaviambishitamatiilikukipamaanatofauti. Ainazaminyambuliko/kaulizavitenzi Kutenda Haliyakawaidayakitenzi. Kutendatenda Haliyakitenzikurudiwa. Kutendea Kwaniabaya Badalaya Sababu Kuonyeshakitumizi Mwendowakitukuelekeakingine Kutendwa Huonyeshanominoiliyoathiriwanakitenzi. Kutendewa Humaanishakitendokimetendwanamtubadalaaukwaniabayamtumwingine. Kutendana Unamtendamtujambonayeanakutendajambolilohilo. Kutendeana Unamtendeamtujambonayeanakutendeajambolilohilo. Kutendeka Uwezekanowakitendokufanyika Kutendesha Mtuaukitukusababishakufanyikakwakitendo. Kutendeshea Kusababishakitendokitendekekwaniabayamwingine. Kutendeshwa Kusababishwakufanyajambo. Kutendeshewa Mtukusababishwakitendokitendekekwaniabayake. Kutendeshana Kusababishakitendokitendekekwamtunayeanasababishakitendokichohichokitendeke kwako. <br><br> Kutendesheana Kusababishakitendokitendekekwaniabayamtunayeanasababishakitendokichohicho <br><br>kitendekekwaniabayako. <br><br> Kutendesheka Kitendofulanikinawezakusaababishwa. Kutendama Kuwakatikahalifulanibilayamabadiliko. lala-lalama ficha-fichama shika-shikama ganda-gandama chuta-chutama Kutendata Haliyamgusanoaukushikanishavituviwili. paka-pakata fumba-fumbata kokoa-kokota okoa-okota kama-kamata Kutendua Haliyakiyume choma-chomoa <br><br> funga-fungama kwaa-kwama unga-ungama andaa-andama saki-sakama funga-fungua Kutenduka Kuwezakufanyikakwahaliyakinyume. chomoka funguka Vinyumevyavitenzi komea-komoa bariki-laani patana-kosana angika-angua mwaga-zoa ziba-zibua tatiza-tatua funika-funua tega-tegua tawanya-kusanya ugua-pona nasa-nasua kwamiza-kwamua kosa-kosoa pakia-pakua twika-tua paa-tua cheka-lia anika-anua simama-keti fukia-fukua inama-inuka funga-fungua furahi-huzunika kitenzi kumbuka-sahau oa-taliki choka-pumzika uliza-jibu jenga-bomoa ishi-kufa/hama kufa-kufufuka/ishi lewa-levuka anza-maliza/isha saza/bakiza-maliza meza-tapika/tema ingia-toka dharau-heshimu kweya-teremka panda-shuka sifu-kashifu chimba-fukia chafua-safisha cheka-lia panda-shuka babaika-tulia pokea-aga zama-elea vaa-vua tendea na tende wa tenda na tend eka <br><br>tendesha tendeshea tendeshek <br><br>a tende a <br><br>te nd wa chia ch wa chea 0 chew <br><br>cha ogopa cha pambazuk <br><br>chiwa chian <br><br>chik a 0 0 <br><br>chiana chisha chishia chishika <br><br>a 0 chesha cheshea chesheka <br><br>a <br><br>a chwa jua chwe ka wa <br><br>kuanza kutua <br><br>fa tokwana uhai <br><br>fia 0 fiwa fika 0 fiana fisha <br><br>gwa anguka ja sogea karibu <br><br>gwia 0 gwiw 0 0 gwiana gwisha gwishia <br><br>a <br><br>jia 0 jiwa jika 0 jiana jisha jishia <br><br>la lia liw liwa lika lana liana lisha lishia lishika tia <br><br>chakula kinywani na kumeza <br><br>nya endahaja kubwa anguka matone <br><br>nyea ny ew a <br><br>nyew a <br><br>nyeka 0 nyeana nyesha nyeshea nyesheka <br><br>nywa tiakitu <br><br>nywea ny we wa <br><br>nywe wa nywe ka 0 nywean a <br><br>majimaji kinywani na kukimeza <br><br>pa kabidhi pwa majitoka ufuoni hadimbali yabahari <br><br>pea 0 pewa peka pan peana pesha <br><br>a 0 0 <br><br>pwek a <br><br>pwesha pweshea pwesheka <br><br>a <br><br>ta taga wa tokea MatumiziyaManenonaViambishiMaalum ManenoMaalum ila a)isipokuwa Watuwoteilayeyewameenda. b)kasoro Hakunakizurikisichonaila. labda(pengine/shaka) Haonekanisikuhizilabdaamepata <br><br>tia o tiwa tika 0 0 tisha tishia tishika uhamisho. <br><br> ikiwa a)(kama/shaka) Tutamkutanyumbaniikiwaamepewa <br><br>likizo. b)masharti Mgonjwaataponaikiwaatakunywa <br><br>dawaipasavyo. <br><br> walakini a)dosari Ghorofalimebomolewakwasababu <br><br>lilikuwanawalakini. <br><br>b)lakini/bali Nimekulawalakinisijashiba. ingawa/ingawaje(hatakama) Nilijilazakitandaniingawasikuwana <br><br>usingizi. <br><br> ijapokuwa/japo(hatakama) Usichezenanyokaijapokuwanimdogo. jinsi a)njia/utaratibuwakufanyiajambo Sijuijinsiugaliunavyopikwa. b)aina/namna/sampuli Siwezikulachakulajinsihii. c)kulinganana/kama Alikujajinsialivyoniahidi. kwa a)mahali AmeendakwaJuma. b)jinsi Alisomakwabidii. c)sehemuyakitukisima/akisami Amepataalamamojakwatanokatika <br><br>mtihani. d)pamojana Harusiilihudhuliwanawazeekwavijana <br><br>natulikulawalikwanyama. na a)kiunganishi Mamanababawanalima. b)umilikaji Kamauanakitabukizuri. c)wakatiuliopo Anaandikabarua. d)kauli/mnyambuliko KamaunaJumawanapigana. e)kuonyeshatofauti Kiatuhikinitofautinakile. f) mtenzi Alipigwanamwalimu. g)kuonyeshaufupishowanafsi Alisaidiwanao. e)kuonyeshakitukilitumiwakamakifaa Alikatamkatekwakisu. f) sababu Aliuguakwakunywamajimachafu. g)kuunganishavipashioviwili Leondiweutapikakwahivyotayarisha <br><br>viazi. <br><br>h)muda/kipindi Aliliakwanususana. i) kufanyajambobilakupotezawakati Baadayakula,tuliendamojakwamoja <br><br>kulala. <br><br>j) kivumishichaa-unganifuchangeliyaKU KuchekakwaMariakunaudhi. k)umilikiwamahali Twendenyumbanikwangu. Zoezi a)Elezamatumiziyanakatikasentensizifuatazo: i) Babanamamawanapiganakwanianatabiayakulewa. ii)Mtotoaliteswanamamayakekwakuwatofautinawenginenamikikamkanya. wala(kukanusha) Sikumtusiwalakumpiga. ViambishiMaalum me/ja(halitimilifu/kitendokutendekana Mamaamewasili. Mamahajawasili. hu a)mazoea/jambohutokeakilawakati Yeyehulalamapema. b)kikanushi Hukutibiwavizuri. li a)wakatiuliopita Alitupatiazawadi. b)ngeli Tundalimeiva. c)kitenzikishirikishikipungufu Jembelighalani. ni a)nafsiyakwanzaumoja Niliwasilijana. b)mahali Twendekanisani. c)kitenzikishirikishikipungufu Yeyenidaktari. d)wingi Tokeninje. ndi-(kitenzikishirikishikipungufu) Yeyendiyealiniibiapesa. ji a)udogo Kijitukimeanguka. b)ukubwa Jibwalimebweka. c)kirejeshi Alijipaliamakaa. d)nafsiyapili Jichukulieupendacho. e)kiambishitamatichakuundanomino. Mwimbajialituzwa. Ki a)kitendokikatikahaliyakuendelea Tulikuwatukilaalipoingia. b)masharti/kitendokinategemeakingine Utapitamtihaniukijitahidi. c)udogo Kitotokinalia. d)ngeli Kitabukimechukuliwa. e)kitenzikishirikishikipungufu chakulakimezani. f) kielezinamnamfanano. Yeyehulakifisi. g)kitendohakifanyikikamwe Chaihiihainyweki. ku a)kikanushichawakatiuliopita Hakumpigakwajiwe. b)nafsiyapiliumoja. Alikupigiasimujana. Twaendasokoni. d)nafsiyatatuumoja Yeyealiudhikasana. e)ngeli Mbuziyuleatachinjwakesho. f) kiishio Mtotoamekulavizuri. nge/ngali(mashartiyanayowezekanaau <br><br>yasiyowezekana) <br><br> Ningekuwanapesa,ningenunuakiatu. Laitiningalijuanisingaliingiakatikahilo <br><br>basi. <br><br> po a)wakati i) maalum Yeyeanapolalahukoroma. ii)Wowote/mazoea Mwalimuaingiapowanafunzihusimama. b)mahali Paliposafishwapamechafuka. c)masharti Mtotoaamkapo,mpeuji. d)kikanushichakiyamasharti Akila.-asipokula. c)mahali Hukukumesafishwa. d)ngeli Kuuguakumemnyenyekesha. e)mwanzowakitenzi Ameendakusafishanyumba. ka a)mfuatanowamatukio Tulikulachakula,tukanywachaikisha <br><br>tukalala. <br><br>b)vichwavyahabari Mwizikapigwamawe c)kutoaamri Kachezeeninje! d)kitendofulaninitokeolakingine Tulisomakwabidiitukapitamtihani. e)kutoanasaha/shauri Kamwombebabakomsamaha. a a)Haliisiyodhihirikayawakatiuliopo Watotowachezauwanjani. b)vichwavyahabari Waziriaaibishwanawananchi. c)kitendokinaendelea Viakifishi Alamazausemi() a)Usemihalisi Njookesho,mamaakamwambia. b)Lughangeni NinunuliejaridalaParents,babake c)kuonyeshamwanzoaumwishowa <br><br>usemihalisi <br><br> Njookesho,mamaakamwambia. d)kuandikaanwani ShuleyaupiliGatwe,S.L.P160, <br><br>Kerugoya. <br><br>e)baadayakutajajinalamtuanayepewa <br><br>habari <br><br> Daktari,ningependakukuona. f) kutenganishasentensizenyemasharti Usipofanyakazi,usile. g)kuandikatarehe AlizaliwamweziwaJulai,tarehe18, <br><br>1999. <br><br>h)kuandikatarakimuzinazozidielfu 1,000,13,000,n.k. Ritifaa/kibainishi() a)herufiimeachwa walotutuma b)shadda/mkazo `iba,ka`lamu c)katikasautiyakingongo Ng`ombeamekufa. d)Kufupisha Tushasafishanguo. e)katikakuandikamiakayenyenamba akamwambia. <br><br>c)Vipindi,filamu,makala ViojaMahakamani d)Semi kumwagazigo Dukuduku() a)manenoyameachwayakutangulia,kati auyamwisho.Yawezakuachwakwa kuwamakali Nyanihaoni b)kukatizwausemi/kauli AMINA:Mamani MAMA:Kwanzawatokawapiusikuhuu? <br><br>c)manenoyanaendelea Alimwambiaajihadharianapovuka <br><br>barabara <br><br> Koma/mkato/kipumuo(,) a)pumzikofupikatikasenyensi Tulipofikasokoni,tulinunuamboga. b)kuorodhesha Alinunuamboga,samaki,nyanyana <br><br>viazi. 4.5,86.27,n.k. e)kutengashilinginasenti 6.50-shilingisitanasentihamsini f) juuyaherufijnaI Nusu/semikoloni/nuktanakituo(:) a)kugawasentensimbilizinazoweza kujisimamiabilayaviunganishi <br><br> Wasichanawalifuatamaagizo <br><br>waliyopewa;wafulanawaliyagomea. b)kamakipumzikokatikasentensindefu Alipochunguzailehatialiyokabidhiwana walewafanyabiasharaalionakuwasi nzuri;akaamuakujitenganayo. <br><br> Vifungo/mabano/paradesi() a)kuzingiranambariauherufikatika <br><br>orodha <br><br> (i),(a) b)kuonyeshamaelezoyavitendovya msemajikatikamazungumzo, mahojianoautamthilia `73-`99. Mshazari/mkwaju(/) a)Tarehe Alizaliwatarehe5/. b)kuonyeshakumbukumbu KUMB1/2009 c)kuonyeshavisawe Nendakatikashule/skuli. d)Kuonyeshaau Wanawake/wanaumewataajiriwa. Kistarikifupi(-) a)kuandikatarehe /2006 b)kuonyeshasilabi,viambishiaumofimu sa-la-munaimb-a. c)kuonyeshanenolinaendeleakatika <br><br>mstariunaofuata. <br><br> Usitenganishesautizasilabi. d)Kuonyeshamziziwaneno -ma,-bwa e)kuonyeshakudumishwakwasauti Lo-o-o-o! f) Hadi/kipindichatukiofulani 1999-2008. g)Kutenganishauseminamsemaji Huoniupumbavu-Kibaki Kistarikirefu( ) a)kutenganishauseminamsemaji b)kuonyeshamabadilikoyaghafla Wanafaunziniwajinga-samahani, MAMA:(Akiinama.)Hebunjooharaka. c)kutoamaelezozaidi Ema(kifunguamimbachangu)chajaleo <br><br>kutokamarekani. d)kuonyeshavisawe Mamba(ngwena)huliwa. Herufikubwa(H) a)mwanzonimwasentensi. b)kuandikaanwani S.L.P1000,Bura. c)mwanzonimwausemihalisi Twendenizetu,akatwambia. d)baadayakiulizi(?)nahisi(!) Lo!Ulienda?Hebuniambieyaliyojiri. e)mwanzonimwanominozapekee Musa f) ufupishowamaneno C.C.M (ChamachaMapinduzi) g)mwanzonimwamajinayavitabu, <br><br>majarida,magazeti,vipindi,filamu,n.k. simaanishiwote. <br><br>c)kutanguliamaelezoyaziada WalisaidianchizaAfrikaMashariki- Kenya,UgandanaTanzaniakwa msaada Mstari( a)kusisitiza Jibumaswalimawilipekee. b)kuonyeshaainazamaneno Mtotowanguanalala(V.kimilikishi). c)kuonyeshavitabu,majaridanamagazeti ChemchemizaKiswahili,TrueLove, <br><br>) <br><br>n.k. <br><br>d)kuandikaanwani/kichwa MwanafunziAdhibiwa/KaadhibiwaVikali Kikomo/kitone/nukta(.) a)mwishonimwasentensi. b)kuandikatarehe 2.3.2013 c)kuonyeshaufupishowamaneno Dkt.,Bw.,Bi.,C.C.M d)kuonyeshatakwimu h)kuandikasifainayotokananajinala <br><br>pekee <br><br> Kiganda,Kikristu. Koloni/Nuktambili(:) a)kuorodhesha Ukitakakuandaasamosa,unahitajivitu hivi:unga,nyama,chumvi,mafutana kitunguu <br><br>b)kutanguliausemihalisi Alimwangaliakishaakamtupia: <br><br>mshenzi. <br><br>c)kuandikamazungumo,mahojianoau tamthilia <br><br> MAMA:(Akiinuka.)Umechelewawapi? d)kutenganishadakikanasekunde 9.25:05 e)kutanguliamaelezofulani Alipofunguamlangoalishtuka:mizoga yapundailikuwaimetapakaanje. <br><br> Hisi/mshangao(!) a)kuamrisha Kachezeeninje! Kamau!Unafanyanini? b)baadayavihisishi Masalaale!Pesazanguzotezimeibwa. c)baadayasentensiiliyomshangao Garilangulimeibwa! d)kusisitiza Keshomsichelewekuwasilishuleni! e)kudharau/kubeza Mwangalie!Kichwakamajiwe. f) baadayatanakali Mateyalimdondokando!Ndo!Ndo! Kiulizo(?) a)mwishonimwasentensiiliyoswali b)mwishonimwamethalizenyemuudowa Jibumaswalimannepekee. b)kuonyeshawakati/njeoauhali Nilicheza,Nimelima c)kuonyeshaumojanawingi mtoto-watoto d)kuonyeshaainayanenokatikasentensi Mtotowakeamelala(kivumishi) Herufizamlazo/italiki(h) a)kuonyeshaainayakiambishiaumofimu Ki-li-cho-ib-w-a(kirejeshi). b)kusisitiza Jibumaswalimawili. c)kuonyeshajinalakitabu NyotayaRehema d)kuonyeshamanenoyakigeni Napendamukimo. e)kuonyeshamaelezoyavitendovya mhusikakatikamazungumzo, mahojianonatamthilia <br><br> AMINA:(Akiinuka)Mamaameendakwa <br><br>Farashuu. Kinyota(*) a)kuonyeshanenolimeendelezwavibaya *kitaabu b)kuonyeshasentensihainampangilio sahihiwamaneno *Kisuchahikininani? c)kuonyeshatanbihi(maelezoyaneno yanapatikanachinimwaukurasa) <br><br> idhibati* d)kuonyeshasentensiinamakosakisarufi *Kukuhiiniyanani? swali <br><br> Pilipiliusiyoilayakuwashiani? c)kuonyeshashaka Kenyattaalizaliwamwakawa1945(?) d)kuonyeshamwakawakuchapishwakwa <br><br>kitabuhaujulikani <br><br> MlachaJ(?)TujijueIpasavyo Herufinzito(h) a)kusisitiza UsemiHalisi Manenohalisikamayanavyotamkwanamsemaji. a)Huandikwabilakugeuzachochote. b)Huanziakwaherufikubwa. c)Hunukuliwakwaalamazausemiambazohuandikwazikiwambilimbilinamojamojakatika <br><br>dondoondogok.m.Mwambieuguapoleukimuona,babaaliniambia. <br><br>d)Komahutumiwamwanzoniaumwishonimwake. e)Msemajimpyaanapoanzakusema,unapaswakufunguaayampyak.m. Alimuuliza,Huendikwanini? <br><br>Sikupewaruhusa,alijibuZahara. <br><br>f) Baadaya(?)na(!)na(.)manenohuanziakwaherufikubwak.m.Lo!Unatokawapisaahii? <br><br>Aliniuliza. UsemiwaTaarifa Ripotikuhusumamboyaliyosemwanamtumwingine. a)Silazimamanenoyatokeeyalivyosemwa.Yanawezakubadilishwamradiujumbeubakieule <br><br>ule. <br><br>a)Alamazamtajo,kiulizinahisihazitumiki. b)Manenokwambanakuwahutumiwa. c)Baadhiyamanenonaviambishihubadilikak.m. usemihalisi usemiwa <br><br>taarifa -ake -ao -ao -ake wikiiliyofuata sikuiliyofuata sikuhiyo wakatihuo huyo hiyo nge a li siku iliyotangulia alishangaa alitakakujua <br><br>-angu -etu -enu -ako wikiijayo kesho leo sasa huyu hii ta/ki ni na jana Lo! ? <br><br>VITATE T/D Tata a)haliyakutoeleweka sentensihiinitata. b)fundokatikauzi uziumeingiatata/umetata. Dada a)nduguwakike <br><br>Tua b)shukakutokaangani ndegeilituauwanjani. c)wekachinik.v.mzigo Dua a)maombikwaMungu ombadua pigaduaapiza/laani Toa a)ondoakitundaniyakinginea b)kinyumechajumlisha Doa a)alamayenyerangitofautinamwiliwa <br><br>kitu <br><br>b)dosari/ila/walakini Ndoa a)arusi/makubalianorasmiyamwanamke namwanamumekuishipamojakama mkenamume/chuo <br><br>Tundu b)uwazimdogowamviringokwenyekitu k.v.sindano <br><br>c)kitumaalum chakuwekeandege <br><br>kilichotengenezwakwamabati,matete n.k. Dundu a)mduduanayebebauchafu b)rundolavitu/mtumba <br><br>Tuma a)pelekakituk.v.baruakwanjiayaposta b)agizamtukufanyajambo Duma a)mnyamamkubwamwenyeumbokama <br><br>lapaka <br><br>b)kamata,hasakatikavita <br><br>K/G Kuku a)ainayandegeanayefugwanyumbani Gugu a)mmeaunaootamahaliusipotakiwa b)mmeawamwitunimfanowaunyasi <br><br>Kuni a)vipandevyamtivyakukokeamoto Guni a)shairilaarudhilililokosakutosheleza kanunimojaauzaidiyauandishi <br><br>Kuna b)kwaruzakwakucha/kituchenye <br><br>menomeno <br><br>Guna a)habari,tukioshughuli <br><br>Kucha a)elekeaasubuhi b)ogopa Kuja a)haliyakusogeakaribu <br><br>Chuma a)patamali b)madini magumu yanayotumiwa <br><br>kujengeanakuundiavitu <br><br>c)tunguamatundaaumauakutokamtini Juma a)wiki b)jinalamtu <br><br>Chenga a)hepakwahila b)mchele uliovunjikavunjika(mchele wa <br><br>chenga) <br><br>Jenga a)akanyumba b)fanyamadhubuti/imarisha <br><br>Mchi a)mtiwakupondeakwenyekinu Mji a)makaziya watu wengikulikojengwa <br><br>nyumbanyingi <br><br>b)mahalikaburinianapowekwamauti c)sehemuyakatiyachupayamwanamke mja mzito inayounganisha mtoto na mwiliwamama <br><br>Kichana a)kituchakuchanianywele Kijana b)mtuwamakamomwenyenguvu/mtoto <br><br>wakiumekablayakubaleghe a)toasautiyakuonyeshakukataa, kutoridhika,aukuchukiajambo. <br><br>Kenge a)mnyamakamamjusimdogo Genge a)kundilawatu b)pango/shimo <br><br>Kesi a)daawa/mashtakayanayosikilizwa <br><br>mahakamani <br><br>Gesi a)hewainayotumiwakupikiaaukutiwa <br><br>katikavinywaji <br><br>b)hewaambayohaigeukinakuwa majimajikatikajotolakawaida <br><br>CH/J Changa a)toakituilikukusanyakwakusudifulani b)siokomaa c)chanja/pasuavipandevipandevidogo <br><br>vidogok.v.kuni <br><br>Janga a)hatari/balaa <br><br>Chema a)kizuri Jema a)zuri <br><br>Chini a)kwenyeardhi/sakafu Jini a)shetani/mtumuovu <br><br>Choka a)pungukiwananguvubaadayakufanya <br><br>kazi <br><br>Joka a)nyokamkubwasana Chungu a)chombokinachofinyangwachakupikia b)kinyumechatamu c)idadikubwa(chungunzima) d)mdudumdogowajamiiyasiafu <br><br>Chambo a)kinachowekwa kwenye mtego kunasia <br><br>wanyama,samakin.k. <br><br>Jambo F/V Faa c)kusaidia d)kuwavizuri Vaa a)eneza kitu katika mwiliilikufunika <br><br>sehemufulani <br><br>Fua a)safishanguo b)tengenezakitukutokananamadini c)toamajikatikachombo fuamaji d)Hakufuadafu.(hakufaulu) Vua a)patasamakikwakutumiawavu,mshipi, <br><br>ndoanan.k. <br><br>b)ondoanguomwilini c)nusuru,okoa,ponya d)vuamacho(tazama) <br><br>Fika a)wasilimahali b)bilashaka/kabisa Vika a)valisha <br><br>Fuka a)toamoshibilakuwaka b)ujiwowotemwepesi(ujifuka) Vuka a)endaupandewapili <br><br>Fuma a)pigakwamkuki b)ona kwa ghafla bila kutazamia mtu <br><br>anayetendajamboovu <br><br>c)tengeneza kitu kwa kusokota <br><br>nyuzi,ukindun.k <br><br>Vuma a)julikanakwawatuwengik.v.habari,mtu <br><br>n.k. <br><br>b)toa sauti nzito k.v. simba,.upepo <br><br>mkali,.ngoman.k. a)fanyakitukigumukuwavipandevipande b)badilishapesaziwendogondogo c)endakinyumenakanuni <br><br>Futa a)pangusa b)chomoakisu c)toamajinjeyachombo/fuamaji Vuta a)fanyakufuata/burura b)ingizahewaaumoshimapafuni <br><br>Wafu a)waliokufa Wavu b)utando wa nyuzi wa kufulia wanyama,kuweka <br><br>samaki,kutegea golini/kimianin.k <br><br>CH/SH Chaka a)mahalipenyemitiiliyosongamana b)msimu wa kaskasi/joto na ukavu wa <br><br>ardhi <br><br>Shaka a)wasiwasi b)tuhumuma <br><br>Chali a)lalamgongojuukichwachini b)mtu anayechekesha watu kwa <br><br>kuwatoleamkasa <br><br>Shali a)kitambaachabeganichashehe Shari b)balaa(patashari) Afya a)halinzuriyamwili/siha Avya b)toamamba c)tumiaovyoovyomali,pesa,n.k. <br><br>Fito a)vipandevyamitiauchumavyakujengea <br><br>nyumba <br><br>Vito b)maweyathamani <br><br>Fuja a)tumiavibaya b)haribumali,nguo,chakulan.k. Vuja a)pitakwakitumahalipenyeupenyo Guniahililinavuja. Vunja Chati a)mchorounaotoamaelezoFulani Shati a)vazilajuulamwililenyemikono Sharti a)lazima <br><br>Choka a)pungukiwananguvubaadayakufanya <br><br>jambokwamudamrefu <br><br>Shoka a)kifaachakukatianakupasuliamiti <br><br>Chombo a)alayakufanyiakazi Shombo b)harufumbayayasamaki <br><br>Chokoa a)tiakituchenyenchakwenyetunduau shimoilikutoakituk.m chokoameno <br><br>Shokoa b)kaziyakulazimishwa(fanyishwashokoa) c)shambalililolimwanakuachwakumea <br><br>nyasi <br><br>TH/DH Thamini a)tiamaanani,heshimu Dhamini a)toa pesa maakamani ili mshtakiwa <br><br>asitiwekorokoroni <br><br>Thamani a)kima Dhamana a)malipoyakortini <br><br>Thibiti a)kuwayakweli/kuaminika b)Habariimethibiti. Dhibiti a)tiamkononi b)Nikidhibitipesa zangu kutoka kwake <br><br>nitanunuabaiskeli. c)wekachiniyamamlaka <br><br>Ridhi a)kubali b)pendezwanajambo Rithi a)milikikitukutokakwamtualiyekufaama <br><br>uliyenauhusianonaye <br><br>b)pata jambo au ujuzikutoka kwa mtu <br><br>mwingine Adimu a)-ashidakupatikana,nadra Hadimu a)-mtumishi(mahadimu) <br><br>Ajali jambolamadharaauhatari Hajali a)kinyumechajali <br><br>Auni a)saidia Launi a)rangi <br><br>L/R Lahani a)tuni Rahani a)chumba maalum katika nyumba au <br><br>chombochakuwekeavitu <br><br>Lea a)tunzamtoto Rea a)ghadhibika <br><br>Lemba a)nyanganyakwahila,punja Remba a)pamba,rembesha Fahali a)ng`ombedume Fahari a)-akujivuniwakwawatu <br><br>Mahali a)sehemu ambapo mtu au kitu huweza <br><br>kukaa <br><br>Mahari a)mali au fedha inayotolewa na mwanamme kupewa wazazi wa mwanamkeanayetakakumuoa <br><br>S/SH Saba a)nambainayoonyeshaidadi Shaba a)madiniyenyerangiyamanjano A/H Apa a)tamka jina aghalabu la Mungu <br><br>kuthibitishajamboFulani <br><br>Hapa a)mahalikaribu <br><br>Ama a)au Hama <br><br>toka mahalifulaniilikwenda mahali penginekuishi(gura) a)wasiwasi b)tuhuma c)kutokuwanahakika <br><br>Suka a)tikisakitu b)pitisha kitu kama nywele baina ya <br><br>zenyewekupatamfumofulani <br><br>Shuka a)endachinikutokajuuyakitu b)kitambaachakujifungakiunoni <br><br>Soga a)mazungumzoyakupitishawakati Shoga a)jinawaitanalowanawakemarafiki b)msenge <br><br>Sababu a)kinachofanyajambokutokea,chanzo Shababu a)kijana c)buulanyuki-kamakiluwiwichanzi Njana-samakimwenyeranginyekundu <br><br>D/ND Dege a)eroplenikubwa b)ndegemkubwa c)ugonjwawawatotounaosababishwana <br><br>homakali <br><br>Ndege a)mnyama aghalabu anayeruka kwa <br><br>mabawa <br><br>b)eropleniinayosafiriangani mbaya/mzuri c)ndege (bahati <br><br>nzuri/mbaya) <br><br>Duni a)kituchenyethamaniyachini Nduni b)ajabu/lisilolakawaida <br><br>B/MB Basi c)garilaabiria d)kisha Mbasi rafiki <br><br>Buni a)gundua b)unda c)tunga Mbuni a)ndegeasiyewezakurukalakinihuenda <br><br>mbiosana <br><br>b)mkahawaaumtiuzaaokahawa <br><br>Bali a)lakini b)sijaliwalasibali(kusisitizakutojali) Mbali a)sikaribu b)tofauti Mbari a)ukoo J/NJ Jaa a)tosha b)tapakaakilamahali c)mahalipakutupiataka Njaa a)haliyatumbokutakakupatachakula b)ukosefumkubwawachakula <br><br>Chema a)kizuri Jema a)zuri Njema a)nzuri <br><br>Jia a)sogeleakaribu Njia a)barabara b)namnaaujinsiyakufanyajambo <br><br>Jozi a)vituviwilivinavyofananavilivyopamoja Njozi a)maonoyatokeayousingizini;ruia <br><br>Jana b)sikukablayaleo,mwakakablayahuu Bega a)sehemuyamwilijuuyamkononachini <br><br>yashingo <br><br>Mbega a)nyani b)manyoya ya ndege wanayojifunga <br><br>wachezajingoma(jifungambega) Bango <br><br>uwaziulioardhini,mtiniaujabalini <br><br>Bango <br><br>kipandechakaratasingumukamakadi b)batilinalozuiamatopejuuyagurudumu <br><br>lagariaubaiskeli <br><br>Pacha a)watoto wanaozaliwa kutokana na <br><br>mambamoja <br><br>Bacha b)tundukwenyeukuta;shubaka(closet) Paja a)sehemuyamguukatiyagotinanyonga <br><br>Pania a)kazanailikufanyajambolililokusudiwa Bania a)zuiakitubilayakutakakukitumia(bania <br><br>pesa) <br><br>Pima a)tafutaurefu,uziton.k. Bima a)mkatabanashirikawakulipapesaili kupatafidiamtuanapofikwanahasara <br><br>Punda a)mnyama Bunda a)fungulakaratasi,noti,ngozin.k <br><br>Panda a)endajuu b)kifaachakurushiavijiwe;manati c)baragumu d)tiambeguardhiniilizimee Banda jengokubwalakuwekeavituauwanyama Iba a)chukua kitu cha mtu mwingine bila <br><br>ruhusa <br><br>Imba b)tamkamanenokwasautiyamziki <br><br>G/NG Gawa a)tengakatikasehemumbalimbali b)ainayandegewausiku;kirukanjia Ngawa a)mnyamaafananayenapaka <br><br>Guu a)mguumkubwasana Nguu a)kilelechamlima b)nguru_ainayasamaki <br><br>Goma a)kataa kufanya jambo mpaka masharti <br><br>fulaniyatimizwe b)ngomakubwasana c)duwi(ainayasamaki) Ngoma a)ala ya mziki inayotengenezwa kwa kuwambwangozikwenyemzinga(piga ngoma) <br><br>b)mchezowakufuatamdundowangoma <br><br>(chezangoma) <br><br>Koma a)alamayakituo b)achakufanyajambo <br><br>P/B Pata a)kuwanajambo,haliaukitu b)kuwakali Kinolewachohupata. Bata <br><br>ndege mwenye vidole vilivyotandwa aghalabuakaayemajini Pasi a)fuzu/faulu b)hatiinayomruhusumtukusafirinjeya <br><br>nchi/pasipoti <br><br>c)chombochakunyoosheanguo Basi a)garikubwalaabiria Mbasi b)rafiki <br><br>T/D Tamu a)enyeladhayakuridhishamdomo Damu a)majimekunduyanayozungukamwilini b)ukoo <br><br>Taka a)kuwanahajayajambofulani b)uchafu Daka a)pokeakwamikonokilichorushwa b)tundabichi(nazidaka/danga) <br><br>Tokeza a)fanyakuonekana Dokeza a)toahabarizasirikwauchache <br><br>Tai a)ndege mkubwa mwenye makucha <br><br>marefualayemizoga(vulture) <br><br>b)kitambaa kinachovaliwa kwenye ukosi <br><br>washati <br><br>Dai a)takakupewakilichochako b)habariinayosemwanahaijathibitishwa <br><br>K/G Kamba a)uzimnene b)samakimdogo c)mnyama wa baharinimwenye miguu <br><br>mingiambayehuliwa d)katakamba(kimbia) Gamba a)ngozikama pembe ya kasa,samaki <br><br>,kasaaukobe(scales) Goti <br><br>kiungo cha mguu kinachounganisha pajanamuundi <br><br>Mfugo <br><br>mnyamaanayefugwanyumbanikwaajili yakuliwaaubiashara <br><br>Mfuko <br><br>kituchakitambaachakutiliavitu <br><br>Tegua a)fanyamtegousifanyekazi b)ondoachombokamachungumekoni c)fanyakiungochamwilikifyatuke Tekua a)angushakwakusukuma b)ng`oakwanguvuk.v.mmea <br><br>Mkuu <br><br>kiongozi wenyehadhikubwa <br><br>Mguu <br><br>kiungochabinadamuaumnyamacha kusimamiaaukutembelea <br><br>Oka <br><br>tiandaniyatanuukituilikiiveaukikauke k.vungauliokandwaaumatofali <br><br>Oga a)safishamwili b)enyehofu <br><br>Pika a)wekakituk.v.chakulasufurianijuuya <br><br>motoilikiive <br><br>Piga a)kutanishavitukwanguvu b)pigachafya,maji,hodin.k. Ukali a)haliyakutokuwampole b)haliyauchungu(ladha) Ugali a)chakula kinachopikwa kwa unga wa mahindinakusongwanamajimotohadi yakauke Konga a)kuwamzee b)kusanya vitu au watu mahalipamoja <br><br>(kongamano) <br><br>c)meza majikidogo ilikupunguza kiu <br><br>(kongaroho) <br><br>Gonga <br><br>kutanisha kitu kimoja na kingine kwa kuvipiganisha <br><br>Koti <br><br>vazizitolivaliwalojuuyanguo <br><br>Korti <br><br>mahakama |
1 MATUMIZIYALUGHA Kiimbo Jinsisautiinavyopandanakushukamtuanapoongea. Huibuamaanahalisiyamanenoyanayosemwakamaifuatavyo: - Sentensizataarifa Mtotoanaandikabarua! Mtotoanaandikabarua. - Sentensizaamri - Sentensizamaswali Kachezeeninje! Mtotoanaandikabarua? - Sentensizarai/ombi - Sentensizamshangao Nisaidie/eni. Zoezi a)Elezamaanayakiimbokwakutoamifano. b)Tambuasentensizifuatazonizaainaganikutokananakiimbo. i) Watuwanakulanyoka? ii) Watuwanakulanyoka. iii)Watuwanakulanyoka. iv)Tafadhalinisaidie. Silabi Tamkomojakatikaneno/herufimojaauzaidiambazohutamkwapamoja. MiundoMiwiliyaSilabizaKiswahili - Silabiwazi Huishiakwairabuk.m.o-a,(I)i-ga(KI),mbu-zi(KKI)nau-ngwa(KKKI) Silabifunge Huishiakwakonsonantik.m.m-tu(K) Zoezi a)Ukitoamifano,fafanuamiundomiwiliyasilabizaKiswahili. b)Tenganishasilabikatikamanenoyafuatayo: i)inkisari ii)baiskeli. Shadda/Mkazo Mkazounaowekwakwenyesilabifulaniyanenoikiwaimetamkwakwamsisitizo. Alamayaritifaahutumiwakutambulishashadda. Huwekwakwenyesilabiyapilikutokayamwisho,kwenyevitenzivishirikishivyasilabimoja aukubadilishamaanayaneno. kalamu,Imba,thumni,leta,n.k. Kitabukimezani. Barabara(njia),barabara(sawasawa),walakini(lakini),walakini(kasoro/dosari/ila) Zoezi a)Wekashadakatikamanenohaya: i) imba ii) baba b)Onyeshakwakupigamstariilikoshadakatikamanenoyafuatayo: i) malaika ii) nge SautizaKiswahili Kunamakundimawiliyasautizakiswahili: a)Irabu Sautiambazohutamkwakwaulainibilahewakuzuiliwakatikaalazasauti. b)Konsonanti Sautiambazowakatiwakutamkwahewahuzuiliwakatikaalazasauti. - AinazaAlazaSauti a)Alatuli ----- 2 Ambazohazisogeimtuakitamkak.m.meno,ufizi,kaakaagumu,kaakaalainina koo/koromeo. b)Alasogezi Ambazohusogeamtuakitamkak.m.midomonaulimi. Matamshi/UainishajiwaIrabu a) b)aniyakatikatinachinikinywaninamidomoikiwaimeviringa. c)eniyambelenakatikinywaninamidomoikiwaimetandazwa. d)iniyambelenajuukinywaninamidomoikiwaimetandazwa. e)oniyanyumanakatikinywaninamidomoikiwaimeviringa. f)uniyanyumanajuukinywaninamidomoikiwaimeviringa. Zoezi a)TajamakundimawiliyasautizaKiswahili. b)YatofautishemakundiyasautizaKiswahiliuliyotajakatika(a) c)Toamifanomiwilimiwiliyairabuambazohutamkwa: i) midomoikiwaimeviringa ii)midomoikiwaimetandazwa d)Elezajinsiirabu/e/inavyotamkwa. e)Tajaainambilizaalazakutamkianautoemfanomfanommojammoja. Matamshi / Uainisha j iwaKonsonanti |Col1|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|Col6|Col7|Col8| |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| ||||||||| ||||||||| ||||||||| ||||||||| ||||||||| ||||||||| ||||||||| Huainishwakulingananainapotamkiwa,kuwepoaukutokuwepokwamtetemekokatika nyuzizasautinajinsihewainavyozuiliwakatikaalak.m./p/niyamidomo,kipasuona sighuna. - Vipasuo Konsonantiambazowakatiwakutamkwahewahusukumwa,huzuiliwakabisana kuachiliwakwaghaflanampasukomdogokutokea. - Vikwamizo/Vikwaruzo Konsonantiambazowakatiwakutamkwahewahupitishwakatikatiyaalakwakukwamizwa. ----- 3 - Vipasuokwamizo/kwaruzo Konsonantiambayowakatiwakutamkwahewahusukumwanjekwanguvu,huzuiliwa kabisahalafumwanyamdogohuachwahewaipitekwakukwamizwa. - Nazali/Vingongo Konsonantiambazowakatiwakutamkwakunakiasichahewahuachiliwanakupitiapuani - Kitambaza Konsonantiambayowakatiwakutamkwahewahusukumwakwanguvu,kuzuiliwana kuachiliwaipitekandoyaulimi - Kimadende Konsonantiambayowakatiwakutamkwahewahusukumwa,kuzuiliwanakuachiliwana kusababishanchayaulimikupigapigaufizimfululizo. - Nusuirabu/Viyeyusho Konsonantiambazowakatiwakutamkwahewahupitishwakatikatiyaalakwaulainikama katikautamkajiwairabu. Zoezi a)Tambuakikwamizochakaakaalaininakiyeyushochamidomo. b)Tambuakonsonantiambazosizaorodhahiinauelezekwanini:/m/,/n/,/ny/,/ng/,/f/,/b/ c)Tofautishakonsonanti/p/na/dh/. d)Tajakonsonantimbilimbiliambazohujulikanakama: i)viyeyusho ii)vikwaruzo AinazaManeno Nomino(N) Nenolinalotajakiumbe,kitu,hali,mahali,tendo,dhana,n.k. Aina - NominozaPekee Ambazohutajakitukwakutumiajinalake/ambazohutambulishaupekeewakituhicho. Mwanzonihuandikwakwaherufikubwa. majinayawatuk.m.Kamau milimak.m.Kilimanjaro mahalik.m.Mombasa Mitok.m.Tana sikuk.m.Alhamisi maziwak.m.Victoria miezik.m.Disemba baharik.m.Hindi miakak.m.1930 Mabarak.m.Africa - NomonozaKawaida/Jumla Majinayajumlayaviumbe/vituvinavyoonyeshaumbilelajinsimojak.m.mtu,gari,kalamu, n.k. - NominozaJamii Majinayamakundiyaviumbeauvituk.m.bunge,jamii,halaiki,bundan.k. - NominozaWingi Majinayavituvitokeavyokwawingijapokimsingihazinaumojaauwingik.m.maji,mate, maziwa,mahubiri,marashi,mchanga,ngeu,poda,unga,n.k. - NominozaDhahania Majinayaviumbeaumamboyakudhani/yasiyowezakugusikak.m.k.mujinga,werevu, malaika,shetani,amani,imani,roho,wazo,dhana,n.k. - NominozaVitenziJina Vitenzivyenyekiambishiawalikuambavyohuwezapiakutumikakamanominok.m. Kuchezakwakekunaudhi. Zoezi 1.Sahihisha j edwalilifuatalo ----- 4 2.Bainishanominokatikasentensiifuatayo a)KuendeshabaiskelikwakasikulimfanyaHasaniaangushebundalanotialilokuwaanaenda kununuliamchanga. SentensiyaKiswahili Sentensinifungulamanenolinalojitoshelezakimaanalinalotumiwakatikamawasiliano. Sifa a)Huwanaujumbeuliokamilika. b)Huwanampangiliomaalumwamaneno. c)Huwanamuundowakiimanakiarifu. Aina - SentensiSahili Sentensirahisiaunyepesi. Sifa a)Huwafupi. b)Huwanakitenzikimojapekee. c)Huwasilishadhanamoja. d)Yawezakuwayanenomojaauzaidi. e)Yawezakuwanakiimakilichododoshwa. Wataenda. Watotowawiliwanaelekeauwanjani. Gachikunimsichanamtiifu. - SentensiAmbatano Inayoundwakwakuunganishasentensisahilimbili. Sifa a)Huwanavishazihuruviwili. b)Huwanakiunganishi. c)Huwanavitenziviwiliauzaidi. d)Hutoazaidiyawazomoja. e)Yawezakuwanaviimavilivyododoshwa. Mwanafunzialipitamtihaniingawahakuwaanasomakwabidii. Mariaaliendeleakupikakwautaratibuhukuakiimbawimbo. - SentensiChangamano Ambayohuwanakishazitegemezikilichochopekwandani. Sifa a)Huwanakishazitegemezichenyekitenzikinachovumishanominokwakuirejelea. b)Huwanakishazihurukimojaauzaidi. c)Huwanavirejeshi(ambanaO)auenye. Tundaalilonunuajanalimeoza. Mwizialiibapesazilizokuwakabatini. KundiNomino(KN)naKundiTenzi(KT) KundiNominonisehemukatikasentensiinayoarifukuhusunominonahutokeamwanzoni mwasentensi. Kunditenzinisehemukatikasentensiinayoarifukuhusukitenzinahutokeamwishonimwa ----- 5 sentensi. Virai Vikundivyamanenovitumiwavyonabinadamuvisivyonamaanakamili. Tungozinayoundwakwamanenoaghalabumawiliauzaidiyanayoashiriakitukimojana inayojengwajuuyanenokuu. Aina KiraiNomino(Kn) - KiraiKitenzi a)T b)T+E c)T+N d)T+N+T e)TS+T f)t+N g)t+V+E KiraiKivumishi(Kv) a)V+E b)V+U+V+E c)V+V+U+V+E d)V+N+V+E Kiraikielezi(Ke)/Chagizo a)E b)E+E c)E+E+E KiraiKihusishi(Kh) a)H+N b)H+N+V c)H+N+V+E Zoezi Bainishaviraikatikasentensiifuatayo a)Mzazinawatotowawiliwerevusanawaliwasilishulenileoasubuhikablayamwalimu. Vishazi Kundilamanenolenyekiimanakiarifulikiwandaniyasentensikuu. Aina - VishaziHuru Vifunguvyamanenokatikasentensiambavyohutoamaanakamili. - VishaziTegemezi Vifunguvyamanenokatikasentensiambavyohavitoimaanakamili. Aina a)Vishazitegemezivyaviunganishik.m.Alimwadhibuingawahakuwanamakosa. b)Vishazitegemezivyavirejeshik.m.Polisiwalimpatamtotoaliyekuwaamepotea. - VishaziViambatani Vinavyoundwakwavishazihuruviwilivikiwavimeunganishwak.m.Babaanalalanamama anapika. Zoezi BainishaVishaziKatikaSentensiZifuatazo a)Mwalimuamewasili. b)Aminaambayenidaktariatakuja. c)Ametajirikajapohakupataelimu. d)Mwalimuanafundishanawanafunziwanaandika. e)Tumeanzishashirikailitunyanyuehalizetu. f)Unawezakuamuakunyamazaaukujitetea. Shamirisho/Yambwa Aina - ShamirishoKipozi/YambwaTendwa Nominoinayoathiriwanakitenzi. - ShamirishoKitondo/YambwaTendewa Nominoinayotendewakitendo. - ShamirishoAla/YambwaKitumizi ----- 6 Chombokinatumiwakufanyiakitendofulani. Mifano Mamaalimpikiababachakulakwasufuria. Babaalipikiwachakulanamamakwasufuria. Sufuriailitumiwanamamakumpikiababachakula. a)Chakula(ShamirishoKipozi/YambwaTendwa) b)Baba(ShamirishoKitondo/Yambwaatendewa) c)Sufuria(ShamirishoAla/YambwaKitumizi) NgelizaNomino MakundiyanominokatikalughayaKiswahiliyenyesifazinazofananakisarufi. - A-WA Huwanamajinayawatu,vilema,viumbe,vyeonaviumbevyakiroho,n.k. HuchukuamiundokamavileM-WA,M-MI,KI-VI,n.k. mtu-watu, kibyongo-vibyongo mkulima-wakulima nabii-manabii mtume-mitume kuku-kuku mkizi-mikizi Waziri-Mawaziri kiwete-viwete - U-I Huwanamajinayamimea,sehemuzamwili,vifaa,matendo,maumbile,n.k. HuchukuamuundowaM-MI. Mchungwa-michungwa mgomo-migomo Mkoko-mikoko mwendo-myendo mkono-mikono msukosuko-misukosuko mfupa-mifupa mlima-milima msumari-misumari mwamba-myamba Mchungwa-michungwa mgomo-migomo Mkoko-mikoko mwendo-myendo mkono-mikono msukosuko-misukosuko mfupa-mifupa mlima-milima msumari-misumari mwamba-myamba - U-YA Huwanamajinayahali,matendo,n.k. HuchukuamuundowaU-MA. Ugonjwa-magonjwa ulezi-malezi upana-mapana uovu-maovu uasi-maasi uhusiano-mahusiano uchungu-machungu ulezi-malezi uovu-maovu uhusiano-mahusiano - YA-YA HuchukuamuundowaMA-MA. Huwananominozipatikanazokwawingi. Hazibadilikikatikaumojanawingi. manukato mauti maziwa marashi mahubiri majira maradhi maafa mazingira - KI-VI Nimajinayavifaa,sehemuzamwili,vitu,udogo,lugha,n.k. HuchukuamiundoKI-VInaCH-VY. kisu-visu kijitu-vijitu kitabu-vitabu kigombe-vigombe chakula-vyakula kiguu-viguu chanda-vyanda kidovu-vidovu - LI-YA Huwanamajinayasehemuzamwili,dhana,vifaa,ukubwa,n.k. ----- 7 HuchukuamuundowaJI-MA,JI-ME,JA-MA,JE-MAn.k. jicho-macho jeneza-majeneza jina-majina wazo-mawazo jitu-majitu tunda-matunda goma-magoma jua-majua jambo-mambo ziwa-maziwa janga-majanga ua-maua jembe-majembe - I-I Huwananominodhahanianavituvisivyowezakuhesabika. Hazibadilikikatikaumojanawingi. sukari chumvi amani subira chai imani mvua amani Imani furaha sukari chumvi amani subira chai imani mvua amani Imani furaha - I-ZI Huhusishanominodhahanianavitu. Hazibadilikikatikaumojanawingi. nyumba baiskeli dini karatasi dawa redio ndizi meza jozi baiskeli dini karatasi dawa redio ndizi meza jozi - U-ZI HuchukuamiundoW-NY,U-NY,U-F,n.k. wayo-nyayo wakati-nyakati uso-nyuso ufa-nyufa ukoo-koo ufunguo-funguo ufagio-fagio waya-nyaya wayo-nyayo wembe-nyembe wakati-nyakati uwanja-nyanja uso-nyuso ujumbe-jumbe ufa-nyufa ukoo-koo ufunguo-funguo waraka-nyaraka ufagio-fagio waya-nyaya - U-U Huwananominozadhahanianavituvisivyowezakuhesabika. Hazibadilikikimaumbo. HuchukuaUauW. Unga Ujinga Uji Ulafi Ugali Ulaji udongo Werevu Unga Uji Ugali udongo - KU Nominozinazoundwakutokananavitenzik.m.kuombakwakekumemsaidia. - PAKUMU Ngeliyamahali. Huwananominomojamahali. a)PA(mahalikaribuaupanapodhihirika)k.m.Kitabukipopale. b)KU(mahalimbaliaukusikodhihirika)k.m.Mahalikulekunafaa. c)MU(ndaniya)k.m.Mahalimlemnasiafu. Zoezi a)TungasentensiukitumianominokutokakatikangeliyaU-ZI. b)Andikakwawingi.Makaribishoaliyopewayalimfurahisha. ----- 8 c)Andikakatikaukubwawingi:Pakamweupeamenaswamguuni. d)Andikakatikawingiwahaliyaudogo:Mtualiumwanambwa. e)Hukuukitoamifano,fafanuamiundomitatuyamajinakatikangeliyaLI-YA. f)Tambuangeli/viwakilishingelivyanominozifuatazo: i)chakula ii)shairi iii)mtwana Uundajiwamaneno - Nominokutokananamziziwakitenzi a)danganya-kudanganya, mdanganyifu,udanganyifu b)soma-kusoma,masomo,msomi,usomaji c)unda-kuunda,muundaji,uundaji,muundo d)funika-kufunika,kifuniko,mfunikaji, ufunikaji - Kitenzikutokananamziziwanomino a)mlo-kula d)fikra-kufikiri b)mlevi-kulewa,kulevuka e)malezi-kulea c)mwimbaji-kuimba f)fumbo-kufumba,kufumbua - Nominokutokananamziziwanomino a)mwimbaji-kuimba,wimbo,uimbaji, kiimbo b)mchezo-kucheza,uchezaji,mchezaji c)ulaghai-kulaghai,mlaghai d)hesabu-kuhesabu,uhesabu e)mdhalimu-kudhulumu,dhuluma, udhalimu ----- 9 - Nominokutokananamziziwa f)sahihi-kusahihisha,kusahihika kivumishi g)-sikivu-kusikia a)-refu-mrefu,urefu,urefushaji h)-danganyifu-kudanganya b)-baya-mbaya,ubaya - Kivumishikutokananamziziwakitenzi c)-zuri-mzuri,uzuri a)dunisha-duni d)-kali-mkali,ukali b)Haramisha-haramu e)-eupe-mweupe,weupe c)fupisha-fupi - Kivumishikutokananamziziwa d)sahilisha-sahili nomino e)tukuka-tukufu a)ujinga-jinga f)fahamu-fahamivu b)werevu-erevu g)teua-teule c)mzuri-zuri h)nyamaza-nyamavu d)mpumbavu-pumbavu i) ongoka-ongofu e)mpyoro-pyoro j) sahihisha-sahihi - Kitenzikutokananamziziwakivumishi k)danganya-danganyifu a)haramu-kuharamisha,kuharamika - Kitenzikutokananakielezi b)halali-kuhalalisha,kuhalalika a)haraka-harakisha c)-fupi-kufupisha,kufupika b)zaidi-zidisha d)bora-kuboresha,kuboreka c)bidii-bidiisha e)-refu-kurefusha,kurefuka d)hima-himiza Zoezi a)Undanenoulilopewakatikamabanokutokananamanenoyafuatayo: - Nominokutokananamziziwa kivumishi a)-refu-mrefu,urefu,urefushaji b)-baya-mbaya,ubaya c)-zuri-mzuri,uzuri d)-kali-mkali,ukali e)-eupe-mweupe,weupe - Kivumishikutokananamziziwa nomino a)ujinga-jinga b)werevu-erevu c)mzuri-zuri d)mpumbavu-pumbavu e)mpyoro-pyoro - Kitenzikutokananamziziwakivumishi a)haramu-kuharamisha,kuharamika b)halali-kuhalalisha,kuhalalika c)-fupi-kufupisha,kufupika d)bora-kuboresha,kuboreka e)-refu-kurefusha,kurefuka i) zingatia(kivumishi) ii) sahili(kitenzi) iii)taliki(nomino) b)Undanominokutokananamiziziyamanenoyafuatayokishautungesentensi. i)-kali ii)lia Vitenzi Kitenzininenolinaloelezakuhusujambolinalofanywa. AinazaVitenzi - Kitenzihalisi Kinachofahamishatendohalisi. Hutokeapekeyakek.m.Bokeanachezampira. Kitenzikikuu(T) Kinachoelezatendokuukatikasentensi. Hutokeapamojanakitenzikisaidizik.m.Babaanatakakulala. KitenziKisaidizi(Ts) Kinachosaidiakitenzikikuu Manenoyanayowezakutumiwakamavitenzivisaidizi ngali kuja kuwa weza taka kwisha pasa stahili bidi wahi huenda maliza - VitenziSambamba Vinavyofuatanamojakwamoja/vinavyotokeakwamfululizo. Hutumikakutoamaelezokuhusutendomojamaalumkwauwazizaidi. Wachezajihuendawanawezakushindamchezowaleo. VitenziVishirikishi(t) ----- 10 Vinavyoshirikishavitukihali,kitabiaaukimazingira. Aina a)VitenziVishirikishiVikamilifu Ambavyohuchukuaviambishi. Mamaalikuwamgonjwa/jikoni/muuguzi. Aishaangalikitandani/mkaidi/mwanafunzi. b)VitenziVishirikishiVipunguvu Ambav y ohavichukuiviambishi |Col1|Col2| |---|---| ||| Viwakilishi(W)naVivumishi(V) Viwakilishiniviambishiaumanenoyanayotumiwabadalayanomino. Vivumishinimaneno y ana y otoahabarizaidikuhusunomino. |Col1|Col2|Col3| |---|---|---| |||| |Col1|Col2| |---|---| ||| ||| ||| ||| ||| ||| ||| ||| ||| ||| ||| ----- 11 |Col1|Col2| |---|---| ||| ||| ||| ||| ||| ||| ||| ||| ||| ----- 12 |Col1|Col2|Col3| |---|---|---| |||| |Col1|Col2|Col3| |---|---|---| |||| |Col1|Col2| |---|---| ||| ||| Vielezi(E) Viambishiaumanenoyanayoelezazaidikuhusukivumishi,kitenziaukielezikingine. Yeyenimweupesana/ajabu/kwelikweli/kupindukia/pepepe. Alikulapolepolesana. Aina a)VielezivyaNamna/Jinsi Ambavyohuelezavilejambolilifanyika. Aina - Vielezinamnamfanano Vinavyoelezavilejambolilifanyikakwakufananishananominoauvivumishi. HuchukuaviambishiKInaVI. Anakulakifisi. Tulifanyakazivizuri. - Vielezinamnaviigizi Manenoambayokiasilinivielezik.m.sana,haraka,ghafla,mno,kabisa,pole,barabaran.k. Mwendapolehajikwai. - Vielezinamnahali Huelezahaliyatendo. Alilelewakwashida. Alilewachakari - Vielezinamnavikariri Huelezeavilejambolilifanyikakwakurudiwarudiwa Alinijibukimzahamzaha. ----- 13 Tembeapolepole. Yeyehufanyakaziyakehivihivi/ovyoovyo Mbwaalibwekabwe!Bwe!Bwe! - Vielezinamnaala WalimpigaStephanomawe/kwamawe. - VieleziNamnaViigizi Huelezavilekitendokilitendekakwakutumiatanakali. Mbunialiangukamajinichubwi! b)VielezivyaIdadi/Kiasi Manenoambayohutajakitendokimetendekamarangapi. Aina - Vielezivyaidadihalisi Tulivamiwamaramoja. - Vielezivyaidadiyajumla Alitorokamarakadha/nyingi/chache. c)Vielezivyamahali Hutajamahalikitendokilitendekea. Aina - Vielezivyamahalivyamanenokamili NdegeilipofikaNairobi,ilituachini. - Vielezivyamahalivyaainayaviambishi Niviambishipo,ko,monani. Alipolalapalikuwanasiafu. Wanachezauwanjani. d)Vielezivyawakati Hutajakitendokililifanyikawakatigani. Aina - Vielezivyawakativyamanenokamili Raisatawasilikesho/mwakaujao. Kielezichawakatichakiambishi(poyawakati) Nililalanilipofikanyumbani Viunganishi(U) Nenoaufungulamanenolakuunganishia. Aina - Vyakujumuishapamoja na aidha(pia) isitoshe kadhalika(pia)) tena mbalina faukaya(zaidiya) - Vyakukatizailikupambanua walakini(lakini) bali(lakini) ijapokuwa(hatakama) ingawa(hatakama) - Vyakuonyeshakinyumechamambo ilhali lichaya - Kuonyeshamasharti budi(lazima) lazima sharti ikiwa(kama) bidi - Vyasababu kwa kwasababu maadamu(kwakuwa) madhali(kwakuwa) kwavile/maana kwaajili/minajiliya mintaarafu(kutokanana) - VyakuonyeshaChaguo au ama wala ----- 14 - Viunganishivinginenamaanazake ila(isipokuwa) laiti(kama) lau(kama) mradi(bora) angalau(borazaidi) bighairi(bilayakujali)k.m.Minghairivitu vilivyokwenyekabativinginevyo unawezakuvichukua. seuze/sembuse(kulinganishaili mradi(bora) kuonyeshatofauti) angalau(borazaidi) labda(pengine) Vihusishi(H) Manenoyanayoonyeshauhusiano. Aina - Mahali Simuyarununuinalia. juuya,miongonimwa,katika,mpaka, Jumbalamikutanolimeandaliwa. - Mahali Simuyarununuinalia. juuya,miongonimwa,katika,mpaka, Jumbalamikutanolimeandaliwa. hadi Kiatuchangozihudumu. - Wakati Kikomechaplastikiniduni. kablaya,baadaya,tangu,hadi,mpaka - Ulinganisho - Sababu Zaidiya,kuliko,kuzidi,kushinda. kwa,kwani,kwasababu,mintaarafuya - Kiwango - Ala Zaidiya,katiya,takriban,karibu Alimkatakwakisu. - Vyahali - A-unganifu Mithiliya,kwaniabaya Vihisishi(I) Manenoyanayotoahisiazamoyoni. a)furaha f)mshangao/mshtuko Hoyee!Haleluya!Alhamdulilahi! Eti!Salaale!Ajabu!Msaliamtume! b)hasira Lahaula! Kefle!Ah!He! g)kubeza c)majuto Mawe!Ngo!Mmm!Mwangalie! Kumbe!Jamani!Olewangu!Laiti h)kusisitiza d)huzuni/huruma Hata Pole!Ole!Maskini! i) kutakiaheri e)kuitikia inshallah Bee!Labela!Naam!Ehee!Ahaa! hadi - Wakati kablaya,baadaya,tangu,hadi,mpaka - Sababu kwa,kwani,kwasababu,mintaarafuya - Ala Alimkatakwakisu. A-unganifu f)mshangao/mshtuko Eti!Salaale!Ajabu!Msaliamtume! Lahaula! g)kubeza Mawe!Ngo!Mmm!Mwangalie! h)kusisitiza Hata i) kutakiaheri inshallah MwingilianowaManeno Haliyamanenokuwanamatumizitofautimifano: - WkuwaV Huyuanalia. Mtotohuyuanalia. - VkuwaW Vikombevizurivitavunjika. Vizurivitaliwa. - VkuwaN Mtimrefuhaupandiki. Mrefualikufajanajioni. - VkuwaE Viatuvibayavitachomwa. Uliifanyakazivibaya. Mtumjinganihuyu. Anaongeakijinga. - NkuwaV TajirialimdharauRazaro. Mtutajirihuheshimiwa. - NkuwaE Nairobinimjimkuu. AmewasiliNairobi. Kitotokinalia. Unaongeakitoto. Harakahainabaraka. Fanyaharakatuondokehapa. Sindanoyababuimepotea Alidungwasindano/kwasindanona daktari. - EkuwaN Niliwasilijana. Janayanguhaikuwanzuri. - TkuwaN Natakakulalasasa. Kulalakwakekunaudhi. - NkuwaU Ilayakeimemwathirisana. Watuwoteilayeyewalikwenda. ----- 15 Kichwachangukinawalakini. Pakaamepandajuuyamti. Nimekulawalakinisijashiba. Ameingiakatikachoo. - EkuwaI - TkuwaE Mwendapolehajikwai. Mtotoakiliaatatapika. Pole!Usijaliutapona. Aliingiaakilia. Amepakarangisawasawa. - NkuwaI Sawasawa!Sikumojatutakutana. Gegeanachezaalayakeyamuziki. - HkuwaE Ala!Waniwekeauchafukatikachakula? Mofimu Kipashiokidogozaidikatikalughakisichowezakuvunjwavunjwazaidibilakupotezamaana yake. Aina - Mofimuhuru Nenolisilowezakugawanywakatikavipandembalimbalinalinalojisimamianakuwana maanakamili. Kuku,baba,mama,sana,labda,janan.k. Mofimutegemezi Isiyowezakujisimamianakujitoshelezakisarufi,mifano: - Mzizi(Sehemuyanenoinayobeba - Mahali maanakuunaisiyowezakubadilishwa) m-tu,samahe-k-a,n.k. - Nafsi Tumesahau - Ngeli Lilianguka. Yalianguka. - Kikanushi Sikumpiga Halijaoza. Huli. - Njeo/wakati Liliiva. Analia. Tutaimba. Alipoenda. - Hali Me,nge,ngali,hu,ki,ka,n.k. - Mahali Alipoingia. Alikoingia. Alimoingia. - Virejeshi Lililonunuliwa. Alijikata. - Mtendwa/watendwa/kitendwa/vitendw a/shamirisho Alichikichukua. Kilichowaua. - Mnyambuliko/kauli Alimpigia. Alimlilia Alinikosea. Alimtolea. - Kiishio a,e,i,u Viambishi Viungovyenyemaanavinavyofungamanishwanamziziwanenoilikulipamaanambalimbali. Aina - ViambishiAwali Ambavyohutokeakablayamzizi. A-li-ye-ku-kata-a - ViambishiTamati Ambavyohutokeabaadayamzizik.m.ki-pig-ishw-a-cho MnyambulikowaVitenzi Kunyambuakitenzinikukiongezaviambishitamatiilikukipamaanatofauti. Ainazaminyambuliko/kaulizavitenzi - Kutenda Haliyakawaidayakitenzi. ----- 16 - Kutendatenda Haliyakitenzikurudiwa. - Kutendea Kwaniabaya Badalaya Sababu Kuonyeshakitumizi Mwendowakitukuelekeakingine - Kutendwa Huonyeshanominoiliyoathiriwanakitenzi. - Kutendewa Humaanishakitendokimetendwanamtubadalaaukwaniabayamtumwingine. - Kutendana Unamtendamtujambonayeanakutendajambolilohilo. - Kutendeana Unamtendeamtujambonayeanakutendeajambolilohilo. - Kutendeka Uwezekanowakitendokufanyika - Kutendesha Mtuaukitukusababishakufanyikakwakitendo. - Kutendeshea Kusababishakitendokitendekekwaniabayamwingine. - Kutendeshwa Kusababishwakufanyajambo. - Kutendeshewa Mtukusababishwakitendokitendekekwaniabayake. - Kutendeshana Kusababishakitendokitendekekwamtunayeanasababishakitendokichohichokitendeke kwako. - Kutendesheana Kusababishakitendokitendekekwaniabayamtunayeanasababishakitendokichohicho kitendekekwaniabayako. - Kutendesheka Kitendofulanikinawezakusaababishwa. - Kutendama Kuwakatikahalifulanibilayamabadiliko. lala-lalama funga-fungama ficha-fichama kwaa-kwama shika-shikama unga-ungama ganda-gandama andaa-andama chuta-chutama saki-sakama - Kutendata Haliyamgusanoaukushikanishavituviwili. paka-pakata fumba-fumbata kokoa-kokota okoa-okota kama-kamata - Kutendua Haliyakiyume choma-chomoa ----- 17 funga-fungua - Kutenduka Kuwezakufanyikakwahaliyakinyume. chomoka funguka Vinyumevyavitenzi komea-komoa bariki-laani patana-kosana angika-angua mwaga-zoa ziba-zibua tatiza-tatua funika-funua tega-tegua tawanya-kusanya ugua-pona nasa-nasua kwamiza-kwamua kosa-kosoa pakia-pakua twika-tua paa-tua cheka-lia anika-anua simama-keti fukia-fukua inama-inuka funga-fungua furahi-huzunika komea-komoa kumbuka-sahau bariki-laani oa-taliki patana-kosana choka-pumzika angika-angua uliza-jibu mwaga-zoa jenga-bomoa ziba-zibua ishi-kufa/hama tatiza-tatua kufa-kufufuka/ishi funika-funua lewa-levuka tega-tegua anza-maliza/isha tawanya-kusanya saza/bakiza-maliza ugua-pona meza-tapika/tema nasa-nasua ingia-toka kwamiza-kwamua dharau-heshimu kosa-kosoa kweya-teremka pakia-pakua panda-shuka twika-tua sifu-kashifu paa-tua chimba-fukia cheka-lia chafua-safisha anika-anua cheka-lia simama-keti panda-shuka fukia-fukua babaika-tulia inama-inuka pokea-aga funga-fungua zama-elea furahi-huzunika vaa-vua |Col1|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|Col6|Col7|Col8|Col9|Col10| |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| ||||||||||| ||||||||||| ||||||||||| ||||||||||| ||||||||||| ||||||||||| ||||||||||| ----- 18 |Col1|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|Col6|Col7|Col8|Col9|Col10| |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| ||||||||||| ||||||||||| ||||||||||| ||||||||||| ||||||||||| ||||||||||| MatumiziyaManenonaViambishiMaalum ManenoMaalum - ila a)isipokuwa Watuwoteilayeyewameenda. b)kasoro Hakunakizurikisichonaila. labda(pengine/shaka) Haonekanisikuhizilabdaamepata uhamisho. - ikiwa a)(kama/shaka) Tutamkutanyumbaniikiwaamepewa likizo. b)masharti Mgonjwaataponaikiwaatakunywa dawaipasavyo. - walakini a)dosari Ghorofalimebomolewakwasababu lilikuwanawalakini. b)lakini/bali Nimekulawalakinisijashiba. ingawa/ingawaje(hatakama) Nilijilazakitandaniingawasikuwana usingizi. ijapokuwa/japo(hatakama) Usichezenanyokaijapokuwanimdogo. - jinsi a)njia/utaratibuwakufanyiajambo Sijuijinsiugaliunavyopikwa. b)aina/namna/sampuli Siwezikulachakulajinsihii. c)kulinganana/kama Alikujajinsialivyoniahidi. - kwa a)mahali AmeendakwaJuma. b)jinsi Alisomakwabidii. c)sehemuyakitukisima/akisami Amepataalamamojakwatanokatika mtihani. d)pamojana Harusiilihudhuliwanawazeekwavijana natulikulawalikwanyama. ----- 19 e)kuonyeshakitukilitumiwakamakifaa Alikatamkatekwakisu. f)sababu Aliuguakwakunywamajimachafu. g)kuunganishavipashioviwili Leondiweutapikakwahivyotayarisha viazi. h)muda/kipindi Aliliakwanususana. i) kufanyajambobilakupotezawakati Baadayakula,tuliendamojakwamoja kulala. j) kivumishichaa-unganifuchangeliyaKU KuchekakwaMariakunaudhi. k)umilikiwamahali Twendenyumbanikwangu. - na a)kiunganishi Mamanababawanalima. b)umilikaji Kamauanakitabukizuri. c)wakatiuliopo Anaandikabarua. d)kauli/mnyambuliko KamaunaJumawanapigana. e)kuonyeshatofauti Kiatuhikinitofautinakile. f)mtenzi Alipigwanamwalimu. g)kuonyeshaufupishowanafsi Alisaidiwanao. Zoezi a)Elezamatumiziyanakatikasentensizifuatazo: i)Babanamamawanapiganakwanianatabiayakulewa. ii)Mtotoaliteswanamamayakekwakuwatofautinawenginenamikikamkanya. wala(kukanusha) Sikumtusiwalakumpiga. ViambishiMaalum - me/ja(halitimilifu/kitendokutendekana Kijitukimeanguka. simudamrefuuliopia) Mamaamewasili. Mamahajawasili. - hu a)mazoea/jambohutokeakilawakati Yeyehulalamapema. b)kikanushi Hukutibiwavizuri. - li a)wakatiuliopita Alitupatiazawadi. b)ngeli Tundalimeiva. c)kitenzikishirikishikipungufu Jembelighalani. - ni a)nafsiyakwanzaumoja Niliwasilijana. b)mahali Twendekanisani. c)kitenzikishirikishikipungufu Yeyenidaktari. d)wingi Tokeninje. ndi-(kitenzikishirikishikipungufu) Yeyendiyealiniibiapesa. - ji a)udogo Kijitukimeanguka. b)ukubwa Jibwalimebweka. c)kirejeshi Alijipaliamakaa. d)nafsiyapili Jichukulieupendacho. e)kiambishitamatichakuundanomino. Mwimbajialituzwa. - Ki a)kitendokikatikahaliyakuendelea Tulikuwatukilaalipoingia. b)masharti/kitendokinategemeakingine Utapitamtihaniukijitahidi. c)udogo Kitotokinalia. d)ngeli Kitabukimechukuliwa. e)kitenzikishirikishikipungufu chakulakimezani. f)kielezinamnamfanano. Yeyehulakifisi. g)kitendohakifanyikikamwe Chaihiihainyweki. - ku a)kikanushichawakatiuliopita Hakumpigakwajiwe. b)nafsiyapiliumoja. Alikupigiasimujana. ----- 20 c)mahali Hukukumesafishwa. d)ngeli Kuuguakumemnyenyekesha. e)mwanzowakitenzi Ameendakusafishanyumba. - ka a)mfuatanowamatukio Tulikulachakula,tukanywachaikisha Twaendasokoni. d)nafsiyatatuumoja Yeyealiudhikasana. e)ngeli Mbuziyuleatachinjwakesho. f)kiishio Mtotoamekulavizuri. nge/ngali(mashartiyanayowezekanaau yasiyowezekana) Ningekuwanapesa,ningenunuakiatu. Laitiningalijuanisingaliingiakatikahilo tukalala. b)vichwavyahabari Mwizikapigwamawe c)kutoaamri Kachezeeninje! d)kitendofulaninitokeolakingine Tulisomakwabidiitukapitamtihani. e)kutoanasaha/shauri Kamwombebabakomsamaha. - a a)Haliisiyodhihirikayawakatiuliopo Watotowachezauwanjani. b)vichwavyahabari Waziriaaibishwanawananchi. c)kitendokinaendelea Mwizikapigwamawe basi. c)kutoaamri - po Kachezeeninje! a)wakati d)kitendofulaninitokeolakingine i)maalum Tulisomakwabidiitukapitamtihani. Yeyeanapolalahukoroma. e)kutoanasaha/shauri ii)Wowote/mazoea Kamwombebabakomsamaha. Mwalimuaingiapowanafunzihusimama. - a b)mahali a)Haliisiyodhihirikayawakatiuliopo Paliposafishwapamechafuka. Watotowachezauwanjani. c)masharti b)vichwavyahabari Mtotoaamkapo,mpeuji. Waziriaaibishwanawananchi. d)kikanushichakiyamasharti c)kitendokinaendelea Akila.-asipokula. Viakifishi Alamazausemi() c)kuonyeshamwanzoaumwishowa a)Usemihalisi usemihalisi Njookesho,mamaakamwambia. Njookesho,mamaakamwambia. b)Lughangeni d)kuandikaanwani NinunuliejaridalaParents,babake ShuleyaupiliGatwe,S.L.P160, akamwambia. Kerugoya. c)Vipindi,filamu,makala e)baadayakutajajinalamtuanayepewa ViojaMahakamani habari d)Semi Daktari,ningependakukuona. kumwagazigo f)kutenganishasentensizenyemasharti - Dukuduku() Usipofanyakazi,usile. a)manenoyameachwayakutangulia,kati g)kuandikatarehe c)kuonyeshamwanzoaumwishowa usemihalisi Njookesho,mamaakamwambia. d)kuandikaanwani ShuleyaupiliGatwe,S.L.P160, auyamwisho.Yawezakuachwakwa kuwamakali Nyanihaoni b)kukatizwausemi/kauli AMINA:Mamani MAMA:Kwanzawatokawapiusikuhuu? c)manenoyanaendelea Alimwambiaajihadharianapovuka barabara Koma/mkato/kipumuo(,) a)pumzikofupikatikasenyensi Tulipofikasokoni,tulinunuamboga. b)kuorodhesha Alinunuamboga,samaki,nyanyana viazi. Kerugoya. e)baadayakutajajinalamtuanayepewa habari Daktari,ningependakukuona. f)kutenganishasentensizenyemasharti Usipofanyakazi,usile. g)kuandikatarehe AlizaliwamweziwaJulai,tarehe18, 1999. h)kuandikatarakimuzinazozidielfu 1,000,13,000,n.k. Ritifaa/kibainishi() a)herufiimeachwa walotutuma b)shadda/mkazo `iba,ka`lamu c)katikasautiyakingongo Ng`ombeamekufa. d)Kufupisha Tushasafishanguo. e)katikakuandikamiakayenyenamba izilizoachwa ----- 21 `73-`99. Mshazari/mkwaju(/) a)Tarehe Alizaliwatarehe5/. b)kuonyeshakumbukumbu KUMB1/2009 c)kuonyeshavisawe Nendakatikashule/skuli. d)Kuonyeshaau Wanawake/wanaumewataajiriwa. Kistarikifupi(-) a)kuandikatarehe /2006 b)kuonyeshasilabi,viambishiaumofimu sa-la-munaimb-a. c)kuonyeshanenolinaendeleakatika mstariunaofuata. Usitenganishesautizasilabi. d)Kuonyeshamziziwaneno -ma,-bwa e)kuonyeshakudumishwakwasauti Lo-o-o-o! f)Hadi/kipindichatukiofulani 1999-2008. g)Kutenganishauseminamsemaji Huoniupumbavu-Kibaki - Kistarikiref u( ) a)kutenganishauseminamsemaji b)kuonyeshamabadilikoyaghafla Wanafaunziniwajinga-samahani, simaanishiwote. c)kutanguliamaelezoyaziada WalisaidianchizaAfrikaMashariki Kenya,UgandanaTanzaniakwa msaada Mstari( ) a)kusisitiza Jibumaswa limawili pekee. b)kuonyeshaainazamaneno Mtot owangu analala(V.kimilikishi). c)kuonyeshavitabu,majaridanamagazeti ChemchemizaKiswahili, TrueLov e, n.k. d)kuandikaanwani/kichwa MwanafunziAdhibiwa/KaadhibiwaVikali Kikomo/kitone/nukta(.) a)mwishonimwasentensi. b)kuandikatarehe 2.3.2013 c)kuonyeshaufupishowamaneno Dkt.,Bw.,Bi.,C.C.M d)kuonyeshatakwimu 4.5,86.27,n.k. e)kutengashilinginasenti 6.50-shilingisitanasentihamsini f)juuyaherufijnaI Nusu/semikoloni/nuktanakituo(:) a)kugawasentensimbilizinazoweza kujisimamiabilayaviunganishi Wasichanawalifuatamaagizo waliyopewa;wafulanawaliyagomea. b)kamakipumzikokatikasentensindefu Alipochunguzailehatialiyokabidhiwana walewafanyabiasharaalionakuwasi nzuri;akaamuakujitenganayo. Vifungo/mabano/paradesi() a)kuzingiranambariauherufikatika orodha (i),(a) b)kuonyeshamaelezoyavitendovya msemajikatikamazungumzo, mahojianoautamthilia MAMA:(Akiinama.)Hebunjooharaka. c)kutoamaelezozaidi Ema(kifunguamimbachangu)chajaleo kutokamarekani. d)kuonyeshavisawe Mamba(ngwena)huliwa. Herufikubwa(H) a)mwanzonimwasentensi. b)kuandikaanwani S.L.P1000,Bura. c)mwanzonimwausemihalisi Twendenizetu,akatwambia. d)baadayakiulizi(?)nahisi(!) Lo!Ulienda?Hebuniambieyaliyojiri. e)mwanzonimwanominozapekee Musa f)ufupishowamaneno C.C.M(ChamachaMapinduzi) g)mwanzonimwamajinayavitabu, majarida,magazeti,vipindi,filamu,n.k. h)kuandikasifainayotokananajinala pekee Kiganda,Kikristu. Koloni/Nuktambili(:) a)kuorodhesha Ukitakakuandaasamosa,unahitajivitu hivi:unga,nyama,chumvi,mafutana kitunguu b)kutanguliausemihalisi Alimwangaliakishaakamtupia: mshenzi. c)kuandikamazungumo,mahojianoau ----- 22 tamthilia MAMA:(Akiinuka.)Umechelewawapi? d)kutenganishadakikanasekunde 9.25:05 e)kutanguliamaelezofulani Alipofunguamlangoalishtuka:mizoga yapundailikuwaimetapakaanje. Hisi/mshangao(!) a)kuamrisha Kachezeeninje! Kamau!Unafanyanini? b)baadayavihisishi Masalaale!Pesazanguzotezimeibwa. c)baadayasentensiiliyomshangao Garilangulimeibwa! d)kusisitiza Keshomsichelewekuwasilishuleni! e)kudharau/kubeza Mwangalie!Kichwakamajiwe. f)baadayatanakali Mateyalimdondokando!Ndo!Ndo! Kiulizo(?) a)mwishonimwasentensiiliyoswali b)mwishonimwamethalizenyemuudowa swali Pilipiliusiyoilayakuwashiani? c)kuonyeshashaka Kenyattaalizaliwamwakawa1945(?) d)kuonyeshamwakawakuchapishwakwa kitabuhaujulikani MlachaJ(?)TujijueIpasavyo Herufinzito(h) a)kusisitiza Jibumaswalimannepekee. b)kuonyeshawakati/njeoauhali Nilicheza,Nimelima c)kuonyeshaumojanawingi mtoto-watoto d)kuonyeshaainayanenokatikasentensi Mtotowakeamelala(kivumishi) Herufizamlazo/italiki(h) a)kuonyeshaainayakiambishiaumofimu Ki-li-cho-ib-w-a(kirejeshi). b)kusisitiza Jibumaswalimawili. c)kuonyeshajinalakitabu NyotayaRehema d)kuonyeshamanenoyakigeni Napendamukimo. e)kuonyeshamaelezoyavitendovya mhusikakatikamazungumzo, mahojianonatamthilia AMINA:(Akiinuka)Mamaameendakwa Farashuu. Kinyota(*) a)kuonyeshanenolimeendelezwavibaya *kitaabu b)kuonyeshasentensihainampangilio sahihiwamaneno *Kisuchahikininani? c)kuonyeshatanbihi(maelezoyaneno yanapatikanachinimwaukurasa) idhibati* d)kuonyeshasentensiinamakosakisarufi *Kukuhiiniyanani? UsemiHalisi Manenohalisikamayanavyotamkwanamsemaji. a)Huandikwabilakugeuzachochote. b)Huanziakwaherufikubwa. c)Hunukuliwakwaalamazausemiambazohuandikwazikiwambilimbilinamojamojakatika dondoondogok.m.Mwambieuguapoleukimuona,babaaliniambia. d)Komahutumiwamwanzoniaumwishonimwake. e)Msemajimpyaanapoanzakusema,unapaswakufunguaayampyak.m. Alimuuliza,Huendikwanini? Sikupewaruhusa,alijibuZahara. f)Baadaya(?)na(!)na(.)manenohuanziakwaherufikubwak.m.Lo!Unatokawapisaahii? Aliniuliza. UsemiwaTaarifa Ripotikuhusumamboyaliyosemwanamtumwingine. a)Silazimamanenoyatokeeyalivyosemwa.Yanawezakubadilishwamradiujumbeubakieule ule. a)Alamazamtajo,kiulizinahisihazitumiki. b)Manenokwambanakuwahutumiwa. c)Baadhiyamanenonaviambishihubadilikak.m. ----- 23 |Col1|Col2| |---|---| ||| VITATE T/D Tata a)haliyakutoeleweka sentensihiinitata. b)fundokatikauzi uziumeingiatata/umetata. Dada a)nduguwakike Tua b)shukakutokaangani ndegeilituauwanjani. c)wekachinik.v.mzigo Dua a)maombikwaMungu ombadua pigaduaapiza/laani Toa a)ondoakitundaniyakinginea b)kinyumechajumlisha Doa a)alamayenyerangitofautinamwiliwa kitu b)dosari/ila/walakini Ndoa a)arusi/makubalianorasmiyamwanamke namwanamumekuishipamojakama mkenamume/chuo Tundu b)uwazimdogowamviringokwenyekitu k.v.sindano c)kitumaalumchakuwekeandege kilichotengenezwakwamabati,matete n.k. Dundu a)mduduanayebebauchafu b)rundolavitu/mtumba Tuma a)pelekakituk.v.baruakwanjiayaposta b)agizamtukufanyajambo Duma a)mnyamamkubwamwenyeumbokama lapaka b)kamata,hasakatikavita K/G Kuku a)ainayandegeanayefugwanyumbani Gugu a)mmeaunaootamahaliusipotakiwa b)mmeawamwitunimfanowaunyasi Kuni a)vipandevyamtivyakukokeamoto Guni a)shairilaarudhilililokosakutosheleza kanunimojaauzaidiyauandishi Kuna b)kwaruzakwakucha/kituchenye menomeno Guna ----- 24 a)toasautiyakuonyeshakukataa, kutoridhika,aukuchukiajambo. Kenge a)mnyamakamamjusimdogo Genge a)kundilawatu b)pango/shimo Kesi a)daawa/mashtakayanayosikilizwa mahakamani Gesi a)hewainayotumiwakupikiaaukutiwa katikavinywaji b)hewaambayohaigeukinakuwa majimajikatikajotolakawaida CH/J Changa a)toakituilikukusanyakwakusudifulani b)siokomaa c)chanja/pasuavipandevipandevidogo vidogok.v.kuni Janga a)hatari/balaa Chema a)kizuri Jema a)zuri Chini a)kwenyeardhi/sakafu Jini a)shetani/mtumuovu Choka a)pungukiwananguvubaadayakufanya kazi Joka a)nyokamkubwasana Chungu a)chombokinachofinyangwachakupikia b)kinyumechatamu c)idadikubwa(chungunzima) d)mdudumdogowajamiiyasiafu Chambo a)kinachowekwa kwenyemtego kunasia wanyama,samakin.k. Jambo a)habari,tukioshughuli Kucha a)elekeaasubuhi b)ogopa Kuja a)haliyakusogeakaribu Chuma a)patamali b)madini magumu yanayotumiwa kujengeanakuundiavitu c)tunguamatundaaumauakutokamtini Juma a)wiki b)jinalamtu Chenga a)hepakwahila b)mchele uliovunjikavunjika(mchele wa chenga) Jenga a)akanyumba b)fanyamadhubuti/imarisha Mchi a)mtiwakupondeakwenyekinu Mji a)makaziya watu wengikulikojengwa nyumbanyingi b)mahalikaburinianapowekwamauti c)sehemuyakatiyachupayamwanamke mja mzito inayounganisha mtoto na mwiliwamama Kichana a)kituchakuchanianywele Kijana b)mtuwamakamomwenyenguvu/mtoto wakiumekablayakubaleghe F/V Faa c)kusaidia d)kuwavizuri Vaa a)eneza kitu katika mwiliilikufunika sehemufulani Fua a)safishanguo b)tengenezakitukutokananamadini ----- 25 c)toamajikatikachombo fuamaji d)Hakufuadafu.(hakufaulu) Vua a)patasamakikwakutumiawavu,mshipi, ndoanan.k. b)ondoanguomwilini c)nusuru,okoa,ponya d)vuamacho(tazama) Fika a)wasilimahali b)bilashaka/kabisa Vika a)valisha Fuka a)toamoshibilakuwaka b)ujiwowotemwepesi(ujifuka) Vuka a)endaupandewapili Fuma a)pigakwamkuki b)ona kwa ghafla bila kutazamia mtu anayetendajamboovu c)tengeneza kitu kwa kusokota nyuzi,ukindun.k Vuma a)julikanakwawatuwengik.v.habari,mtu n.k. b)toa sauti nzito k.v. simba,.upepo mkali,.ngoman.k. Afya a)halinzuriyamwili/siha Avya b)toamamba c)tumiaovyoovyomali,pesa,n.k. Fito a)vipandevyamitiauchumavyakujengea nyumba Vito b)maweyathamani Fuja a)tumiavibaya b)haribumali,nguo,chakulan.k. Vuja a)pitakwakitumahalipenyeupenyo Guniahililinavuja. Vunja a)fanyakitukigumukuwavipandevipande b)badilishapesaziwendogondogo c)endakinyumenakanuni Futa a)pangusa b)chomoakisu c)toamajinjeyachombo/fuamaji Vuta a)fanyakufuata/burura b)ingizahewaaumoshimapafuni Wafu a)waliokufa Wavu b)utando wa nyuzi wa kufulia samaki,kutegea wanyama,kuweka golini/kimianin.k CH/SH Chaka a)mahalipenyemitiiliyosongamana b)msimu wa kaskasi/joto na ukavu wa ardhi Shaka a)wasiwasi b)tuhumuma Chali a)lalamgongojuukichwachini b)mtu anayechekesha watu kwa kuwatoleamkasa Shali a)kitambaachabeganichashehe Shari b)balaa(patashari) Chati a)mchorounaotoamaelezoFulani Shati a)vazilajuulamwililenyemikono Sharti a)lazima Choka a)pungukiwananguvubaadayakufanya jambokwamudamrefu Shoka a)kifaachakukatianakupasuliamiti Chombo a)alayakufanyiakazi Shombo ----- 26 b)harufumbayayasamaki Chokoa a)tiakituchenyenchakwenyetunduau shimoilikutoakituk.mchokoameno Shokoa b)kaziyakulazimishwa(fanyishwashokoa) c)shambalililolimwanakuachwakumea nyasi TH/DH Thamini a)tiamaanani,heshimu Dhamini a)toa pesa maakamani ili mshtakiwa asitiwekorokoroni Thamani a)kima Dhamana a)malipoyakortini Thibiti a)kuwayakweli/kuaminika b)Habariimethibiti. Dhibiti a)tiamkononi b)Nikidhibitipesa zangu kutoka kwake nitanunuabaiskeli. c)wekachiniyamamlaka Ridhi a)kubali b)pendezwanajambo Rithi a)milikikitukutokakwamtualiyekufaama uliyenauhusianonaye b)patajambo auujuzikutokakwamtu mwingine A/H Apa a)tamka jina aghalabu la Mungu kuthibitishajamboFulani Hapa a)mahalikaribu Ama a)au Hama toka mahalifulaniilikwenda mahali penginekuishi(gura) Adimu a)-ashidakupatikana,nadra Hadimu a)-mtumishi(mahadimu) Ajali jambolamadharaauhatari Hajali a)kinyumechajali Auni a)saidia Launi a)rangi L/R Lahani a)tuni Rahani a)chumba maalum katika nyumba au chombochakuwekeavitu Lea a)tunzamtoto Rea a)ghadhibika Lemba a)nyanganyakwahila,punja Remba a)pamba,rembesha Fahali a)ng`ombedume Fahari a)-akujivuniwakwawatu Mahali a)sehemuambapo mtuaukituhuweza kukaa Mahari a)mali au fedha inayotolewa na mwanamme kupewa wazazi wa mwanamkeanayetakakumuoa S/SH Saba a)nambainayoonyeshaidadi Shaba a)madiniyenyerangiyamanjano Saka a)tafuta,winda Shaka ----- 27 a)wasiwasi b)tuhuma c)kutokuwanahakika Suka a)tikisakitu b)pitisha kitu kama nywele baina ya zenyewekupatamfumofulani Shuka a)endachinikutokajuuyakitu b)kitambaachakujifungakiunoni Soga a)mazungumzoyakupitishawakati Shoga a)jinawaitanalowanawakemarafiki b)msenge Sababu a)kinachofanyajambokutokea,chanzo Shababu a)kijana J/NJ Jaa a)tosha b)tapakaakilamahali c)mahalipakutupiataka Njaa a)haliyatumbokutakakupatachakula b)ukosefumkubwawachakula Chema a)kizuri Jema a)zuri Njema a)nzuri Jia a)sogeleakaribu Njia a)barabara b)namnaaujinsiyakufanyajambo Jozi a)vituviwilivinavyofananavilivyopamoja Njozi a)maonoyatokeayousingizini;ruia Jana b)sikukablayaleo,mwakakablayahuu c)buulanyuki-kamakiluwiwichanzi Njana-samakimwenyeranginyekundu D/ND Dege a)eroplenikubwa b)ndegemkubwa c)ugonjwawawatotounaosababishwana homakali Ndege a)mnyama aghalabu anayeruka kwa mabawa b)eropleniinayosafiriangani c)ndege mbaya/mzuri (bahati nzuri/mbaya) Duni a)kituchenyethamaniyachini Nduni b)ajabu/lisilolakawaida B/MB Basi c)garilaabiria d)kisha Mbasi rafiki Buni a)gundua b)unda c)tunga Mbuni a)ndegeasiyewezakurukalakinihuenda mbiosana b)mkahawaaumtiuzaaokahawa Bali a)lakini b)sijaliwalasibali(kusisitizakutojali) Mbali a)sikaribu b)tofauti Mbari a)ukoo Bega a)sehemuyamwilijuuyamkononachini yashingo Mbega a)nyani b)manyoya ya ndege wanayojifunga wachezajingoma(jifungambega) ----- 28 Iba a)chukua kitu cha mtu mwingine bila ruhusa Imba b)tamkamanenokwasautiyamziki G/NG Gawa a)tengakatikasehemumbalimbali b)ainayandegewausiku;kirukanjia Ngawa a)mnyamaafananayenapaka Guu a)mguumkubwasana Nguu a)kilelechamlima b)nguru_ainayasamaki Goma a)kataakufanyajambo mpakamasharti fulaniyatimizwe b)ngomakubwasana c)duwi(ainayasamaki) Ngoma a)ala ya mziki inayotengenezwa kwa kuwambwangozikwenyemzinga(piga ngoma) b)mchezowakufuatamdundowangoma (chezangoma) Koma a)alamayakituo b)achakufanyajambo P/B Pata a)kuwanajambo,haliaukitu b)kuwakali Kinolewachohupata. Bata ndege mwenye vidole vilivyotandwa aghalabuakaayemajini Papa samakimkubwa Baba mzaziwakiume Pana a)kinyumechaembamba Bana finya Bango uwaziulioardhini,mtiniaujabalini Bango kipandechakaratasingumukamakadi b)batilinalozuiamatopejuuyagurudumu lagariaubaiskeli Pacha a)watoto wanaozaliwa kutokana na mambamoja Bacha b)tundukwenyeukuta;shubaka(closet) Paja a)sehemuyamguukatiyagotinanyonga Pania a)kazanailikufanyajambolililokusudiwa Bania a)zuiakitubilayakutakakukitumia(bania pesa) Pima a)tafutaurefu,uziton.k. Bima a)mkatabanashirikawakulipapesaili kupatafidiamtuanapofikwanahasara Punda a)mnyama Bunda a)fungulakaratasi,noti,ngozin.k Panda a)endajuu b)kifaachakurushiavijiwe;manati c)baragumu d)tiambeguardhiniilizimee Banda jengokubwalakuwekeavituauwanyama Pasi a)fuzu/faulu b)hatiinayomruhusumtukusafirinjeya nchi/pasipoti c)chombochakunyoosheanguo Basi a)garikubwalaabiria Mbasi b)rafiki T/D Tamu ----- 29 a)enyeladhayakuridhishamdomo Damu a)majimekunduyanayozungukamwilini b)ukoo Taka a)kuwanahajayajambofulani b)uchafu Daka a)pokeakwamikonokilichorushwa b)tundabichi(nazidaka/danga) Tokeza a)fanyakuonekana Dokeza a)toahabarizasirikwauchache Tai a)ndege mkubwa mwenye makucha marefualayemizoga(vulture) b)kitambaa kinachovaliwa kwenye ukosi washati Dai a)takakupewakilichochako b)habariinayosemwanahaijathibitishwa K/G Kamba a)uzimnene b)samakimdogo c)mnyama wa baharinimwenye miguu mingiambayehuliwa d)katakamba(kimbia) Gamba a)ngozikama pembe ya kasa,samaki ,kasaaukobe(scales) Konga a)kuwamzee b)kusanya vitu au watu mahalipamoja (kongamano) c)meza majikidogo ilikupunguza kiu (kongaroho) Gonga kutanishakitu kimojanakinginekwa kuvipiganisha Koti vazizitolivaliwalojuuyanguo Korti mahakama Goti kiungo cha mguu kinachounganisha pajanamuundi Mfugo mnyamaanayefugwanyumbanikwaajili yakuliwaaubiashara Mfuko kituchakitambaachakutiliavitu Tegua a)fanyamtegousifanyekazi b)ondoachombokamachungumekoni c)fanyakiungochamwilikifyatuke Tekua a)angushakwakusukuma b)ng`oakwanguvuk.v.mmea Mkuu kiongozi wenyehadhikubwa Mguu kiungochabinadamuaumnyamacha kusimamiaaukutembelea Oka tiandaniyatanuukituilikiiveaukikauke k.vungauliokandwaaumatofali Oga a)safishamwili b)enyehofu Pika a)wekakituk.v.chakulasufurianijuuya motoilikiive Piga a)kutanishavitukwanguvu b)pigachafya,maji,hodin.k. Ukali a)haliyakutokuwampole b)haliyauchungu(ladha) Ugali a)chakula kinachopikwa kwa unga wa mahindinakusongwanamajimotohadi yakauke ----- 30 ----- |
**FORM TWO**<br><br>**CHAPTER ONE: QURAN**<br><br>**Ulumul Quran**<br><br>In Book One, we defined Ulumul Quran as a scientific study dealing with various <br><br>fields related to Quran. Can you mention some of the components included in this <br><br>scientific study? From the various components, you have mentioned above, we shall <br><br>learn about Wahyi. <br><br>*Wahyi*is an Arabic terminology, which comes from the root word*Awha*, which <br><br>means inspiring, giving direction or guidance on an issue. Technically, it refers to the <br><br>methods or ways through which Allah (SWT) used to communicate to the prophets <br><br>and other creatures. <br><br>As you are aware, communication is an important tool for human beings. <br><br>Communication between human beings or creatures may take different forms. Can <br><br>you mention some of the ways through which this communication takes place? You <br><br>will realize that the modes of communication between the human beings are different <br><br>from those observed in the animals and other creatures. Likewise, Allah (SWT) has <br><br>His own ways of sending information to the creatures as He says in the Quran: <br><br>*It is not fitting for a man that Allah (SWT) should speak to him except by*<br><br>*inspiration, or from behind a veil, or by sending a messenger to reveal with Allah*<br><br>*(SWT)s permission what Allah (SWT) wills: For He is Most High, Most Wise.*[Q Nabi Suleiman. Read this from Quran 27:30-37. Can you identify more verses in <br><br>the Quran where Allah (SWT) sends messages to his creatures and prophets? <br><br>**Modes of Wahyi**<br><br>The examples we have seen above show that Allah (SWT) can communicate to His <br><br>creatures in various ways. The ways through which Allah (SWT) communicated to <br><br>His Prophets can be divided into two; Direct and Indirect modes. <br><br>***Direct Mode***<br><br>In this mode of Wahyi, Allah (SWT) speaks directly to the prophet without sending a <br><br>messenger (Angel). The prophets would hear Allah (SWT)s voice without seeing his <br><br>image. Can you give examples of Prophets to whom Allah (SWT) spoke to directly? <br><br>This form of Wahyi includes the following: <br><br>**1.** **As spoken words behind a veil**<br><br>A veil is a form of barrier which is intended to block the Prophet from seeing Allah <br><br>(SWT) during the process of revelation. For example, during the Night of Isra Wal <br><br>Miiraj the prophet spoke to Allah (SWT) at*Arsh*behind a veil of a cloud. In Sura A Find out more examples of revelation through inspiration to the following Prophets: <br><br>Prophet Musa (AS), Adam (AS), Yunus (AS), Nuh (AS) and Ibrahim (AS). We shall <br><br>learn more about some of these Prophets in Chapter three. guidance and glad tidings to those who have submitted (to Allah (SWT) as <br><br>Muslims) [Q16:102] You can also refer to Quran [Q 2:97] <br><br>**2.** A dream is a form of visualization of events while one is in a sleep. Human <br><br>**Through dream**<br><br>beings often have dreams during sleep. Events in these dreams might turn out to <br><br>be true but many a time they are not true. A true dream is guidance from Allah <br><br>(SWT) to a chosen person. <br><br>Several prophets used to get guidance in the form of dreams. Prophet Yusuf <br><br>(AS), for example, told his father*(Remember) When Yusuf (Joseph) said to his*<br><br>*father: O my father! Verily, I saw (in a dream) eleven stars and the sun and*<br><br>*the moon-I saw them prostrating themselves to me.*[Q 12:4] His father warned <br><br>him not to reveal the dream to his brothers because it was a sign and a <br><br>revelation from Allah (SWT) that he had been chosen by Allah (SWT) among <br><br>the family of Yaqub as a great leader, interpreter of dreams and a prophet. **Stage One**: From Lawhul Mafudh to Baitul Izzah <br><br>Before the Quran reached the hrophet, Allah (SWT) had preserved it in the heavens. Do you know the name of the tablet on which the Quran was Preserved? Allah (SWT) says in the Quran*"Nay! This is a Glorious Quran, inscribed in a Preserved Tablet"* [Q 85:21-22] <br><br>Here, Allah (SWT) sent Angel Jibril (AS) to bring the Quran from Lauhil Mahfudh, the well Preserved Tablet (in the Seventh Heaven) down to the First Heaven (sky) and placed it in Baitul Izza, 'Place of Power or Honor'. <br><br>The Quran mentions the Preserved Tablet and tells us that it was sent down during a specific night. Allah (SWT) says,*"Verily, We have sent it (this Quran) down in the* *Night of Al Qadr (Decree)."*[Q 97:1]. <br><br>Allah (SWT) also says*, "By the Book that makes things clear; - We sent it down* *during a Blessed Night: for We (ever) wish to warn (against Evil). In the (Night) is* *made distinct every affair of wisdom."*[Quran 11:2-4] These two verses show that the Holy Quran was revealed in a single blessed night in the month of Ramadhan, the Night of hower. ran you find out more about the night of power in surah al Alaq [Q 97:2-5]? **Stage Two: From Baitul Izza to the Prophet**<br><br>Baitul Izza (the house of honour) is found in the lowest heavens. After the Quran had been lowered down from Lawhul Mahfudh, Allah (SWT) instructed Angel Jibril (AS) to send it down to the Prophet (SWT) over the twenty three year period of his Prophethood. The verses were revealed gradually from Baitul Izza in order to provide the required guidance to mankind. <br><br>The diagram below shows the stages of revelation of the Quran. **Figure 2: stages of revelation of the Quran**<br><br>It is important to note that the Quran was revealed in only one mode; that is through <br><br>Angel Jibril (AS). The Angel would come in various forms as we have earlier <br><br>mentioned at the beginning of this subtopic. Can you recall these forms? In many <br><br>case, Allah would send Angel Jibril when the Prophet was in difficult situations. **Recording and compilation of the Quran**<br><br>Keeping of records is very essential in the day to day life. As students we are <br><br>encouraged to keep records of his/her notes so that we can constantly refer to them. <br><br>Can you mention any other important information that is recorded within your school <br><br>set up? Why is it important for this information to be recorded? Likewise during the <br><br>revelation of the Quran, it was very important for the verses revealed to be recorded <br><br>by the Prophet (PBUH) and his companions. The prophet used to encourage his companions to memorize the verses and regularly <br><br>recite it. Abubakar would recite it in front of his house in Makkah while Abdallah ibn <br><br>Masoud was the first companion to publicly recite the Quran in Makkah. This made <br><br>majority of the companions to memorize the Quran. Like Abubakar Aswiddiq (RA), <br><br>Umar (RA) bin Khattab (RA), Ali bin Abi Talib (RA), AbdAllah (SWT) ibn Masuod <br><br>(RA), Abu Hurairah (RA), Sayyidatinah Hafswa (RAA), Sayyidattina Aisha (RA) and <br><br>Sayyiditina Ummu Salama (RAA) all from the Muhajirun. Among the Ansars were; <br><br>Ummu Waraq (RAA), Abu Zaid (RA), Qais (RA), Muadh bin Jabal (RA), Zaid bin <br><br>Thabit (RA) and Ubbay bin Kaab (RA). This comprises the oral forms of the <br><br>transmission of the Holy Quran. Other than the oral transmission, the Quran was also transmitted in written form even <br><br>though the art of writing was not very popular among the Arabs. The prophet <br><br>encouraged those who knew the skill of writing to record the verses on various <br><br>materials which included; sheets cut out of the branches of the beet tree, writing sheets <br><br>made of wood, animal hide, leather, broken pieces of pots, cloth, date fibers, flat stone <br><br>and bones. **Compilation of the Quran**<br><br>Meaning of compilation: <br><br>To compile means to bring different materials, items or articles together in an orderly <br><br>manner. Can you mention any instances where compilation is done either at home or <br><br>in school? The compilation of the Quran refers to the process of bringing together the <br><br>various verses and surahs of the Quran in the order guided by Angel Jibril to the <br><br>hrophet (hBUH). The hrophet had died leaving behind the entire Quran preserved in <br><br>the memories of the Swahabas or written down on different materials. There was no <br><br>compiled volume of the Quran because of the following reasons: Umar (RA) then suggested to the caliph that there was need to arrest the situation by <br><br>compiling the Quran into one volume. Abubakar (RA) was hesitant to do what the <br><br>Prophet had not done but when the Swahabas insisted, the caliph gave in and saw the <br><br>need for compiling the Quran. Zayd bin Thabit narrates:*Hazrat Abubakar sent for me*<br><br>*after the heavy casualties among the warriors of the Battle of Yamama. Hazrat Umar*<br><br>*(RA) was present with Abubakar who said, Umar (RA) has come to me and said, The*<br><br>*(huffaz: plural of hafiz) (one who knows the whole Quran by heart) suffered heavy*<br><br>*casualties on the day of Yamama, and I am afraid that there will be more casualties*<br><br>*among the huffaz at other battle-fields, whereby a large part of the Quran may be*<br><br>*lost. And I am of the opinion that you should collect the Quran." Abubakar added, "I* Caliph Abubakar gave Zayd bin Thabit the responsibility to be in charge of the group. <br><br>Why do you think Zayd bin Thabit was chosen to lead this group? Among other key <br><br>Swahabas who undertook this huge responsibility were; Abdullah bin Masoud (RA) <br><br>Ali bin Abi Talib (RA) Sayyidna Uthman bin Affan (RA), Ubay bin kaab (RA), <br><br>Abdallah bin Amr bin al As (RA), Salim (RA), Aisha (RAA), Hafsa (RAA), Umm <br><br>Salama (RAA), Abu Zayd among others. They began by collecting all the materials on which the Quran had been written on by <br><br>the hrophets scribes and other companions. This group then agreed on the following <br><br>conditions towards the task: <br><br>1. <br><br>The verses must have been written down by at least two other companions. The materials on which the verses were written on must be availed before the committee. There must be two pious Muslim witnesses to testify the verses were actually dictated by the Prophet. <br><br>2. Factors that facilitated the compilation of the Quran <br><br>The process of compilation was not an easy task for the companions; however the <br><br>following factors assisted them; <br><br>1. <br><br>All the chapters of the Quran were already written down by the time the prophet died. The prophet had already been guided by Angel Jibril (AS) on the order of the verses and surahs. The Muslims had memorized the Quran in the order taught by the Prophet. Some Swahabas like Ali (RA) had witnessed the final revelation to the Prophet. <br><br>2. <br><br>5. Muslims had continuously recited the Quran and thus mastered it. Results of the compilation of the Quran <br><br>The compilation of the Quran had several benefits to the Muslims. Among these <br><br>benefits are; <br><br>1. 2. <br><br>It was very instrumental towards the preservation of the Quran. It symbolized unity for the Muslim Ummah who could now uniformly recite the Quran. It made the handling of the Quran easier since it was in one volume. It made a clear distinction between Quran and other literature including Hadith. It made reading of the Quran easier especially to the new converts. <br><br>3. 4. <br><br>5. to you, is the greatest?' I (Abu Mundhir) replied: It is 'Allah (SWT) la ilaha illa <br><br>Huwal-Hayyul-Qayyum'. [Q 2:255]. <br><br>Thereupon he (Prophet) patted me in the chest and said, ' Rejoice by your knowledge, <br><br>O Abu Mundhir! (i.e. may this knowledge be a source of respect, honour and benefit <br><br>to you)'." <br><br>[Muslim] <br><br>This verse is one of the four parts of Quran that are attached to Arsh (Allah (SWT)'s <br><br>Throne) find out other verses that are attached to the Arsh of Allah (SWT)from Surah <br><br>al Imran. [Q 3] <br><br>The Ayah and its meaning are given below. Can you recite it correctly? Al-Hayy: The One who lives forever and has always lived. Al-Qayyum: The One who survives by Himself, and looks after all by His Power. Al-'Aliy : The Most High Al-'Adheem : The Supreme, the Great, the Magnificent One. *Narrated by Muhammad bin Sirin: Abu Huraira (RA)said, "Allah (SWT)'s Apostle put* *me in charge of the Zakat of Ramadhan (i.e. Zakat-ul-Fitr). Someone came to me and* *started scooping some of the foodstuff of (Zakat) with both hands. I caught him and* *told him that I would take him to Allah (SWT)'s Apostle." Then Abu Huraira told the* *whole narration and added, "He (i.e. the thief) said, 'Whenever you go to your bed,* *recite the Verse of "Al-Kursi" (2.255) for then a guardian from Allah (SWT) will be* *guarding you, and Satan will not approach you till dawn.' " On that the Prophet said,* *"He told you the truth, though he is a liar, and he (the thief) himself was the Satan."* [Bukhari Volume 004, Book 054, Hadith Number 495.] In another narration, of the Prophet*, Ubayy ibn Kab said that the Prophet (PBUH)* *asked him "Which ayah in the Book of Allah was the greatest?". He said, Allah and* *His Messenger know best. He repeated it several times, and then he said, Aayat al-* *Kursiy. [Muslim]* According to the Hadith the following are the times when Ayatul Kursi should be recited: 1. After every Fardh Salaat. (Only thing that will keep us waiting from entering Paradise will be death) 2. Just before sleep. (Allah (SWT) will send Angels to guard us while we are asleep) 3. While leaving the house to go somewhere. 4. When we are in desperate situations. 5. Reciting it on our possessions will bring Barakah (blessing) to it. 6. It will protect our house and children from Shaitaan. *284. Lillahi ma fii a**l**ssamawati wama fi al-ardhi wa-in tubduu ma fii anfusikum aw* *tukhfuuhu yuhaasibkum bihi Llahi fayaghfiru liman yashau wayu adhibu man* *yashau wa**llah**u ala kulli shay-in qadiir*<br><br>**To God belongs all that is in the heavens and on earth. Whether** **Ye show what is in your minds Or conceal it, God calls you to account for it. He** **forgives whom He pleases, and punishes whom He pleases. For God hath power** **over all things.**<br><br><br><br>***285.**Amana a**l**rrasuulu bima unzila ilayhi min rabbihi walmuminuuna kullun amana* *bi**llah**i wamala-ikatihi wakutubihi warusulihi la nufarriqu bayna ahadin min rusulihi* *waqaalu sami ina waat ana ghufranaka rabbana wa-ilayka almaswiir**u***<br><br>**The Apostle believes in what has been revealed to him from his Lord, as do the** **men of faith. Each one (of them) believes in God, His angels, His books, and His** **apostles. "We make no distinction (they say) between one and another of His** **apostles." And they say: "We hear, and we obey: (We seek) Your forgiveness,** **Our Lord, and to You is the end of all journeys.**<br><br>*286. La yukallifu Llahu nafsan illa wusaha laha ma kasabat waalayha ma iktasabat* *rabbana la tu-akhidhna in nasiina aw akhtana rabbana wala tahmil alayna isran* *kama hamaltahu ala alladhiina min qablina rabbana wala tuhammilna ma la taqata*<br><br>**|**P a g e 172 *lana bihi wa****fu anna wa****ghfir lana warhamna anta mawlana fansurna ala alqawmil* *kafiriin*<br><br>**On no soul does God Place a burden greater than it can bear. It gets every good** **that it earns, and it suffers every ill that if earns. (Pray:) "Our Lord! Condemn** **us not If we forget or fall into error; our Lord! Lay not on us a burden Like that** **which You Did lay on those before us; Our Lord! Lay not on us a burden greater** **than we have strength to bear. Blot out our sins, and grant us forgiveness, Have** **mercy on us. You are our Protector; Help us against those who stand against** **Faith.** Teachings of the verses <br><br>The verse has several teachings. Among them are the following; <br><br>1. Muslims should believe in everything that was brought by Allah (SWT) <br><br>to the messenger without doubt. Believers should have strong faith in Allah (SWT), His Angels, His books and the messengers. No messenger of Allah (SWT) should be discriminated upon nor be placed beyond or below the levels bestowed to them by Allah (SWT). 4. Muslims should hear, obey and implement the word of Allah (SWT). 5. Allah (SWT) is the only divine source of mercy and kindness to every creation. Allah (SWT) cannot ask any soul beyond what it can bear. He rewards and punishes people on what they do with divine Justice. <br><br>2. <br><br>6. 7. 8. Muslims should pray for Allah (SWT)s forgiveness when they do <br><br>anything wrong They should pray for Allah (SWT)s mercy from the grievous punishments inflicted to the previous generations before Islam. 10. They should pray for support from Allah (SWT) in everything every <br><br>time. **Study Questions and Activities**<br><br>1. b) Explain the stages of revelation of the Quran. 2. (a) Mention the attributes of Allah (SWT) in Ayatul Kursiy. (b)Outline the teachings of the last three verses of Sura al Baqara. <br><br>a) Define the term Wahyi <br><br>3. State the factors that facilitated the process of compiling the Quran <br><br>during Abubakars reign. number of Hadith from either the prophet or his close companions and narrated them. <br><br>Among the renown Muhadithin are the following; <br><br>The four raliphs, Aisha (RAA), Abu Huraira (RA), Amr bin Al As (RA), <br><br>AbdulRahamn bin Awf (RA), Abdullah bin Masoud (RA), Anas bin Malik (RA), <br><br>Abdullah bin Abass (RA), Abdullah ibn Umar (RA) and Abu Dharr (RA) <br><br>Can you find out more examples of Muhadithin from books of Hadith and from other <br><br>sources of Islamic literature. <br><br>**|**P a g e 175 **Qualities of a muhadith**<br><br>Due to its importance, Hadith could not just be accepted from any person. Why do <br><br>you think it is so? Hadith were only accepted from Muslims who met certain qualities. <br><br>Some of these qualities are as follows; <br><br>1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. They should be persons of sound mind (.i.e. mentally upright or sane). Should be exemplary in character and uphold good moral standards. Should be pious and righteous (God fearing). They must have good knowledge of the Quran and its related sciences. They should be conversant with hadith and its related sciences. Should be conversant with Arabic language. They must possess a good and retentive memory. Should be trustworthy, reliable and a have good leadership record. **Growth and development of Hadith literature**<br><br>Growth is the increase in size while development is the advancement in standards or <br><br>improvement in quality of something. Growth of hadith refers to the increase in the <br><br>number of users of Hadith as Islam expanded to other parts of the world. It became <br><br>very necessary for the Hadith to be studied and preserved. In this subtopic, we are <br><br>going to learn about the different stages through which hadith literature passed to <br><br>eventually come up with different classes of hadith based on their authenticity. He would ask his Swahaba to repeat the Hadith they had just learnt from him. The prophet himself would repeat severally the instructions until the Swahabas had learnt. The prophet used to receive delegations in his house and he would teach them his sunnah. The prophet would carry out certain actions then ask them to repeat after him. He taught his wives who in turn would teach the other women. Swahabas with weak memory were allowed to write down the Hadith. **The second period:**The era of the Swahabas <br><br>This is the period after the death of the Prophet which was characterized by collection <br><br>and preservation of Hadith. The prophet had just passed on and the Swahabas saw the <br><br>need to bring together all the teachings of the prophet. Since Islam had spread far and <br><br>wide and many people had embraced the religion, it was necessary for the new <br><br>converts to learn about the prophets teachings. These converts had not seen the It is during this period that different learning centers emerged. The caliphs facilitated <br><br>the process of teaching and learning and would send teachers to various places some <br><br>of these teachers were; Abdullah ibn Masoud (RA) and Abu Huraira (RA) **Third period:**The era of the Tabiun <br><br>This phase came immediately after the demise of all the Swahabas, the last one to die <br><br>being Anas ibn Malik. Writing of Hadith and compilation of the Quran took a center <br><br>stage. Students made the writing of hadith more vital and they included the name of <br><br>the transmitter alongside the Hadith. They developed the science of authenticity .i.e <br><br>Abdul Malik bin Abdul Aziz started his first work known as*Al- Firas.* Analysis of the transmitters of Hadith was thoroughly carried out with commentaries <br><br>of the Quran. Among the most notable compilers was Imam Malik who compiled his <br><br>book *al Muwatta*. Other compilers like Abu Hanifa, Shaffi, and Ahmad bin Hanbal <br><br>came up with schools of thought to teach Hadith. They taught Hadith as a science and <br><br>each had students who emerged as his followers. These scholars classified Hadith <br><br>according to their authenticity. However, it should be noted that hadith collected <br><br>during this phase were not complete and exhaustive since they were gathered from <br><br>different places or sources. This period saw a transition of hadith from oral means of <br><br>transmission to a more definite written form. **Fourth period**: The era of the Tabi tabiun <br><br>This period is considered as the golden age of hadith because there was the study of <br><br>the narrators of hadith and the inclusion of the chain of narrators. In addition, the The hadith were arranged according to the subject matter and the scholars wrote the <br><br>name of the swahaba on whose final authority the hadith laid. Imam Ahmad bin <br><br>Hanbal and Imam Abu Hanifa were among the teachers of the key scholars during this <br><br>phase. This period also witnessed the compilation of the six authentic collections of <br><br>hadith also known as sahihu sittah. The sahihu sittah include; sahih Bukhari, sahih <br><br>Muslim, sunan ibn Maja, sunan Abu aawoud, sunnan AN-Nasai and sunna <br><br>Attirmidhy. Hadith, also referred to as Sunnah, (the actions, sayings and silent permissions or disapprovals of the Prophet) is the second in rank after Quran words of Allah). It is as important as the Quran in the life of Muslims. Some of the significance of Hadith are as follows; <br><br> <br><br>It is the second source of Islamic Shariah They supplements and clarify the teachings of the holy Quran and aid in explaining the hidden meaning of Quranic verses. Enhance the observance of fardh acts (obligatory duties) by giving guideline on their performance. Moulds the character of Muslims and govern all aspects of there lives as Muslims are obliged to follow the hrophets behavior in words and deeds. They guide Muslims in the comprehension and application of the teachings of the alorious Quran. Through the practice of Hadith, Muslims are able to preserve their rich Islamic culture since they exclusively cover all the aspects of life. They are a source of knowledge, wisdom and inspiration to the Muslim Ummah and assist in addressing the challenges of life. Hadith summarizes the hrophets way of life thus guiding the Muslim Ummah to emulate his character in the observance of Islamic teachings. A Muslim who observes and applies the teachings of Hadith receives Allah (SWT)s blessings and rewards. <br><br> The statement *Whenever the Prophet was given an option between two things* represents the*matn*of the hadith. Can you refer to several hadith and point out the chain of narrators and the text. Isnad and Matn are two components that are interdependent. The compilers of hadith <br><br>came up with criteria of measuring the degree of their reliability through the study of <br><br>Isnad and Matn. As a result, they gave the qualifications, features or rather the <br><br>characteristics of a sound Isnad or matn of a Hadith. We shall learn more of this in <br><br>Book three. **Suggestion Study Questions and Activity**<br><br>1. <br><br>Define the term a) Muhadith b) Isnad <br><br>c) Matn <br><br>2. 3. Outline the factors that led to the growth and development of hadith. Discuss the significance of Hadith. **CHAPTER THREE: PILLARS OF IMAN**<br><br>**Need for Divine Guidance**<br><br>A need is a requirement, demand or a necessity. It is something that is important or <br><br>essential. Human being will always have needs that range from basic to tertiary. Such <br><br>needs would include; food, shelter, clothing, education and health care. Can you think <br><br>of other needs that are essential in human life? Among all these needs, there is one <br><br>that Allah (SWT) himself provides to His people. This is the divine guidance. The <br><br>term divine refers to sacred, holy or that which comes from Allah (SWT). Guidance is <br><br>the information, instruction, rules and regulations or laws meant to give direction to a <br><br>particular group of people. Therefore divine guidance refers to sacred or rather <br><br>commandments, laws, injunctions, rules and regulation given by Allah (SWT) to <br><br>humanity. Allah (SWT) created the universe and all that exists and then designed a set <br><br>of guidance for man to adhere. That is why Allah (SWT) sent the guidance to the <br><br>prophets who further directed their fellow mankind. <br><br>We may have different types of guidance in life but the guidance of Allah (SWT) is **Revealed scriptures**<br><br>What do you understand by the meaning of the term scripture? The term scripture <br><br>is derived from a Latin word *Scriptura*which means writing. Technically this <br><br>word refers to Holy books of a particular religion. Can you mention some of the <br><br>world religions that you know of? For the religions you have mentioned, which <br><br>scriptures does each use to derive its guidance and teachings? We may have many <br><br>scriptures used by various religions but not all of these scriptures were revealed. <br><br>Those that were revealed from Allah (SWT) have their characteristics which <br><br>distinguish them from other books. **Belief in Prophets**<br><br>In form one, we introduced the pillars of Iman and mentioned that they are six in <br><br>number. Can you mention them? We learnt in Chapter one of this book that it is not <br><br>fitting that Allah (SWT) speaks to human being directly but he sends a messenger. In <br><br>order for Allah (SWT) to communicate his divine guidance, he sent prophets and <br><br>messengers. Allah (SWT) sent prophets and messengers to specific generations <br><br>except Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) who was sent to all humankind. Allah gave him <br><br>this rank since he is the last prophet and was given the last book (The Holy Quran). <br><br>In this chapter, we shall look at the Prophets of Allah (SWT). Can you give the <br><br>meaning of the term Prophet? A Prophet is a human being who was assigned a special They were all loyal and truthful to Allah (SWT). All prophets always told the truth about the revelations they receive from Allah (SWT). The prophets were Maasumin [.i.e. free from all kinds of sins] All Prophets never went against the orders of Allah (SWT)**.** Prophets were reliable, trustworthy and dedicated in fulfilling Allah (SWT)s commands and duties that assigned to them. Prophets possessed high intelligence, strong memory, and clear and superior minds. All prophets were human in nature and were sent from among their people. They were supported with miracles by the will of Allah (SWT) in order to show proof of their prophet hood and to cope with the challenges and evil plots of their disbelievers. Yaqub (AS) [Jacob] Yussuf (AS)[Joseph] Shuab (AS)[Jethro] Ayub (AS)[Job] Dhulkifl (AS)[Ezekiel] Musa (AS)[Moses] Allah (SWT) says**,***And indeed We have sent messengers before you (O Muhammad)* *of some of them We have related to you their story and some We have not related to* *you their story*[Q 40:78] Let us look at the following table showing the chronological order of the prophets mentioned in the Quran. NAME OF PROPHET <br><br>NUMBER OF TIMES MENTIONED IN THE QURAN 25 <br><br>NATIONS TO WHICH THEY WERE SENT <br><br>Banu Adam (The children of Adam) Egypt Banu Nuhu Banu Ad near eemen <br><br>Idris (AS)[Enock] Nuh (AS)[Noah] Hud (AS) Swaleh (AS)[Methusela] Banu 2 43 7 9 Thamud-Bedouin <br><br>Arab tribe People of Ibrahim The people of Sodom and Gomorrah The Arab tribe of Yemen and Amalikites Cananites living and Palestine ASSIGNMENT Egyptians (Copts) Madian people of Hijaz People of Ayub Sham and Damascus Banu and Egyptians The generations of Firaun, Karun in Egypt Banu Israil Dawud (AS)[David] Suleiman (AS) [Solomon] Banu Israil Iliyas (AS)[Elias] Alyasa (AS)[Elisha] <br><br>Ibrahim (AS)[Abraham] Lut (AS)[Lot] <br><br>People of Ilyas Banu Israil 2 2 **Ulul Azm (Messengers of strong will)**<br><br>It is understood that some prophets chosen among the messengers are called*Ulul-*<br><br>*Azm*due to their different qualities from the others. They are Ulul Azm because of <br><br>their determination, patience and steadfastness in their work despite facing many <br><br>challenges. All prophets mentioned in the Quran strove greatly to fulfill the holy duty <br><br>assigned to them by Allah (SWT). From this perspective, no prophet should be <br><br>discriminated because they were all sent as leaders to guide humankind. Prophet <br><br>Muhammad emphasized this in the following hadith: *I am the closest to Isa (Jesus),*<br><br>*the son of Mary, among all humans. Indeed prophets are half-brothers. Their*<br><br>*religions are the same.* This should be taken into consideration when assessing <br><br>prophecy and divine religions. Allah (SWT) mentions these prophets in the following verse*Therefore be patient (O*<br><br>*Muhammad) as did the messengers of strong will and be in haste about them*<br><br>*(disbeleivers)*[Q 46:35] It is after Nuhs prayer the almighty Allah (SWT) destroyed the unbelievers by means <br><br>of floods and cleansed the earth of their evil deeds. Since Allah (SWT) does not <br><br>disappoint the prophets and those who believe and embrace the laws of monotheism, <br><br>he saved Nuh (AS) and a small group of his followers. **Ibrahim (AS)**<br><br>Nabi Ibrahim (AS) was the son of Azar who was a prominent idol sculpture. He was <br><br>raised in an idolatrous society but Allah (SWT) guided him at a young age to shun <br><br>idol worship. By His sublime wisdom, the Almighty Allah (SWT) appointed Ibrahim <br><br>(AS) as a prophet and a Messenger. Prophet Ibrahim (AS) was given a divine book (Suhuf) and became steadfast in fulfilling Allah (SWT) s commandments despite undergoing several trials. He advocated for monotheism and was the first person to call the divine religion as *"Islam",*meaning total submission to the will of Allah (SWT). The followers of this decree thus referred to as*"Muslims".*Prophet Musa (AS), Issa (AS) and Muhammad (PBUH) were all descendants of Ibrahim, preached monotheism and followed the straight path of Islam. <br><br>The Quran repeatedly describes Prophet Ibrahim as a man who believed in Monotheism and was a model for mankind. Allah (SWT) says, **"Abraham was not a Jew nor yet a Christian; but he was true in Faith, and** **bowed his will to Allah (which is Islam), and he joined not gods with Allah"**[Q 3:67]. <br><br>Prophet Ibrahim (AS) s piety and struggle against polytheism and idolatry earned him <br><br>praise and reward from Allah (SWT). **Musa**<br><br>Musa (AS) is the third of the Ulul 'Azm prophets' and had a divine book and divine <br><br>religious laws. He was a descendant of prophet Y'aqub (AS). Prophet Musa (AS) was <br><br>born at a time when the Israelites were living in Egypt and led by Fir'awn. Fir'awn was <br><br>the King who was a polytheist and cruel to his people. He subjected them to abject <br><br>poverty, slavery and hopelessness. Musa (AS) could not tolerate the suffering of his people in the hand of the Fir'awn. <br><br>Allah (SWT) commanded Musa to go to Fir'awn and preach to him Tawheed the <br><br>oneness of Allah. Allah (SWT) says,*Go you and your brother with My Ayat*<br><br>*(proofs, evidences, signs) and do not, you both, slacken and become weak in my*<br><br>*remembrance. Go both of you to Fir'awn verily he has transgressed (all bounds in*<br><br>*disbelief and behaved as an arrogant and as a tyrant). And speak to him mildly,*<br><br>*perhaps he may accept admonition or fear (Allah).*[Q 20:42-44] Although for many years Musa (AS) invited people to Tawheed, Fir'awn and his <br><br>people showed no reaction other than toughness and disinterest. Allah then bestowed <br><br>on prophet Musa miracles: <br><br>1. 2. A stick that would turn into a living serpent when throw down. The ability to make his hand shine when he removes it from his armpit. **Issa (AS)**<br><br>Prophet 'Isa (AS) is the fourth of the Ulul 'azm bestowed with a book and Shariah. <br><br>Almighty Allah (SWT), in the Holy Quran, confirms a divine book called the "Injil" <br><br>for 'Isa (AS), which was revealed to him. It is important to note that this divine Book <br><br>from Allah is different from the Gospels written after the ascension of Isa bin Maryam <br><br>on his life and mission. Allah (SWT) says,*I am a servant of Allah. He gave me the*<br><br>*kitab (Injil) and made me a Prophet.*[Q 19:30] The circumstances of his birth were <br><br>miraculous. His mother, Maryam, was pious virgin, who conceived through a miracle <br><br>as mentioned in the Quran [Q 19:16-32]. Ruhul Qudus (Jibril (AS)) descended from <br><br>heavens, gave her the good tidings of 'Isa's (AS) birth. Just like the other Ulul Azm, his mission was to preach Tawheed and establish monotheism. Prophet Issa prayed to Allah (SWT) to grant him miraculous powers in order to proof to the Banu Israil that he was a prophet sent down by Allah ((SWT). He was bestowed with several miracles which led to many people to trust him and follow the commandments of Allah (SWT). Despite the performance of these miracles, the disbelievers rejected him. He was met with resistance from his followers who wanted to kill him but Allah (SWT) saved him from the hands of the tyrants. The Glorious **Muhammad (PBUH)**<br><br>In Book One, we learnt about the life history of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Can <br><br>you recall his lineage and how he was given his prophet hood? Even before his Baath <br><br>(prophet hood), Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) refrained from idol worship and was not <br><br>interested in the worldly gains but would seek spiritual guidance in the cave of Hira. <br><br>When Allah (SWT) gave him prophet hood, he preached monotheism and Tawheed <br><br>just like the previous Ulul Azm. <br><br>**The finality of Prophet Muhammad**<br><br>Muhammad is the messenger of Allah (SWT) and is regarded as the last and final <br><br>Prophet send by Allah (SWT) to guide humankind. Allah (SWT) sealed the prophet <br><br>hood with him and completed the divine revelation meaning that there shall be no <br><br>other Prophet after him. <br><br>Allah (SWT) says,*Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but he is the*<br><br>*messenger of Allah (SWT) and the last (end) of the Prophets. And Allah (SWT) is ever*<br><br>*all Knower of everything.*[Q 33:40] This can be proved from the various names he was referred to: for example, he was <br><br>called*Al-Aqib*meaning the one after whom there is no Prophet,*Al-Hashir*, and the <br><br>one at whose feet the people will be resurrected. The term*Khatam an-nabuwwah*is derived from the Quranic phrase*Khatamun*<br><br>*Nabiyyn*Seal of the prophets. hrophet Muhammad (hBUH) is referred to as the seal <br><br>of the prophets because of the following reasons: He was given the last book i.e. The Quran His Ummah is the last and there shall be no other after his. In the ladder of the prophets, he is the last one. The message he was sent with is universal. The Quran reminds us time and again that this universe has been created temporarily and at an appointed time it will surely be annihilated. Thi stime is only know to Allah (SWT) as He says in the Quran,*Verily Allah (SWT) Alone has the knowledge of the* *Hour.*[Q 22:7]. **Name** **Meaning** **Quranic reference**<br><br>eaumul Baath The Day of Resurrection Q 58:6 <br><br>Yaumul deen The Day of Judgment Q 26:82 <br><br>Yaumul Hasrat The Day of distress Q 19:39 <br><br>Yaumul Jam-i The Day of Assembly Q 42:7 <br><br>Yaumul Taghabun The Day of mutual loss Q 64:9 <br><br>and gain <br><br>Yaumul Akheer The last day Q 5:69 <br><br>Yaumul Qiyama The Day of Resurrection Q 75:6 <br><br>Yaumul Fasl The Day of sorting out Q 78:17 <br><br>eaumaul Saat The hour Q 22:7 <br><br>Yawmul-Maw'ood Promised Day Q 85:2 <br><br>Yawmul-Fath Day of Decision Q 32:29 <br><br>Yawmul-Wa'eed Day of Warning Q 50:20 Have you witnessed any of the above events in the community? This is then a <br><br>clear sign that the day of reckoning is nearer. <br><br>Major signs of Qiyama <br><br>These are events of extra ordinary nature which Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) <br><br>prophesized in his Hadith. Some of the signs include the following: <br><br>1. 2. 3. <br><br>Appearing of the*Mahdi*(the Promised). Appearing of*Masih Dajjal*(the Antichrist). Appearing of Issa bin Mariam who will bring justice and kill Masih Dajjal. Appearing of*Yajuj and Majuj*(Gog and Magog). Destroying of the Al kaaba. Rising of the sun from West to East. Emergence of the beast from the earth. Appearing of Smoke. <br><br>4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Wind will take souls of the believers. 10. Quran will be taken up to heaven. 11. Fire that will drive people to their last gathering. 12. Three sounds of the trumpet: 1. 2. 3. The first one will terrify everyone. The second will strike everyone dead. The third will resurrect everyone. **Stages of Qiyama**<br><br>How many of us would like to go to Paradise? Definitely, each one of us would wish <br><br>to enter the Paradise of Allah (SWT). We need to realize that no soul shall enter <br><br>paradise until it tastes death. Allah (SWT) says,*Every soul shall have a taste of*<br><br>*death: And only on the Day of Judgment shall you be paid your full recompense. Only*<br><br>*he who is saved far from the fire and admitted to the garden will have attained the* **1. Death**<br><br>At present, we are all living, carrying out our normal day-to-day activities with ease <br><br>oblivious of any calamity befalling us. One such calamity, which is inevitable, is <br><br>death. Everyone is scared of death. Why do you think this is so? This is due to the <br><br>uncertainty of what lies beyond death. What do you understand by the term death? <br><br>Allah says,*How can you disbelieve in Allah (SWT)? Seeing that you were dead and*<br><br>*He gave you life. Then He will give you death, then again will bring you life (on the*<br><br>*day of resurrection) and then unto him you will return.*[Q 2:28] <br><br>According to Islam, death is the return of the souls to Allah (SWT) since He is the one <br><br>who gives life and therefore He is the one with the right of taking it away. Allah <br><br>(SWT) created death [Q 67:2], which gives us a key to the next stage of life. It is <br><br>important for every Muslim to know that life continues in a spiritual form even after <br><br>the soul is separated from the body. <br><br>We believe in the direct relation between ones deeds on earth and the life hereafter. **2. Life after death**<br><br>After death, one goes through different stages from the time a person is lowered into <br><br>the grave to the time of the blowing of the trumpet to denote resurrection. Let us <br><br>briefly look at each of the stages in brief: <br><br>a) Barzakh Technically, it refers to the period between death and resurrection. The matter <br><br>of Barzakh is Ghaib (unseen and known to Allah alone). This is a stage kept by <br><br>Allah (SWT) between our world and the other world from the time of ones <br><br>death until the day of resurrection. Each and every individual shall enter the <br><br>state of Barzakh. People who are alive cannot enter into this state until they pass <br><br>through death. <br><br>Allah (SWT) says,*Until, when death comes to one of you (those who join*<br><br>*partners with Allah (SWT)) He says My Lord send me back, so that I may do*<br><br>*good in that which I have left behind! No! It is but a word that He speaks; And*<br><br>*behind them is Barzakh, a barrier until the day when they will be resurrected.*<br><br>[Q 23:99-100] **b) Resurrection**<br><br>Read Quran [Q 17:19-52]; [Q 99]; [Q 75]; [Q 79] <br><br>The dead will not have an everlasting life in the grave. After the stage of <br><br>Barzakh, they will be resurrected for preparation for the Day of Judgment. This <br><br>will be followed by the end of the universe where Allah (SWT) will command <br><br>Angel Israfil to blow the trumpet three times. The first trumpet will cause all the When these conditions become intolerable, people will appeal to the Prophets and the <br><br>messengers of Allah (SWT) to intercede with Allah (SWT) on their behalf so they can <br><br>be relieve from the pain and suffering. These scales shall indicate the good and the evils committed by everyone. Allah <br><br>(SWT) says:*Then shall anyone who has an atoms weight of good, see it. And*<br><br>*anyone who has done an atoms weight of evil, shall see it.*[Q 99:7-8] <br><br>Do you know that some people shall receive their books of account in their right <br><br>hands, while others will receive them from the back and in their left hands? Find out <br><br>the verses of the Quran from surah al Inshiqaaq [Q 81:6-10] <br><br>Everyone will have the work of their lives fastened on their necks then Allah (SWT) <br><br>will ask them to read from their books. Allah (SWT):*Every mans fate we have*<br><br>*fastened on his neck: On the Day of Judgment we shall bring out for him a scroll,*<br><br>*which he will see, spread open. (It will be said to him) Read your own record;*<br><br>*sufficient is your soul this day to make out an account against you.*[Q 17:13-14] **1.** **Prophets intercession**<br><br>Read Quran [Q 20:109] [Q 19:87] <br><br>In these verses, you will notice the mention of the word*shufa*, (intersession). What <br><br>does this word mean? Why do you think people will start going to the prophets and <br><br>messengers for intercession? It is because of distress and suffering in agony in a day <br><br>where Allah (SWT) shall not accept the intercession of any person except the one <br><br>whom He will have chosen. Can you guess who this noble person will be? One who <br><br>shall get the noble honour to intercede for the entire humankind? That person is none <br><br>other than the beloved hrophet of Allah (SWT) Muhammad (hBUH). Allah (SWT)s <br><br>servants who will be suffering from worries and troubles will not bear the <br><br>consequences of that day and will turn to Adam, then to Nuh, then to Ibrahim, then to <br><br>Moses, then to Issah and finally to the*Khalilullah(the friend of Allah)*; the holy <br><br>prophet Muhammad. The noble Prophet will go down to his knees and prostrate, <br><br>pleading with Allah (SWT) on behalf of humankind to declare judgment to his servants. We Muslims believe in the special great intercession of the Prophet (SWT), <br><br>the most noble of all the Prophets. During that day of distress, people will suffer from <br><br>the pangs of hunger and thirst. There will be only one pool of water under the control <br><br>of the prophet (PBUH). Its water will be whiter than milk, sweeter than honey and <br><br>better in fragrance. Only believers among the prophets followers will drink from it <br><br>and after which will never be thirsty. <br><br>2. **The*Siraat***(**The straight path**) <br><br>Have you ever heard about the Siraat? This is straight path which Allah (SWT) (SWT) <br><br>has set up above the hell fire for every person to pass over it according to their deeds. <br><br>The first of them will pass over it as fast as lightening, then as fast wind, then as fast <br><br>as birds and then as fast as a running man. During all this time, the Prophet will be <br><br>standing on the path praying, Allah (SWT) Save! Save! as other peoples deeds will <br><br>fall short. Other people will cross crawling. At both sides of the Siraat, are hooks d)**Paradise and hell**[Q 98:6-8]; [Q 78] <br><br>We have learnt in this chapter that intercession is exclusively limited to Prophet <br><br>Muhammad (PBUH). We have also learnt that the believers will pass over the Siraat <br><br>without any difficulty while the disbelievers will fall into hell. We Muslims believe in <br><br>paradise and hell. The pious and righteous will remain in paradise forever enjoying its <br><br>bliss, while the disbelievers and evil doers will forever be in hell. Let us now look at <br><br>the characteristics of both the paradise and hell: **Description of Paradise**<br><br>Read the following verses from the Quran describing paradise: [Q 17:11. Q 16:11-21: <br><br>Q 56:22-26] <br><br>The following are some of the characteristics of paradise from Quran and Hadith: <br><br>1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The dwellers of paradise will have everything that they may have ever <br><br>Paradise exists now and will never perish. Nobody has ever seen the paradise. Its ground and its soil are composed of musk and saffron. Its roof is the throne of Allah (SWT) the Most Merciful The rocks are pearls and Jewells. There are gardens for entertainment The dweller of the paradise will enjoy in joy. It will be amidst gardens and water springs. The buildings are made of gold and silver. <br><br>desired on earth. <br><br>11. There will be chaste women with beautiful eyes. **Description of Hell**<br><br>Read this verse concerning hell. [Q 18:29] <br><br>The following are some of the features of hell: <br><br>1. 2. 3. 4. 5. <br><br>Hell exists now and will never perish. It has gates that have been assigned specific class of sinners. It has various levels for various sinful acts. [Q 6:132] There shall be vaults over them[Q 90:19-20] The fathomless pits will not be filled up and shall keep on asking for more. **Quranic concept of Adl (Divine Justice)**<br><br>*Adl*is an Arabic term which means Justice. Justice refers to the ability to exercise <br><br>rightful, fare treatment in ones dealings and be neutral in action. Just as Allah (SWT) <br><br>encourages human beings to emulate some of His attributes, such as being*patient*and <br><br>*forgiving*, He also requires mankind to follow the ways of justice. Technically, the <br><br>term*Adl*refers to Allah (SWT)s divine Justice. It elaborates the way in which Allah <br><br>(SWT) exercises his profound judgment to his creatures. <br><br>Justice is a concept that is usually related to equality in the eyes of the law; it means <br><br>that the law should treat equally people who adhere to its rules and norms, regardless <br><br>of their social, political or economic status. Have you learnt in History about the <br><br>justice system in Kenya which is headed by the chief Justice? If so, how do the courts <br><br>in Kenya work? When those people who are led are sure of receiving justice from <br><br>their leader, they always guard against breaking the law. At the same time, knowing <br><br>that there will be recognition and reward for loyalty, they are encouraged to be We have looked at how Allah (SWT) has enjoined on man to deal justly in all <br><br>dealings. The absolute justice of Allah (SWT) has been repeatedly declared in the <br><br>Holy Quran. Let us consider the following example: <br><br>*Verily, Allah (SWT) commands Adl (fairness, equity, justice) Ihsaan (excellence in* *servitude to Allah (SWT), benevolence towards people, graciousness in dealings) and* *giving to those close to you, while He forbids Fahshaa (lewdness, indecency,* *licentiousness, immorality), Munkar (bad actions, undesirable activities, generally* *unaccepted behaviour, not fulfilling ones obligations), and Baghy (rebellion,* *transgressing limits, exploiting or violating others rights, abuse of authority or* *freedom). He admonishes you so that you heed the advice.*[Q 16:90] <br><br>The prophet (PBUH) also emphasized on the importance of justice in the following Hadith: <br><br>*Abdullah Ibn Umar (RA) narrated that the Prophet (PBUH) said, The fair and just* *people who are equitable: in passing judgments, in dealing with their family members* *and in using the authority delegated to them, will be on the pulpits of Noor in the* *audience of Allah (SWT).*(Muslim) From the above Hadith and verse of the Quran, what do you learn about divine Justice? **Significance of Belief in Qiyama to the life of a Muslim**<br><br>As you have earlier learnt that justice is a main concern in Islam, it is important that <br><br>humankind get justice in this world and the hereafter. For example, in the school <br><br>situation, a student will receive good results after he or she has worked hard. One who <br><br>is lazy will definitely perform poorly because that is what is expected out of him. In <br><br>other words, there is accountability. The account of the deeds of everyone in this <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> *Say: "Verily, the death from which you flee, will surely meet you,*<br><br> <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> <br><br>*Then you will be sent back to the Knower of the unseen and the seen, and He will* *inform you about what you used to do.''*[Q 62:8] Allah (SWT) says,*Know well that the life of this world is merely sport and diversion*<br><br>*and adornment and an object of your boasting with one another, and a rivalry in the*<br><br>*multiplication of riches and children. Its likeness is that of rain: when it produces*<br><br>*vegetation it delights the tillers. But then it withers and you see it turn yellow, and*<br><br>*then it crumbles away. In the Hereafter there is (either) grievous chastisement (or)*<br><br>*forgiveness from Allah (SWT) and (His) good pleasure. The life of this world is*<br><br>*nothing but delusion.*[Q 57:20] <br><br>Allah (SWT) is telling us in this verses that this life is just but a play. Why is it so <br><br>important for the Muslims to believe in this day? Let us consider the following <br><br>reasons: <br><br>1. 2. <br><br>It is the fifth pillar of Iman. It clearly spells out mans relation with his creator and reminds him that one day he will return to Allah (SWT). It awakens mans spirit of preparing for the grand day by doing acts of worship. It promotes equality of mankind before Allah (SWT). This is a day set <br><br>3. <br><br>**|**P a g e 216 The knowledge of paradise and hell motivates man to do good deeds and avoid evil. It gives man the courage to fight evil in order to avoid Allah (SWT)s punishment in the fire. Allah (SWT) has commanded man to believe in this day thus it shows obedience of humankind to the commandments of Allah (SWT). It regulates the relationship between man and his fellow man because it enhances peace and harmony. It develops ones taqwa .i.e. fear of Allah (SWT). It instills mental peace in man as he is able to be patient when waiting for the grand assembly knowing exactly what to expect on this great day. It awakens consciousness in one to be aware of the consequences of his action on the day assembly. It strengthens the belief in the prophets among the Muslims since they taught on the belief in the day of recompense. <br><br>6. <br><br>9. 10. <br><br>13. Man is able to develop confidence and recognize the special powers of <br><br>Allah (SWT). It fosters in humankind the spirit of asking for tawba from Allah (SWT). <br><br>14. Suggested Study Questions and Activity Answer the following questions in your I.R.E revision exercise book. 1.a) Explain the need for divine guidance Muhammad (PBUH). Which is this ummah referred to in these verses? Let us <br><br>consider the following: <br><br>1. <br><br>The Jews used to fast in the remembrance of the return of prophet Musa (AS) from mount Sinai where he had gone to talk to Allah (SWT) Prophets Musa and Issah used to fast four forty days and nights. Prophet Daud (AS) used to fast on alternating days throughout his life. The prophet (PBUH) commended that this was the best Saum amongst all in his Hadith*The best fasting before Allah (SWT) is the fasting of* *Nabi Daud. He used to fast for one day and eat for one day.*( Ahmad bin Hanbal) <br><br>2. 3. <br><br>4. When Prophet Muhammad migrated to Madina, he found the Jews engaging in fast on the 10th of Muharam to remember the day Allah (SWT) saved Prophet Nuh (AS) with his ummah from the floods using the*Safina*(Ark). <br><br>**Significance of Saum**<br><br>In this chapter, we have learnt that fasting (Saum) was prescribed to the ummah even <br><br>before hrophet Muhammads. Why do you think this was so? This indicates that there **Economic benefits of fasting**<br><br>7. It promotes good health because the excessive fat is burnt during fasting. 8. Improved eating habits. (Escape from unhealthy munching habits). 9. Promotes sound budgeting because it reduces the number of meals. 10. To empathize with less fortunate members of humanity who suffer from <br><br>hunger due to poverty. **Spiritual significance of fasting** 6. *Nadhir*is an Arabic word which means to vow. Islam has made it mandatory <br><br>Nadhir (vow) <br><br>for Muslims to fulfill the vows they make. These vows should be made on acts <br><br>that are lawful. Therefore if one vows to fast, then the fast must be observed. <br><br>This is referred to as Nadhir fast. For example a student can vow to fast for <br><br>some days if he or she performs well in the exams. 7. The term*Qadha*means to compensate or to pay up for a missed obligatory <br><br>Qadha <br><br>duty. In fasting, it refers to the compensation of the days one missed to fast <br><br>during the month of Ramadhan for acceptable reasons. We shall discuss these <br><br>reasons later on in this chapter. <br><br>8. Kafara The day of Idd ul Fitr is of breaking the fast, of Ramadan while on the 'idd ul Adha <br><br>Muslims should eat from what you sacrifice." This is related by Ahmad,an-Nasa'i, <br><br>atTirmizhi, Abu Dawud, and Ibn Majah. <br><br>2. The days of*Tashreeq*(three days following the 'Id al-Adha) It is not permissible to fast during the three days following the 'Idal-Azha. Abu <br><br>Hurairah reported that the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) send 'Abdullah ibn Huzaqah <br><br>to announce at Mina:*"You are not fast these days. They are days of eating and*<br><br>*drinking and remembering Allah."*(Ahmad bin Hanbal) <br><br>3. To single out Friday as a day of fasting As-Sama' relates that the Prophet (PBUH) said:*"Do not fast on Saturdays unless it is*<br><br>*an obligatory fast. [You should not fast] even if you do not find anything [to eat] save*<br><br>*some grape peelings or a branch of a tree to chew on."*(Ahmad, an-Nasa'i, at- <br><br>Tirmidhi, Abu Dawud, Ibn Majah) <br><br>Umm Salamah narrated, 'The Messenger of Allah used to fast more often on <br><br>Saturdays and Sundays than on the other clays. He would say,*"They are the 'Idds of*<br><br>*the polytheists, and I love to act contrary to what they do.*" (An-Nasa'i) <br><br>5. Yaummul*Shakk*on the "day of doubt" <br><br>6. Fasting, every day of the year <br><br>It is forbidden to do so because there are certain days of the year on which one is not allowed to fast. The Messenger of Allah said:*"There is no [reward for] fasting for the* *one who perpetually fasts."*(Ahmad, al-Bukhari, and Muslim) 7. Fasting consecutive days without eating at all [al-wisal] Abu Hurairah reported that the Prophet (PBUH) said:*"Do not perform al-wisal." He* *said that three times and the people said to him: "But you perform al-wisal, O* *Messenger of Allah!" He said: "You are not like me in that matter. I spend the night in* *such a state that Allah feeds me and gives me to drink. Devote yourselves to the deeds* *which you can perform."*( al-Bukhari and Muslim.) **Desirable Acts in the Month of Ramadhan**<br><br>This refers to the acts that are pleasant, worthwhile and those that increase the rewards <br><br>of fasting. They include; <br><br>1. 2. 3. 4. Increasing the recitation of the Quran. Breaking of fast with odd number of dates. Sharing the food with other Muslims during the Iftar. Breaking the fast immediately after sunset without delays. Those entirely exempted from fasting include: <br><br>1. <br><br>People who are permanently insane and are unaccountable for their deeds should not fast just like the way they have been exempted from performing other obligatory acts of worship. They are not obliged to any form of compensation. Old and weak men and women who are cannot bear the hardship of fast. However, they should offer, one needy Muslim an average of one days meal or its value. This compensation indicates that whenever they can fast even for one day of the month, they should do so, and compensate for the rest. Persons with terminal illness and are on continuous medication and special care. These would include, people suffering from, severe cases of diabetes, HIV Aids, cancer among others ailments. <br><br>2. **Importance of the Month of Ramadhan**<br><br>Read [Q 2:185]; [Q 97] <br><br>Out of the twelve months in the Islamic calendar, there are certain months that Allah <br><br>(SWT) has blessed more than the others. Among these months is the Holy month of <br><br>Ramadhan. It has its own significance to Muslims as follows: <br><br>1. <br><br>This is the month in which the Quran was sent down from Lawhil Mahfudh to Baitul Izzah. It is the month in which Allah (SWT) has promised paradise for the performance of deeds. It is the month in which Allah (SWT) extends his blessings, forgiveness, mercy and those Muslims who follow his teachings are kept away from the fire. It is the month in which we find the Lailatul Qadr (the night of power) in which performance of Ibadah is better than 83 years. Allah also increases sustenance to those performing Ibadah during this night. In this month the Angels descent, among them Angel Jibril (AS) and they ask Allah (SWT)s forgiveness for the Muslim Ummah. It is the month in which Allah (SWT) has ordained the special prayer of *Taraweh*which earns Muslims rewards. auring this month, Satan is far removed and locked up, his face is darkened. This is to allow the believers to perform their Ibadah in peace. <br><br>2. sake of Allah (SWT). It is the act of paying a visit or homage to the Holy City of <br><br>Makkah together with its environs in order to perform numerous acts of worship. It is <br><br>performed during the month of Hajj and involves several activities and rituals which <br><br>we shall study later in this chapter. Hajj is the fifth pillar of Islam. Allah (SWT) says <br><br>in the Quran*: And complete the Hajj and Umrah in the service of Allah (SWT).*[Q <br><br>2:196] 1. <br><br>It is a source of unity for all the Muslims from different parts of the world who meet and interact during the rites Hajj. Assuming the state of Ihram makes the pilgrimage to live by certain restrictions such as killing deliberately, uprooting vegetation thus promoting peace and harmony. <br><br>2. <br><br>3. Muslims perform the acts of Hajj with the same goal thus promoting <br><br>brotherhood. The wearing of Ihram ensures peace among the pilgrims as well as to other creatures. It helps in creating and supporting friendship among the different people. Hajj promotes equality among the Muslims in that everyone regardless of their nation, race, colour perform the same rites of Hajj thus promoting equality. For example, they must all stand on the plains of Arafat. The sense of identity and belonging is fostered among the Muslims in that it is done at specific time and month of the year. The performance of Hajj has been ordained for all able Muslims regardless of ones social class. This has discouraged social prejudices. There is a spirit of sharing among the pilgrims when they meet for the sake of Allah (SWT). <br><br>Spiritual significance of Hajj It is among the pillar of Islam and therefore must be observed by every mature and able Muslim. It is a command from Allah (SWT) that has been mentioned by several verses of the Quran alongside with Swalat. preparation is required. The journey for Hajj is very different from any of the journeys <br><br>you have mentioned or imagined. This is because it is a trip of a lifetime meant for <br><br>pleasing Allah (SWT). If one plans for a trip, tour or journey to please himself in this <br><br>world, what of a sacred journey that Allah (SWT) has commanded in the Holy <br><br>Quran? aefinitely, such a journey, meant to fulfill an act of worship requires proper <br><br>and adequate planning. Therefore, for Hajj to be performed sincerely and properly, <br><br>considerable investment of money, time, and physical effort is required. These <br><br>preparations will include, physical, spiritual and financial. The following guidelines <br><br>are intended to get the pilgrim started in the right direction: <br><br>**Financial preparations**<br><br>1. One should have enough money to prepare for the activities Hajj. **Social and spiritual preparations**<br><br>There are also some social preparations that one must undergo. These are as <br><br>follows: <br><br>1. <br><br>They should bid farewell to neighbours, friends, relatives and fellow Muslims. They should have it in mind that Hajj is obligatory. All sorts of haram events and activities during the preparations for Hajj should be avoided. <br><br>2. 3. <br><br>4. Women should get permission from their husbands. 5. Women who are not married should get permission from their close <br><br>relatives under whose guardianship they live. They should be accompanied by someone with whom they cannot marry (mahrim). They should be free from impurity. 7. Umrah <br><br>*Umra*is referred to as a lesser or minor Pilgrimage. Why is it called lesser <br><br>Pilgrimage? This is because the pilgrim performs all the rites of Hajj except the <br><br>standing at Arafat. It is usually performed at any time of the year, before the eighth of <br><br>Dhul Hijja or even after the performance of Hajj. differentiate the two since Hajj is of different types. The pilgrims knowledge of each <br><br>type of Hajj will enable him or her to make the right intention for that particular type <br><br>of Hajj. Let us now look at each of the three types namely; Ifrad bil Hajj, Al Qiran and <br><br>At-Tamattu. IFRAD BIL HAJJ <br><br>The word*Ifrad*in Arabic means single, one or only. In relation to Hajj, it is when the <br><br>pilgrim declares his intention to perform Hajj alone without Umra (lesser pilgrimage). <br><br>The pilgrim may have either performed Umra earlier or is intending to perform it on a <br><br>later period. The Mufrid (the pilgrim performing this Hajj) assumes the state of Ihram <br><br>at the Miqaat when they are to start rites of Hajj. An example is the people who leave <br><br>near Makkah or those who frequently visit it. <br><br>HAJJ AL QIRAN Qiran means to combine. It is where the Pilgrims perform both Hajj and Umrah in the <br><br>same Ihram. The major characteristic of Qiran is that the Muqrin (the pilgrim <br><br>performing this Hajj) does not enjoy a period of rest in between the Hajj and Umrah. <br><br>HAJJ AT-TAMATTU <br><br>In this performance the Mutamatti (the person who performs this Hajj), begins by <br><br>performing Umrah, and then removes the Ihram for Umrah before adorning it again <br><br>for the purpose of Hajj. After Ihram, the pilgrims are ready to commence the activities of Hajj. They recite the <br><br>*Talbiyya*as frequently as possible. The Talbiyya is a set of special invocations for the <br><br>remembrance of Allah (SWT) during Hajj. One chants;*Labbayka llahumma*<br><br>*labbayka laa shariika laka labbayka. innalhamda, wannamataka laka walmulka, laa*<br><br>*shriika lakka labbayka.*<br><br>Meaning*: Here I am O Allah (SWT)! Here I am! You have no partner with You!*<br><br>*Here I am! Surely all Praise, and favours belong to You and the dominion (also*<br><br>*belongs to You), You have no partner with You! Here I am!*<br><br>Tawaf <br><br>*Tawaf*refers to the act of going round the Kaaba seven times while keeping it on the <br><br>left i.e anticlockwise. Every round starts and ends facing the*Hajar al Aswad*(black <br><br>stone) at the corner of the Al Kaaba. The first three circles are made faster than the <br><br>last four. After each circle, one touches the Hajar al Aswad, kisses it or raises hands before it and says: <br><br>*Allahumma zid hadhal baita tashriifan watadhiiman wa mahabbat. allahumma*<br><br>*antas salaam waminkas salaam fahayyinaa rabbanaa bis salaam.*<br><br>*O Allah (SWT) increase on this House Glory, an Greatness and Love. O Allah (SWT)*<br><br>*You are Peace and from You is peace. So greet us O our Lord with peace.*<br><br>There are four types of Tawaf that a Muslim is permitted to go around the Al Kaaba: <br><br>1. <br><br>Tawaf ul Qudum which is performed at the arrival and symbolizes the beginning of performing Hajj. Tawaf ul Ifadha (Ziara) which is performed in the morning of the 10th of ahul Hijja. It is part of the rites of Hajj and its performed after the rites at Minna. Tawaf ul Wida is performed as the last step after all the steps of Hajj are over before removing the Ihram. <br><br>2. Tawaf ul Tatwawui is not part of Hajj and its performed any other time one enters the holy mosque of Makka. This Tawaf can be compared with the Tahiyyat ul Masjid prayer that is offered in other mosques. Saayi <br><br>It is the going between the two hillocks of*Swafa*and*Marwa*. It is done seven times <br><br>while keeping the hillocks on the left as one says: <br><br>*Allahumma hajjana mabruuran wadhambanaa maghfuuran wasyan mashkuura*<br><br>*O Allah (SWT) grant blessings on our Hajj, forgive our sins and make our Saayi a*<br><br>*grateful one.* The act of Saayi commemorates Allah (SWT)s command when He instructed <br><br>Prophet Ibrahim (AS) to take his new wife, Hajjar, and their only child, Ismail (AS), <br><br>to a desert in Makkah. With a goatskin vessel with water, he left them to visit his first <br><br>wife. When the water got finished and Hajjar had no milk in her for the child, she <br><br>started looking for water to quench their thirst, but the child was starving. She <br><br>wandered between Safa and Marwa and on the seventh round; she found a fountain <br><br>that had gushed out next to the child. This is the present well of Zamzam. <br><br>Both the Tawaf ul Qudum and the Saayi are performed on the eighth of ahul Hijja, <br><br>which is the first day of the pilgrimage. Arafat <br><br>It is a plain on the East of Makka. It is a very important step of Hajj on 9th of Dhul <br><br>Hijja because the Hajj is nullified for whoever misses it and will have to go for Hajj <br><br>again. Pilgrims perform Dhuhr and Asr prayers before a khutba (sermon) that is <br><br>delivered on the pulpit at Jabal Rahma (mountain of mercy). Pilgrims continue with <br><br>Talbiya, sunna prayers, meditation and dua (supplication). Muzdalifa <br><br>It is the next stop after Arafat. The other name for Muzdalifa is Mash aril Haram <br><br>(Sacred Monument).Here Maghrib and Isha prayers are combined and shortened. <br><br>They also collect stone pebbles here and leave after Fajr prayers and before sunrise to <br><br>Mina. Mina <br><br>Pilgrims reach Mina on the 10th day of Dhul Hijja in the morning, also referred to as <br><br>Yaumun Nahr (the day of sacrifice). After performing Idd prayers at Mina, the <br><br>pilgrims throw pebbles (i.e. ramyun) at the three Jamarat (pillars). They throw seven <br><br>pebbles on each of the pillars. This is followed by sacrificing a sheep, goat, cow or <br><br>camel. From there they go to perform Tawaf ul Ifadha at the Al Kaaba. Ram yul jimar <br><br>The act of throwing pebbles to the three pillars signifies a symbol of chasing Iblis <br><br>(satan), an act that was performed when Prophet Ibrahim wanted to sacrifice his son, <br><br>Ismail (AS). Each throw is accompanied with a Takbir (Allahu Akbar). The pillars are <br><br>Jamrat ul Aqaba (the Aqaba pillar) Jamrat ul Wustwa (the middle pillar near the <br><br>mosque of Mina) and Jamrat ul Sughra (the smallest pillar). Significance of the jamarat <br><br>The significance of the Jamarat dates back to the time when Prophet Ibrahim (A.S) <br><br>was commanded by Allah (SWT) to sacrifice his son Ismail (A.S.) He led his son to <br><br>three suitable places where he could do the sacrifice. Iblis tried to discourage him, but <br><br>Prophet Ibrahim (A.S) was steadfast and chased Iblis. The throwing of the pebbles <br><br>symbolizes the chasing of the devils from interfering with our faith. **When slaughtering is compulsory for a pilgrim.**<br><br>1. When one enjoyed a period of freedom between Umra and Hajj. 2. When one conjoined his Umra and Hajj. 3. When one failed to spend a night at Muzdalifa. 4. When a pilgrim failed to spend the nights of 11th, 12th and 13th at Mina. 5. When he failed to throw the pebbles at the Jamarat. 6. When a pilgrim failed to observe the restrictions of Hajj. Making the Niyyat (Intention) for Hajj. Clipping nails and shaving hair Performing Ghusl (ritual bath) either at home or at the Miqaat Reciting the Talbiya throughout the rites of Hajj. Kissing, touching, or pointing the black stone during every cycle of the Tawaf. While making tawaf, recite du'a' or Dhikr, then end each round at the black stone. Praying two rak'at at the Maqam Ibrahim. Drinking from the spring of Zamzam. Visiting Madina is not an essential obligation in making Hajj valid and complete. However, it is recommended that the Pilgrims visit Madina as a sign of respect to the prophet. When entering Madina, one recites a dua. One of the Duas is; Bis-millaahir- Rah-maa-nir-Ra-hiim. Allaa-hum-ma antas-salaam, wa-minkas-salaam, wa-ilay-ka yar-ju-us-salaam. Fa-Hay-yinaa bis-salaam, wa - ad-khil-naa daa-ras-salaam. Ta-baa- rak-ta rob-banaa wa-ta-aalay-ta yaa-dzal-ja-laa-li wal-ik-raam. Allah Most Gracious Most Merciful. O Allah! You are the Peace, and from You comes Peace and unto You returns Peace, Keep us, O our Lord, in a life of Peace and make us to enter the Abode of Peace. Blessed are You and exalted is Your Majesty. O eou possessor of alory and Honour. There are great merits for visiting the city of Madina, the tomb of the prophet and his mosque. The following are merits of the city of Madina: This is the place where the Prophet lived for the last ten years of his life. Islam got a peaceful foundation for spreading far and wide as well as being understood well from this sacred place. This is the place where the first Muslim martyrs lost their lives and were buried. The prophet prayed for the wellbeing of this city, its people and property. Places to be visited include the following. <br><br>1. <br><br>The Mosque of the Prophet (PBUH).This is the mosque he called after his own name. It is the mosque which the prophet himself actively participated in its construction and it is where he led most of the prayers. Prayers offered in this mosque <br><br>earn more thawab. The tomb of the prophet. Here, the visitors supplicate for the Prophet. All duas for the prophet supplicated at his tomb will make one to earn intercession of the prophet. The battle fields. The visitors visit the following battle fields: **Badr.**The plain of Badar is approximately 32 km to the south west of Madinah. This is where the first battle took place between the Muslims and the Quraish. **Jabal-e-Uhud.**It is about 6 km on the north of Madinah. The battle of Uhud was fought here. The hrophets uncle, Hamza and other companions are buried in this place. **Jabal-e-Salaa.**This is the site for the battle of Trench fought in 5 A.H. **Jannat al-Baqee.**This is the graveyard of Madinah, where a large number of Prophets companions including Caliph Uthman (RA), Abbas (RA), Hassan (RA), and wives and daughters of the Holy Prophet are buried. Holy mosques. These include the following 1.**Masjid Quba.**This is the first mosque in Islamic history whose foundation stone was laid down by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) after migration to Madinah. <br><br>2.**Masjid Qiblatain.**It earned this name (two Qiblas) <br><br>when the prophet, while in Swalat was ordered by Allah (SWT) to turn his face from Islams first qibla *(Bait-ul-Muqqadis)*to Kabah in Masjid al-Haram. 3.**Masjid Juma.**This is the mosque where Prophet <br><br>(hBUH) offered his first Juma prayer while in Madinah. <br><br>4.**Masjid Ghamama.**This mosque is near the hrophets <br><br>mosque. The Prophet (PBUH) used to offer his Idd prayers here. Prophet once led Swalatul*Istasqa*in it and suddenly the clouds appeared and it started raining, thus earning the name*ghamama*(clouds). <br><br>5.**Masid Abu Bakr, Masjid Umar Faruq and Masjid** **Ali.**These three mosques are near Masjid Ghamama. **AKHALAQ**<br><br>In book One, we introduced to you the two dimensions of Islamic Morality; *Maarufat*(Virtues) and*Munkaarat*(Vices). In this chapter ,we are going to discuss in details some selected virtues and vices with the purpose of encouraging the performance of virtuous deeds and highlighting the vices and their effects in the community. We shall begin with the*virtous deed*(Husnul - Khulq) followed by the*vices*(Su-ul Khulq). According to the above verse the following deeds have been categorized to be promoting piety and righteousness: 1. <br><br>To believe in Allah (SWT), the Last Day, Angels, His Books and Messengers. To spend ones wealth, subsistence in order to please Allah (SWT) by helping ones relatives, orphans, the needy, the wayfarer and those who ask for assistance and freeing of slaves. To observe your prayers and give charity regularly. To honor your promises. To exercise patience and firmness while suffering or when faced with any calamity <br><br>2. <br><br>3. 4. 5. <br><br>Other deeds not mentioned in this verse includes the following: Tranquility, contentment, patience, truthfulness and restraining from anger. Can you give examples of other deeds that may promote piety and righteousness? **Self control**<br><br>**Read Quran [Q 3:134]**<br><br>Life in this world is not easy. There are several challenges that one encounters, <br><br>whether a believer or a non-believer. Do you know the effects of such challenges to an <br><br>individual? These could result to stress, depression, anger, social conflicts among <br><br>other consequences. The Holy Quran and hrophets Hadith are the major source of <br><br>guidance for a Muslim who is faced with various challenges in the course of life. <br><br>Therefore a Muslim is encouraged to use the various ways within the Islamic code in <br><br>solving all problems facing him or her. One of these ways is self control. Benefits of Exercising Self Control <br><br>**1.**<br><br>Allah (SWT) rewards a person who exercises self control. Allah (SWT) says*But as for him who feared standing before his Lord and restrained* *himself from impure evil desires and lust. Verily, paradise will be his* *abode.***[**Q 79:40-41] It shields one from evil because mans*nafs*(soul) is the seat of all evils. Therefore if one is able to control his*nafs*from reacting to different circumstances, self control prevents the person from doing any evil deed. It promotes peace and unity in the community in that it discourages one from causing any damage or harm to those who have wronged him or her. It gives one peace of mind as it enables one to control his or her innermost desires or emotions and makes one soberly accept the situation at stake. Prevents unnecessary fights and quarrels since it instills wisdom on how to overcome them. It enhances the performance of other virtuous deeds such as patience, truthfulness, forgiveness, among other virtues. It develops Taqwa because it is a commandment from Allah (SWT). Promote good health by preventing disease such as hypertension and mental illnesses. It enables one to make worthwhile decisions when faced with problems. It enhances self discipline since it is inbuilt and operates within ones operational circles. <br><br>**9.** **10.** **Qanaa (Contentment)**<br><br>Read Quran 1:32 <br><br>Prophets Hadith: Abu Hurairah (RA) reports in one hadith that the Prophet <br><br>(PBUH) said, <br><br>*Wealth is not (found) in vast riches but wealth is (found) in self contentment.*<br><br>(Bukhari and Muslim) <br><br>Who is the Bestower of Rizq (provisions) to all humankind and creatures of the <br><br>world? Undoubtedly, it is Allah (SWT). It is Allah (SWT) who sustains all that <br><br>exist, He provides to all His creatures and make a decision on their portion, size <br><br>of rizq, reason being known to Him alone. Therefore at all times, man has a <br><br>duty to exercise inner deep satisfaction or rather recognition or appreciation <br><br>towards which Allah (SWT) Has provided. of adapting to the prevailing calamities. In this case one is required to exercise <br><br>tranquility. <br><br>Tranquility refers to a state of observing calmness, innermost self control and <br><br>acceptance to the situation at hand when one is befallen with a calamity or <br><br>hardship. **Benefits of exercising Sakina**<br><br>1. <br><br>It regulates emotions, thus enabling one to make a worthwhile decision in finding a suitable solution. It enhances good relationship among people since it prevents unnecessary provocation, which may lead to misunderstanding. It prevents one from over reacting to exciting situations, a conduct which may worsen the problem. It encourages one to remember Allah (SWT) when faced with hardship or challenges. In addition, Allah (SWT) has declared rewards for all the believers who remember Him when in difficulty. It is a source of wisdom and inspiration because one who remains composed and peaceful usually finds an amicable solution. It prevents one from distress and other related illness such as hypertension, depression, anxiety that may damage one physical and mental being. It provides the right avenues to observe other virtuous deeds such as patience, self control, forgiveness, justice among other virtues. <br><br>2. <br><br>3. **Read Quran 103:2-3.**<br><br>Allah (SWT) is fully aware of what befalls humankind at present life and even <br><br>in the future. He exposes him to both pleasant and unpleasant situations. <br><br>Humankind has to come up with ways of dealing with all the various situations <br><br>in life. Although he may not be in a position to offer suitable solutions, he <br><br>would come up with a measure of preventing the worsening of the situation. <br><br>One way, which may assist him, is by exercising patience. Patience is the act of offering resistance, perseverance and endurance over an <br><br>event or condition, which may be good or bad. In patience one restrains his <br><br>soul, mind and body from panic, anger, revenge, complain or other form of <br><br>abuse. **Benefits of exercising Patience**<br><br>1. *2.*<br><br>Allah (SWT) loves and is with those who are patient. It draws one closer to Allah (SWT) enhancing development of*Taqwa* (God fearing) It curbs worries hence promoting peace of mind. Enhance cordial relationship among people through creating tolerance and understanding. It promotes other righteous deeds such as love, trust and self control It the Sunnah of the prophet. It assists in the establishment of peace in the community by preventing chaos. It instills leadership quality. <br><br>3. 4. <br><br>5. 6. 7. <br><br>8. Benefits of Exercising Trust <br><br>1. 2. 3. <br><br>It enhance good performance of ones duty and obligation It establishes trustworthiness amongst the people It promotes good relationship between humankind and his Creator and among the humankind themselves. Allah (SWT) rewards those who execute their duties diligently It enhances God fearing and that one strictly follows Allah (SWT) commandment when performing their duties. It curbs cheating, misappropriation, carelessness and other avenues that encourage corruption. It equips one with leadership qualities. It improves the socio-economic and political progress of a given community. It encourages one to uphold virtuous deeds in his or her life, such as patience, self control contentment among other virtues. <br><br>4. 5. <br><br>6. It is an essential component of righteousness, which is enshrined in thoughts, words <br><br>and actions. <br><br>Allah (SWT) says,*O you who believe! Be afraid of Allah (SWT), and be with those*<br><br>*who are true (in words and deeds)*[Q 9: 119] <br><br>This has also been emphasized by the Prophet (PBUH) in the following two hadith: Abdallah ibn Masood (RA) said:*The Prophet (PBUH) said: You must be truthful,*<br><br>*for truthfulness leads to righteousness and righteousness leads to Paradise. A man*<br><br>*will keep speaking the truth and striving to speak the truth until he will be recorded*<br><br>*with Allah (SWT) as a Siddeeq (speaker of the truth). Beware of telling lies, for lying*<br><br>*leads to immorality and immorality leads to Hellfire. A man will keep telling lies and*<br><br>*striving to tell lies until he is recorded with Allah (SWT) as a liar.*(Muslim) <br><br>*and gambling and al Ansaab and al Az lam (arrows for seeking lack or decision are*<br><br>*an abomination of Shaitans handiwork. So avoid (strictly all) that (abomination) in*<br><br>*order that you may successful. Shaytan wants only to excite enmity and hatred*<br><br>*between you with intoxicants and gambling and hinder you from the remembrance of*<br><br>*Allah (SWT) and from A ssalat. So will you not then abstain?*[Q 5:90-91] <br><br>These verses show us how Islam condemns the use of intoxicants and classifies them <br><br>as acts of the devil. Aisha (RA) narrates that the prophet (PBUH) was asked about an <br><br>intoxicant called*bita*, which was brewed from honey and was popular with the people <br><br>of Yemen. In response, he said;*All drinks that intoxicate are unlawful to take.*<br><br>*(Bukhari)*<br><br>This is the evidence that intoxication is prohibited in Islam. <br><br>Among the most common intoxicants is liquor (*khamr*). The development of <br><br>intoxication has undergone so advanced stages since the revelation of the Quranic *ayas*. The characteristics and impacts of all these intoxicants are similar. We shall <br><br>learn more about these intoxicants later in this chapter. <br><br>It is prohibited to take intoxicants and there should be no loopholes sought for taking <br><br>any of them. There are as many of them in the market under various brands as well as <br><br>traditional and improvised brews. Others like opium (*bang or Cannabis Sativa)*are for <br><br>smoking, while there are contemporary types e.g. heroin, mandrax, cocaine and <br><br>others. Whether licensed or unlicensed, they should not be taken. The consumption of **Effects of intoxicants**<br><br>When Allah (SWT) makes prohibitions, he does it for the good of humanity. All the <br><br>prohibited substances have adverse effects on the social, physical and spiritual <br><br>wellbeing. Let us look at the social and moral effects. <br><br>Social and morals effects <br><br>1. 2. 3. <br><br>Lowers ones dignity and respect in the community. Use of abusive language The state of intoxication affects the interpersonal relations and may lead to fights and quarrels. <br><br>4. May lead to divorce 5. May lead to other vices like prostitution and gambling Physical effects <br><br>1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Brain damage Lowers the immune system Can lead to hemorrhage Nervous disorders which can lead to imbalance. Liver disorders like cirrhosis and failure in bladder control. Extreme uses may lead to dependence on the intoxicants. It leads to loss of weight. It slows down the process of cells formation in the body. Affect a persons memory. Gambling <br><br>It is a game in which people take chances and they either win or lose. During the time <br><br>of the prophet, people used to raffle with arrows so as to get the winners and losers. In <br><br>Surat ul Baqara, Allah (SWT) tells the prophet (PBUH): <br><br>*They ask you concerning wine and gambling. Say: In them is a great sin and some*<br><br>*profit for men. But the sin is greater than the profit*[Q 2:219] <br><br>Gambling is prohibited because those concerned get easy things without working for <br><br>them. Unless there is fraud, winning or losing depends on chance. There are those <br><br>who gamble with playing cards for money and those who play it in licensed <br><br>international centers called casinos. In the marketing scene, the promotion of several <br><br>commodities is accompanied with lotteries, raffles and other competitions where <br><br>people are promised to win vehicles, houses, and trips to various places, electronic <br><br>appliances and consolation prizes, to mention but some. The concerned companies <br><br>give such games so attractive promotional names that potential customers are moved, <br><br>they still remain to be forms of gambling that are sinful. Kibr (pride) <br><br>Kibr is a habit in which one feels too superior to others. Such people look down upon <br><br>others and mistreat them. They feel important because of the wealth, leadership <br><br>position or knowledge they possess. They forget that they are a trust that should be <br><br>observed well because Allah (SWT) may end it any time and sometimes in tragedies. Effects of kibr <br><br>1. <br><br>Allah (SWT) punishes all forms of Kibr because it is a minor shirk. One will not enter paradise. It weakens the faith of a Muslim It damages the relationship between men and women. It encourages vices such as hatred, suspicion and revenge. It may cause one being segregated by others and may lead to disunity. It interferes with the sound reasoning and one may make wrong decisions. <br><br>2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Drug Abuse <br><br>In this chapter, we learnt earlier about intoxicants. This sub topic shall specifically <br><br>deal with drug abuse. What we need to know here is that drug abuse is the use of <br><br>drugs for other motives apart from curative and preventive. You must have come <br><br>across some types of drugs. Can you mention any of them? How would you then <br><br>define the substances you have mentioned? From the examples you have given, we <br><br>shall note that most of the drugs have certain characteristics and effects to the human <br><br>body. We shall therefore deduce our definition and say that a drug is any chemical or <br><br>natural substance which when introduced into the body system of a living organism it <br><br>modifies one or more cells hence affecting the normal functioning of the body. Sexual perversions <br><br>Sexual perversion is a situation where one deviates from the norms of sexual behaviour and indulges in behaviours that are sexually offensive. The only way in which sexual relations become legitimate is through marriage between a man and a woman in a binding contract that Allah (SWT) recognizes. *Allah (SWT) has made for you your makes of your own nature and made for you, out* *of them, sons and daughters, and grandchildren and provided for you sustenance of* *the best.*[Q 16:72] The prophet says:*O young men, whoever is able to marry should marry, for it will* *help in lowering of gaze and guarding of modesty. (Bukhari)* Sexual perversion would include the following: <br><br>1. 2. 3. Zina Prostitution Homosexuality <br><br>*The woman and man guilty of adultery- flog each of them with a hundred stripes: Let*<br><br>*not compassion move you in their case, in a matter prescribed by Allah (SWT), if you*<br><br>*believe in Allah (SWT) and the last day; and let a party of the believers witness their*<br><br>*punishment. And let no man guilty of adultery or fornication, marry, but a woman*<br><br>*similarly guilty or an unbeliever: nor let any but such a man or an unbeliever marry*<br><br>*such a woman: Such is forbidden to the believers.*[Q 24:2-3] <br><br>In a hadith narrated by Abdullah bin Umar (RA) the prophet (PBUH) said,*O*<br><br>*Muhajirun If fornication became widespread, you should realize that this has never*<br><br>*happened without new diseases befalling the people which heir forbearers never*<br><br>*suffered.*(Ibn Majah) Prostitution This is the act of provision of sexual services to a person in return for payment or <br><br>favours. Prostitution is indeed a concept of sexuality which Islam strongly prohibits. <br><br>The Holy Quran, the prophets hadith and the rulings of the Islamic religious leaders <br><br>talk about the concept of sexuality as involving strictly confined relationship between <br><br>a man and a woman. Islam encourages chastity and modesty. With regards to gender <br><br>lines and sex is strictly reserved for husband and wife. Islam strongly prohibits extra- <br><br>marital sexual relationships <br><br>Effects of prostitution As we have mentioned earlier in this book that any prohibitions by Allah (SWT) is for the good of humankind. Similarly, prostitution as a vice has adverse effects as stated below: <br><br>1. <br><br>It undermines the dignity of the woman who Allah (SWT) has placed three grades higher than the man. It promotes backwardness and lack of civilization when several people sleep with one woman. It is misappropriation of money when people go to prostitutes. It is a social evil which makes the community lose dignity It makes people compare with animals who mate in the open. <br><br>2. <br><br>3. 4. 5. It is a shameful act which is condemned by Allah (SWT). It is a health risk because sexually transmitted infections can easily be spread. It discourages women from giving birth so that they can go on with their business. This inhibits procreation and makes these women miss the divine prestige of being mothers **Homosexuality** *Homosexuality*is the practice of sexual relations between same sex or gender. It is divided into two;*gayism*for male and*lesbianism*for females. People who practice such relationships are cursed as the prophet says: Homosexuals will not enter paradise. The only sexual relations allowed in Islamic law should be between a male and a female after solemnizing marriage as prescribed by Allah (SWT) strongly cautions against same sex marriage. He says in the Quran: *There are my girls for marriage if you must do (so). [Q 15:7]* This verse compels males to seek sexual pleasures from females to whom they are legally married. Any attempt to contravene the*mithaq*(agreement with Allah (SWT)) will make man to be punished. In surat ul Aaraf, Allah (SWT) narrates the episode of the people of Nabii Lut (Qaumu Lut) as follow. *And Lut, when he said to his people: Do you commit such filth as no people (created)* *have ever committed before you? For you practice your lusts in men in preference to* *women: you are indeed people transgressing beyond bounds. And his people gave no* *answer except saying: Drive them out of your city; these are indeed men who want to* *be pure. But we saved him and his family except his wife; she was of those who* *lagged behind. And we rained down on them showers of brimstone. Then see what* *was end of those who indulged in sin and crime.*[Q7:80-84] From the above ayahs, we are taught how homosexuality is a sinful act, punishable by severe wrath and peril from Allah (SWT). It is sad that some are campaigning to sneak in these acts of infidelity and disbelief in the banner of exercising their rights and freedom. It is sad to note that there are some people campaigning to legalize these act of infidelity under the umbrella of exercising their democratic rights and freedom. This is unacceptable in any civilized society and remains a haram and forbidden practice. INCEST It is the sexual relation between close relatives. In Islam, the prohibited degrees of marriage are specified in Surat un Nisa: *You are forbidden in marriage, your mothers, your daughters, your sisters,* *your (paternal and maternal) aunts, the daughters of your brothers and sisters,* *and mothers who have given a suck to you, your suckling sisters, the mothers of* *your wives, your step daughters who are in your charge, children of your wives* *with whom you have lain, it is no offence for you to marry your step daughters* *if you have not consummated tour marriage with their mothers, and the wives of* *your begotten sons. Henceforth you are also forbidden to take in marriage two* *sisters at one and same time. Allah (SWT) is forgiving and merciful. [Q 4:22-* *23]* Although Islam allows the strengthening of relationship with close relatives as well as expanding of relationship far and wide, it should be done in an organized manner and as prescribed in the Quran. There are several reasons why incest is discouraged. Some of these reasons are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. It is a sinful and criminal act. It leads to deformities of children born. Those who practice it lose dignity. It is a practice for animals. Bestiality <br><br>It is sexual intercourse between a human being and an animal. Such behaviour is prohibited because it debases the person who practices it. The prophet (PBUH) cursed the person who performed sex with animals and in his hadith narrated by Why bestiality is forbidden. 1. 2. 3. 4. Women will have no husbands for security. 5. Women will indulge in sexual perversion. 6. Lack of procreation of human race. 7. It is an irresponsible act to the owners of the animals not to protect them. <br><br>It is a curse from Allah (SWT). It reduces the dignity of the individual involved. It is a merciless act to the animal. It is having sexual relations with someone without their consent. In such a situation, the victim has no blame and cannot be punished In a hadith narrated by Wail bin Hujr, he says that, In the days of the hrophet (PBUH), a woman came out with the intention of prayers. A man held her, threw a cloth on her, and satisfied his sexual urge. The woman cried and the man left her and walked away. A group of Muhajirun passed by the woman and she told them that so and so had forced her into the act. They caught the man and brought him to the messenger. The prophet (PBUH) said to the woman:*Go home. Allah* *(SWT) has forgiven you because you had not consented to the act. And the* *prophet (SAW) said about the man: Take him away and stone him to death. So* *the man was stoned to death. (Tirmidhi, Abu Daud)* We have learnt from this hadith that rape is an evil act prohibited in Islam. Those who commit the acts of rape shall have severe punishment in the hereafter. Muslims should therefore guard there modesty and refrain from such abhorred acts. occasion of his own desire or free will. Even though Talaq is legal, Islam strongly <br><br>condemns it. This is supported by the prophets hadith narrated by Ibn Umar (RA) that <br><br>the Prophet (PBUH) said,*There is no lawful matter which is more detested by Allah*<br><br>*(SWT) than divorce.*(Abu aawoud and Ibn Maja) The above hadith teaches <br><br>Muslims that issues related with divorce should be treated with caution. The decision <br><br>should neither be hastily made nor should it be based on hearsay. According to <br><br>Islamic law regarding marriage, there are certain conditions that should be met before <br><br>Talaq is pronounced. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. <br><br>The mechanism for conflict resolution should have been exhausted. The marriage should have been conducted under the Islamic laws. The Talaq must be pronounced either orally or by writing. The woman should be free from her menses. A person should pronounce it by his own free will and not under compulsion. The person pronouncing it should be mature and sane. It should not be pronounced under intoxication or in the influence of drugs. Implementation of Talaq will begin in normal period after the menstrual cycle. After the*iddat*period, woman is free to marry another person or re-marry her ex-husband. Nevertheless, marriage with her ex-husband should fulfill all conditions of nikah. <br><br>6. 7. <br><br>8. <br><br>**Machinery for Talaq** **Read [Q 4:34-35]**<br><br>From the verses you have read, you will learn that Muslim men and women have been <br><br>taught the procedure for resolving a conflict in a marriage. Divorce should not be the <br><br>starting point of the resolution but Allah (SWT) guides the married spouses be <br><br>committed to each other and live according to the Islamic teachings. It should <br><br>therefore be the last resort. <br><br>Married life should be filled with mercy, love, compassion and tranquility since it is a <br><br>great blessing. Each of the spouses in the marriage has certain rights and duties over <br><br>the other, which should be fulfilled for a harmonious relationship. However, when the <br><br>marriage is in danger, and any of the spouses is subjected to situations that cause <br><br>psychological torture, distress, pain or suffering divorce could provide a better <br><br>solution to make each of them separate peacefully and in a morally acceptable way. <br><br>However, it is encouraged that the spouses pursue all possible solutions to rebuild <br><br>their relationship. In the event that the problem persists and there is no remedy, then <br><br>the Shariah stipulates the following steps: <br><br>1. <br><br>Kind admonition using polite words. There should be dialogue and soul searching. Severing of conjugal relations. The husband should abstain from sharing their matrimonial bed for a known period of time. If the above two do not work, then the husband is allowed to give her a light beating. This should however not inflict pain especially on the face or leave any marks on her body. Ila (the vow of continuation). The husband then should vow to continue with severing the conjugal rights for a period of four months. Allah (SWT) says,*Those who take an oath not to have sexual relation with* *their wives must wait for four months, then if they return (change their* *idea in this period), verily, Allah (SWT) is Oft Forgiving, Most* *Merciful.*[Q 2:226] <br><br>2. <br><br>During this stage, arbitrators from both sides are chosen to bring reconciliation. In the event that the woman obeys and mends her ways, then the husband should <br><br>reconsider his decision of divorcing his wife and take her back on equitable terms. <br><br>If they do not reach an agreement, then they can ask for divorce but as a last resort. <br><br>Allah (SWT) say,*But if they disagree and must part, Allah (SWT) will provide*<br><br>*abundance for all from His all reaching bounty: for Allah (SWT) is He who cares for*<br><br>*all and is wise.* Reasons for divorce <br><br>1. If the husband is cruel to his wife, either physically or emotionally. <br><br>2. Muslim man or woman may seek divorce if the partner is unchaste or <br><br>proven for having committed Zina. <br><br>3. <br><br>If the husband is physically and mentally able to earn a living but is not a good provider for his wife (and any children they have). <br><br>4. <br><br>A woman can also leave her husband if she finds him not sufficiently religious, failing to follow the traditional rules and protocols of Islam. <br><br>5. <br><br>Desertion by either of the spouse provided a sufficient period has elapsed between the abandonment and the request for divorce. <br><br>6. <br><br>Failing to meet conjugal needs, if physically able by either of the spouses. **Types of divorce**<br><br>**Talaq by husband**<br><br>This is the divorce pronounced by the husband once or utmost twice. After pronouncement of divorce, the wife begins her eddah. Before the period of eddah expires, the husband may, if he desires take back his wife. This is called*Raja* (return). In the event that the wife completes her eddat without the husband showing any intention of taking her back after her third divorce, then the Talaq is considered as Bain (irrevocable) <br><br>There are conditions governing a situation when the husband would like to take the back his wife after the third divorce: <br><br>1. 2. 3. <br><br>The Talaq should have been pronounced at three different periods. The wife must have completed her waiting period. The wife must have been married to another different man, divorced and completed her waiting period (Iddat) **Khulu'** This is a divorce by redemption. It is requested by the wife and is granted by the husband upon the wife's paying him back his dowry. In Islam, a wife may seek Khulu when she is not comfortable in the marriage due to a variety reasons. These reasons may include the following: <br><br>1. 2. 3. <br><br>Insanity or madness of the husband. In the event that the man is impotent. If the husband is suffering from terminal or infectious diseases like leprosy, HIV/AIDS. In the event that the husband permanently changes his residence and the he refuses the wife to follow him. Cruelty or mistreatment of the husband. Prolonged disappearance of whereabouts is unknown. <br><br>4. <br><br>5. 6. the husband and his **Mubarat**<br><br>This is divorce by mutual agreement and is pronounced by both the husband and wife. In a situation whereby the spouse have explored all the possible means to keep the marriage intact but have failed to resolve their differences, they may both opt to seek divorce as an amicable solution. However this type of divorce must meet the following conditions - <br><br>1. 2. 3. Either of husband or wife can make the offer for the divorce. The other one must accept it. As soon as it is accepted, it becomes irrevocable. Dhihar (Injurious comparison) <br><br>Read [Q 58:1-4] <br><br>The verses you have read were revealed in response to the event that took place between Khawla bint Thalaba and her husband Aws ibn al Samit to show the rule of Dhihar. <br><br>This divorce is occurs immediately after the husband utterances show*injurious* comparison of his wife to his mother, sister or any other female relative who are his *mahram*(they are prohibited to marry), Shariah stipulates immediate cancellation of the marriage. The comparison should be intentional and with disrespect. If the husband makes a comparison to show respect to his wife, for example telling her that she prepares a good meal just like his mother, then expiation is not necessary. However, due to the consideration of the importance of marriage and the weakness of the human soul, Allah (SWT) has put three conditions to be fulfilled by the husband before taking his back. <br><br>It should be noted that, dhihar by itself does not terminate the marriage nor does it cause the wife to lose her right to maintenance even in case of default of penance. It causes the following; 1. <br><br>Iddah for a menstruating woman is three months or three menstrual cycle.[Q 2:228] Iddah for a non menstruating woman referring to an old woman or a girl who has not started her periods, she has to wait for three months [Q 65:4] The woman with irregular monthly cycles shall wait for a period of three months. The woman who is divorced before any sexual contact with her husband does not have any waiting period. [Q 3:49] <br><br>**Iddah for a widow**<br><br>5. 6. <br><br>She shall wait for four months and ten days. In case she is expecting a child, she shall wait till she gives birth.[Q 65:4] For a widow who has ceased menstruation, if the reason is unknown, then she will wait for one year. The nine month shall be for the Iddah for pregnancy and the three months for menstrual cycle. If it is due to suckling or illness, she will wait till she experiences her menstrual cycle then start her Iddah of four months and ten days. <br><br>**Iddah for a missing husband**<br><br>The wife shall wait for a period of four years, if the husband does not show up, then It gives the woman time to mourn for her deceased husband. The Prophet (PBUH) says in the hadith narrated by Ummu Atiya says,*It is not* *lawful for a woman who believes in Allah (SWT) and the hereafter to* *mourn for a dead person for more than three days except for her* *husband*(Bukhari and Muslim) To give the widow time to prepare for her new life socially, psychologically and economically. To ascertain that the woman is free of pregnancy so that the inheritance can be done easily. Iddah is a consolation for the widow and therefore it should not be taken as a punishment. For the divorcee, it allows room for reconciliation. If the wifes husband is missing, then it protects the rights of the marriage. <br><br>2. <br><br>**Observance of Iddah**<br><br>1. <br><br>The widow should stay in the home of the deceased husband where possible. In the event of a divorcee and the husband may be cruel, then she can find a safer place like her parents home. She should refrain from going out except when and where it is necessary. During Iddah period, the woman cannot marry another person or accept a marriage proposal until she completes her waiting period. A divorcee should be maintained by her husband She should refrain from adornment such as wearing jewelry, perfume or heena. Study Questions and Activities <br><br>2. 3. <br><br>4. 5. **KHULAFAUR- RASHIDIN**[the guided khalifas] <br><br>Abubakar [the first Caliph 572-634CE] <br><br>**Early life**<br><br>He was born in the 572 CE, two years after the birth of the Prophet. His real name was <br><br>Abdul Kaaba, meaning the slave of the Kaaba, which he was given by his parents <br><br>(during the Jahiliya). This name was given to him since he was the only child in his <br><br>family who had survived death and his parents therefore dedicated him to the Kaaba. <br><br>His famous name, Abubakar, was because of his love for camels. When he embraced <br><br>Islam, the prophet gave him the name Abdullah, meaning the servant of Allah (SWT). <br><br>He was given the title As swidiq by the prophet meaning the testifier of truth after <br><br>Israa wal- miraaj because he accepted the narration of prophets journey without <br><br>hesitation and any question. <br><br>His father was Uthman bin Aamir but his nickname was Abu Quhafah. He was from <br><br>Banu Tamim and his family was among the nobles of Makkah. At first, he did not many others to become Muslims. <br><br>**Companionship with the Prophet**<br><br>We earlier mentioned that Abubakar was a very close friend to the prophet even <br><br>before his conversion to Islam. He was therefore willing to support the Prophet in the <br><br>spread of Islam. He financially assisted the spread of Islam during its early phase. His <br><br>occupation gave him an opportunity to meet many people; he therefore campaigned <br><br>for the prophet in his mission to persuade people to embrace Islam. He convinced <br><br>many Swahabas to embrace Islam; key among them is Uthman bin Affan. On the <br><br>onset of persecutions, Abubakar used his wealth to buy the freedom of slaves who <br><br>were being tortured by their masters. Can you mention any of the slaves who were <br><br>purchased by Abubakar (RA)? He is among the companions of the prophet who <br><br>endangered their lives to protect him. For example, when Aqba bin Muit was <br><br>strangling the prophet with a piece of cloth, he appeared and shielded him. In the <br><br>battle of Badr, he protected the prophet from the infidels. During the battle of Uhud, <br><br>he courageously shielded the prophet from the stones and arrows that were being Saqiifah. The main aim was to choose a leader who was Saad Ibn Ubaidah. When the <br><br>Muhajirin of Makkah heard this, they all came to an agreement to have a leader from <br><br>the Quraish. Abubakar suggested Umar bin Khatttab or Abu Ubaida bin Jarah. Umar <br><br>bin Khattab rose up and proposed Abubakars name with justification. The Ansaar and <br><br>Muhajirun had a lengthy discussion on the issue until they unanimously agreed that <br><br>Abubakar (RA) should be the caliph. <br><br>On the next day, after the prophets burial all the Muslims gathered in the mosque. <br><br>Abubakar took the mantle of leadership and climbed on the pulpit to deliver his <br><br>inauguration speech as follows: a man, he must give it. If he refuses, I will declare war against him." They <br><br>therefore had to accept the rules and pay Zakat. <br><br>3. Upon the death of the Prophet, some Arabs laid claim to the Prophecy and <br><br>The fight against the false prophets <br><br>became imposters and renegades. Tulaiha, Musailamah, Aswad Ansi and a <br><br>woman named Sajah claimed that they were prophets and caused a great deal of <br><br>confusion. Abubakr (RA) was quick to take action against these imposters. <br><br>Khalid bin Walid (RA) was sent to deal with Tulaiha who fled to Syria and later <br><br>became a Muslim. Ikramah (RA) and Surahbil (RA) were sent to take action <br><br>against Musailamah, but they were defeated. Therefore, Abubakr (RA) sent <br><br>Khalid bin Walid (RA) to continue with the mission against the notorious <br><br>Musailamah who had since married Sajah. In the fight that followed 4. Completing the planned war expedition to Syria <br><br>Before the death of the Prophet, he had sent Usama bin Zaid to conquer Syria. The <br><br>army had not gone far when the Prophet fell ill and died. So they had to cancel their <br><br>mission. When Abubakar (RA) became a caliph, the question was raised whether the <br><br>army should be sent again or should remain to defend Madina. Abubakar made a firm <br><br>decision and said, "I shall send Usama's army on its way as ordered by the Prophet, <br><br>even if I am left alone." <br><br>5. As a result of the death of a number of memorizers, caliph Abubakar was forced <br><br>rompilation and preservation of the Quran <br><br>to compile the Quran. This was a challenging task and he had to select the <br><br>correct panelist to compile the Quran. Zaid bin Thabit was given the <br><br>responsibility to chair the group. <br><br>6. Conquering the external enemies <br><br>The Persian and Romans were constantly attacking the Muslims. Abubakar had <br><br>therefore to take action against these groups. He started by sending Muthanna and <br><br>Kahlid been Walid to conquer this empire. After a successful battle, he send four armies led by Ubaida bin Jarah, Amr bn al As, Yazid bin Abi Sufiyan and Surahbil to <br><br>fight the Roman Empire. Khalid bin Walid was sent to reinforce the Muslim army. <br><br>The Romans were defeated during the battle of Yarmuk. **His illness and death**<br><br>He served for two years and three monthly. One day he took bath on a cold day and <br><br>got a fever. For fifteen days, the high fever did not drop and he grew weaker everyday <br><br>to an extent that he could not perform congregation prayers in the mosque. He <br><br>appointed Umar (RA) to lead the prayers. He was anxious to avoid trouble on the **His outstanding qualities**<br><br>1. <br><br>He was a man of simple habits and absolute devotion and leading a very simple life He sympathized with the poor and needy in the community He was humble, generous and moderate in position. He always sought solutions to problems based on the teachings given in the holy Quran and the prophets traditions (Hadith). He was the strongest supporter of the Prophet (PBUH). He sacrificed his wealth and possessions for the sake of Islam. He enforced the observation of the principles of Islam like Zakat, Saum, Swalat and Hajj. <br><br>2. 3. 4. <br><br>5. 6. 7. <br><br>**His major achievement**<br><br>1. 2. <br><br>As the immediate successor of the prophet, he gave Islam a new face. He laid a foundation stone of the caliphate. His election as a caliph showed democracy in Islam. He supervised his officials keenly despite his soft heartedness; he was very strict and would take stern action on any official who would misuse his office. He managed to maintain the unity and integrity of Islam after the death of the prophet. He fought the impostors (false prophet) like Musailama al Kadhab. He fought against those who refused to pay Zakat. He improved the army through; 5. 6. 7. <br><br> formation of battalions with each headed by a commander, Addressing the challenges of the military. Creating the post of the commander in chief as the head of the <br><br>army. <br><br> Insisting on the moral values of the army. Directing the commanders on the Islamic teachings on war. Budgeting for war materials like weapons and amours. Constantly inspecting the military camps to uphold discipline. <br><br>8. 9. <br><br>He made rules on the administration of justice and inheritance. He improved the Islamic revenue system by establishing an independent department where money was deposited. <br><br>10. He used to give aid to the women, the old and the needy. 11. He set into motion the process of compilation of the Quran 12. He fought for the rights of all the people including the minorities and <br><br>gave them protection in even the non-Islamic states around. He reduced the tax and asked only those who were able to pay. 13. He successfully fought against*Bida*(innovations). 14. He destroyed all the incorrect hadith that he had collected for fear of misleading the Muslims. <br><br>15. He established the departments of law, justice and Islamic Shariah to carry out research and find a critical approach to solutions in the community. <br><br>16. He expanded the Muslim empire through military conquests and <br><br>established eight provinces, which included, Taif, sanna, Madina, Najran, Bahrain, Damtul Jandal. He conquered Syria and Iraq **Birth and early life**<br><br>Umar (RA) was born in a respected Quraish family of the Adi clan in the year 583 CE, <br><br>thirteen years after the birth of Muhammad (PBUH). He was the son of Khattab bin <br><br>Nafeel, his father and Khatmah bint Hashim Bin Mughira, his mother. His family was <br><br>respected for its extensive knowledge of genealogy. When he grew up, Umar (RA) <br><br>was proficient in this branch of knowledge as well as, horse riding, swordsmanship, <br><br>wrestling and the art of speaking. He also learned to read and write while still a child, <br><br>a very rare thing in Makkah at that time. Umar (RA) earned his living as a merchant. <br><br>This made him to travel to many foreign lands where he met all kinds of people. This <br><br>experience gave him an insight into the affairs and problems of the community. Umar <br><br>(RA)'s personality was dynamic, self-assertive, frank and straightforward. He always <br><br>spoke whatever was in his mind even if it displeased others. These qualities made the <br><br>Quraish always ask him to be the mediator when resolving disputes. He is famous in Umar (RA) was twenty-seven when the Prophet (PBUH) proclaimed his mission. The <br><br>ideas that Muhammad was preaching annoyed him as much as they did the other <br><br>notables of Makkah. He was therefore very bitter at any one who accepted Islam. <br><br>When his slave-girl called Basina accepted Islam, he beat her until he himself was <br><br>exhausted and told her, "I have stopped because I am tired, not out of pity for you." <br><br>The story of his embracing Islam is an interesting one. One day, full of anger against Bruised and bleeding, she told her brother, "Umar (RA), you can do what you like, but <br><br>you cannot turn our hearts away from Islam." These words had a strange effect upon <br><br>Umar (RA) (RA). He wondered, Which was this faith that made even weak women <br><br>so strong of heart? He asked his sister to show him what she had been reading. They <br><br>were reciting the verses of sura a- Taha as follows: *Ta Ha*<br><br>*We have not sent the Quran to thee,*<br><br>*To be an occasion for thy distress,*<br><br>*But only as an admonition to those who fear God.*<br><br>*A revelation from Him,*<br><br>*Who created the earth and the heavens on high.*<br><br>*God most gracious,*<br><br>*Is firmly established on the throne of authority*[Q 20: 1-8] As Umar read the verses repeatedly, he felt as if these verses were addressing him in <br><br>person. He was at once touched by the words of the Quran and immediately grasped <br><br>their truth. He went straight to the house of Arqam, where the Prophet and the <br><br>Muslims were offering prayers and vowed allegiance to him. The soundness of Umar (RA)'s judgment, his devotion to the Prophet (peace be on <br><br>him), his outspokenness and uprightness won for him a trust and confidence from the <br><br>Prophet which was second only to that given to Abubakar. He made the following <br><br>contributions to the prophets mission: He openly declared his conversion to Islam, which gave hope to many Makkans who were still frightened to accept Islam. He gathered the Muslims and offered prayers openly at the Kaaba. This boldness and devotion of an influential citizen of Makkah raised the morale of the small community of Muslims. He was a close companion of the prophet and would advice him in times of need. The Prophet gave him the title 'Farooq', which means the 'Separator of Truth from False hood.' He was among those who migrated to Madina and assisted the Muhajiruns to settle. He publicly declared that he was proceeding to Madina and even challenged the Quraish to stop him but none attempted. AS A CALIPH <br><br>Umar (RA) was a very brave and straightforward person. He was tough and <br><br>uncompromising in Islamic principles. He was a great and talented ruler. During his <br><br>Caliphate, vast areas of the Roman and Persian empires and the whole of Egypt came <br><br>under Islamic rule. He was also a gifted orator. He was very concerned for the welfare <br><br>of the Muslims. He left an honorable legacy for Muslims after him. The Holy Quran <br><br>was given to him by Abubakar (RA) for safe-keeping. Umar (RA) was a strong disciplinarian. He noticed the tremendous popularity of <br><br>Khalid bin Walid and felt that people would lose trust in Almighty Allah (SWT) and <br><br>put all their trust in Khalid bin Walid. He feared that if this were to happen, it would <br><br>increase the self-esteem of Khalid bin Walid that would also breed arrogance, so he <br><br>removed Khalid and appointed Abu Ubaidah bin Jarrah as the Commander in Chief of <br><br>the Muslim army. He introduced pension to the Muslims who participated in the battle of Badr. He introduced a fixed salary for the army men. Arms and ammunition were given priority for the defense of the state. The families of the soldiers were given financial support. He organized training for the army, for example they were expected to learn swimming, He established army centers, military camps and barracks where small army units were set up. Khalid bin Walid had left Muthanna in command of the Muslim forces on the Iraqi <br><br>front when he rushed to Yarmuk. Sayyiduna Muthanna was finding it difficult to <br><br>counter the enemy and went personally to Madina to ask Abubakar (RA) for re- <br><br>enforcements. Abubakar (RA) had, by that time passed away. Muthanna (RA)s absence from the Iraqi front made things worse there. The Iranians <br><br>regrouped under the command of Rustam and recaptured the lands taken by the <br><br>Muslims. Umar (RA) sent Abu Ubaidah as Commander, to deal with the situation. <br><br>Both the Persian columns were defeated, but Rustam sent an even larger army and <br><br>defeated the Muslims. Umar (RA) raised another army and defeated the Persians. However, the Persian court <br><br>sent yet another larger army, and forced Muthanna to withdraw. The report of the new <br><br>situation was sent to Umar (RA) and reinforcements under the command of Saad bin <br><br>Abi Waqqas were sent. The Persian and Muslim army met at Qadisiyah. After a long battle on several fronts, <br><br>the outnumbered Muslim army defeated the 120 000 Persian soldiers and recaptured <br><br>Hirah and its surroundings in 14 A.H. (636 C.E). After the long siege, Khalid bin <br><br>Walid took the Romans by surprise and entered the city. The Governor surrendered <br><br>and a peace treaty was signed. The next day, during the Fajr Swalat, he stabbed Caliph Umar (RA) six times in the <br><br>back, severely wounding the Caliph. Umar (RA) (RA) passed away three days later in <br><br>23 A.H. He was 63 years old. He ruled the Islamic State for 10 years, 6 months and 4 <br><br>days. Achievements and reforms of Caliph Umar (RA) <br><br>In a short space of 10 years, Sayyiduna Umar (RA) had been well-known for his <br><br>outstanding achievements and reforms in Islam. Some of these include:- 1. The establishement of the "Baitul Maal" (People's treasury for the state and public). <br><br>2. harticipation in the battles fought during the hrophets and Abubakars time when <br><br>he accomplished the expeditions planned in Syria. 4. Establishment of an army headquarters for the defense of the country. <br><br>1. His suggestion to caliph Abubakar (RA) to compile the Quran and send <br><br>memorandum that the Quran must be recited correctly. 6. Construction of roads, canals and mosques in the state and the conquered areas. <br><br>7. Establishment of Madrassas and learning centers and facilitation of the salaries for <br><br>Imams, Mu'adhins and Ustaadhs. 9. Police Stations and prisons were built. <br><br>10. Introduction of the first Islamic Lunar calendar beginning from the Hijrah. <br><br>11. Introduction of Proper weights and measures in business. <br><br>12. Writing down of several hadith which he sent for compilation and publication. <br><br>13. Construction of orphanages and welfare homes for the elderly. <br><br>14. Establishment proper punishment system and banning slavery. Uthman ibn Affan (The Third Caliph of Islam) <br><br>Birth and early life <br><br>His full name is Uthman bin Affan bin Abu-Al- As. He was born in 576 CE in <br><br>Makkah, six years after the birth of the Prophet. He belonged to the Banu Ummayah, a <br><br>family that was highly respected from the Quraish tribe. He was also known as Abu <br><br>Abdullah or Abu Omar. He was the son of Affan and Arwa bint Khuraiza. He married <br><br>Ruqayyah (RAA), who was the daughter of the Prophet (PBUH) and after she passed <br><br>away, the prophet offered her another daughter, Ummu Kulthum (RAA). Because of <br><br>this, he earned the title*"Dhun Noorain"*meaning "Possessor of Two Lights." He is a <br><br>relative to the prophet through his grandmother Baiza, who was the daughter of Abdul <br><br>Mutalib. He learnt the skill of reading and writing when he was young and when he <br><br>grew up, he engaged in trade and was very prosperous because of his honesty, <br><br>truthfulness and sprit of hard work. He was a very rich cloth merchant and was known camels and 200 ounces of gold. During the treaty of Hudaibbiya, he was send as <br><br>an emissary to the Makkan Quraish. <br><br>Uthman would buy slaves for the purpose of setting them free and that although <br><br>he was wealthy he was often without servants because of this habit. He was <br><br>among the companions who accompanied the prophet during the farewell <br><br>pilgrimage. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Ali bin Abu Talib Uthman bin Affan Talha bin Ubaidullah Zubeir ibn Awwam Abdul Rahman bin Awf Sad bin Abi Waqas <br><br>He asked them to finalize the nominations utmost three days after his death. Talha <br><br>bin Ubaidullah was not present in Madina at that time. Abdur-Rahman ibn Awf <br><br>offered to withdraw his own claim if others agreed to abide by his decision. Zubeir <br><br>and Sad bin Abi Waqas were in favour of Uthman, who proposed Alis name. The <br><br>third night had come yet they had not agreed. On the fourth day after consultation <br><br>with the other Muslims, Abdurrahman proposed Uthman and the Muslims <br><br>unanimously agreed with the decision. **Challenges faced by caliph Uthman**<br><br>Hostility from new, Muslims in newly Islamic lands. During his caliphate, some new converts started to accuse him of not following the example Prophet and the preceding caliphs in matters concerning governance. However, the Companions of the Prophet always defended him. These accusations never changed him. He remained persistent to be a merciful governor. <br><br>Conspiracy to remove him from the caliphate headed by Abdullah ibn Saba. His enemies raised allegations against him and even attacked him and laid a siege for forty days but he did not react to them. He did not even use the treasury funds to shield his house or himself. His opponents finally plotted against him, surrounded his house, and encouraged people to kill him. <br><br>The claims of Abdullah ibn Saba brought unrest in the Muslim state. For example, when he appointed Abdullah bin Amir as the new governor of Basra, his relatives. For example, he gave his daughters wealthiest man among the swahabas and used <br><br>precious jewellery from Baitul maal while his wealth for the sake of Islam. He bought a <br><br>Abdullah bin Khalid was given 300,000 well, expanded the prophets mosque and <br><br>dirhams. equipped the military. If he could spend, such <br><br>amounts for the sake of Allah (SWT), why <br><br>not on his relatives? <br><br>He exiled some great companions like Abdullah Caliph Uthman (RA) had some <br><br>bin Masoud and Ammar bin Yassir misunderstanding with these companions but <br><br>was only a difference of opinion. <br><br>He ordered for the stoppage of the allowances It is true that Uthman (RA) was in <br><br>of some companions like Abdullah ibn Masoud disagreement with them but after the death of <br><br>Abdullah ibn Masoud, Uthman displayed Outstanding qualities of the caliph <br><br>Uthman was a man known to be pious and his heart was filled with love for <br><br>Allah (SWT) and His messenger. He was generous, and modest in his actions, <br><br>A shy man, who spoke few words. He was known for his humbleness. Uthman <br><br>would often spend the nights in prayers. He was known to fast often, sometimes <br><br>on alternative days. In spite of his wealth, he lived simply and would often <br><br>sleep, wrapped in a blanket, on the sand of the mosque. Uthman gave freely <br><br>from his wealth to please God and His messenger Muhammad. He narrated many Hadith directly from the Prophet and was one of very few scribes who were able to write down Quran. He participated in all battles except the battle of Badr and in the battle of Uhud he, together with Ikrama bin Abu Jahal counter attacked the enemies. He made the army that was established by Umar (RA) more progressive by introducing subsistence allowance, separating the military from general administration, increased the military barracks and appointed permanent army officers. Uthman also participated in the migration to Madina and here he assisted Prophet Muhammad in establishing the Muslim nation. Prophet Muhammad even referred to him as his assistant. He constructed checkpoints, caravan inns and water fountains and improved the roads, leading to the capital to improve infrastructure built canals in Egypt to improve Agriculture. He sent prominent companions of Prophet Muhammad, as his personal deputies to the provinces to scrutinize the conduct of officials and the conditions of the people. He equipped the Muslim fighters during the expedition of Tabuk. He united Damascus, Jordan and Palestine into one Province under one governor for easier administration. 1. <br><br>He preached Islam during the early days especially to the prisoners of war and publicised Islam to the non Muslims. <br><br>2. More mosques were constructed in the empire during his time. 3. <br><br>He was one of the scribes of the prophet and wrote many letters and memoranda. Uthman also became a reference point for those trying to learn the rituals of worship. He understood and was able to instruct others in the rituals of ablution, prayer, and other Islamic obligations. <br><br>4. Caliph Ali bin Abi Talib was born on 13 Rajab/ 17th of March in the year 600 AD in <br><br>Makkah. hrophet Muhammad (hBUH) Ali meaning The exalted one He belonged to <br><br>the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraish tribe. He was given the title Haydar which <br><br>means lion and at the advent of Islam, he was referred to as Assadullah which means <br><br>the lion of Allah (SWT). This is because he was brave and ready to defend the religion <br><br>of Allah (SWT). Ali was a son to Fatima bint Asad and Abu Talib, the prophets <br><br>uncle; and therefore a first cousin of the Prophet (PBUH). When Ali was five or six <br><br>years old, a famine occurred in and around Makkah, affecting the economic conditions <br><br>of Ali's father, who had a large family to support. The Prophet then took Ali into his <br><br>home to raise him. The Prophet (PBUH) loved 'Ali dearly and called him by many fond names. Once the <br><br>Prophet found him sleeping in the dust, he brushed off 'Ali's clothes and said fondly, <br><br>"Wake up, Abu Turab (Father of aust)." Later on Ali married the hrophets youngest <br><br>daughter, Fatimah, and remained in close association with him for nearly thirty years. his face. He married Fatima, the daughter of the prophet, who bore him three sons <br><br>namely, Hassan, Hussein and Muhsin and two daughters, Zainab and Ummul <br><br>Kulthum. Ali (RA) also married other wives and had many other children. In the first three years, Muhammad (PBUH) invited people to Islam in secret, and then <br><br>he started preaching publicly. Allah (SWT) then commanded him to invite his closer <br><br>relatives come to Islam thus;*"And warn thy nearest relatives"*[Q 26:214]. He <br><br>gathered the Banu Hashim clan in a ceremony and announced at invitational events <br><br>that whoever assisted him in his invitation would become his brother, trustee and <br><br>successor. Ali, who was thirteen or fourteen years old is the only one who stepped <br><br>forward to help him. This invitation was repeated three times, but Ali was the only <br><br>person who answered to the hrophets call. Ali migrated to Madina shortly after the hrophets Hijra. Once there, the hrophet told <br><br>Ali that Allah (SWT) had ordered him to marry off his daughter. While in Madina, he <br><br>was among the key supporters of the Prophet and had the following contributions: <br><br>1. During the construction of the first mosque, he fully participated by fetching bricks, mud until the exercise was complete. Ali was extremely active in his service, leading parties of fighters in battles, and carrying messages and orders. Ali took part in the early caravan raids from Makkah and later in almost all the battles fought by the small Muslim community with great distinction, particularly in the expeditions of Khaybar. During the expedition of Tabuk, he was left behind to take care of the hrophets family. He was among the flag bearers of the Muslims, took part in the duel, and killed his opponent, Walid bin Utba, during the battle of Badr. In the Battle of 'Uhud he sustained more than sixteen wounds. In this battle, he also had the special role of protecting Muhammad when most of the Muslim army fled from the battle field and it was said "There is no brave youth except Ali and there is no sword which renders service except Zulfiqar- referring to the sword owned by Ali." He was the flag bearer during the expedition of the Banu Nadhir, Banu Quraiz and Banu Sad He was commander of the Muslim army in the battle of Khaybar. Following this battle the Prophet (P.B.U.H) gave Ali the name*Asadullah*, which in Arabic means "Lion of Allah (SWT)". Ali also defended Muhammad in the Hunain in 630 CE. After 'Uthman's martyrdom, the office of the Caliphate remained vacant for about <br><br>three days which were marked by chaos which were led by Abdallah bin Saba, the <br><br>leader of the hypocrites. Many people including Abdallah bin Saba insisted that 'Ali <br><br>should take up the office, but he was disheartened by the fact that the people who <br><br>pressed him hardest were the rebels, and he therefore declined at first. He proposed <br><br>Taalha bin Ubaidullah and Zubeir bin Awwam. When the notable Companions of the <br><br>Prophet (PBUH) urged him, however, he finally agreed and was sworn in on 21st of <br><br>Dhul Hijja 35 AH. Majority of Muslims in Madina pledged their support for him. What do you think were the effects of such a murder? It is definite that any empire <br><br>which loses its leader through such means will be faced with rage, riot and calls for <br><br>revenge and punishment. The death of Uthman therefore paused the following <br><br>challenges to the new caliph, who was Ali (RA): <br><br>1. Establishing the Islamic state and providing a strong political leadership. He had to appoint Qaiys bin Sad as the governor of Egypt who then decided to support Muawiya, the rival of Ali (RA). Alis intervention led him to resign so Ali (RA) had to appoint the young and incompetent Muhammad bin Abubakar. This lead to the Egyptians rebellion and he lost his hold of Egypt. Avenging the death of Uthman. He was compelled to bring to book the killers of Uthman (RA). This was difficult since the only witness, Naila, Uthmans wife only saw Mohammad bin Abubakar who did not physically kill the Caliph. Refusal of some Ummayad governors like Muawiyya to step down. Some companions like Zubeir failed to pledge loyalty to him. Civil wars like the battles of camel and siffin, which came about when Aisha (RAA) and Muawwiya demanded that the murderers of Uthman should pay blood money. The trick played by Amr bin Al as during the battle of Siffin weakened his control of the caliphate even though he did not step down. The split of Alis army to form the Khawarij made the caliph to lose most of his supporters. Aisha (RA), the widow of the Prophet was on her way to Madina from performing <br><br>Hajj when the news of Uthmans murder reached her. She then decided to go back to <br><br>Makkah and call for support from the Makkans to avenge the murders of Uthman. He <br><br>received support from key leaders like Marwan ibn al Hakam, Talha bin Ubaidullah, <br><br>Zubeir bin Awwam,Yaala bin Mubaddah among others. Aisha (RA) then set out with a large army of about two thousand soldiers. On the <br><br>other hand, Ali moved to Basra with his army in defense. He tried to send groups to <br><br>peacefully negotiate and all was fine until Abdallah bin Saba incited his followers to <br><br>make secret attacks during the night to Aishas army. This sent a wrong signal of <br><br>betrayal on the side of Alis army. A fight finally broke out and Aisha was riding on <br><br>the back of a camel thus the battle is referred to as The battle of ramel. Alis army won the battle leaving close to ten thousand Muslims dead. Both Talha bin <br><br>Ubaidullah and Zubeir bin Awam were killed in this battle while Aisha was taken as a <br><br>captive and sent to Madina. She later realized her error of judgment and never forgave <br><br>herself for it. The situation in Hijaz, which included Makkah and Madina, became so troubled that <br><br>'Ali moved his capital to Iraq. Muawiyah now openly rebelled against 'Ali. Caliph Ali <br><br>then moved with his army towards Syria in order to bring it under his control. <br><br>Together with him was an army of fifty thousand men. This army camped at a place <br><br>called Siffin then Ali sent out three men to go and peacefully negotiate with the army The battle continued for eight days and the side of Ali was emerging victorious. <br><br>Muawiyya then asked for the opinion of Amr bin al Aas, one of his commanders. <br><br>Amr suggested to his army to attach copies of the Quran on their spears as they <br><br>shouted let the Quran decide. The fight was then stopped for some time. All this <br><br>while, almost seventy thousand people had died. Finally the two sides agreed to have <br><br>arbitration. Alis side at first appointed Abdallah ibn Abbas, but the Sabites claiming that he was <br><br>a relative of raliph Ali (RA) rejected him. They then proposed Abu Musa Al Ashari <br><br>who was accepted by all. Muawiyyas side chose the shrewd Amr bin Al Aas They were about twelve thousand people and they moved to Nahrawan and started <br><br>attacking small groups of Muslims and anyone who was supporting the Caliphate. <br><br>This further weakened Alis power and he started sending some companions to talk to <br><br>them but they did not heed. He then declared an amnesty on the group. This forced <br><br>three thousand of them to surrender. He then sent troops to fight the remaining rebels <br><br>until the group completely disintegrated and some ran to Bahrain. It was the fortieth year of Hijrah. The fanatical group called the Khawarij, claimed <br><br>that neither 'Ali, the Caliph, nor Muawiyah, the ruler of Syria, nor 'Amr ibn al-'As, the <br><br>ruler of Egypt, were worthy of rule. In fact, they went as far as saying that the true <br><br>Caliphate had ended with Umar (RA) and that Muslims should live without any ruler <br><br>over them except Allah (SWT). They vowed to kill all the three leaders, and <br><br>dispatched assassins in three directions. Achievements of Caliph Ali (RA) <br><br>1. <br><br>He was among the best scribes of the prophet and played a key role in the compilation and standardization of the Quran. He participated in the battles that took place during the prophets time in defense of Islam. He laid a foundation of intellectualism by being one of the most learned people at his time. He personally protected the Prophet during times of danger. He was devoted in the course of Allah (SWT) and on the forefront in the spread of Islam and very knowledgeable in both Quran and Hadith. He was a good administrator, used to send inspection teams to the provinces, and would take stern measures on those found misusing state funds. For example, he pressurized Masqala to repay the money he had loaned from the Baitul Maal. He introduced new forms of taxation on forestry and horses to increase the state revenue. He raised 400,000 dirhams from the forestry taxes; however, he was considerate and did not force the poor to pay taxes. He was highly experienced in war and came up with new strategies in the army like constructing border posts along the borders of Syria, a safe and strong fortress to protect women and children. He constructed a new bridge along river Euphrates. <br><br>9. 10. He was one of the members of the shura committee during the time of the first three Khalifas and helped in making key decisions in the empire and supported them in administration. Answer the following questions in your I.R.E revision exercise book. <br><br>1. <br><br>a) Outline the achievements of caliph Ali (RA) during his period as a caliph. <br><br>b) Discuss the challenges faced by caliph Ali (RA) 2. a) Outline the reforms brought by Umar (RA) to the Islamic administration. <br><br>b) What challenges did caliph Uthman face (RA) that are attributed to <br><br>assassination? <br><br>3. a) State the outstanding qualities of the four rightly guided caliphs. In groups, discuss the remedies to the civil strife that occurred during the caliphate <br><br>of Ali (RA) <br><br>Analyze the speeches of the first four caliphs when they ascended to caliphate and <br><br>draw lessons from them. **SPREAD OF ISLAM IN EAST AFRICA**<br><br>**Condition of East Africa before the advent of Islam**<br><br>The east coast of Africa lies between Sofala and Mogadishu which is a stretch of <br><br>3000km. It has inlets and deep harbor, with reefs where boats can easily anchor. There <br><br>are a number of islands such vas Zanzibar, Pemba, Lamu Mombasa, Pate etc. The East <br><br>Africa coast stretches from Pate to Kilwa islands. Its inhabitants were Bantus who had <br><br>migrated from Central Africa to a place called Shungwaya before they dispersed to <br><br>other areas of the coast. They had well organized economic, social and political <br><br>activities determined by the Coastal setting and Geographical features. They engaged <br><br>in farming, fishing, keeping domestic animals among other activities. They were the <br><br>followers of African Indigenous Religion with most of them having belief in their <br><br>ancestral gods. They performed rituals to appease their gods. Their social lives <br><br>combined holistic elements of a community enshrined in the rites of passage like <br><br>marriage, circumcision among others. Do you have any of these traditions among <br><br>members of your community? **Greeks:**They originated from the Mediterranean where they had gained maximum control of the trade in the Sea. They traded in oriental goods like weapons, cloths, in exchange for palm oil, rhinoceros horns, ivory, slaves, cinnamon, frankincense, Arabic gum, tortoise shells and live animals from the East African inhabitants. Sumerians: originated from the Persian Gulf where the first ship building industry started. They pioneered the sea route-trade and gained access to the Indian Ocean. Serbians: The Serbians had a large kingdom in Yemen and used the seasonal monsoon winds to travel regularly to and from the East Africa, especially Zanzibar. They took control of the passage from the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean; around 1 BC they regulated the Indian Ocean from Sindh (now in Pakistan) and the Persian Gulf. It was the same time that the trade entered the flow in Zanzibar islands. Other early visitors to the East African coast were the Phoenicians, from the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. They reached Zanzibar and Kilwa in about 1000 BC on their way to Sofala, in Mozambique for gold, silver and ivory. About 600 BC, a Phoenician fleet sailed the south part of Zanzibar and navigated Africa before returning to the Mediterranean, three years later. About 526 BC when the Persians conquered Egypt, they opened the access to the Red Sea. After the decline of Greek domination, Persia again became the strongest naval power on the Indian Ocean to Zanzibar. Despite the Arab settlement in the coast of East Africa, the Persians continued to trade through the upheaval. In the sixteenth century, the coast was open to Europeans when the Portuguese established a base in Mombasa as part of the sea route to India. They came mainly to conquer and spread Christianity. We shall study more about the Portuguese rule along the East African Coast later in this chapter. **Sources of historical information**<br><br>1. Through the chronicles kept in some Muslim states. These records give the name of some of the ruling dynasties for example the chronicles of Kilwa that gives the names of the Sultans who ruled the states and some of the events that took place there. Some writings of the Arab Geographers who visited the Coast like Al Masoud who wrote that there lived some people at the Coast who spoke Swahili and traded with the visitors in Ivory and other trade goods. <br><br>2. <br><br>3. Great Historians like Idris also left behind important writings giving an account of the lives of the people of Mombasa, Barawa, Zanzibar, and Mogadishu. <br><br>4. Other early dated monuments indicate the presence of the settlers at the coast. This is in the Great Mosque of Mogadishu built in 1238 and the mosque of Fakhr al-Din in 1269 both in Somalia, Kufic inscription in the Kizimkazi Mosque in Zanzibar dated to 1107 CE and the fort Jesus in Kenya 1593 CE. <br><br>5. There are also various early accounts by travelers. In 1531, Ibn Battuta visited the coast. He travelled as far south as Kilwa in southern Tanzania and described the people and buildings of the coast. For example, he said that the Sultan of Mogadishu was Abubakar bin Omar and that merchants inhabited the city. In the early fourteenth century, a Chinese embassy visited and described the coast. The Coastal traditions and legends also provide information about the leaders found at the coast. Archeological studies from the excavation of the ruins like the Gedi and most recent, Shanga in Kenya give information about the coast. We get evidence of the Islamic culture present at the coast through the of house surpluses for trading. The city-states spread along the shores of the Indian Ocean at <br><br>the East coast of Africa. They included Pate, Lamu, Kilwa, Sofala, Malindi, <br><br>Mombasa, Banadir, Barawa, Mogadishu, Comoro, Pemba and Zanzibar. <br><br>Apart from the groups we have mentioned, other settlers who came to the East African <br><br>coast were Muslims. Most of these groups migrated from Arabia to the East Coast of <br><br>Africa because of religious and political factors. Thirty years after the death of the <br><br>prophet, there broke a civil strife in Arabia and Iraq. Many Muslims fled their homes <br><br>seeking Shelter and` refuge. These people had known the sea routes to the East <br><br>African Coast before and travelled back and forth. Most of them therefore ended up in <br><br>the East African Coast. Let us now closely look at some of these groups: 1. The two brothers from Oman <br><br>These were SuleIman and said who refused to submit to the rule of the Umayyads at <br><br>the time of Abdul Malik bin Marwan in Damascus. They ran away from their homes <br><br>and sailed to the shores of the East African Coast together with their families and <br><br>supporters. They landed at Pate Island in Lamu and settled there. 2. The people of al-Hassa <br><br>These were Arabs from al Hassa region in Persia. They arrived in Banadir in the 10th <br><br>century. They were however pushed southwards by the Amu Zaid group. They ended <br><br>up forming the cities of Mogadishu and Barawa. 3. Amu Zaid group <br><br>They came from Iraq after the rebellion that took place during the time of Caliph of <br><br>Hisham in 724 C.E. They started the Zaid sect whose followers had already left in 710 <br><br>C.E and settled in Banadir and Mogadishu. Muslims, welcomed visitors and this facilitated the spread of Islam. These city states <br><br>played the following roles: <br><br>1. <br><br>They provided clean water and adequate food supply for the visitors. These encouraged them to stay and attracted more Arabs to visit them. There natural harbors enabled their ships to dock as they came with the trade goods. They provided a safe and secure environment for the Arab to stay in. The local leaders ensured that the Arabs were not attacked nor their trade caravans robbed. The presence of such security provided a peaceful atmosphere for the spread of Islam. Being centrally placed close to the interior made it possible for the Arabs to get the trade commodities. The people from the interior would bring their valuable trade goods like ivory and gold in the city-states. They provided resting places for the Arabs as they came from their homes. The Arabs could spend some time in these places thus spreading Islam. They provided storage facilities for the Arab traders when they came with their goods or whenever they were going back to their homes. <br><br>2. The Swahili <br><br>We are all aware that Kiswahili is a language spoken and studied as a subject in the <br><br>Kenya curriculum. It is also a National and an official language in Kenya according to <br><br>the new Constitution, promulgated in 2010. Are you aware of the origin of this <br><br>language? In which parts of Kenya and East African Coast is this language spoken. <br><br>You will realize that many people along the coast of East Africa speak Kiswahili. <br><br>These groups of people came to settle along the coast from Shungwaya, which is to <br><br>the East of Somalia. Among these groups were the called Wangozi. They settled in <br><br>the Northern parts of Kenya but were displaced by tribes like Pokomo, Rendile and <br><br>Somalis and forced to move southwards. They are Wangozi; from the word Ngozi, <br><br>that means skin. This is because they used skin to make clothing, bedding, <br><br>containers and ropes and measured their pieces of land using it. addition, the language they spoke was*Kiswahili.*The interaction between the <br><br>Coastal natives and the Arabs and Persians further contributed to the cultural infusion <br><br>among the Waswahili and numerous loan words to Kiswahili language. The Portuguese in East Africa <br><br>The King of Portugal in the year 1492, Phillip (II) sent Vasco da Gama to find an <br><br>alternative sea rout to India. He had to go round the Cape of Good Hope since the <br><br>Portuguese were not in good terms with the Arabs and the Byzantine Empire. He <br><br>arrived in Mozambique in 1498 but was not welcomed and set out for Mombasa <br><br>where he arrived on fourth of April the same year. The people of Mombasa did not <br><br>welcome him and he therefore proceeded to Malindi where he was warmly welcomed <br><br>by the Sultan and shown the sea route to India. After discovering this sea route, the <br><br>Portuguese took control measures to safe guard it. Moreover, this allowed the <br><br>Portuguese to directly trade with the Far East through the sea. The presence of many **Reasons why the Portuguese came to the East African Coast**<br><br>After the exploration of Vasco Dagama to the East African Coast, the Portuguese put <br><br>their focus on the East African Coast. Among the early visitors from Portugal was <br><br>Alfonso De Albuquerque, send as a viceroy in Goa India, in 1501 and was to oversee <br><br>the trade activities along the East African Coast. Don Francisco De Almaida followed <br><br>in 1505 and conquered Kilwa, an Island in Southern Tanzania, later Mombasa and <br><br>Zanzibar. The following are among the reasons that led to the coming of the <br><br>Portuguese: <br><br>1. <br><br>For trade expansion, they wanted to trade with the Africans at because they had commodities like ivory, which the Portuguese did not have. Economic reasons, they had wanted to have a share in the profits from the trade that already existed. They wanted to control gold trade at Sofala, to obtain tribute and taxes and to get other goods like silk. Political reasons; they wanted to conquer the East African Coast and have their rule established there. They came to explore the unknown lands and navigate the untouched seas in East Africa. They were anxious to prevent the Egyptians and Turks from sending help to their fellow Muslims on the Coast. They wanted to make ports and calling stations along the coast where their ships would dock to obtain fresh food supplies. Establish Christianity and counter spread of Islam. <br><br>2. <br><br>7. **Methods taken by the Portuguese to establish their rule**<br><br>1. 2. <br><br>They made the inhabitants pay heavy taxes. They ruled by torture i.e. burnt down houses, looted the towns of Mombasa, Sofala. They killed many Muslims. They forced Muslims to convert to Christianity. They interfered with the Indian Ocean Trade. 3. 4. 5. **The results of the Portuguese rule**<br><br>The Muslims hated the Portuguese because of their harsh rule. These led to constant <br><br>wars in the city-states. The Muslims could not be able to match the Portuguese <br><br>fighting skills. They then sought assistance from the Oman Arabs to expel the <br><br>Portuguese. The sultan called lmam Seif bin Sultan agreed and sent a large expedition, **Contributions of Sayyid Said to the East African Coast**<br><br>Sayyid Said became the ruler of Oman but later left to settle in Zanzibar in 1832. He <br><br>later made it the capital of his East Africa dominions. His reign was a boom for the <br><br>islands and brought developments as follows. <br><br>1. <br><br>He increased the trade contact along the Coast and the merchants would travel into the interior to bring goods like skins, hides, ivory and slaves. Zanzibar grew to be a great commercial center with many buildings and shops. He encouraged farming by establishing clove plantations. He encouraged the Indian moneylenders to settle at the coast and this boasted the trade activities. The development of trade links with the interior led to good relations between the interior and the Coastal inhabitants like the Akamba and Mijikenda. There was expansion of trade links between the East African Coast and Arabia. <br><br>2. 1. The construction of Kenya Uganda railway. This facilitated movement of both Arabs and the people in the interior in search of trade goods. Due to such movements, the Arabs were able to settle interior areas like Kisumu and interacted with the local people thus spreading Islam. Some of the Asian workers constructing the railway line formed permanent settlement schemes after the construction of the railway line. These families were also instrumental in the spread of Islam as these areas attracted the more and more local people. <br><br>2. When the British arrived at the East African Coast they employed <br><br>Muslims as Jumbes, Aqidas, as messengers, guards, cooks, tax collectors, interpreters and guides for the colonial government. This employment made them meet many people whom they taught about Islam. <br><br>3. Every community and religion has its own practices and traditions. The Africans, for example, practiced Polygamy. They also had their rites of passage. Can you mention any of these practices? When the Arabs came to East Africa, many local tribes compared the Islamic practices to their own and they saw some resemblance and thus readily accepted Islam. 4. Islamic teachings like greetings, hospitality, and kindness among others also attracted the local people. This increased the number of converts among the people especially in the urban areas. <br><br>5. The main aim of the Arabs visit to East African roast was trade. This made them establish trade links with the local people who included among others the Akamba in Kenya. The Arabs also engaged in slave trade and had links with the Wanyamwezi in Tanzania and the Waswahili **Influence of Islam at the Coast**<br><br>The Arabs brought Islam along the East African Coast. We cannot therefore fail to <br><br>mention the Arabs when we discussing the influence of Islam as a religion. Let us now <br><br>discus the following influence: <br><br>1. Conversion to Islam <br><br>The inhabitants of the East African Coast were followers of African Traditional <br><br>Religions. The Mijikenda, for example believed in a god called Mulungu. However, <br><br>through the influence of the Muslim Arabs lead to most of them converting to Islam. <br><br>Several mosques were constructed to facilitate the prayers as prescribed by the Islamic <br><br>religion. 2. Material culture <br><br>Apart from the Arabs influencing the locals religiously, their material culture is <br><br>reflected among the Africans. This is evident in the use of Arabic architecture in the <br><br>construction of mosques and houses. Others include Islamic manners of dressing, for <br><br>example, attire like the kanzu and buibui for men and women respectively. 3. Education <br><br>The Islamic form of education is witnessed in most of the areas that were exposed to <br><br>the Arabs. This include the Madrassa system, integrated schools which offer both <br><br>Islamic Religious Studies and secular education, some schools offer their education <br><br>programs for half a day .i.e. morning to noon. 6. Language <br><br>Many people at the coast use Kiswahili as a mode of communication. The Arabic <br><br>language was also learnt in the*Madrassa*in order to facilitate communication with the <br><br>Arab traders. They encouraged the use of Kiswahili Language and did not replace it <br><br>with their Arabic language. 7. Trade <br><br>With the interaction of the Arabs and the coastal peoples, trading activities flourished. <br><br>The natives facilitated the trade by bringing the trade goods from the interior to the <br><br>coast. Sometimes they accompanied the Arabs into the interior to guide them access <br><br>the goods. They engaged in economic activities such as fishing, and maritime. 8. Growth of city states <br><br>Urban centers developed due to the increase in trade activities along the coast of East <br><br>Africa. Most of the people moved from the interior to these flourishing centers. These <br><br>states provided amenities like mosques, libraries and madrassas. Among these states <br><br>include Kilwa, Sofala, Zanzibar Suggested Study Questions and Activities <br><br>Answer the following questions in your I.R.E Revision Exercise Book: <br><br>1. <br><br>Identify the reasons that led to the coming of the settlers to the East African Coast. Give reasons as to why the Portuguese rule become unpopular along the East African Coast. <br><br>2. <br><br>**Activity**<br><br>In groups, identify and discuss the methods of Islamisation in your community. **CHAPTER EIGHT: MUSLIM SCHOLARS**<br><br>In each community, there are special people who are recognized for the significant <br><br>roles and contributions they play. Such great people earn praises and recognition from <br><br>their communities for their active participation in various significant activities. The <br><br>community members are indebted to them for their sacrifice in promoting their <br><br>communitys socio-economic, political, moral and the general well-being. These <br><br>people would include educationists, scholars, philosophers, psychologists among other <br><br>dignified persons. Can you identify such people who played significant roles in your <br><br>community? In this chapter, we shall study two great Muslim scholars from Egypt <br><br>whose influence cuts across the world. <br><br>Hassan al Banna **Birth and early life**<br><br>His full name is Hassan Ahmed Abdul Rahman Muhammed al Banna. He was born on <br><br>14th October 1906 in the village of Mahmoudiyah Alexandria, Egypt at a time when <br><br>the British were colonizing the country. His father was a watch repairer, a renowned <br><br>author of Islamic religious books and a local Imam of a masjid where Al Banna <br><br>received his first lesson in Islam. Al Banna was raised in an Islamic environment and <br><br>learnt religious teachings in the mosque at an early age before joining Western <br><br>education. His family, of a lower class moved to Cairo in 1924. At the age of 12, Al <br><br>Banna became involved in Sufi order. As a young adult, at the age of 13, he <br><br>participated in a demonstration against the British. By the age of 14 years, he had <br><br>memorized the whole Quran. Education Background <br><br>Al Banna received his first religious lessons (in Islam) at his fathers masjid where his <br><br>father was an Imam. He joined Primary school in his home village Mahmudiya at the <br><br>age of twelve. He then received his secular education at Dar-Al-Ulum school in Cairo <br><br>and graduated with a Diploma in Arabic and Islamic studies. While in secondary <br><br>school, he organized committees and societies stressing Islamic principles and morals. <br><br>Even as a student at Dar Al-Ulum (a Teacher College) in Cairo, he used to attend <br><br>lectures at the Al Azhar University where he was exposed to Sufism. Al Banna <br><br>completed his studies in 1927. His ideas on Sufism were because of the influence of <br><br>an Islamic reformist, Jamal al- Din al Afghan (1838-1897), a great personality of the <br><br>19th Century Islam. He was also influenced by the two adherent of Jamal al- Din al <br><br>Afghan, Muhammad Abdu (1847-1905) and Rashid Rida (1865-1935). **Views of Hassan al Banna on Islamic education`**<br><br>1. <br><br>Islamic education is all comprehensive all encompassing and holistic. It is all inclusive and does not leave out anything. The foundation of Islamic teaching covers all aspects of human life. Islamic education is for all people and nations. It is for all times and ages. It completes and addresses the detailed aspects of life. Enable an individual to stay within the limits set by Allah (SWT). 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. <br><br>**Social Achievements of Hassan al Banna** On February 12, 1949 in Cairo, Al-Banna was at the Jamiyyah al-Shubban al- Muslimeen headquarters with his brother in-law Abdul Karim Mansur to negotiate with Minister Zaki Ali Basha who represented the government side. Minister Zaki Ali Basha never arrived. By 5 p.m., Al-Banna and his brother-in-law decided to leave. As SAYYID QUTB <br><br>**His life background**<br><br>He was born in 1906 in Egypt at Musha village of Asyut Province along the Upper <br><br>Nile. He came from a family that had a deep religious foundation. He was a great <br><br>writer and thinker of the 20th Century by his great works and ideologies. His brother, <br><br>Muhammad Qutb was also one of the Muslim great writers in Islam who contributed a <br><br>lot by authoring several books. In 1919, he dropped out of school because of the <br><br>Egyptian revolution. **Education Back Ground**<br><br>1. 2. 3. 4. 5. <br><br>He attended his Primary education from 1912 to 1918. In 1920, he travelled to Cairo to further education at the age of 14. He joined Abdul Aziz Teachers rollege in 1922 In 1925, he went back to secondary school. In 1929, he joined Dar ul Ulum College from where he graduated with a Bachelor of Literature degree in 1933. **Work and personal life**<br><br>In 1933, he was appointed a school teacher by the Ministry and taught at Daudiya <br><br>School in Cairo. 1n 1935, he was transferred to Dumiyat primary school but was <br><br>transferred to a school called Bani Suweif. In 1935 he was transferred to Hawan <br><br>primary school. He taught in several other schools before being appointed by the 15 years until 1964 when he was released on medical grounds. While in jail, he wrote <br><br>his commentary on the Quran called *Fi Dhilal al Quran*. In 1966, he was again <br><br>arrested and charged for an attempted coup against hresident Nassers government. He <br><br>was sentenced to death by Muhammad Fuad Addajawy together with two other <br><br>members of the Ikhwan al Muslimin. Appeals against his sentence were ignored and <br><br>he was executed on Monday, 29th of August 1966, at the age of 59 years and 10 <br><br>months. Answer the following questions in your I.R.E exercise book <br><br>1. a) Give a brief Biography of Sheikh Hassan al Banna. <br><br>b) Explain the social reforms advocated for by Hassan al Banna. <br><br>2. a) Discuss the works of Sayyid Qutb <br><br>b) Outline the achievements of Sayyid Qutb in the spread of Islam. <br><br>Activity <br><br>In groups, compare the objectives of the Islamic society in your school to **Form three**<br><br>**Chapter One: Quran** **Preservation of the Quran...**<br><br> The time of the hrophet.. raliphs time...... hresent time.. <br><br>**Standardization of the Quran.**<br><br> Circumstances that led to the standardization of the Quran during the reign of raliph <br><br>Uthman <br><br> The process of standardization of the Quran... aiacriticalization of the Quran. **Sura al Nur** Meaning of the verses. Teachings of the Surah... <br><br>**Chapter Two: Hadith** **Types of Hadith** Hadith Nabawi.... Hadith Qudsi.. Differences between Hadith Qudsi and Hadith Nabawi <br><br>**Classification of Hadith...** Test to determine the authenticity of Hadith Simple classification of Hadith. <br><br>Sahih Hasan Dhaif **Sunni and Shia collection of Hadith**<br><br> Sahihul-sitta... Kutub Al Arba.. The three later books of the Shia... <br><br>**Study of some selected Hadith**<br><br>**Chapter Three: Pillars of Iman (Faith)** |
# # **FORM TWO** **Ulumul Quran** **CHAPTER ONE: QUR** **** **AN** In Book One, we defined Ulumul Quran as a scientific study dealing with various fields related to Quran. Can you mention some of the components included in this scientific study? From the various components, you have mentioned above, we shall learn about Wahyi. *Wahyi* is an Arabic terminology, which comes from the root word *Awha*, which means inspiring, giving direction or guidance on an issue. Technically, it refers to the methods or ways through which Allah (SWT) used to communicate to the prophets and other creatures. As you are aware, communication is an important tool for human beings. Communication between human beings or creatures may take different forms. Can you mention some of the ways through which this communication takes place? You will realize that the modes of communication between the human beings are different from those observed in the animals and other creatures. Likewise, Allah (SWT) has His own ways of sending information to the creatures as He says in the Quran: *It is not fitting for a man that Allah (SWT) should speak to him except by* *inspiration, or from behind a veil, or by sending a messenger to reveal with Allah* *(SWT)s permission what Allah (SWT) wills: For He is Most High, Most Wise.* [Q 42:51] **|** P a g e 156 ----- Let us now look at some examples of this communication: 1. When Nabi Ibrahim broke the idols, his people decided to set him on fire but Allah (SWT) inspired the fire to be cool on him. The following verse of the Quran gives this inspiration of Allah (SWT) to the fire **.** *We* *(Allah (SWT)) said: O fire! Be you coolness and safety for Ibrahim* *(Abraham)* [Q 21:69] this is a form of communication from Allah (SWT) to the fire. 2. The dry earth is inspired by Allah (SWT) to give produce for the human beings so that they can have food for nourishment from it. Allah (SWT) says, *And a sign for them is the dead land. We give it life and We bring* *forth from it grains so that they eat thereof.* [Q 36:33] 3. Allah (SWT) inspired the Hoopoe (Hud Hud) with knowledge of detecting the acts of shirk committed by the Queen of Saba (Bilqis) and the ability to report it to Nabi Suleiman. Read this from Quran 27:30-37. Can you identify more verses in the Quran where Allah (SWT) sends messages to his creatures and prophets? **Modes of Wahyi** The examples we have seen above show that Allah (SWT) can communicate to His creatures in various ways. The ways through which Allah (SWT) communicated to His Prophets can be divided into two; Direct and Indirect modes. ***Direct Mode*** In this mode of Wahyi, Allah (SWT) speaks directly to the prophet without sending a messenger (Angel). The prophets would hear Allah (SWT)s voice without seeing his image. Can you give examples of Prophets to whom Allah (SWT) spoke to directly? This form of Wahyi includes the following: **1.** **As spoken words behind a veil** A veil is a form of barrier which is intended to block the Prophet from seeing Allah (SWT) during the process of revelation. For example, during the Night of Isra Wal Miiraj the prophet spoke to Allah (SWT) at *Arsh* behind a veil of a cloud. In Sura A Taha (Q 20:9-14) Allah (SWT) speaks to prophet Musa (AS) behind a veil of fire. Can **|** P a g e 157 ----- you find out other surahs where Allah (SWT) communicated to Prophet Musa (AS) from behind a veil of fire? **2.** **Through inspiration** Inspiration is a spiritual experience where one is guided by Allah (SWT) to do something good. The Prophets were inspired through guided visions of events taking place when they were fully awake in the form of Wahyi. One would consciously become an active participant while following orders to do a given action. For example: Allah (SWT) inspired Nabi Issah to speak at infancy when his mother was accused of being unchaste. Allah (SWT) says, *He (Issah) said: Verily I am a slave of Allah* *(SWT), He has given me the scripture and made me a Prophet; And He Has made me* *blessed wheresoever I be, and Has enjoined on me Swalat (prayer), and Zakat, as* *long as I live. And dutiful to my mother, and made me not arrogant, unblest. And* *Salaam (peace) be upon me the day I was born, and the day I die and the day I shall* *be arisen alive.* [Q 19:33] Find out more examples of revelation through inspiration to the following Prophets: Prophet Musa (AS), Adam (AS), Yunus (AS), Nuh (AS) and Ibrahim (AS). We shall learn more about some of these Prophets in Chapter three. ***Indirect Mode*** The indirect mode of Wahyi is shown when Allah (SWT) uses an intermediary subject that bridges the gap between Him and His prophet. A link is used to transmit the message to the intended prophet. It takes two forms which we shall discuss below: **1.** **Through Angel Jibril (AS)** In Form one, we learnt about the Angels and their duties. Do you remember the Angel who is in charge of revelation? Can you recall how Angel Jibril would appear to the Prophet while he was in the cave of Hira? In this instance, Allah (SWT) had send Angel Jibril to bring His message to the Prophet. **|** P a g e 158 ----- Allah (SWT) created Angel Jibril (AS) and gave him the role of taking His divine message to the prophets. He used to take the message to the prophets without tempering with it. Allah (SWT) says, Say ( O Muhammad) Ruhul Qudus [Jibril] has brought it down (the Quran) from your Lord with truth and it may make firm and strengthen (the faith of) those who believe, and as a guidance and glad tidings to those who have submitted (to Allah (SWT) as Muslims) [Q16:102] You can also refer to Quran [Q 2:97] **2.** **Through dream** A dream is a form of visualization of events while one is in a sleep. Human beings often have dreams during sleep. Events in these dreams might turn out to be true but many a time they are not true. A true dream is guidance from Allah (SWT) to a chosen person. Several prophets used to get guidance in the form of dreams. Prophet Yusuf (AS), for example, told his father *(Remember) When Yusuf (Joseph) said to his* *father: O my father! Verily, I saw (in a dream) eleven stars and the sun and* *the moon-I saw them prostrating themselves to me.* [Q 12:4] His father warned him not to reveal the dream to his brothers because it was a sign and a revelation from Allah (SWT) that he had been chosen by Allah (SWT) among the family of Yaqub as a great leader, interpreter of dreams and a prophet. Prophet Ibrahim (AS) also saw in a dream Allah (SWT) commanding him to offer his son (Ismail) as a sacrifice. Allah (SWT) says, *And when he (his son)* *was old enough to walk with him, he said: O my son! I have seen in a dream* *that I am slaughtering you (offering you in sacrifice to Allah (SWT)). So look* *what you think! He said: O my father! Do that which you are commanded,* *inshaAllah (if Allah (SWT) wills), you shall find me of as-Sabirun (patient)* *then, when they had both submitted themselves (to the will of Allah (SWT), and* *he had laid him prostrate on his forehead (or on the side of his forehead for* *slaughtering); We called out to him: O Ibrahim!(Abraham!) You have fulfilled* **|** P a g e 159 ----- *the dream! Verily, thus do We reward the Muhsinun (good doers) verily, that* *indeed was the manifest trial.* [Q 37:102-106] The modes of Wahyi can be summarized using the following diagram |M|Col2| |---|---| ||| ||| D I |I|Col2| |---|---| ||| |D I|Col2| |---|---| ||| **Figure 1: Wahyi and its modes** **Revelation of the Quran** Read Quran [Q: 1 163-165] In Book one, we learnt the various roles played by Angel Jibril in the revelation of the Quran. ran you recall some of the roles he played? It is important to note that his role did not only start with the revelation of the Quran to the Prophet but he first had to lower it from *Lawhil Mahfudh*, the well preserved Tablet (a tablet is a flat piece of stone that has words written on it) to a station in the lowest heaven referred to as **|** P a g e 161 ----- "Bayt al-'Izzah" (The House of Honor or Power). During this process, Allah (SWT) brought down the Quran in one volume. From the above explanation, we learn that the Quran was send down in two stages. Let us now look at each of these stages: **Stage One** : From Lawhul Mafudh to Baitul Izzah Before the Quran reached the hrophet, Allah (SWT) had preserved it in the heavens. Do you know the name of the tablet on which the Quran was Preserved? Allah (SWT) says in the Quran *"Nay! This is a Glorious Quran, inscribed in a Preserved Tablet"* [Q 85:21-22] Here, Allah (SWT) sent Angel Jibril (AS) to bring the Quran from Lauhil Mahfudh, the well Preserved Tablet (in the Seventh Heaven) down to the First Heaven (sky) and placed it in Baitul Izza, 'Place of Power or Honor'. The Quran mentions the Preserved Tablet and tells us that it was sent down during a specific night. Allah (SWT) says, *"Verily, We have sent it (this Quran) down in the* *Night of Al Qadr (Decree)."* [Q 97:1]. Allah (SWT) also says *, "By the Book that makes things clear; - We sent it down* *during a Blessed Night: for We (ever) wish to warn (against Evil). In the (Night) is* *made distinct every affair of wisdom."* [Quran 11:2-4] These two verses show that the Holy Quran was revealed in a single blessed night in the month of Ramadhan, the Night of hower. ran you find out more about the night of power in surah al Alaq [Q 97:2-5]? **Stage Two: From Baitul Izza to the Prophet** Baitul Izza (the house of honour) is found in the lowest heavens. After the Quran had been lowered down from Lawhul Mahfudh, Allah (SWT) instructed Angel Jibril (AS) to send it down to the Prophet (SWT) over the twenty three year period of his Prophethood. The verses were revealed gradually from Baitul Izza in order to provide the required guidance to mankind. The diagram below shows the stages of revelation of the Quran. **|** P a g e 161 ----- F R **1** **[st]** **Stage** **2** **[nd]** **Stage** **Figure 2: stages of revelation of the Quran** It is important to note that the Quran was revealed in only one mode; that is through Angel Jibril (AS). The Angel would come in various forms as we have earlier mentioned at the beginning of this subtopic. Can you recall these forms? In many case, Allah would send Angel Jibril when the Prophet was in difficult situations. **Recording and compilation of the Quran** Keeping of records is very essential in the day to day life. As students we are encouraged to keep records of his/her notes so that we can constantly refer to them. Can you mention any other important information that is recorded within your school set up? Why is it important for this information to be recorded? Likewise during the revelation of the Quran, it was very important for the verses revealed to be recorded by the Prophet (PBUH) and his companions. **|** P a g e 162 ----- The Prophet (PBUH) used to receive complete verses or parts of verses, or passages or complete surahs (chapters), as he was commanded by Allah (SWT). When Angel Jibril (AS) brought down to the hrophet Muhammad (hBUH) a passage of the Quran, he did not bring it in any written material. This is explained when Allah (SWT) says, *And even if We had sent down to you (O Muhammad) a message written on paper so* *that they could touch it with their hands, the disbelievers would have said: This is* *nothing but obvious magic!* [Q 6:7] The Angel would recite it to him and the Prophet (PBUH), would immediately memorize it with keenness. The prophet used to encourage his companions to memorize the verses and regularly recite it. Abubakar would recite it in front of his house in Makkah while Abdallah ibn Masoud was the first companion to publicly recite the Quran in Makkah. This made majority of the companions to memorize the Quran. Like Abubakar Aswiddiq (RA), Umar (RA) bin Khattab (RA), Ali bin Abi Talib (RA), AbdAllah (SWT) ibn Masuod (RA), Abu Hurairah (RA), Sayyidatinah Hafswa (RAA), Sayyidattina Aisha (RA) and Sayyiditina Ummu Salama (RAA) all from the Muhajirun. Among the Ansars were; Ummu Waraq (RAA), Abu Zaid (RA), Qais (RA), Muadh bin Jabal (RA), Zaid bin Thabit (RA) and Ubbay bin Kaab (RA). This comprises the oral forms of the transmission of the Holy Quran. Other than the oral transmission, the Quran was also transmitted in written form even though the art of writing was not very popular among the Arabs. The prophet encouraged those who knew the skill of writing to record the verses on various materials which included; sheets cut out of the branches of the beet tree, writing sheets made of wood, animal hide, leather, broken pieces of pots, cloth, date fibers, flat stone and bones. **|** P a g e 163 ----- Then the prophet would call in his scribes who were of the highest caliber in faith and integrity and dictate the verses to them. Mention any of the prophets companions who were scribes. Apart from those you have mentioned, they also included all the first four caliphs, [Abubakar Asswiddiq (RA), Umar bin Khattab (RA), Uthman bin Affan (RA), Ali bin Abi Talib (RA)], others besides the caliphs included, Muawiah ibn Abi Sufyan, Zaid ibn Thabit, Zubayr ibn Awwam, Amir ibn Fuhayra, Ubay ibn Ka'b and Abdullah ibn Rawaha. Those scribes wrote the Quran on various forms of bulky writing material which was available to them at the time. This started even in the period when the Prophet and his companions were a small persecuted community in Makkah. Many of the companions of the Prophet kept some written parts of the Quran in their homes. **Compilation of the Quran** Meaning of compilation: To compile means to bring different materials, items or articles together in an orderly manner. Can you mention any instances where compilation is done either at home or in school? The compilation of the Quran refers to the process of bringing together the various verses and surahs of the Quran in the order guided by Angel Jibril to the hrophet (hBUH). The hrophet had died leaving behind the entire Quran preserved in the memories of the Swahabas or written down on different materials. There was no compiled volume of the Quran because of the following reasons: **|** P a g e 164 ----- 1. The revelation of the Quran was not as a whole but in piece meal as was necessitated by an event and was received by the Prophet until his last days. 2. The Prophet lived for only nine days after the last revelation during which he was severely sick. 3. The verses were not revealed in their final order. 4. Some verses were revealed to cancel the previously revealed verses (i.e. abrogation) 5. There were very few scribes who were mostly engaged in the spread of Islam. 6. The prophet was not commanded by Allah (SWT) to compile it and he also did not instruct his companions to compile it. Upon the death of the Prophet, the Swahabas unanimously agreed on Abubakar (RA) as the first leader of the Muslim community to take charge of religious, social, economic and political affairs. When he assumed office he was faced with several challenges; among them being those who claimed to be prophets, those who refused to pay Zakat and those who turned to apostasy. During the battle of Yamama when caliph Abubakar was fighting the false Prophets, several *Hufadh* (memorizers) were martyred. During the wars of apostasy, seventy other memorizers were killed, living very few among the Swahabas who had memorized the Quran. Umar (RA) then suggested to the caliph that there was need to arrest the situation by compiling the Quran into one volume. Abubakar (RA) was hesitant to do what the Prophet had not done but when the Swahabas insisted, the caliph gave in and saw the need for compiling the Quran. Zayd bin Thabit narrates: *Hazrat Abubakar sent for me* *after the heavy casualties among the warriors of the Battle of Yamama. Hazrat Umar* *(RA) was present with Abubakar who said, Umar (RA) has come to me and said, The* *(huffaz: plural of hafiz) (one who knows the whole Quran by heart) suffered heavy* *casualties on the day of Yamama, and I am afraid that there will be more casualties* *among the huffaz at other battle-fields, whereby a large part of the Quran may be* *lost. And I am of the opinion that you should collect the Quran." Abubakar added, "I* **|** P a g e 165 ----- *said to Umar (RA), 'How can I do something which Allah (SWT)'s Messenger has not* *done?' Umar (RA) said (to me), 'By Allah (SWT), it is (really) a good thing.' So Umar* *(RA) kept on pressing, trying to persuade me to accept his proposal, till Allah (SWT)* *opened my bosom for it and I had the same opinion as Umar (RA)." Zayd added:* *Abubakar turned to me and said: "You are a wise young man and we do not suspect* *you of telling lies or of forgetfulness: and you used to write the Divine Inspiration for* *Allah (SWT)'s Messenger. Therefore, look for the Quran and collect it (in one* *manuscript). "By Allah (SWT), if he (Abubakar) had ordered me to shift one of the* *mountains from its place, it would not have been harder for me than what he had* *ordered me concerning the collection of the Quran. So I started locating Quranic* *material and collecting it from parchments, scapula, leaf-stalks of date palms and* *from the memories of men who knew it by heart.* (Bukhari) Caliph Abubakar gave Zayd bin Thabit the responsibility to be in charge of the group. Why do you think Zayd bin Thabit was chosen to lead this group? Among other key Swahabas who undertook this huge responsibility were; Abdullah bin Masoud (RA) Ali bin Abi Talib (RA) Sayyidna Uthman bin Affan (RA), Ubay bin kaab (RA), Abdallah bin Amr bin al As (RA), Salim (RA), Aisha (RAA), Hafsa (RAA), Umm Salama (RAA), Abu Zayd among others. They began by collecting all the materials on which the Quran had been written on by the hrophets scribes and other companions. This group then agreed on the following conditions towards the task: 1. The verses must have been written down by at least two other companions. 2. The materials on which the verses were written on must be availed before the committee. 3. There must be two pious Muslim witnesses to testify the verses were actually dictated by the Prophet. **|** P a g e 166 ----- After the process of compilation, Zayd presented the compiled copy which was referred to as *Mashaf* to Caliph Abubakar who kept it under the custody of Lady Hafswa bint Umar (RAA). It was then used by Caliph Umar (RA) during his caliphate. Factors that facilitated the compilation of the Quran The process of compilation was not an easy task for the companions; however the following factors assisted them; 1. All the chapters of the Quran were already written down by the time the prophet died. 2. The prophet had already been guided by Angel Jibril (AS) on the order of the verses and surahs. 3. The Muslims had memorized the Quran in the order taught by the Prophet. 4. Some Swahabas like Ali (RA) had witnessed the final revelation to the Prophet. 5. Muslims had continuously recited the Quran and thus mastered it. Results of the compilation of the Quran The compilation of the Quran had several benefits to the Muslims. Among these benefits are; 1. It was very instrumental towards the preservation of the Quran. 2. It symbolized unity for the Muslim Ummah who could now uniformly recite the Quran. 3. It made the handling of the Quran easier since it was in one volume. 4. It made a clear distinction between Quran and other literature including Hadith. 5. It made reading of the Quran easier especially to the new converts. AYAT UL KURSIY [Q 2:255] **|** P a g e 167 ----- In a normal leadership situation, one symbol of power and authority is invested in the seat or chair. Can you think of other symbols that represent authority in the community? In Surah al Baqara, this power and authority is reflected in *Ayatul Kursiy* [Q 2:255]. The term *Kursiy* in Arabic means chair. In the Holy Quran, it refers to Allah (SWT)s *Majestic Throne*, which is equivalent to Allah (SWT)s absolute power and control over the affairs in the universe and the entire creation. The Ayah is given great emphasis in the Quran and the hrophet is reported to have said that it is the most important Ayah in the Quran. All Muslims should strive to learn it because of its greatness. Ubayy bin Ka'b (RA) reported: The Messenger of Allah (PBUH) said: "Abu Mundhir! Do you know which Ayah in Allah (SWT)'s Book is the greatest? I said: 'Allah (SWT) and His messenger know best.' He (Prophet) again said: 'Do you know which Ayah in Allah (SWT)'s Book, according to you, is the greatest?' I (Abu Mundhir) replied: It is 'Allah (SWT) la ilaha illa Huwal-Hayyul-Qayyum'. [Q 2:255]. Thereupon he (Prophet) patted me in the chest and said, ' Rejoice by your knowledge, O Abu Mundhir! (i.e. may this knowledge be a source of respect, honour and benefit to you)'." [Muslim] This verse is one of the four parts of Quran that are attached to Arsh (Allah (SWT)'s Throne) find out other verses that are attached to the Arsh of Allah (SWT)from Surah al Imran. [Q 3] The Ayah and its meaning are given below. Can you recite it correctly? **|** P a g e 168 ----- *Allah* *(SWT)u* *la* *ilaha* *illa huwal-Hayyul-Qayyum.* **Allah (SWT). There is no god but He, the Ever-Living, the One who takes care of** **all** **that** **exists.** *La* *ta-khu-dhu-hu* *sinatun* *wa* *la* *nawm.* **Nothing can make Him drowsy or make Him sleep** *La* *hu* *ma* *fissamawati* *wa* *ma* *fil-ardh* **His are all things in the heavens and on earth.** *Man dhalladhi yashfa 'u 'indahu illa bi idhnihi* **Who is there can intercede in His presence unless He allows it?** *Ya'lamu* *ma* *bayna* *aydiyhim* *wa* *ma* *khalfahum* **He knows what (appears to His creatures as) before or after or behind them,** *Wa la yu hiytuuna bi shay-in min 'ilmihi illa bi ma shaa-a* **While they will never have any of His Knowledge unless He wills.** *Wa* *si'a* *kursiyuhus-samaawaati* *wal-ardh* **His 'Kursi' contains the heavens and the earth,** *Wa* *la* *ya-uuduhu* *Hifdhuhuma* **and He doesn't feel tired in guarding and preserving them** *Wahuwal-* *'aliyul-* *'adheem* **for He is the Most High, the Supreme (in glory).** *Allah (SWT)'s names and attributes in this ayah:* 1. Allah (SWT): the only God who is worth of worship. **|** P a g e 169 ----- 2. Al-Hayy: The One who lives forever and has always lived. 3. Al-Qayyum: The One who survives by Himself, and looks after all by His Power. 4. Al-'Aliy : The Most High 5. Al-'Adheem : The Supreme, the Great, the Magnificent One. Reflections of Ayatul Kursiy from the prophets Hadith There is great benefit on reciting Ayatul Kursi, can you identify some of these benefits from the following hadith? *Narrated by Muhammad bin Sirin: Abu Huraira (RA)said, "Allah (SWT)'s Apostle put* *me in charge of the Zakat of Ramadhan (i.e. Zakat-ul-Fitr). Someone came to me and* *started scooping some of the foodstuff of (Zakat) with both hands. I caught him and* *told him that I would take him to Allah (SWT)'s Apostle." Then Abu Huraira told the* *whole narration and added, "He (i.e. the thief) said, 'Whenever you go to your bed,* *recite the Verse of "Al-Kursi" (2.255) for then a guardian from Allah (SWT) will be* *guarding you, and Satan will not approach you till dawn.' " On that the Prophet said,* *"He told you the truth, though he is a liar, and he (the thief) himself was the Satan."* [Bukhari Volume 004, Book 054, Hadith Number 495.] In another narration, of the Prophet *, Ubayy ibn Kab said that the Prophet (PBUH)* *asked him "Which ayah in the Book of Allah was the greatest?". He said, Allah and* *His Messenger know best. He repeated it several times, and then he said, Aayat al-* *Kursiy. [Muslim]* According to the Hadith the following are the times when Ayatul Kursi should be recited: 1. After every Fardh Salaat. (Only thing that will keep us waiting from entering Paradise will be death) 2. Just before sleep. (Allah (SWT) will send Angels to guard us while we are asleep) 3. While leaving the house to go somewhere. 4. When we are in desperate situations. 5. Reciting it on our possessions will bring Barakah (blessing) to it. 6. It will protect our house and children from Shaitaan. **|** P a g e 171 ----- Teachings of the verse 1. Allah (SWT) is One and the Only Lord of all creation. 2. He is ever living and will never die. a) He sustains everyone and everything. b) All creations need and rely on Him. c) He is in need of nothing and relies on nothing. 3. He is not caught by any unawareness or ignorance. a) He controls everything. b) Nothing escapes out of His knowledge. c) He is neither affected by slumber nor sleep. 4. Everything within the heavens and the earth are under His control. 5. None can intercede without His permission. 6. He has perfect knowledge of everything in His creation. i.e. knowledge of the present and the future. 7. Nobody attains any part of Allah (SWT)s knowledge except what Allah (SWT) wills. 8. The Throne of Allah (SWT) is even beyond the seven heavens and earths laid side by side. 9. Allah (SWT) is so Supreme that watching and protecting the heavens and the earth is a minor issue. 10. Allah (SWT) is the Most High and the Greatest. THE LAST THREE AYAHS OF SURAT UL BAQARA [Q 2:284-286] **|** P a g e 171 ----- *284.* *Lil* *la* *hi* *ma* *fii a* ***l*** *ssa* *mawa* *ti wa* *ma* *fi al-ar* *dhi* *wa-in tubduu* *ma* *fii anfusikum aw* *tukhfuuhu yu* *haas* *ibkum bihi Llahi fayaghfiru liman yash* *au* *wayu * *adhi* *bu man* *yas* *ha* *u wa* ***llah*** *u a* *la* *kulli shay-in qadiir* **To God belongs all that is in the heavens and on earth. Whether** **Ye show what is in your minds Or conceal it, God calls you to account for it. He** **forgives whom He pleases, and punishes whom He pleases. For God hath power** **over all things.** ***285.*** *A* *mana a* ***l*** *rrasuulu bim* *a* *unzila ilayhi min rabbihi walmuminuuna kullun* *am* *ana* *bi* ***llah*** *i wamal* *a* *-ikatihi wakutubihi warusulihi* *la* *nufarriqu bayna a* *ha* *din min rusulihi* *waq* *aal* *u sami in* *a* *wa* *at* *a* *na* *ghufr* *an* *aka rabban* *a* *wa-ilayka alma* *sw* *iir* ***u*** **The Apostle believes in what has been revealed to him from his Lord, as do the** **men of faith. Each one (of them) believes in God, His angels, His books, and His** **apostles. "We make no distinction (they say) between one and another of His** **apostles." And they say: "We hear, and we obey: (We seek) Your forgiveness,** **Our Lord, and to You is the end of all journeys.** *286.* *La* *yukallifu Llahu nafsan il* *la* *wusa* *ha* *la* *ha* *ma* *kasabat waalayh* *a ma* *iktasabat* *rabba* *na* *la* *tu-* *a* *kh* *idhna* *in nasii* *na* *aw akhtan* *a* *rabba* *na* *wal* *a* *t* *ahm* *il alay* *na isr* *an* *ka* *ma ha* *maltahu al* *a* *all* *adhi* *ina min qablin* *a* *rabba* *na* *wa* *la* *tu* *h* *ammil* *na ma* *la taq* *ata* **|** P a g e 172 ----- ****** ****** *la* *na* *bihi wa* *fu an* *na* *wa* *ghfir lan* *a* *war* *ha* *mn* *a* *anta mawl* *ana* *fan* *su* *r* *na* *a* *la* *alqawmil* *k* *af* *iriin* **On no soul does God Place a burden greater than it can bear. It gets every good** **that it earns, and it suffers every ill that if earns. (Pray:) "Our Lord! Condemn** **us not If we forget or fall into error; our Lord! Lay not on us a burden Like that** **which You Did lay on those before us; Our Lord! Lay not on us a burden greater** **than we have strength to bear. Blot out our sins, and grant us forgiveness, Have** **mercy on us. You are our Protector; Help us against those who stand against** **Faith.** Teachings of the verses The verse has several teachings. Among them are the following; 1. Muslims should believe in everything that was brought by Allah (SWT) to the messenger without doubt. 2. Believers should have strong faith in Allah (SWT), His Angels, His books and the messengers. 3. No messenger of Allah (SWT) should be discriminated upon nor be placed beyond or below the levels bestowed to them by Allah (SWT). 4. Muslims should hear, obey and implement the word of Allah (SWT). 5. Allah (SWT) is the only divine source of mercy and kindness to every creation. 6. Allah (SWT) cannot ask any soul beyond what it can bear. 7. He rewards and punishes people on what they do with divine Justice. 8. Muslims should pray for Allah (SWT)s forgiveness when they do anything wrong 9. They should pray for Allah (SWT)s mercy from the grievous punishments inflicted to the previous generations before Islam. 10. They should pray for support from Allah (SWT) in everything every time. **|** P a g e 173 ----- 11. They should pray for Allah (SWT)s shielding against disbelievers and disbelief **|** P a g e 174 ----- CHAPTER TWO: HADITH **ULUMUL HADITH** In Book one, we defined the term hadith as reports about the hrophets sayings, actions, approvals and qualities. We have learnt in Ulumul Quran that some Swahabas took the task of recording and compiling the Quran. Likewise, the Hadith were recorded, compiled and preserved separately from the Quran. ran you suggest reasons why they were separately recorded? In this chapter, we shall start by studying Ulumul Hadith. This is the scientific study of Hadith, which involves the analysis of the components of hadith, growth and development, classification and transmission. *Muhadith* During the time of the time of the Prophet, he used to teach the Swahabas his Sunnah. By the time of his death, he had left behind a number of swahabas who had learnt the Hadith from him. These companions formed the main source of reference for the Muslims. They thus comprised of the Muhadithun (singular Muhadith). From the above explanation, we learn that a Muhadith is a Muslim who memorized a great number of Hadith from either the prophet or his close companions and narrated them. Among the renown Muhadithin are the following; The four raliphs, Aisha (RAA), Abu Huraira (RA), Amr bin Al As (RA), AbdulRahamn bin Awf (RA), Abdullah bin Masoud (RA), Anas bin Malik (RA), Abdullah bin Abass (RA), Abdullah ibn Umar (RA) and Abu Dharr (RA) Can you find out more examples of Muhadithin from books of Hadith and from other sources of Islamic literature. **|** P a g e 175 ----- **Qualities of a muhadith** Due to its importance, Hadith could not just be accepted from any person. Why do you think it is so? Hadith were only accepted from Muslims who met certain qualities. Some of these qualities are as follows; 1. They should be persons of sound mind (.i.e. mentally upright or sane). 2. Should be exemplary in character and uphold good moral standards. 3. Should be pious and righteous (God fearing). 4. They must have good knowledge of the Quran and its related sciences. 5. They should be conversant with hadith and its related sciences. 6. Should be conversant with Arabic language. 7. They must possess a good and retentive memory. 8. Should be trustworthy, reliable and a have good leadership record. **Growth and development of Hadith literature** Growth is the increase in size while development is the advancement in standards or improvement in quality of something. Growth of hadith refers to the increase in the number of users of Hadith as Islam expanded to other parts of the world. It became very necessary for the Hadith to be studied and preserved. In this subtopic, we are going to learn about the different stages through which hadith literature passed to eventually come up with different classes of hadith based on their authenticity. **First period:** Time of the prophet During the time of the Prophet, hadith came as instructions from the prophet himself since he was alive. He used to give guidance and insight to all and would instruct the Swahabas to teach other Muslims. Similar instructions were also given by the prophet when addressing public gatherings. Can you give some examples of gatherings which the Prophet would use to teach his Hadith? When the Islamic empire expanded, the prophet would send teachers with instructions containing his Hadith to teach new **|** P a g e 176 ----- converts. The mosques and Madrassas were used as learning centers. We can still see this happening today where Muslim parents send their children to the Mosques and Madrassas to learn the Quran and Hadith. Some pious Muslims among the Swahabas would also volunteer to disseminate the knowledge of hadith to others. The main method used to preserve hadith was through memorization. There were several methods used by the prophet to ensure that his hadith and Sunnah was learnt. These include the following; 1. He would ask his Swahaba to repeat the Hadith they had just learnt from him. 2. The prophet himself would repeat severally the instructions until the Swahabas had learnt. 3. The prophet used to receive delegations in his house and he would teach them his sunnah. 4. The prophet would carry out certain actions then ask them to repeat after him. 5. He taught his wives who in turn would teach the other women. 6. Swahabas with weak memory were allowed to write down the Hadith. **The second period:** The era of the Swahabas This is the period after the death of the Prophet which was characterized by collection and preservation of Hadith. The prophet had just passed on and the Swahabas saw the need to bring together all the teachings of the prophet. Since Islam had spread far and wide and many people had embraced the religion, it was necessary for the new converts to learn about the prophets teachings. These converts had not seen the **|** P a g e 177 ----- Prophet and therefore relied on the information given to them by the Swahabas led by the first four caliphs. It is during this period that different learning centers emerged. The caliphs facilitated the process of teaching and learning and would send teachers to various places some of these teachers were; Abdullah ibn Masoud (RA) and Abu Huraira (RA) **Third period:** The era of the Tabiun This phase came immediately after the demise of all the Swahabas, the last one to die being Anas ibn Malik. Writing of Hadith and compilation of the Quran took a center stage. Students made the writing of hadith more vital and they included the name of the transmitter alongside the Hadith. They developed the science of authenticity .i.e Abdul Malik bin Abdul Aziz started his first work known as *Al- Firas.* Analysis of the transmitters of Hadith was thoroughly carried out with commentaries of the Quran. Among the most notable compilers was Imam Malik who compiled his book *al Muwatta* . Other compilers like Abu Hanifa, Shaffi, and Ahmad bin Hanbal came up with schools of thought to teach Hadith. They taught Hadith as a science and each had students who emerged as his followers. These scholars classified Hadith according to their authenticity. However, it should be noted that hadith collected during this phase were not complete and exhaustive since they were gathered from different places or sources. This period saw a transition of hadith from oral means of transmission to a more definite written form. **Fourth period** : The era of the Tabi tabiun This period is considered as the golden age of hadith because there was the study of the narrators of hadith and the inclusion of the chain of narrators. In addition, the **|** P a g e 178 ----- study of the *science of men* was done and the nature of hadith was indicated as either sahih, hasan and dhaif. The hadith were arranged according to the subject matter and the scholars wrote the name of the swahaba on whose final authority the hadith laid. Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal and Imam Abu Hanifa were among the teachers of the key scholars during this phase. This period also witnessed the compilation of the six authentic collections of hadith also known as sahihu sittah. The sahihu sittah include; sahih Bukhari, sahih Muslim, sunan ibn Maja, sunan Abu aawoud, sunnan AN-Nasai and sunna Attirmidhy. **Fifth period** More books on hadith appeared during this period. The Jamu (compilation) method of analysis was adopted in verifying a hadith. This period closed the doors of collection and compilation of hadith. Factors that necessitated the collection and compilation of hadith There are several factors that led to collection and compilation of Hadith in the above periods. These factors are as follows; 1. The death of the prophet who was the key source of knowledge. 2. The Swahabas had time to compile and write down hadith since they were not engaged in any wars at the time. 3. The need to interpret the verses of the Quran using hadith. 4. Many Swahabas had dispersed into the expanding Muslim empire and therefore each needed a source of reference for the new converts. 5. Emergence of false hadith. **|** P a g e 179 ----- 6. Differences in opinion concerning the Islamic laws. 7. Death of most of the memorizers of Hadith. Significance of Hadith Hadith, also referred to as Sunnah, (the actions, sayings and silent permissions or disapprovals of the Prophet) is the second in rank after Quran words of Allah). It is as important as the Quran in the life of Muslims. Some of the significance of Hadith are as follows; - It is the second source of Islamic Shariah They supplements and clarify the teachings of the holy Quran and aid in explaining the hidden meaning of Quranic verses. Enhance the observance of fardh acts (obligatory duties) by giving guideline on their performance. Moulds the character of Muslims and govern all aspects of there lives as Muslims are obliged to follow the hrophets behavior in words and deeds. They guide Muslims in the comprehension and application of the teachings of the alorious Quran. Through the practice of Hadith, Muslims are able to preserve their rich Islamic culture since they exclusively cover all the aspects of life. They are a source of knowledge, wisdom and inspiration to the Muslim Ummah and assist in addressing the challenges of life. Hadith summarizes the hrophets way of life thus guiding the Muslim Ummah to emulate his character in the observance of Islamic teachings. A Muslim who observes and applies the teachings of Hadith receives Allah (SWT)s blessings and rewards. Components of Hadith The term component refers to the elements, constituents or parts of an item that forms a whole. If used in reference to hadith, it will include the two main parts of Hadith; Isnad and Matn. **|** P a g e 181 ----- *Sanad* or *isnad* is the chain of narrators of the hadith who heard the Prophet (PBUH) saying the hadith and later transmitted them to the other Muslims. *Matn* is the text, subject matter, content or the intended message found in a given hadith. Let us take the following hadith reported by Al-Bukhari as an example: *Al-Bukhari reported that; Yahya ibn Bukayr narrated to us from Al-Layth from `Uqayl* *from Ibn Shuhba from `Urwah from `A'ishah who said, Whenever the Prophet was* *given an option between two things, he used to select the easier of the two as long as it* *was not sinful; but if it was sinful, he would remain far from it.* From this example, we have learnt that more than one person can report a hadith. The phrase, *Al-Bukhari reported that: Yahya ibn Bukayr narrated to us from Al-Layth* *from `Uqayl from Ibn Shuhba from `Urwah from `A'ishah who said* represents the chain of narrators or *isnad* . The statement *Whenever the Prophet was given an option between two things* represents the *matn* of the hadith. Can you refer to several hadith and point out the chain of narrators and the text. Isnad and Matn are two components that are interdependent. The compilers of hadith came up with criteria of measuring the degree of their reliability through the study of Isnad and Matn. As a result, they gave the qualifications, features or rather the characteristics of a sound Isnad or matn of a Hadith. We shall learn more of this in Book three. **|** P a g e 181 ----- **CHAPTER THREE: PILLARS OF IMAN** **Need for Divine Guidance** A need is a requirement, demand or a necessity. It is something that is important or essential. Human being will always have needs that range from basic to tertiary. Such needs would include; food, shelter, clothing, education and health care. Can you think of other needs that are essential in human life? Among all these needs, there is one that Allah (SWT) himself provides to His people. This is the divine guidance. The term divine refers to sacred, holy or that which comes from Allah (SWT). Guidance is the information, instruction, rules and regulations or laws meant to give direction to a particular group of people. Therefore divine guidance refers to sacred or rather commandments, laws, injunctions, rules and regulation given by Allah (SWT) to humanity. Allah (SWT) created the universe and all that exists and then designed a set of guidance for man to adhere. That is why Allah (SWT) sent the guidance to the prophets who further directed their fellow mankind. We may have different types of guidance in life but the guidance of Allah (SWT) is unique. Allah (SWT) says, * Mankind were one community and Allah (SWT) send* *Prophets with glad tidings and warnings, and with them he send down the scripture in* **|** P a g e 182 ----- *truth to judge between people in matters wherein they differed. Only those to whom* *(the scripture) was given differed concerning it after clear proofs had come to them* *through hatred, one to another. Then Allah (SWT) by His leave guided those who* *believed to the truth of that wherein they differed. And Allah (SWT) guides whom He* *wills to a straight path.* [Q 2:213] From the above verse of the Quran, we learn that there are reasons that necessitated for divine guidance. Can you mention some of them? Let us now highlight some of the reasons as follows: 1. To be a source of reference that guides mankind to a complete way of life (.i.e. moral, social political and economically) 2. To serve as a warning to humanity against evil and enhance the performance of good deeds. 3. To gradually implement Allah (SWT)s commandments in order to enable man worship Him alone and avoid shirk. 4. To be a clear proof on the Day of Judgment that Allah (SWT) indeed sent down his guidance as part of justice to those who have faith. 5. To make the teachings of Allah (SWT) easy for man to follow. 6. To strengthen the hearts of the believers and give hope for the reward in the hereafter by giving knowledge of the unseen in the divine scriptures. **Revealed scriptures** What do you understand by the meaning of the term scripture? The term scripture is derived from a Latin word *Scriptura* which means writing. Technically this word refers to Holy books of a particular religion. Can you mention some of the world religions that you know of? For the religions you have mentioned, which scriptures does each use to derive its guidance and teachings? We may have many scriptures used by various religions but not all of these scriptures were revealed. Those that were revealed from Allah (SWT) have their characteristics which distinguish them from other books. **|** P a g e 183 ----- The following verse from the Quran identifies the scriptures that were revealed by Allah (SWT). Allah (SWT) says: *Say (O Muslims), We believe in Allah (SWT) and that which has been send* *down to us and that which has been send to Ibrahim (Abraham), Ismail (Ishamail),* *Ishaq (issac), Yaqub (Jacob) and to al Asbat-the offsprings of the twelve sons of* *Yaqub, and that which has been given to Musa (Moses), and Issa (Jesus), and that* *which has been given to prophets from their Lord. We make no distinction between* *any of them, and to Him we have submitted in Islam.* [Q 2:136] Revealed scriptures and their prophets |Prophet|Scripture| |---|---| |Musa (AS)|Taurat| |Issa (AS)|Injil| |Mohamad (PBUH)|Quran| |Daud (AS)|Zabur| |Ibrahim (AS)|Sahuf (scrolls)| **Table 1: revealed scriptures** **Belief in Prophets** In form one, we introduced the pillars of Iman and mentioned that they are six in number. Can you mention them? We learnt in Chapter one of this book that it is not fitting that Allah (SWT) speaks to human being directly but he sends a messenger. In order for Allah (SWT) to communicate his divine guidance, he sent prophets and messengers. Allah (SWT) sent prophets and messengers to specific generations except Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) who was sent to all humankind. Allah gave him this rank since he is the last prophet and was given the last book (The Holy Quran). In this chapter, we shall look at the Prophets of Allah (SWT). Can you give the meaning of the term Prophet? A Prophet is a human being who was assigned a special **|** P a g e 184 ----- divine mission by Allah in order to guide other humans. They either receive His guidance through Angel Jibril (AS) or directly from Him. Their main function is to bridge the gap between Allah (SWT) and His creatures hence Allah (SWT) has favored them to communicate His laws to mankind. All the prophets came from among the human beings. Despite the fact that they were human born they possessed some super human characteristics and qualities that other human beings did not have. The following are some of these characteristics: 1. They were all loyal and truthful to Allah (SWT). 2. All prophets always told the truth about the revelations they receive from Allah (SWT). 3. The prophets were Maasumin [.i.e. free from all kinds of sins] **4.** All Prophets never went against the orders of Allah (SWT) **.** 5. Prophets were reliable, trustworthy and dedicated in fulfilling Allah (SWT)s commands and duties that assigned to them. 6. Prophets possessed high intelligence, strong memory, and clear and superior minds. 7. All prophets were human in nature and were sent from among their people. 8. They were supported with miracles by the will of Allah (SWT) in order to show proof of their prophet hood and to cope with the challenges and evil plots of their disbelievers. **Prophets Mentioned in the Quran** Allah (SWT) sent several prophets and messengers on earth but chose to teach the Prophet only a few as revealed in the following verse. **|** P a g e 185 ----- Allah (SWT) says **,** *And indeed We have sent messengers before you (O Muhammad)* *of some of them We have related to you their story and some We have not related to* *you their story* [Q 40:78] Let us look at the following table showing the chronological order of the prophets |mentioned in the Quran.|Col2|Col3| |---|---|---| |NAME OF PROPHET|NATIONS TO WHICH THEY WERE SENT|NUMBER OF TIMES MENTIONED IN THE QURAN| |Adam (AS)|Banu Adam (The children of Adam)|25| |Idris (AS)[Enock]|Egypt|2| |Nuh (AS)[Noah]|Banu Nuhu|43| |Hud (AS)|Banu Ad near eemen|7| |Swaleh (AS)[Methusela]|Banu Thamud-Bedouin Arab tribe|9| |Ibrahim (AS)[Abraham]|People of Ibrahim|69| |Lut (AS)[Lot]|The people of Sodom and Gomorrah|27| |Ismail (AS)[Ishmael]|The Arab tribe of Yemen and Amalikites|12| |Ishaaq (AS)[Issack]|Cananites living in Syria and Palestine|17| |Yaqub (AS) [Jacob]|ASSIGNMENT|16| |Yussuf (AS)[Joseph]|Egyptians (Copts)|27| |Shuab (AS)[Jethro]|Madian people of Hijaz|11| |Ayub (AS)[Job]|People of Ayub|4| |Dhulkifl (AS)[Ezekiel]|Sham and Damascus|2| |Musa (AS)[Moses]|Banu Israil and the Egyptians|136| |Harun (AS)[Aron]|The generations of Firaun, Karun in Egypt|20| |Dawud (AS)[David]|Banu Israil|16| |Suleiman (AS) [Solomon]|Banu Israil|| |Iliyas (AS)[Elias]|People of Ilyas|2| |Alyasa (AS)[Elisha]|Banu Israil|2| **|** P a g e 186 ----- |Yunus (AS)[Jonah]|People of Nineveh|4| |---|---|---| |Zakariya (AS)[zacharia]|Banu Israil|7| |Yahyah (AS)[John the Baptist]|Banu Israil|5| |Issah (AS)[Jesus]|Banu Israil|29| |Muhammad (AS)[PBUH]|All mankind|4| **Ulul Azm (Messengers of strong will)** It is understood that some prophets chosen among the messengers are called *Ulul-* *Azm* due to their different qualities from the others. They are Ulul Azm because of their determination, patience and steadfastness in their work despite facing many challenges. All prophets mentioned in the Quran strove greatly to fulfill the holy duty assigned to them by Allah (SWT). From this perspective, no prophet should be discriminated because they were all sent as leaders to guide humankind. Prophet Muhammad emphasized this in the following hadith: *I am the closest to Isa (Jesus),* *the son of Mary, among all humans. Indeed prophets are half-brothers. Their* *religions are the same.* This should be taken into consideration when assessing prophecy and divine religions. The hrophets termed as Ulul Azm: Allah (SWT) mentions these prophets in the following verse *Therefore be patient (O* *Muhammad) as did the messengers of strong will and be in haste about them* *(disbeleivers)* [Q 46:35] **|** P a g e 187 ----- According to this verse we shall look at the five Ulul Azm prophets. **Nuh** Nuh (AS) was the first prophet among the Ulul Azm appointed by Allah (SWT) and sent to mankind with divine religious laws and a divine book. He invited his people to monotheism (belief in the Oneness of Allah (SWT)). Prophet Nuh struggled to end all kinds of segregations and eradicate injustice and cruelty among his people. He preached to his people and guided them to the path of Allah (SWT). This prophet of Allah (SWT) strived day and night to bring people to the straight path but his teachings were met with resistance by the ignorant, stubborn and unruly people. He ended up with a small group of followers after a very long period of preaching. Seeing these results, he asked Allah (SWT)s intervention through a prayer. The following is the prayer, He said: *O My Lord! Verily I have called to my people night and day* *(/i.e. secretly and openly to accept the doctrine of Islamic Monotheism), but all my* *calling added nothing but to (their) flight (from the truth). And verily, every time I* *called to them that you might forgive them, they thrust their fingers into their eyes,* *covered themselves up with their garments and persisted in their refusal), and* *magnified themselves in pride. Them verily I called to them openly (aloud). Then* *verily I proclaimed to them in public and I have appealed to them in private. I said to* *them: Ask forgiveness from your Lord, verily He is oft Forgiving; he will send rain to* *you in abundance and give you increase in wealth and children, and bestow on your* *garden and bestow on you rivers.* [Q 71:5-12] It is after Nuhs prayer the almighty Allah (SWT) destroyed the unbelievers by means of floods and cleansed the earth of their evil deeds. Since Allah (SWT) does not disappoint the prophets and those who believe and embrace the laws of monotheism, he saved Nuh (AS) and a small group of his followers. **|** P a g e 188 ----- This Holy Prophet (AS) is the founder of the religious laws of monotheism. Owing to his invaluable services rendered to the divine religion, he is allotted praise and greeting by Allah (SWT), thus **."Peace and salutation be to Nuh among the** **nations.** [Q 37:79 **]** **Ibrahim (AS)** Nabi Ibrahim (AS) was the son of Azar who was a prominent idol sculpture. He was raised in an idolatrous society but Allah (SWT) guided him at a young age to shun idol worship. By His sublime wisdom, the Almighty Allah (SWT) appointed Ibrahim (AS) as a prophet and a Messenger. Prophet Ibrahim (AS) was given a divine book (Suhuf) and became steadfast in fulfilling Allah (SWT) s commandments despite undergoing several trials. He advocated for monotheism and was the first person to call the divine religion as *"Islam",* meaning total submission to the will of Allah (SWT). The followers of this decree thus referred to as *"Muslims".* Prophet Musa (AS), Issa (AS) and Muhammad (PBUH) were all descendants of Ibrahim, preached monotheism and followed the straight path of Islam. The Quran repeatedly describes Prophet Ibrahim as a man who believed in Monotheism and was a model for mankind. Allah (SWT) says, **"Abraham was not a Jew nor yet a Christian; but he was true in Faith, and** **bowed his will to Allah (which is Islam), and he joined not gods with Allah"** [Q 3:67]. Prophet Ibrahim (AS) s piety and struggle against polytheism and idolatry earned him praise and reward from Allah (SWT). Allah (SWT) praised him as seen in the Quran... *We bestowed on him the praise of* *later generations. Peace be upon Ibrahim. That is how We recompense the righteous.* *He truly was one of Our believing servants.* [Q 37:108-111] **|** P a g e 189 ----- He was made a leader of all nations in the world. And (remember) when the Lord of Ibrahim (Abraham) (i.e. Allah) tried him with (certain) commands, which he fulfilled. He (Allah) said (to him), *Verily I am going to make you and Imam (a leader) for* *mankind (to follow you).* [Q 2:124] **Musa** Musa (AS) is the third of the Ulul 'Azm prophets' and had a divine book and divine religious laws. He was a descendant of prophet Y'aqub (AS). Prophet Musa (AS) was born at a time when the Israelites were living in Egypt and led by Fir'awn. Fir'awn was the King who was a polytheist and cruel to his people. He subjected them to abject poverty, slavery and hopelessness. Musa (AS) could not tolerate the suffering of his people in the hand of the Fir'awn. Allah (SWT) commanded Musa to go to Fir'awn and preach to him Tawheed the oneness of Allah. Allah (SWT) says, *Go you and your brother with My Ayat* *(proofs, evidences, signs) and do not, you both, slacken and become weak in my* *remembrance. Go both of you to Fir'awn verily he has transgressed (all bounds in* *disbelief and behaved as an arrogant and as a tyrant). And speak to him mildly,* *perhaps he may accept admonition or fear (Allah).* [Q 20:42-44] Although for many years Musa (AS) invited people to Tawheed, Fir'awn and his people showed no reaction other than toughness and disinterest. Allah then bestowed on prophet Musa miracles: 1. A stick that would turn into a living serpent when throw down. 2. The ability to make his hand shine when he removes it from his armpit. **|** P a g e 191 ----- These miracles were meant to challenge Fir'awn and his followers and show them Allahs signs, existence and power in order for them to follow Islamic monotheism. However, Fir'awn did not believe and thus Allah (SWT) commanded Musa (AS) to leave Egypt together with his followers. By the order of Allah (SWT), Musa (AS) migrated together with the Banu Israil and went from Egypt to Sinai desert at night. Through a miracle, Musa (AS) split the water of the Red sea and crossed it along with his people, but Fir'awn and his army were drowned. After this event, Allah (SWT) revealed the Tawrat to Musa (AS) and established the Shariah among the Banu Israil. **Issa (AS)** Prophet 'Isa (AS) is the fourth of the Ulul 'azm bestowed with a book and Shariah. Almighty Allah (SWT), in the Holy Quran, confirms a divine book called the "Injil" for 'Isa (AS), which was revealed to him. It is important to note that this divine Book from Allah is different from the Gospels written after the ascension of Isa bin Maryam on his life and mission. Allah (SWT) says, *I am a servant of Allah. He gave me the* *kitab (Injil) and made me a Prophet.* [Q 19:30] The circumstances of his birth were miraculous. His mother, Maryam, was pious virgin, who conceived through a miracle as mentioned in the Quran [Q 19:16-32]. Ruhul Qudus (Jibril (AS)) descended from heavens, gave her the good tidings of 'Isa's (AS) birth. Just like the other Ulul Azm, his mission was to preach Tawheed and establish monotheism. Prophet Issa prayed to Allah (SWT) to grant him miraculous powers in order to proof to the Banu Israil that he was a prophet sent down by Allah ((SWT). He was bestowed with several miracles which led to many people to trust him and follow the commandments of Allah (SWT). Despite the performance of these miracles, the disbelievers rejected him. He was met with resistance from his followers who wanted to kill him but Allah (SWT) saved him from the hands of the tyrants. The Glorious **|** P a g e 191 ----- Quran is absolutely clear that Prophet Isa (a.s.) did not die at the hands of the Romans and the Jews, but Allah (SWT) raised him to Himself. Allah (SWT) says, *That they (the Jews) said (in boast) "We killed Christ Jesus the* *son of Mary the Messenger of Allah"; but they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so* *it was made to appear to them; and those who differ therein are full of doubts with no* *(certain) knowledge but only conjecture to follow. For, of a surety they killed him not.* *Nay Allah raised him up unto Himself; and Allah is Exalted in Power Wise. And there* *is none of the People of the Book but must believe in him before his (Jesus) death;* *and on the Day of Judgment He will be a witness against them.* [Q 4:157-159] **Muhammad (PBUH)** In Book One, we learnt about the life history of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Can you recall his lineage and how he was given his prophet hood? Even before his Baath (prophet hood), Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) refrained from idol worship and was not interested in the worldly gains but would seek spiritual guidance in the cave of Hira. When Allah (SWT) gave him prophet hood, he preached monotheism and Tawheed just like the previous Ulul Azm. **The finality of Prophet Muhammad** Muhammad is the messenger of Allah (SWT) and is regarded as the last and final Prophet send by Allah (SWT) to guide humankind. Allah (SWT) sealed the prophet hood with him and completed the divine revelation meaning that there shall be no other Prophet after him. Allah (SWT) says, *Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but he is the* *messenger of Allah (SWT) and the last (end) of the Prophets. And Allah (SWT) is ever* *all Knower of everything.* [Q 33:40] This can be proved from the various names he was referred to: for example, he was called *Al-Aqib* meaning the one after whom there is no Prophet, *Al-Hashir*, and the one at whose feet the people will be resurrected. **|** P a g e 192 ----- Allah (SWT) sent the Injil (Gospel) and Tawrat (Tora) as glad tidings for his coming. We get the Prophesy of Mohammad from Nabi Issa (Jesus) thus: *And when Issah son of Mariam said: O children of Israil! Lo! I am the Messenger of* *Allah (SWT) unto you, confirming that which was revealed (before) me in the Torah,* *and bringing good tidings of a messenger who comes after me, whose name is* *Ahmad.* [Q 61:6] *Those who follow the messenger, the Prophet who can neither read nor write, whom* *they will find described in the Torah and the Gospel (which are) with them.* [Q 7:157] The term *Khatam an-nabuwwah* is derived from the Quranic phrase *Khatamun* *Nabiyyn* Seal of the prophets. hrophet Muhammad (hBUH) is referred to as the seal of the prophets because of the following reasons: 1. He was given the last book i.e. The Quran 2. His Ummah is the last and there shall be no other after his. 3. In the ladder of the prophets, he is the last one. 4. The message he was sent with is universal. **BELIEF IN QIYAMA** Read Quran [Q 3:181] The Quran reminds us time and again that this universe has been created temporarily and at an appointed time it will surely be annihilated. Thi stime is only know to Allah (SWT) as He says in the Quran, *Verily Allah (SWT) Alone has the knowledge of the* *Hour.* [Q 22:7]. **|** P a g e 193 ----- Do you know that everything that Allah (SWT) has created has a purpose? Allah (SWT) has created and given life to all the creatures. It is with no doubt that a day shall come when Allah (SWT) shall take this life through death. That exact day and time is only known to Him. What happens after the death of any living creature? Allah (SWT) who is the controller of the universe shall bring every living creature to account. This is the day referred to as Qiyama. Belief in Qiyama is the fifth pillar of Iman and it involves the recognition of the day set aside by Allah (SWT) for his creatures to give account of their deeds. This day has also been given other names. Can you mention some of these names and the verses of the Quran in which they have been mentioned? Apart from the names you have given Qiyama is also known by the following names: |Name|Meaning|Quranic reference| |---|---|---| |eaumul Baath|The Day of Resurrection|Q 58:6| |Yaumul deen|The Day of Judgment|Q 26:82| |Yaumul Hasrat|The Day of distress|Q 19:39| |Yaumul Jam-i|The Day of Assembly|Q 42:7| |Yaumul Taghabun|The Day of mutual loss and gain|Q 64:9| |Yaumul Akheer|The last day|Q 5:69| |Yaumul Qiyama|The Day of Resurrection|Q 75:6| |Yaumul Fasl|The Day of sorting out|Q 78:17| |eaumaul Saat|The hour|Q 22:7| |Yawmul-Maw'ood|Promised Day|Q 85:2| |Yawmul-Fath|Day of Decision|Q 32:29| |Yawmul-Wa'eed|Day of Warning|Q 50:20| **|** P a g e 194 ----- As earlier learnt at the beginning of this chapter, belief in Qiyama is one of the fundamentals and pillars of faith in Islam. No one is certain about this day except Allah (SWT); however, there are certain events that are going to take place in this world prior to the judgment. These events are referred to as signs of Qiyama. We learn from the Quran and Hadith that each prophet used to inform his people of this signs. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) explained clearly and in considerable detail the signs of the final hour. These signs are classified into minor and major. Let us begin by looking at the minor signs: Minor signs of Qiyama The minor signs are events of normal nature and concern the daily life prophesized by our Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) to take place before Qiyama. Most of these signs have already appeared while some are still occurring. Others will appear together with the major signs. Some of the minor signs include the following: 1. The rich will be helping each other while the poor will be suffering. 2. Trusts will be for profit making. 3. Oppression, jealousy, greed will be openly practiced. 4. It will be burdensome for Muslims to pay Zakat. 5. Men will obey their wives more than they will obey their mothers. 6. Violence will be perpetrated all over the world. 7. Friends will be treated, kindly while people will run away from their fathers. 8. Rising of voices in mosques 9. The worst people will be appointed as leaders. 10. Drinking wine will be common. 11. Men will be wearing silk. 12. Female singers and musical instruments will be popular. 13. The last people of the Ummah will be cursing the first people of the ummah. **|** P a g e 195 ----- 14. Believing in stars and rejecting *Qadar* (power) of Allah (SWT). Have you witnessed any of the above events in the community? This is then a clear sign that the day of reckoning is nearer. Major signs of Qiyama These are events of extra ordinary nature which Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) prophesized in his Hadith. Some of the signs include the following: 1. Appearing of the *Mahdi* (the Promised). 2. Appearing of *Masih Dajjal* (the Antichrist). 3. Appearing of Issa bin Mariam who will bring justice and kill Masih Dajjal. 4. Appearing of *Yajuj and Majuj* (Gog and Magog). 5. Destroying of the Al kaaba. 6. Rising of the sun from West to East. 7. Emergence of the beast from the earth. 8. Appearing of Smoke. 9. Wind will take souls of the believers. 10. Quran will be taken up to heaven. 11. Fire that will drive people to their last gathering. 12. Three sounds of the trumpet: 1. The first one will terrify everyone. 2. The second will strike everyone dead. 3. The third will resurrect everyone. **Stages of Qiyama** How many of us would like to go to Paradise? Definitely, each one of us would wish to enter the Paradise of Allah (SWT). We need to realize that no soul shall enter paradise until it tastes death. Allah (SWT) says, *Every soul shall have a taste of* *death: And only on the Day of Judgment shall you be paid your full recompense. Only* *he who is saved far from the fire and admitted to the garden will have attained the* **|** P a g e 196 ----- *object (of light): For the life of this world is but goods and chattels of deception.* **[Q** **3:185]** Upon death, we shall go through certain stages until the final judgment. Let us look at these stages: **1.** **Death** At present, we are all living, carrying out our normal day-to-day activities with ease oblivious of any calamity befalling us. One such calamity, which is inevitable, is death. Everyone is scared of death. Why do you think this is so? This is due to the uncertainty of what lies beyond death. What do you understand by the term death? Allah says, *How can you disbelieve in Allah (SWT)? Seeing that you were dead and* *He gave you life. Then He will give you death, then again will bring you life (on the* *day of resurrection) and then unto him you will return.* [Q 2:28] According to Islam, death is the return of the souls to Allah (SWT) since He is the one who gives life and therefore He is the one with the right of taking it away. Allah (SWT) created death [Q 67:2], which gives us a key to the next stage of life. It is important for every Muslim to know that life continues in a spiritual form even after the soul is separated from the body. We believe in the direct relation between ones deeds on earth and the life hereafter. This means that one will be rewarded for their righteousness or punished for their transgression during the Day of Judgment. **2.** **Life after death** After death, one goes through different stages from the time a person is lowered into the grave to the time of the blowing of the trumpet to denote resurrection. Let us briefly look at each of the stages in brief: a) Barzakh **|** P a g e 197 ----- This is an Arabic term, which literally means a barrier, partition, veil or a curtain which stands between two things to prevent them from meeting. For example, that part or region of the ocean in which waves of both the sweet and the salty waters bounce and yet Allah (SWT) has provided between them an invisible barrier preventing the two from mixing. Allah (SWT) says: * It is He* *Has who has let free the two bodies of flowing water: one palpable and sweet* *and the other the other salt and bitter; yet has He made a barrier between them,* *a partition (Barzak) that is forbidden to be passed.* [Q 25:53] Technically, it refers to the period between death and resurrection. The matter of Barzakh is Ghaib (unseen and known to Allah alone). This is a stage kept by Allah (SWT) between our world and the other world from the time of ones death until the day of resurrection. Each and every individual shall enter the state of Barzakh. People who are alive cannot enter into this state until they pass through death. Allah (SWT) says, *Until, when death comes to one of you (those who join* *partners with Allah (SWT)) He says My Lord send me back, so that I may do* *good in that which I have left behind! No! It is but a word that He speaks; And* *behind them is Barzakh, a barrier until the day when they will be resurrected.* [Q 23:99-100] **b)** **Resurrection** Read Quran [Q 17:19-52]; [Q 99]; [Q 75]; [Q 79] The dead will not have an everlasting life in the grave. After the stage of Barzakh, they will be resurrected for preparation for the Day of Judgment. This will be followed by the end of the universe where Allah (SWT) will command Angel Israfil to blow the trumpet three times. The first trumpet will cause all the **|** P a g e 198 ----- living creatures of the heavens and the earth to fall unconscious except those spared by Allah (SWT). This day will see so many physical changes such us; The flattening of the earth, mountains turning to dust, cracking of the sky and setting it asunder, dispersion of all planets among others. All these events shall happen to the universe. Can you imagine this shocking state to the souls of those who transgress? This will be a pitiful situation, which we must all strive to evade from by doing of good deeds. The trumpet blown by Angel Israfil will put human kind under the following conditions: 1. Graves shall be turned upside down and the people shall be thrust out of the graves in their original physical bodies. 2. Everyone shall be given back his or her life and the souls shall be joined together with the bodies. 3. Humanity will be scattered like the moth. 4. Everyone will be running away from the people they loved, like friends running away from the best friend, a mother fleeing from the child. 5. Expectant mothers shall relieve off their burdens. 6. The nursing mothers will leave their suckling infants unattended (without breastfeeding them). 7. All human beings, believers and non believers, jinns, demons and even the animals will be gathered, nude, bear feet before Allah (SWT) 8. Human kind will stand awaiting the judgment and sweating in agony since the sun will be lowered to be above the head. 9. The pious or believers will be sheltered under the shed of Allah (SWT) When these conditions become intolerable, people will appeal to the Prophets and the messengers of Allah (SWT) to intercede with Allah (SWT) on their behalf so they can be relieve from the pain and suffering. c) **Judgment** [Q 3:185] The next stage that people will pass through after resurrection is Judgment. **|** P a g e 199 ----- We should understand that on the Day of Judgment Allah (SWT) will resurrect all human beings who have ever lived on the earth so that they can account for their deeds and assign them a reward of paradise or the punishment of hell fire. In Form one, we learnt about the Angels and their duties. Do you remember the two Angels in charge of recording the deeds of human beings? Allah (SWT) will gather before Him all of humankind on a flat expanse of ground waiting to receive their books showing how good or evil they were during their physical life on earth. Judgment shall depend on the content unscripted in each individuals book. The books are referred to us *Iliyun* where the record of the righteous is inscribed [Q 83:18-20] and *Sijin* shall hold a record of the evil doers. [Q 83:7-9] This is the time when Allah (SWT) will set up scales and weights to weigh the deeds of human beings on earth. Allah (SWT) says: *We shall set up scales of justice for the* *Day of Judgment, so that not a soul will be dealt with unjustly in the least. And if there* *be (No more than) the weight of a mustard seed, we will bring it (to account): And* *enough we are to take account.* [Q 21:47] These scales shall indicate the good and the evils committed by everyone. Allah (SWT) says: *Then shall anyone who has an atoms weight of good, see it. And* *anyone who has done an atoms weight of evil, shall see it.* [Q 99:7-8] Do you know that some people shall receive their books of account in their right hands, while others will receive them from the back and in their left hands? Find out the verses of the Quran from surah al Inshiqaaq [Q 81:6-10] Everyone will have the work of their lives fastened on their necks then Allah (SWT) will ask them to read from their books. Allah (SWT): *Every mans fate we have* *fastened on his neck: On the Day of Judgment we shall bring out for him a scroll,* *which he will see, spread open. (It will be said to him) Read your own record;* *sufficient is your soul this day to make out an account against you.* [Q 17:13-14] **|** P a g e 211 ----- **1.** **Prophets intercession** Read Quran [Q 20:109] [Q 19:87] In these verses, you will notice the mention of the word *shufa*, (intersession). What does this word mean? Why do you think people will start going to the prophets and messengers for intercession? It is because of distress and suffering in agony in a day where Allah (SWT) shall not accept the intercession of any person except the one whom He will have chosen. Can you guess who this noble person will be? One who shall get the noble honour to intercede for the entire humankind? That person is none other than the beloved hrophet of Allah (SWT) Muhammad (hBUH). Allah (SWT)s servants who will be suffering from worries and troubles will not bear the consequences of that day and will turn to Adam, then to Nuh, then to Ibrahim, then to Moses, then to Issah and finally to the *Khalilullah(the friend of Allah)* ; the holy prophet Muhammad. The noble Prophet will go down to his knees and prostrate, pleading with Allah (SWT) on behalf of humankind to declare judgment to his servants. We Muslims believe in the special great intercession of the Prophet (SWT), the most noble of all the Prophets. During that day of distress, people will suffer from the pangs of hunger and thirst. There will be only one pool of water under the control of the prophet (PBUH). Its water will be whiter than milk, sweeter than honey and better in fragrance. Only believers among the prophets followers will drink from it and after which will never be thirsty. 2. **The** ***Siraat*** ( **The straight path** ) Have you ever heard about the Siraat? This is straight path which Allah (SWT) (SWT) has set up above the hell fire for every person to pass over it according to their deeds. The first of them will pass over it as fast as lightening, then as fast wind, then as fast as birds and then as fast as a running man. During all this time, the Prophet will be standing on the path praying, Allah (SWT) Save! Save! as other peoples deeds will fall short. Other people will cross crawling. At both sides of the Siraat, are hooks **|** P a g e 211 ----- designed to take whom Allah (SWT) pleases: Some are going to be saved, while others will be thrown into hell. As Muslims, we believe in all that Allah (SWT) and the Prophet said concerning the Day of Judgment and may Allah (SWT) save us from this tremendous horror. d) **Paradise and hell** [Q 98:6-8]; [Q 78] We have learnt in this chapter that intercession is exclusively limited to Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). We have also learnt that the believers will pass over the Siraat without any difficulty while the disbelievers will fall into hell. We Muslims believe in paradise and hell. The pious and righteous will remain in paradise forever enjoying its bliss, while the disbelievers and evil doers will forever be in hell. Let us now look at the characteristics of both the paradise and hell: **Description of Paradise** Read the following verses from the Quran describing paradise: [Q 17:11. Q 16:11-21: Q 56:22-26] The following are some of the characteristics of paradise from Quran and Hadith: 1. Paradise exists now and will never perish. 2. Nobody has ever seen the paradise. 3. Its ground and its soil are composed of musk and saffron. 4. Its roof is the throne of Allah (SWT) the Most Merciful 5. The rocks are pearls and Jewells. 6. There are gardens for entertainment 7. The dweller of the paradise will enjoy in joy. 8. It will be amidst gardens and water springs. 9. The buildings are made of gold and silver. 10. The dwellers of paradise will have everything that they may have ever desired on earth. 11. There will be chaste women with beautiful eyes. **|** P a g e 212 ----- 12. There are immaterial male servants serving its dwellers with whatever they will like. 13. Everlasting gardens with trees made of gold and silver and the fruits of trees are softer than butter and sweeter than honey. 14. The utensils like trays and cups are crystal clear and made of gold and silver. 15. Green garments of fine and thick silk. 16. All grief shall be removed with nonsense of fatigue, toil, hatred, weakness vain speaking or death. 17. Beautiful mansions and lofty rooms with rich carpets spread out. 18. Fruits of all kind as deserved and in plenty and they will be at the reach of our hands. 19. Beneath the mansions are running springs with wine, which is pure, and sealed, fresh water, milk and clarified honey delicious to those who drink. i.e. Salsabila, Kaafoor,Tasnim **Description of Hell** Read this verse concerning hell. [Q 18:29] The following are some of the features of hell: 1. Hell exists now and will never perish. 2. It has gates that have been assigned specific class of sinners. 3. It has various levels for various sinful acts. [Q 6:132] 4. There shall be vaults over them[Q 90:19-20] 5. The fathomless pits will not be filled up and shall keep on asking for more. **|** P a g e 213 ----- 6. It is guarded by Angels who are stern and do go against that which Allah (SWT) commands them to do. 7. Its fuel is human beings [Q 3:10], jinns [Q 72:14-15], false gods [Q21:98-99] and stones [Q 2:24]; [Q66:6]. 8. The intensity of the fire has sixty nine more portions than the ordinary fire.[Narrated by Abu Huraira-Sahih Bukhari] 9. The companions of hell fire shall be drinking boiling water[Q 56:41-44] 10. Its fire throws sparks to the size of a palace.[Q 77:32] **Quranic concept of Adl (Divine Justice)** *Adl* is an Arabic term which means Justice. Justice refers to the ability to exercise rightful, fare treatment in ones dealings and be neutral in action. Just as Allah (SWT) encourages human beings to emulate some of His attributes, such as being *patient* and *forgiving*, He also requires mankind to follow the ways of justice. Technically, the term *Adl* refers to Allah (SWT)s divine Justice. It elaborates the way in which Allah (SWT) exercises his profound judgment to his creatures. Justice is a concept that is usually related to equality in the eyes of the law; it means that the law should treat equally people who adhere to its rules and norms, regardless of their social, political or economic status. Have you learnt in History about the justice system in Kenya which is headed by the chief Justice? If so, how do the courts in Kenya work? When those people who are led are sure of receiving justice from their leader, they always guard against breaking the law. At the same time, knowing that there will be recognition and reward for loyalty, they are encouraged to be obedient. Justice attracts honour, and loyalty, while injustice is corrupt and evil. Let us now look at divine Justice. Divine justice Read [Q 36:51-54] **|** P a g e 214 ----- From these verses, you will realize that Allah (SWT)s justice is definite, none discriminative and does not fold any bias because his teachings are very clear and straight forward. He does not have a cause for injustice towards His creatures and therefore expects the human beings to reciprocate the same to self, Allah (SWT) and other creatures. We have looked at how Allah (SWT) has enjoined on man to deal justly in all dealings. The absolute justice of Allah (SWT) has been repeatedly declared in the Holy Quran. Let us consider the following example: *Verily, Allah (SWT) commands Adl (fairness, equity, justice) Ihsaan (excellence in* *servitude to Allah (SWT), benevolence towards people, graciousness in dealings) and* *giving to those close to you, while He forbids Fahshaa (lewdness, indecency,* *licentiousness, immorality), Munkar (bad actions, undesirable activities, generally* *unaccepted behaviour, not fulfilling ones obligations), and Baghy (rebellion,* *transgressing limits, exploiting or violating others rights, abuse of authority or* *freedom). He admonishes you so that you heed the advice.* [Q 16:90] The prophet (PBUH) also emphasized on the importance of justice in the following Hadith: *Abdullah Ibn Umar (RA) narrated that the Prophet (PBUH) said, The fair and just* *people who are equitable: in passing judgments, in dealing with their family members* *and in using the authority delegated to them, will be on the pulpits of Noor in the* *audience of Allah (SWT).* (Muslim) From the above Hadith and verse of the Quran, what do you learn about divine Justice? **Significance of Belief in Qiyama to the life of a Muslim** As you have earlier learnt that justice is a main concern in Islam, it is important that humankind get justice in this world and the hereafter. For example, in the school situation, a student will receive good results after he or she has worked hard. One who is lazy will definitely perform poorly because that is what is expected out of him. In other words, there is accountability. The account of the deeds of everyone in this **|** P a g e 215 ----- world is being maintained by the two Angels mentioned earlier, Atid and Raqib. It is therefore very important for Muslims to maintain this belief in order to moderate their character for none of his creatures shall escape the judgment. Allah (SWT) says in Surah al Jumua; ###### ##### ###### [] *Say: "Verily, the death from which you flee, will surely meet you,* ###### [] [] #### [ ] [] ###### *Then you will be sent back to the Knower of the unseen and the seen, and He will* *inform you about what you used to do.''* [Q 62:8] Allah (SWT) says, *Know well that the life of this world is merely sport and diversion* *and adornment and an object of your boasting with one another, and a rivalry in the* *multiplication of riches and children. Its likeness is that of rain: when it produces* *vegetation it delights the tillers. But then it withers and you see it turn yellow, and* *then it crumbles away. In the Hereafter there is (either) grievous chastisement (or)* *forgiveness from Allah (SWT) and (His) good pleasure. The life of this world is* *nothing but delusion.* [Q 57:20] Allah (SWT) is telling us in this verses that this life is just but a play. Why is it so important for the Muslims to believe in this day? Let us consider the following reasons: 1. It is the fifth pillar of Iman. 2. It clearly spells out mans relation with his creator and reminds him that one day he will return to Allah (SWT). 3. It awakens mans spirit of preparing for the grand day by doing acts of worship. 4. It promotes equality of mankind before Allah (SWT). This is a day set **|** P a g e 216 ----- aside with fair judgment for all his creatures regardless of colour, race or tribe. **|** P a g e 217 ----- 5. The knowledge of paradise and hell motivates man to do good deeds and avoid evil. 6. It gives man the courage to fight evil in order to avoid Allah (SWT)s punishment in the fire. 7. Allah (SWT) has commanded man to believe in this day thus it shows obedience of humankind to the commandments of Allah (SWT). 8. It regulates the relationship between man and his fellow man because it enhances peace and harmony. 9. It develops ones taqwa .i.e. fear of Allah (SWT). 10. It instills mental peace in man as he is able to be patient when waiting for the grand assembly knowing exactly what to expect on this great day. 11. It awakens consciousness in one to be aware of the consequences of his action on the day assembly. 12. It strengthens the belief in the prophets among the Muslims since they taught on the belief in the day of recompense. 13. Man is able to develop confidence and recognize the special powers of Allah (SWT). 14. It fosters in humankind the spirit of asking for tawba from Allah (SWT). **CHAPTER FOUR: DEVOTIONAL ACTS** **The meaning of Saum** Read [Q 2:183] **|** P a g e 218 ----- We learnt in book one that there are five pillars of Islam. Can you mention them in their order? Which ones among them did we learn in Book One? In this chapter we are going to learn about Saum. This is the fourth pillar of Islam. Literally Saum means controlling ones self from any forms of distractions. This can be exemplified when Mariam, the mother of Nabi Issah was expecting the child, Allah (SWT) commanded her, *So eat and drink and be glad. And if you see any human* *being, say: Verily I have vowed a fast to the Most Gracious (Allah (SWT)) so I shall* *not speak to any human being this day.* [Q 19:26] Technically, Saum is a term used to refer to fasting, which in Islam is an act of abstaining from all evils, eating, drinking and enjoying sexually pleasure from dawn to dust during the holy month of Ramadhan. Is fasting only ordained for the Muslims? From the above verse, you will realize that Allah (SWT) ordained the practice of fasting to the ummah before Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Which is this ummah referred to in these verses? Let us consider the following: 1. The Jews used to fast in the remembrance of the return of prophet Musa (AS) from mount Sinai where he had gone to talk to Allah (SWT) 2. Prophets Musa and Issah used to fast four forty days and nights. 3. Prophet Daud (AS) used to fast on alternating days throughout his life. The prophet (PBUH) commended that this was the best Saum amongst all in his Hadith *The best fasting before Allah (SWT) is the fasting of* *Nabi Daud. He used to fast for one day and eat for one day.* ( Ahmad bin Hanbal) 4. When Prophet Muhammad migrated to Madina, he found the Jews engaging in fast on the 10 [th] of Muharam to remember the day Allah (SWT) saved Prophet Nuh (AS) with his ummah from the floods using the *Safina* (Ark). **Significance of Saum** In this chapter, we have learnt that fasting (Saum) was prescribed to the ummah even before hrophet Muhammads. Why do you think this was so? This indicates that there **|** P a g e 219 ----- are a lot of benefits socially, morally, economically and even for the health of individuals among others in the community. As you are aware, every aspect of Ibadah plays an important role in the lives of a Muslim. It moulds not only their character but also strengthens their relationship with Allah (SWT). Let us now look at some of the benefits of fasting in Islam. **Social benefits** 1. It instills a sense of discipline through restraining oneself from all the evils. During fasting, a Muslim engages in Swalat and other acts of worship that prevents him from doing evil deeds. 2. It promotes brotherhood and unity. During this month Muslims perform most of the prayers together for example taraweh. They also share their meals during the Iftar and are encouraged to give sadaqa to the less fortunate. 3. It shields one from evil. During the day and the nights of the month of fasting, the acts of Ibadah are heavily rewarded by Allah (SWT). This encourages the Muslims to shun evil and keep practicing the good deeds. 4. The fasting experience helps a Muslim to control his or her desires thus contributing to emotional balance. 5. It prepares one to face hardships like famine as you are expected to abstain from foods and drinks while at the same time one is expected to perform the normal duties. 6. A Muslim gets rid of undesirable habits like backbiting, rumor mongering among others. We shall discuss some of these habits later on in this chapter. **Economic benefits of fasting** 7. It promotes good health because the excessive fat is burnt during fasting. 8. Improved eating habits. (Escape from unhealthy munching habits). 9. Promotes sound budgeting because it reduces the number of meals. 10. To empathize with less fortunate members of humanity who suffer from hunger due to poverty. **Spiritual significance of fasting** **|** P a g e 220 ----- *1.* Allah (SWT) directly rewards fasting because He is the only one who knows the validity of the fast of a Muslim. Allah (SWT) says in Hadith Qudsy, *Saum* *is for me and am the one who is going to reward it.* 2. Fasting strengthens ones faith because throughout the fasting period, a Muslim engages in acts of worship that brings him closer to Allah (SWT). 3. Its a commandment from Allah (SWT) and the fourth pillar of Islam. Allah (SWT) is the one who prescribed fasting so that the Muslims may be able to worship and fear him. 4. It increases concentration in acts of worship, including Swalat. During fasting, a Muslim is required to increase the acts of Ibadah and the performance of good deeds. Such religious acts like Dhikr and supplications are more enjoyable. 5. It instill a source of loyalty and obedience to Allah (SWT) 6. Peace of mind and tranquility occurs during the entire month of fasting. A Muslim is continuously engaged in worship and prayers throughout the month which brings him closer to Allah (SWT) thus giving him hope of meeting with his creator on the day of Qiyama. This makes him humble, fortified and patient throughout the entire month. **Types of Saum** **There are various types of Saum** 1. Fardh (obligatory ) This is the compulsory type of fast observed during the holy month of Ramadhan. Allah (SWT) has ordained fasting during this month for all Muslims who are sane, have attained puberty and are in good health. A Muslim earns **|** P a g e 211 ----- rewards from Allah (SWT) for observing this fast and if one deliberately abstains from it they earn sins. 2. Sunnah (optional) These are the recommended fasts performed to follow the traditions of the Prophet. A Muslim is at liberty to perform the fast and he is rewarded by Allah (SWT). If one does not perform this fast, he does not get any sins. Let us look at some of the Sunnah fasts: 1. Fasting on Monday and Thursday of every week. 2. Fasting on the 9 [th] ( *Taasua* ) and 10 [th] *(Ashura)* of the month of Muharam. 3. Fasting during the first nine days of Dhul Hijja especially on Yaumul Arafat (9 [th] of Dhul Hijja) 4. auring the white days ( *Ayamul Beidh* ) of every lunar months of the Islamic calendar. These are 13 [th], 14 [th] and 15 [th] day. *5.* Fasting any six days of the month of Shawal. *(Sittatu shawal)* 6. Nadhir (vow) *Nadhir* is an Arabic word which means to vow. Islam has made it mandatory for Muslims to fulfill the vows they make. These vows should be made on acts that are lawful. Therefore if one vows to fast, then the fast must be observed. This is referred to as Nadhir fast. For example a student can vow to fast for some days if he or she performs well in the exams. 7. Qadha The term *Qadha* means to compensate or to pay up for a missed obligatory duty. In fasting, it refers to the compensation of the days one missed to fast during the month of Ramadhan for acceptable reasons. We shall discuss these reasons later on in this chapter. 8. Kafara **|** P a g e 211 ----- It refers to the fast observed for compensation of a sin committed or an act omitted in order to expiate for the sin. It is a must to perform Kaffara fast in the events of any of the following: 1. If a husband likens his wife to his mother (ahihar), the Quran says he should fast for sixty consecutive days. 2. If one performs sex during the day in the month of Ramadhan. 3. If one omits an integral part of Hajj and is not able to offer a sacrifice as Kaffara, then the person shall fast. This may include; shaving the hair, failing to spend three nights at Mina or failing to slaughter an animal. 4. Nafl (Voluntary fast) These are optional fasts which one may voluntarily observe on any day except the forbidden days. **Forbidden days to fast** These are the days when a Muslim is not allowed to observe fast unless it is the obligatory. 1. The two days of 'idd The day of Idd ul Fitr is of breaking the fast, of Ramadan while on the 'idd ul Adha Muslims should eat from what you sacrifice." This is related by Ahmad,an-Nasa'i, atTirmizhi, Abu Dawud, and Ibn Majah. 2. The days of *Tashreeq* (three days following the 'Id al-Adha) It is not permissible to fast during the three days following the 'Idal-Azha. Abu Hurairah reported that the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) send 'Abdullah ibn Huzaqah to announce at Mina: *"You are not fast these days. They are days of eating and* *drinking and remembering Allah."* (Ahmad bin Hanbal) 3. To single out Friday as a day of fasting Friday is a kind of weekly 'id for Muslims and, therefore, it is prohibited to fast on this day alone. If one fasts on the day before or after it, or if it is a day that one customarily **|** P a g e 212 ----- fasts on (for example, the 13th, 14th, or 15th of the month), or if it is the day of 'Arafah or 'Ashurah, then it is allowed. 4. Singling out Saturday or Sunday as a day of fasting As-Sama' relates that the Prophet (PBUH) said: *"Do not fast on Saturdays unless it is* *an obligatory fast. [You should not fast] even if you do not find anything [to eat] save* *some grape peelings or a branch of a tree to chew on."* (Ahmad, an-Nasa'i, at Tirmidhi, Abu Dawud, Ibn Majah) Umm Salamah narrated, 'The Messenger of Allah used to fast more often on Saturdays and Sundays than on the other clays. He would say, *"They are the 'Idds of* *the polytheists, and I love to act contrary to what they do.* " (An-Nasa'i) 5. Yaummul *Shakk* on the "day of doubt" 6. Fasting, every day of the year It is forbidden to do so because there are certain days of the year on which one is not allowed to fast. The Messenger of Allah said: *"There is no [reward for] fasting for the* *one who perpetually fasts."* (Ahmad, al-Bukhari, and Muslim) 7. Fasting consecutive days without eating at all [al-wisal] Abu Hurairah reported that the Prophet (PBUH) said: *"Do not perform al-wisal." He* *said that three times and the people said to him: "But you perform al-wisal, O* *Messenger of Allah!" He said: "You are not like me in that matter. I spend the night in* *such a state that Allah feeds me and gives me to drink. Devote yourselves to the deeds* *which you can perform."* ( al-Bukhari and Muslim.) **Desirable Acts in the Month of Ramadhan** This refers to the acts that are pleasant, worthwhile and those that increase the rewards of fasting. They include; 1. Increasing the recitation of the Quran. 2. Breaking of fast with odd number of dates. 3. Sharing the food with other Muslims during the Iftar. 4. Breaking the fast immediately after sunset without delays. **|** P a g e 213 ----- 5. Supplicating and making Duas and bringing Dhikr ( glorifying Allah (SWT)s name) 6. Performing itqaf during the nights of the last ten days of the month of Ramadhan. 7. rontrolling ones eating habits. 8. Indulging in daawa activities. **Exemption from Fasting:** Islam is a religion of moderation. Saum has been ordained to all Muslims. However it has also provided exemptions for some categories of people which are either exempted entirely or temporarily. In the case of temporary prohibitions one is expected to repay the days missed. The religion of Islam does not advocate for punishment and torture. Saum is therefore an act of Ibadah performed by sincerity in the heart and pleasure. Some people are exempted from the acts of Ibadah. The exempted include the following categories: 1. Temporary 2. Entirely We shall start by discussing those persons temporarily exempted; Those persons who are temporarily exempted from fasting include the following: 1. Muslim travelers covering a distance of about fifty miles or more. They are allowed to temporarily break their fast during their travel but will however make up for the days they did not fast in later days. However, it is recommended that they observe fast in case they will not encounter any extraordinary hardships. 2. Children who have not attained the age of maturity. However, Muslim parents are advised to encourage them to fast for a few days 3. Expectant Muslim women are exempted from fasting for fear of their state of health. This is so especially when their fasting will endanger both their lives and that of the child in the womb. 4. Women who are nursing their children may temporarily break the fast. Especially when fasting is likely to endanger the life and health of their infants by depriving them breast milk or even affect their health. **|** P a g e 214 ----- 5. Women in their menstruation period but not exceeding fifteen days should postpone the fast until when they are pure. Such women are not allowed to fast even if they are willing to do so. 6. It is also recommended for those engaging in Jihad (war in the way of Allah (SWT)). Those entirely exempted from fasting include: 1. People who are permanently insane and are unaccountable for their deeds should not fast just like the way they have been exempted from performing other obligatory acts of worship. They are not obliged to any form of compensation. 2. Old and weak men and women who are cannot bear the hardship of fast. However, they should offer, one needy Muslim an average of one days meal or its value. This compensation indicates that whenever they can fast even for one day of the month, they should do so, and compensate for the rest. 3. Persons with terminal illness and are on continuous medication and special care. These would include, people suffering from, severe cases of diabetes, HIV Aids, cancer among others ailments. 4. Muslim women who give birth every year since they will need energy to breastfeed and recover the lost blood during post birth bleeding. **Nullifiers of fasting** Nullifiers refer to those conditions, circumstances or things that invalidate the acts of Ibadah. In Form One, we discussed the nullifiers of Wudhu and Swalat. Can you mention some of them? Likewise, Saum has its nullifiers as we shall mention below: 1. Eating and drinking deliberately. 2. Post-natal bleeding occurs to a woman who has just given birth. Her Saum is nullified immediately. 3. Denouncing the Islamic faith while fasting. **|** P a g e 215 ----- 4. Taking supplements and nutritional injections or drips. *5.* Vomiting intentionally. The Prophet (PBUH) *said: If someone had a* *sudden attack of vomiting, no atonement is required of him, but if he* *vomits intentionally he must make atonement.* ( Bukhari and Muslim) 6. In the event that a Muslim woman receives her monthly bleeding (Heidh) then her fast is nullified. 7. Intentionally committing murder. 8. Ejaculation of sperms from masturbation or sleep. 9. Making the intention to break the fast before. 10. Loosing of ones senses through fainting or becoming insane. **Importance of the Month of Ramadhan** Read [Q 2:185]; [Q 97] Out of the twelve months in the Islamic calendar, there are certain months that Allah (SWT) has blessed more than the others. Among these months is the Holy month of Ramadhan. It has its own significance to Muslims as follows: 1. This is the month in which the Quran was sent down from Lawhil Mahfudh to Baitul Izzah. 2. It is the month in which Allah (SWT) has promised paradise for the performance of deeds. 3. It is the month in which Allah (SWT) extends his blessings, forgiveness, mercy and those Muslims who follow his teachings are kept away from the fire. 4. It is the month in which we find the Lailatul Qadr (the night of power) in which performance of Ibadah is better than 83 years. Allah also increases sustenance to those performing Ibadah during this night. 5. In this month the Angels descent, among them Angel Jibril (AS) and they ask Allah (SWT)s forgiveness for the Muslim Ummah. 6. It is the month in which Allah (SWT) has ordained the special prayer of *Taraweh* which earns Muslims rewards. 7. auring this month, Satan is far removed and locked up, his face is darkened. This is to allow the believers to perform their Ibadah in peace. **|** P a g e 216 ----- 8. Muslim Ummah seek and receive forgiveness from Allah (SWT) for their sins and shortcomings 9. The doors of the Janna are open while Allah (SWT) closes those of Naar (fire). 10. Fasting Ramadhan and Combining it with Sitta tu Shawwal earns a Muslims the rewards of fasting for the entire year. 11. It is a month in which the less fortunate among the people in the community get the benefits of Zakat and sadaqa since Allah (SWT) encourages the acts of charity. 12. During this month, acts of worship are more acceptable and better rewarded by Allah (SWT). **HAJJ** Allah (SWT) mentions that there are certain places that are Holy or sacred. Can you mention any of such places? Among them includes his sacred houses like the mosques, cities like Madina and Makkah, Baitul Maqdis among others. The word Hajj is an Arabic term, which literally means to direct oneself towards a place or to travel to a place for the sake of a visit. Technically, Hajj means the resolution of a Muslim to pay a visit to Makkah for the sake of Allah (SWT). It is the act of paying a visit or homage to the Holy City of Makkah together with its environs in order to perform numerous acts of worship. It is performed during the month of Hajj and involves several activities and rituals which we shall study later in this chapter. Hajj is the fifth pillar of Islam. Allah (SWT) says in the Quran *: And complete the Hajj and Umrah in the service of Allah (SWT).* [Q 2:196] **Significance of Hajj** Read [Q 3:96-97]; [Q 22:27-29] Just like the other four pillars of Islam, which we have studied previously, Hajj holds its importance in lives of the Muslims. The performance of the rites of Hajj positively **|** P a g e 217 ----- influences the Muslims socially and spiritually. Let us look at the social significance of Hajj: Social significance of Hajj 1. It is a source of unity for all the Muslims from different parts of the world who meet and interact during the rites Hajj. 2. Assuming the state of Ihram makes the pilgrimage to live by certain restrictions such as killing deliberately, uprooting vegetation thus promoting peace and harmony. 3. Muslims perform the acts of Hajj with the same goal thus promoting brotherhood. 4. The wearing of Ihram ensures peace among the pilgrims as well as to other creatures. 5. It helps in creating and supporting friendship among the different people. 6. Hajj promotes equality among the Muslims in that everyone regardless of their nation, race, colour perform the same rites of Hajj thus promoting equality. For example, they must all stand on the plains of Arafat. 7. The sense of identity and belonging is fostered among the Muslims in that it is done at specific time and month of the year. 8. The performance of Hajj has been ordained for all able Muslims regardless of ones social class. This has discouraged social prejudices. 9. There is a spirit of sharing among the pilgrims when they meet for the sake of Allah (SWT). Spiritual significance of Hajj Apart from the above social significance, Hajj is also spiritually beneficial to the Muslims. Let us now look at the spiritual significance of Hajj as follows: 1. It is among the pillar of Islam and therefore must be observed by every mature and able Muslim. 2. It is a command from Allah (SWT) that has been mentioned by several verses of the Quran alongside with Swalat. **|** P a g e 218 ----- 3. It develops the universality of the message of Islam and shows the nonMuslims the unity among the Muslims which encourages many to embrace Islam. 4. It affirms the commitment of the Muslims to the Creator by forsaking the material world for the sake of Allah (SWT). 5. Correct performance of the rites of Hajj purifies a Muslim from previously committed sins. 6. The performance of Hajj earns a Muslim rewards. 7. The activities of Hajj such as going round the Kaaba, strengthens a Muslims Iman (faith). 8. The performance of the numerous acts of worship promotes Taqwa (fear of Allah (SWT)). 9. Muslims who perform Hajj commemorate the activities of Nabi Ibrahim and Ismail thus strengthening their belief in Prophets. 10. It reminds Muslims of the grand assembly during the Day of Judgment when everyone will stand equal before Allah (SWT) Conditions for preparation for Hajj Have you ever had a long journey? What was the destination and purpose of that journey? It may have been for a tour, picnic, educational or even travelling to visit friends or family. You will realize that for the success of such journeys, adequate preparation is required. The journey for Hajj is very different from any of the journeys you have mentioned or imagined. This is because it is a trip of a lifetime meant for pleasing Allah (SWT). If one plans for a trip, tour or journey to please himself in this world, what of a sacred journey that Allah (SWT) has commanded in the Holy Quran? aefinitely, such a journey, meant to fulfill an act of worship requires proper and adequate planning. Therefore, for Hajj to be performed sincerely and properly, considerable investment of money, time, and physical effort is required. These preparations will include, physical, spiritual and financial. The following guidelines are intended to get the pilgrim started in the right direction: **Financial preparations** 1. One should have enough money to prepare for the activities Hajj. **|** P a g e 219 ----- 2. Money to be used for Hajj should be obtained from lawful means. 3. The Muslim intending to go for Hajj should leave enough provisions their dependants. 4. The Muslims intending to perform Hajj should be free from debts. 5. They must satisfy the legal requirements of their country. This includes acquiring of travel documents, identification cards among others. **Physical preparations** 1. They must make sure that the route to Makkah is safe from danger due to war or any other danger. 2. They should be physically fit to carry out the activities of Hajj. **Social and spiritual preparations** There are also some social preparations that one must undergo. These are as follows: 1. They should bid farewell to neighbours, friends, relatives and fellow Muslims. 2. They should have it in mind that Hajj is obligatory. 3. All sorts of haram events and activities during the preparations for Hajj should be avoided. 4. Women should get permission from their husbands. 5. Women who are not married should get permission from their close relatives under whose guardianship they live. 6. They should be accompanied by someone with whom they cannot marry (mahrim). 7. They should be free from impurity. Umrah *Umra* is referred to as a lesser or minor Pilgrimage. Why is it called lesser Pilgrimage? This is because the pilgrim performs all the rites of Hajj except the standing at Arafat. It is usually performed at any time of the year, before the eighth of Dhul Hijja or even after the performance of Hajj. **|** P a g e 221 ----- Umra involve the following 1. Putting on Ihram and observing its rules 2. Performing Tawaf in Masjidul Haram 3. herform Saay 4. Shaving or clipping of the hair once Saay is accomplished. Men can shave or cut their hair women should cut one or two centimeters of the hair on their head. The figure below illustrates the rites for Umra **Figure 3** We should note that the Pilgrims performing Umra do not visit Muzdalifa nor spend three nights at Mina nor offer sacrifice. TYPES OF HAJJ In this Chapter, we have defined both Hajj and Umrah. You can now differentiate between the two. It is important to note that a pilgrim should be in a position to **|** P a g e 221 ----- differentiate the two since Hajj is of different types. The pilgrims knowledge of each type of Hajj will enable him or her to make the right intention for that particular type of Hajj. Let us now look at each of the three types namely; Ifrad bil Hajj, Al Qiran and At-Tamattu. IFRAD BIL HAJJ The word *Ifrad* in Arabic means single, one or only. In relation to Hajj, it is when the pilgrim declares his intention to perform Hajj alone without Umra (lesser pilgrimage). The pilgrim may have either performed Umra earlier or is intending to perform it on a later period. The Mufrid (the pilgrim performing this Hajj) assumes the state of Ihram at the Miqaat when they are to start rites of Hajj. An example is the people who leave near Makkah or those who frequently visit it. HAJJ AL QIRAN Qiran means to combine. It is where the Pilgrims perform both Hajj and Umrah in the same Ihram. The major characteristic of Qiran is that the Muqrin (the pilgrim performing this Hajj) does not enjoy a period of rest in between the Hajj and Umrah. HAJJ AT-TAMATTU In this performance the Mutamatti (the person who performs this Hajj), begins by performing Umrah, and then removes the Ihram for Umrah before adorning it again for the purpose of Hajj. PERFORMANCE OF HAJJ As we have mentioned earlier about planning and preparations for Hajj, there are also certain procedures which are followed in the fulfillment of this important act of worship. Mawaqit **|** P a g e 222 ----- This is an Arabic word, meanings stations. A *Miqaat* (singular for station) is a place that is considered to be within the Holy vicinity of Hajj immediately a pilgrim crosses it. These are the places where the pilgrim removes the ordinary cloths and replaces them with the appropriate cloths for Hajj, called Ihram. Six Mawaqit have been conveniently placed for pilgrims coming from various directions of the world. These stations are: 1. Yalamlam - those coming from the directions of East Africa. 2. Dhat ul Irq - the people from the sides of Iraq. 3. Qarna al Manazil - those entering from East of Makka 4. Dhul Hulaifa - those from Madina and the north of Makka. 5. Al Juhfa - those who come from the direction of Egypt. Ihram Ihram is the state of sacred purity the Muslim pilgrim must enter before conducting the Hajj, the pilgrimage to Makkah. Men symbolize their state of Ihram by wearing a white, two-piece, seamless garment sheets that covers the upper and lower part of the body living one shoulder uncovered. Pilgrims put themselves in readiness for Hajj and make the intention in this state. Women can dress in any cloth they wish which fulfills the Islamic conditions of public dress. Their hands and face should be uncovered but they must cover their heads. During this state, the following things are forbidden for the pilgrims: 1. Wearing any sworn cloth. 2. Propose for marriage 3. Clip nails. 4. Applying perfumes. 5. Men should not cover their heads. 6. Shave hair. 7. Perform sexual intercourse. 8. Hunt animals. 9. Get married **|** P a g e 223 ----- 10. Destroy crops and plants. After Ihram, the pilgrims are ready to commence the activities of Hajj. They recite the *Talbiyya* as frequently as possible. The Talbiyya is a set of special invocations for the remembrance of Allah (SWT) during Hajj. One chants; *Labbayka llahumma* *labbayka laa shariika laka labbayka. innalhamda, wannamataka laka walmulka, laa* *shriika lakka labbayka.* Meaning *: Here I am O Allah (SWT)! Here I am! You have no partner with You!* *Here I am! Surely all Praise, and favours belong to You and the dominion (also* *belongs to You), You have no partner with You! Here I am!* Tawaf *Tawaf* refers to the act of going round the Kaaba seven times while keeping it on the left i.e anticlockwise. Every round starts and ends facing the *Hajar al Aswad* (black stone) at the corner of the Al Kaaba. The first three circles are made faster than the last four. After each circle, one touches the Hajar al Aswad, kisses it or raises hands before it and says: *Allahumma zid hadhal baita tashriifan watadhiiman wa mahabbat. allahumma* *antas salaam waminkas salaam fahayyinaa rabbanaa bis salaam.* *O Allah (SWT) increase on this House Glory, an Greatness and Love. O Allah (SWT)* *You are Peace and from You is peace. So greet us O our Lord with peace.* There are four types of Tawaf that a Muslim is permitted to go around the Al Kaaba: 1. Tawaf ul Qudum which is performed at the arrival and symbolizes the beginning of performing Hajj. 2. Tawaf ul Ifadha (Ziara) which is performed in the morning of the 10 [th] of ahul Hijja. It is part of the rites of Hajj and its performed after the rites at Minna. 3. Tawaf ul Wida is performed as the last step after all the steps of Hajj are over before removing the Ihram. **|** P a g e 224 ----- 4. Tawaf ul Tatwawui is not part of Hajj and its performed any other time one enters the holy mosque of Makka. This Tawaf can be compared with the Tahiyyat ul Masjid prayer that is offered in other mosques. Saayi It is the going between the two hillocks of *Swafa* and *Marwa* . It is done seven times while keeping the hillocks on the left as one says: *Allahumma hajjana mabruuran wadhambanaa maghfuuran wasyan mashkuura* *O Allah (SWT) grant blessings on our Hajj, forgive our sins and make our Saayi a* *grateful one.* The act of Saayi commemorates Allah (SWT)s command when He instructed Prophet Ibrahim (AS) to take his new wife, Hajjar, and their only child, Ismail (AS), to a desert in Makkah. With a goatskin vessel with water, he left them to visit his first wife. When the water got finished and Hajjar had no milk in her for the child, she started looking for water to quench their thirst, but the child was starving. She wandered between Safa and Marwa and on the seventh round; she found a fountain that had gushed out next to the child. This is the present well of Zamzam. Both the Tawaf ul Qudum and the Saayi are performed on the eighth of ahul Hijja, which is the first day of the pilgrimage. Arafat It is a plain on the East of Makka. It is a very important step of Hajj on 9 [th] of Dhul Hijja because the Hajj is nullified for whoever misses it and will have to go for Hajj again. Pilgrims perform Dhuhr and Asr prayers before a khutba (sermon) that is delivered on the pulpit at Jabal Rahma (mountain of mercy). Pilgrims continue with Talbiya, sunna prayers, meditation and dua (supplication). **|** P a g e 225 ----- Arafat commemorates Nabii Adam (AS) when he was sent out of Jannat (paradise) with his wife Hawa. This place bears the greatest symbol of repentance of Adam (AS) and Allah (SWT)s promise to accept the repentance of anybody. Muzdalifa It is the next stop after Arafat. The other name for Muzdalifa is Mash aril Haram (Sacred Monument).Here Maghrib and Isha prayers are combined and shortened. They also collect stone pebbles here and leave after Fajr prayers and before sunrise to Mina. Mina Pilgrims reach Mina on the 10 [th] day of Dhul Hijja in the morning, also referred to as Yaumun Nahr (the day of sacrifice). After performing Idd prayers at Mina, the pilgrims throw pebbles (i.e. ramyun) at the three Jamarat (pillars). They throw seven pebbles on each of the pillars. This is followed by sacrificing a sheep, goat, cow or camel. From there they go to perform Tawaf ul Ifadha at the Al Kaaba. Ram yul jimar The act of throwing pebbles to the three pillars signifies a symbol of chasing Iblis (satan), an act that was performed when Prophet Ibrahim wanted to sacrifice his son, Ismail (AS). Each throw is accompanied with a Takbir (Allahu Akbar). The pillars are Jamrat ul Aqaba (the Aqaba pillar) Jamrat ul Wustwa (the middle pillar near the mosque of Mina) and Jamrat ul Sughra (the smallest pillar). Ayyam al tashriq **|** P a g e 226 ----- These are the three days after Yaumun Nahr (the days of sacrifice). They are 11 [th], 12 [th] and13 [th] of Dhul Hijja. Pilgrims spend these days in Mina throwing pebbles at the Jamarat. Significance of the jamarat The significance of the Jamarat dates back to the time when Prophet Ibrahim (A.S) was commanded by Allah (SWT) to sacrifice his son Ismail (A.S.) He led his son to three suitable places where he could do the sacrifice. Iblis tried to discourage him, but Prophet Ibrahim (A.S) was steadfast and chased Iblis. The throwing of the pebbles symbolizes the chasing of the devils from interfering with our faith. **When slaughtering is compulsory for a pilgrim.** 1. When one enjoyed a period of freedom between Umra and Hajj. 2. When one conjoined his Umra and Hajj. 3. When one failed to spend a night at Muzdalifa. 4. When a pilgrim failed to spend the nights of 11 [th], 12 [th] and 13 [th] at Mina. 5. When he failed to throw the pebbles at the Jamarat. 6. When a pilgrim failed to observe the restrictions of Hajj. Sunnah steps of Hajj - Making the Niyyat (Intention) for Hajj. - Clipping nails and shaving hair - Performing Ghusl (ritual bath) either at home or at the Miqaat - Reciting the Talbiya throughout the rites of Hajj. - Kissing, touching, or pointing the black stone during every cycle of the Tawaf. - While making tawaf, recite du'a' or Dhikr, then end each round at the black stone. - Praying two rak'at at the Maqam Ibrahim. - Drinking from the spring of Zamzam. **Visit to Madina** **|** P a g e 227 ----- Visiting Madina is not an essential obligation in making Hajj valid and complete. However, it is recommended that the Pilgrims visit Madina as a sign of respect to the prophet. When entering Madina, one recites a dua. One of the Duas is; Bis-millaahirRah-maa-nir-Ra-hiim. Allaa-hum-ma antas-salaam, wa-minkas-salaam, wa-ilay-ka yar-ju-us-salaam. Fa-Hay-yinaa bis-salaam, wa - ad-khil-naa daa-ras-salaam. Ta-baarak-ta rob-banaa wa-ta-aalay-ta yaa-dzal-ja-laa-li wal-ik-raam. In the Name of Allah Most Gracious Most Merciful. O Allah! You are the Peace, and from You comes Peace and unto You returns Peace, Keep us, O our Lord, in a life of Peace and make us to enter the Abode of Peace. Blessed are You and exalted is Your Majesty. O eou possessor of alory and Honour. There are great merits for visiting the city of Madina, the tomb of the prophet and his mosque. The following are merits of the city of Madina: 1. This is the place where the Prophet lived for the last ten years of his life. 2. Islam got a peaceful foundation for spreading far and wide as well as being understood well from this sacred place. 3. This is the place where the first Muslim martyrs lost their lives and were buried. 4. The prophet prayed for the wellbeing of this city, its people and property. Places to be visited include the following. 1. The Mosque of the Prophet (PBUH).This is the mosque he called after his own name. It is the mosque which the prophet himself actively participated in its construction and it is where he led most of the prayers. Prayers offered in this mosque earn more thawab. 2. The tomb of the prophet. Here, the visitors supplicate for the Prophet. All duas for the prophet supplicated at his tomb will make one to earn intercession of the prophet. 3. The battle fields. The visitors visit the following battle fields: 1. **Badr.** The plain of Badar is approximately 32 km to the south west of Madinah. This is where the first battle took place between the Muslims and the Quraish. **|** P a g e 228 ----- 2. **Jabal-e-Uhud.** It is about 6 km on the north of Madinah. The battle of Uhud was fought here. The hrophets uncle, Hamza and other companions are buried in this place. 3. **Jabal-e-Salaa.** This is the site for the battle of Trench fought in 5 A.H. 4. **Jannat al-Baqee.** This is the graveyard of Madinah, where a large number of Prophets companions including Caliph Uthman (RA), Abbas (RA), Hassan (RA), and wives and daughters of the Holy Prophet are buried. 5. Holy mosques. These include the following 1. **Masjid Quba.** This is the first mosque in Islamic history whose foundation stone was laid down by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) after migration to Madinah. 2. **Masjid Qiblatain.** It earned this name (two Qiblas) when the prophet, while in Swalat was ordered by Allah (SWT) to turn his face from Islams first qibla *(Bait-ul-Muqqadis)* to Kabah in Masjid al-Haram. 3. **Masjid Juma.** This is the mosque where Prophet (hBUH) offered his first Juma prayer while in Madinah. 4. **Masjid Ghamama.** This mosque is near the hrophets mosque. The Prophet (PBUH) used to offer his Idd prayers here. Prophet once led Swalatul *Istasqa* in it and suddenly the clouds appeared and it started raining, thus earning the name *ghamama* (clouds). 5. **Masid Abu Bakr, Masjid Umar Faruq and Masjid** **Ali.** These three mosques are near Masjid Ghamama. **|** P a g e 229 ----- Study Questions and Activities Answer the following questions in your I.R.E revision exercise book. 1.a) Discuss the advantages of fasting in the Holy month of Ramadhan. b) Mention the types of saum 2. a) State the steps in the performance Umrah b) Discuss the significance of Hajj Activity In groups demonstrate the performance of Hajj **AKHALAQ** In book One, we introduced to you the two dimensions of Islamic Morality; *Maarufat* (Virtues) and *Munkaarat* (Vices). In this chapter,we are going to discuss in details some selected virtues and vices with the purpose of encouraging the performance of virtuous deeds and highlighting the vices and their effects in the community. We shall begin with the *virtous deed* (Husnul Khulq) followed by the *vices* (Su-ul Khulq). **Husunul Khulq (Deeds that Lead to Piety and Righteousness)** The term *deeds* refer to actions, code of conduct, mannerism or behavior. *Piety* and *righteousness* refers to the act of God fearing and upholding a conduct that is within Allah (SWT)s commandment and Prophetic teachings. The Holy Quran has clearly outlined the deeds that lead to piety and righteousness: Allah (SWT) says: *It is not Al-Birr (piety, righteousness, and each and every act of obedience to* *Allah (SWT),) that you turn your faces towards the east and (or) the west (in* *prayers); but Al- Birr is (the quality of) the one who believes in Allah (SWT),* *the Last Day, the Angels, the Book, the Prophets and give wealth, in spite of* **|** P a g e 231 ----- *love for it, to the kinsfolk, to the orphans, and to Al-Masakin (the needy), and to* *the wayfarer, and to those who ask, and to set slaves free, and performs As-* *Salat (Iqamat-as-Salat), and gives Zakat, and who fulfill their convenant when* *they make it, and who are patient in extreme poverty and ailment (during the* *battles). Such are the people of truth and they are Al-Muttaqun (the pious).* [Q 2:177] According to the above verse the following deeds have been categorized to be promoting piety and righteousness: 1. To believe in Allah (SWT), the Last Day, Angels, His Books and Messengers. 2. To spend ones wealth, subsistence in order to please Allah (SWT) by helping ones relatives, orphans, the needy, the wayfarer and those who ask for assistance and freeing of slaves. 3. To observe your prayers and give charity regularly. 4. To honor your promises. 5. To exercise patience and firmness while suffering or when faced with any calamity Other deeds not mentioned in this verse includes the following: Tranquility, contentment, patience, truthfulness and restraining from anger. Can you give examples of other deeds that may promote piety and righteousness? **Self control** **Read Quran [Q 3:134]** Life in this world is not easy. There are several challenges that one encounters, whether a believer or a non-believer. Do you know the effects of such challenges to an individual? These could result to stress, depression, anger, social conflicts among other consequences. The Holy Quran and hrophets Hadith are the major source of guidance for a Muslim who is faced with various challenges in the course of life. Therefore a Muslim is encouraged to use the various ways within the Islamic code in solving all problems facing him or her. One of these ways is self control. **|** P a g e 231 ----- Self control is the ability to observe self restraint or rather control against temptations, desires and emotions when faced with any exciting occurrence. The prophet (PBUH) said: *The strong one is not he who knocks out his enemies; he* *is the one who keeps control over his anger.* (Bukhari and Muslim). Benefits of Exercising Self Control **1.** Allah (SWT) rewards a person who exercises self control. Allah (SWT) says *But as for him who feared standing before his Lord and restrained* *himself from impure evil desires and lust. Verily, paradise will be his* *abode.* **[** Q 79:40-41] **2.** It shields one from evil because mans *nafs* (soul) is the seat of all evils. Therefore if one is able to control his *nafs* from reacting to different circumstances, self control prevents the person from doing any evil deed. **3.** It promotes peace and unity in the community in that it discourages one from causing any damage or harm to those who have wronged him or her. **4.** It gives one peace of mind as it enables one to control his or her innermost desires or emotions and makes one soberly accept the situation at stake. **5.** Prevents unnecessary fights and quarrels since it instills wisdom on how to overcome them. **6.** It enhances the performance of other virtuous deeds such as patience, truthfulness, forgiveness, among other virtues. **7.** It develops Taqwa because it is a commandment from Allah (SWT). **8.** Promote good health by preventing disease such as hypertension and mental illnesses. **9.** It enables one to make worthwhile decisions when faced with problems. **10.** It enhances self discipline since it is inbuilt and operates within ones operational circles. The following are some of the situations where self control is necessary: **a)** To Control oneself against anger when provoked for a quarrel or fight **.** b) When in a circumstances provoking bodily desires such as sexual perversion. **|** P a g e 232 ----- **c)** When dealing with wicked or ill natured people **.** **Qanaa (Contentment)** Read Quran 1:32 Prophets Hadith: Abu Hurairah (RA) reports in one hadith that the Prophet (PBUH) said, *Wealth is not (found) in vast riches but wealth is (found) in self contentment.* (Bukhari and Muslim) Who is the Bestower of Rizq (provisions) to all humankind and creatures of the world? Undoubtedly, it is Allah (SWT). It is Allah (SWT) who sustains all that exist, He provides to all His creatures and make a decision on their portion, size of rizq, reason being known to Him alone. Therefore at all times, man has a duty to exercise inner deep satisfaction or rather recognition or appreciation towards which Allah (SWT) Has provided. Benefits of Exercising Contentment 1. Allah (SWT) loves those who exercise self contentment and rewards them accordingly. 2. It removes greed, envy and jealousy in the community and hence curbs corruption. 3. It gives one peace of mind as it avoids unnecessary ungratefulness and complaints of issues. 4. It enhances peace and harmony in the community because it reduces vices such as theft, gambling, suspicion, quarrels, murder, bribery among other vices. 5. It encourages one to work hard because Muslims have an obligation to strive hard to improve their conditions 6. It draws one closer to Allah (SWT) because Allah (SWT) distributes His favour to whosoever He wishes among His creatures. 7. It promotes good self esteem. 8. Discourage one from begging. **|** P a g e 233 ----- 9. It encourage sharing among people. **Sakina (Tranquility)** Read Quran [Q18:1] Can you identify any challenges in life which may ignite various emotions to an individual? It is normal that one may experience various hardships in day to day life and compelled to conditions in which he or she seeks ways and means of adapting to the prevailing calamities. In this case one is required to exercise tranquility. Tranquility refers to a state of observing calmness, innermost self control and acceptance to the situation at hand when one is befallen with a calamity or hardship. **Benefits of exercising Sakina** 1. It regulates emotions, thus enabling one to make a worthwhile decision in finding a suitable solution. 2. It enhances good relationship among people since it prevents unnecessary provocation, which may lead to misunderstanding. 3. It prevents one from over reacting to exciting situations, a conduct which may worsen the problem. 4. It encourages one to remember Allah (SWT) when faced with hardship or challenges. In addition, Allah (SWT) has declared rewards for all the believers who remember Him when in difficulty. 5. It is a source of wisdom and inspiration because one who remains composed and peaceful usually finds an amicable solution. 6. It prevents one from distress and other related illness such as hypertension, depression, anxiety that may damage one physical and mental being. 7. It provides the right avenues to observe other virtuous deeds such as patience, self control, forgiveness, justice among other virtues. **Sabr (Patience)** **|** P a g e 234 ----- **Read Quran 103:2-3.** Allah (SWT) is fully aware of what befalls humankind at present life and even in the future. He exposes him to both pleasant and unpleasant situations. Humankind has to come up with ways of dealing with all the various situations in life. Although he may not be in a position to offer suitable solutions, he would come up with a measure of preventing the worsening of the situation. One way, which may assist him, is by exercising patience. Patience is the act of offering resistance, perseverance and endurance over an event or condition, which may be good or bad. In patience one restrains his soul, mind and body from panic, anger, revenge, complain or other form of abuse. **Benefits of exercising Patience** 1. Allah (SWT) loves and is with those who are patient. *2.* It draws one closer to Allah (SWT) enhancing development of *Taqwa* (God fearing) 3. It curbs worries hence promoting peace of mind. 4. Enhance cordial relationship among people through creating tolerance and understanding. 5. It promotes other righteous deeds such as love, trust and self control 6. It the Sunnah of the prophet. 7. It assists in the establishment of peace in the community by preventing chaos. 8. It instills leadership quality. **Amana (Trust)** Have you ever been entrusted with any duties or responsibilities at home or at school? In the course of your dispensation of those duties did you abide by the **|** P a g e 235 ----- prescribed rules and meet the expectations of the ones you were serving? Allah (SWT) has charged all His Prophets with duties and responsibilities which includes preaching *Tawheed,* warning the people over His punishments on the Day of Accountability. The prophets carried out their duties and responsibilities diligently and dutifully as per Allah (SWT)s commandments. All the creatures are expected to conduct their lives in a manner that Allah (SWT) has prescribed for them. This is referred to as *Amana* (Trust). It is an act of exercising responsibility diligently according to the prescribed rules and norms. Trust refers to the carrying out of ones duties, assignment, responsibilities, or tasks according to the expected principles laid down by Allah (SWT) and the community. Benefits of Exercising Trust 1. It enhance good performance of ones duty and obligation 2. It establishes trustworthiness amongst the people 3. It promotes good relationship between humankind and his Creator and among the humankind themselves. 4. Allah (SWT) rewards those who execute their duties diligently 5. It enhances God fearing and that one strictly follows Allah (SWT) commandment when performing their duties. 6. It curbs cheating, misappropriation, carelessness and other avenues that encourage corruption. 7. It equips one with leadership qualities. 8. It improves the socio-economic and political progress of a given community. 9. It encourages one to uphold virtuous deeds in his or her life, such as patience, self control contentment among other virtues. **|** P a g e 236 ----- Sidq (truthfulness) Islam fosters a harmonious co existence in various ways; among them is Sidq (truthfulness) Truthfulness generally refers to thoughts, words, and actions that conform to the norms and reality of a given community. Is there any situation in your life where someone told you something or promised you something and did not fulfill his promise? How did you feel? Definitely, you felt bad and betrayed. This is because the person was not truthful. In Islam, truthfulness should be in cooperated in all ways of life. There should be no cheating, deceiving, falsifying or withholding of information. Here it includes the following: 1. Being truthful towards Allah (SWT) by worshipping Him sincerely. 2. Being truthful towards ones own soul by making it adhere to the laws of Allah (SWT). 3. Being truthful with people in ones words and actions by keeping ones promises, observing honesty in business and matters relating to family e.g. marriage. It is an essential component of righteousness, which is enshrined in thoughts, words and actions. Allah (SWT) says, *O you who believe! Be afraid of Allah (SWT), and be with those* *who are true (in words and deeds)* [Q 9: 119] This has also been emphasized by the Prophet (PBUH) in the following two hadith: Abdallah ibn Masood (RA) said: *The Prophet (PBUH) said: You must be truthful,* *for truthfulness leads to righteousness and righteousness leads to Paradise. A man* *will keep speaking the truth and striving to speak the truth until he will be recorded* *with Allah (SWT) as a Siddeeq (speaker of the truth). Beware of telling lies, for lying* *leads to immorality and immorality leads to Hellfire. A man will keep telling lies and* *striving to tell lies until he is recorded with Allah (SWT) as a liar.* (Muslim) **|** P a g e 237 ----- Al-Hasan ibn Ali ibn Abi Taalib (RA) said: *I memorized from the Messenger of* *Allah (PBUH): Leave that which makes you doubt for that which does not make you* *doubt, for truthfulness is certainty and tranquility, whilst lying is doubt and* *confusion.* (Al-Tirmidhi, Al-Nisaa'i, Ahmad) Benefits of practicing Sidq 1. It fosters a harmonious co-existence among people as it removes unnecessary suspicion, quarrels and fights. 2. It is a path to righteousness because it encompasses all the virtues 3. It is a commandment of Allah hence Allah (SWT) rewards all those who perform it. 4. It discourages social vices such as dishonesty and falsehood. 5. It encourages fairness in speech and action when dealing with one another. For example in trade, giving evidence and fulfilling promises. 6. It purifies ones soul and mind from falsehood as it bars one from temptation towards evil deeds. 7. It encourages one to be God fearing because truthfulness starts with Allah (SWT) before it is extended to fellow humankind. 8. It presents an exemplary character which may help in promoting ones dignity in the community thus identifying them as role models. Su-ul khulq (vices) The personality of someone is based on his manners. Every African community emphasizes the importance of avoiding vices. A good Muslim does not show bad manners and does nor associate himself with evil people. The Prophet (PBUH); *Fear* *Allah (SWT) wherever you are, and substitute an evil with a good action and associate* *with others in good character. (Tabrani)* It is upon every Muslim to be exemplary and to show good character. People who display bad manners usually bring a bad name to the religion of Islam. In most cases mixing with people of bad manners influences ones behavior. In school, at home and many other places, children are known to acquire bad manners from their friends due to peer pressure. This has caused severe damage and injury. Let us now look at some of the vices that are practiced in our society. **|** P a g e 238 ----- Intoxicants These are substances whether solid, liquid or in gaseous form when taken interfere with the normal functioning of the body system. Ones mind becomes befogged after their consumption. Allah (SWT) has warned Muslims from taking such substances. He says in the Quran, *O you who believe! Intoxicants (all kinds of alcoholic drinks),* *and gambling and al Ansaab and al Az lam (arrows for seeking lack or decision are* *an abomination of Shaitans handiwork. So avoid (strictly all) that (abomination) in* *order that you may successful. Shaytan wants only to excite enmity and hatred* *between you with intoxicants and gambling and hinder you from the remembrance of* *Allah (SWT) and from A ssalat. So will you not then abstain?* [Q 5:90-91] These verses show us how Islam condemns the use of intoxicants and classifies them as acts of the devil. Aisha (RA) narrates that the prophet (PBUH) was asked about an intoxicant called *bita*, which was brewed from honey and was popular with the people of Yemen. In response, he said; *All drinks that intoxicate are unlawful to take.* *(Bukhari)* This is the evidence that intoxication is prohibited in Islam. Among the most common intoxicants is liquor ( *khamr* ). The development of intoxication has undergone so advanced stages since the revelation of the Quranic *ayas* . The characteristics and impacts of all these intoxicants are similar. We shall learn more about these intoxicants later in this chapter. It is prohibited to take intoxicants and there should be no loopholes sought for taking any of them. There are as many of them in the market under various brands as well as traditional and improvised brews. Others like opium ( *bang or Cannabis Sativa)* are for smoking, while there are contemporary types e.g. heroin, mandrax, cocaine and others. Whether licensed or unlicensed, they should not be taken. The consumption of **|** P a g e 239 ----- *Miraa* is no exemption because its side effects are also related to the other drugs. Cigarettes are also inclusive in the prohibition since they are harmful to the human health. **Effects of intoxicants** When Allah (SWT) makes prohibitions, he does it for the good of humanity. All the prohibited substances have adverse effects on the social, physical and spiritual wellbeing. Let us look at the social and moral effects. Social and morals effects 1. Lowers ones dignity and respect in the community. 2. Use of abusive language 3. The state of intoxication affects the interpersonal relations and may lead to fights and quarrels. 4. May lead to divorce 5. May lead to other vices like prostitution and gambling Physical effects 1. Brain damage 2. Lowers the immune system 3. Can lead to hemorrhage 4. Nervous disorders which can lead to imbalance. 5. Liver disorders like cirrhosis and failure in bladder control. 6. Extreme uses may lead to dependence on the intoxicants. 7. It leads to loss of weight. 8. It slows down the process of cells formation in the body. 9. Affect a persons memory. Economic effects 1. It is a wastage of resources and wealth **|** P a g e 241 ----- 2. The consumers misuse time, which could be more valuable for other activities. 3. It may cause bankruptcy and general lose of wealth. 4. It encourages laziness and leads to poverty in the community. Gambling It is a game in which people take chances and they either win or lose. During the time of the prophet, people used to raffle with arrows so as to get the winners and losers. In Surat ul Baqara, Allah (SWT) tells the prophet (PBUH): *They ask you concerning wine and gambling. Say: In them is a great sin and some* *profit for men. But the sin is greater than the profit* [Q 2:219] Gambling is prohibited because those concerned get easy things without working for them. Unless there is fraud, winning or losing depends on chance. There are those who gamble with playing cards for money and those who play it in licensed international centers called casinos. In the marketing scene, the promotion of several commodities is accompanied with lotteries, raffles and other competitions where people are promised to win vehicles, houses, and trips to various places, electronic appliances and consolation prizes, to mention but some. The concerned companies give such games so attractive promotional names that potential customers are moved, they still remain to be forms of gambling that are sinful. Kibr (pride) Kibr is a habit in which one feels too superior to others. Such people look down upon others and mistreat them. They feel important because of the wealth, leadership position or knowledge they possess. They forget that they are a trust that should be observed well because Allah (SWT) may end it any time and sometimes in tragedies. **|** P a g e 241 ----- Everybody will be answerable to Allah (SWT). In Surat Luqman, Allah (SWT) reminds us on what Luqman taught his son: *And swell not your cheek (in pride) in people nor walk in insolence through the* *earth, for Allah (SWT) loves not those who boast arrogantly.* [Q 31:18] Kibr contributes towards shirk-ul- Asghar (minor shirk). When someone becomes proud, he would be doing that to be seen by others *(riya).* He will also appreciate when everyone talks about him and he is glorified by others, which is wrong. Allah (SWT) says that pride is His cloak and whoever is proud is competing against Him. Effects of kibr 1. Allah (SWT) punishes all forms of Kibr because it is a minor shirk. One will not enter paradise. 2. It weakens the faith of a Muslim 3. It damages the relationship between men and women. 4. It encourages vices such as hatred, suspicion and revenge. 5. It may cause one being segregated by others and may lead to disunity. 6. It interferes with the sound reasoning and one may make wrong decisions. Drug Abuse In this chapter, we learnt earlier about intoxicants. This sub topic shall specifically deal with drug abuse. What we need to know here is that drug abuse is the use of drugs for other motives apart from curative and preventive. You must have come across some types of drugs. Can you mention any of them? How would you then define the substances you have mentioned? From the examples you have given, we shall note that most of the drugs have certain characteristics and effects to the human body. We shall therefore deduce our definition and say that a drug is any chemical or natural substance which when introduced into the body system of a living organism it modifies one or more cells hence affecting the normal functioning of the body. **|** P a g e 242 ----- arug use refers to the correct usage of the drugs according to the physicians prescription for the well- being of the body. Drug Abuse is the excessive and persistent use of any substance that affect the mind, health and social well-being of a person for other purposes other than the intended preventive or curative reasons. A drug is abused, if it is used for any purpose other than the intended reasons and in a way that could damage the users ability to function normally. Drug abuse is mainly condemned because it leads to self destruction. Those who abuse drugs live a hopeless and miserable which is a bad example to the community they live in. In some instances, they end up in horrible conditions such as madness, terminal sickness and even death. Thus, Allah (SWT) warns that: *And spend in the cause of Allah (SWT), and make not your own hands contribute* *towards your own destruction, but do good; For Allah (SWT) loves those who do* *good. [Q 2:195)* Therefore, instead of engaging in drugs or any other destructive activities, one should spend his time in ways that promote good health and that are beneficial to the society. Sexual perversions Sexual perversion is a situation where one deviates from the norms of sexual behaviour and indulges in behaviours that are sexually offensive. The only way in which sexual relations become legitimate is through marriage between a man and a woman in a binding contract that Allah (SWT) recognizes. *Allah (SWT) has made for you your makes of your own nature and made for you, out* *of them, sons and daughters, and grandchildren and provided for you sustenance of* *the best.* [Q 16:72] The prophet says: *O young men, whoever is able to marry should marry, for it will* *help in lowering of gaze and guarding of modesty. (Bukhari)* Sexual perversion would include the following: 1. Zina 2. Prostitution 3. Homosexuality **|** P a g e 243 ----- 4. Incest 5. Bestiality 6. Rape Zina In Book One, we learnt about marriage. We saw how it brings a divine bond between a man and a woman, and their families. Some people undertake sexual relationship outside marriage. This sexual relation between a male and a female who are not married according to Islam is called *Zina* . It is classified into *adultery* (i.e. when committed by a married person) and *fornication* (when committed by an unmarried person). In most sins, a Muslim is prohibited from performing them, but in zina, one is warned not to come near it, leave alone doing it. Allah (SWT) says in the Quran: *And do not come near Zina, for it is a shameful deed and an evil way to other evils.* [Q 17:32] People who perform zina should be punished to eradicate the practice. Those who are guilty of the offence should not marry the Muslims who are innocent except the similarly guilty or unbelievers. Allah (SWT) says in Surat Nur: *The woman and man guilty of adultery- flog each of them with a hundred stripes: Let* *not compassion move you in their case, in a matter prescribed by Allah (SWT), if you* *believe in Allah (SWT) and the last day; and let a party of the believers witness their* *punishment. And let no man guilty of adultery or fornication, marry, but a woman* *similarly guilty or an unbeliever: nor let any but such a man or an unbeliever marry* *such a woman: Such is forbidden to the believers.* [Q 24:2-3] In a hadith narrated by Abdullah bin Umar (RA) the prophet (PBUH) said, *O* *Muhajirun If fornication became widespread, you should realize that this has never* *happened without new diseases befalling the people which heir forbearers never* *suffered.* (Ibn Majah) **|** P a g e 244 ----- Currently, zina is the major agent of so many Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs), including HIV/AIDS. *Zina* opens up the way for such permanent negative impacts in the society such as: 1. Violating the interests of the unborn children by making them illegitimate. 2. Bring feuds and murder between warring individuals and families. 3. Spoiling the future of the children already born by making them miss proper care. 4. Bringing loss of reputation and property. 5. Breaking the bonds of relationship permanently. 6. Destroying the good foundation of a family. Prostitution This is the act of provision of sexual services to a person in return for payment or favours. Prostitution is indeed a concept of sexuality which Islam strongly prohibits. The Holy Quran, the prophets hadith and the rulings of the Islamic religious leaders talk about the concept of sexuality as involving strictly confined relationship between a man and a woman. Islam encourages chastity and modesty. With regards to gender lines and sex is strictly reserved for husband and wife. Islam strongly prohibits extra marital sexual relationships Effects of prostitution As we have mentioned earlier in this book that any prohibitions by Allah (SWT) is for the good of humankind. Similarly, prostitution as a vice has adverse effects as stated below: 1. It undermines the dignity of the woman who Allah (SWT) has placed three grades higher than the man. 2. It promotes backwardness and lack of civilization when several people sleep with one woman. 3. It is misappropriation of money when people go to prostitutes. 4. It is a social evil which makes the community lose dignity 5. It makes people compare with animals who mate in the open. **|** P a g e 245 ----- 6. It is a shameful act which is condemned by Allah (SWT). 7. It is a health risk because sexually transmitted infections can easily be spread. 8. It discourages women from giving birth so that they can go on with their business. This inhibits procreation and makes these women miss the divine prestige of being mothers **Homosexuality** *Homosexuality* is the practice of sexual relations between same sex or gender. It is divided into two; *gayism* for male and *lesbianism* for females. People who practice such relationships are cursed as the prophet says: Homosexuals will not enter paradise. The only sexual relations allowed in Islamic law should be between a male and a female after solemnizing marriage as prescribed by Allah (SWT) strongly cautions against same sex marriage. He says in the Quran: *There are my girls for marriage if you must do (so). [Q 15:7]* This verse compels males to seek sexual pleasures from females to whom they are legally married. Any attempt to contravene the *mithaq* (agreement with Allah (SWT)) will make man to be punished. In surat ul Aaraf, Allah (SWT) narrates the episode of the people of Nabii Lut (Qaumu Lut) as follow. *And Lut, when he said to his people: Do you commit such filth as no people (created)* *have ever committed before you? For you practice your lusts in men in preference to* *women: you are indeed people transgressing beyond bounds. And his people gave no* *answer except saying: Drive them out of your city; these are indeed men who want to* *be pure. But we saved him and his family except his wife; she was of those who* *lagged behind. And we rained down on them showers of brimstone. Then see what* *was end of those who indulged in sin and crime.* [Q7:80-84] From the above ayahs, we are taught how homosexuality is a sinful act, punishable by severe wrath and peril from Allah (SWT). It is sad that some are campaigning to sneak in these acts of infidelity and disbelief in the banner of exercising their rights and freedom. It is sad to note that there are some people campaigning to legalize these act of infidelity under the umbrella of exercising their democratic rights and freedom. This is unacceptable in any civilized society and remains a haram and forbidden practice. Effects of homosexuality **|** P a g e 246 ----- 1. The involved go against the practice of formal marriage allowed by Allah (SWT). 2. Allah (SWT) curses whoever practices it. 3. It results the loss to human dignity. 4. It results in the infection and spread of diseases to those involved. 5. Women will lack husbands for protection and social security. 6. It may open avenues where women will also engage in open zina in competition with homosexuals. 7. Lack of procreation as homosexuality does not result to pregnancy. INCEST It is the sexual relation between close relatives. In Islam, the prohibited degrees of marriage are specified in Surat un Nisa: *You are forbidden in marriage, your mothers, your daughters, your sisters,* *your (paternal and maternal) aunts, the daughters of your brothers and sisters,* *and mothers who have given a suck to you, your suckling sisters, the mothers of* *your wives, your step daughters who are in your charge, children of your wives* *with whom you have lain, it is no offence for you to marry your step daughters* *if you have not consummated tour marriage with their mothers, and the wives of* *your begotten sons. Henceforth you are also forbidden to take in marriage two* *sisters at one and same time. Allah (SWT) is forgiving and merciful. [Q 4:22-* *23]* Although Islam allows the strengthening of relationship with close relatives as well as expanding of relationship far and wide, it should be done in an organized manner and as prescribed in the Quran. There are several reasons why incest is discouraged. Some of these reasons are as follows: 1. It is a sinful and criminal act. 2. It leads to deformities of children born. 3. Those who practice it lose dignity. 4. It is a practice for animals. Bestiality It is sexual intercourse between a human being and an animal. Such behaviour is prohibited because it debases the person who practices it. The prophet (PBUH) cursed the person who performed sex with animals and in his hadith narrated by **|** P a g e 247 ----- Ibn Abbas (RA), *Whoever you find doing as the people of Lot did, (.i.e.* *homosexuality), kill the one who does it and the one to whom it is done, and if you* *find anyone having sexual intercourse with an animal, kill him and kill the* *animal.* [Ahmad ibn Hanbal and the four Imams] Why bestiality is forbidden. 1. It is a curse from Allah (SWT). 2. It reduces the dignity of the individual involved. 3. It is a merciless act to the animal. 4. Women will have no husbands for security. 5. Women will indulge in sexual perversion. 6. Lack of procreation of human race. 7. It is an irresponsible act to the owners of the animals not to protect them. Rape It is having sexual relations with someone without their consent. In such a situation, the victim has no blame and cannot be punished In a hadith narrated by Wail bin Hujr, he says that, In the days of the hrophet (PBUH), a woman came out with the intention of prayers. A man held her, threw a cloth on her, and satisfied his sexual urge. The woman cried and the man left her and walked away. A group of Muhajirun passed by the woman and she told them that so and so had forced her into the act. They caught the man and brought him to the messenger. The prophet (PBUH) said to the woman: *Go home. Allah* *(SWT) has forgiven you because you had not consented to the act. And the* *prophet (SAW) said about the man: Take him away and stone him to death. So* *the man was stoned to death. (Tirmidhi, Abu Daud)* We have learnt from this hadith that rape is an evil act prohibited in Islam. Those who commit the acts of rape shall have severe punishment in the hereafter. Muslims should therefore guard there modesty and refrain from such abhorred acts. Effects of rape **|** P a g e 248 ----- Re-experiencing the trauma (uncontrollable intrusive thoughts about the rape) - Social withdrawal Physical injuries Avoidance behaviors (a general tendency to avoid any thoughts, feelings, or cues) Irritability, hostility, rage and anger Bleeding from the private parts Chronic pelvic pains Sexually Transmitted Infections Unwanted pregnancies CHAPTER SIX: MUAMALAT DIVORCE (TALAQ) In Form one, we learnt about marriage and the emphasis the religion lays on it. Can you recall what we learnt about the importance of marriage? We learnt that marriage is a legal bond that unites a man and a woman to live together as a husband and wife. This relationship should be based on mutual love, tolerance, respect, moderation appreciation and understating of one another and the performance of the acts of Ibadah. However, after solemnization of marriage some problems could arise that would call for divorce. Islam has given room for either of the partners with valid **|** P a g e 249 ----- reasons to seek for the dissolution of the marriage. This separation is referred to as Talaq. Talaq is an Arabic word, which literally means to set an animal free. In the Islamic Shariah, it means the legal method whereby a marriage is brought to an end. Some Muslims and people of other religions have a misconception of this act (Talaq) that result to the dissolution of marriage. It is important to note that Talaq is not something that a married Muslim can use to dissolve his marriage at any time or occasion of his own desire or free will. Even though Talaq is legal, Islam strongly condemns it. This is supported by the prophets hadith narrated by Ibn Umar (RA) that the Prophet (PBUH) said, *There is no lawful matter which is more detested by Allah* *(SWT) than divorce.* (Abu aawoud and Ibn Maja) The above hadith teaches Muslims that issues related with divorce should be treated with caution. The decision should neither be hastily made nor should it be based on hearsay. According to Islamic law regarding marriage, there are certain conditions that should be met before Talaq is pronounced. Conditions of *talaq* are: 1. The mechanism for conflict resolution should have been exhausted. 2. The marriage should have been conducted under the Islamic laws. 3. The Talaq must be pronounced either orally or by writing. 4. The woman should be free from her menses. 5. A person should pronounce it by his own free will and not under compulsion. 6. The person pronouncing it should be mature and sane. 7. It should not be pronounced under intoxication or in the influence of drugs. 8. Implementation of Talaq will begin in normal period after the menstrual cycle. After the *iddat* period, woman is free to marry another person or re-marry her ex-husband. Nevertheless, marriage with her ex-husband should fulfill all conditions of nikah. **Machinery for Talaq** **|** P a g e 251 ----- **Read [Q 4:34-35]** From the verses you have read, you will learn that Muslim men and women have been taught the procedure for resolving a conflict in a marriage. Divorce should not be the starting point of the resolution but Allah (SWT) guides the married spouses be committed to each other and live according to the Islamic teachings. It should therefore be the last resort. Married life should be filled with mercy, love, compassion and tranquility since it is a great blessing. Each of the spouses in the marriage has certain rights and duties over the other, which should be fulfilled for a harmonious relationship. However, when the marriage is in danger, and any of the spouses is subjected to situations that cause psychological torture, distress, pain or suffering divorce could provide a better solution to make each of them separate peacefully and in a morally acceptable way. However, it is encouraged that the spouses pursue all possible solutions to rebuild their relationship. In the event that the problem persists and there is no remedy, then the Shariah stipulates the following steps: 1. Kind admonition using polite words. There should be dialogue and soul searching. 2. Severing of conjugal relations. The husband should abstain from sharing their matrimonial bed for a known period of time. 3. If the above two do not work, then the husband is allowed to give her a light beating. This should however not inflict pain especially on the face or leave any marks on her body. *4.* Ila (the vow of continuation). The husband then should vow to continue with severing the conjugal rights for a period of four months. Allah (SWT) says, *Those who take an oath not to have sexual relation with* *their wives must wait for four months, then if they return (change their* *idea in this period), verily, Allah (SWT) is Oft Forgiving, Most* *Merciful.* [Q 2:226] During this stage, arbitrators from both sides are chosen to bring reconciliation. Allah (SWT) says, *If you fear a breach between them twain (the man and the* **|** P a g e 251 ----- *wife), appoint (two) arbitrators, one from his family and the other from hers; if* *they both wish for peace, Allah (SWT) will cause their reconciliation. Indeed* *Allah (SWT) is All Knower, Well-Acquainted with all things* [Q 4:35] in this verse, Allah (SWT) is teaching Muslims that marriages involve more than two people. Before a divorce, it is important to involve the other family members who have a personal stake and know the spouses personally, their strengths and weaknesses. If this is impossible then the process of divorce shall start. The procedure for divorce depends on who has initiated the move between the spouses; (wife or husband) In the event that the woman obeys and mends her ways, then the husband should reconsider his decision of divorcing his wife and take her back on equitable terms. If they do not reach an agreement, then they can ask for divorce but as a last resort. Allah (SWT) say, *But if they disagree and must part, Allah (SWT) will provide* *abundance for all from His all reaching bounty: for Allah (SWT) is He who cares for* *all and is wise.* Reasons for divorce 1. If the husband is cruel to his wife, either physically or emotionally. 2. Muslim man or woman may seek divorce if the partner is unchaste or proven for having committed Zina. 3. If the husband is physically and mentally able to earn a living but is not a good provider for his wife (and any children they have). 4. A woman can also leave her husband if she finds him not sufficiently religious, failing to follow the traditional rules and protocols of Islam. 5. Desertion by either of the spouse provided a sufficient period has elapsed between the abandonment and the request for divorce. 6. Failing to meet conjugal needs, if physically able by either of the spouses. **|** P a g e 252 ----- 7. Physical or mental defect or deformity if not present or known about at the start of the marriage can also instigate a divorce. **Types of divorce** **Talaq by husband** This is the divorce pronounced by the husband once or utmost twice. After pronouncement of divorce, the wife begins her eddah. Before the period of eddah expires, the husband may, if he desires take back his wife. This is called *Raja* (return). In the event that the wife completes her eddat without the husband showing any intention of taking her back after her third divorce, then the Talaq is considered as Bain (irrevocable) There are conditions governing a situation when the husband would like to take the back his wife after the third divorce: 1. The Talaq should have been pronounced at three different periods. 2. The wife must have completed her waiting period. 3. The wife must have been married to another different man, divorced and completed her waiting period (Iddat) ##### **Khulu' ** This is a divorce by redemption. It is requested by the wife and is granted by the husband upon the wife's paying him back his dowry. In Islam, a wife may seek Khulu when she is not comfortable in the marriage due to a variety reasons. These reasons may include the following: 1. Insanity or madness of the husband. 2. In the event that the man is impotent. 3. If the husband is suffering from terminal or infectious diseases like leprosy, HIV/AIDS. 4. In the event that the husband permanently changes his residence and the he refuses the wife to follow him. 5. Cruelty or mistreatment of the husband. 6. Prolonged disappearance of the husband and his whereabouts is unknown. **|** P a g e 253 ----- 7. Intentional negligence of the husband to provide for the needs of the wife and the children. ##### **Mubarat ** This is divorce by mutual agreement and is pronounced by both the husband and wife. In a situation whereby the spouse have explored all the possible means to keep the marriage intact but have failed to resolve their differences, they may both opt to seek divorce as an amicable solution. However this type of divorce must meet the following conditions 1. Either of husband or wife can make the offer for the divorce. 2. The other one must accept it. 3. As soon as it is accepted, it becomes irrevocable. Dhihar (Injurious comparison) Read [Q 58:1-4] The verses you have read were revealed in response to the event that took place between Khawla bint Thalaba and her husband Aws ibn al Samit to show the rule of Dhihar. This divorce is occurs immediately after the husband utterances show *injurious* comparison of his wife to his mother, sister or any other female relative who are his *mahram* (they are prohibited to marry), Shariah stipulates immediate cancellation of the marriage. The comparison should be intentional and with disrespect. If the husband makes a comparison to show respect to his wife, for example telling her that she prepares a good meal just like his mother, then expiation is not necessary. However, due to the consideration of the importance of marriage and the weakness of the human soul, Allah (SWT) has put three conditions to be fulfilled by the husband before taking his back. It should be noted that, dhihar by itself does not terminate the marriage nor does it cause the wife to lose her right to maintenance even in case of default of penance. It causes the following; **|** P a g e 254 ----- 1. Sexual intercourse becomes unlawful. 2. The husband is liable for expiation. 3. The wife can claim judicial separation if the husband persists in wrongdoing. Effects of divorce Divorce has adverse effects to the married partners involved, children and community at large. The following chart shows a summary of some of these effects. **|** P a g e 255 ----- **|** P a g e 256 **Iddah and its importance** ----- *Iddah* is Arabic word which means counting. In the Islamic Shariah it refers to the prescribed period of waiting by a Muslim woman who has either been divorced or widowed. The Quran has clearly outlined the waiting periods for both the divorcee and the widow. We shall start by discussing the Iddah for a widow. It is divided as following: 1. Iddah for a menstruating woman is three months or three menstrual cycle.[Q 2:228] 2. Iddah for a non menstruating woman referring to an old woman or a girl who has not started her periods, she has to wait for three months [Q 65:4] 3. The woman with irregular monthly cycles shall wait for a period of three months. 4. The woman who is divorced before any sexual contact with her husband does not have any waiting period. [Q 3:49] **Iddah for a widow** 5. She shall wait for four months and ten days. 6. In case she is expecting a child, she shall wait till she gives birth.[Q 65:4] 7. For a widow who has ceased menstruation, if the reason is unknown, then she will wait for one year. The nine month shall be for the Iddah for pregnancy and the three months for menstrual cycle. If it is due to suckling or illness, she will wait till she experiences her menstrual cycle then start her Iddah of four months and ten days. **Iddah for a missing husband** The wife shall wait for a period of four years, if the husband does not show up, then he will observe the Iddah for a widow of four months and ten days. **Importance of Iddah** **|** P a g e 257 ----- 1. It gives the woman time to mourn for her deceased husband. The Prophet (PBUH) says in the hadith narrated by Ummu Atiya says, *It is not* *lawful for a woman who believes in Allah (SWT) and the hereafter to* *mourn for a dead person for more than three days except for her* *husband* (Bukhari and Muslim) 2. To give the widow time to prepare for her new life socially, psychologically and economically. 3. To ascertain that the woman is free of pregnancy so that the inheritance can be done easily. 4. Iddah is a consolation for the widow and therefore it should not be taken as a punishment. 5. For the divorcee, it allows room for reconciliation. 6. If the wifes husband is missing, then it protects the rights of the marriage. **Observance of Iddah** 1. The widow should stay in the home of the deceased husband where possible. In the event of a divorcee and the husband may be cruel, then she can find a safer place like her parents home. 2. She should refrain from going out except when and where it is necessary. 3. During Iddah period, the woman cannot marry another person or accept a marriage proposal until she completes her waiting period. 4. A divorcee should be maintained by her husband 5. She should refrain from adornment such as wearing jewelry, perfume or heena. **|** P a g e 258 ----- b) Discuss the importance of Iddah to a Muslim woman Activity In groups, discuss the important steps to be observed before declaring Talaq. CHAPTER SEVEN: HISTORY OF ISLAM **KHULAFAUR- RASHIDIN** [the guided khalifas] Abubakar [the first Caliph 572-634CE] **Early life** He was born in the 572 CE, two years after the birth of the Prophet. His real name was Abdul Kaaba, meaning the slave of the Kaaba, which he was given by his parents (during the Jahiliya). This name was given to him since he was the only child in his family who had survived death and his parents therefore dedicated him to the Kaaba. His famous name, Abubakar, was because of his love for camels. When he embraced Islam, the prophet gave him the name Abdullah, meaning the servant of Allah (SWT). He was given the title As swidiq by the prophet meaning the testifier of truth after Israa wal- miraaj because he accepted the narration of prophets journey without hesitation and any question. His father was Uthman bin Aamir but his nickname was Abu Quhafah. He was from Banu Tamim and his family was among the nobles of Makkah. At first, he did not view Islam as anything serious and only converted after the conquest of Makkah. His mother was Salma bint Sakhar but was commonly known as Ummul Kheir and was among the early converts of Islam. Abubakar had good characters and never indulged in the evils like taking alcohol, gambling among others. He was wise, a good orator and conversant with Arabic **|** P a g e 259 ----- genealogy. He was a respected man in the community and a close friend to the prophet. When he was 18 years, he started his business journeys to Yemen and Syria. Before he embraced Islam, the Quraish used to send him on serious assignments on behalf of the Arabs of Makkah. **His conversion to Islam** Abubakar was a close friend of the Prophet even before the Baath (hrophet hood) and first revelation. Abubakar was on a business trip at the time when the Prophet received the first revelation. He received the news about the prophet teaching Islam and readily believed in him. He was the fourth person to accept Islam and the first grown up among men. Abubakar persuaded Uthman Ibn Affan and Talha bin Ubaidullah and many others to become Muslims. **Companionship with the Prophet** We earlier mentioned that Abubakar was a very close friend to the prophet even before his conversion to Islam. He was therefore willing to support the Prophet in the spread of Islam. He financially assisted the spread of Islam during its early phase. His occupation gave him an opportunity to meet many people; he therefore campaigned for the prophet in his mission to persuade people to embrace Islam. He convinced many Swahabas to embrace Islam; key among them is Uthman bin Affan. On the onset of persecutions, Abubakar used his wealth to buy the freedom of slaves who were being tortured by their masters. Can you mention any of the slaves who were purchased by Abubakar (RA)? He is among the companions of the prophet who endangered their lives to protect him. For example, when Aqba bin Muit was strangling the prophet with a piece of cloth, he appeared and shielded him. In the battle of Badr, he protected the prophet from the infidels. During the battle of Uhud, he courageously shielded the prophet from the stones and arrows that were being thrown by the Makkans. He married off his daughter Aisha, to the prophet in order to strengthen their relationship. During Hijra, he bought the horses that they used and **|** P a g e 261 ----- accompanied the prophet in the journey. In the signing of the treaty of Hudaibiyyah, he was sent as an ambassador to the Quraish. On the 9 [th] year after Hijra, the Prophet appointed him to lead the Muslims who were going for pilgrimage. During the same period when the prophet was ill, Abubakar (RA) was given the responsibility of leading the Muslims in prayers. He took part in all the battles, advised the prophet, and consoled him when in difficulty. Upon the death of the Prophet, Abubakar (RA) took the initiative of conducting the burial ceremony. **Election of Abubakar as a caliph** After the death of the Prophet (PBUH), it was important that the Muslim Ummah get a leader. The activities of the community had to proceed as usual. The prophet did not appoint a successor before he died but Abubakar used to lead the prayers for three days before his death. Before his burial, the issue of his successor became a big debate between the Ansar and Muhajirun. The Ansaar of Madina met at a place called Saqiifah. The main aim was to choose a leader who was Saad Ibn Ubaidah. When the Muhajirin of Makkah heard this, they all came to an agreement to have a leader from the Quraish. Abubakar suggested Umar bin Khatttab or Abu Ubaida bin Jarah. Umar bin Khattab rose up and proposed Abubakars name with justification. The Ansaar and Muhajirun had a lengthy discussion on the issue until they unanimously agreed that Abubakar (RA) should be the caliph. On the next day, after the prophets burial all the Muslims gathered in the mosque. Abubakar took the mantle of leadership and climbed on the pulpit to deliver his inauguration speech as follows: **|** P a g e 261 ----- I have been given the authority over you and I am not the best of you. If I do well help me; and if I do wrong, set me right. Sincere regard for truth is loyalty and disregard for truth is treachery. The weak amongst you shall be strong with me until I have secured his rights if God wills; and the strong amongst you shall be weak with me until I have rested from him the rights of others if God wills. Obey me so long as I obey God and His Messenger. However, if I disobey God and His Messenger you owe me no obedience. Arise for your prayer. God have mercy upon you. Such was the first Caliph of Islam. Indeed, the world would be a better place to live in, if we had leaders like Sayyiduna Abu Bakr (RA). **Challenges faced by Abubakar when he took over the caliphate** **|** P a g e 262 ----- When you are new in any leadership position, you may be faced with several challenges. Abubakar was no exception as he had just taken the leadership from the Prophet. He therefore had to face several challenges, which include the following: 1. The *Ridda wars* also known as the Wars of Apostasy There were a series of military campaigns launched by Abubakar (RA) against rebel Arabian tribes during 632 and 633 CE, just after the Prophet died. The rebels' position was that they had submitted to Muhammad as the prophet of God, but owed nothing to Abubakar. Some rebels followed those who claimed prophet hood. Most of the tribes were defeated and brought back to Islam. The peoples surrounding Makkah did not revolt. 2. Refusal of some Muslims to pay Zakat The news of the death of the Prophet (PBUH) made some new Muslims think that the Islamic State would crumble and they refused to pay Zakat. Sayyiduna Abu Bakr (RA) declared, "By Allah (SWT)! Even if a single thread is due from a man, he must give it. If he refuses, I will declare war against him." They therefore had to accept the rules and pay Zakat. 3. The fight against the false prophets Upon the death of the Prophet, some Arabs laid claim to the Prophecy and became imposters and renegades. Tulaiha, Musailamah, Aswad Ansi and a woman named Sajah claimed that they were prophets and caused a great deal of confusion. Abubakr (RA) was quick to take action against these imposters. Khalid bin Walid (RA) was sent to deal with Tulaiha who fled to Syria and later became a Muslim. Ikramah (RA) and Surahbil (RA) were sent to take action against Musailamah, but they were defeated. Therefore, Abubakr (RA) sent Khalid bin Walid (RA) to continue with the mission against the notorious Musailamah who had since married Sajah. In the fight that followed **|** P a g e 263 ----- Musailamah was killed. On the other hand, Aswad Ansi, the other false prophet, was killed by the Muslims of Yemen. 4. Completing the planned war expedition to Syria Before the death of the Prophet, he had sent Usama bin Zaid to conquer Syria. The army had not gone far when the Prophet fell ill and died. So they had to cancel their mission. When Abubakar (RA) became a caliph, the question was raised whether the army should be sent again or should remain to defend Madina. Abubakar made a firm decision and said, "I shall send Usama's army on its way as ordered by the Prophet, even if I am left alone." 5. rompilation and preservation of the Quran As a result of the death of a number of memorizers, caliph Abubakar was forced to compile the Quran. This was a challenging task and he had to select the correct panelist to compile the Quran. Zaid bin Thabit was given the responsibility to chair the group. 6. Conquering the external enemies The Persian and Romans were constantly attacking the Muslims. Abubakar had therefore to take action against these groups. He started by sending Muthanna and Kahlid been Walid to conquer this empire. After a successful battle, he send four armies led by Ubaida bin Jarah, Amr bn al As, Yazid bin Abi Sufiyan and Surahbil to fight the Roman Empire. Khalid bin Walid was sent to reinforce the Muslim army. The Romans were defeated during the battle of Yarmuk. **His illness and death** He served for two years and three monthly. One day he took bath on a cold day and got a fever. For fifteen days, the high fever did not drop and he grew weaker everyday to an extent that he could not perform congregation prayers in the mosque. He appointed Umar (RA) to lead the prayers. He was anxious to avoid trouble on the **|** P a g e 264 ----- question of succession and he consulted al shura committee on who would lead the Muslims after his death. Majority proposed Umar (RA) to be their next leader and he personally proposed him. He later called his daughter Aisha, wife of the prophet to do the following: 1. To share the piece of land he had given to her with his sisters and brothers. 2. To clear his debts from Baitul maal using the wealth he had left behind. 3. To be buried in the same old cloth he was wearing. Abubakar (RA) died on Tuesday Jamadul Awal 13 [th] A.H / August 634 C.E aged 63 years and was buried in his daughters house lady Aisha by the side of the holy prophet. **His outstanding qualities** 1. He was a man of simple habits and absolute devotion and leading a very simple life 2. He sympathized with the poor and needy in the community 3. He was humble, generous and moderate in position. 4. He always sought solutions to problems based on the teachings given in the holy Quran and the prophets traditions (Hadith). 5. He was the strongest supporter of the Prophet (PBUH). 6. He sacrificed his wealth and possessions for the sake of Islam. 7. He enforced the observation of the principles of Islam like Zakat, Saum, Swalat and Hajj. **His major achievement** 1. As the immediate successor of the prophet, he gave Islam a new face. 2. He laid a foundation stone of the caliphate. His election as a caliph showed democracy in Islam. 3. He supervised his officials keenly despite his soft heartedness; he was very strict and would take stern action on any official who would misuse his office. **|** P a g e 265 ----- 4. He managed to maintain the unity and integrity of Islam after the death of the prophet. 5. He fought the impostors (false prophet) like Musailama al Kadhab. 6. He fought against those who refused to pay Zakat. 7. He improved the army through; formation of battalions with each headed by a commander, Addressing the challenges of the military. Creating the post of the commander in chief as the head of the army. Insisting on the moral values of the army. Directing the commanders on the Islamic teachings on war. Budgeting for war materials like weapons and amours. Constantly inspecting the military camps to uphold discipline. 8. He made rules on the administration of justice and inheritance. 9. He improved the Islamic revenue system by establishing an independent department where money was deposited. 10. He used to give aid to the women, the old and the needy. 11. He set into motion the process of compilation of the Quran 12. He fought for the rights of all the people including the minorities and gave them protection in even the non-Islamic states around. He reduced the tax and asked only those who were able to pay. 13. He successfully fought against *Bida* (innovations). 14. He destroyed all the incorrect hadith that he had collected for fear of misleading the Muslims. 15. He established the departments of law, justice and Islamic Shariah to carry out research and find a critical approach to solutions in the community. 16. He expanded the Muslim empire through military conquests and established eight provinces, which included, Taif, sanna, Madina, Najran, Bahrain, Damtul Jandal. He conquered Syria and Iraq **|** P a g e 266 ----- **CALIPH UMAR (RA) [The Second Caliph of Islam]** **Birth and early life** Umar (RA) was born in a respected Quraish family of the Adi clan in the year 583 CE, thirteen years after the birth of Muhammad (PBUH). He was the son of Khattab bin Nafeel, his father and Khatmah bint Hashim Bin Mughira, his mother. His family was respected for its extensive knowledge of genealogy. When he grew up, Umar (RA) was proficient in this branch of knowledge as well as, horse riding, swordsmanship, wrestling and the art of speaking. He also learned to read and write while still a child, a very rare thing in Makkah at that time. Umar (RA) earned his living as a merchant. This made him to travel to many foreign lands where he met all kinds of people. This experience gave him an insight into the affairs and problems of the community. Umar (RA)'s personality was dynamic, self-assertive, frank and straightforward. He always spoke whatever was in his mind even if it displeased others. These qualities made the Quraish always ask him to be the mediator when resolving disputes. He is famous in Islamic history as "Al Farooq" meaning, "One who distinguishes between Right and Wrong." We shall see much later in this chapter that this among other qualities made him very successful when he became a caliph. **Umar (RA)s conversion to Islam** His acceptance of Islam is also very famous. Umar (RA) was twenty-seven when the Prophet (PBUH) proclaimed his mission. The ideas that Muhammad was preaching annoyed him as much as they did the other notables of Makkah. He was therefore very bitter at any one who accepted Islam. When his slave-girl called Basina accepted Islam, he beat her until he himself was exhausted and told her, "I have stopped because I am tired, not out of pity for you." The story of his embracing Islam is an interesting one. One day, full of anger against **|** P a g e 267 ----- the Prophet, he drew his sword and set out to kill him. A friend by the name Nuaim bin Abdullah met him on the way. When Umar (RA) told him what he planned to do, his friend informed him that Umar (RA)'s own sister, Fatima, and her husband had also accepted Islam. Umar (RA) went straight to his sister's house where he found them reading from pages of the Quran. He violently fell upon his sisters husband but his own sister tried to interfere and was hurt. Bruised and bleeding, she told her brother, "Umar (RA), you can do what you like, but you cannot turn our hearts away from Islam." These words had a strange effect upon Umar (RA) (RA). He wondered, Which was this faith that made even weak women so strong of heart? He asked his sister to show him what she had been reading. They were reciting the verses of sura a- Taha as follows: *Ta Ha* *We have not sent the Quran to thee,* *To be an occasion for thy distress,* *But only as an admonition to those who fear God.* *A revelation from Him,* *Who created the earth and the heavens on high.* *God most gracious,* *Is firmly established on the throne of authority* [Q 20: 1-8] As Umar read the verses repeatedly, he felt as if these verses were addressing him in person. He was at once touched by the words of the Quran and immediately grasped their truth. He went straight to the house of Arqam, where the Prophet and the Muslims were offering prayers and vowed allegiance to him. **|** P a g e 268 ----- Companionship to the prophet The soundness of Umar (RA)'s judgment, his devotion to the Prophet (peace be on him), his outspokenness and uprightness won for him a trust and confidence from the Prophet which was second only to that given to Abubakar. He made the following contributions to the prophets mission: 1. He openly declared his conversion to Islam, which gave hope to many Makkans who were still frightened to accept Islam. 2. He gathered the Muslims and offered prayers openly at the Kaaba. This boldness and devotion of an influential citizen of Makkah raised the morale of the small community of Muslims. 3. He was a close companion of the prophet and would advice him in times of need. The Prophet gave him the title 'Farooq', which means the 'Separator of Truth from False hood.' 4. He was among those who migrated to Madina and assisted the Muhajiruns to settle. He publicly declared that he was proceeding to Madina and even challenged the Quraish to stop him but none attempted. ELECTION In the previous subtopic, we have learnt in the history of Caliph Abubakar that he died of an illness. When Abubakar felt that his illness was fatal, he called upon the Muslims to consult them about who would become the next Caliph. He nominated Umar (RA) and Ali. Then the Muslims chose Umar (RA) by their majority. Based on the consultation and the Muslims' choice he announced to them that Umar (RA) would **|** P a g e 269 ----- be the Khalif after him. After the death of Abubakar, the Muslims came to the mosque and gave the banner of Khilafah to Umar (RA). As was reported by several historians Abubakar consulted Uthman, Abdur-Rahman bin Auf, Ali, Usaid Ibnu Hudhair, Sai'd Ibnu Zaid and many other swahabas from Muhajirin and Ansar. AS A CALIPH Umar (RA) was a very brave and straightforward person. He was tough and uncompromising in Islamic principles. He was a great and talented ruler. During his Caliphate, vast areas of the Roman and Persian empires and the whole of Egypt came under Islamic rule. He was also a gifted orator. He was very concerned for the welfare of the Muslims. He left an honorable legacy for Muslims after him. The Holy Quran was given to him by Abubakar (RA) for safe-keeping. Umar (RA) was a strong disciplinarian. He noticed the tremendous popularity of Khalid bin Walid and felt that people would lose trust in Almighty Allah (SWT) and put all their trust in Khalid bin Walid. He feared that if this were to happen, it would increase the self-esteem of Khalid bin Walid that would also breed arrogance, so he removed Khalid and appointed Abu Ubaidah bin Jarrah as the Commander in Chief of the Muslim army. Khalid bin Walid happily accepted the orders of Umar (RA) and then served as an ordinary soldier. This is an example of the Islamic teachings of obedience to leadership! Umar (RA) gave his government an administrative structure. Among key reforms he brought are: **|** P a g e 271 ----- 1. He formed a regular system of government with the parliament forming his shura and discussing all affairs of the state. 2. Setting up the departments of treasury. 3. Organizing a strong army with regular salaries set up for soldiers. 4. Public revenues were established and the baitul Maal in Madina expanded and restructured. Officers were appointed with book keeping system to take charge of the branches in all the districts. 5. A population census was held. 6. Elaborate land surveys were conducted to assess equitable taxes. 7. He established several colonies, which formed new cities. 8. He divided the areas, which came under his rule into provinces and appointed governors. 9. Architecture was greatly improved; with new roads, bridges and mosques for the regular people, guesthouses for the travelers, forts and military camps for the army, houses for government officials, roads, and wayside hotels built. 10. In Agriculture, canals were dug to increase the produce. 11. Provision was availed for the support of the poor and the needy from public funds. 12. He defined by example, the rights and privileges of non-Muslims. Reforms brought by Umar in the Muslim navy 1. He introduced pension to the Muslims who participated in the battle of Badr. 2. He introduced a fixed salary for the army men. 3. Arms and ammunition were given priority for the defense of the state. 4. The families of the soldiers were given financial support. 5. He organized training for the army, for example they were expected to learn swimming, 6. He established army centers, military camps and barracks where small army units were set up. **|** P a g e 271 ----- Defeat of the Persians and the Romans Khalid bin Walid had left Muthanna in command of the Muslim forces on the Iraqi front when he rushed to Yarmuk. Sayyiduna Muthanna was finding it difficult to counter the enemy and went personally to Madina to ask Abubakar (RA) for re enforcements. Abubakar (RA) had, by that time passed away. Muthanna (RA)s absence from the Iraqi front made things worse there. The Iranians regrouped under the command of Rustam and recaptured the lands taken by the Muslims. Umar (RA) sent Abu Ubaidah as Commander, to deal with the situation. Both the Persian columns were defeated, but Rustam sent an even larger army and defeated the Muslims. Umar (RA) raised another army and defeated the Persians. However, the Persian court sent yet another larger army, and forced Muthanna to withdraw. The report of the new situation was sent to Umar (RA) and reinforcements under the command of Saad bin Abi Waqqas were sent. The Persian and Muslim army met at Qadisiyah. After a long battle on several fronts, the outnumbered Muslim army defeated the 120 000 Persian soldiers and recaptured Hirah and its surroundings in 14 A.H. (636 C.E). After the long siege, Khalid bin Walid took the Romans by surprise and entered the city. The Governor surrendered and a peace treaty was signed. Assassination A Persian non-Muslim, named Firoz and nicknamed "Abu Lulu," complained to Umar **|** P a g e 272 ----- (RA) about his master, Mughirah bin Shuba, who imposed tax on him. Umar (RA) told Firoz that the tax was reasonable which made him angry. The next day, during the Fajr Swalat, he stabbed Caliph Umar (RA) six times in the back, severely wounding the Caliph. Umar (RA) (RA) passed away three days later in 23 A.H. He was 63 years old. He ruled the Islamic State for 10 years, 6 months and 4 days. Achievements and reforms of Caliph Umar (RA) In a short space of 10 years, Sayyiduna Umar (RA) had been well-known for his outstanding achievements and reforms in Islam. Some of these include: 1. The establishement of the "Baitul Maal" (People's treasury for the state and public). 2. harticipation in the battles fought during the hrophets and Abubakars time when he accomplished the expeditions planned in Syria. 3. Setting up Judicial courts of Justice in the country where Judges and Magistrates handled all cases. 4. Establishment of an army headquarters for the defense of the country. 1. His suggestion to caliph Abubakar (RA) to compile the Quran and send memorandum that the Quran must be recited correctly. 6. Construction of roads, canals and mosques in the state and the conquered areas. 7. Establishment of Madrassas and learning centers and facilitation of the salaries for Imams, Mu'adhins and Ustaadhs. **|** P a g e 273 ----- 8. Construction and improvement of the Mosques with facilities for the pilgrims in Makkah and Madina. 9. Police Stations and prisons were built. 10. Introduction of the first Islamic Lunar calendar beginning from the Hijrah. 11. Introduction of Proper weights and measures in business. 12. Writing down of several hadith which he sent for compilation and publication. 13. Construction of orphanages and welfare homes for the elderly. 14. Establishment proper punishment system and banning slavery. Uthman ibn Affan (The Third Caliph of Islam) Birth and early life His full name is Uthman bin Affan bin Abu-Al- As. He was born in 576 CE in Makkah, six years after the birth of the Prophet. He belonged to the Banu Ummayah, a family that was highly respected from the Quraish tribe. He was also known as Abu Abdullah or Abu Omar. He was the son of Affan and Arwa bint Khuraiza. He married Ruqayyah (RAA), who was the daughter of the Prophet (PBUH) and after she passed away, the prophet offered her another daughter, Ummu Kulthum (RAA). Because of this, he earned the title *"Dhun Noorain"* meaning "Possessor of Two Lights." He is a relative to the prophet through his grandmother Baiza, who was the daughter of Abdul Mutalib. He learnt the skill of reading and writing when he was young and when he grew up, he engaged in trade and was very prosperous because of his honesty, truthfulness and sprit of hard work. He was a very rich cloth merchant and was known as "Al Ghani" meaning, "The Generous." **|** P a g e 274 ----- His conversion to Islam The friendship between caliph Abubakar and Uthman was linked with the trading profession and they became very close friends. Abubakar explained to Uthman about Islam who was impressed by the message and readily accepted it at the age of thirty four and wanted to meet the prophet. His conversion deepened the enmity between the Banu Ummayyad and Banu Hashim who had been arc enemies. All through, Uthman kept away from the family prejudices. Companionship to the prophet Immediately after converting to Islam, he became a very close friend of the prophet. He was among the first persons to migrate to Abbysinia when the persecutions persisted. Uthman along with his family readily migrated to Madina in support of the prophet. While in Madina, negotiated a price for the well of Ruma and paid twenty thousand dirhams to ease the water shortage. When Prophet Muhammad and the Muslim armies were going to fight the Byzantines at Tabuk, he asked the wealthier people to give from their wealth and property to support and equip the soldiers. Uthman presented 200 saddled camels and 200 ounces of gold. During the treaty of Hudaibbiya, he was send as an emissary to the Makkan Quraish. Uthman would buy slaves for the purpose of setting them free and that although he was wealthy he was often without servants because of this habit. He was among the companions who accompanied the prophet during the farewell pilgrimage. Election as a Caliph At the time when caliph Umar (RA) was lying on his deathbed, he was pressurized by the people to nominate the next caliph. He therefore presented the following six **|** P a g e 275 ----- companions who were among the most eminent Companions of the Prophet out of which the next caliph was to be elected from: 1. Ali bin Abu Talib 2. Uthman bin Affan 3. Talha bin Ubaidullah 4. Zubeir ibn Awwam 5. Abdul Rahman bin Awf 6. Sad bin Abi Waqas He asked them to finalize the nominations utmost three days after his death. Talha bin Ubaidullah was not present in Madina at that time. Abdur-Rahman ibn Awf offered to withdraw his own claim if others agreed to abide by his decision. Zubeir and Sad bin Abi Waqas were in favour of Uthman, who proposed Alis name. The third night had come yet they had not agreed. On the fourth day after consultation with the other Muslims, Abdurrahman proposed Uthman and the Muslims unanimously agreed with the decision. **Challenges faced by caliph Uthman** Hostility from new, Muslims in newly Islamic lands. During his caliphate, some new converts started to accuse him of not following the example Prophet and the preceding caliphs in matters concerning governance. However, the Companions of the Prophet always defended him. These accusations never changed him. He remained persistent to be a merciful governor. Conspiracy to remove him from the caliphate headed by Abdullah ibn Saba. His enemies raised allegations against him and even attacked him and laid a siege for forty days but he did not react to them. He did not even use the treasury funds to shield his house or himself. His opponents finally plotted against him, surrounded his house, and encouraged people to kill him. The claims of Abdullah ibn Saba brought unrest in the Muslim state. For example, when he appointed Abdullah bin Amir as the new governor of Basra, **|** P a g e 276 ----- they accused him of appointing a raw young man and that he was filling all the key posts with his relatives. False accusations were directed at him. He was accused that he rewarded his governors and favoured some like the governor of Egypt had been given the entire spoils of war, that he had set aside public pasture for himself, that he had given land to his friends, that he was using the Baitul Maal for his family (he gave his daughters gems and other precious stones.) His own people like Amar betrayed him when he was send to Egypt but decided to join the Sabites who were enemies of the caliph. The alleged accusations of Uthman and their refutations |Allegation/ accusation|Refutation| |---|---| |Nepotism he was accused of appointing incompetent officials from his kinsmen to replace the experienced companions|Those he appointed from his clan like Walid https://Teacher.co.ke/ bin Uqba had been previously appointed by Umar (RA) as governor of Jazira. Said conquered Tabristan and Armenia, while Visit Abdullah capture Armenia. Papers t| |He used property from Baitul Maal to benefit his relatives. For example, he gave his daughters precious jewellery from Baitul maal while Abdullah bin Khalid was given 300,000 dirhams.|It is well known that Uthman (RA) was the Pas and wealthiest man among the swahabas and used Exams, his wealth for the sake of Islam. He bought a Notes, KCSE well, expanded the prophets mosque and free equipped the military. If he could spend, such For amounts for the sake of Allah (SWT), why not on his relatives?| |He exiled some great companions like Abdullah bin Masoud and Ammar bin Yassir|Caliph Uthman (RA) had some misunderstanding with these companions but was only a difference of opinion.| |He ordered for the stoppage of the allowances of some companions like Abdullah ibn Masoud|It is true that Uthman (RA) was in disagreement with them but after the death of Abdullah ibn Masoud, Uthman displayed| **|** P a g e 277 ----- |Col1|justice by paying all the areas to his heirs| |---|---| |Burning copies of the Quran|When there arose differences in the recitation of the Quran, Uthman in consultation with other swahabas requested Zaid been Thabit to produce a standard copy using the original manuscript kept by Hafswa. He then asked those swahabas with personal copies to destroy them.| |He denied the general public grazing land in Madina and made them government-grazing grounds.|auring Uthmans reign, the number of horses and camels increased leading to a need for a https://Teacher.co.ke/ larger pasture ground since they were for the good of the state. t| Table 4: Allegations against Uthman (RA) Outstanding qualities of the caliph Uthman was a man known to be pious and his heart was filled with love for Allah (SWT) and His messenger. He was generous, and modest in his actions, A shy man, who spoke few words. He was known for his humbleness. Uthman would often spend the nights in prayers. He was known to fast often, sometimes on alternative days. In spite of his wealth, he lived simply and would often sleep, wrapped in a blanket, on the sand of the mosque. Uthman gave freely from his wealth to please God and His messenger Muhammad. Death of caliph Uthman The final six years of Uthmans caliphate were marked with rebellion. Some of the governors that had he had been appointed were rebellious and to some extent unjust. In this way, the seed of hatred and discontent spread and many Muslims **|** P a g e 278 ----- began to love luxuries. Conspiracies arose and it was difficult for Uthman to differentiate between friends from hypocrites. He was reluctant to shed the blood of any Muslim and preferred to persuade with kindness. The rebels called for Uthman to step down and indeed many of the companions advised him to do so. He however remained true to his covenant of serving the Muslims but his enemies laid a siege at his house for a period of forty days. The rebels broke into his house and murdered him. As the assassins sword struck, Uthman was reciting the following verse *. So God will suffice for you against them. And He is the All* *Hearer and the All Knower.* [Q 2:137] Such was the tragic end of one of the most pious, kind and selfless men in Islam. Achievements of caliph Uthman 1. He narrated many Hadith directly from the Prophet and was one of very few scribes who were able to write down Quran. 2. He participated in all battles except the battle of Badr and in the battle of Uhud he, together with Ikrama bin Abu Jahal counter attacked the enemies. 3. He made the army that was established by Umar (RA) more progressive by introducing subsistence allowance, separating the military from general administration, increased the military barracks and appointed permanent army officers. 4. Uthman also participated in the migration to Madina and here he assisted Prophet Muhammad in establishing the Muslim nation. Prophet Muhammad even referred to him as his assistant. 5. He constructed checkpoints, caravan inns and water fountains and improved the roads, leading to the capital to improve infrastructure built canals in Egypt to improve Agriculture. 6. He sent prominent companions of Prophet Muhammad, as his personal deputies to the provinces to scrutinize the conduct of officials and the conditions of the people. 7. He equipped the Muslim fighters during the expedition of Tabuk. 8. He united Damascus, Jordan and Palestine into one Province under one governor for easier administration. **|** P a g e 279 ----- 9. He divided then empire into twelve provinces with more than 100 districts. 10. He gave governors written appointment letters and a code of conduct for their service. 11. Uthman reminded the armies to follow the clear guidelines set down by Umar ibn Al Khattab and asked them never to forget that they were defending the believers. 12. Markets were constructed and market officers appointed to maintain security and order. 13. He extended the conquest campaigns started by Caliph Umar (RA) to expand the Islamic empire. This included parts of Spain, Morocco, and Afghanistan. 14. Uthman took the initiative to standardize the Quran. He ordered some of the most trusted companions to make these copies and sent five copies to the provinces. 15. Because of the new conquests and expansion of the empire, the wealth in Baitul Maal increased and Uthman decided to raise the allowances of the people to 100 dirhams and doubled the share of the hrophets wife. He even permitted people to take loans from the Baitul Maal to boast their trade. Contributions of Uthman (RA) towards Islam 1. He preached Islam during the early days especially to the prisoners of war and publicised Islam to the non Muslims. 2. More mosques were constructed in the empire during his time. 3. He was one of the scribes of the prophet and wrote many letters and memoranda. 4. Uthman also became a reference point for those trying to learn the rituals of worship. He understood and was able to instruct others in the rituals of ablution, prayer, and other Islamic obligations. **|** P a g e 281 ----- **Caliph Ali bin Abi Talib [The fourth Caliph]** After the death of Uthman (RA), the caliphate did not come to a standstill. Caliph Ali bin Abi Talib was born on 13 Rajab/ 17 [th] of March in the year 600 AD in Makkah. hrophet Muhammad (hBUH) Ali meaning The exalted one He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraish tribe. He was given the title Haydar which means lion and at the advent of Islam, he was referred to as Assadullah which means the lion of Allah (SWT). This is because he was brave and ready to defend the religion of Allah (SWT). Ali was a son to Fatima bint Asad and Abu Talib, the prophets uncle; and therefore a first cousin of the Prophet (PBUH). When Ali was five or six years old, a famine occurred in and around Makkah, affecting the economic conditions of Ali's father, who had a large family to support. The Prophet then took Ali into his home to raise him. The Prophet (PBUH) loved 'Ali dearly and called him by many fond names. Once the Prophet found him sleeping in the dust, he brushed off 'Ali's clothes and said fondly, "Wake up, Abu Turab (Father of aust)." Later on Ali married the hrophets youngest daughter, Fatimah, and remained in close association with him for nearly thirty years. **Conversion to Islam** **|** P a g e 281 ----- 'Ali was ten years old when the Divine Message came to Muhammad (PBUH) who then started preaching Islam. We have earlier mentioned that Ali was raised in the household of the Prophet. One night he saw the Prophet and his wife Khadijah bowing and prostrating. He was eager and inquired from the Prophet about the meaning of these actions. The Prophet told him that they were praying to Allah (SWT) Most High and that he too should accept Islam. 'Ali said that he would first like to ask his father about it. He spent a sleepless night thinking about it, and in the morning he went to the Prophet and said, "When God created me He did not consult my father, so why should I consult my father in order to serve God?" and he accepted the truth of Muhammad's message. Caliph Ali readily accepted Islam without questioning and became the first male convert to Islam and the second one after Khadija. Before his conversion to Islam, he had never bowed down to the idols as the other young men of his time did. This earned him the title Karama llah-Wajhi, which means May Allah (SWT) Honor his face. He married Fatima, the daughter of the prophet, who bore him three sons namely, Hassan, Hussein and Muhsin and two daughters, Zainab and Ummul Kulthum. Ali (RA) also married other wives and had many other children. His companionship to the prophet In the first three years, Muhammad (PBUH) invited people to Islam in secret, and then he started preaching publicly. Allah (SWT) then commanded him to invite his closer relatives come to Islam thus; *"And warn thy nearest relatives"* [Q 26:214]. He gathered the Banu Hashim clan in a ceremony and announced at invitational events that whoever assisted him in his invitation would become his brother, trustee and successor. Ali, who was thirteen or fourteen years old is the only one who stepped forward to help him. This invitation was repeated three times, but Ali was the only person who answered to the hrophets call. **|** P a g e 282 ----- During the persecution of the Muslims, Ali stood firmly in support of the Prophet. He was as well among the Muslims who stood firmly with the Prophet during the Boycott of the Banu Hashim. He slept in the bed of the Prophet when the Quraysh planned to murder Muhammad. At the same time, the Prophet entrusted him with the valuables that had been given to him for safekeeping, to be returned to their owners when he left Makkah. Ali migrated to Madina shortly after the hrophets Hijra. Once there, the hrophet told Ali that Allah (SWT) had ordered him to marry off his daughter. While in Madina, he was among the key supporters of the Prophet and had the following contributions: 1. During the construction of the first mosque, he fully participated by fetching bricks, mud until the exercise was complete. 2. Ali was extremely active in his service, leading parties of fighters in battles, and carrying messages and orders. 3. Ali took part in the early caravan raids from Makkah and later in almost all the battles fought by the small Muslim community with great distinction, particularly in the expeditions of Khaybar. 4. During the expedition of Tabuk, he was left behind to take care of the hrophets family. 5. He was among the flag bearers of the Muslims, took part in the duel, and killed his opponent, Walid bin Utba, during the battle of Badr. 6. In the Battle of 'Uhud he sustained more than sixteen wounds. In this battle, he also had the special role of protecting Muhammad when most of the Muslim army fled from the battle field and it was said "There is no brave youth except Ali and there is no sword which renders service except Zulfiqar- referring to the sword owned by Ali." 7. He was the flag bearer during the expedition of the Banu Nadhir, Banu Quraiz and Banu Sad 8. He was commander of the Muslim army in the battle of Khaybar. Following this battle the Prophet (P.B.U.H) gave Ali the name *Asadullah*, which in Arabic means "Lion of Allah (SWT)". 9. Ali also defended Muhammad in the Hunain in 630 CE. 10. He was instructed to write down the Treaty of Hudaibiyya, in 628 CE. **|** P a g e 283 ----- 11. He was also among the scribes of the Prophet and acted as his personal secretary. The Prophet would always call upon him to bring the pen and the inkpot whenever there was new revelation. 12. As Islam began to spread throughout Arabia, Ali helped establish the new Islamic community through educating those who embraced Islam. 13. As a close friend of the Prophet, he supported him during difficulty and in sickness and took part in the preparation for his burial. 14. He assisted in the cleansing of the Kaaba during the conquest of Makkah. 15. Ali was so reliable and trustworthy that Muhammad asked him to carry the messages and declare the orders. Election as a Caliph After 'Uthman's martyrdom, the office of the Caliphate remained vacant for about three days which were marked by chaos which were led by Abdallah bin Saba, the leader of the hypocrites. Many people including Abdallah bin Saba insisted that 'Ali should take up the office, but he was disheartened by the fact that the people who pressed him hardest were the rebels, and he therefore declined at first. He proposed Taalha bin Ubaidullah and Zubeir bin Awwam. When the notable Companions of the Prophet (PBUH) urged him, however, he finally agreed and was sworn in on 21 [st] of Dhul Hijja 35 AH. Majority of Muslims in Madina pledged their support for him. 'Ali's Caliphate As mentioned previously, 'Ali accepted the caliphate very reluctantly. 'Uthman's murder and the events surrounding it became a cause, of civil strife. 'Ali felt that the tragic situation was mainly due to incompetence among governors. He therefore decided to dismiss all the governors who had been appointed by 'Uthman and instead, appointed new ones. All the governors accepted to step down except Muawiyah, the governor of Syria. He claimed that he would only step down after Uthmans **|** P a g e 284 ----- murderers had been punished. The Prophet's widow 'A'isha (RA) also took the position that 'Ali should first bring the murderers to trial. Due to the chaotic conditions during the last days of 'Uthman caliphate, it was very difficult to establish the identity of the murderers, and 'Ali refused to punish anyone whose guilt was not lawfully proved, thus a battle between the army of 'Ali and the supporters of 'A'isha (RA) took place. This is the battled called Camel. **Challenges faced by Ali (RA) when he took over as caliph.** We learnt in the previous section of this chapter that caliph Uthman was martyred. What do you think were the effects of such a murder? It is definite that any empire which loses its leader through such means will be faced with rage, riot and calls for revenge and punishment. The death of Uthman therefore paused the following challenges to the new caliph, who was Ali (RA): 1. Establishing the Islamic state and providing a strong political leadership. He had to appoint Qaiys bin Sad as the governor of Egypt who then decided to support Muawiya, the rival of Ali (RA). Alis intervention led him to resign so Ali (RA) had to appoint the young and incompetent Muhammad bin Abubakar. This lead to the Egyptians rebellion and he lost his hold of Egypt. 2. Avenging the death of Uthman. He was compelled to bring to book the killers of Uthman (RA). This was difficult since the only witness, Naila, Uthmans wife only saw Mohammad bin Abubakar who did not physically kill the Caliph. 3. Refusal of some Ummayad governors like Muawiyya to step down. 4. Some companions like Zubeir failed to pledge loyalty to him. 5. Civil wars like the battles of camel and siffin, which came about when Aisha (RAA) and Muawwiya demanded that the murderers of Uthman should pay blood money. 6. The trick played by Amr bin Al as during the battle of Siffin weakened his control of the caliphate even though he did not step down. 7. The split of Alis army to form the Khawarij made the caliph to lose most of his supporters. **|** P a g e 285 ----- 8. Because of constant revolts from the Kharijite, Ali (RA) had to face them in the battle of Nahrawan. The battle of Camel (35 AH/656 CE) Aisha (RA), the widow of the Prophet was on her way to Madina from performing Hajj when the news of Uthmans murder reached her. She then decided to go back to Makkah and call for support from the Makkans to avenge the murders of Uthman. He received support from key leaders like Marwan ibn al Hakam, Talha bin Ubaidullah, Zubeir bin Awwam,Yaala bin Mubaddah among others. Aisha (RA) then set out with a large army of about two thousand soldiers. On the other hand, Ali moved to Basra with his army in defense. He tried to send groups to peacefully negotiate and all was fine until Abdallah bin Saba incited his followers to make secret attacks during the night to Aishas army. This sent a wrong signal of betrayal on the side of Alis army. A fight finally broke out and Aisha was riding on the back of a camel thus the battle is referred to as The battle of ramel. Alis army won the battle leaving close to ten thousand Muslims dead. Both Talha bin Ubaidullah and Zubeir bin Awam were killed in this battle while Aisha was taken as a captive and sent to Madina. She later realized her error of judgment and never forgave herself for it. The battle of Siffin The situation in Hijaz, which included Makkah and Madina, became so troubled that 'Ali moved his capital to Iraq. Muawiyah now openly rebelled against 'Ali. Caliph Ali then moved with his army towards Syria in order to bring it under his control. Together with him was an army of fifty thousand men. This army camped at a place called Siffin then Ali sent out three men to go and peacefully negotiate with the army **|** P a g e 286 ----- of Muawiyya. Muawiyya refused to accept any amicable solution before the murderers of Uthman (RA) had been punished. There was unrest during the following month which prompted Ali to send another emissary led by Adi ibn Hatim to reach an agreement with Muawiyyas army. The same response as earlier was given and a fierce battle ensued between their armies. Muawiyyas army comprised of eighty thousand men. This is called the battle of Siffin. The battle continued for eight days and the side of Ali was emerging victorious. Muawiyya then asked for the opinion of Amr bin al Aas, one of his commanders. Amr suggested to his army to attach copies of the Quran on their spears as they shouted let the Quran decide. The fight was then stopped for some time. All this while, almost seventy thousand people had died. Finally the two sides agreed to have arbitration. **The arbitration** They appointed an arbitrator from each side. Alis side at first appointed Abdallah ibn Abbas, but the Sabites claiming that he was a relative of raliph Ali (RA) rejected him. They then proposed Abu Musa Al Ashari who was accepted by all. Muawiyyas side chose the shrewd Amr bin Al Aas The two arbitrators together with four hundred men from each side met at a place called Damatul Jandal situated between Iraq and Syria in the month of Shaaban, 37 AH, six months after the battle had stopped. They then agreed on the following: 1. Both Ali and Muawiyya should withdraw their right to the Caliphate position. 2. The Muslims should appoint a third party as the Caliph. Amr bin Al Aas then asked Abu Musa Al Ashari to start by publicly denouncing the candidature of Ali. After this announcement, there was more confusion and conflict **|** P a g e 287 ----- within the army of Ali. Some people felt that Ali had deceived them and withdrew their support for him. This group formed the Khawarij (meaning those who went away, left, or decamped). They had not been in favor of arbitration with Muawiyyas side right from the first day. They were about twelve thousand people and they moved to Nahrawan and started attacking small groups of Muslims and anyone who was supporting the Caliphate. This further weakened Alis power and he started sending some companions to talk to them but they did not heed. He then declared an amnesty on the group. This forced three thousand of them to surrender. He then sent troops to fight the remaining rebels until the group completely disintegrated and some ran to Bahrain. Even though the Ali's caliphate was marred with civil strife, he introduced a number of reforms, particularly in the levying and collecting of revenues. Death of Caliph Ali (RA) It was the fortieth year of Hijrah. The fanatical group called the Khawarij, claimed that neither 'Ali, the Caliph, nor Muawiyah, the ruler of Syria, nor 'Amr ibn al-'As, the ruler of Egypt, were worthy of rule. In fact, they went as far as saying that the true Caliphate had ended with Umar (RA) and that Muslims should live without any ruler over them except Allah (SWT). They vowed to kill all the three leaders, and dispatched assassins in three directions. They then chose on three people to carry out the task. The three were: 1. Amr bin Bakr was to kill Amr bin Al A as. 2. Barrak bin Abdullah was appointed to kill Muawiyya. 3. AbdulRahman Ibn Muljim was to kill Ali (RA). **|** P a g e 288 ----- The assassins who were deputed to kill Muawiyah and 'Amr did not succeed and were captured and executed, but AbdulRahman Ibn-Muljim, the assassin who was commissioned to kill 'Ali, accomplished his task. One morning when 'Ali was absorbed in prayer in a mosque, Abdulrahman Ibn Muljim stabbed him with a poisoned sword. Abdulrahman ibn Muljim was arrested and killed. On the 20th of Ramadhan, 40AH, three days later, Ali (RA) died ending the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs of Islam. Achievements of Caliph Ali (RA) 1. He was among the best scribes of the prophet and played a key role in the compilation and standardization of the Quran. 2. He participated in the battles that took place during the prophets time in defense of Islam. 3. He laid a foundation of intellectualism by being one of the most learned people at his time. 4. He personally protected the Prophet during times of danger. 5. He was devoted in the course of Allah (SWT) and on the forefront in the spread of Islam and very knowledgeable in both Quran and Hadith. 6. He was a good administrator, used to send inspection teams to the provinces, and would take stern measures on those found misusing state funds. For example, he pressurized Masqala to repay the money he had loaned from the Baitul Maal. 7. He introduced new forms of taxation on forestry and horses to increase the state revenue. He raised 400,000 dirhams from the forestry taxes; however, he was considerate and did not force the poor to pay taxes. 8. He was highly experienced in war and came up with new strategies in the army like constructing border posts along the borders of Syria, a safe and strong fortress to protect women and children. 9. He constructed a new bridge along river Euphrates. 10. He was one of the members of the shura committee during the time of the first three Khalifas and helped in making key decisions in the empire and supported them in administration. **|** P a g e 289 ----- 11. He took charge of the Muslim empire during the time of hardship and civil strife and struggled to ensure there was calm and peace. **|** P a g e 291 ----- **SPREAD OF ISLAM IN EAST AFRICA** **Condition of East Africa before the advent of Islam** The east coast of Africa lies between Sofala and Mogadishu which is a stretch of 3000km. It has inlets and deep harbor, with reefs where boats can easily anchor. There are a number of islands such vas Zanzibar, Pemba, Lamu Mombasa, Pate etc. The East Africa coast stretches from Pate to Kilwa islands. Its inhabitants were Bantus who had migrated from Central Africa to a place called Shungwaya before they dispersed to other areas of the coast. They had well organized economic, social and political activities determined by the Coastal setting and Geographical features. They engaged in farming, fishing, keeping domestic animals among other activities. They were the followers of African Indigenous Religion with most of them having belief in their ancestral gods. They performed rituals to appease their gods. Their social lives combined holistic elements of a community enshrined in the rites of passage like marriage, circumcision among others. Do you have any of these traditions among members of your community? **|** P a g e 291 ----- The early visitors along the East of Africa There are many factors that attracted the early visitors to the East Coast of Africa. 1. The presences of the natural harbors made it easy for the early visitors to settle at the coast. 2. Availability of clean and fresh water and adequate food supply to secure their stay. 3. The natural hospitality of the inhabitants of the East African Coast gave them security and encouraged good social relationship. Other than the East African Coast providing safe grounds for the settlers, they too had their own reasons for coming to the coast. Among these groups are; **1.** **Greeks:** They originated from the Mediterranean where they had gained maximum control of the trade in the Sea. They traded in oriental goods like weapons, cloths, in exchange for palm oil, rhinoceros horns, ivory, slaves, cinnamon, frankincense, Arabic gum, tortoise shells and live animals from the East African inhabitants. 1. Sumerians: originated from the Persian Gulf where the first ship building industry started. They pioneered the sea route-trade and gained access to the Indian Ocean. 2. Serbians: The Serbians had a large kingdom in Yemen and used the seasonal monsoon winds to travel regularly to and from the East Africa, especially Zanzibar. They took control of the passage from the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean; around 1 BC they regulated the Indian Ocean from Sindh (now in Pakistan) and the Persian Gulf. It was the same time that the trade entered the flow in Zanzibar islands. 3. Other early visitors to the East African coast were the Phoenicians, from the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. They reached Zanzibar and Kilwa in about 1000 BC on their way to Sofala, in Mozambique for gold, silver and ivory. About 600 BC, a Phoenician fleet sailed the south part of Zanzibar and navigated Africa before returning to the Mediterranean, three years later. 4. About 526 BC when the Persians conquered Egypt, they opened the access to the Red Sea. After the decline of Greek domination, Persia again became the strongest naval power on the Indian Ocean to Zanzibar. **|** P a g e 292 ----- Despite the Arab settlement in the coast of East Africa, the Persians continued to trade through the upheaval. 5. In the sixteenth century, the coast was open to Europeans when the Portuguese established a base in Mombasa as part of the sea route to India. They came mainly to conquer and spread Christianity. We shall study more about the Portuguese rule along the East African Coast later in this chapter. **Sources of historical information** 1. Through the chronicles kept in some Muslim states. These records give the name of some of the ruling dynasties for example the chronicles of Kilwa that gives the names of the Sultans who ruled the states and some of the events that took place there. 2. Some writings of the Arab Geographers who visited the Coast like Al Masoud who wrote that there lived some people at the Coast who spoke Swahili and traded with the visitors in Ivory and other trade goods. 3. Great Historians like Idris also left behind important writings giving an account of the lives of the people of Mombasa, Barawa, Zanzibar, and Mogadishu. 4. Other early dated monuments indicate the presence of the settlers at the coast. This is in the Great Mosque of Mogadishu built in 1238 and the mosque of Fakhr al-Din in 1269 both in Somalia, Kufic inscription in the Kizimkazi Mosque in Zanzibar dated to 1107 CE and the fort Jesus in Kenya 1593 CE. 5. There are also various early accounts by travelers. In 1531, Ibn Battuta visited the coast. He travelled as far south as Kilwa in southern Tanzania and described the people and buildings of the coast. For example, he said that the Sultan of Mogadishu was Abubakar bin Omar and that merchants inhabited the city. In the early fourteenth century, a Chinese embassy visited and described the coast. 6. The Coastal traditions and legends also provide information about the leaders found at the coast. 7. Archeological studies from the excavation of the ruins like the Gedi and most recent, Shanga in Kenya give information about the coast. We get evidence of the Islamic culture present at the coast through the of house **|** P a g e 293 ----- hold items such as Arab glass ware, jewelry, Arabic architecture among others. Below is a picture of the Gedi ruins: Gedi ruins, Malindi courtesy of magical Kenya **Early Muslim settlers and the formation of city-states along the East Coast of** **Africa** We have learnt that some of the reasons for the coming of the Arabs were due to internal disputes in Arabia. Most of the groups refused to submit to the leaders of the time and therefore had to find new homes and permanent settlement. The East African coast became strategic for them because of the already established social interaction, closeness and trade relationship. This among other reasons facilitated the emergence of city-states along the East coast of Africa. City-states were independent territories governed by sultans and were therefore centers for administration and trade. These states evolved from agricultural villages that produced goods on a small scale. Over time, these villages intensified their small-scale agricultural economies to create **|** P a g e 294 ----- surpluses for trading. The city-states spread along the shores of the Indian Ocean at the East coast of Africa. They included Pate, Lamu, Kilwa, Sofala, Malindi, Mombasa, Banadir, Barawa, Mogadishu, Comoro, Pemba and Zanzibar. Apart from the groups we have mentioned, other settlers who came to the East African coast were Muslims. Most of these groups migrated from Arabia to the East Coast of Africa because of religious and political factors. Thirty years after the death of the prophet, there broke a civil strife in Arabia and Iraq. Many Muslims fled their homes seeking Shelter and` refuge. These people had known the sea routes to the East African Coast before and travelled back and forth. Most of them therefore ended up in the East African Coast. Let us now closely look at some of these groups: 1. The two brothers from Oman These were SuleIman and said who refused to submit to the rule of the Umayyads at the time of Abdul Malik bin Marwan in Damascus. They ran away from their homes and sailed to the shores of the East African Coast together with their families and supporters. They landed at Pate Island in Lamu and settled there. 2. The people of al-Hassa These were Arabs from al Hassa region in Persia. They arrived in Banadir in the 10 [th] century. They were however pushed southwards by the Amu Zaid group. They ended up forming the cities of Mogadishu and Barawa. 3. Amu Zaid group They came from Iraq after the rebellion that took place during the time of Caliph of Hisham in 724 C.E. They started the Zaid sect whose followers had already left in 710 C.E and settled in Banadir and Mogadishu. 4. The Shirazi group (975 C.E ) **|** P a g e 295 ----- The family left Shiraz for the East African Coast in the 10 [th] C. They landed at several places along the coast and settled in Mombasa, Pemba, Kilwa and Comoros Island. The Shiraz group founded the Zenj Empire. They included Hassan bin Ali and his six sons. **Map showing the city states along the East African Coast** **Cite: http//sites.google/afropedea/imagestore/swahilirel.jpg?attredirects=0** **The role of the City States in the spread of Islam along the East African Coast** Visitors who came to the East African Coast settled in the city states located along the Coastal stretch of East Africa. The inhabitants of these city states, who were mostly **|** P a g e 296 ----- Muslims, welcomed visitors and this facilitated the spread of Islam. These city states played the following roles: 1. They provided clean water and adequate food supply for the visitors. These encouraged them to stay and attracted more Arabs to visit them. 2. There natural harbors enabled their ships to dock as they came with the trade goods. 3. They provided a safe and secure environment for the Arab to stay in. The local leaders ensured that the Arabs were not attacked nor their trade caravans robbed. The presence of such security provided a peaceful atmosphere for the spread of Islam. 4. Being centrally placed close to the interior made it possible for the Arabs to get the trade commodities. The people from the interior would bring their valuable trade goods like ivory and gold in the city-states. 5. They provided resting places for the Arabs as they came from their homes. The Arabs could spend some time in these places thus spreading Islam. 6. They provided storage facilities for the Arab traders when they came with their goods or whenever they were going back to their homes. The Swahili We are all aware that Kiswahili is a language spoken and studied as a subject in the Kenya curriculum. It is also a National and an official language in Kenya according to the new Constitution, promulgated in 2010. Are you aware of the origin of this language? In which parts of Kenya and East African Coast is this language spoken. You will realize that many people along the coast of East Africa speak Kiswahili. These groups of people came to settle along the coast from Shungwaya, which is to the East of Somalia. Among these groups were the called Wangozi. They settled in the Northern parts of Kenya but were displaced by tribes like Pokomo, Rendile and Somalis and forced to move southwards. They are Wangozi; from the word Ngozi, that means skin. This is because they used skin to make clothing, bedding, containers and ropes and measured their pieces of land using it. **|** P a g e 297 ----- When the early visitors came to the East African Coast, they were able to interact with the Wangozi and the other Bantu speaking tribes. The Arabs were among the early visitors who came to the coast in the 7 [th] century. They described the East African roast as *Sahil,* which in Arabic means south coast. Its plural, *Sawahil* meaning the vast coast line. It is also believed that when the Arabs asked the inhabitants of this area who they were, the inhabitants responded that they were *Watu wa Siwa* *Hili.* This is the origin of the co notated word *Waswahili* that is composed of two words, *siwa* (Meaning big Island) and *hili* (meaning this). The word therefore means people of this island. Another meaning is believed to have come from the response of the inhabitants to the question by saying they were, *Watu wa Ziwa Hili* . Ziwa meant the vast water body, referring to people inhabiting along the mass water body, referring to the ocean. Therefore, *Waziwahili* . Later co notated to Waswahili. In addition, the language they spoke was *Kiswahili.* The interaction between the Coastal natives and the Arabs and Persians further contributed to the cultural infusion among the Waswahili and numerous loan words to Kiswahili language. The Portuguese in East Africa The King of Portugal in the year 1492, Phillip (II) sent Vasco da Gama to find an alternative sea rout to India. He had to go round the Cape of Good Hope since the Portuguese were not in good terms with the Arabs and the Byzantine Empire. He arrived in Mozambique in 1498 but was not welcomed and set out for Mombasa where he arrived on fourth of April the same year. The people of Mombasa did not welcome him and he therefore proceeded to Malindi where he was warmly welcomed by the Sultan and shown the sea route to India. After discovering this sea route, the Portuguese took control measures to safe guard it. Moreover, this allowed the Portuguese to directly trade with the Far East through the sea. The presence of many **|** P a g e 298 ----- Arabs and Muslims at the Coast did not amuse Vasco Dagama and he reported this to his country. **Reasons why the Portuguese came to the East African Coast** After the exploration of Vasco Dagama to the East African Coast, the Portuguese put their focus on the East African Coast. Among the early visitors from Portugal was Alfonso De Albuquerque, send as a viceroy in Goa India, in 1501 and was to oversee the trade activities along the East African Coast. Don Francisco De Almaida followed in 1505 and conquered Kilwa, an Island in Southern Tanzania, later Mombasa and Zanzibar. The following are among the reasons that led to the coming of the Portuguese: 1. For trade expansion, they wanted to trade with the Africans at because they had commodities like ivory, which the Portuguese did not have. 2. Economic reasons, they had wanted to have a share in the profits from the trade that already existed. They wanted to control gold trade at Sofala, to obtain tribute and taxes and to get other goods like silk. 3. Political reasons; they wanted to conquer the East African Coast and have their rule established there. 4. They came to explore the unknown lands and navigate the untouched seas in East Africa. 5. They were anxious to prevent the Egyptians and Turks from sending help to their fellow Muslims on the Coast. 6. They wanted to make ports and calling stations along the coast where their ships would dock to obtain fresh food supplies. 7. Establish Christianity and counter spread of Islam. Success of the Portuguese rule When the Portuguese had taken control of the East African Coast, they put stringent measures to ensure they did not lose any part of it. The following factors made them very successful in their rule: **|** P a g e 299 ----- 1. They were technologically and militarily superior to the coastal people; they had bigger weapons, stronger ships, well-trained soldiers who used fire arms as opposed to the primitive weapons like bows and arrows used by Africans. 2. They were able to get reinforcement from their headquarters in Goa, India using the carracks. 3. They had an advantage of the control of the sea where they could attack without warning. 4. Their soldiers were employed on short-term basis and as such, each worked very hard to accomplish his term and go back home. 5. They had no rivals challenging them. 6. They built a fortress (Fort Jesus) to protect themselves. 7. They knew the modern fighting techniques. 8. The locals were ill equipped and did not have ships to carry their soldiers. 9. The local soldiers were inadequately trained to counter the Portuguese. 10. Local leaders of the towns along the East African Coast were not united i.e. Mombasa and Malindi. 11. The coastal allies in the Indian oceans like Turkey and Persia had a weak navy that could not match the Portuguese navy. **Methods taken by the Portuguese to establish their rule** 1. They made the inhabitants pay heavy taxes. 2. They ruled by torture i.e. burnt down houses, looted the towns of Mombasa, Sofala. 3. They killed many Muslims. 4. They forced Muslims to convert to Christianity. 5. They interfered with the Indian Ocean Trade. **The results of the Portuguese rule** The Muslims hated the Portuguese because of their harsh rule. These led to constant wars in the city-states. The Muslims could not be able to match the Portuguese fighting skills. They then sought assistance from the Oman Arabs to expel the Portuguese. The sultan called lmam Seif bin Sultan agreed and sent a large expedition, **|** P a g e 311 ----- which laid a siege on Mombasa town for three years. The conditions at the Coast became unbearable. The Portuguese could not access food and fresh water; there were outbreak of diseases like cholera. Their movement was restricted and they could not go beyond the Fort. This tortured them psychologically and they surrendered to the Sultan. These harsh conditions, made the Portuguese lose hope of controlling the East African Coast and finally lost their strong position in Mombasa, Pemba and Kilwa. By 1700 AD, the Portuguese had been completely expelled from the East African Coast, except Mozambique, which remained under their rule. Sultan Seif appointed governors from the Mazrui family to rule over Mombasa, Pate and Zanzibar before returning to Oman. He also asked the Nabhani family to rule the North Coast. **Contributions of Sayyid Said to the East African Coast** Sayyid Said became the ruler of Oman but later left to settle in Zanzibar in 1832. He later made it the capital of his East Africa dominions. His reign was a boom for the islands and brought developments as follows. 1. He increased the trade contact along the Coast and the merchants would travel into the interior to bring goods like skins, hides, ivory and slaves. 2. Zanzibar grew to be a great commercial center with many buildings and shops. 3. He encouraged farming by establishing clove plantations. 4. He encouraged the Indian moneylenders to settle at the coast and this boasted the trade activities. 5. The development of trade links with the interior led to good relations between the interior and the Coastal inhabitants like the Akamba and Mijikenda. 6. There was expansion of trade links between the East African Coast and Arabia. **|** P a g e 311 ----- 7. His rule led to increased Arab settlement along the coast, which facilitated more and more of the Africans to convert to Islam. **Modes of Islamisation** We have mentioned earlier in this chapter that the Arabs encountered several challenges in their quest to spread Islam in the East African Coast. However, some factors favored them and made their task easier. Can you mention some of these factors? How do you think the factors you have mentioned attributed to the success of the Arabs in the spread of Islam in the East Africa? Apart from the ones you have identified, let us consider the following; 1. The construction of Kenya Uganda railway. This facilitated movement of both Arabs and the people in the interior in search of trade goods. Due to such movements, the Arabs were able to settle interior areas like Kisumu and interacted with the local people thus spreading Islam. Some of the Asian workers constructing the railway line formed permanent settlement schemes after the construction of the railway line. These families were also instrumental in the spread of Islam as these areas attracted the more and more local people. 2. When the British arrived at the East African Coast they employed Muslims as Jumbes, Aqidas, as messengers, guards, cooks, tax collectors, interpreters and guides for the colonial government. This employment made them meet many people whom they taught about Islam. 3. Every community and religion has its own practices and traditions. The Africans, for example, practiced Polygamy. They also had their rites of passage. Can you mention any of these practices? When the Arabs came to East Africa, many local tribes compared the Islamic practices to their own and they saw some resemblance and thus readily accepted Islam. 4. Islamic teachings like greetings, hospitality, and kindness among others also attracted the local people. This increased the number of converts among the people especially in the urban areas. ### 5. The main aim of the Arabs visit to East African r oast was trade. This made them establish trade links with the local people who included among others the Akamba in Kenya. The Arabs also engaged in slave trade and had links with the Wanyamwezi in Tanzania and the Waswahili **|** P a g e 312 ----- of the Kenyan Coast. A majority of people during this period embraced Islam and in so doing were not sold as slaves. 6. Intermarriage between the Arabs and the local people resulted in families that practiced Islam. **Influence of Islam at the Coast** The Arabs brought Islam along the East African Coast. We cannot therefore fail to mention the Arabs when we discussing the influence of Islam as a religion. Let us now discus the following influence: 1. Conversion to Islam The inhabitants of the East African Coast were followers of African Traditional Religions. The Mijikenda, for example believed in a god called Mulungu. However, through the influence of the Muslim Arabs lead to most of them converting to Islam. Several mosques were constructed to facilitate the prayers as prescribed by the Islamic religion. 2. Material culture Apart from the Arabs influencing the locals religiously, their material culture is reflected among the Africans. This is evident in the use of Arabic architecture in the construction of mosques and houses. Others include Islamic manners of dressing, for example, attire like the kanzu and buibui for men and women respectively. 3. Education The Islamic form of education is witnessed in most of the areas that were exposed to the Arabs. This include the Madrassa system, integrated schools which offer both Islamic Religious Studies and secular education, some schools offer their education programs for half a day .i.e. morning to noon. **|** P a g e 313 ----- 4. Ruling families Some of the areas in East Africa have witnessed Muslim rulers who have established ruling families for a long time. When Sultan Seif of Oman was leaving, he left the Mazrui family in charge of Mombasa and Nabhani family at North Coast. These families command respect have been influential at the coast up to date. 6. Language Many people at the coast use Kiswahili as a mode of communication. The Arabic language was also learnt in the *Madrassa* in order to facilitate communication with the Arab traders. They encouraged the use of Kiswahili Language and did not replace it with their Arabic language. 7. Trade With the interaction of the Arabs and the coastal peoples, trading activities flourished. The natives facilitated the trade by bringing the trade goods from the interior to the coast. Sometimes they accompanied the Arabs into the interior to guide them access the goods. They engaged in economic activities such as fishing, and maritime. 8. Growth of city states Urban centers developed due to the increase in trade activities along the coast of East Africa. Most of the people moved from the interior to these flourishing centers. These states provided amenities like mosques, libraries and madrassas. Among these states include Kilwa, Sofala, Zanzibar 9. Emergence of the Swahili culture **|** P a g e 314 ----- The Swahili people had their own culture which was different from that of the local people. They lived in Swahili villages which still exist at the Coast, in Tanganyika, Zanzibar among other areas. These villages saw them living together as one united people under one religion of Islam. **CHAPTER EIGHT: MUSLIM SCHOLARS** In each community, there are special people who are recognized for the significant roles and contributions they play. Such great people earn praises and recognition from their communities for their active participation in various significant activities. The community members are indebted to them for their sacrifice in promoting their communitys socio-economic, political, moral and the general well-being. These people would include educationists, scholars, philosophers, psychologists among other dignified persons. Can you identify such people who played significant roles in your community? In this chapter, we shall study two great Muslim scholars from Egypt whose influence cuts across the world. Hassan al Banna **|** P a g e 315 ----- **Birth and early life** His full name is Hassan Ahmed Abdul Rahman Muhammed al Banna. He was born on 14 [th] October 1906 in the village of Mahmoudiyah Alexandria, Egypt at a time when the British were colonizing the country. His father was a watch repairer, a renowned author of Islamic religious books and a local Imam of a masjid where Al Banna received his first lesson in Islam. Al Banna was raised in an Islamic environment and learnt religious teachings in the mosque at an early age before joining Western education. His family, of a lower class moved to Cairo in 1924. At the age of 12, Al Banna became involved in Sufi order. As a young adult, at the age of 13, he participated in a demonstration against the British. By the age of 14 years, he had memorized the whole Quran. Education Background Al Banna received his first religious lessons (in Islam) at his fathers masjid where his father was an Imam. He joined Primary school in his home village Mahmudiya at the age of twelve. He then received his secular education at Dar-Al-Ulum school in Cairo and graduated with a Diploma in Arabic and Islamic studies. While in secondary school, he organized committees and societies stressing Islamic principles and morals. Even as a student at Dar Al-Ulum (a Teacher College) in Cairo, he used to attend lectures at the Al Azhar University where he was exposed to Sufism. Al Banna completed his studies in 1927. His ideas on Sufism were because of the influence of an Islamic reformist, Jamal al- Din al Afghan (1838-1897), a great personality of the 19th Century Islam. He was also influenced by the two adherent of Jamal al- Din al Afghan, Muhammad Abdu (1847-1905) and Rashid Rida (1865-1935). Work and Early Life **|** P a g e 316 ----- Al Banna was a school teacher, teaching Arabic grammar at Ismailiya. He was a good orator and had a mastery of Arabic language. He started to preaching his ideas and within a short time, he had become very popular. Just like his father, he was also and an Imam. He made so many followers who later urged him to form an Islamic society of Muslims. Al Banna started the society of Ikhwan Muslim (Muslim Brotherhood) in March 1928. Muslim Brotherhood was concerned with social, religious and economic matters. It was aimed at promoting personal piety and engaged in charitable activities. It also called for Islamic morality and condemned westernization. Ikhwan Muslim became popular in Egypt and by 1930s it had branches in every province of the country. This society had major guidelines as follows: 1. Promoting education for all by establishing learning institutions such as schools, vocational training and other education centers. 2. Reviving Islamic traditions such as Suffism. 3. To reform the political situation in the Arab world while imparting new ideas in order to create new governance based on Quran and Sunnah. 4. To establish recreational facilities where sporting events were conducted to promote physical fitness. 5. To improve and establish social institutions such as hospitals, mosques, clinics for the well being of the society. 6. To improve the economy of the society by establishing centers to train trading skills to members of the society. **Views of Hassan al Banna on Islamic education`** 1. Islamic education is all comprehensive all encompassing and holistic. It is all inclusive and does not leave out anything. 2. The foundation of Islamic teaching covers all aspects of human life. 3. Islamic education is for all people and nations. 4. It is for all times and ages. 5. It completes and addresses the detailed aspects of life. 6. Enable an individual to stay within the limits set by Allah (SWT). **Social Achievements of Hassan al Banna** **|** P a g e 317 ----- 1. Conditioning the people to respect public morality and imposition of severe penalties for moral offences. 2. Addressing the problem of women in accordance with Islamic teachings. 3. He fought against gambling in all its forms - games, lotteries, and gambling clubs. 4. A campaign against intoxication, to save the nation from its effects. 5. Educating the society on the Islamic code of dressing. 6. Segregation of male and female students unless between the permitted degrees 7. The encouragement of marriage and procreation, by all possible means and give moral support to the family, and to solve the problems of marriage. 8. The closure of morally undesirable ballrooms and dance halls, and the prohibition of dancing and such pastimes. His works 1. He established the periodical Al Shihab Magazine in which he put a methodology and his desire to overcome lack of knowledge. 2. Through the Ikhwan, he published a newspaper called Al Nadhir. 3. His other works are Methodology of Hadith and the Islamic social system. **Last Days and Assassination** Between 1948 and 1949, shortly after the society sent volunteers to fight against Israel in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the conflict between the monarchy and the society reached its climax. Concerned with the increasing assertiveness and popularity of the brotherhood, as well as with rumors that it was plotting a coup, Prime Minister Mahmoud an-Nukrashi Pasha disbanded it in December 1948. The organization's assets were impounded and scores of its members sent to jail. Following Pasha's assassination by a student member of the Muslim Brotherhood, [[[11]]](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassan_al-Banna#cite_note-11) Al-Banna promptly released a statement condemning the assassination, stating that terror is not an acceptable way in Islam. [[[12][13]]](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassan_al-Banna#cite_note-12) On February 12, 1949 in Cairo, Al-Banna was at the Jamiyyah al-Shubban alMuslimeen headquarters with his brother in-law Abdul Karim Mansur to negotiate with Minister Zaki Ali Basha who represented the government side. Minister Zaki Ali Basha never arrived. By 5 p.m., Al-Banna and his brother-in-law decided to leave. As **|** P a g e 318 ----- they stood waiting for a taxi, they were shot by two men. He eventually died from his wounds. In honor of his death in 1949, he was often referred to as **"As-Shaheed Imam** **Hassan Al-Banna"** (Martyr Imam Hassan Al-Banna). SAYYID QUTB **His life background** He was born in 1906 in Egypt at Musha village of Asyut Province along the Upper Nile. He came from a family that had a deep religious foundation. He was a great writer and thinker of the 20 [th] Century by his great works and ideologies. His brother, Muhammad Qutb was also one of the Muslim great writers in Islam who contributed a lot by authoring several books. In 1919, he dropped out of school because of the Egyptian revolution. **Education Back Ground** 1. He attended his Primary education from 1912 to 1918. 2. In 1920, he travelled to Cairo to further education at the age of 14. 3. He joined Abdul Aziz Teachers rollege in 1922 4. In 1925, he went back to secondary school. 5. In 1929, he joined Dar ul Ulum College from where he graduated with a Bachelor of Literature degree in 1933. **Work and personal life** In 1933, he was appointed a school teacher by the Ministry and taught at Daudiya School in Cairo. 1n 1935, he was transferred to Dumiyat primary school but was transferred to a school called Bani Suweif. In 1935 he was transferred to Hawan primary school. He taught in several other schools before being appointed by the **|** P a g e 319 ----- Ministry of information as an Arabic editor in charge of Culture and Literature. He then moved to the Department of translation and statistics. In 1944, he resigned due to misunderstanding that he had with Najib Al Hilali, the Minister for Information, despite intervention by Dr. Taha Hussein, the advisor in the Ministry of Education. He was then appointed the Inspector in the Ministry of Education. He served for a short period before being transferred to the Ministry of Information. Most of the time, he would find himself in conflict with the authorities due to his stand on Islam and anti western ideologies. He therefore had to move to the USA for two years where he studied Education Organization at Colorado State College of Education (presently, University of Northern Colorado). After his return, he joined the Muslim Brotherhood (Ikhwan Muslim) in 1953 and became its major spokesperson. His Islamic writings and activities led him into positions of leadership in the Muslim Brotherhood. He was arrested in1954 after a crack down on the Ikhwan Muslim and charged with conspiracy to overthrow President Jamal Abdulnasser. They interrogated him for three days in the armed forces prison, severely tortured him and jailed him for 15 years until 1964 when he was released on medical grounds. While in jail, he wrote his commentary on the Quran called *Fi Dhilal al Quran* . In 1966, he was again arrested and charged for an attempted coup against hresident Nassers government. He was sentenced to death by Muhammad Fuad Addajawy together with two other members of the Ikhwan al Muslimin. Appeals against his sentence were ignored and he was executed on Monday, 29 [th] of August 1966, at the age of 59 years and 10 months. Achievements and contributions of Sayyid Qutb 1. He left several literary works that continue to influence Islamic revivalism in the society and provide a blue print for the brotherhood. **|** P a g e 311 ----- 2. His teachings influenced his followers in the brotherhood and the Muslim youth. 3. He struggled to reform the community by promoting Islamic teachings through the Ikhwan Muslim. 4. He wrote a commentary of the Quran titled *Fi Dhilal al Quran* . 5. He enlightened the Muslim Umma on the true Islam and the need to uphold an Islamic code of conduct. 6. He denied the culture of materialism, violence and sexual pleasure. 7. He advocated for the rights of women including education. WORKS Sayyid Qutb wrote several works, which were mainly novels, literary works, education, theory and poems. The major works are: 1. *Al-Taswir al-Fanni fi'l-Qu'ran* (Artistic Imagery in the Quran) 2. *[Fi Dhilal al-Quran](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fi_zilal_al-Qur%27an)* (In the Shade of the Quran) 3. He wrote a number of monthly journals on topical issues from the Quran. 4. *Mashahid al-Qiyama fi'l-Quran* (Aspects of Resurrection in the Qu'ran), *5.* *Al-Salam al-'Alami wa'l-Islam (World Peace and Islam)* 6. *Khasais al-Tasawwur al-Islami wa Muqawamatuhu* (The Characteristics and Values of Islamic Conduct) 7. *Dirasat Islamiyya* (Islamic Studies) **|** P a g e 311 ----- those of the Muslim brotherhood in Egypt. # **Form three ** **Chapter One: Quran** **Preservation of the Quran...** - The time of the hrophet.. - r aliphs time...... - hresent time.. **Standardization of the Quran.** - Circumstances that led to the standardization of the Quran during the reign of r aliph Uthman - The process of standardization of the Quran... - aiacriticalization of the Quran. **Sura al Nur** - Meaning of the verses. - Teachings of the Surah... **Chapter Two: Hadith** **Types of Hadith** - Hadith Nabawi.... - Hadith Qudsi.. - Differences between Hadith Qudsi and Hadith Nabawi **Classification of Hadith...** - Test to determine the authenticity of Hadith - Simple classification of Hadith. Sahih Hasan Dhaif **Sunni and Shia collection of Hadith** - Sahihul-sitta... - Kutub Al Arba.. - The three later books of the Shia... **Study of some selected Hadith** **Chapter Three: Pillars of Iman (Faith)** **|** P a g e 312 ----- |
**AGRICULTURE FORM II NOTES**<br><br>**9.0.0 Soil Fertility II (Inorganic Fertilizers) (12 Lessons)**<br><br>**10.0.0 Crop Production II (Planting) (16 Lessons)**<br><br>**11.0.0 Crop Production III (Nursery Practices) (16 Lessons)**<br><br>**12.0.0 Crop Production IV (Field Practices) (14 Lessons)**<br><br>**13.0.0 Crop Production V (Vegetables) (16 Lessons)**<br><br>**14.0.0 Livestock Health I (Introduction) (16 Lessons)**<br><br>**15.0.0 Livestock Health II (Parasites) (16 Lessons)**<br><br>**16.0.0 Livestock Production II (Nutrition) (12 Lessons)** **(Inorganic Fertilizers)**<br><br>**Introduction**<br><br> Plant nutrients occur in the soil in form of soluble substances. <br><br> These substances are taken in by the plants in different quantities depending on their <br><br>roles in the plant tissues. <br><br>***Essential Elements***<br><br> These are nutrients needed by plants for various uses. They are divided into two broad categories namely: <br><br> Macronutrients micronutrients. <br><br>1 ***Macro-nutrients***<br><br> These are also referred to as major nutrients. They are required by the plant in large quantities. <br><br>***They include;***<br><br> carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phophorus, potassium, sulphur, calcium magnesium. <br><br> Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are referred to as**fertilizer elements,** Calcium, magnesium and sulphur, are referred to as**liming elements.**<br><br>***Role of Macronutrients in Plants*** **Nitrogen (NO3,NH4++)**<br><br>***Sources:***<br><br> Artificial fertilizers Organic matter Atmospheric fixation by lightning Nitrogen fixing bacteria. <br><br>***Role of Nitrogen in Plants*** Vegetative growth Chlorophyll formation Build up of protoplasm. Improves leaf quality in leafy crops such as tea and cabbages. <br><br>**Deficiency Symptoms**<br><br> Yellowing of the leaves/chlorosis. Stunted growth. Premature ripening. Premature shedding of the leaves. Light seeds. <br><br>***Effect of Excess Nitrogen***<br><br> Scorching of the leaves. Delayed maturity. <br><br>***Loss of Nitrogen From the Soil**:*<br><br> Soil erosion. Leaching. Volatilization. Crop removal. Used by microorganisms. <br><br>2 ***Phosphorus (H2 P04, HPO2-*** ***Sources:***<br><br>***4 P2O5)***<br><br> Organic manures Commercial fertilizers Phosphate rocks ***Role of Phosphorus***<br><br> Encourages fast growth of the roots. Improves the quality of the plant. Hastens maturity of the crops. Stimulates nodule formation in legumes. Influences cell division. <br><br>***Deficiency symptoms***<br><br> Growth of the plant is slow. Leaves become grey, purple in colour. Yield of grains, fruits and seed is lowered. <br><br> Maturity is delayed. <br><br>***Loss of Phosphorus From the Soil***<br><br> Soil erosion. Leaching Crop removal Fixation by iron and aluminium oxide. <br><br>***Potasium (K+, K2O)*** ***Sources;***<br><br> Crop residue and organic manures. Commercial fertilizers Potassium bearing minerals e.g. feldspar and mica. <br><br>***Role of Potassium in Plants***<br><br> Reduces the ill-effects due to excess nitrogen. Prevents too rapid maturation due to phosphorus. <br><br>Increases plant vigour and disease resistance. Increases the size of grains and seeds. <br><br>***Deficiency Symptoms***<br><br> Plants have short joints and poor growth. Plants lodge before maturing. Leaves develop a burnt appearance on the margin. Leaves at the lower end of the plant become mottled, spotted or streaked. <br><br>In maize, grains and grasses firing starts at the tip of the leaf and proceeds from the edge usually leaving the midrib green. Crop removal. Leaching. Soil erosion. Fixation in the soil. <br><br>***Calcium (Ca2+)***<br><br>***Source:***<br><br> Crop residues and organic manures. <br><br> Commercial fertilizers. weathering of soil minerals. Agricultural limes for example***dolomite, limestone***. <br><br>***Role of Calcium in Plants***<br><br> Neutralizes the poisonous secretions of the plants. Helps in grain and seed formation. Promotes bacterial activity in the soil. Corrects the soil acidity. <br><br>Improves the vigour and stiffness of straw. <br><br>Improves the soil structure. <br><br>***Deficiency symptoms***<br><br> Young leaves remain closed. There are light green bands along the margins of the leaves. Leaves in the terminal bud become hooked in appearance there is a die-back at the tip <br><br>and along the margins. <br><br>***Loss of Calcium***<br><br> Crop removal <br><br> Leaching Soil erosion <br><br>***Magnesium (Mg2+)***<br><br>***Sources:***<br><br> Crop residues and organic manures Commercial fertilizers Weathering of soil minerals. Agricultural limes. <br><br>***Role of Magnesium in Plants*** Forms part of chlorophyll. Promotes the growth of the soil bacteria and enhances the nitrogen fixing power of <br><br>the legumes. <br><br> Activates the production and transport of carbohydrates and proteins in the growing <br><br>plant. ***Deficiency symptoms***<br><br> Loss in green colour which starts from the bottom leaves and gradually moves <br><br>upwards. <br><br> The veins remain green. Leaves curve upwards along the margins. Stalks become weak and the plant develops long branched roots. The leaves become streaked. ***Sulphur (S0*4*2-*,*SO2)***<br><br>***Sources:***<br><br> Commercial fertilizers. Soil mineral containing sulphides Atmospheric sulphur from industries. Rain water <br><br>***Role of Sulphur in Plants***<br><br> Formation and activation of coenzyme-A. Sulphur is a constituent of amino acids. Influence plant physiological processes. <br><br>***Deficiency Symptoms***<br><br> Small plants/stunted growth. Poor nodulation in legumes. Light green to yellowish leaves/ chlorosis. Delayed maturity. <br><br>***Micro-nutrients***<br><br> Also referred to as trace or minor nutrients. They are required in small quantities/traces. They are essential for proper growth and development of plants. <br><br>***They include;*** Iron, Manganese, <br><br> Copper, Boron, Molybdenum Chlorine. <br><br>***Role of Micronutrients and Their Deficiency Symptoms***<br><br>***Copper***<br><br> Role in oxidation-reduction reactions. Respiration and utilization of iron Deficiency symptoms-**yellowing of young leaves**. <br><br>***Iron***<br><br> Synthesis of proteins. Takes part in oxidation-reduction reactions. Deficiency symptoms -**leaf chlorosis** ***Molybdenum***<br><br> Nitrogen transformation in plants. Metabolization of nitrates to amino acids and proteins Deficiency symptoms -**leaf curl and scathing.**<br><br>***Manganese -***Same as molybdenum. ***Zinc***<br><br> Formation of growth hormone. Reproduction process Deficiency symptoms -**white bud formation.**<br><br>**Boron **<br><br> Absorption of water. Translocation of sugar <br><br>***Inorganic Fertilizers***<br><br> These are chemically produced substances added to the soil to improve fertility. <br><br>***Classification*According to:** **Nutrients contained**<br><br>***Straight*-**contain only one macronutrient. ***Compound fertilizers***- contain more than one macronutrient <br><br>***Time of application*** ***Effects on the soil pH.*** Acidic fertilizers. Neutral fertilizers. Basic fertilizers. <br><br>Some applied when planting. Top dressing after crop emergence <br><br>***Properties and Identification of Fertilizers***<br><br>***Nitrogenous Fertilizers***<br><br>***Characteristics***<br><br> Highly soluble in water. Highly mobile in the soil hence it is applied as a top dress. Easily leached because of the high solubility hence does not have residual effect on <br><br>the soil. <br><br> Has scorching effect on young crops during wet seasons. Easy to volatilize during hot season. They have a tendency to cake under moist conditions. They are hygroscopic hence should be stored in dry conditions. <br><br>***Examples:***<br><br>***Sulphate of Ammonia (NH4) 2 SO4***<br><br> Physical appearance: <br><br> white crystals, Has acidic effect, Contains 20% N. <br><br>6 ***Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate [(NH4)2 SO4+ NH4 NO3]***<br><br> Colour: granules which appear yellow orange, less acidic, contains 26% N. <br><br>***Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN)***<br><br> Colour: greyish granules, neutral in nature, contains 21 % N. <br><br>***Urea***<br><br> Colour: small whitish granules Easily leached or volatilized, contains 45- 46%N. <br><br>***Phosphate Fertilizers***<br><br> Has low solubility and immobile. Non-scorching. Has a high residual effect hence benefit the next season's crop. Easy to store because they are not hygroscopic. <br><br>***Examples;***<br><br>***Single super-phosphate***<br><br> Appearance: whitish, creamy white granules, contains**20-21 %*P2O5*** ***Double super-phosphate***<br><br> Appearance: dark greyish granules, Contains***40-42% P2O5***<br><br>***Triple super-phosphate***<br><br> Appearance: small greyish granules, Contain***44-48% P2O5*** ***Potassic Fertilizers*** ***Characteristics:***<br><br> Has moderate scorching effect. Moderately soluble in water. Most Kenyan soils have sufficient potassium. <br><br>***Examples;***<br><br>***Muriate of Potash (KCl)*** Contain 60 - 62% K2O Slightly hygroscopic. Appearance amorphous white. ***Sulphate of Potash (50% K2O)*** These are fertilizers which supply 2 or more of the macronutrients. <br><br>***Examples;***<br><br>***Mono ammonium phosphate.*** ***Di-ammonium phosphate*** ***20:20:20, 23:23:23***<br><br>***Advantages of application of compound fertilizers***<br><br> Saves time and money. Mixture gives improved storage properties and better handling. <br><br>***Disadvantages of compound fertilizers application***<br><br> Expensive. Wasteful. Mixing may not be thorough. Incompatibility of the individual fertilizers. <br><br>***Methods of fertilizer application***<br><br>***Broadcasting***- random scattering of the fertilizers on the ground. **Placement method**- application of fertilizers in the planting holes. ***Side dressing***- fertilizer is placed at the side of the plant within the root zone, in <br><br>bands or spot-rings. <br><br>***Foliar spraying***- specially formulated fertilizer solution applied on the foliage in <br><br>spray form. <br><br>***Drip method***- applied through irrigation water. ***Determination of Fertilizer Rates***<br><br>***Contents of fertilizers are expressed as fertilizer grade or fertilizer analysis.***<br><br> Fertilizer grade indicate the guaranteed minimum of the active ingredients (N, P2O5, K <br><br>2O) in the mixture. It is expressed as a percentage on a weight to weight basis or percentage by weigh Example 10:20:0 means for every 10kg of the mixture there are 10kg of nitrogen, 20kg of P2O 5 and 0kg of K2O. <br><br>***Example***<br><br>***A farmer was asked to apply fertilizers as follows:*** 60 kg/ha nitrogen (top dressing) 60 kg/ha P2O5 (in planting hole). 60 kg/ha K2O. <br><br>How much sulphate of ammonia (20%) would be required per hectare? How much double super-phosphate (40%) P2O5would be required per hectare? How much muriate of potash*(50%*K2O) would be required per hectare? ***Answer/Solution***<br><br> Sulphate of ammonia (SA) which gives 60kg/ha N 20x 100 =300kg SA Double super phosphate (40% P2O5)which gives 60kg/ha P2O5 <br><br> 60 <br><br> = 40x 100 =150kg DSP Muriate of potash (60% K2O) which gives 60kg/hK2O <br><br> = 60 x 100=100kg muriate of potash *60* ***Example*** ***A farmer was asked to apply fertilizers as follows:***<br><br> 200kg/ha of DSP (40% P2O5 150kg/ha of muriate of potash (60% K2O) 150kg/ha of sulphate of ammonia (20% N) <br><br>How much P2O5 did the farmer apply per acre? How much K2O did the farmer apply per hectare? How much N did the farmer apply per hectare? <br><br>***Solution/Answer***<br><br> P2O5 applied per hectare from 200kg of DSP <br><br> 40 <br><br> = 100x 200= 80kg/ha P2O 5 <br><br> K2O5 applied per hectare from 150kg of muriate of potash <br><br> 60 <br><br> = 100x150*=*90kg/ha K2O ***N***applied per hectare from 150kg/ha sulphate of ammonia <br><br>20 = 100 x*150=*30kg/ha N <br><br>***Soil Sampling***<br><br> Refers to obtaining of small quantity of soil that is representative in all aspects of the <br><br>entire farm. <br><br>***Soil Sampling Procedures***<br><br> Clear the vegetation over the site. Dig out soil at depths of 15-25cm. Place the dug out soil in a clean container. Mix thoroughly the soil in the container. Take a sample and send it to National Agricultural Laboratory for analysis. The container carrying the sample should be properly labeled as follows: <br><br> Name of the farmer, Location, District Address of the farmer. <br><br>***Sites to Avoid***<br><br> Dead furrows, ditches. Swamps <br><br>9 Near manure heaps. Recently fertilized fields Ant hills. Under big trees. Near fence lines or foot paths. Do not put them in containers which are contaminated with fertilizers or other <br><br>chemical containers. <br><br>***Methods Of Soil Sampling:***<br><br> Zigzag method Traverse method <br><br>***Soil Testing***<br><br> Soil testing is the analyzing of the soil sample to determine certain qualities of the <br><br>soil. <br><br>***Importance of Soil testing:***<br><br> To determine the value of the soil hence determine the crop to grow. To determine the nutrient content hence find out the type of fertilizer to apply. To determine whether it is necessary to modify the soil pH for a crop. <br><br>***How Soil pH affects Crop Production***<br><br> Affects the availability of nutrients. Determine the type of crop to be grown at a given area. <br><br>Influences the physical and chemical properties of the soil. <br><br>Influences the incidences of soil borne diseases. <br><br>***Methods of pH Testing***<br><br> Universal indicator solution pH meter Know the course of action to be taken in the event of a disease and maintenance <br><br>of good health. <br><br> Know the prevalent diseases. Calculate the cost of treatment. <br><br>**Marketing Records**show commodities sold, quantities and value of all the sales. <br><br>**Labour Records**- show labour utilization and labour costs. **Types of planting materials**<br><br>**Seeds**<br><br> <br><br>Seeds are produced by flowering after pollination and fertilization. They contain the part of the plant that germinates and subsequently grows in to new plants. <br><br>**Advantages of using seeds as planting materials.**<br><br> Seeds are easily treated against soil borne pests and diseases. <br><br> They are not bulky therefore storage is easy. <br><br> They are easy to handle during planting making operation easy. <br><br> When planting seeds, it is easy to use machines like seed planters and drillers. <br><br> It is easy to apply manures and fertilizers together with seeds during planting. <br><br> Fertilizers and manures application can be easily mechanized. <br><br> It is possible to develop new crop varieties due to cross pollination. **Disantivantages of using seeds as planting materials.**<br><br> Some seeds have long dormancy and they may need special treatment in order to germinate. <br><br> Plants raised from seeds have variations from the mother plant due to cross pollination, This may <br><br>introduce undesirable characteristics. <br><br> Soil borne pests may damage seeds if left for sometime in the soil before rain falls. <br><br> Some seeds may lose viability if stored for a long time. This leads to gaps in the farm. **1. Vegetative materials.** These are plant parts which have the ability to produce roots, they grow and develop in to new plants. Plant parts such as leaves, roots or stems can be used for planting as long as they are capable of <br><br>rooting. **Advantages of using vegetative materials for planting.**<br><br> Crops originating from vegetative materials matures faster than those from seeds. <br><br>The crops shows uniformity in such qualities as disease resistance, seed size, colour, keeping or storing quality and chemical composition. <br><br>11 Use of the vegetative materials is easier and faster, especially where seeds show prolonged dormancy. <br><br>It is possible to produce many varieties of compatible crops on the same root stock. <br><br>The resulting plant has desired shape and size for ease of harvesting and spraying. It facilitates the propagation of crops which are seedless or those that produce seeds which are not viable or have a long dormancy period. Such crops include sugar-cane, bananas, Napier grass and others. <br><br>**Disadvantages.**<br><br> Vegetative propagation does not result in new crop varieties. Keeping the materials free of diseases is difficult. Materials cannot be stored for long. The materials are bulky and there fore difficult to store and transport. <br><br>**Plant parts used for vegetative propagation.**<br><br>**i)**<br><br>**Bulbils.** <br><br>These are tiny sisal plants produced in the inflorescence almost at the end of the plant growth cycle. They resemble the mother plant except that they are smaller in size. They are produced by the branches of the sisal pole. <br><br> When manure they mature they develop rudimentary roots and fall off to the ground just below <br><br>the pole. They are the collected and raised in the nurseries before they are transplanted t\o the main field. <br><br> One sisal pole may produce as many as 3,000 bulbils. They are usually 10cm long. They make good planting <br><br>materials and are better than sucke **ii)** **Splits**<br><br> These are plantlets divided from the existing mother plant with complete with complete leaves <br><br>and rooting system. <br><br> They are used to propagate most pasture grasses and pyrethrum. <br><br> Pyrethrum splits are raised first in nursery and then transplanted to the field. <br><br>**iii)**<br><br>**Crowns and slips** <br><br>These are materials used to propagate pineapples Crowns are born on top of the fruits and are broken off and prepared for planting. They are more preferred to suckers because they give uniform growth and take two years to reach maturity. Slips are borne to the base of the pineapple fruits. They are cut and prepared for plantings. Their growth rate is faster than for crowns giving average uniformity. They take 22 months from planting to maturity. <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> <br><br>12 Crowns and slips are planted in the nurseries first before transplanting to the main seed bed. <br><br>**iv)**<br><br>**Suckers** These are small plants that grow from the base of the main stem. They have adventitious roots which grow quickly when planted to form a new plant. When planted, suckers give uneven growth leading to maturity at different times. T hey should be planted when they are young. <br><br> They are used to propagate bananas, sisal, and pineapples. **v)**<br><br>**Tubers** These are underground food storage organs which are short and thick. They are used as vegetative propagation materials because they sprout and produce roots for <br><br>growth. <br><br> There are mainly two types of tubers, the stem and root tubers. Root tubers develop from the thickening of the adventitious roots. Root tubers are not commonly used for propagation since they produce weak stems. A good example of a root tuber is the sweet potato. On the other hand stem tubers have some auxiliary buds which are sometimes referred to as <br><br>eyes. <br><br> These eyes sprout to produce stems which grow into plants. Stem tubers are therefore swollen <br><br>stems with scales leaves. <br><br> A good example of a stem tuber is Irish potato. Cuttings are portion of plants parts which are cut and then planted. They may be from stems, roots or leaves. A stem cutting must have a bud which develops into shoot. The root cutting must have an eye. Cutting must have an eye. Cuttings must produce leaves as soon as possible so that they can start making their own food. Sometimes cuttings are induced to produce roots by use of rooting hormones. **vi)**<br><br>**Vines.** These are soft wood cuttings which produce roots easily upon planting to give rise to new plants. They are cut from the mother plants and planted directly into the field. Soft wood cuttings (vines) are taken from rapidly growing shoots. Roots are produced from the nodes. <br><br> The soft upper parts of the shoots are preferred. When preparing the cuttings, some leaves and nodes are included. <br><br>**vii)**<br><br>**Cuttings and setts** o o o o o o o Once the cuttings have developed roots, they give rise to new plants. o In some crops, the cuttings are big enough to be planted directly to the main seedbed whereas <br><br>there are some plants whose cuttings are first raised in special nurseries before they are transplanted to the seedbed. <br><br>o The cuttings of Napier grass and sugar-cane are planted directly on the seedbed but those of <br><br>tea; have to be raised in special nursery before they are transferred to the seed bed. <br><br>o Examples of crops which are propagated by use of stem cuttings include: tea, cassava, and <br><br>sugar-cane and Napier grass. <br><br>o The stem cuttings used to propagate sugar-cane are known as setts. Setts are stem cuttings <br><br>which have 3-5 nodes are usually 30-45 cm long. **Factors affecting rooting of cuttings.**<br><br> <br><br>**Temperature:**for the cuttings to produce roots warm temperatures are required around the root zone while cool temperatures are important for the aerial part of the cuttings. For most species optimum day and light temperatures for rooting are 22 -27c and 15-21 c respectively. <br><br>a)**Relative humidity:**Proper rooting of cuttings requires high humidity which lower the <br><br>transpiration rate. It also increases and maintains leaf turgidity all the time. As such, cuttings should be rooted in green houses or under shady conditions, where relative humidity can be regulated. Sometimes the propagation area can be sprayed with water to keep it moist. b)**Light intensity:**soft wood cuttings need high intensity light to produce roots. This is because light promotes the production of roots since it affects the rate of photosynthesis. Hard wood cuttings do well in dark conditions since they have high amount of stored carbohydrates and therefore rooting is excellent in darkness. <br><br>c)**Oxygen supply:**plentiful supply of oxygen is required for root formation. The rooting <br><br>medium used must therefore be capable of allowing proper aeration. <br><br>d)**Chemical treatment**: these rooting hormones which promote the production of roots in **Selection of planting materials**<br><br>When selecting materials for planting the following factors must be considered: <br><br> <br><br>**Suitability to the ecological conditions** the selected planting materials should be well adapted to the soil conditions, temperatures and amount of rainfall in the area. There are many varieties of maize, for example, which are suitable to different ecological conditions. Hybrid 622f or example is mainly for the high altitudes areas of Kenya 513 for the medium altitudes and the Katumani composites for the low rainfall areas while the coast composites are suitable for the coastal conditions each variety will grow well and produce high yields if grown under the correct conditions <br><br>**Purity of the materials**- planting materials should be pure and not mixed with other off types the <br><br>percentage purity of planting materials will affect the seed while higher seeds rates are used for impure seeds. **Germination percentage**- This is a measure of the germination potential of seeds it is expressed as a percentage for example a germination percentage of 80 means that for every 10 seeds planted 80 of them are expected to germinate. Germination percentage helps to determine the seed rates of crops lower seed rates are used for crops with higher germination percentage while higher seed rates are used for those with lower germination percentage. <br><br>**Certified seeds**- These are seeds which have been tested and proven to have 100 germination potential and free from diseases and pests they give high yields after the first planting but the subsequent yields decline if replaced therefore in this case it is always advisable to buy new seeds which are certified every time planting is done In Kenya certified seeds are produced by the Kenya seed company (KSC) and distributed by Kenya Farmers Association (KFA) and other agents. **PREPARATION OF PLANTING MATERIALS.**<br><br>After the planting materials are selected they are prepared in different ways before they are planted. Some of the methods used to prepare planting materials include the following: <br><br>**(a)Breaking the seed dormancy.**<br><br> Some seeds undergo a dormancy period between maturity and the time they sprout. The dormancy period is the stage whereby a seed cannot germinate, the stage of inhibited growth of seed. It should be broken before the seed is planted. <br><br>**Methods of breaking seed dormancy.**<br><br>The following methods are used to break seed dormancy**:**<br><br>**(I)*Mechanical method:***This is a method which aims at scratching the seed coat to make it permeable to <br><br>water. Scarification is done by rubbing small sized seeds against hard surface such as sand paper, while filling or nicking the seed coat with a knife is done to large sized seeds such as croton seeds. <br><br> (ii)***Heat treatment:***this involves the use of hot water or burning the seeds lightly. It softens the seed coat <br><br>making it permeable to water and thus is able to germinate. The seeds are soaked in hot water about 80c for 3-4 minutes after which the water is allowed to drain off. Example of seeds treated in this way include: leucean 72 + 32 = 22 calliadra and acacia. Light burning also serves the same purpose as hot water treatment. In this case trash is spread over the seeds which are already covered with a thin layer of soil. The trash is burned, after which the seeds are retrieved and planted. Examples include acacia and wattle tree seeds. Overheating should be avoided as this will cook the seeds. <br><br>**(iii)Chemical treatment:**seeds are dipped in specific chemicals such as concentrated sulphuric acid, for two minutes and then removed. The chemical wears off the seed coat making it permeable to water. Care should be taken not to leave the seeds in the chemicals for too long as this will kill the embryo. Cotton seeds are normally treated with chemicals to remove the lint or fibres. **iv) Soaking in water**: seeds are soaked in water for a period of between 24 48 hours until they swell. They are then removed and planted immediately. The seeds treated thus germinate very fast. Pre-germinated seeds are used when raising rice in the nurseries. <br><br>**b) Seed dressing**<br><br> This is the coating of seeds with fungicides or an insecticide or a combination of the two chemicals. This is particularly common with cereals, sugar-cane and legumes. <br><br>The chemicals protect the seedlings from soil-borne diseases and pests. Certified seeds which are sold by seed merchants in Kenya have been dressed with these chemicals. Farmers can also buy the chemicals and dress their own seeds. <br><br>**C) Seed inoculation**<br><br> In areas where soils are deficient in nitrogen, legumes such as beans, clovers and peas should be coated with an inoculant. An innoculant is a preparation which contains the right strain of Rhizobium depending on the type of legume and encourages nodulation, hence nitrogen fixation. Below is a table showing different legume crops and their right strain of Rhizobium. <br><br>Crop inoculation group Lucerne Clover Pea Bean Lupin soyabean Rhizobium Species *R. melioti* *R. trifoli* *R. leguminosarum* *R. phaseoli* *R. lupini* *R. japonicum* When handling inoculated seeds, care should be taken to prevent them from coming in contact with chemicals. This means that inoculated seeds should not be dressed with chemicals as these will kill the bacterium. They should also be planted when the soil is moist to avoid dehydration which kills the bacterium. <br><br>**d) Chitting**<br><br> This practice is also referred to as sprouting. The selected seed potatoes setts which are used as planting materials are sprouted before planting to break their dormancy. The setts of about 3-6 cm in diameter are arranged in layers of 2 or 3 tubers deep in a partially darkened room. The setts should be arranged with the rose- end facing upwards and the heel-end downwards. Diffused light encourages the production of short, green and healthy sprouts. If Chitting is done in complete darkness, long, pale thin sprouts develop which break easily during planting. During Chitting potato aphids and tuber months should be controlled by dusting or spraying the sett with dimethoate. Sometimes a chemical <br><br>16 known as Rendite is used to break dormancy, thus inducing sprouting. Chitting is done mainly to make sure that growth commences immediately the seed is planted so as to make maximum use of rains for high yields. <br><br>**Time of planting**<br><br>The timing of planting or sowing is influenced by the type of crop to be planted and the environmental conditions of the area. <br><br>**Factors to consider in timing planting.**<br><br> Market demand. Prevalence of pests and diseases. Weed control. <br><br>The rainfall pattern/moisture condition of the soil. Type of crop to be planted. Soil type. <br><br>Timely planting is necessary and should be done at the onset of rains. In some areas where rainfall is scare dry planting is recommended. <br><br>**Advantages of timely planting.**<br><br> Crops make maximum use of rainfall and suitable soil temperature, leading to vigorous growth. Crops usually escape serious pests and diseases attack. Crops benefit from nitrogen flush which is available at the beginning of the rain. Crops establish earlier than the weeds, hence smothering them. <br><br>For horticultural crops, proper timing ensures that the produce is marketed when prices are high. **Methods of planting.**<br><br>There are two main methods of planting :- <br><br> Broadcasting. Row planting. <br><br>**Broadcasting.**<br><br> This method involves scattering the seeds all over the field in a random manner. It is commonly adapted for light tiny seeds such as those of pasture grasses. It is easier, quicker and cheaper than row planting. However, it uses more seeds than row planting and the seeds are spread unevenly leading to crowding of plants in some places. This results in poor performance due to competition. Broadcasting gives a good ground cover, but weeding cannot be mechanized. For good results, the seedbed should be weed-free, firm and have a fine tilth. <br><br>**Row planting.**<br><br>The seeds or other planting materials are placed in holes, drills or furrows in rows. The distance between one row to the other and from one hole to the other is known. In Kenya, both large and small scale farmers practice row planting. It is practiced when planting many types of crops, especially perennial, annual and root crops. <br><br>**Advantages of row planting**. <br><br>17 Machines can be used easily between the rows. It is easy to establish the correct plant population. Lower seed rate is used than if broadcasting is adopted. It is easy to carry out cultural practices such as weeding, spraying and harvesting. <br><br>**Disadvantages of row planting.**<br><br> It does not provide an ample foliage cover. Thus the soil is liable to being eroded by wind and water. It is more expensive than broadcasting because of consuming a lot of labour and time. It requires some skill in measuring the distances between and within the rows. <br><br>Seeds can also be planted by dibbling where the planting holes are dug by use of pangas or jembe, or by a dibbling stick (dibbler). Most of the dibbling is done randomly although rows can also be used when using a planting line. Random dibbling is not popular in commercial farming due to low levels of production. It is only common among conservative farmers in planting of legumes such as beans, pigeon peas and cow peas. <br><br>**Over-sowing.**<br><br>This is the introduction of a pasture legume such as desmodium in an existing grass pasture. Some form of growth suppression of existing grass such as burning, slashing or hard grazing plus slight soil disturbance is recommended before over sowing. A heavy dose of superphosphate, preferably single supers at a rate of 200- 400 kg/ha is applied. The grass must be kept short until the legume is fully established. Regardless of the method of establishment, the pastures and fodder stands should be ready for light grazing 4-5 months after planting if rainfall and soil fertility are not limiting. **Under-sowing.**<br><br>This refers to the establishment of pasture under a cover crop, usually maize. Maize is planted as recommended and weeded 2-3 weeks after the onset of rains. Pasture seeds are then broadcasted with half the recommended basal fertilizer. No further weeding should be done and maize should be harvested early to expose the young pasture seedlings to sunlight. The benefits of under sowing include facilitating more intensive land utilization and encouraging an early establishment of pastures. <br><br>Fodder crops and vegetetively propagated pasture species may also be under sown as long as rainfall is adequate for their establishment. Timing is not very crucial in this case and planting can be done as late as 6-8 weeks after the onset of rains. <br><br>**Plant population**<br><br>This refers to the ideal number of plants that can be comfortably accommodated in any given area, without overcrowding or too few to waste space. Agricultural research has arrived at the optimum number of various crop plants to be recommended to farmers. Plant population is determined by dividing the planting area by spacing of the crop. This may be simplified thus: <br><br> Area of land **Plant population**= Pacing of crop Given that maize is planted at a spacing of 75 x25 cm, calculate the plant population in a plot of land measuring 4x3 m. <br><br>**Working** Area of land Plant population = Pacing of crop <br><br>Area of land = 400cm x 300 cm <br><br>Spacing of maize = 75 cm x 25 cm <br><br>Therefore, plant population = 400 cm x 300 cm 75 cm x 25 cm <br><br> = 64 plants. <br><br>**Spacing** It is the distance of plants between and within the rows. Correct spacing for each crop has been established as shown in table below. 2.75 cm x 2.75m <br><br>1.5 m by 0.75 m 45 -60 m by 25 cm 3.6 6.0 m by 3.6 4.5 m 9 m x 9 m <br><br>100 x 50 cm 60 x 60 cm crop Maize (Kitale) hybrids <br><br>spacing 75 90 cm x 23 30 cm <br><br>Coffee (Arabica) tall varieties <br><br>Tea Beans (erect type) Bananas Coconut <br><br>Tomatoes (Money maker) kales <br><br>Spacing determines plant population and the main aim of correct spacing is to obtain maximum number of plants per unit area which will make maximum use of environmental factors. Wider spacing leads to a reduced plant population which means lower yields, whereas closer spacing could lead to overcrowding of plants and competition for nutrients and other resources would occur. Correctly spaced crops produce yield of high quality that are acceptable in the market. **Spacing is determined by the following factors:**<br><br> **The type of machinery to be used.** The space between the rows should allow free passage of the machinery which can be used in the field. For example, the spacing between rows of coffee is supposed to allow movement of tractor drawn implements. **Soil fertility** A fertile soil can support high plant population. Therefore closer spacing is possible. **The size of plant** Tall crop varieties require wider spacing while short varieties require closer spacing, for example, Kitale hybrid maize is widely spaced than Katumani maize. <br><br> <br><br> <br><br>**Moisture availability.**<br><br>Areas with higher rainfall are capable of supporting a large number of plants hence closer spacing than areas of low rainfall. <br><br>**Use of crop.**<br><br>Crop grown for the supply of forage or silage material is planted at a closer spacing than for grain production. <br><br>**Pest and diseases control.**<br><br>When crops are properly spaced, pests might find it difficult to move from one place to the other, for example, aphids in groundnuts. <br><br>**Growth habit.**<br><br>Spreading and tillering crop varieties require wider spacing than erect type. **Seed rate.** Seed rate is the amount of seeds to be planted in a given unit area governed by ultimate crop stand which is desired. The objective of correct spacing of crop is to obtain the maximum yields from a unit area without sacrificing quality. Most crops are seeded at lighter rates under drier conditions than under wet or irrigated conditions. Seeds with low germination percentage are planted at higher rates than those which have about 100% germination percentage. There is an optimal seed rate for various crops. For example, the seed rate for maize is 22 kg per hectare, wheat is 110 kg per hectare and cotton is between 17 to 45 kg per hectare. <br><br>Factors to consider in choosing seed rates. <br><br> <br><br>**Seed purity.** When planting seed which is pure or with a high germination percentage, less seed is required. On the contrary, more seeds are required when using impure or mixed seeds. <br><br>**Germination percentage.**<br><br>Less seed is used when its germination percentage is higher. Seed of lower germination percentage is required in large amounts. **Spacing.** At closer spacing, more seeds are used than in a wider spacing. <br><br> <br><br>**Number of seeds per hole.**<br><br>When two or more seeds are planted per hole, higher seed rate is required than when only one seed is planted per hole. **The purpose of the crop.** A crop to be used for silage making is spaced more closely than one meant for grain production. This would require use of more seeds. Maize to be used for silage making, for example, requires more seeds than that meant for production of grain. <br><br> **Depth of planting.** This is the distance from the soil surface to where the seed is placed. The correct depth of planting is determined by: <br><br> **Soil type:**seeds will emerge from grater depths in sandy soil that are lighter than in clay soils. <br><br>20 <br><br>**Soil moisture content:**It is recommended that one plants deep in dry soils in order to place the seeds in a zone with moist soil. **Size of the seed:**Larger seeds are planted deeper in the soil because they have enough food reserves to make them shoot and emerge through the soil to the surface. **Type of germination:**seeds with epigeal type of germination (carry cotyledons above the soil surface) such as beans, should be planted shallower than those with hypogeal type of germination (leave cotyledons under the soil) such as maize. <br><br> <br><br> Suggested Activities. <br><br>1. Learners to carry out planting using broadcasting method and planting rows. 2. Learners to identify different vegetative propagation materials displayed by the teacher. 3. Learners to determine the correct plant population for a given area by mathematical calculations. 4. Learners to collect samples of different tree seeds and prepare them for planting by various <br><br>methods of breaking seed dormancy. <br><br>5. Learners to determine the germination percentage of different samples of cereals and legume <br><br>seeds. **(Nursery Practices)**<br><br>**Introduction**<br><br> Planting materials are either planted directly in a seedbed or indirectly through a <br><br>nursery bed. <br><br> A seedbed is a piece of land which could be small or large and prepared to receive <br><br>planting materials. <br><br> A nursery bed on the other hand is a small plot of land specially prepared for raising <br><br>seedlings or planting materials before transplanting. <br><br> <br><br>It is usually 1m wide and any convenient length depending on the quantity of seedlings to be raised. <br><br> A seedling bed is a special type of nursery bed used for raising seedlings pricked out from the nursery bed due to overcrowding before they are ready for transplanting. Pricking out refers to the removal of seedlings from a nursery bed to a seedling bed. Nursery practices refer to all the activities carried out throughout a nursery life to raise <br><br>seedlings. . <br><br>It facilitates the planting of small seeds which develop into strong seedlings that are easily transplanted. It ensures transplanting of only healthy and vigorous growing seedlings. It reduces the period taken by the crop in the field. <br><br> Excess seedlings from the nursery may be sold to earn income. <br><br>**Selection of a Nursery Site**<br><br>***Factors to consider;***<br><br> Nearness to the water source. Type of soil.-should be well drained, deep and fertile, preferably loam soil. Topography.-it should be situated on a gentle slope to prevent flooding and erosion <br><br>through surface run-off. <br><br> Previous cropping.-to avoid build up of pests and diseases associated <br><br>with particular plant families, consider the preceding crops. <br><br> Security.-select a site that is protected from theft and destruction by <br><br>animals. <br><br> Protection against strong winds and heat of the sun.-select a sheltered place. i.e. to <br><br>avoid excessive evapotranspiration and uprooting seedlings. ***Types of Nurseries*** ***Categories of nurseries:***<br><br>***Vegetable Nursery**:*<br><br> They are used for raising the seedlings of vegetable crops. **Tomatoes, cabbages, kale, onions, brinjals and peppers.**<br><br>***Vegetable Propagation Nurseries:***<br><br> They are used for inducing root production in cuttings before they are <br><br>transplanted, <br><br> The cuttings can be planted directly in the soil and hence called***bare root***<br><br>***nurseries.***<br><br> Or planted into containers such as pots, polythene bags and others, hence called <br><br>***containerized nurseries***. <br><br>***Tree Nurseries:***<br><br> These are used for raising tree seedlings. The seedlings can be raised in bare root nurseries or in containerized nurseries. <br><br>***Nursery Management Practices:***<br><br> These are the practices carried out in the nursery while the planting materials are <br><br>growing. <br><br>***They include:***<br><br> Mulching. light mulch should be applied on thenursery bed.It be should be removed <br><br>on the 4th day Weed control. <br><br>22 ***Preparation of vegetative materials for planting:***<br><br>***Cuttings***-These are plant parts such as stems, leaves and roots induced to produce <br><br>roots and used as planting materials. <br><br>***Grafting ***<br><br> It is the practice of uniting two separate woody stems. The part bearing the roots is referred to as***root stock***while the part which is <br><br>grafted onto the rootstock is known as***scion.***<br><br> The scion has buds which develop into the future plant. The ability of the rootstock and the scion to form a successful union is termed as <br><br>***compatibility.***<br><br>***Methods of Grafting***<br><br>***Whip or tongue grafting:***<br><br> In this case the diameter of the rootstock and the scion are the same. It is carried out when the diameter of the scion and the rootstock is 'pencil' thick. <br><br>***Side grafting**:*In this case the diameter of the rootstock is bigger than that of the scion. <br><br>***Other types of grafting include ;***<br><br> ***Approach grafting,*** ***Notch grafting*** ***Bark grafting***. ***Budding:*** The scion has only one bud and some bark with or without wood. The bud is inserted in a slit made on the bark of the stock. <br><br>It is the practice of uniting a vegetative bud to a seedling of another plant. <br><br>It is held tightly on the stock by tying with a budding tape until it produces a shoot. <br><br>***Methods of Budding:***<br><br> T-budding Top budding Patch budding. <br><br>***Importance of Budding and Grafting:***<br><br> Plants with desirable root characteristics but with undesirable products may be used <br><br>to produce desirable products for example lemon-orange graft. <br><br> They facilitate the changing of the top of the tree from being undesirable to desirable <br><br>23 They make it possible to grow more than one type of fruit or flower on the same plant. They help to propagate clones that cannot be propagated in any other way. They help to shorten the maturity period. <br><br>***Layering*** <br><br>It is the process by which a part of a plant is induced to produce roots while still attached to the mother plant. <br><br> Once the roots have been produced, the stem is then cut off and planted. <br><br>***Types of layering;***<br><br> Marcotting or aerial layering. Tip layering. Trench layering. Compound or serpentine. <br><br>***Tissue Culture for Crop Propagation***<br><br> Tissue culture is a biotechnology used in cloning vegetatively propagated plants. It is based on the ability of plant tissue (or cells) to regenerate other parts of the plant. The tissues are derived from shoot tips where cells are undergoing rapid cell division and are not differentiated. The cells are then provided with the right conditions which enable them to multiply and develop roots. <br><br>***The Right Conditions for tissue culture:***<br><br> Culture medium. Correct temperature. Correct light intensity and Correct relative humidity. <br><br> ***Importance of Tissue Culture in Crop Propagation***<br><br> <br><br>It is used to recover and establish pathogen-free plants especially in the control of viral diseases. It is used in mass production of plantlets or propagules. It is fast and requires less space than the cultural methods of using cutting which requires a bigger space. <br><br>***Transplanting Seedlings***<br><br> Transplanting of vegetable and tree seedlings are generally the same. Generally, vegetable seedlings are ready for transplanting when they are one month <br><br>old or have 4 -6 leaves or are about 10-15cm in height. <br><br> Before transplanting, the nursery bed is adequately watered 3 - 4 hours before lifting <br><br>the seedlings. <br><br> This ensures the seedlings are lifted easily with a ball of earth around the roots to <br><br>minimize root damage. <br><br> Tree seedlings take a little longer to reach transplanting age compared to vegetable <br><br>crop seedlings. <br><br> The roots are trimmed before lifting the seedlings. <br><br>24 **Introduction**<br><br> Field practices are activities carried out on the field to facilitate proper growth and <br><br>maximum yield of the various crops grown. <br><br>***They include the following:***<br><br> Crop Rotation <br><br> Mulching <br><br> R0uting field practices <br><br> Crop protection <br><br> Harvesting <br><br>**Crop Rotation**<br><br> This is the growing of different types on the same piece of land in different seasons, in <br><br>an orderly sequence. ***Importance of Crop Rotation***<br><br> Maximizes use of nutrients and moisture. Breaks the life cycle of pests and disease agents. Maintains good soil structure. Reduces soil erosion due to adequate soil cover. Controls weeds that are specific to certain crops e.g. striga on cereals Improves soil fertility when legumes are included in crop rotation. <br><br>***Factors Influencing Rotational Programme***<br><br> Growth habits and nutrient req uirements. Liability to soil erosion. Crops attacked by the same pests and diseases should not follow one another in the <br><br>programme. <br><br> Availability of capital and market for example beans or peas in legumes. <br><br>25 ***Mulching***<br><br> This is the placement of materials such as banana leaves or polythene sheets on the <br><br>ground next to the growing crop. <br><br> These materials should not come into contact with the base of the crop as they may <br><br>encourage pest attack. ***Importance of Mulching***<br><br> Reduction of evaporation rate. Smothers weeds. Moderation of soil temperature. Reduction of speed of run offs. <br><br>***Types of Mulching Materials***<br><br>***Organic mulching***materials such as; <br><br> Sawdust, wood shavings, coffee pulps, rice husks, Dry grass, banana leaves, dry maize stalk, napier grass. ***Inorganic or synthetic materials***commonly used are either black or transparent polythene sheets. <br><br> <br><br>***Advantages of Mulching***<br><br> Prevents water evaporation thus maintaining moisture in the soil for crop use. Acts as an insulator thus modifying the soil temperature. After decomposition organic mulch add nutrients to the soil thus improving its fertility. Humus produced after the decomposition of organic mulch improves soil structure <br><br>and the water holding capacity of the soil. <br><br>***Disadvantages of Mulching***<br><br> It is a fire risk. <br><br> Provides a breeding ground as well as a hiding place for pests that <br><br>finally may attack the crops. <br><br> Traps the light showers of rainfall thus lowering the chances of rain drops reaching the <br><br>soil. It is expensive to acquire, transport and apply. ***Routine Field Practices*** ***Thinning***<br><br> Removal of excess, weak, damaged or diseased seedlings. Allows the remaining seedlings to get enough nutrients and moisture. ***Gapping***<br><br>It is aimed at obtaining optimum plant population. <br><br> Filling the gaps so as to maintain proper plant population. Gaps occur as a result of failure of seeds to germinate or dying of seedlings. <br><br>26 It should be done early enough for the seedlings to catch up with the other plants <br><br>***Rogueing***<br><br> This is the removal and destruction of a diseased part of a plant or the whole plant. The destruction can be achieved through burning of the uprooted plant. <br><br>***Pruning***<br><br> Removal of extra unwanted parts of the plant. <br><br>***Reasons for pruning are:***<br><br> To remove old, unproductive or diseased, damaged parts of the plant. To train plants to take a desirable shape for example formative pruning in tea. To control crop leave ratio hence avoiding overbearing. To control diseases and pests for example antestia bugs in coffee. To facilitate other operations such as spraying, picking and seeding. To reduce wastage of chemicals applied on the crop. To remove branches that interfere with traffic, telephone lines and view. Open up the plant to allow free air circulation and exposure of leaves to sunlight. <br><br>***Note**:*Tools used are***secateur, pruning saw and pruning knife.*** ***Earthing-up***<br><br> This is the placement of soil in form of a heap around the base of the plant. <br><br>It is mostly carried out in tuber crops such as Irish and sweet potatoes to improve tuber formation. It is also carried out in groundnuts and maize. In groundnuts it promotes production of pods while in maize it provides support to prevent lodging. <br><br> ***Crop Protection***<br><br>***Weed Control***<br><br> Weeds are plants growing where they are not wanted, that is a plant out of place. Such plants include blackjack, couch grass, thorn apple and Mcdonald's eye. Such plants should be eradicated or controlled using recommended methods. <br><br>***Pest Control***<br><br> Crop pests are living organisms that are harmful to the crops. They include; insects, nematodes, rodents, thrips and mites. They cause great damage to crops in the field and stored produce. <br><br>***Control of Crop Diseases***<br><br> A disease is any alteration in the state of an organism and functions of a plant or its <br><br>parts. <br><br> Disease causing organisms are known as pathogens. <br><br>27 ***Harvesting***<br><br> It is the gathering or of the farm produce after maturity. <br><br>***Time of harvesting depends on:***<br><br> Stage of maturity of the crops. Use of the crop. Tastes and preferences of consumers. Weather conditions, hence liability to spoilage. Moisture. <br><br>***Methods of harvesting is determined by:***<br><br> Scale of farming for example large scale farming machines are used. Type of crop for example pyrethrum is harvested by hand. Uniformity in ripening of the crop for example wheat is harvested by use of combined <br><br>harvester while coffee is harvested by hand. <br><br> Uniformity in height of the crop and size of seed, fruits and flowers. Financial status of the farmer. Part of the plant to be harvested. <br><br>***Post-Harvest Practices***<br><br> These are the preparations carried out on crop produce before it gets to the consumer. <br><br>**They include;** Threshing/shelling. Drying. Cleaning. Sorting and grading. Dusting. Processing. Packaging. <br><br>***Storage*** ***Purpose of storage is to;*** Prevent spoilage Make the produce available for future use To await good market prices. ***Requirements for proper store are:***<br><br> It should be clean. It should be well ventilated. It should be raised from the ground to prevent damp conditions. It should be dry. It should be strong to hold crop produce. It should be easy to clean. <br><br>28 ***Types of Storage***<br><br> Traditional storage structures. Modern storage structures. <br><br>***Preparation of the Store*** Cleaning the store. Maintenance Dusting the store with appropriate chemicals. Clearing the vegetation around the store to keep off vermin. **Crop Production V: (Vegetables)**<br><br>**Introduction**<br><br> A vegetable is any crop that is grown and eaten fresh. Vegetables are important both for nutritional and commercial reasons. They are categorized on the basis of the part used as food. Such parts include; <br><br> Leaves, Stems, Roots, Fruits, Flowers, Pods Bulbs. <br><br>***Vegetables are grouped into the following categories:***<br><br>***Leaf vegetables***for example kales and cabbages. ***Root vegetables***for example carrots, beets, radishes and turnips. ***Fruit vegetables***for example French beans and okra. ***Stem vegetables***for example asparagus, leeks and spring onions. ***Bulb vegetables***for example bulbed onions and garlic. <br><br>***Tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum)***<br><br> Tomatoes are fruit vegetables widely grown in Kenya. The ripe fruit may be eaten raw cooked or processed to make tomato sauces, juices <br><br>and pastes. ***Ecological Requirements***<br><br> Altitude: 0-2100m above sea level. <br><br>29 Rainfall: 7S0-1300mm per annum. Soils: deep, fertile and well drained. <br><br>***Varieties***<br><br>***Fresh market varieties***: Money maker, Marglobe, hundred fold, Beef eater, Hot set, Super marmande Ponderosa. ***Processing varieties***: Kenya beauty, San -marzano, Roma, Heinz 13S0, Primabel, Rutgers hybrid **Cal- J.** ***Nursery Practices***<br><br> Choose a site which has not been grown***Solanaceae***crop in the last three years. Nursery beds are raised about 15cm above the ground level. Make drills of 20cm apart and 1cm deep drill and cover the seeds. Provide shade or mulch material. Water twice a day. Apply phosphatic fertilizers during planting. <br><br>***Seedbed Preparation***<br><br> The land should be dug deeply to control weeds. <br><br>***Transplanting***<br><br> Seedlings are ready for transplanting when they are 10-15cmhigh after about one <br><br>month. <br><br> Holes are made at a spacing of 60cm x 90cm. Apply 20gm of DSP in the planting hole. Transplant with a ball of soil around the roots. Apply mulch around each seedling. Transplanting is normally in the evening or on a cloudy day. <br><br>***Field Maintenance***<br><br> Early control of weeds is necessary. Top dressing is done after crop establishes. Pruning and staking are done to train the plants to grow vertically. ***Tobacco White Fly***<br><br>***Nature of damage**:*suck plant sap from the underside of the leaf, hence may <br><br>transmit viral diseases. <br><br>***Control:***Destroy infected plant and spray insecticides. <br><br>***Disease Control***<br><br>***Late Blight***<br><br>***Cause:***Fungus ***Symptoms:***dry patches on the leaves and fruits. ***Control:***use of fungicides, crop rotation and destruction of affected materials. <br><br>***Blossom-end Rot***<br><br>***Caused by;*** Too much nitrogen in early stages. Irregular or infrequent watering. Calcium deficiency. ***Control:***Apply calcium ammonium nitrate and correction of the above problems. <br><br>***Harvesting***<br><br> For canning, fruits should be fully ripe. For fresh market, fruits should be partially ripe and packed in crates to avoid damage. The fruits should be graded according to; Size, Colour, Ripeness Freedom from blemishes. <br><br>***Cabbage***<br><br> <br><br>It is a leaf vegetable related to other brassica crops such as kales, cauliflower, Chinese cabbage and Brussels sprouts. Cabbage leaves may be eaten raw in salads, steamed, boiled or cooked in a variety of <br><br>ways. <br><br> The leaves can also be fed to livestock. <br><br>***Ecological Requirements***<br><br>***Altitude:***<br><br> Those with small heads:*900-1500m*above sea level Those with Large heads: 1800-2700m above sea level. <br><br>***Temperature:***require cool condition. ***Rainfall:***<br><br>***750-2000mm***per annum. Should be well distributed throughout the growing period. <br><br>***Soils:***<br><br> Deep, <br><br>31 **Varieties**<br><br>***Early maturing:***<br><br> Brunswick, Sugar loaf, Early jersey, Copenhagen market, Chinese cabbage, Celery cabbage, Cafe splits kool Gloria, mukuki, Golden acre . <br><br>***Late maturing***: Drumhead, Savoy, Perfection, Winningstadt. <br><br>***Nursery Practices***<br><br> The beds should be raised, dimension 1 m wide and any convenient length (usually 2- <br><br>3m in length). <br><br> Make drills of*15-20cm*apart. Sow seeds by drilling and cover to a depth of 1 cm. Provide shade or mulch material. Apply phosphatic fertilizers and mix thoroughly with soil during planting. Water twice a day. <br><br>***Seedbed Preparation***<br><br> Cultivation should be done during the dry season so that all the weeds are killed. Dig holes at the spacing of 60cm x 60cm. Incorporate farm yard manure in the soil. <br><br>***Transplanting*** Water the seedlings before uprooting. Seedlings are ready for transplanting after one month that is when they are 1O-15cm <br><br>in height. <br><br> Select healthy and vigorous seedlings. Transplant the seedlings with balls of soil to prevent root damage. Plant to the same depth as they were in the nursery. <br><br>***Field Maintenance***<br><br> Apply fertilizers during planting and top dress later. Control weeds to reduce competition. <br><br>***Pest Control***<br><br>32 ***Diamond Black Moth***<br><br>***Damage:***Eats the underside of the leaf making windows or holes in the leaf. ***Control:***Spray recommended insecticides. <br><br>***Cutworms***<br><br>***Damage**:*Attacks the stem at the ground level causing he plant to fall. ***Control:***Spray recommended insecticides. <br><br>**Disease Control** ***Black Rot***<br><br>***Cause**:*Bacteria ***Symptom**s:*Leaves turn yellow and rotting of the stem giving an offensive odour, ***Control:***Closed season, crop rotation, use certified seeds and spray appropriate <br><br>chemicals. <br><br>***Black Leg***<br><br>***Cause:***Fungus ***Symptoms:***Brown to black spots on seedlings and dark canker on the stem. ***Control:***crop rotation, destroy infected materials. <br><br>***Harvesting***<br><br> Cabbages are ready for harvesting 3-4 months after transplanting. The heads are cut when they are solid and compact. Harvested cabbages are sold immediately. <br><br>***Carrots (Daucus carota)***<br><br> It is a root vegetable grown in the cool areas of Kenya. <br><br> It is commonly eaten raw in salads but can also be cooked. ***Ecological Requirements***<br><br>***Altitude**:*0-2,900m above sea level. ***Rainfall**:*<br><br> 750 - 1,000mm. Well distributed throughout the growing period. <br><br>***Soils:***<br><br> It requires deep, Fine tilth Well drained soils that are free from obstacles to allow for root expansion. <br><br>***Temperatures:***it requires cool to warm temperatures as very high temperatures result <br><br>in the production of pale and short roots. <br><br>***Varieties***<br><br> Fresh market varieties for example**Chantenay**and**Nantes.** Canning varieties for example**Nantes** Fodder varieties for example**Oxhast**. <br><br>***Land Preparation***<br><br> The field should be well dug to a depth of about 20cm. <br><br>33 The soil clods should be broken to give a fine tilth before planting. Manure should not be applied as it induces forking which reduces the crop quality. <br><br>***Planting***<br><br> Carrots are planted directly into the main seedbed. Seeds are drilled into rows made 20-30cm apart. The seeds are then covered lightly and the soil pressed down. 90kg/ha of DSP should be applied at planting time in the drills. It should be mixed well with the soils before placing the seeds. ***Field Practice***<br><br>***Thinning***-- it is done 2 weeks after germination. ***Weed control***- the field should be kept weed free. ***Earthing up***should be done while weeding to encourage root expansion .. <br><br>***Topdressing:***after weeding 60kg of nitrogen per hectare should be applied as top <br><br>dress. ***Irrigation***- this should be carried out where or when there is not enough rainfall. <br><br>***Pest Control***<br><br> Carrots do not have many field pests except the green aphids. These can be controlled by use of the appropriate pesticides. <br><br>***Disease Control***<br><br> Occasionally attached by the mildews especially in wet and humid environment. Thinning can be done to reduce humid conditions. <br><br>***Harvesting and Marketing***<br><br> Carrots are ready for harvesting 3-5 months after planting depending on the variety. They are lifted from the soil and sold fresh or canned. ***Onions (Allium cepa)***<br><br> Onions are bulb vegetables grown in the warm areas of Kenya. They are used as a vegetable in salads and for flavouring foods, soups and stews. <br><br>***Ecological Requirements***<br><br>***Altitude:***0-2, 100m above sea level. ***Rainfall:***<br><br> 1,000mm of rain per year Irrigation in dry areas . <br><br>***Soils:***<br><br> Requires well drained fertile soils ***pH***of 6.0 - 7.0***.***<br><br>***Temperatures**:*<br><br> Onions are a warm climate crops. However, some varieties prefer cool conditions. <br><br>34 They require a fairly long dry period for ripening. <br><br>***Varieties***<br><br> Red creole, Tropicana hybrid White creole. ***Land Preparation***<br><br> The land should be well prepared leaving a fine tilth. Farm yard manure at 40 - 50 tonnes per hectare should be applied and mixed well with <br><br>the soil. ***Planting***<br><br> Direct: Seeds are drilled in rows 30cm apart and 8cm within the rows. 20kg/ha of <br><br>DSP fertilizer is used. Indirect: Seeds are established in the nurseries before transplanting them in rows 30cm apart and 8 cm within the rows. <br><br> <br><br> Shallow planting is recommended for bulb expansion. <br><br>***Field Management Practices***<br><br>***Thinning*** <br><br>It is carried out only in the crop that has been directly planted so as to achieve spacing of 8cm between two plants within the row. <br><br> The thinned plants referred to as spring onions are used as vegetables in salads. <br><br>***Topdressing***<br><br> Calcium ammonium nitrate at the rate of 250kg per hectare is recommended for <br><br>topdressing onions. <br><br> This is done 3 months after planting. <br><br>**Pest Control**<br><br>***Onion Thrips:*** These cause silvering and withering of leaves from the tips downwards. They are controlled by spraying with appropriate insecticides such as***Diazinon***or <br><br>***fenthion.***<br><br>***Disease Control***<br><br>***Purple Blotch and Downey Mildew*** **Purple blotch;**<br><br> Characterized by oval greyish lesions with purple centres on leaves. This causes leaf curling and die back. <br><br>**Downey mildew;**<br><br> Characterized by brown spores covering the leaves leading to death of the <br><br>whole plant. The two diseases are effectively controlled by crop rotation and application of <br><br>appropriate fungicides. <br><br>***Harvesting and Marketing***<br><br> Onions are ready for harvesting 5 months after planting. When leaves start drying the tops are broken or bent at the neck. This hastens the withering of the stems. The bulbs are then dug out and left to dry in a shade for a few days. Onions are graded according to size and marketed in nets of about 14 -16kgs. **Livestock Health I** **(Introduction to Livestock Health)**<br><br>Introduction <br><br> Health is the state of the body in which all the organs and systems are normal and <br><br>functioning normally. <br><br> Disease is any deviation from the normal health of the animal. <br><br>**Importance of Keeping Livestock Healthy:**<br><br> Healthy animals give high income due to low treatment costs. The productive life span of a healthy animal is longer. High production. Healthy animals can multiply regularly. Healthy animals give high quality products for example eggs. Safety of consumers of livestock products. <br><br>***Predisposing Factors to Livestock Diseases***<br><br> These are conditions within or around the animal that make it easy for an animal to <br><br>contract a disease. <br><br>***They include:***<br><br>***Animal factors such as;***<br><br> species, breed, age, sex colour of the animal. ***Environmental factors such as;***<br><br> chilling, <br><br>36 being rained on, exposure to hot sun dampness. <br><br>***Management factors such as;***<br><br> poor feeding, housing, handling hygiene, overcrowding . ***Signs of ILL-Health in Livestock***<br><br>**Abnormal behaviour**for example separation from the rest of the herd and <br><br>restlessness. <br><br>**Abnormal posture**for example limping and lameness. **Alimentary canal disfunction**such as blood stained faeces and abnormal defecation, <br><br>diarrhoea and dysentery. <br><br>**Urination:**high frequency or too low and having strange colour. **Skin:**rough with scaly skin, blisters on the skin and hair loss. <br><br>***Causes of Diseases***<br><br>**Pathogenic causes ;**<br><br> viruses, rickettsia, bacteria, protozoa fungi. ***Physical causes;*** fractures, dislocation, sprains . <br><br> Nutritional disorders for example milk fever. Chemical causes for example poisoning by agrochemicals. <br><br>***Categories of Diseases*** ***Notifiable diseases ;***<br><br> These are diseases which cause high economic losses. Any case should be reported to the Chiefs, D.O.s, veterinary officers or the police. <br><br>***Tick-borne diseases***- Transmitted by ticks. ***Breeding diseases -***Transmitted through mating. ***Nutritional diseases***for example milk fever and bloat. ***Parasitic diseases***for example ascariosis. Control of vectors by use of acaricides and rotational grazing. Disinfecting the equipment and buildings. Use of preventive drugs. Proper feeding of livestock. Culling of the animals which are carriers/slaughtering the affected animals. Use of artificial insemination to control breeding diseases. Proper selection and breeding of animals. Proper housing and hygiene, Isolating sick animals. ***Appropriate Methods of Handling Livestock***<br><br>***Animals are handled for the following reasons:***<br><br> When inspecting the animal to ascertain any abnormality or signs of diseases. When administering any form of treatment such as drenching, injection and mastitis <br><br>control. <br><br> When spraying or hand dressing the animal with chemicals to control external <br><br>parasites. <br><br> When milking the animal. When performing some of the management practices such as dehorning, disbudding, <br><br>castration, hoof trimming . <br><br>*When carrying out these activities animals should be restrained in a**crush.***<br><br>**Other methods of restraining animals include**the use of; <br><br> halters, <br><br> ropes, <br><br> bull ring <br><br> lead stick. **Livestock Health II*(Parasites)***<br><br>**Introduction**<br><br> A parasite is an organism which obtains its livelihood from another organism (host) <br><br>which suffers damage. <br><br> Parasitism is the association between a parasite and a host. <br><br>**The effects of parasite on the host animal are:**<br><br> Depriving the host of its food. Sucking blood. <br><br>38 Damaging the organs of the host. Cause irritation on the skin of the host. Destruction of hides and skins. Transmission of diseases. Cause obstruction in body passages. <br><br>***General Symptoms of Parasites Infestation:***<br><br> Emaciation. Pot bellied condition. Swellings in the jaw or other areas. Rough hair or rough coat. Anaemia. Diarrhoea. Presence of worm segments and blood stains in the defecation. <br><br>***Types of Parasites***<br><br>There are two types of parasites: External (ecto-parasites) Internal (endo-parasites) ***External parasites are;*** mites, lice, fleas keds <br><br>ticks, tsetse flies, <br><br>***Life Cycle of ticks***<br><br> Eggs are laid in cracks on the ground. They hatch in 4-6 weeks into larvae which climb on the grass waiting for a passing <br><br>animal. <br><br>***One-Host Tick***<br><br> This requires one host to complete its life cycle. *Example:*blue tick***(Boophilus decoloratus**).* *Preferred sites:*face, neck, dewlap and side of the body. *Disease transmitted:*Redwater and anaplasmosis. ***Two-Host Tick***<br><br> This requires two different hosts to complete its life cycle. ***Example**:*The red legged tick***(Rhipicephalus everts)*** *Preferred sites:*Ears, anus, udder and the tail. *Disease transmitted:*Redwater and east coast fever. *Example:*Bont legged tick***(amblyomma spp.)*** *Preferred sites:*Udder, scrotum and tail switch. *Disease transmitted:*Sweating sickness. <br><br>***Three-Host Tick*** This requires three hosts to complete its life cycle. <br><br>*Example:*The brown ear tick*(**Rhipicephalus appendiculatus)*** *Preferred sites:*Ears, tail switch and around the eyes. *Disease transmitted:*East coast fever and redwater. Bont tick transmit heartwater*(**amblyomma spp.)***<br><br>39 ***Control of Ticks***<br><br> Dipping/spraying/hand dressing with acaricides. Rotational grazing. Ploughing the land to break the life cycle. Hand picking and killing. Fencing of the grazing fields to keep off other animals including wild game. Burning of grass to kill them in various stages. <br><br>***Endo-parasites (internal Parasites)***<br><br> Endoparasites are helminths. <br><br>***They can be divided into:***<br><br> Platyhelminthes/flatworms which include; <br><br> Trematodes (flukes) Cestodes (tapeworms). <br><br> Nemato-helminthes/nematodes. E.g Roundworms. ***General Symptoms of Helminthiasis***<br><br> Diarrhoea which foul the anal and tail region. Dullness. Anaemia. Big stomach (pot bellied condition). Presence of worm segments in faeces. Coughing. <br><br>***Trematodes (Liver Fluke)***<br><br> There are two species of flukes: <br><br>***Fasciola gigantica*** ***Fasciola hepatica**.*<br><br>*Fasciola hepatica*is more common. Liver fluke is a problem in marshy and low lying wet areas. <br><br>It is commonly found in the liver and bile duct of cattle, sheep and goats. <br><br>***Life Cycle of the Liver Fluke***<br><br> Adult fluke in the liver of the primary host lays eggs. Eggs pass through the bile duct into the small intestines and are passed out in faeces <br><br>onto the pasture. <br><br> Under moist conditions, they hatch into a**miracidium larva**which swims about in <br><br>search of a secondary host (fresh**water snails**). In the snail, it develops through**sporocyst, redia and cercaria**. <br><br> When it leaves the snail, the cercaria gets encysted on vegetation and becomes ***Control of Liver Fluke***<br><br> Keep livestock off marshy areas near the rivers/streams/lakes and dams. Drench affected animals. Drainage of swampy areas. Eradicate the intermediate host by use of molluscicides. Provide water to livestock in elevated troughs. <br><br>***Tapeworms***<br><br> There are many species of tapeworms <br><br>Eexample; <br><br>***Taenia solium*** ***Taenia saginata.***<br><br>The adults live in the small intestines of man (the primary host). <br><br> The intermediate host of***Taenia solium***is pig . The intermediate host of***Taenia saginata***is cattle. <br><br>***Life Cycle of Tapeworm***<br><br> Adult tapeworms live in man's intestines where it lays eggs. Eggs are passed out with faeces, Then they develop an outer covering known as**onchosphere.** The eggs are swallowed by intermediate host. The outer covering is digested and the young worm emerges. This bores into the blood vessels and is carried to specific muscles such as the tongue, <br><br>heart, thigh muscles. It develops into an encysted form called**bladder-worm.** When the animal is killed and meat is eaten raw or in an inadequately cooked form, <br><br>man gets infected by the bladder-worm. In man, the bladder-worm evaginates and attaches itself onto the intestinal wall where it develops into an adult. <br><br> <br><br>***Control of Tapeworms***<br><br> Meat should be well cooked before eating. Use of drugs in primary host. Meat inspection by meat inspectors/ veterinary officers. Use of pit latrines by man. ***Nematodes (Roundworms)*** Common ones are; <br><br>***Ascaris suum***(pig roundworms), ***Ascaris lumbricoides***found in man and sheep ***Haemonchus contortus***found in sheep, cattle and goats. Roundworms are common in warm areas especially in areas where the standards of <br><br>hygiene and sanitation are low. <br><br>41 ***Nature of Damage***<br><br> Damage is done to the liver and lung tissues as they migrate in the body. Suck out blood. Deprive the host of food. <br><br>***Control of Roundworms***<br><br> Use of drugs. Rotational grazing. Use of proper stocking rates to avoid overgrazing. Practicing high standards of cleanliness and hygiene such as use of latrines. **Introduction**<br><br> Animals are fed for the purpose of production and body maintenance. The edible material given to animals is called food. It is digested, absorbed and utilized in the body. Nutrients are organic and inorganic substances contained in the food materials. <br><br>***Components of Food***material <br><br> water, <br><br> protein, <br><br> carbohydrates, <br><br> fats and oils, <br><br> vitamins <br><br> mineral salts. <br><br>***Water***<br><br>Sources Free water (through drinking) Bound water (contained in feeds). Metabolic water (obtained from oxidation of food). <br><br>***Functions***<br><br> Regulates body temperature. Transport agent in the body. Universal solvent in the body. Gives shape to the cells (turgidity). <br><br>42 Acts as a lubricant. Acts as constituent of body fluids. <br><br>***Factors Determining the Requirements of Water by Livestock***<br><br> Production level. Amount of dry matter eaten. Temperature of the surrounding area. Type of animal. Type of food eaten. <br><br>***Protein***<br><br>*Sources:*<br><br> Groundnut cakes, <br><br> cotton seed cakes, <br><br> fish meal, <br><br> meat meal. <br><br>***Functions:***<br><br> Growth of new tissues. Repair of worn out tissues (body building). Synthesis of antibodies. Synthesis of hormones and enzymes. Production of energy during starvation. <br><br>***Digestion of Proteins***<br><br>***In non-ruminants, protein digestion takes placed in the stomach.*** Food is subjected to mechanical breakdown through chewing into small particles. Protein is acted on by enzymes to turn into amino acid which is assimilated into the <br><br>bloodstream. <br><br>***In ruminants, protein digestion initially takes place in the rumen.*** Food is acted on by micro-organisms into microbial protein. Later, enzymatic action takes place in the "true stomach" or**abomasum**where proteins are broken down into amino acids which are then assimilated into the bloodstream. ***Carbohydrates*** ***Sources:***<br><br> Cereals, <br><br> tubers <br><br> commercially mixed feeds. <br><br>***Functions:***<br><br> Supply energy and heat to the body. Excess is stored in form of fat for insulation of the body. <br><br>43 ***Digestion of Carbohydrates*** In non-ruminants; carbohydrate feeds are broken down by chewing into small particles. Then enzymatic action further breaks down carbohydrates into glucose, fructose <br><br> <br><br>and galactose which are then assimilated into the bloodstream. <br><br> <br><br>In ruminants; mechanical breakdown of carbohydrate feeds is followed by microbial activities <br><br>which break down cellulose into**volatile fatty acids.**<br><br> These are absorbed through the rumen walls. Some carbohydrates are broken down by enzymatic action in the "true stomach" <br><br>or**abomasum.**<br><br>***Fats and Oils*** *Sources:* Cotton seeds, soya beans groundnuts. <br><br>***Functions:***<br><br> Supply energy and heat to the body. Excess is stored as fat adipose tissues. Source of metabolic water in the body. Required for the development of neural system. <br><br>Insulator in the body. ***Digestion of lipids in Ruminants***<br><br> Fats are hydrolysed in the rumen into fatty acids and glycerol. Others are fermented into propionic acid, The shorter chains are passed to the true stomach where enzymatic action takes place. ***Vitamins***<br><br>***Sources:***<br><br> Green materials, dried grass fish liver oil. <br><br>**Functions:**<br><br> Protects the body against diseases. Regulate the functions of all parts of the body. Examples: <br><br>It acts as a co-enzyme in the body. <br><br> Vitamin A, vitamin B2 vitamin C, <br><br>44 vitamin E vitamin K. <br><br>***Minerals***<br><br>**Sources**: <br><br> Salt licks, <br><br> bone meal, <br><br> legumes <br><br> cereals. <br><br>***Functions:***<br><br> Form part of the tissues such as bones and teeth. Work together with the enzymes. Act as acid -base balances. Act as electrolyte in the body. Regulate osmotic balance in the body. **Examples:**<br><br> Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, iodine, sodium chlorine. <br><br>***Calcium and phosphorus -***<br><br> Needed for teeth and bone formation. Lack of these minerals leads to**rickets, osteomalacia**. <br><br> Lack of iron leads to**anaemia.**<br><br>***Classification of Animal Feeds*** ***This is based on nutrient composition:***<br><br> Roughages. Concentrates. Feed additives. <br><br>***Roughages***<br><br> Are feeds of low available nutrients per unit weight and high fibre content. <br><br>***Examples:***<br><br> Dry roughages, succulent roughages, residues from agricultural by products and conserved materials. ***Concentrates***<br><br> Are feeds of high available nutrients per unit weight. <br><br>***Examples:***<br><br> Maize germ and bran, malt extract, milk products, soyabeans, oil seed cakes, meat meal, bonemeal bloodmeal. ***Characteristics***<br><br> Low fibre content. Feed content is consistently high. High digestibility of the feed. High in nutrient content. <br><br>***Feed Additives*** ***These are substances added to the feed to increase;***<br><br> palatability, medication or hormones to make animals produce more. <br><br> There are two types: <br><br> Nutritive additives, such as mineral licks (maclick). Non-nutritives additives, such as; medicants (coccidiostats), Stilboestrol (used in beef animals) oxytocin (to increase milk let down). <br><br>***Functions***<br><br> Stimulate growth and production. Prevent disease causing organisms. <br><br> Improve feed efficiency. <br><br>***Compounded Feeds***<br><br> These are the feeds prepared and mixed by use of machines. These feeds can be round, pelleted, pencils, cubes or mash. <br><br> Growers mash having 16% D.C.P. given to growers. Layers mash having 12-15% D.C.P. given to layers. **Meaning of terms used to express feed values**<br><br> Nutritive ratio (NR): <br><br> Is the proportion of protein to carbohydrates and fats. In young animals 1:3:6 In old animals 1:8. <br><br>**Crude protein (C.P):**Is the total amount of protein contained in a feed. **Digestible Crude Protein (D.C.P):**Is the portion of crude protein which an animal <br><br>is capable of digesting. **Crude Fibre (C.F.):**<br><br> Is the total amount of fibre contained in a feed. It is mainly lignin and cellulose. <br><br>**Digestible Fibre (D.F.)**: Is the portion of the total fibre contained in a feed which <br><br>an animal is capable of digesting. <br><br>**Dry Matter (D.M.):**Is the material left in a feed after water has been removed. **Starch equivalent (S.E.):**Is the amount of pure starch which has the same energy as 100kg of that feed. <br><br>**Total Digestible Nutrients (T.D.N.):**Is the sum of all the digestible organic <br><br>nutrients such as fats, proteins, carbohydrates and fibre. <br><br>***Computation of Livestock Rations***<br><br>***Ration:***<br><br> Is the amount of food that will provide essential nutrients to an animal in a 24 <br><br>hour period <br><br> to enable that animal to meet its maintenance and production requirements. <br><br>***Balanced ration:***<br><br> in the right proportion. ***Maintenance ration:***<br><br>Is the ration that contains all the essential nutrients in required amounts and <br><br> is the portion of a feed required by an animal to continue with the vital body <br><br>processes with no loss or gain in weight. <br><br>***Production ration:***<br><br> Is the feed required by animals over and above maintenance ration to enable the <br><br>animal to produce; <br><br> for example; milk, eggs, wool, grow in size, perform work, reproduce and fatten. ***Steps in ration formulation***<br><br> Finding out the animal's feed requirement based on body weight. List all the available feeds, with their nutrient composition and their prices. Calculate the amount of ingredients required in the ration to meet the animals needs*.* **Methods used in ration formulation**<br><br> Trial and error method Pearsons square method Graphical method Linear programming(use of computers) **Examples;** Mix a Pigs ration 22% protein using soya bean meal 40% DCP and maize meal containing 8%DCP. <br><br><br><br>Soya bean meal (14*100)=43.75kg 32 <br><br>Maize meal (18*100=56.25kg 32 <br><br>**Digestion and digestive systems**<br><br> Digestion is the process through which food is broken down into small particles in <br><br>the alimentary canal ready for absorption into the blood stream. <br><br>***Digestion of food in livestock takes place in three stages;***<br><br> Mechanical breakdown and chewing Microbial breakdown by bacteria and protozoa in the rumen of ruminants Chemical breakdown by enzymes. <br><br>48 <br><br>**Rumen-**<br><br> Breakdown of food by micro-organisms and also stores food. Synthesis of vitamin B-complex. Synthesis of amino acids from ammonia gas. Proteins are broken to peptides and amino acids. Carbohydrates are broken to volatile fatty acids. <br><br>**Reticulum:**<br><br> Separates large food particles from the small particles. Retains foreign materials such as stones, hard wood and sand. <br><br>**Omasum:**<br><br> Breaks up food by grinding. Reduction of water content from the feed stuff. <br><br>**Abomasum:**<br><br> Enzymatic digestion takes place here .. Contains some microbes which digest cellulose. Breaks up food by grinding. It is also found in non-ruminants. <br><br>49 <br><br>***Comparison Between Digestion in Ruminant and Non-*** ***ruminants***<br><br>***Differences***<br><br> <br><br>*Ruminants* l . 2 . <br><br>*Non -ruminants* Do not chew the cud. Have one stomach chamber Cannot regurgitate food once 3 . 4 Have no micro-organisms . in the stomach hence cannot digest cellulose except those animals with micro-organisms in the caecum. Have Ptyalin in the saliva hence 5 . enzymatic digestion starts in the mouth 6 Most digestion and absorption takes place . in the small intestines. 7 The saliva is neutral pH. . <br><br>, <br><br>l . 2 . <br><br> Chew the cud. Have four stomach chambers-thus polygastric. Regurgitate food. 3 . Can digest cellulose. Have 4 . micro-organisms in the rumen 5. Have no Ptyalin in saliva hence no enzymatic digestion in the mouth. 6 Most digestion and absorption takes . place in the rumen. Have alkaline saliva due to presence 7 . of ammonia. <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> - thus monogastric. <br><br> swallowed. <br><br>that digest cellulose. <br><br> <br><br>50 <br><br>***Functions of the Parts of Poultry***<br><br>**Crop:**<br><br> Storage of food. Softening of food by secretions from small glands in the walls. <br><br>**Proventriculus:**Enzymes start the breakdown of food. **Gizzard**:-Crushes and grinds the coarse food (has small grit and gravel). <br><br>**Comparison Between Digestion In Ruminants and Non-Ruminants**<br><br>***Similarities*Between Digestion In Ruminants and Non-Ruminants**<br><br> Digestion in young ruminants is similar to that in non-ruminants as they do not have a <br><br>developed rumen-reticulum complex. <br><br> Final protein digestion takes place in the small intestines in both cases. Water absorption takes place in the colon in both ruminants and non ruminants <br><br>51 |
### # **AGRICULTURE FORM II NOTES ** ##### **9.0.0 Soil Fertility II (Inorganic Fertilizers) (12 Lessons) ** **10.0.0 Crop Production II (Planting) (16 Lessons) ** **11.0.0 Crop Production III (Nursery Practices) (16 Lessons) ** **12.0.0 Crop Production IV (Field Practices) (14 Lessons) ** **13.0.0 Crop Production V (Vegetables) (16 Lessons) ** **14.0.0 Livestock Health I (Introduction) (16 Lessons) ** **15.0.0 Livestock Health II (Parasites) (16 Lessons) ** **16.0.0 Livestock Production II (Nutrition) (12 Lessons) ** # **Soil Fertility II ** **(Inorganic Fertilizers) ** #### **Introduction ** ##### Plant nutrients occur in the soil in form of soluble substances. These substances are taken in by the plants in different quantities depending on their roles in the plant tissues. #### ***Essential Elements *** ##### These are nutrients needed by plants for various uses. They are divided into two broad categories namely: Macronutrients micronutrients. 1 ----- #### ***Macro-nutrients *** ##### These are also referred to as major nutrients. They are required by the plant in large quantities. ***They include; *** carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phophorus, potassium, sulphur, calcium magnesium. #### Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are referred to as fertilizer elements, Calcium, magnesium and sulphur, are referred to as liming elements. ***Role of Macronutrients in Plants*** **Nitrogen (NO 3, NH4 [++] ) ** ##### ***Sources: *** Artificial fertilizers Organic matter Atmospheric fixation by lightning . Nitrogen fixing bacteria #### ***ants *** ***Role of Nitrogen in Pl*** ##### Vegetative growth Chlorophyll formation Build up of protoplasm. Improves leaf quality in leafy crops such as tea and cabbages. #### **Deficiency Symptoms ** ##### Yellowing of the leaves/chlorosis. . Stunted growth Premature ripening. Premature shedding of the leaves. Light seeds. #### ***Effect of Excess Nitrogen*** ##### Scorching of the leaves. Delayed maturity. *: * #### ***Loss of Nitrogen From the Soil*** ##### Soil erosion. Leaching. Volatilization. Crop removal. Used by microorganisms. 2 ----- #### ***Phosphorus (H 2 P0 4, HPO [2-] 4 P 2 O 5 )*** ##### *** Sources: *** Organic manures Commercial fertilizers Phosphate rocks #### ***Role of Phosphorus *** ##### Encourages fast growth of the roots. Improves the quality of the plant. Hastens maturity of the crops. Influences cell division. Stimulates nodule formation in legumes. #### ***Deficiency symptoms *** ##### Growth of the plant is slow. Maturity is delayed. Leaves become grey, purple in colour. Yield of grains, fruits and seed is lowered. #### ***Loss of Phosphorus From the Soil *** ##### Soil erosion. Leaching Crop removal Fixation by iron and aluminium oxide. #### ***Potasium (K [+], K 2 O) *** ##### ***Sources; *** Crop residue and organic manures. Commercial fertilizers Potassium bearing minerals e.g. feldspar and mica. #### ***Role of Potassium in Plants *** ##### Increases plant vigour and disease resistance. Increases the size of grains and seeds. Reduces the ill-effects due to excess nitrogen. Prevents too rapid maturation due to phosphorus. #### ***Deficiency Symptoms *** ##### Plants have short joints and poor growth. Plants lodge before maturing. Leaves develop a burnt appearance on the margin. Leaves at the lower end of the plant become mottled, spotted or streaked. In maize, grains and grasses firing starts at the tip of the leaf and proceeds from the edge usually leaving the midrib green. #### ***Loss of Potassium From the Soil *** 3 ----- ##### Crop removal. Leaching. Soil erosion. Fixation in the soil. #### ***Calcium (Ca [2] +)*** ##### ***Source: *** Crop residues and organic manures. Commercial fertilizers. weathering of soil minerals. #### Agricultural limes for example dolomite, limestone . ***Role of Calcium in Plants *** ##### Improves the vigour and stiffness of straw. Neutralizes the poisonous secretions of the plants. Helps in grain and seed formation. Improves the soil structure. Promotes bacterial activity in the soil. Corrects the soil acidity. #### ***Deficiency symptoms *** ##### Young leaves remain closed. There are light green bands along the margins of the leaves. Leaves in the terminal bud become hooked in appearance there is a die-back at the tip and along the margins. #### ***Loss of Calcium*** ##### Crop removal Leaching Soil erosion #### ***Magnesium (Mg2+)*** ##### ***Sources: *** Crop residues and organic manures Commercial fertilizers Weathering of soil minerals. Agricultural limes. #### ***Role of Magnesium in Plants*** ##### Forms part of chlorophyll. Promotes the growth of the soil bacteria and enhances the nitrogen fixing power of the legumes. Activates the production and transport of carbohydrates and proteins in the growing plant. 4 ----- #### ***Deficiency symptoms *** ##### Loss in green colour which starts from the bottom leaves and gradually moves upwards. The veins remain green. Leaves curve upwards along the margins. Stalks become weak and the plant develops long branched roots. The leaves become streaked. #### **Sulphur (S0 4 [2-], SO 2 ) ** ##### *** Sources: *** Commercial fertilizers. Soil mineral containing sulphides Atmospheric sulphur from industries. Rain water #### ***Role of Sulphur in Plants *** ##### Formation and activation of coenzyme-A. Sulphur is a constituent of amino acids. Influence plant physiological processes. #### ***Deficiency Symptoms *** ##### Small plants/stunted growth. Poor nodulation in legumes. Light green to yellowish leaves/ chlorosis. Delayed maturity. #### *** Micro-nutrients *** ##### Also referred to as trace or minor nutrients. They are required in small quantities/traces. They are essential for proper growth and development of plants. ***They include; *** Iron, Manganese, Copper, Boron, Molybdenum Chlorine. #### ***Role of Micronutrients and Their Deficiency Symptoms *** Copper ##### Role in oxidation-reduction reactions. Respiration and utilization of iron #### Deficiency symptoms- yellowing of young leaves . Iron ##### Synthesis of proteins. Takes part in oxidation-reduction reactions. #### Deficiency symptoms - leaf chlorosis 5 ----- #### ***Molybdenum *** ##### Nitrogen transformation in plants. Metabolization of nitrates to amino acids and proteins #### Deficiency symptoms - leaf curl and scathing. Manganese - Same as molybdenum. Zinc ##### Formation of growth hormone. Reproduction process #### Deficiency symptoms - white bud formation. Boron ##### Absorption of water. Translocation of sugar #### ***Inorganic Fertilizers *** ##### These are chemically produced substances added to the soil to improve fertility. #### **Classification According to: ** Nutrients contained Straight - contain only one macronutrient. Compound fertilizers - contain more than one macronutrient ***Time of application *** ##### Some applied when planting. Top dressing after crop emergence #### ***Effects on the soil pH. *** ##### Acidic fertilizers. Neutral fertilizers. Basic fertilizers. #### ***Properties and Identification of Fertilizers *** ***Nitrogenous Fertilizers *** ***Characteristics *** ##### Highly soluble in water. Highly mobile in the soil hence it is applied as a top dress. Easily leached because of the high solubility hence does not have residual effect on the soil. Has scorching effect on young crops during wet seasons. Easy to volatilize during hot season. They have a tendency to cake under moist conditions. They are hygroscopic hence should be stored in dry conditions. #### ***Examples: *** Sulphate of Ammonia (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 ##### Physical appearance: white crystals, Has acidic effect, Contains 20% N. 6 ----- #### Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate [(NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 + NH 4 NO 3 ] ##### Colour: granules which appear yellow orange, less acidic, contains 26% N. #### ***Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) *** ##### Colour: greyish granules, neutral in nature, contains 21 % N. #### Urea ##### Colour: small whitish granules Easily leached or volatilized, contains 45- 46%N. #### ***Phosphate Fertilizers *** ##### Has low solubility and immobile. Non-scorching. Has a high residual effect hence benefit the next season's crop. Easy to store because they are not hygroscopic. #### ***Examples; *** ***Single super-phosphate *** ##### Appearance: whitish, creamy white granules, #### contains 20-21 % P 2 O 5 ***Double super-phosphate *** ##### Appearance: dark greyish granules, #### Contains 40-42% P 2 O 5 ***Triple super-phosphate *** ##### Appearance: small greyish granules, #### Contain 44-48% P2O5 ***Potassic Fertilizers *** ##### ***Characteristics: *** Has moderate scorching effect. Moderately soluble in water. Most Kenyan soils have sufficient potassium. ***Examples; *** #### ***Muriate of Potash (KCl) *** ##### Contain 60 - 62% K 2 O Slightly hygroscopic. Appearance amorphous white. #### Sulphate of Potash (50% K 2 O) ***Compound or Mixed Fertilizers *** 7 ----- ##### These are fertilizers which supply 2 or more of the macronutrients. ***Examples; *** Mono ammonium phosphate. Di-ammonium phosphate 20:20:20, 23:23:23 #### ***Advantages of application of compound fertilizers *** ##### Saves time and money. Mixture gives improved storage properties and better handling. #### ***Disadvantages of compound fertilizers application *** ##### Expensive. Wasteful. Mixing may not be thorough. Incompatibility of the individual fertilizers. #### ***Methods of fertilizer application *** Broadcasting - random scattering of the fertilizers on the ground. Placement method - application of fertilizers in the planting holes. Side dressing - fertilizer is placed at the side of the plant within the root zone, in ##### bands or spot-rings. #### Foliar spraying - specially formulated fertilizer solution applied on the foliage in ##### spray form. #### Drip method - applied through irrigation water. ***Determination of Fertilizer Rates *** ##### ***Contents of fertilizers are expressed as fertilizer grade or fertilizer analysis. *** Fertilizer grade indicate the guaranteed minimum of the active ingredients (N, P 2 O 5, K 2 O) in the mixture. It is expressed as a percentage on a weight to weight basis or percentage by weigh Example 10:20:0 means for every 10kg of the mixture there are 10kg of nitrogen, 20kg of P 2 O 5 and 0kg of K 2 O. #### ***Example *** ##### ***A farmer was asked to apply fertilizers as follows: *** 60 kg/ha nitrogen (top dressing) 60 kg/ha P 2 O 5 (in planting hole). 60 kg/ha K 2 O. How much sulphate of ammonia (20%) would be required per hectare? How much double super-phosphate (40%) P 2 O 5 would be required per hectare? How much muriate of potash (50% K 2 O) would be required per hectare? #### ***Answer/Solution *** ##### Sulphate of ammonia (SA) which gives 60kg/ha N = 60 8 ----- ##### 20x 100 =300kg SA Double super phosphate (40% P 2 O 5 )which gives 60kg/ha P 2 O 5 60 #### = 40x 100 = 150kg DSP ##### Muriate of potash (60% K 2 O) which gives 60kg/hK 2 O = 60 x 100=100kg muriate of potash * 60 * #### ***Example *** ##### ***A farmer was asked to apply fertilizers as follows: *** 200kg/ha of DSP (40% P 2 O 5 150kg/ha of muriate of potash (60% K 2 O) 150kg/ha of sulphate of ammonia (20% N) How much P 2 O 5 did the farmer apply per acre? How much K 2 O did the farmer apply per hectare? How much N did the farmer apply per hectare? #### ***Solution/Answer *** ##### P 2 O 5 applied per hectare from 200kg of DSP 40 = 100x 200= 80kg/ha P 2 O 5 K 2 O 5 applied per hectare from 150kg of muriate of potash 60 = 100x150 = 90kg/ha K 2 O #### N applied per hectare from 150kg/ha sulphate of ammonia ##### 20 = 100 x 150= 30kg/ha N #### ***Soil Sampling *** ##### Refers to obtaining of small quantity of soil that is representative in all aspects of the entire farm. #### ***Soil Sampling Procedures *** ##### Clear the vegetation over the site. Dig out soil at depths of 15-25cm. Place the dug out soil in a clean container. Mix thoroughly the soil in the container. Take a sample and send it to National Agricultural Laboratory for analysis. The container carrying the sample should be properly labeled as follows: Name of the farmer, Location, District Address of the farmer. #### ***Sites to Avoid *** ##### Dead furrows, ditches. Swamps 9 ----- ##### Near manure heaps. Recently fertilized fields Ant hills. Under big trees. Near fence lines or foot paths. Do not put them in containers which are contaminated with fertilizers or other chemical containers. #### ***Methods Of Soil Sampling: *** ##### Zigzag method Traverse method #### ***Soil Testing *** ##### Soil testing is the analyzing of the soil sample to determine certain qualities of the soil. #### ***Importance of Soil testing: *** ##### To determine the value of the soil hence determine the crop to grow. To determine the nutrient content hence find out the type of fertilizer to apply. To determine whether it is necessary to modify the soil pH for a crop. #### ***How Soil pH affects Crop Production *** ##### Influences the physical and chemical properties of the soil. Affects the availability of nutrients. Influences the incidences of soil borne diseases. Determine the type of crop to be grown at a given area. #### ***Methods of pH Testing *** ##### Universal indicator solution pH meter Know the course of action to be taken in the event of a disease and maintenance . of good health Know the prevalent diseases. Calculate the cost of treatment. #### Marketing Records show commodities sold, quantities and value of all the sales. Labour Records - show labour utilization and labour costs. ### **Crop production II (Planting) ** - Planting is the placement of the planting material in the soil for the purpose of regeneration in order to produce more of the plant species. 10 ----- **Types of planting materials** **Seeds** - Seeds are produced by flowering after pollination and fertilization. They contain the part of the plant that germinates and subsequently grows in to new plants. **Advantages of using seeds as planting materials.** - Seeds are easily treated against soil borne pests and diseases. - They are not bulky therefore storage is easy. - They are easy to handle during planting making operation easy. - When planting seeds, it is easy to use machines like seed planters and drillers. - It is easy to apply manures and fertilizers together with seeds during planting. - Fertilizers and manures application can be easily mechanized. - It is possible to develop new crop varieties due to cross pollination. **Disantivantages of using seeds as planting materials.** - Some seeds have long dormancy and they may need special treatment in order to germinate. - Plants raised from seeds have variations from the mother plant due to cross pollination, This may introduce undesirable characteristics. - Soil borne pests may damage seeds if left for sometime in the soil before rain falls. - Some seeds may lose viability if stored for a long time. This leads to gaps in the farm. **1.** **Vegetative materials.** - These are plant parts which have the ability to produce roots, they grow and develop in to new plants. - Plant parts such as leaves, roots or stems can be used for planting as long as they are capable of rooting. **Advantages of using vegetative materials for planting.** - Crops originating from vegetative materials matures faster than those from seeds. - The crops shows uniformity in such qualities as disease resistance, seed size, colour, keeping or storing quality and chemical composition. 11 ----- - It is possible to produce many varieties of compatible crops on the same root stock. - Use of the vegetative materials is easier and faster, especially where seeds show prolonged dormancy. - The resulting plant has desired shape and size for ease of harvesting and spraying. - It facilitates the propagation of crops which are seedless or those that produce seeds which are not viable or have a long dormancy period. - Such crops include sugar-cane, bananas, Napier grass and others. **Disadvantages.** - Vegetative propagation does not result in new crop varieties. - Keeping the materials free of diseases is difficult. - Materials cannot be stored for long. - The materials are bulky and there fore difficult to store and transport. **Plant parts used for vegetative propagation.** **i)** **Bulbils.** - These are tiny sisal plants produced in the inflorescence almost at the end of the plant growth cycle. - They resemble the mother plant except that they are smaller in size. - They are produced by the branches of the sisal pole. - When manure they mature they develop rudimentary roots and fall off to the ground just below the pole. - They are the collected and raised in the nurseries before they are transplanted t\o the main field. - One sisal pole may produce as many as 3,000 bulbils. They are usually 10cm long. They make good planting materials and are better than sucke **ii)** **Splits** - These are plantlets divided from the existing mother plant with complete with complete leaves and rooting system. - They are used to propagate most pasture grasses and pyrethrum. - Pyrethrum splits are raised first in nursery and then transplanted to the field. **iii)** **Crowns and slips** - These are materials used to propagate pineapples - Crowns are born on top of the fruits and are broken off and prepared for planting. - They are more preferred to suckers because they give uniform growth and take two years to reach maturity. - Slips are borne to the base of the pineapple fruits. - They are cut and prepared for plantings. - Their growth rate is faster than for crowns giving average uniformity. - They take 22 months from planting to maturity. 12 ----- - Crowns and slips are planted in the nurseries first before transplanting to the main seed bed. **iv)** **Suckers** - These are small plants that grow from the base of the main stem. - They have adventitious roots which grow quickly when planted to form a new plant. - They are used to propagate bananas, sisal, and pineapples. - When planted, suckers give uneven growth leading to maturity at different times. T - hey should be planted when they are young. **v)** **Tubers** - These are underground food storage organs which are short and thick. - They are used as vegetative propagation materials because they sprout and produce roots for growth. - There are mainly two types of tubers, the stem and root tubers. - Root tubers develop from the thickening of the adventitious roots. - Root tubers are not commonly used for propagation since they produce weak stems. - A good example of a root tuber is the sweet potato. - On the other hand stem tubers have some auxiliary buds which are sometimes referred to as eyes. - These eyes sprout to produce stems which grow into plants. Stem tubers are therefore swollen stems with scales leaves. - A good example of a stem tuber is Irish potato. **vi)** **Vines.** - These are soft wood cuttings which produce roots easily upon planting to give rise to new plants. - They are cut from the mother plants and planted directly into the field. - Soft wood cuttings (vines) are taken from rapidly growing shoots. - The soft upper parts of the shoots are preferred. - When preparing the cuttings, some leaves and nodes are included. - Roots are produced from the nodes. **vii)** **Cuttings and setts** `o` Cuttings are portion of plants parts which are cut and then planted. `o` They may be from stems, roots or leaves. `o` A stem cutting must have a bud which develops into shoot. `o` The root cutting must have an eye. Cutting must have an eye. `o` Cuttings must produce leaves as soon as possible so that they can start making their own food. `o` Sometimes cuttings are induced to produce roots by use of rooting hormones. `o` Once the cuttings have developed roots, they give rise to new plants. 13 ----- `o` In some crops, the cuttings are big enough to be planted directly to the main seedbed whereas there are some plants whose cuttings are first raised in special nurseries before they are transplanted to the seedbed. `o` The cuttings of Napier grass and sugar-cane are planted directly on the seedbed but those of tea; have to be raised in special nursery before they are transferred to the seed bed. `o` Examples of crops which are propagated by use of stem cuttings include: tea, cassava, and sugar-cane and Napier grass. `o` The stem cuttings used to propagate sugar-cane are known as setts. Setts are stem cuttings which have 3-5 nodes are usually 30-45 cm long. **Factors affecting rooting of cuttings.** - **Temperature:** for the cuttings to produce roots warm temperatures are required around the root zone while cool temperatures are important for the aerial part of the cuttings. For most species optimum day and light temperatures for rooting are 22 -27c and 15-21 c respectively. a) **Relative humidity:** Proper rooting of cuttings requires high humidity which lower the transpiration rate. It also increases and maintains leaf turgidity all the time. As such, cuttings should be rooted in green houses or under shady conditions, where relative humidity can be regulated. Sometimes the propagation area can be sprayed with water to keep it moist. b) **Light intensity:** soft wood cuttings need high intensity light to produce roots. This is because light promotes the production of roots since it affects the rate of photosynthesis. Hard wood cuttings do well in dark conditions since they have high amount of stored carbohydrates and therefore rooting is excellent in darkness. c) **Oxygen supply:** plentiful supply of oxygen is required for root formation. The rooting medium used must therefore be capable of allowing proper aeration. d) **Chemical treatment** : these rooting hormones which promote the production of roots in cuttings. The common ones include IAA (Indoleacetic acid). e) **Leaf area:** Soft woods cuttings require a lot of leaves for photosynthesis while hardwood cuttings will produce roots better without leaves. **Selection of planting materials** When selecting materials for planting the following factors must be considered: - **Suitability to the ecological conditions** the selected planting materials should be well adapted to the soil conditions, temperatures and amount of rainfall in the area. There are many varieties of maize, for example, which are suitable to different ecological conditions. Hybrid 622f or example is mainly for the high altitudes areas of Kenya 513 for the medium altitudes and the Katumani composites for the low rainfall areas while the coast composites are suitable for the coastal conditions each variety will grow well and produce high yields if grown under the correct conditions - **Purity of the materials** - planting materials should be pure and not mixed with other off types the percentage purity of planting materials will affect the seed while higher seeds rates are used for impure seeds. 14 ----- - **Germination percentage** - This is a measure of the germination potential of seeds it is expressed as a percentage for example a germination percentage of 80 means that for every 10 seeds planted 80 of them are expected to germinate. Germination percentage helps to determine the seed rates of crops lower seed rates are used for crops with higher germination percentage while higher seed rates are used for those with lower germination percentage. - **Certified seeds** - These are seeds which have been tested and proven to have 100 germination potential and free from diseases and pests they give high yields after the first planting but the subsequent yields decline if replaced therefore in this case it is always advisable to buy new seeds which are certified every time planting is done In Kenya certified seeds are produced by the Kenya seed company (KSC) and distributed by Kenya Farmers Association (KFA) and other agents. **PREPARATION OF PLANTING MATERIALS** **.** After the planting materials are selected they are prepared in different ways before they are planted. Some of the methods used to prepare planting materials include the following: **(a)Breaking the seed dormancy.** Some seeds undergo a dormancy period between maturity and the time they sprout. The dormancy period is the stage whereby a seed cannot germinate, the stage of inhibited growth of seed. It should be broken before the seed is planted. **Methods of breaking seed dormancy.** The following methods are used to break seed dormancy **:** **(I)** ***Mechanical method:*** This is a method which aims at scratching the seed coat to make it permeable to water. Scarification is done by rubbing small sized seeds against hard surface such as sand paper, while filling or nicking the seed coat with a knife is done to large sized seeds such as croton seeds. (ii) ***Heat treatment:*** this involves the use of hot water or burning the seeds lightly. It softens the seed coat making it permeable to water and thus is able to germinate. The seeds are soaked in hot water about 80c for 3-4 minutes after which the water is allowed to drain off. Example of seeds treated in this way include: ##### leucean 7 [2] + 3 [2] = 2 [2] calliadra and acacia. Light burning also serves the same purpose as hot water treatment. In this case trash is spread over the seeds which are already covered with a thin layer of soil. The trash is burned, after which the seeds are retrieved and planted. Examples include acacia and wattle tree seeds. Overheating should be avoided as this will cook the seeds. **(iii)Chemical treatment:** seeds are dipped in specific chemicals such as concentrated sulphuric acid, for two minutes and then removed. The chemical wears off the seed coat making it permeable to water. Care should be taken not to leave the seeds in the chemicals for too long as this will kill the embryo. Cotton seeds are normally treated with chemicals to remove the lint or fibres. 15 ----- **iv)** **Soaking in water** : seeds are soaked in water for a period of between 24 48 hours until they swell. They are then removed and planted immediately. The seeds treated thus germinate very fast. Pre-germinated seeds are used when raising rice in the nurseries. **b) Seed dressing** This is the coating of seeds with fungicides or an insecticide or a combination of the two chemicals. This is particularly common with cereals, sugar-cane and legumes. The chemicals protect the seedlings from soil-borne diseases and pests. Certified seeds which are sold by seed merchants in Kenya have been dressed with these chemicals. Farmers can also buy the chemicals and dress their own seeds. **C) Seed inoculation** In areas where soils are deficient in nitrogen, legumes such as beans, clovers and peas should be coated with an inoculant. An innoculant is a preparation which contains the right strain of Rhizobium depending on the type of legume and encourages nodulation, hence nitrogen fixation. Below is a table showing different legume |crops and their right strain of Rhizobium.|Col2| |---|---| |Crop inoculation group|Rhizobium Species| |Lucerne|R. melioti| |Clover|R. trifoli| |Pea|R. leguminosarum| |Bean|R. phaseoli| |Lupin|R. lupini| |soyabean|R. japonicum| When handling inoculated seeds, care should be taken to prevent them from coming in contact with chemicals. This means that inoculated seeds should not be dressed with chemicals as these will kill the bacterium. They should also be planted when the soil is moist to avoid dehydration which kills the bacterium. **d) Chitting** This practice is also referred to as sprouting. The selected seed potatoes setts which are used as planting materials are sprouted before planting to break their dormancy. The setts of about 3-6 cm in diameter are arranged in layers of 2 or 3 tubers deep in a partially darkened room. The setts should be arranged with the rose- end facing upwards and the heel-end downwards. Diffused light encourages the production of short, green and healthy sprouts. If Chitting is done in complete darkness, long, pale thin sprouts develop which break easily during planting. During Chitting potato aphids and tuber months should be controlled by dusting or spraying the sett with dimethoate. Sometimes a chemical 16 ----- known as Rendite is used to break dormancy, thus inducing sprouting. Chitting is done mainly to make sure that growth commences immediately the seed is planted so as to make maximum use of rains for high yields. **Time of planting** The timing of planting or sowing is influenced by the type of crop to be planted and the environmental conditions of the area. **Factors to consider in timing planting.** - The rainfall pattern/moisture condition of the soil. - Type of crop to be planted. - Soil type. - Market demand. - Prevalence of pests and diseases. - Weed control. Timely planting is necessary and should be done at the onset of rains. In some areas where rainfall is scare dry planting is recommended. **Advantages of timely planting.** - Crops make maximum use of rainfall and suitable soil temperature, leading to vigorous growth. - Crops usually escape serious pests and diseases attack. - Crops benefit from nitrogen flush which is available at the beginning of the rain. - For horticultural crops, proper timing ensures that the produce is marketed when prices are high. - Crops establish earlier than the weeds, hence smothering them. **Methods of planting.** There are two main methods of planting : - Broadcasting. - Row planting. **Broadcasting.** This method involves scattering the seeds all over the field in a random manner. It is commonly adapted for light tiny seeds such as those of pasture grasses. It is easier, quicker and cheaper than row planting. However, it uses more seeds than row planting and the seeds are spread unevenly leading to crowding of plants in some places. This results in poor performance due to competition. Broadcasting gives a good ground cover, but weeding cannot be mechanized. For good results, the seedbed should be weed-free, firm and have a fine tilth. **Row planting.** The seeds or other planting materials are placed in holes, drills or furrows in rows. The distance between one row to the other and from one hole to the other is known. In Kenya, both large and small scale farmers practice row planting. It is practiced when planting many types of crops, especially perennial, annual and root crops. **Advantages of row planting** . 17 ----- - Machines can be used easily between the rows. - It is easy to establish the correct plant population. - Lower seed rate is used than if broadcasting is adopted. - It is easy to carry out cultural practices such as weeding, spraying and harvesting. **Disadvantages of row planting.** - It does not provide an ample foliage cover. Thus the soil is liable to being eroded by wind and water. - It is more expensive than broadcasting because of consuming a lot of labour and time. - It requires some skill in measuring the distances between and within the rows. Seeds can also be planted by dibbling where the planting holes are dug by use of pangas or jembe, or by a dibbling stick (dibbler). Most of the dibbling is done randomly although rows can also be used when using a planting line. Random dibbling is not popular in commercial farming due to low levels of production. It is only common among conservative farmers in planting of legumes such as beans, pigeon peas and cow peas. **Over-sowing.** This is the introduction of a pasture legume such as desmodium in an existing grass pasture. Some form of growth suppression of existing grass such as burning, slashing or hard grazing plus slight soil disturbance is recommended before over sowing. A heavy dose of superphosphate, preferably single supers at a rate of 200400 kg/ha is applied. The grass must be kept short until the legume is fully established. Regardless of the method of establishment, the pastures and fodder stands should be ready for light grazing 4-5 months after planting if rainfall and soil fertility are not limiting. **Under-sowing.** This refers to the establishment of pasture under a cover crop, usually maize. Maize is planted as recommended and weeded 2-3 weeks after the onset of rains. Pasture seeds are then broadcasted with half the recommended basal fertilizer. No further weeding should be done and maize should be harvested early to expose the young pasture seedlings to sunlight. The benefits of under sowing include facilitating more intensive land utilization and encouraging an early establishment of pastures. Fodder crops and vegetetively propagated pasture species may also be under sown as long as rainfall is adequate for their establishment. Timing is not very crucial in this case and planting can be done as late as 6-8 weeks after the onset of rains. **Plant population** This refers to the ideal number of plants that can be comfortably accommodated in any given area, without overcrowding or too few to waste space. Agricultural research has arrived at the optimum number of various crop plants to be recommended to farmers. Plant population is determined by dividing the planting area by spacing of the crop. This may be simplified thus: Area of land **Plant population** = Pacing of crop **Example** 18 ----- Given that maize is planted at a spacing of 75 x25 cm, calculate the plant population in a plot of land measuring 4x3 m. **Working** Area of land Plant population = Pacing of crop Area of land = 400cm x 300 cm Spacing of maize = 75 cm x 25 cm Therefore, plant population = 400 cm x 300 cm 75 cm x 25 cm = 64 plants. **Spacing** It is the distance of plants between and within the rows. Correct spacing for each crop has been established as shown in table below. |crop|spacing| |---|---| |Maize (Kitale) hybrids|75 90 cm x 23 30 cm| |Coffee (Arabica) tall varieties|2.75 cm x 2.75m| |Tea|1.5 m by 0.75 m| |Beans (erect type)|45 -60 m by 25 cm| |Bananas|3.6 6.0 m by 3.6 4.5 m| |Coconut|9 m x 9 m| |Tomatoes (Money maker)|100 x 50 cm| |kales|60 x 60 cm| Spacing determines plant population and the main aim of correct spacing is to obtain maximum number of plants per unit area which will make maximum use of environmental factors. Wider spacing leads to a reduced plant population which means lower yields, whereas closer spacing could lead to overcrowding of plants and competition for nutrients and other resources would occur. Correctly spaced crops produce yield of high quality that are acceptable in the market. ##### **Spacing is determined by the following factors: ** - **The type of machinery to be used.** 19 ----- The space between the rows should allow free passage of the machinery which can be used in the field. For example, the spacing between rows of coffee is supposed to allow movement of tractor drawn implements. - **Soil fertility** A fertile soil can support high plant population. Therefore closer spacing is possible. - **The size of plant** Tall crop varieties require wider spacing while short varieties require closer spacing, for example, Kitale hybrid maize is widely spaced than Katumani maize. - **Moisture availability.** Areas with higher rainfall are capable of supporting a large number of plants hence closer spacing than areas of low rainfall. - **Use of crop.** Crop grown for the supply of forage or silage material is planted at a closer spacing than for grain production. - **Pest and diseases control.** When crops are properly spaced, pests might find it difficult to move from one place to the other, for example, aphids in groundnuts. - **Growth habit.** Spreading and tillering crop varieties require wider spacing than erect type. **Seed rate.** Seed rate is the amount of seeds to be planted in a given unit area governed by ultimate crop stand which is desired. The objective of correct spacing of crop is to obtain the maximum yields from a unit area without sacrificing quality. Most crops are seeded at lighter rates under drier conditions than under wet or irrigated conditions. Seeds with low germination percentage are planted at higher rates than those which have about 100% germination percentage. There is an optimal seed rate for various crops. For example, the seed rate for maize is 22 kg per hectare, wheat is 110 kg per hectare and cotton is between 17 to 45 kg per hectare. Factors to consider in choosing seed rates. - **Seed purity.** When planting seed which is pure or with a high germination percentage, less seed is required. On the contrary, more seeds are required when using impure or mixed seeds. - **Germination percentage.** Less seed is used when its germination percentage is higher. Seed of lower germination percentage is required in large amounts. - **Spacing.** At closer spacing, more seeds are used than in a wider spacing. - **Number of seeds per hole.** When two or more seeds are planted per hole, higher seed rate is required than when only one seed is planted per hole. - **The purpose of the crop.** A crop to be used for silage making is spaced more closely than one meant for grain production. This would require use of more seeds. Maize to be used for silage making, for example, requires more seeds than that meant for production of grain. **Depth of planting.** This is the distance from the soil surface to where the seed is placed. The correct depth of planting is determined by: - **Soil type:** seeds will emerge from grater depths in sandy soil that are lighter than in clay soils. 20 ----- - **Soil moisture content:** It is recommended that one plants deep in dry soils in order to place the seeds in a zone with moist soil. - **Size of the seed:** Larger seeds are planted deeper in the soil because they have enough food reserves to make them shoot and emerge through the soil to the surface. - **Type of germination:** seeds with epigeal type of germination (carry cotyledons above the soil surface) such as beans, should be planted shallower than those with hypogeal type of germination (leave cotyledons under the soil) such as maize. Suggested Activities. 1. Learners to carry out planting using broadcasting method and planting rows. 2. Learners to identify different vegetative propagation materials displayed by the teacher. 3. Learners to determine the correct plant population for a given area by mathematical calculations. 4. Learners to collect samples of different tree seeds and prepare them for planting by various methods of breaking seed dormancy. 5. Learners to determine the germination percentage of different samples of cereals and legume seeds. ## **Crop Production III ** **(Nursery Practices) ** #### **Introduction ** ##### Planting materials are either planted directly in a seedbed or indirectly through a nursery bed. A seedbed is a piece of land which could be small or large and prepared to receive planting materials. A nursery bed on the other hand is a small plot of land specially prepared for raising seedlings or planting materials before transplanting. It is usually 1m wide and any convenient length depending on the quantity of seedlings to be raised. A seedling bed is a special type of nursery bed used for raising seedlings pricked out from the nursery bed due to overcrowding before they are ready for transplanting. Pricking out refers to the removal of seedlings from a nursery bed to a seedling bed. Nursery practices refer to all the activities carried out throughout a nursery life to raise seedlings. . #### ***Importance of Nursery Bed in Crop Production *** ##### To facilitate the production of many seedlings in a small area. It is easy to carry out management practices in a nursery than in the seedbed. 21 ----- ##### It facilitates the planting of small seeds which develop into strong seedlings that are easily transplanted. It ensures transplanting of only healthy and vigorous growing seedlings. It reduces the period taken by the crop in the field. Excess seedlings from the nursery may be sold to earn income. #### **Selection of a Nursery Site ** ##### ***Factors to consider; *** Nearness to the water source. Type of soil.-should be well drained, deep and fertile, preferably loam soil. Topography.-it should be situated on a gentle slope to prevent flooding and erosion through surface run-off. Previous cropping.-to avoid build up of pests and diseases associated with particular plant families, consider the preceding crops. Security.-select a site that is protected from theft and destruction by animals. Protection against strong winds and heat of the sun.-select a sheltered place. i.e. to avoid excessive evapotranspiration and uprooting seedlings. #### ***Types of Nurseries *** ##### ***Categories of nurseries: *** : #### ***Vegetable Nursery*** ##### They are used for raising the seedlings of vegetable crops. Tomatoes, cabbages, kale, onions, brinjals and peppers. #### ***Vegetable Propagation Nurseries: *** ##### They are used for inducing root production in cuttings before they are transplanted, #### The cuttings can be planted directly in the soil and hence called bare root ***nurseries. *** ##### Or planted into containers such as pots, polythene bags and others, hence called #### containerized nurseries . Tree Nurseries: ##### These are used for raising tree seedlings. The seedlings can be raised in bare root nurseries or in containerized nurseries. #### ***Nursery Management Practices: *** ##### These are the practices carried out in the nursery while the planting materials are growing. ***They include: *** Mulching. light mulch should be applied on thenursery bed.It be should be removed on the 4 [th] day Weed control. 22 ----- ##### Shading. Pricking out. Pests and disease control. Hardening off Watering. #### ***Preparation of vegetative materials for planting: *** Cuttings -These are plant parts such as stems, leaves and roots induced to produce ##### roots and used as planting materials. #### ***Grafting *** ##### It is the practice of uniting two separate woody stems. #### The part bearing the roots is referred to as root stock while the part which is grafted onto the rootstock is known as scion. ##### The scion has buds which develop into the future plant. The ability of the rootstock and the scion to form a successful union is termed as #### ***compatibility.*** ***Methods of Grafting *** ***Whip or tongue grafting: *** ##### In this case the diameter of the rootstock and the scion are the same. It is carried out when the diameter of the scion and the rootstock is 'pencil' thick. #### Side grafting : In this case the diameter of the rootstock is bigger than that ##### of the scion. ***Other types of grafting include ; *** #### ***Approach grafting, *** ***Notch grafting *** ##### . #### ***Bark grafting*** ***Budding:*** ##### It is the practice of uniting a vegetative bud to a seedling of another plant. The scion has only one bud and some bark with or without wood. The bud is inserted in a slit made on the bark of the stock. It is held tightly on the stock by tying with a budding tape until it produces a shoot. #### ***Methods of Budding:*** ##### T-budding Top budding Patch budding. #### ***Importance of Budding and Grafting: *** ##### Plants with desirable root characteristics but with undesirable products may be used to produce desirable products for example lemon-orange graft. They facilitate the changing of the top of the tree from being undesirable to desirable 23 ----- ##### They make it possible to grow more than one type of fruit or flower on the same plant. They help to propagate clones that cannot be propagated in any other way. They help to shorten the maturity period. #### ***Layering *** ##### It is the process by which a part of a plant is induced to produce roots while still attached to the mother plant. Once the roots have been produced, the stem is then cut off and planted. #### ***Types of layering; *** ##### Marcotting or aerial layering. Tip layering. Trench layering. Compound or serpentine. #### ***Tissue Culture for Crop Propagation*** ##### Tissue culture is a biotechnology used in cloning vegetatively propagated plants. It is based on the ability of plant tissue (or cells) to regenerate other parts of the plant. The tissues are derived from shoot tips where cells are undergoing rapid cell division and are not differentiated. The cells are then provided with the right conditions which enable them to multiply and develop roots. *** The Right Conditions for tissue culture: *** Culture medium. Correct temperature. Correct light intensity and Correct relative humidity. #### ***Importance of Tissue Culture in Crop Propagation *** ##### It is used to recover and establish pathogen-free plants especially in the control of viral diseases. It is used in mass production of plantlets or propagules. It is fast and requires less space than the cultural methods of using cutting which requires a bigger space. #### ***Transplanting Seedlings *** ##### Transplanting of vegetable and tree seedlings are generally the same. Generally, vegetable seedlings are ready for transplanting when they are one month old or have 4 -6 leaves or are about 10-15cm in height. Before transplanting, the nursery bed is adequately watered 3 - 4 hours before lifting the seedlings. This ensures the seedlings are lifted easily with a ball of earth around the roots to minimize root damage. Tree seedlings take a little longer to reach transplanting age compared to vegetable crop seedlings. The roots are trimmed before lifting the seedlings. 24 ----- ##### Transplanting should be done at the onset of the long rains to give the young trees a good start. After transplanting the young trees should be protected from damage by animals for a period of about one year. ## **Crop production IV (Field Practices I) ** #### **Introduction ** ##### Field practices are activities carried out on the field to facilitate proper growth and maximum yield of the various crops grown. ***They include the following: *** Crop Rotation Mulching R0uting field practices Crop protection Harvesting #### **Crop Rotation ** ##### This is the growing of different types on the same piece of land in different seasons, in an orderly sequence. #### ***Importance of Crop Rotation *** ##### Maximizes use of nutrients and moisture. Breaks the life cycle of pests and disease agents. Maintains good soil structure. Reduces soil erosion due to adequate soil cover. Controls weeds that are specific to certain crops e.g. striga on cereals Improves soil fertility when legumes are included in crop rotation. #### ***Factors Influencing Rotational Programme *** ##### Growth habits and nutrient req uirements. Liability to soil erosion. Crops attacked by the same pests and diseases should not follow one another in the programme. Availability of capital and market for example beans or peas in legumes. 25 ----- #### ***Mulching *** ##### This is the placement of materials such as banana leaves or polythene sheets on the ground next to the growing crop. These materials should not come into contact with the base of the crop as they may encourage pest attack. #### ***Importance of Mulching *** ##### Reduction of evaporation rate. Smothers weeds. Moderation of soil temperature. Reduction of speed of run offs. #### ***Types of Mulching Materials *** ##### Organic mulching materials such as; Sawdust, wood shavings, coffee pulps, rice husks, Dry grass, banana leaves, dry maize stalk, napier grass. Inorganic or synthetic materials commonly used are either black or transparent polythene sheets. #### ***Advantages of Mulching *** ##### Prevents water evaporation thus maintaining moisture in the soil for crop use. Acts as an insulator thus modifying the soil temperature. It helps to control soil erosion. It controls weeds by suppressing them. After decomposition organic mulch add nutrients to the soil thus improving its fertility. Humus produced after the decomposition of organic mulch improves soil structure and the water holding capacity of the soil. #### ***Disadvantages of Mulching*** ##### It is a fire risk. Provides a breeding ground as well as a hiding place for pests that finally may attack the crops. Traps the light showers of rainfall thus lowering the chances of rain drops reaching the soil. It is expensive to acquire, transport and apply. #### ***Routine Field Practices *** ***Thinning *** ##### Removal of excess, weak, damaged or diseased seedlings. Allows the remaining seedlings to get enough nutrients and moisture. It is aimed at obtaining optimum plant population. #### ***Gapping *** ##### Filling the gaps so as to maintain proper plant population. Gaps occur as a result of failure of seeds to germinate or dying of seedlings. 26 ----- ##### It should be done early enough for the seedlings to catch up with the other plants #### ***Rogueing *** ##### This is the removal and destruction of a diseased part of a plant or the whole plant. The destruction can be achieved through burning of the uprooted plant. #### ***Pruning *** ##### Removal of extra unwanted parts of the plant. ***Reasons for pruning are: *** To remove old, unproductive or diseased, damaged parts of the plant. To train plants to take a desirable shape for example formative pruning in tea. To control crop leave ratio hence avoiding overbearing. To control diseases and pests for example antestia bugs in coffee. To facilitate other operations such as spraying, picking and seeding. To reduce wastage of chemicals applied on the crop. To remove branches that interfere with traffic, telephone lines and view. Open up the plant to allow free air circulation and exposure of leaves to sunlight. #### Note : Tools used are secateur, pruning saw and pruning knife. ***Earthing-up *** ##### This is the placement of soil in form of a heap around the base of the plant. It is mostly carried out in tuber crops such as Irish and sweet potatoes to improve tuber formation. It is also carried out in groundnuts and maize. In groundnuts it promotes production of pods while in maize it provides support to prevent lodging. #### ***Crop Protection *** ***Weed Control *** ##### Weeds are plants growing where they are not wanted, that is a plant out of place. Such plants include blackjack, couch grass, thorn apple and Mcdonald's eye. Such plants should be eradicated or controlled using recommended methods. #### ***Pest Control *** ##### Crop pests are living organisms that are harmful to the crops. They include; insects, nematodes, rodents, thrips and mites. They cause great damage to crops in the field and stored produce. #### ***Control of Crop Diseases *** ##### A disease is any alteration in the state of an organism and functions of a plant or its parts. Disease causing organisms are known as pathogens. 27 ----- #### They include fungi, viruses and bacteria. ##### Diseases caused by fungi are referred to as fungal diseases while those caused by viruses and bacteria are referred to as viral and bacterial respectively. #### ***Harvesting *** ##### It is the gathering or of the farm produce after maturity. *** Time of harvesting depends on: *** Stage of maturity of the crops. Use of the crop. Tastes and preferences of consumers. Weather conditions, hence liability to spoilage. Moisture. #### ***Methods of harvesting is determined by: *** ##### Scale of farming for example large scale farming machines are used. Type of crop for example pyrethrum is harvested by hand. Uniformity in ripening of the crop for example wheat is harvested by use of combined harvester while coffee is harvested by hand. Uniformity in height of the crop and size of seed, fruits and flowers. Financial status of the farmer. Part of the plant to be harvested. #### ***Post-Harvest Practices *** ##### These are the preparations carried out on crop produce before it gets to the consumer. **They include; ** Threshing/shelling. Drying. Cleaning. Sorting and grading. Dusting. Processing. Packaging. #### ***Storage *** ##### *** Purpose of storage is to; *** Prevent spoilage Make the produce available for future use To await good market prices. #### ***Requirements for proper store are:*** ##### It should be clean. It should be well ventilated. It should be raised from the ground to prevent damp conditions. It should be dry. It should be strong to hold crop produce. It should be easy to clean. 28 ----- ##### It should be vermin-proof. It should be secure from theft. It should be treated against pests such as weevils. #### ***Types of Storage*** ##### Traditional storage structures. Modern storage structures. #### ***Preparation of the Store *** ##### Cleaning the store. Maintenance Dusting the store with appropriate chemicals. Clearing the vegetation around the store to keep off vermin. ## **Crop Production V: (Vegetables) ** #### **Introduction ** ##### A vegetable is any crop that is grown and eaten fresh. Vegetables are important both for nutritional and commercial reasons. They are categorized on the basis of the part used as food. Such parts include; Leaves, Stems, Roots, Fruits, Flowers, Pods Bulbs. #### ***Vegetables are grouped into the following categories: *** ##### Leaf vegetables for example kales and cabbages. Root vegetables for example carrots, beets, radishes and turnips. Fruit vegetables for example French beans and okra. Stem vegetables for example asparagus, leeks and spring onions. Bulb vegetables for example bulbed onions and garlic. #### ***Tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum)*** ##### Tomatoes are fruit vegetables widely grown in Kenya. The ripe fruit may be eaten raw cooked or processed to make tomato sauces, juices and pastes. *** Ecological Requirements *** Altitude: 0-2100m above sea level. 29 ----- ##### Rainfall: 7S0-1300mm per annum. Soils: deep, fertile and well drained. ***Varieties *** #### Fresh market varieties : ##### Money maker, Marglobe, hundred fold, Beef eater, Hot set, Super marmande Ponderosa. : #### ***Processing varieties*** ##### Kenya beauty, San -marzano, Roma, Heinz 13S0, Primabel, Rutgers hybrid Cal- J. #### ***Nursery Practices *** ##### Choose a site which has not been grown Solanaceae crop in the last three years. Nursery beds are raised about 15cm above the ground level. Make drills of 20cm apart and 1cm deep drill and cover the seeds. Provide shade or mulch material. Water twice a day. Apply phosphatic fertilizers during planting. #### ***Seedbed Preparation *** ##### The land should be dug deeply to control weeds. #### *** Transplanting *** ##### Seedlings are ready for transplanting when they are 10-15cmhigh after about one month. Holes are made at a spacing of 60cm x 90cm. Apply 20gm of DSP in the planting hole. Transplant with a ball of soil around the roots. Apply mulch around each seedling. Transplanting is normally in the evening or on a cloudy day. #### ***Field Maintenance *** ##### Early control of weeds is necessary. Top dressing is done after crop establishes. Pruning and staking are done to train the plants to grow vertically. #### ***Pests Controls *** American Bollworm ##### Nature of damage : boring holes on the fruits. Control: spraying insecticides. 30 ----- #### ***Tobacco White Fly *** ##### Nature of damage : suck plant sap from the underside of the leaf, hence may transmit viral diseases. Control: Destroy infected plant and spray insecticides. #### ***Disease Control *** ***Late Blight *** ##### Cause: Fungus Symptoms: dry patches on the leaves and fruits. Control: use of fungicides, crop rotation and destruction of affected materials. #### Blossom-end Rot ##### ***Caused by; *** Too much nitrogen in early stages. Irregular or infrequent watering. Calcium deficiency. #### Control : Apply calcium ammonium nitrate and correction of the above problems. ***Harvesting *** ##### For canning, fruits should be fully ripe. For fresh market, fruits should be partially ripe and packed in crates to avoid damage. The fruits should be graded according to; Size, Colour, Ripeness Freedom from blemishes. ### ***Cabbage *** ##### It is a leaf vegetable related to other brassica crops such as kales, cauliflower, Chinese cabbage and Brussels sprouts. Cabbage leaves may be eaten raw in salads, steamed, boiled or cooked in a variety of ways. The leaves can also be fed to livestock. #### ***Ecological Requirements *** ##### Altitude: Those with small heads: 900-1500m above sea level Those with Large heads: 1800-2700m above sea level. Temperature: require cool condition. Rainfall: 750-2000mm per annum. Should be well distributed throughout the growing period. Soils: Deep, 31 ----- ##### Fertile Well drained. #### **Varieties ** ##### #### ***Early maturing:*** ##### Brunswick, Sugar loaf, Early jersey, Copenhagen market, Chinese cabbage, Celery cabbage, Cafe splits kool Gloria, mukuki, Golden acre . : #### ***Late maturing*** ##### Drumhead, Savoy, Perfection, Winningstadt. #### ***Nursery Practices *** ##### The beds should be raised, dimension 1 m wide and any convenient length (usually 2- 3m in length). Make drills of 15-20cm apart. Sow seeds by drilling and cover to a depth of 1 cm. Provide shade or mulch material. Apply phosphatic fertilizers and mix thoroughly with soil during planting. Water twice a day. #### ***Seedbed Preparation *** ##### Cultivation should be done during the dry season so that all the weeds are killed. Dig holes at the spacing of 60cm x 60cm. Incorporate farm yard manure in the soil. #### ***Transplanting *** ##### Water the seedlings before uprooting. Seedlings are ready for transplanting after one month that is when they are 1O-15cm in height. Select healthy and vigorous seedlings. Transplant the seedlings with balls of soil to prevent root damage. Plant to the same depth as they were in the nursery. #### ***Field Maintenance *** ##### Apply fertilizers during planting and top dress later. Control weeds to reduce competition. #### ***Pest Control *** 32 ----- ##### Diamond Black Moth Damage: Eats the underside of the leaf making windows or holes in the leaf. Control: Spray recommended insecticides. Cutworms Damage : Attacks the stem at the ground level causing he plant to fall. Control: Spray recommended insecticides. #### **Disease Control ** ##### Black Rot Cause : Bacteria Symptom s: Leaves turn yellow and rotting of the stem giving an offensive odour, Control: Closed season, crop rotation, use certified seeds and spray appropriate chemicals. Black Leg Cause: Fungus Symptoms: Brown to black spots on seedlings and dark canker on the stem. Control: crop rotation, destroy infected materials. #### ***Harvesting *** ##### Cabbages are ready for harvesting 3-4 months after transplanting. The heads are cut when they are solid and compact. Harvested cabbages are sold immediately. #### ***Carrots (Daucus carota) *** ##### It is a root vegetable grown in the cool areas of Kenya. It is commonly eaten raw in salads but can also be cooked. #### ***Ecological Requirements *** ##### Altitude : 0-2,900m above sea level. Rainfall : 750 - 1,000mm. Well distributed throughout the growing period. Soils: It requires deep, Fine tilth Well drained soils that are free from obstacles to allow for root expansion. Temperatures: it requires cool to warm temperatures as very high temperatures result in the production of pale and short roots. #### ***Varieties *** Fresh market varieties for example Chantenay and Nantes. Canning varieties for example Nantes Fodder varieties for example Oxhast . ***Land Preparation *** ##### The field should be well dug to a depth of about 20cm. 33 ----- ##### The soil clods should be broken to give a fine tilth before planting. Manure should not be applied as it induces forking which reduces the crop quality. #### ***Planting *** ##### Carrots are planted directly into the main seedbed. Seeds are drilled into rows made 20-30cm apart. The seeds are then covered lightly and the soil pressed down. 90kg/ha of DSP should be applied at planting time in the drills. It should be mixed well with the soils before placing the seeds. #### ***Field Practice *** ##### Thinning -- it is done 2 weeks after germination. Weed control - the field should be kept weed free. Earthing up should be done while weeding to encourage root expansion .. Topdressing: after weeding 60kg of nitrogen per hectare should be applied as top dress. Irrigation - this should be carried out where or when there is not enough rainfall. #### ***Pest Control *** ##### Carrots do not have many field pests except the green aphids. These can be controlled by use of the appropriate pesticides. #### ***Disease Control *** ##### Occasionally attached by the mildews especially in wet and humid environment. Thinning can be done to reduce humid conditions. #### ***Harvesting and Marketing *** ##### Carrots are ready for harvesting 3-5 months after planting depending on the variety. They are lifted from the soil and sold fresh or canned. #### ***Onions (Allium cepa) *** ##### Onions are bulb vegetables grown in the warm areas of Kenya. They are used as a vegetable in salads and for flavouring foods, soups and stews. #### *** Ecological Requirements *** ##### Altitude: 0-2, 100m above sea level. Rainfall: 1,000mm of rain per year Irrigation in dry areas . Soils: Requires well drained fertile soils pH of 6.0 - 7.0 . Temperatures : Onions are a warm climate crops. However, some varieties prefer cool conditions. 34 ----- ##### They require a fairly long dry period for ripening. #### ***Varieties *** ##### Red creole, Tropicana hybrid White creole. #### ***Land Preparation *** ##### The land should be well prepared leaving a fine tilth. Farm yard manure at 40 - 50 tonnes per hectare should be applied and mixed well with the soil. #### ***Planting *** ##### Direct: Seeds are drilled in rows 30cm apart and 8cm within the rows. 20kg/ha of DSP fertilizer is used. Indirect: Seeds are established in the nurseries before transplanting them in rows 30cm apart and 8 cm within the rows. Shallow planting is recommended for bulb expansion. #### ***Field Management Practices*** ***Thinning *** ##### It is carried out only in the crop that has been directly planted so as to achieve spacing of 8cm between two plants within the row. The thinned plants referred to as spring onions are used as vegetables in salads. #### ***Topdressing *** ##### Calcium ammonium nitrate at the rate of 250kg per hectare is recommended for topdressing onions. This is done 3 months after planting. #### **Pest Control ** ##### ***Onion Thrips: *** These cause silvering and withering of leaves from the tips downwards. They are controlled by spraying with appropriate insecticides such as Diazinon or ***fenthion. *** #### ***Disease Control *** ##### ***Purple Blotch and Downey Mildew *** #### **Purple blotch; ** ##### Characterized by oval greyish lesions with purple centres on leaves. This causes leaf curling and die back. #### **Downey mildew; ** ##### Characterized by brown spores covering the leaves leading to death of the whole plant. 35 ----- ##### The two diseases are effectively controlled by crop rotation and application of appropriate fungicides. #### ***Harvesting and Marketing *** ##### Onions are ready for harvesting 5 months after planting. When leaves start drying the tops are broken or bent at the neck. This hastens the withering of the stems. The bulbs are then dug out and left to dry in a shade for a few days. . Onions are graded according to size and marketed in nets of about 14 -16kgs # **Livestock Health I** ### **Introduction to Livestock Health** # **( ) ** #### Introduction ##### Health is the state of the body in which all the organs and systems are normal and functioning normally. Disease is any deviation from the normal health of the animal. #### **Importance of Keeping Livestock Healthy: ** ##### Healthy animals give high income due to low treatment costs. The productive life span of a healthy animal is longer. High production. Healthy animals can multiply regularly. Healthy animals give high quality products for example eggs. Safety of consumers of livestock products. #### ***Predisposing Factors to Livestock Diseases *** ##### These are conditions within or around the animal that make it easy for an animal to contract a disease. *** They include: *** Animal factors such as; species, breed, age, sex colour of the animal. Environmental factors such as; chilling, 36 ----- ##### being rained on, exposure to hot sun dampness. Management factors such as; poor feeding, housing, handling hygiene, overcrowding . #### ***Signs of ILL-Health in Livestock *** ##### Abnormal behaviour for example separation from the rest of the herd and restlessness. Abnormal posture for example limping and lameness. Alimentary canal disfunction such as blood stained faeces and abnormal defecation, diarrhoea and dysentery. Urination: high frequency or too low and having strange colour. Skin: rough with scaly skin, blisters on the skin and hair loss. #### ***Causes of Diseases *** ##### Pathogenic causes ; viruses, rickettsia, bacteria, protozoa . fungi Physical causes; fractures, dislocation, sprains . Nutritional disorders for example milk fever. Chemical causes for example poisoning by agrochemicals. #### ***Categories of Diseases *** ##### Notifiable diseases ; These are diseases which cause high economic losses. Any case should be reported to the Chiefs, D.O.s, veterinary officers or the police. Tick-borne diseases - Transmitted by ticks. Breeding diseases - Transmitted through mating. Nutritional diseases for example milk fever and bloat. Parasitic diseases for example ascariosis. #### ***General Methods of Disease Control *** ##### Quarantine. Vaccination. 37 ----- ##### Control of vectors by use of acaricides and rotational grazing. Disinfecting the equipment and buildings. Use of preventive drugs. Proper feeding of livestock. Culling of the animals which are carriers/slaughtering the affected animals. Use of artificial insemination to control breeding diseases. Proper selection and breeding of animals. Proper housing and hygiene, Isolating sick animals. #### ***Appropriate Methods of Handling Livestock *** ##### *** Animals are handled for the following reasons: *** When inspecting the animal to ascertain any abnormality or signs of diseases. When administering any form of treatment such as drenching, injection and mastitis control. When spraying or hand dressing the animal with chemicals to control external parasites. When milking the animal. When performing some of the management practices such as dehorning, disbudding, castration, hoof trimming . #### *When carrying out these activities animals should be restrained in a crush. * ##### Other methods of restraining animals include the use of; halters, ropes, bull ring lead stick. # **Livestock Health II (Parasites) ** #### **Introduction ** ##### A parasite is an organism which obtains its livelihood from another organism (host) which suffers damage. Parasitism is the association between a parasite and a host. #### **The effects of parasite on the host animal are: ** ##### Depriving the host of its food. Sucking blood. 38 ----- ##### Damaging the organs of the host. Cause irritation on the skin of the host. Destruction of hides and skins. Transmission of diseases. Cause obstruction in body passages. #### ***General Symptoms of Parasites Infestation: *** ##### Emaciation. Pot bellied condition. Swellings in the jaw or other areas. Rough hair or rough coat. Anaemia. Diarrhoea. Presence of worm segments and blood stains in the defecation. #### ***Types of Parasites *** ##### There are two types of parasites: External (ecto-parasites) Internal (endo-parasites) ***External parasites are; *** ticks, tsetse flies, mites, lice, fleas keds #### ***Life Cycle of ticks *** ##### Eggs are laid in cracks on the ground. They hatch in 4-6 weeks into larvae which climb on the grass waiting for a passing animal. #### ***-*** ***One Host Tick*** ##### This requires one host to complete its life cycle. Example: blue tick (Boophilus decoloratus ). Preferred sites: face, neck, dewlap and side of the body. Disease transmitted: Redwater and anaplasmosis. #### ***Two-Host Tick *** ##### This requires two different hosts to complete its life cycle. Example : The red legged tick (Rhipicephalus everts) Preferred sites: Ears, anus, udder and the tail. Disease transmitted: Redwater and east coast fever. Example: Bont legged tick (amblyomma spp.) Preferred sites: Udder, scrotum and tail switch. Disease transmitted: Sweating sickness. #### ***Three-Host Tick *** ##### This requires three hosts to complete its life cycle. Example: The brown ear tick ( Rhipicephalus appendiculatus) Preferred sites: Ears, tail switch and around the eyes. Disease transmitted: East coast fever and redwater. Bont tick transmit heartwater ( amblyomma spp.) 39 ----- #### ***Control of Ticks *** ##### Dipping/spraying/hand dressing with acaricides. Rotational grazing. Ploughing the land to break the life cycle. Hand picking and killing. Fencing of the grazing fields to keep off other animals including wild game. Burning of grass to kill them in various stages. #### ***Endo-*** ***parasites (internal Parasites) *** ##### Endoparasites are helminths. *** They can be divided into: *** Platyhelminthes/flatworms which include; Trematodes (flukes) Cestodes (tapeworms). Nemato-helminthes/nematodes. E.g Roundworms. #### ***General Symptoms of Helminthiasis *** ##### Diarrhoea which foul the anal and tail region. Dullness. Anaemia. Big stomach (pot bellied condition). Presence of worm segments in faeces. Coughing. #### ***Trematodes (Liver Fluke) *** ##### There are two species of flukes: Fasciola gigantica Fasciola hepatica . Fasciola hepatica is more common. It is commonly found in the liver and bile duct of cattle, sheep and goats. Liver fluke is a problem in marshy and low lying wet areas. #### ***Life Cycle of the Liver Fluke *** ##### Adult fluke in the liver of the primary host lays eggs. Eggs pass through the bile duct into the small intestines and are passed out in faeces onto the pasture. Under moist conditions, they hatch into a miracidium larva which swims about in search of a secondary host (fresh water snails ). In the snail, it develops through sporocyst, redia and cercaria . When it leaves the snail, the cercaria gets encysted on vegetation and becomes **metacercaria. ** This is swallowed by the primary host with grass. The young fluke migrates into the liver through blood vessels when it matures. 40 ----- #### ***Control of Liver Fluke *** ##### Keep livestock off marshy areas near the rivers/streams/lakes and dams. Drench affected animals. Drainage of swampy areas. Eradicate the intermediate host by use of molluscicides. Provide water to livestock in elevated troughs. #### ***Tapeworms *** ##### There are many species of tapeworms Eexample; Taenia solium Taenia saginata. The adults live in the small intestines of man (the primary host). #### The intermediate host of Taenia solium is pig . The intermediate host of Taenia saginata is cattle. ***Life Cycle of Tapeworm *** ##### Adult tapeworms live in man's intestines where it lays eggs. Eggs are passed out with faeces, #### Then they develop an outer covering known as onchosphere. ##### The eggs are swallowed by intermediate host. The outer covering is digested and the young worm emerges. This bores into the blood vessels and is carried to specific muscles such as the tongue, heart, thigh muscles. #### It develops into an encysted form called bladder-worm. ##### When the animal is killed and meat is eaten raw or in an inadequately cooked form, man gets infected by the bladder-worm. In man, the bladder-worm evaginates and attaches itself onto the intestinal wall where it develops into an adult. #### ***Control of Tapeworms *** ##### Meat should be well cooked before eating. Use of drugs in primary host. Meat inspection by meat inspectors/ veterinary officers. Use of pit latrines by man. #### ***oundwo*** ***Nematodes (R rms) *** ##### Common ones are; Ascaris suum (pig roundworms), Ascaris lumbricoides found in man and sheep Haemonchus contortus found in sheep, cattle and goats. Roundworms are common in warm areas especially in areas where the standards of hygiene and sanitation are low. 41 ----- #### ***Nature of Damage *** ##### Damage is done to the liver and lung tissues as they migrate in the body. Suck out blood. Deprive the host of food. #### ***Control of Roundworms *** ##### Use of drugs. Rotational grazing. Use of proper stocking rates to avoid overgrazing. Practicing high standards of cleanliness and hygiene such as use of latrines. # **Livestock Production II (Nutrition) ** #### **Introduction ** ##### Animals are fed for the purpose of production and body maintenance. The edible material given to animals is called food. It is digested, absorbed and utilized in the body. Nutrients are organic and inorganic substances contained in the food materials. #### Components of Food material ##### water, protein, carbohydrates, fats and oils, vitamins mineral salts. #### ***Water *** Sources ##### Free water (through drinking) Bound water (contained in feeds). Metabolic water (obtained from oxidation of food). #### ***Functions *** ##### Regulates body temperature. Transport agent in the body. Universal solvent in the body. Gives shape to the cells (turgidity). 42 ----- ##### Acts as a lubricant. Acts as constituent of body fluids. #### ***Factors Determining the Requirements of Water by Livestock *** ##### Production level. Amount of dry matter eaten. Temperature of the surrounding area. Type of animal. Type of food eaten. #### ***Protein *** *Sources: * ##### Groundnut cakes, cotton seed cakes, fish meal, meat meal. #### ***Functions: *** ##### Growth of new tissues. Repair of worn out tissues (body building). Synthesis of antibodies. Synthesis of hormones and enzymes. Production of energy during starvation. #### ***Digestion of Proteins *** ##### ***In non-ruminants, protein digestion takes placed in the stomach. *** Food is subjected to mechanical breakdown through chewing into small particles. Protein is acted on by enzymes to turn into amino acid which is assimilated into the bloodstream. ***In ruminants, protein digestion initially takes place in the rumen. *** Food is acted on by micro-organisms into microbial protein. #### Later, enzymatic action takes place in the "true stomach" or abomasum where ##### proteins are broken down into amino acids which are then assimilated into the bloodstream. #### ***Carbohydrates *** ***Sources: *** ##### Cereals, tubers commercially mixed feeds. #### ***Functions: *** ##### . Supply energy and heat to the body Excess is stored in form of fat for insulation of the body. 43 ----- #### ***Digestion of Carbohydrates *** ##### In non-ruminants; carbohydrate feeds are broken down by chewing into small particles. Then enzymatic action further breaks down carbohydrates into glucose, fructose and galactose which are then assimilated into the bloodstream. In ruminants; mechanical breakdown of carbohydrate feeds is followed by microbial activities which break down cellulose into volatile fatty acids. These are absorbed through the rumen walls. Some carbohydrates are broken down by enzymatic action in the "true stomach" or abomasum. #### ***Fats and Oils *** *Sources: * ##### Cotton seeds, soya beans groundnuts. #### ***Functions: *** ##### Supply energy and heat to the body. Excess is stored as fat adipose tissues. Source of metabolic water in the body. Required for the development of neural system. Insulator in the body. #### ***Digestion of lipids in Ruminants *** ##### Fats are hydrolysed in the rumen into fatty acids and glycerol. Others are fermented into propionic acid, The shorter chains are passed to the true stomach where enzymatic action takes place. #### ***Vitamins *** ***Sources: *** ##### Green materials, dried grass fish liver oil. #### **Functions: ** ##### Protects the body against diseases. . Regulate the functions of all parts of the body It acts as a co-enzyme in the body. #### : Examples ##### Vitamin A, vitamin B2 vitamin C, 44 ----- ##### vitamin E vitamin K. #### *** Minerals *** Sources : ##### Salt licks, bone meal, legumes cereals. #### ***Functions: *** ##### Form part of the tissues such as bones and teeth. Work together with the enzymes. Act as acid -base balances. Act as electrolyte in the body. Regulate osmotic balance in the body. #### **: ** **Examples** ##### Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, iodine, sodium chlorine. Calcium and phosphorus - Needed for teeth and bone formation. #### Lack of these minerals leads to rickets, osteomalacia . Lack of iron leads to anaemia. ***Classification of Animal Feeds *** ##### ***This is based on nutrient composition: *** Roughages. Concentrates. Feed additives. #### ***Roughages *** ##### Are feeds of low available nutrients per unit weight and high fibre content. #### *** Examples: *** ##### Dry roughages, succulent roughages, residues from agricultural by products and conserved materials. 45 ----- #### ***Characteristics*** ##### Low level of available nutrients. Have high level of calcium especially legumes. Good source of vitamin A. Have high fibre content. #### ***Concentrates *** ##### Are feeds of high available nutrients per unit weight. *** Examples: *** Maize germ and bran, malt extract, milk products, soyabeans, oil seed cakes, meat meal, bonemeal bloodmeal. #### ***Characteristics *** ##### Low fibre content. Feed content is consistently high. Hi . gh digestibility of the feed . High in nutrient content #### ***Feed Additives *** ##### *** These are substances added to the feed to increase; *** palatability, medication or hormones to make animals produce more. There are two types: Nutritive additives, such as mineral licks (maclick). Non-nutritives additives, such as; medicants (coccidiostats), Stilboestrol (used in beef animals) oxytocin (to increase milk let down). #### ***Functions *** ##### Stimulate growth and production. Improve feed efficiency. . Prevent disease causing organisms #### ***Compounded Feeds *** ##### These are the feeds prepared and mixed by use of machines. These feeds can be round, pelleted, pencils, cubes or mash. #### **Poultry feeds can be categorized as: ** ##### Chick mash having 20% D.C.P. given to chicks. 46 ----- ##### Growers mash having 16% D.C.P. given to growers. Layers mash having 12-15% D.C.P. given to layers. #### **Meaning of terms used to express feed values** ##### Nutritive ratio (NR): Is the proportion of protein to carbohydrates and fats. In young animals 1:3:6 In old animals 1:8. #### Crude protein (C.P): Is the total amount of protein contained in a feed. Digestible Crude Protein (D.C.P): Is the portion of crude protein which an animal ##### is capable of digesting. #### .F. : **Crude Fibre (C )** ##### Is the total amount of fibre contained in a feed. It is mainly lignin and cellulose. #### Digestible Fibre (D.F.) : Is the portion of the total fibre contained in a feed which ##### an animal is capable of digesting. #### Dry Matter (D.M.): Is the material left in a feed after water has been removed. Starch equivalent (S.E.): Is the amount of pure starch which has the same energy ##### . as 100kg of that feed #### Total Digestible Nutrients (T.D.N.): Is the sum of all the digestible organic ##### nutrients such as fats, proteins, carbohydrates and fibre. #### ***Computation of Livestock Rations *** Ration: ##### Is the amount of food that will provide essential nutrients to an animal in a 24 hour period to enable that animal to meet its maintenance and production requirements. #### Balanced ration: ##### Is the ration that contains all the essential nutrients in required amounts and in the right proportion. #### Maintenance ration: ##### is the portion of a feed required by an animal to continue with the vital body . processes with no loss or gain in weight #### Production ration: ##### Is the feed required by animals over and above maintenance ration to enable the animal to produce; for example; milk, eggs, wool, grow in size, perform work, reproduce and fatten. #### ***Steps in ration formulation *** ##### Finding out the animal's feed requirement based on body weight. List all the available feeds, with their nutrient composition and their prices. . Calculate the amount of ingredients required in the ration to meet the animals needs 47 ----- #### ** Methods used in ration formulation ** ##### Trial and error method Pearsons square method Graphical method Linear programming(use of computers) #### **Examples; ** ##### Mix a Pigs ration 22% protein using soya bean meal 40% DCP and maize meal containing 8%DCP. Soya bean meal ( 14 *100)=43.75kg #### 32 Maize meal ( 18 *100=56.25kg 32 **Digestion and digestive systems ** ##### Digestion is the process through which food is broken down into small particles in the alimentary canal ready for absorption into the blood stream. ***Digestion of food in livestock takes place in three stages; *** Mechanical breakdown and chewing Microbial breakdown by bacteria and protozoa in the rumen of ruminants Chemical breakdown by enzymes. 48 ----- #### **Rumen- ** ##### Breakdown of food by micro-organisms and also stores food. Synthesis of vitamin B-complex. Synthesis of amino acids from ammonia gas. Proteins are broken to peptides and amino acids. Carbohydrates are broken to volatile fatty acids. #### ** Reticulum:** ##### Separates large food particles from the small particles. Retains foreign materials such as stones, hard wood and sand. #### ** Omasum:** ##### Breaks up food by grinding. Reduction of water content from the feed stuff. #### ** Abomasum: ** ##### Enzymatic digestion takes place here .. Contains some microbes which digest cellulose. Breaks up food by grinding. It is also found in non-ruminants. 49 ----- #### ***Comparison Between Digestion in Ruminant and Non-*** ***ruminants *** |Differences|Col2| |---|---| |Ruminants|Non -ruminants| | Chew the cud. Have four stomach chambers-thus polygastric. Regurgitate food. Can digest cellulose. Have micro-organisms in the rumen that digest cellulose. 5. Have no Ptyalin in saliva hence no enzymatic digestion in the mouth. Most digestion and absorption takes place in the rumen. Have alkaline saliva due to presence of ammonia. | Do not chew the cud. Have one stomach chamber - thus monogastric. Cannot regurgitate food once swallowed. Have no micro-organisms in the stomach hence cannot digest cellulose except those animals with micro-organisms in the caecum. Have Ptyalin in the saliva hence enzymatic digestion starts in the mouth Most digestion and absorption takes in the small intestines. The saliva is neutral pH.| 50 ----- #### ***Functions of the Parts of Poultry *** Crop: ##### Storage of food. Softening of food by secretions from small glands in the walls. #### Proventriculus: Enzymes start the breakdown of food. Gizzard :- Crushes and grinds the coarse food (has small grit and gravel). **Comparison Between Digestion In Ruminants and Non-Ruminants ** **Similarities Between Digestion In Ruminants and Non-Ruminants ** ##### Digestion in young ruminants is similar to that in non-ruminants as they do not have a developed rumen-reticulum complex. . Final protein digestion takes place in the small intestines in both cases Water absorption takes place in the colon in both ruminants and non ruminants 51 ----- |
**FORM ONE BIOLOGY** ***By the end of form one work, the learner should be able*** ***to:***<br><br>***Define***Biology ***List***the branches of Biology ***Explain***the importance of Biology ***State***and***explain***some of the characteristics of organisms ***State***and***explain***some of the general characteristics of organisms ***Explain***the external features of plants and animals ***Write down***the***difference***between plants and animals ***Define***classification Use the magnifying lens to***observe***the external features of plants/ animals ***Record***observations of the main external features of plant leaf form ***Draw***different types of leaf forms ***Observe***,***record***and***draw***the main external features of plants ***Observe***,***record***and***draw***the main external features of animals ***State t***he necessity and significance of classification ***Name t***he major units of classification Name the five kingdoms of living things List the taxonomic units in plant and animal kingdoms Classify maize and human beings Define Binomial nomenclature State the principles of Binomial nomenclature In naming organisms Use collecting nets, cutting instructions instruments and hand lens Preserve collected specimen Observe and group collected and preserved specimen according to their similarities Define a cell Draw and label the light microscope Identify parts of the light microscope and state their functions Describe how to care for a light microscope Describe how a light microscope is used Draw and label plant and animal cells as seen under a light microscope Calculate the magnification of objects as seen under a light microscope Observe a prepared slide under a light microscope Prepare temporary slide of onion epidermis and observe it under a light microscope Draw and label plant and animal cells as seen under electron microscope Describe the structure and function of the cell Cell membrane Cytoplasm <br><br> Describe the structure and function of the cell organelles Estimate the size of a cell as seen in the field of view of a microscope Write down the differences between plants and animal cells Write down similarities between plant and animal cells List down specialized plant and animal cells State the modifications and functions of specialized cells Define tissues, organs and organ systems Give examples of tissues organs and organ systems Define the term cell physiology Describe the structure and properties of cell membrane Define diffusion Carry out experiments to demonstrate <br><br> diffusion in liquids diffusion in gasses <br><br> Explain the factors affecting diffusion Explain the role of diffusion in living things Define osmosis Describe movement of water molecules across semi-permeable membrane define and describe the terms used in the study of osmosis such as: <br><br> Osmotic pressure Osmotic potential Isotonic solution Hypertonic solution Hypotonic solution Turgor pressure Hemolysis Wall pressure Plasmolysis Deplasmolysis carry out an experiment on selective permeability of membrane State factors affecting osmosis Explain the role of osmosis in organisms Explain the factors affecting osmosis Describe what happens when a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic, hypotonic or <br><br>isotonic solution <br><br> Carry out an experiment to show plasmolysis in epidermal cells of an onion bulb Describe osmosis of animal cells in a hypertonic solution List down factors affecting active transport Define active transport Define the role of active transport in living things Define nutrition Write down the importance of nutrition List down the modes of feeding in organisms Draw and label the external structure of a leaf Draw and label the internal structure of the leaf Name the parts of a leaf State the functions of the parts of a leaf Define photosynthesis Draw and label the chloroplast Describe the process of photosynthesis List down the importance of photosynthesis Explain some of the factors influencing photosynthesis Explain the factors affecting photosynthesis Explain how the leaf is adapted to the process of photosynthesis Test the presence of starch in a green leaf Investigate whether chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis Investigate whether light is necessary for photosynthesis carry out an experiment to investigate whether <br><br> Carbon (IV) oxide is necessary for photosynthesis <br><br> Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis <br><br> Define Chemicals of life List down types of carbohydrates Write down properties and functions of monosaccharaides Define disaccharides List properties and functions of disaccharides Define hydrolysis and condensation Define polysaccharides and lipids Write down the properties of polysaccharides and lipids carry out tests on Starch Reducing sugars Non-reducing sugar Lipids Proteins Vitamin c <br><br> Write down the properties and functions of proteins Distinguish between carbohydrates, proteins and lipids Define enzymes Write down the properties and functions of enzymes Know the naming of the enzymes and their substrates Explain the importance of enzymes carry out an experiment on Effect of temperature on enzymes Effects of enzyme concentration on the rate of a reaction Effect of PH on enzyme activities <br><br> Define hetetrophism List down the different modes of heterotrophism and describe them Define dentition Draw and label different types of teeth Describe the structure of a tooth Identify different types of teeth Describe the adaptations of the teeth to their functions Define dental formulae Describe and write down the dental formulae of herbivore carnivore and omnivore <br><br> Write down the definition of herbivores, carnivores and omnivores Explain the adaptations of dental formulae in various groups of animals, to their <br><br>mode of feeding Draw and label the internal structure of different types of teeth Write down the functions of the different parts of the internal structure of teeth Name and discuss common dental diseases Write down the adaptations of herbivores to their mode of feeding Write down the adaptations of carnivores to their modes of feeding Identify various organs associated with the digestive system of a rabbit Draw and label parts of the human digestive system Describe the regions of the alimentary canal of human digestive system Explain the functions of the human digestive system Describe the various regions of the human alimentary canal and their functions Describe how the ileum is adapted to its function Analyze the food content in the alimentary canal of a herbivore Carry out an experiment on the breakdown of starch by diastase enzymes Describe how the ileum is farther adapted to its functions Explain the end products of the digestion of various food Explain the function of the colon Explain the process of assimilation of food substances Write down the summary of chemical digestion in alimentary canal Write down the importance of vitamins in human nutrition Write down the sources of vitamins State deficiency diseases of various vitamins Write down the importance of mineral salts in human nutrition State the source of mineral salts State the deficiency diseases of mineral salts **Introduction To Biology** Biology derived from Greek words-BIOS meaning LIFE and LOGOS meaning STUDY or <br><br>KNOWLEDGE. <br><br> Biology means "life knowledge". It is the study of living things/organisms. <br><br>***Branches of Biology***<br><br> Botany - study of plants. Zoology - study of animals. Microbiology - study' of microscopic organisms. Morphology - study of external structure of organisms. Anatomy - study of internal structure of organisms. Physiology - study of the functioning or working of the cells or body. Biochemistry - study of the chemistry of materials in living organisms. Cytology - study of cells. Genetics - study of inheritance. Ecology- study of the relationship between organisms and their environment. Taxonomy - sorting out of organisms into groups. Histology - study of fine structure of tissues. Virology - study of viruses. Bacteriology - study of bacteria. Entomology - study of insects. Ichthyology - study of fish. <br><br>***Importance of Biology***<br><br> One learns about the functioning of the human body. One understands the developmental changes that take place in the body. It contributes immensely to improved life. It enables one to enter careers such as: <br><br> Medicine, Nutrition, Public Health, Dentistry, Agriculture Environmental Studies. Teaching ***Characteristics of Living Things*** ***Life defined through observations of activities carried out by living things;***<br><br>**Nutrition **<br><br> Nutrition is the processes by which food/nutrients are acquired/made and <br><br>utilized by living organisms. <br><br> Green plants and certain bacteria make their own food. All other organisms feed on complex organic materials. <br><br>**Respiration **<br><br> This is the breakdown of food to provide energy. The energy released is used for various activities in the organism. <br><br>**Gaseous Exchange **Process throw which respiratory gases(CO2&O2) are taken in and <br><br>out through a respiratory surface. <br><br>**Excretion **<br><br> Excretion is the removal of metabolic wastes from the body. Substances like urea, carbon dioxide (Carbon (IV) oxide). These substances are poisonous if allowed to accumulate in the body. <br><br>**Growth and Development **<br><br> Growth means irreversible change in size. All organisms increase in size that is, they grow. Development is irreversible change in complexity. As they do so, they also become differentiated in form. <br><br>**Reproduction-**Reproduction is the formation of new individuals of a species to <br><br>ensure continued existence of a species and growth of its population. **Irritability **<br><br> The ability of organisms to detect and respond to changes in the environment. <br><br>This is of great survival value to the organism. <br><br>**Movement **<br><br> Is the progressive change in position from one place to another. Some organisms are sessile (i.e. fixed to the substratum). The majority of plants move only certain parts. <br><br>***Collection and Observation of Organisms*** Biology as a practical subject is learnt through humane handling of organisms. Materials needed for collection of organisms:- <br><br> Knives to cut portions of plant stem/root or uproot. Polythene bags to put the collected plant or specimens. Insect collecting jars. Insect killing jars. Hand gloves. Sweep nets Pooters Traps <br><br>***Observation of Organisms***<br><br> Observe the plant/animal in its natural habitat before collecting. What does it feed on? <br><br>Identify the exact place -on surface, under rock, on tree trunk, on branches. How does it interact with other animals and the environment? How many of that kind of plant or animal are in a particular place? Plant specimens placed on the bench and sorted out into;- <br><br>***seeds/stems/roots/leaves/fruits.***<br><br> Animal specimens may be left inside polythene bags if transparent. Others (killed ones) are put in petri dishes. Use hand lens to observe the external features of small animals. <br><br>***Presenting the Results of Observations***<br><br> Organisms are observed and important features noted down: colour, texture hard or <br><br>soft; if hairy or not. Size is measured or estimated. **Biological Drawings**- It is necessary to draw some of the organisms. In making a biological drawing, magnification (enlargement) is noted. Indicate the magnification of your drawing. i.e how many times the drawing is larger/smaller than the actual specimen <br><br>MG=length of drawing/length specimen <br><br>***How to Draw***<br><br> Several drawings of one organism may be necessary to represent all features <br><br>observed, e.g. <br><br> Anterior view of grasshopper shows all mouth parts properly, but not all limbs. Lateral (side) view shows all the legs. ***Collection, Observation and Recording of Organisms*** ***Collection***<br><br> Plants and animals collected from the environment, near school or within school <br><br>compound using nets, bottles and gloves. <br><br> Animals collected include:-arthropods, earthworms and small vertebrates like <br><br>lizards/chameleons/ rodents. <br><br> Place in polythene bags and take to the laboratory. Stinging/poisonous insects killed using ether. Other animals are observed live and returned to their natural habitat. Plant specimen collected include:- leaves, flowers and whole plants. Observations are made to show the following:- <br><br> Plants have roots, stems, leaves and flowers. Animals have legs, hair, hard outer covering, feathers, eyes, mouth, limbs and <br><br>other appendages, ***The differences between animals and plants collected.***<br><br>***Comparison Between Plants And Animals***<br><br>*Plants* *Animal*<br><br>Plants are fixed in position and do not" move. Most animals move in search of food, shelter and mates. l. l. <br><br>2. Respond slowly to stimuli. <br><br>2. Respond quickly to stimuli. 3. Cells have no cell walls only a cell 4. Animals feed on already made food. <br><br>3. Cells have cellulose cell walls. membrane 4. Plants make their own food from simple <br><br> materials such as CO2 and water using <br><br>light energy. **Classification I**<br><br>***Introduction***<br><br> Classification is putting organisms into groups. Classification is based on the study of external characteristics of organisms. It involves detailed observation of structure and functions of organisms. Organisms with similar characteristics are put in one group. Differences in structure are used to distinguish one group from another. The magnifying lens is an instrument that assists in the observation of fine structure <br><br>e.g. hairs by enlarging them. <br><br><br><br>***Using a Magnifying Lens***<br><br> A specimen is placed on the bench or held by hand, Then the magnifying lens is moved towards the eye until the object is dearly focused <br><br>and an enlarged image is seen. <br><br> The magnification can be worked out as follows: length of the drawing Magnification = length of the specimen <br><br>***Note: magnification has no units.***<br><br>***Nececity/need for Classification***<br><br> To be able to identify organisms into their taxonomic groups. To enable easier and systematic study of organisms. To show evolutionary relationships in organisms. <br><br>***Major Units of Classification (Taxonomic Groups)***<br><br> Taxonomy is the study of the characteristics of organisms for the purpose of <br><br>classifying them. <br><br> The groups are Taxa (singular Taxon). <br><br>***The taxonomic groups include:*** ***Species:***This is the smallest unit of classification. Organisms of the same species resemble each other. The number of chromosomes in their cells is the same. Members of a species interbreed to produce fertile offspring. <br><br>***Genus (plural genera**):*A genus is made up of a number of species that share several characteristics. Members of a genus cannot interbreed and if they do, the offspring are infertile. <br><br>***Family:***A family is made up of a number of genera that share several characteristics. ***Order***: A number of families with common characteristics make an order. **Class**: Orders that share a number of characteristics make up a class. ***Phylum/Division:***A number of classes with similar characteristics make up a <br><br>phylum (plural phyla) in animals. In plants this is called a division. <br><br>***Kingdom:***This is made up of several phyla (in animals) or divisions (in plants). It is <br><br>the largest taxonomic unit in classification. <br><br>***Kingdoms*** Living organisms are classified into five kingdoms; <br><br> Monera, Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae Animalia. ***Kingdom Fungi***<br><br> Some are unicellular while others are multicellular. They have no chlorophyll. Most are saprophytic e.g. yeasts, moulds and mushrooms. A few are parasitic e.g.***Puccinia graminae.***<br><br><br><br>***Kingdom Monera (Prokaryota)***<br><br> These are very small unicellular organisms. They lack a nuclear membrane do not have any bound membrane organelles. Hence the name Prokaryota. They are mainly bacteria, e.g.***Vibrio cholerae**.*<br><br>***Kingdom Protoctista***<br><br> They are unicellular organisms. Their nucleus and organelles are surrounded by membranes (eukaryotic). They include algae, slime moulds - fungi-like and protozoa <br><br><br><br>***Kingdom Plantae***<br><br> They are all multicellular. They contain chlorophyll and are all autotrophic. They include; Bryophyta (mossplant), Pteridophyta (ferns) and Spermatophyta (seed <br><br>bearing plants). <br><br>***Kingdom Animalia***<br><br> These are all multicellular and heterotrophic. Examples are annelida (earthworms), mollusca (snails),athropoda, chordata . Example of Arthropods are ticks, butterflies. Members of Chordata are fish, frogs and humans. <br><br>***External Features of Organisms***<br><br>***In plants we should look for:-***<br><br> Spore capsule and rhizoids in moss plants. Sori and fronds in ferns. Stem, leaves, roots, flowers, fruits and seeds in plants. <br><br>***In animals, some important features to look for are:***<br><br> Segmentation, presence of limbs and, number of body parts, presence and number <br><br>of antennae. These are found in phylum arthropoda: <br><br> Visceral clefts, notochord, nerve tube, fur or hair, scales, fins, mammary glands, <br><br>feathers and wings. <br><br> These are found in chordata. <br><br>***Binomial Nomenclature***<br><br> Organisms are known by their local names. Scientists use scientific names to be able to communicate easily among themselves. This method of naming uses two names, and is called Binomial nomenclature. The first name is the name of the genus: (generic name) which starts with a capital <br><br>letter. <br><br> The second name is the name of the species (specific name) which starts with a small <br><br>letter. <br><br> The two names are underlined or written in italics. Man belongs to the genus*Homo,*and the species,*sapiens.* The scientific name of man is therefore*Homo sapiens.* Maize belongs to the genus*Zea,*and the species*mays.* The scientific name of maize is*Zea mays.* ***Practical Activities***<br><br> Use of Collecting Nets, Cutting Instruments and Hand Lens. Forceps are used to collect crawling and slow moving animals. Sweep nets are used to catch flying insects. Cutting instrument like scapel is used to cut specimen e.g. making sections. Hand lens is used to magnify small plants and animals. Drawing of the magnified organism are made and the linear magnification of each <br><br>calculated. <br><br>***Collection and Detailed Observation of Small Plants and Animals*** ***e.g. moss, ferns, bean.***<br><br>Look for the following: Moss plants: Rhizoids and spore capsules. Fern plants: Rhizomes with adventitious roots; large leaves (fronds) with Sori <br><br>(clusters of sporangia). <br><br> Seed plants: Tree/shrub (woody) or non-woody (herbs) e.g. bean. Root system - fibrous, adventitious and tap root. Stem - position and length of interrnodes. Type of leaves - simple or compound; arranged as alternate, opposite or whorled. Flower - colour, number of parts, size and relative position of each: Fruits - freshy or dry; edible or not edible. Seeds - monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous. <br><br>**Small animals e.g. earthworms, tick, grasshopper, butterfly, beetles.** Observe these animals to see: <br><br> Number of legs. Presence or absence of wings. Number of antennae. Body covering. Body parts. ***THE CELL***<br><br>***Introduction***<br><br> The cell is the basic unit of an organism. All living organisms are made up of cells. Some organisms are made up of one cell and others are said to be multicellular. Other organisms are made of many cells and are said to be multicellular. Cells are too little to see with the naked eye. They can only be seen with the aid of a microscope. <br><br>***The microscope*** The microscope is used to magnify objects. ***Magnification***<br><br> The magnifying power is usually inscribed on the lens. To find out how many times a specimen is magnified, the magnifying power of the <br><br>objective lens is multiplied by that of the eye piece lens. If the eye piece magnification lens is x10 and the objective lens is x4, the total magnification is x40. <br><br> <br><br> Magnification has no units. It should always have the multiplication sign.e.g.x40 <br><br>**Microscope parts and their functions**<br><br>*Parts* *Function(s)*<br><br>Has a lens which contributes to the magnification of the object under view. Moves the body tube up and down for long distances and it brings the image into focus. <br><br>Eye piece Coarse adjustment knob Fine adjustment knob Moves the body tube and brings the image into fine focus. Body tube <br><br>Holds the eye piece and the revolving nose piece. It directs light from objective lenses to the eye piece lens. Ji <br><br>Revolving nose piece Holds and brings objective lenses into position. Contributes to the magnification of the object. Objective lens It is for handling the microscope and also tilting it. Arm/limb Is the flat platform onto which the slide with the object is placed. Stage They hold the slide firmly onto the stage. Clips Concentrates light onto the object. Condenser ~egulates the amount of light passing through the object. Diaphragm Reflects light into the condenser. Mirror Fixes the arm to the base and allows for tilting of the arm. Hinge screw Provides support to the microscope. Base/stand <br><br>***To View the Object***<br><br> Turn the low power objective lens until it clicks into position. Looking through the eye piece, ensure that enough light is passing through by <br><br>adjusting the mirror. <br><br> This is indicated by a bright circular area known as the field of view. Place the slide containing the specimen on stage and clip it into position. Make sure that the specimen is in the centre of the field of view. Using the coarse adjustment knob, bring the low power objective lens to the lowest <br><br>point. <br><br> Turn the knob gently until the specimen comes into focus. If finer details are required, use the fine adjustment knob. When using high power objective always move the fine adjustment knob upwards. <br><br>***Care of a Microscope***<br><br> Great care should be taken when handling it. Keep it away from the edge of the bench when using it. Always hold it with both hands when moving it in the laboratory. Clean the lenses with special lens cleaning paper. Make sure that the low power objective clicks in position in line with eye piece lens <br><br>before and after use. <br><br> Store the microscope in a dust-proof place free of moisture. <br><br>***Cell Structure as Seen Through the Light Microscope***<br><br><br><br>***The cell as seen above has the following:*** ***Cell membrane (Plasma membrane):***<br><br> This is a thin membrane enclosing cell contents. It controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell. <br><br>***Cytoplasm***: <br><br> This is a jelly-like substance in which chemical processes are carried out. Scattered all over the cytoplasm are small structures called organelles. Like an animal cell, the plant cell has a cell membrane, cytoplasm and a nucleus. <br><br>***vacuole.***<br><br> Plant cells have permanent, central**vacuole.**It contains cell sap where sugars and <br><br>salts are stored. <br><br>***Cell wall:***<br><br> This is the outermost boundary of a plant cell. Between the cells is a middle lamella made of calcium pectate. <br><br>It is made of cellulose. <br><br>***Chloroplasts;***<br><br> With special staining techniques it is possible to observe**chloroplasts.** These are structures which contain chlorophyll, the green pigment responsible for <br><br>trapping light for photosynthesis. <br><br>***The Electron Microscope (EM)***<br><br> Capable of magnifying up to 500,000 times. The specimen is mounted in vacuum chamber through which an electron beam is <br><br>directed. <br><br> The image is projected on to a photographic plate. The major**disadvantage**of the electron microscope is that it**cannot be used to**<br><br>**observe living objects**. <br><br> However, it provides a**higher magnification**and**resolution**(ability to see close points as separate) than the light microscope so that specimen can be observed in more detail. <br><br>***Cell Structure as Seen Through Electron Microscope***<br><br> <br><br>***The Plasma Membrane***<br><br> Under the electron microscope, the plasma membrane is seen as a double layer. This consists of a lipid layer sandwiched between two protein layers. This arrangement is known as the unit membrane and the shows two lipid layers with <br><br>proteins within. <br><br> Substances are transported across the membrane by active transport and diffusion. <br><br>***The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)***<br><br> This is a network of tubular structures extending throughout the cytoplasm of the <br><br>cell. It serves as a network of pathways through which materials are transported from one part of the cell to the other. <br><br> <br><br> An ER encrusted with ribosomes it is referred to as**rough endoplasmic reticulum**. An ER that lacks ribosomes is referred to as**smooth endoplasmic reticulum.** The rough endoplasmic reticulum transports**proteins**while the smooth endoplasmic <br><br>reticulum transports**lipids.**<br><br>***The Ribosomes***<br><br> These are small spherical structures attached to the ER. They consist of protein and ribonucleic acid (RNA). They act as sites for the synthesis of proteins. ***Goigi Bodies***<br><br> Golgi bodies are thin, plate-like sacs arranged in stacks and distributed randomly in the <br><br>cytoplasm. <br><br> Their function is packaging and transportation of glycol-proteins. They also produce lysosomes. <br><br>***Mitochondria***<br><br> Each mitochondrion is a rod-shaped organelle. Made up of a smooth outer membrane and a folded inner membrane. The foldings of the inner membrane are called**cristae.** They increase the surface area for respiration. The inner compartments called the matrix. Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, where energy is produced. <br><br>***Lysosomes***<br><br> These are vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes. They are involved in the breakdown of micro-organisms, foreign macromolecules and <br><br>damaged or worn-out cells and organelles .. <br><br>***The Nucleus***<br><br> The nucle s is surrounded by a nuclear membrane which is a unit membrane. The nuclear membrane has pores through which materials can move to the <br><br>surrounding cytoplasm. <br><br> The nucleus contains proteins and nucleic acid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and RNA. The chromosomes are found in the nucleus. They are the carriers of the genetic information of the cell. The nucleolus is also located in the nucleus but it is only visible during the non-dividing phase of <br><br>the cell. ***The Chloroplasts***<br><br> These are found only in photosynthetic cells. Each chloroplast consists of an outer unit. membrane enclosing a series of <br><br>interconnected membranes called lamellae. <br><br> At various points along their length the lamellae form stacks of disc like structures <br><br>called grana. <br><br> The lamellae are embedded in a granular material called the stroma. The chloroplasts are sites of photosynthesis. The light reaction takes place in the lamellae while the dark reactions take place in the <br><br>stroma. ***Comparison between animal cell and plant cell*** ***Animal Cell*** ***Plant Cell*** Has a cell wall and a cell membrane. Nucleus at periphery. Have Has a large central vacuole. chloroplasts. Are usually large. Are regular in shape. Has no centriole. Has cell membrane only. Nucleus at the center. Have no chloroplasts. Has no vacuoles, they are small and scattered. Are usually small. Irregular in shape. Has centrioles. ***Cell Specialisation*** Cells are specialised to perform different functions in both plants and animals. **Example;**<br><br> Palisade cells have many chloroplasts for photosynthesis. Root hair cells are long and thin to absorb water from the soil. Red blood cells have haemoglobin which transports oxygen. Sperm cells have a tail to swim to the egg. Multicellular organisms cells that perform the same function are grouped together to form a tissue. Each tissue is therefore made up of cells that are specialised to carry out a particular function. <br><br>***Animal Tissues- Examples of animal tissues***<br><br> Type of Tissue l. Epithelial Tissue <br><br>Functions Covering. allowing movement of materials Covering of internal organs. lining for Secretion. absorption e.g. in the body cavity. Covering surfaces, protection e.g. the alimentary canal. skin. Absoption e.g. in the kidney tubules. Contraction, bringing about Contract and allow movement. movement of body parts. <br><br>Characteristics <br><br> (a) Squamous (b) Columnar epithelium (c) stratified epithelium epithelium <br><br>Thin flat cells. Cells that are longer than they Several layers of epithelial cells are wide. squamous. cuboidal or (either cube like cells. columnar). Contists of units called Are multicleated; have myofibrils. controlled by voluntary transverse striations; Are spindle-shaped. nervous system. controlled by involuntary mononucleated; contract rhythmically; are nervous system. (ability to contract is within) myogenic Cells that produce hard materials. <br><br> (d) Cuboidal 2. Muscular Tissue (a) Striated epithelium <br><br> voluntary (skeletal or (b) Smooth muscle) involuntary (visceral or muscle) <br><br>3. Supporting Tissue Support the body. provide a rigid <br><br>framework, protect soft tissue. Transport of materials. protection against disease. Receive stimuli and transmit impulses; Consists of cells called co-ordinate body activities <br><br>A complex tissue consisting of three types of cells suspended in a fluid medium (Plasma) neurones which are interconnected axons to enable transmission through of impulses ***Plant Tissues*** ***Example of plant tissues***<br><br>***Type of Tissue*** L*Meristematic*Undergo division and cause growth, e.g. increase in length and girth <br><br>***Functions*** ***Characteristics***<br><br>Small thin-walled celis, contain a lot of cytoplasm; found mostly at the tip of shoots and roots. Thin walled cells; vary in shape and size; many intercellular spaces. Photosynthesis gaseous exchange; support; storage. <br><br>*2. Parenchyma* Thickened walls; no intercellular <br><br>spaces; found in cortex of stems. <br><br>Vary in shape; thick cell walls; are usually dead. Tubular vessels and trancheids joined end to end. Sieve elements joined to each other through sieve pores. *4. Sclerenchyma*Strengthening. <br><br>5.*Vascular* (a) Xylem (b) Phloem Transport materials. Transport of water and mineral Transport of organic materials salts. (manufactured food). <br><br>***Organs***<br><br> An organ is made up of different tissues e.g. the heart, lungs, kidneys and the brain in animals and roots, stems and leaves in <br><br>plants. ***organism*** Different organ systems form an organism. <br><br>***Practical Activities*** Observation and Identification of parts of a light microscope and their functions <br><br> A light microscope is provided. Various parts are identified and observed. Drawing and labelling of the microscope is done. Functions of the parts of the mircroscope are stated. Calculations of total magnification done using the formula. <br><br>**Eye piece lens maginification**x**objective lens rnaginification.**<br><br>***Preparation and Observation of Temporary Slides of Plant Cells***<br><br> A piece of epidermis is made from the fleshy leaf of an onion bulb. It is placed on a <br><br>microscope slide and a drop of water added. <br><br> A drop of iodine is added and a cover slip placed on top. Observations are made, under low and medium power objective. The cell wall and nucleus stain darker than other parts. A labelled drawing is made. The following are noted:**Nucleus, cell wall, cytoplasm and cell membrane.**<br><br>***Observation of permanent slides of animal cells***<br><br> Permanent slides of animal cells are obtained e.g, of cheek cells, nerve cells and <br><br>muscle cells. <br><br> The slide is mounted on the microscope and observations made under low power <br><br>and medium power objectives. Labelled drawings of the cells are made. A comparison between plant and animal cell is made. <br><br>***Observation and Estimation of Cell Size and Calculation of Magnification of*** ***Plant Cells.***<br><br> Using the low power objective, a transparent ruler is placed on the stage of the <br><br>microscope. <br><br> An estimation of the diameter of the field of view is made in millimeters. This is converted into micrometres (1mm=1000u) A prepared slide of onion epidermal cells is mounted. The cells across the centre of the field of view are counted from left and right and <br><br>top to bottom. <br><br> The diameter of field of view is divided by the number of cells lying lengthwise to give <br><br>an estimate of the length and width of each cell. **Cell Physiology**<br><br>***Meaning of cell physiology***<br><br> The term physiology refers to the functions that occur in living organisms. Cell physiology refers to the process through which substances move across the cell <br><br>membrane. <br><br> Several physiological processes take place inside the cell.e.g. respiration. Oxygen and glucose required enter the cell while carbon (IV) oxide and water <br><br>produced leave the cell through the cell membrane. <br><br>***Structure and properties of cell membrane***<br><br> The cell membrane is the protective barrier that shelter cellular contents. Movement of all substances into and out of the cells takes place across the cell <br><br>membrane. It is made up of protein and lipid molecules. Lipid molecules have phosphate group attached to it on one end. They are then referred to phospholipids. The phospholipids are arranged to form a double layer. The ends with phosphate group face outwards. Some of these proteins act as carrier molecules that channel some material in and <br><br>the proteins are scattered throughout the lipid double layer. <br><br>outside the cells. <br><br> The cell membrane allows certain molecules to pass through freely while others <br><br>move through with difficulty and still others do not pass through at all. <br><br> This is selective permeability and the cell membrane is described as semi-permeable. <br><br><br><br>***Properties of cell membrane*** ***Permeability***<br><br> The cell membrane is semi-permeable. <br><br>it allows small molecules that are soluble in lipid to pass through with more ease than water soluble molecules. this is due to the presence of the phospholipids double layer. <br><br>***Polarlity***<br><br> The cell membrane has electrical charges across its surface.it has positive charged ions on the outside and negatively charged ions on the inside.this property contributes to electrical impulses sent along nerve cells. <br><br> Sensitivity to changes in temperature and pH Very high temperatures destroy the semi-permeability nature of the cell membrane because the proteins are denatured by extreme pH values have the same effect on the membrane permeability. <br><br> Physiological processes Some of the physiological processes include diffusion, osmosis and active transport. <br><br>***Diffusion***<br><br> Diffusion is the movement of molecules or ions from a region of high concentration to a <br><br>region of low concentration aided by a concentration gradient.. <br><br> diffusion continues to occur as long as there is a difference in concentration between two <br><br>regions (concentration gradient). <br><br> Stops when an equilibrium is reached i.e., when the concentration of molecules is the same <br><br>in both regions. <br><br> Diffusion is a process that occurs inside living organisms as well as the external <br><br>environment.. <br><br> Does not require energy. ***Factors Affecting Diffusion***<br><br>.~ - An increase in the concentration of molecules at one region results in a steeper concentration gradient which in turn increases the rate of diffusion. High temperature increases kinetic energy of molecules. They move faster hence resulting in an increase in rate of diffusion, and vice versa. The smaller the size of molecules or ions, the faster their movement hence higher rate of diffusion. The denser the molecules or ions diffusing, the slower the rate of diffusion, and vice versa. The medium through which diffusion occurs also affects diffusion of molecules or ions. For example, diffusion of molecules through gas and liquid media is faster than through a solid medium. This refers to the thickness or thinness of surface across which diffusion occurs. Rate of diffusion is faster when the distance is small i.e., thin surface. The larger the surface area to volume ratio, the faster the rate of diffusion. For example, in small organisms such as Amoeba the surface area to volume ratio, is greater hence faster diffusion than in larger organisms. <br><br>**Concentration Gradient**<br><br>**Temperature**<br><br>**Surface Area to Volume Ratio** ***Role of Diffusion in Living Organisms*** **Some processes that depend on diffusion include the following:**<br><br> Gaseous exchange: Movement of gases through respiratory surfaces is by diffusion. Absorption of materials into cells Cells obtain raw materials and nutrients from the surrounding tissue fluid and blood through diffusion, e.g., glucose needed for respiration diffuses from blood and tissue fluid into cells. <br><br> Excretion: Removal of metabolic waste products like carbon (IV) oxide, and ammonia <br><br>out of cells is by diffusion. <br><br> Absorption of the end-products of digestion from the intestines is by diffusion. <br><br>***Osmosis***<br><br> Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of high water concentration to a <br><br>region of low water concentration through a semi-permeable membrane. <br><br> Osmosis is a special type of diffusion that involves the**movement of water molecules only**<br><br>and**not solute molecules.**<br><br> Osmosis takes place in cells across the cell membrane as well as across non-living membranes e.g. cellophane or visking tubing which are also semi-permeable, It is purely a physical process. <br><br> ***Factors Affecting Osmosis***<br><br> Osmosis' occurs ylno permeable membrane. Osmosis occurs when two solutions of unequal solute concentration are separated by a semi-permeable membrane. **Temperature ,.** High temperatures increase movement of water molecules hence influence osmosis. However, too high temperatures denature proteins in cell membrane and osmosis stops. Increase in pressure affects movement of water molecules. As pressure increases inside a plant cell, osmosis decreases. <br><br>**Size of solute molecules-**<br><br>when solute molecules are too large to pass through a semi- <br><br>**Concentration Gradient .**<br><br>**Pressure**<br><br>***Roles of Osmosis in Living Organisms*** The following processes depend on osmosis in living organisms: <br><br> Movement of water into cells from the surrounding tissue fluid and also from cell to <br><br>cell. <br><br> Absorption of water from the soil and into the roots of plants. Support in plants especially herbaceous ones, is provided by turgor pressure, which <br><br>results from intake of water by osmosis. <br><br> Absorption of water from the alimentary canal in mammals. Re-absorption of water in the kidney tubules. Opening and closing stomata. ***Water Relations in Plant and Animal Cells*** The medium (solution) surrounding cells or organisms is described by the terms <br><br>**hypotonic, hypertonic**and**isotonic.**<br><br> A solution whose solute concentration is more than that of the cell sap is said to be <br><br>**hypertonic**. A cell placed in such a solution loses water to the surroundings by osmosis. <br><br> A solution whose solute concentration is less than that of the cell sap is said to be <br><br>**hypotonic**. A cell placed in such a solution gains water from the surroundings by osmosis. <br><br> A solution which has the same solute concentration as the cell sap is said to be**isotonic**. <br><br>When a cell is placed in such a solution there will be no net movement of water either into or out of the cell. <br><br>***Osmotic Pressure***<br><br> The term osmotic pressure describes the tendency of the solution with a high solute concentration to draw water into itself when it is separated from distilled water or dilute solution by a semi-permeable membrane. Osmotic pressure is measured by an osmometer. When plant cells are placed in distilled water or in a hypotonic solution, the osmotic pressure in the cells is higher than the osmotic pressure of the medium. <br><br> This causes the water to enter the cells by osmosis. The water collects in the vacuole which increases in size. As a result the cytoplasm is pushed outwards and it in turn presses the cell membrane next to the cell wall. <br><br> This builds up water pressure (hydrostatic pressure) inside the cell. When the cell is stretched to the maximum, the cell wall prevents further entry of water into the cell. <br><br> Then the cell is said to be**fully**turgid. The hydrostatic pressure developed is known as**turgor**pressure. <br><br>***Plasmolysis*** When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic medium, it loses water by osmosis. The osmotic pressure of the cell is lower than that of the medium. The vacuole decreases in size and the cytoplasm shrinks as a result of which the cell <br><br>membrane loses contact with the cell wall. <br><br> The cell becomes flaccid. The whole process is described as plasmolysis. Plasmolysis can be reversed by placing the cell in distilled water or hypotonic solution. However, full plasmolysis may not be reversed if cell stays in that state for long. <br><br>**Incipient**plasmolysis is when a cell membrane just begins to lose contact with the cell wall. ***Wilting*** The term wilting describes the drooping of leaves and stems of herbaceous plants after <br><br>considerable amounts of water have been lost through transpiration. <br><br> It is observed in hot dry afternoons or in dry weather. This is when the amount of water lost through transpiration exceeds the amount absorbed <br><br>through the roots. <br><br> Individual cells lose turgor and become plasmolysed and the leaves and stems droop. The condition is corrected at night when absorption of water by the roots continue while <br><br>transpiration is absent. <br><br> Eventually, wilting plants may die if the soil water is not increased through rainfall or watering. <br><br>***Water Relations in Plants and Animals***<br><br>***Haemolysis***<br><br> Haemolysis is the bursting of cell membrane of red blood cells releasing their haemoglobin. This is because the cell membrane does not resist further entry of water by osmosis after It occurs when red blood cells are placed in distilled water or hypotonic solution. <br><br>maximum water intake. <br><br>***Crenation***<br><br> Takes place when red blood cells are placed in hypertonic solution. They lose water by osmosis, shrink and their shape gets distorted. <br><br>**Animal cells**have mechanisms that regulate their salt water balance <br><br>(osmoregulation) to prevent above processes that lead to death of cells. <br><br> An Amoeba placed in distilled water, i.e. hypotonic solution, removes excess water <br><br>using a contractile vacuole. <br><br> The rate of formation of contractile vacuoles increases. <br><br>**Active Transport** Active transport is the movement of solutes such as .glucose, amino acids and <br><br>mineral ions; <br><br> From an area of their low concentration to an area of high concentration. As such it only takes place in living organisms. The energy needed comes from respiration. Certain proteins in the cell surface membrane responsible for this movement are <br><br>It is movement against a concentration gradient and therefore energy is required. <br><br>referred to as**carrier proteins or channel proteins.**<br><br> The shape of each type of carrier protein is specific to the type of substances <br><br>conveyed through it. It has been shown that the substance fits into a particular slot on the protein molecule, <br><br> <br><br> As the protein changes from one form of shape to another the substance is moved <br><br>across and energy is expended. <br><br>***Factors Affecting Active Transport***<br><br>***Availability of oxygen***<br><br> Energy needed for active transport is provided through respiration. An increase in the amount of oxygen results in a higher rate of respiration. If a cell is deprived of oxygen active transport stops . <br><br>***Temperature***<br><br> Optimum temperature is required for respiration, hence for active transport. Very high temperatures denature respiratory enzymes. Very low temperatures inactivate enzymes too and active transport stops. <br><br>***Availability of carbohydrates***<br><br> Carbohydrates are the main substrates for respiration. <br><br>Increase in amount of carbohydrate results in more energy production during respiration and hence more active transport. <br><br> Lack of carbohydrates causes active transport to stop. <br><br>***Metabolic poisons***<br><br> Metabolic poisons e.g. cyanide inhibit respiration and stops active transport due to <br><br>lack of energy. ***Role of Active Transport in Living Organisms*** Processes requiring active transport: Absorption of mineral salts from the soil into plant roots. Absorption of end products of digestion e.g. glucose and amino acids from the <br><br>digestive tract into blood stream. <br><br> Excretion of metabolic products e.g.urea from the cells. Re-absorption of useful substances and mineral salts back into blood capillaries from <br><br>the kidney tubules. <br><br> Sodium-pump mechanism in nerve cells. Re-absorption of useful materials from tissue fluid into the blood stream. <br><br>*Practical Activities* 1.**Experiment to Demonstrate Diffusion** Various coloured substances such as: dyes, plant extracts and chemicals like <br><br>potassium pennanganate are used. <br><br> Potassium manganate (VII) crystals are introduced to the bottom of a beaker filled Observations are made and the disappearance of the crystals and subsequent <br><br>with water using a glass tubing or drinking straw which is then removed. <br><br>uniform colouring of water noted. <br><br>2.**Experiment to Demonstrate Osmosis Using a Visking Thbing**<br><br> A strip of visking tubing 8-10 cm is cut and tied at one end using strong thread. About 2 ml of 25% sucrose solution is put inside and the other end tied with thread. The tubing is washed under running water and then blotted to dry. <br><br>It is immersed in a beaker containing distilled water and left for at least one hour or overnight. It will then be observed that the visking tubing has greatly increased in size and has become firm. <br><br> A control experiment can be set up using distilled water inside the visking tubing in <br><br>place of sucrose solution. <br><br>**3.Experiment to Show Osmosis using Living Tissue**<br><br> Irish potato tubers are peeled and scooped out to make hollow space at the centre. Sucrose solution is placed inside the hollow, and the potato tuber placed in a beaker or petri-dish with distilled water. A conttrol is set using a boiled potato. Another one using distilled water inside hollow in place of sugar solution. The experiment is left for 3 hours to 24 hours. <br><br>**4.Experiment to Demonstrate Turgor and Plasmolysis in Onion Epidermal Cells**<br><br> Two strips of onion epidermis are obtained. One is placed on a slide with distilled water while the other is placed on a slide with <br><br>25% sucrose solution and a coverslip placed on top of each. <br><br> The mounted epidermis is observed under low power microscope and then left for 30 <br><br>minutes. <br><br> After 30 minutes, observations are made again. <br><br>The cells in distilled water have greatly enlarged. Cells in 25% sucrose have shrunk. **Nutrition in Plants and Animals**<br><br>***Structure of the Leaf***<br><br>***External Structure*** <br><br>The external structure of the leaf consists of a leaf stalk or petiole and a broad leaf blade or lamina. The lamina has a main vein midrib from which smaller veins originate. The outline of the leaf is the margin and the tip forms the apex. <br><br><br><br>***Internal Structure of the Leaf***<br><br>***Epidermis***<br><br> This is the outer layer of cells, normally one cell thick. It is found in both the upper and lower leaf surfaces. The cells are arranged end to end. The epidermis offers protection and maintains the shape of the leaf. It is covered by a layer of cuticle which reduces evaporation. <br><br>***Leaf Mesophyll***<br><br>Consists of the palisade layer, next to upper epidermis, and the spongy layer next to the <br><br>lower epidermis. ***Palisade Mesophyll Layer***<br><br>The cells are elongated and arranged close to each other leaving narrow air spaces. These contain numerous chloroplasts and are the main photosynthetic cells. In most plants, the chloroplast are distributed fairly uniformly throughout the cytoplasm. In certain plants growing in shaded habitats in dim light, most chloroplasts migrate to the upper region of the palisade cells in order to maximise absorption of the limited light available. ***Spongy Mesophyll Layer***<br><br> The cells are spherical in shape. They are loosely arranged, with large intercellular spaces between them. The spaces are airfilled and are linked to the stomatal pores. The spongy mesophyll cells have fewer chloroplasts than the palisade mesophyll <br><br>cells. ***Vascular Bundles*** These are made up of the xylem and the phloem tissues. The xylem transports water and mineral salts to the leaves. The phloem transports food manufactured in the leaf to the other parts of the plant <br><br>and from storage organs to other parts. <br><br>***Adaptations of Leaf for Photosynthesis***<br><br> Presence of veins with vascular bundles. Xylem vessels transport water for photosynthesis. Phloem transports manufactured food from leaves to other parts of the plant. Leaf lamina is thin to allow for penetration of light over short distance to reach <br><br>photosynthetic cells. <br><br> Broad lamina provides a large surface area for absorption of light and carbon (IV) <br><br>oxide. <br><br> Transparent cuticle and epidermal layer allow light to penetrate to mesophyll cells. Palisade cells are close to the upper epidermis for maximum light absorption. Presence of numerous chloroplasts in palisade mesophyll traps maximum light. Chloroplast contain chlorophyll that traps light energy. Spongy mesophyll layer has large intercellular air spaces allowing for gaseous exchange. <br><br> Presence of stomata for efficient gaseous exchange (entry of carbon (IV) oxide into <br><br>leaf and exit of oxygen). <br><br> Mosaic arrangement of leaves to ensure no overlapping of leaves hence every leaf is <br><br>exposed to light. <br><br>***Structure and Function of Chloroplasts***<br><br> Chloroplasts are large organelles (5 um in diameter) found in the cytoplasm of green <br><br>plant cells. <br><br> They are visible under the light microscope. They contain chlorophyll, a green pigment and other carotenoids which are yellow, <br><br>orange and red in colour. <br><br> Certain plants have red or purple leaves due to abundance of these other pigments. Chlorophyll absorbs light energy and transforms it into chemical energy. The other pigments absorb light but only to pass it onto chlorophyll. <br><br><br><br> The wall of chloroplast consists of an outer and an inner membrane. The two make up the chloroplast envelop. At intervals, the membranes form stacks of fluid filed sacs known as grana (singular <br><br>Inner membrane encloses a system of membranes called lamellae. <br><br>granum). <br><br> Chloroplast and other pigments are attached to the grana. <br><br>In between the lamellae is a gel-like stroma, that contains starch grains and lipid droplets. <br><br> Enzymes for the dark stage reaction (light independent stage) are embedded in the <br><br>stroma. <br><br> Enzymes for the light dependent stage occur in the grana. <br><br>***Functions***<br><br> .Absorption of light by chlorophyll and other pigments. Light stage of photosynthesis occurs on the grana. (transformation of light energy to <br><br>chemical energy.) <br><br> Carbon fixation to form carbohydrate takes place in the stroma which has enzymes <br><br>for dark stage of photosynthesis. <br><br>***Process of Photosynthesis***<br><br> Photosynthesis involves a series of chemical reactions, all of which take place inside <br><br>chloroplasts. <br><br> A general equation for photosynthesis is: <br><br>Carbon (IV)Oxide+Water light energy---Glucose+Oxygen chlorophyll 6CO2+6H2O light C6H12O+6O2 chlorophyll <br><br> The reaction occurs in two main phases or stages. The initial state requires light and it is called the light dependent stage or simply light <br><br>stage. It takes place on the lamellae surfaces. Its products are used in the dark stage. <br><br> The dark stage does not require light although it occurs in the light and is called light <br><br>independent stage. <br><br>***Light-Stage***<br><br> Two reactions take place that produce raw materials for the dark stage: Light energy splits the water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. This process is called photolysis. The hydrogen is taken up by a hydrogen acceptor called Nicotinamide adenine <br><br>dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) while oxygen is released as a by-product. <br><br> 2H2O(l) light energy4H+O2 <br><br> photolysis Light energy strikes the chlorophyll molecules and sets in motion a series of reactions resulting in the production of a high energy molecule called adenosine triphophate (ATP). ***Dark Stage***<br><br> This stage involves the fixation of carbon i.e. the reduction of carbon (IV) oxide by <br><br>addition of hydrogen to form carbohydrate. It uses the products formed during the light stage. Carbon <br><br> The synthesis of carbohydrates does not take place in a simple straight line reaction <br><br>*ATP* + Hydrogen --- Carbohydrates (IV) oxide <br><br>as shown in the equation above. It involves a series of steps that constitute what is known as the Calvin cycle. <br><br> Carbon (IV) oxide is taken up by a compound described as a carbon (IV) oxide <br><br>acceptor. <br><br> This is a 5-carbon compound known as ribulose biphosphate and a six carbon compound is formed which is unstable and splits into two three-carbon compounds. Hydrogen from the light reaction is added to the three carbon compound using <br><br>energy (ATP) from the light reaction. <br><br> The result is a three carbon (triose) sugar, (phosphoglycerate or PGA). This is the first product of photosynthesis. Glucose, other sugars as well as starch are made from condensation of the triose sugar molecules. <br><br> The first product is a 3-carbon sugar which condenses to form glucose (6-C sugar). From glucose, sucrose and eventually starch is made. Sucrose is the form in which carbohydrate is transported from the leaves to other <br><br>parts of the plant. <br><br> Starch is the storage product. Other substances like oils and proteins are made from sugars. This involves incorporation of other elements e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur. <br><br>***Factors Influencing Photosynthesis***<br><br> Certain factors must be provided for before photosynthesis can take place. The rate or amount of photosynthesis is also influenced by the quantity or quality of <br><br>these same factors. <br><br>***Carbon(IV) Oxide Concentration***<br><br> Carbon (IV) oxide is one of the raw materials for photosynthesis. No starch is formed when leaves are enclosed in an atmosphere without carbon (IV) <br><br>oxide. <br><br> The concentration of carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere remains fairly constant at <br><br>about 0.03% by volume. it experimental conditions. Increasing the carbon (IV) oxide concentration up to 0.1 % increases the rate of photosynthesis. <br><br>is possible to vary the carbon (IV) oxide concentration under <br><br> Further increase reduces the rate. <br><br>***Light Intensity***<br><br> Light supplies the energy for photosynthesis. Plants kept in the dark do not form starch. Generally, increase in light intensity up to a certain optimum, increases the rate of <br><br>photosynthesis. <br><br> The optimum depends on the habitat of the plant. Plants that grow in shady places have a lower optimum than those that grow in sunny places. <br><br> ***Water***<br><br> Water is necessary as a raw material for photosynthesis. The amount of water available greatly affects the rate of photosynthesis. The more water available, the more the photosynthetic rate, hence amount of food <br><br>made. <br><br> Effect of water on photosynthesis can only be inferred from the yield of crops. It is the main determinant of yield (limiting factor in the tropics). <br><br>***Temperature***<br><br> The reactions involved in photosynthesis are catalysed by a series of enzymes. A suitable temperature is therefore necessary. The optimum temperature for photosynthesis in most plants is around 30"C. This depends on the natural habitat of the plant. Some plants in temperate regions have 20C as their optimum while others in the <br><br>tropics have 45C as their optimum temperature. <br><br> The rate of photosynthesis decreases with a decrease in temperature below the <br><br>optimum. In most plants, photosynthesis stops when temperatures approach OC although some arctic plant species can photosynthesise at -2C or even -3C. <br><br> Likewise, increase in temperature above the optimum decreases the rate and finally <br><br>the reactions stop at temperatures above 40c due to enzyme denaturation. <br><br> However, certain algae that live in hot springs e.g.*Oscilatoria*can photosynthesise at <br><br>75C ***Chlorophyll***<br><br> Chlorophyll traps or harnesses the energy from light. Leaves without chlorophyll do not form starch. <br><br>***Chemical Compounds Which Constitute Living Organisms***<br><br> All matter is made up of chemical elements, each of which exists in the form of <br><br>smaller units called atoms. <br><br> Some of the elements occur in large amounts in living things. These include carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. Elements combine together to form compounds. Some of these compounds are organic. Organic compounds contain atoms of carbon combined with hydrogen and they are <br><br>usually complex. <br><br> Other compounds are inorganic. Most inorganic compounds do not contain carbon and hydrogen and they are usually <br><br>less complex. <br><br> Cells contain hundreds of different classes of organic compounds. However, there are four classes of organic compounds found in all cells. These are:*carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.*<br><br>***Carbohydrates***<br><br> Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen and oxygen occur in the ratio of 2: 1 as in water. Carbohydrates are classified into three main groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides <br><br>and polysaccharides. <br><br>***Monosaccharides***<br><br> These are simple sugars. The carbon atoms in these sugars form a chain to which hydrogen and oxygen atoms <br><br>are attached. <br><br> Monosaccharides are classified according to the number of carbon atoms they <br><br>possess. <br><br> The most common monosaccharides are: <br><br> Glucose - found free in fruits and vegetables. Galactose - found combined in milk sugar. <br><br>Fructose - found free in fruits and in bee honey. <br><br> The general formula for these monosaccharides is (CH2O)n where n is 6. They have the same number of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen molecules i.e. C6H12O6*.*<br><br>***Properties of Monosaccharides*** They are soluble in water. They are crystallisable. They are sweet. The are all reducing sugars. This is because they reduce blue copper (II) sulphate solution when heated to copper <br><br>oxide which is red in colour and insoluble. <br><br>***Functions of Monosaccharides***<br><br> They are oxidised in the cells to produce energy during respiration. Formation of important biological molecules e.g. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and <br><br>ribonucleic acid (RNA). <br><br> Some monosaccharides are important metabolic intermediates e.g. in <br><br>photosynthesis and in respiration. <br><br> Monosaccharides are the units from which other more complex sugars are formed <br><br>through condensation. <br><br>***Disaccharides***<br><br> These contain two monosaccharide units. The chemical process through which a large molecule (e.g. a disaccharide) is formed <br><br>from smaller molecules is called condensation and it involves loss of water. <br><br>Common examples of disaccharides include sucrose, maltose and lactose. <br><br>*Monosaccharide units Disaccharides* Glucose+fructose Glucose+glucose Glucose+galactose Sucrose(cane sugar) Maltose(malt sugar) Lactose(milk sugar) Disaccharides are broken into their monosaccharide units by heating with dilute <br><br>hydrochloric acid. <br><br> This is known as hydrolysis and involves addition of water molecules. The same process takes place inside cells through enzymes. <br><br>Sucrose+water_--hydrolysis-----------------glucose+fructose <br><br>***Properties of Disaccharides***<br><br> Sweet tasting. Soluble in water. Crystallisable. Maltose and lactose are reducing sugars while sucrose is non-reducing sugar. Sucrose is the form in which carbohydrate is transported in plants: This is because it is soluble andjchernically stable. Sucrose is a storage carbohydrate in some plants e.g. sugar-cane and sugar-beet. Disaccharides are hydrolysed to produce monosaccharide units which are readily <br><br>metabolised by cell to provide energy. <br><br>***Polysaccharides***<br><br> <br><br>If many monosaccharides are polysaccharide is formed. <br><br>joined together through condensation, a <br><br> Polysaccharides may consist of hundreds or even thousands of monosaccharide <br><br>units. <br><br> Examples of polysaccharides: Starch - storage material in plants. Glycogen is a storage carbohydrate in animals like starch, but has longer <br><br>chains. Inulin - a storage carbohydrate in some plants e.g. Dahlia. Cellulose - structural carbohydrate in plants. Chitin - forms exoskeleton in arthropods. <br><br>***Importance and Functions of Polysaccharides***<br><br> They are storage carbohydrates - starch in plants glycogen in animals. They are hydrolysed to their contituent monosaccharide units and used for <br><br>respiration. . <br><br> They form structural material e.g. cellulose makes cell walls. Cellulose has wide commercial uses e.g. Fibre in cloth industry. Cellulose is used to make paper. <br><br> <br><br>Carbohydrates combine with other molecules to form compounds in living organisms. Examples are: <br><br>important structural <br><br>Pectins: Combine with calcium ions to form calcium pectate. Chitin: Combine with (NH) group. Makes the exoskeleton of arthropods, and walls <br><br>of fungi. ***Lipids*** <br><br>These are fats and oils. Fats are solid at room temperature while oils are liquid. They are made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen atoms. The structural units of lipids are fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty acids are made up of hydrocarbon chain molecules with a carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end. In the synthesis of a lipid, three fatty acid molecules combine with one glycerol molecule to form a triglyceride. Three molecules of water are lost in the process. This is a condensation reaction and water is given off. Lipids are hydrolysed e.g. during digestion to fatty acids and glycerol, water is added. <br><br> <br><br> <br><br>*condensation* - <br><br>Glycerol + 3 Fatty*hydrolysis*Lipid + Water acids ***Properties***<br><br> Fats are insoluble in water but dissolve in organic solvents e.g. in alcohols. They are chemically inactive, hence used as food storage compounds. <br><br>***Functions of Lipids***<br><br>***Structural materials***- as structural material they make up the cell membrane. ***Source of energy***- they are energy rich molecules. <br><br>One molecule of lipid provides more energy than a carbohydrate molecule. <br><br>***Storage compound***- They are stored as food reserves in plants. <br><br>In animals e.g. mammals, all excess food taken is converted to fats which are stored in adipose tissue, and around internal organs such as the heart and kidneys. ***Insulation***- They provide insulation in animals living in cold climates. A lot of fat is stored under the skin e.g. blubber in seals. <br><br> <br><br>***Protection***- Complex lipids e.g. wax on leaf surfaces protects the plant against water- <br><br>loss and overheating. <br><br>**Fats stored around some internal organs acts as shock absorbers**, thus protecting <br><br>the organs. <br><br>***Source of Metabolic Water*-:-**lipids when oxidised produce metabolic water which <br><br>supplements water requirements in the body. Desert animals e.g. the camel accumulate large quantities of fat in the hump which when oxidised releases metabolic water. <br><br>***Proteins***<br><br> Proteins are the most abundant organic compounds in cells and constitute 50% of <br><br>total dry weight. <br><br> Proteins are compounds which are made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen <br><br>and sometimes sulphur and phosphorus. <br><br> The structural units of proteins are amino acids. The nature of a protein is determined by the types of amino acids it is made of. There are about 20 common amino acids that make up proteins. ***Essential and Non-Essential Amino Acids***<br><br> Essential amino acids are those which cannot be synthesised in the body of an <br><br>organism and must therefore be provided in the diet. There are ten amino acids which are essential for humans. These are valine, leucine, phenylalanine, lysine, tryptophan, isoleucine, methionine, <br><br>threonine, histidine and arginine. <br><br> Non-essential amino acids are those which the body can synthesise and therefore <br><br>need not be available in the diet. <br><br> There are ten of them. These are glycine, alanine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid, serine, tyrosine, proline, <br><br>glutamine, arginine and cysteine. <br><br> Proteins are essential in the diet because they are not stored in the body. Excess amino acids are deaminated. <br><br>***Formation of Proteins***<br><br> Proteins are made up of many amino acid units joined together through peptide <br><br>bonds. <br><br> When two amino acids are joined together a dipeptide is formed. The chemical process involved is called condensation and a molecule of water is ***Functions of Proteins***<br><br>***As structural materials proteins*-**<br><br> Are the basic building structures of protoplasms. Proteins in conjunction with lipid form the cell membrane. <br><br> Examples of structural proteins include: <br><br> Keratin (in hair, nails, hoofs, feathers and wool) Silk in spider's web. Elastin forms ligaments that join bones to each other. <br><br>***Protective proteins*.**<br><br> Antibodies that protect the body against foreign antigens. Fribrogen and thrombin are involved in clot formation, preventing entry of <br><br>micro-organisms when blood vessel is cut. ***As functional chemical compounds*.**<br><br> Examples are hormones and enzymes that act as regulators in the body. Respiratory pigments. Examples are haemoglobin that transports oxygen in the blood and <br><br>myoglobin that stores up oxygen in muscles. <br><br> Contractile proteins - make up muscles, i.e. myosin and actin. Proteins combine with other chemical groups to form important substances <br><br>e.g. mucin in saliva. <br><br>***Source of energy*.**<br><br> Proteins are a source of energy in extreme conditions when carbohydrates <br><br>and fats are not available e.g. in starvation. <br><br>***Enzymes***<br><br> Enzymes are biological catalysts that increase the rate of chemical reaction in the <br><br>body. <br><br> They are all produced inside cells. Some are intracellular and they catalyse reactions within the cells . Others are extracellular and are secreted out of the cells where they work. e.g. <br><br>digestive enzymes. ***Properties of Enzymes***<br><br> Enzymes are protein in nature. Enzymes are specific to the type of reaction they catalyse. This is referred to as substrate specificity. Enzymes work in very small amounts. They remain unchanged after the reaction. They catalyse reversible reactions. They work very fast (high turnover numbers) e.g. the enzyme catalase works on 600 <br><br>thousand molecules of hydrogen peroxide in one second. ***Naming of enzymes***<br><br>Enzymes are named by adding the suffix -ase to: *Name of substrate that they work on e.g.*<br><br> carbohydrates - carbohydrases e.g.sucrase. Starch (amylose) - amylase Protein - proteinase (protease) Lipids -lipases <br><br>*Type of chemical reaction catalised e.g.*<br><br> Oxidation - oxidase Reduction - reductase Hydrolysis - hydrolase <br><br>***Factors Affecting Enzyme Action*** ***Temperature***<br><br> Enzymes are sensitive to temperature changes. Generally, the rate of an enzymecontrolled reaction doubles with every 10OC increase <br><br>in temperature. <br><br> However, temperatures above 40C do not favour enzyme reaction. This is because enzymes are denatured by high temperatures. <br><br>***pH***<br><br> Every enzyme has a particular pH range over which it works best. Some enzymes work best in acidic media while others function better in alkaline <br><br>media. <br><br> Many enzymes function well under neutral conditions. <br><br>***Enzyme Concentration***<br><br> Under conditions where the substrate is in excess, the rate of an enzyme-controlled <br><br>reaction increases as the enzyme concentration is increased. ***Substrate Concentration***<br><br> If the concentration of the substrate is increased while that of the enzyme remains constant, the rate of the reaction will increase for sometime and then become constant. <br><br> Any further increase in substrate concentration will not result in corresponding <br><br>increase in the rate of the reaction. <br><br>***Enzyme Inhibitors***<br><br> These are substances that either compete with substrates for enzyme active sites or <br><br>combine with enzymes and hence they inhibit the enzyme reaction. <br><br> e.g. certain drugs, cyanide and nerve gas. <br><br>***Co-factors***<br><br> Most enzymes require the presence of other compounds known as co-factors which <br><br>are non-proteins. <br><br> There are three groups of co-factors. Complex organic molecules known as prosthetic groups are attached to the enzyme <br><br>Inorganic ions - e.g. iron, magnesium, copper and zinc. e.g. flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) derived from vitamin B2 (riboflavin). Co-enzymes e.g. coenzyme A is involved in respiration. All co-enzymes are derived from vitamins. ***Nutrition in Animals=**Heterotrophism* ***Meaning and Types of Heterotrophism***<br><br> This is a mode of nutrition whereby organisms feed on complex organic matter from <br><br>other plants or animals. All animals are heterotrophs. Their mode of feeding is also said to be holozoic to distinguish it from other special <br><br>types of heterotrophic nutrition namely: <br><br> saprophytism parasitism. <br><br> Saprophytism/saprotrophysim- occurs in most fungi and some forms of bacteria. Saprophytes feed on dead organic matter and cause its decomposition or decay. Parasitism is a mode of feeding whereby one organism called the parasite feeds on or <br><br>lives in another organism called the host and harms it. ***Modes of Feeding in Animals***<br><br> Animals have developed various structures to capture and ingest food. The type of structures present depend on the method of feeding and the type of <br><br>food. <br><br>**Carnivorous**animals feed on whole animals or portions of their flesh. **Herbiverous**animals feed on plant material. ***Omnivorous***animals feed on both plants and animal materials. <br><br>***Feeding in Mammals***<br><br> The jaws and teeth of mammals are modified according to the type of food eaten. Mammals have different kinds of teeth. Each type of teeth has a particular role to play in the feeding process. <br><br>***Feeding in Mammals***<br><br> The jaws and teeth of mammals are modified according to the type of food eaten. Mammals have different kinds of teeth. Each type of teeth has a particular role to play in the feeding process. This condition is described as heterodont. The teeth of reptiles and amphibians are all similar in shape and carry out the same <br><br>function. <br><br> They are said to be homodont. <br><br>**Types of Mammalian Teeth**<br><br> Mammals have four kinds of teeth. The incisors are found at the front of the jaw. They are sharp-edged and are used for biting. The canines are located at the sides of the jaw. They are pointed and are used for tearing and piercing. The premolars are next to the canines and the molars are at the back of the jaw. Both premolars and molars are used for crushing and grinding. Teeth are replaced only once in a lifetime. The first set is the milk or deciduous teeth. These are replaced by the second set or the permanent teeth. <br><br><br><br> Dentition refers to the type of teeth, the number and their arrangement in the jaw. A dental formula shows the type and number of teeth in each half of the jaw. The number of teeth in half of the upper jaw is represented above a line and those on <br><br>the lower jaw below the line. <br><br> The first letter of each type of teeth is used in the formula i.e. i =incisors, c = canines, <br><br>pm = premolars and m = molars. <br><br> The total number is obtained by multiplying by two (for the two halves of each jaw). <br><br>***Adaptation of Teeth to Feeding***<br><br> <br><br>In general, incisors are for cutting, canines for tearing while premolars and molars are for grinding. <br><br> However, specific modifications are observed in different mammals as an adaptation <br><br>to the type of food they eat. <br><br> Teeth of Herbivores The enamel coating is thicker in front than at the back so that as the tooth wears out, <br><br>Incisors are long and flat with a sharp chisellike edge for cutting. <br><br>a sharp edge is maintained. Canines are reduced or absent. The diastema allows the tongue to hold food and push it to the grinding teeth at the <br><br>back of the mouth. ***Premolars and molars:***<br><br> These are transversely ridged. The ridges on the upper teeth fit into grooves on the lower ones. This gives a sideways grinding surface. The teeth of herbivores have open roots i.e., wide opening into the pulp cavity. This ensures a continued adequate supply of food and oxygen to the tooth. <br><br>In some herbivores, such as rabbits and elephants, the incisors continue to grow throughout life. ***Teeth of Carnivores***<br><br> They are well suited for grasping food and holding prey. Canines are long, pointed and curved. They are used for piercing and tearing flesh as well as for attack and defence. ***Premolars and molars**:*In general, they are long and longitudinally ridged to <br><br>Incisors are reduced in size and pointed. <br><br>increase surface area for crushing . <br><br>***Carnassial Teeth**:*These are the last premolars on the upper jaw and the first <br><br>molars on the lower one. <br><br> They are enlarged for cutting flesh. They act as a pair of shears. They also crush bones. The teeth of carnivores have closed roots i.e., only a very small opening of the pulp The bacteria then infect the pulp cavity and the whole tooth decays. <br><br>***Treatment***<br><br> Treatment depends on the extent of the dental caries: Extraction of Tooth. Filling - this involves replacing the dentine with amalgam, a mixture of hard <br><br>elements e.g. silver and tin. <br><br> Root Canal Treatment - This involves surgery and reconstruction. It saves severely damaged teeth. The nerves in the root canal are surgically severed. The tooth is cleaned and filled up with amalgam. ***Periodontal Diseases***<br><br> These are diseases of the gum. The gum becomes inflamed, and starts bleeding. Progression of the disease leads to infection of the fibres in the periodontal <br><br>membranes and the tooth becomes loose. <br><br> This condition is known as pyorrhoea. The diseases are caused by poor cleaning of the teeth. The accumulation of food particles leading to formation of plaque, lack of adequate <br><br>vitamin A and C in the diet. <br><br>***Treatment*** Nutrition - by taking adequate balanced diet rich in vitamins A and C. Antibiotics are used to kill bacteria. Anti-inflamatory drugs are given. Antiseptic is prescribed to use in cleaning the mouth daily to prevent further <br><br>proliferation of bacteria. <br><br> The plaque is removed-drilled away - a procedure known as scaling. <br><br>***Care of Teeth*** In order to maintain healthy teeth the following points should be observed: <br><br> A proper diet that includes calcium and vitamins, particularly vitamin D is essential. The diet should also contain very small quantities of fluorine to strengthen the <br><br>enamel. Large quantities of fluorine are harmful. The enamel becomes brown, a condition known as dental flourosis. Chewing of hard fibrous foods like carrots and sugar cane to strengthen and cleanse <br><br>the teeth. <br><br> Proper use of teeth e.g. not using teeth to open bottles and cut thread. Regular and thorough brushing of teeth after meals. Dental floss can be used to clean between the teeth. Not eating sweets and sugary foods between meals. Regular visits to the dentist for checkup. Washing the mouth with strong salt solution or with any other mouth wash with <br><br>antiseptic properties. <br><br>***Digestive System and Digestion in Humans***<br><br> Organs that are involved with feeding in humans constitute the digestive system. ***Digestive System and Associated Glands***<br><br> Human digestive system starts at the mouth and ends at the anus. This is the alimentary canal. Digestion takes place inside the lumen of the alimentary canal. The epithelial wall that faces the lumen has mucus glands (goblet cells). <br><br> These secrete mucus that lubricate food and prevent the wall from being digested by <br><br>digestive enzymes. <br><br> Present at specific regions are glands that secrete digestive enzymes. The liver and pancreas are organs that are closely associated with the alimentary <br><br>canal. <br><br> Their secretions get into the lumen and assist in digestions. <br><br>***Digestive system consists of:***<br><br> Mouth. Oesophagus. Stomach. Small intestines - consist of duodenum, the first part next to the stomach, ileum - the last part that ends up in a vestigial caecum and appendix which are nonfunctional. <br><br> Large intestines consist of: colon and rectum that ends in the anus. ***Ingestion, Digestion and Absorption***<br><br> Feeding in humans involves the following processes: *Digestion:*This is the mechanical and chemical breakdown of the food into simpler, <br><br>*Ingestion*: This is the introduction of the food into the mouth. <br><br>soluble and absorbable units. <br><br>*Absorption:*Taking into blood the digested products. *Assimilation:*Use of food in body cells. Mechanical breakdown of the food takes place with the help of the teeth. Chemical digestion involves enzymes. <br><br>***Digestion in the Mouth***<br><br> Food is mixed with saliva and is broken into smaller particles by the action of teeth. Saliva contains the enzyme amylase. <br><br>In the mouth, both mechanical and chemical digestion takes place. <br><br>It also contains water and mucus which lubricate and soften food in order to make swallowing easy. <br><br> Saliva is slightly alkaline and thus provides a suitable pH for amylase to act on cooked <br><br>starch, changing it to maltose. <br><br> The food is then swallowed in the form of semisolid balls known as boluses. Each bolus moves down the oesophagus by a process known as peristalsis. Circular and longitudinal muscles along the wall of the alimentary canal contract and <br><br>In the stomach, the food is mixed with gastric juice secreted by gastric glands in the stomach wall. <br><br> Gastric juice contains pepsin, rennin and hydrochloric acid. The acid provides a low pH of 1.5-2.0 suitable for the action of pepsin. Pepsin breaks down protein into peptides. Rennin coagulates the milk protein casein. The stomach wall has strong circular and longitudinal muscles whose contraction <br><br>mixes the food with digestive juices in the stomach. ***Digestion in the Duodenum***<br><br> Bile contains bile salts and bile pigments. The salts emulsify fats, thus providing a large surface area for action of lipase. Pancreatic juice contains three enzymes: <br><br>In the duodenum the food is mixed with bile and pancreatic juice. <br><br> Trypsin which breaks down proteins into peptides and amino acids, Amylase which breaks down starch into maltose, and Lipase which breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. <br><br> These enzymes act best in an alkaline medium which is provided for by the bile. ***Digestion in ileum***<br><br> Epithelial cells in ileum secrete intestinal juice, also known as succus entericus. This contains enzymes which complete the digestion of protein into amino acids, <br><br>carbohydrates into monosaccharides and lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. <br><br>***Absorption***<br><br> This is the diffusion of the products of digestion into the blood of the animal. <br><br>It takes place mainly in the small intestines though alcohol and some glucose are absorbed in the stomach. <br><br>***The ileum is adapted for absorption in the following ways:***<br><br> The coiling ensures that food moves along slowly to allow time for its digestion and <br><br>It is highly coiled. <br><br>absorption. It is long to provide a large surface area for absorption. <br><br> The epithelium has many finger-like projections called villi (singular villus). <br><br> They greatly increase the surface area for absorption. Villi have microvilli that further increase the surface area for absorption. The wall of villi has thin epithelial lining to facilitate fast diffusion of products of <br><br>digestion. <br><br> Has numerous blood vessels for transport of the end products of digestion. Has lacteal vessels; for absorption of fatty acids and glycerol and transport of lipids. First they are carried to the liver through the hepatic portal vein, then taken to all <br><br>organs via circulatory system. <br><br>***Absorption of Fatty Acids and Glycerol***<br><br> Fatty acids and glycerol diffuse through the epithelial cells of villi and into the lacteal. When inside the villi epithelial cells, the fatty acids combine with glycerol to make <br><br>tiny fat droplets which give the lacteal a milky appearance. <br><br> The lacteals join the main lymph vessel that empties its contents into the <br><br>bloodstream in the thoracic region. <br><br> Once inside the blood, the lipid droplets are hydrolysed to fatty acids and glycerol. <br><br>***Absorption of Vitamins and Mineral Salts***<br><br> Vitamins and mineral salts are absorbed into the blood capillaries in' the villi. Water is <br><br>mainly absorbed in the colon. <br><br> As a result the undigested food is in a semi-solid form (faeces) when it reaches the <br><br>rectum. <br><br>***Egestion*:**This is removal of undigested or indigestible material from the body. <br><br>Faeces are temporarily stored in the rectum then voided through the anus. Opening of the anus is controlled by sphincter muscles <br><br>***Assimilation:***This is the incorporation of the food into the cells where it is used for <br><br>various chemical processes. ***Carbohydrates***<br><br> used to provide energy for the body. Excess glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles. Some of the excess carbohydrates are also converted into fat in the liver and stored in the adipose tissue' (fat storage tissue), in the mesenteries and in the connective tissue under the skin, around the heart and other internal organs. <br><br>***Proteins***<br><br> Amino acids are used to build new cells and repair worn out ones. They are also used for the synthesis of protein compounds. Excess amino acids are de-aminated in the liver. Urea is formed from the nitrogen part. The remaining carbohydrate portion is used for energy or it is converted to glycogen <br><br>or fat and stored. <br><br>***Lipids***<br><br> Fats are primarily stored in the fat storage tissues. When carbohydrates intake is low in the body, fats are oxidised to provide energy. They are also used as structural materials e.g. phospholipids in cell membrane. They <br><br>act as cushion, protecting delicate organs like the heart. <br><br> Stored fats under the skin act as heat insulators. Pepsin Protein <br><br>Trypsin Protein <br><br>Chymotrypsi n Peptones, casein <br><br>8.8 Starch glycogen Amylase <br><br>Lipase Lipids Glucose if food stays longer in mouth. Maltose <br><br>Not an enzyme but hydrolyses the nuclear proteins. 1. Kills micro-organisms. 2. Provides acidic medium. 3. Activates enzyme pepsinogen and protennin. precursors, <br><br>Hydrochloric Nucleo- acid Nucleic + protein acid proteins <br><br>Curd coagulated abundant in infants secreted milk (casein) <br><br>Peptones Secreted as pepsinogen <br><br>Secreted as trypsinogen activated by enterokinase to trypsin <br><br>Amino acids Secreted as chymotrypsin <br><br>activated to trypsin. <br><br>Maltose Maltose Fatty acids PH in duodenum lowered to and glycerol <br><br>Sodium bicarbonate Peptidases (erepsin) Invertase made of sucrase <br><br>Provides alkaline conditions <br><br>Erepsin contains a mixture of peptidases Amino acids Peptides <br><br>Fructose + <br><br>glucose <br><br>-. <br><br>Ileum (succus entericus) Galactose + glucose 8.3 Lactase Lactose <br><br> Maltase Maltose Glucose <br><br>Fatty acids and glycerol <br><br>Activates trypsinogen to trypsin. Enterokinase ***Vitamins, sources, uses and the deficiency disease resulting from their absence in diet***<br><br>*Name of Vitamin Sources* *Uses in body* *Deficiency disease(s)/Disorder*I <br><br>Liver, egg-yolk, Synthesis of rhodopsin, Hardening of cornea of the eye (xerophthalmia), poor night resistance to diseases of skin and vision; gut is reduced. spinach epithelium <br><br>Formation f the enzyme Yeast, whole co- carboxylase important in slowing of heartbeat and grain, liver, kidney, beans, conversion of pyruvic meat, spinach respiration. acid Formation of Whole grain, f1avoproteins eggs, milk, that form groundnuts, liver, cheese, yeast enzymes and for dehydrogenase respiration. <br><br>Beriberi - swelling of the feet; <br><br>B, (Thiamine) <br><br>gastro intestinal disorder. <br><br>Liver, kidneys, Makes co-enzyme 1 and 2 <br><br>B3 (Nicotinic acid) milk, yeast whole grain. eggs, (NAD & NAD.P) It is also Pellagra - inflammation of co-enzyme A needed in respiration. cell nervous disorders leading to tongue; paralysis. B, (Pantothenic <br><br>In most natural Forms parts of co- foods enzyme A. acid) <br><br>Eggs, kidneys, B6 (Pryidoxine) Makes a co-enzyme for <br><br>Irritability, depression, dermatitis. whole grain, <br><br>water soluble vegetables. amino acids metabolism. *4* *4*<br><br>*N* *U* *T* Nervour transmission *R* *I* *T* *I* *O* *N*<br><br>*K* *C* Potassium *S* *E*<br><br> Milk, eggs, liver, <br><br>In intracellular body fluids as a transmission. impulse Present in tissue fluid. Maintains water balance essential for <br><br>green vegetables, bananas. buffer and for nerve <br><br>*R* Chloride *E* *V* *I* *S* Magnesium *I* *O* *N* Iodine <br><br>Table salt, sea foods. digestion. Constituent of <br><br>*I* *N*<br><br>hydrochloric acid. Also needed as a co-factor in respirator enzymes. Muscle contraction. Constituent of the hormone In young animals leads to thyroxine that controls cretinism. Simple goitre adults. metabolism. in body <br><br>Green vegetables. <br><br>*P* *L* *A* *N* *T* *S*<br><br>Iodised table salt and sea food. <br><br>*B* *I* Manganese *O* *L* *O* Iron *G* *Y*<br><br>Eggs, milk, fish. Activates certain enzymes. *A* *N* Anaemia. *D*<br><br>A constituent of cytochromes haemoglobin and myoblobin. A constituent of some proteins; needed in synthesis of certain enzymes and phospholipids In intracellular body fluids in cell membranes. as a transmission. impulse Catalyses use of iron, a Present in tissue fluid. constituent of cytochrome Maintains water balance essential for oxidase (an enzyme) digestion. Constituent of Influences the use of hydrochloric acid. copper and iron (found in Vitamin ~2)' amounts. Also needed as a co-factor Needed for proper growth in respirator enzymes. Muscle of hair, influences working of contraction. insulin. Constituent of the hormone In young animals leads Needed in small Pernicious anaemia. Strengthening of enamel to thyroxine that controls cretinism. Simple goitre amounts. adults. metabolism. in body <br><br>Sulphur Protein foods <br><br> Milk, eggs, liver, <br><br>green vegetables, bananas. buffer and for nerve Potassium <br><br>Copper <br><br>Chloride <br><br>Cobalt <br><br>Fruits and Green vegetables. Synthesised in vegetables. Seeds of the alimentary Used in the manufacture cucubitaceae. Iodised table salt and of red blood cells, synthesis canal by bacteria, meat, Water, fruits and sea of milk, eggs and RNA food. fish. Liver, greet vegetable leaves, lean meat, grains, milk. whole <br><br>*A* *N* *I* Nervour transmission *M* *A* interfered with. *L* Needed in very small *S*<br><br>*p*<br><br>amounts. *4* *3* Needed in very small <br><br>Table salt, sea foods. <br><br>Needed in very small Magnesium Zinc amounts. <br><br>BJ2 (cyanocobalamin Fluorine Iodine e) <br><br>Synthesis of nucleoproteins and erythrocytes Anaemia. (most common in pregnant women) <br><br>Folic acid*I*vit M Liver, green Eggs, milk, fish. Manganese vegetables (water ~" A constituent of Liver, greet soluble) Synthesised by " T cytochromes vegetable haemoglobin and leaves, lean meat, Iron intestinal Proteins synthesis, used Vitamin H Biotin grains, milk. myoblobin. whole bacteria, liver, transamination and (Water in A constituent of some carboxylation kidney, eggs. Soluble) <br><br>Activates certain enzymes. vegetables. <br><br>Very small amounts needed, Plant seeds Activates enzyme system in <br><br>mucleic acid metabolism. excess is dangerous. <br><br>Involved in use of glucose. Needed in small amounts. <br><br>***Roughage***<br><br> Roughage is dietary fibre and it consists mainly of cellulose. It adds bulk to the food and provides grip for the gut muscles to enhance peristalsis. Roughage does not provide any nutritional value because humans and all animals not <br><br>produce cellulase enzyme to digest cellulose. In herbivores symbiotic bacteria in the gut produce cellulase that digests cellulose. ***Factors Determining Energy Requirements in Humans***<br><br>***Age:***Infants, for instance, need a greater proportion of protein than adults. ***Sex**:*males generally require more carbohydrates than females. The requirements of specific nutrients for females depends on the stage of <br><br>development in the life cycle. <br><br>**Adolescent girls**require more iron in their diet; expectant and nursing mothers <br><br>require a lot of proteins and mineral salts. <br><br>***State of Health*:**A sick individual requires more of certain nutrients e.g. proteins, <br><br>than a healthy one. <br><br>***Occupation:***An office worker needs less nutrients than a manual worker. ***THE END*** ***Practical Activities***<br><br> Experiments to show that Carbon (IV) Oxide is necessary for Photosynthesis <br><br> Experiment to Show Effect of Light on Photosynthesis <br><br> Experiment to Show the Effect of Chlorophyll on Photosynthesis <br><br> Experiment To Observe Stomata Distribution in Different Leaves <br><br> Test for Reducing Sugar <br><br> Test for non-reducing sugar <br><br> Test for Lipids; (a) Grease Spot Test <br><br> (b) Emulsion Test Dissection of a Rabbit to show the Digestive System <br><br>Test for Proteins -Biuret Test Experiment To Investigate Presence of Enzyme in Living Tissue |
# **FORM ONE BIOLOGY ** #### ***By the end of form one work, the learner should be able *** ***to: *** ***Define*** B iology ***List*** t he branches of Biology ***Explain*** the importance of Biology ***State*** a nd ***explain*** some of the characteristics of organisms ***State*** a nd ***explain*** s ome of the general characteristics of organisms ***Explain*** the external features of plants and animals ***Write down*** the ***difference*** between plants and animals ***Define*** classification Use the magnifying lens to ***observe*** the external features of plants/ animals ***Record*** o bservations of the main external features of plant leaf form ***Draw*** d ifferent types of leaf forms ***Observe***, ***record*** and ***draw*** the main external features of plants ***Observe***, ***record*** and ***draw*** the main external features of animals ***State t*** h e necessity and significance of classification ***Name t*** he major units of classification Name the five kingdoms of living things List the taxonomic units in plant and animal kingdoms Classify maize and human beings Define Binomial nomenclature State the principles of Binomial nomenclature In naming organisms Use collecting nets, cutting instructions instruments and hand lens Preserve collected specimen Observe and group collected and preserved specimen according to their similarities Define a cell Draw and label the light microscope Identify parts of the light microscope and state their functions Describe how to care for a light microscope Describe how a light microscope is used Draw and label plant and animal cells as seen under a light microscope Calculate the magnification of objects as seen under a light microscope Observe a prepared slide under a light microscope Prepare temporary slide of onion epidermis and observe it under a light microscope Draw and label plant and animal cells as seen under electron microscope Describe the structure and function of the cell - Cell wall ----- - Cell membrane - Cytoplasm Describe the structure and function of the cell organelles Estimate the size of a cell as seen in the field of view of a microscope Write down the differences between plants and animal cells Write down similarities between plant and animal cells List down specialized plant and animal cells State the modifications and functions of specialized cells Define tissues, organs and organ systems Give examples of tissues organs and organ systems Define the term cell physiology Describe the structure and properties of cell membrane Define diffusion Carry out experiments to demonstrate - diffusion in liquids - diffusion in gasses Explain the factors affecting diffusion Explain the role of diffusion in living things Define osmosis Describe movement of water molecules across semi-permeable membrane define and describe the terms used in the study of osmosis such as: - Osmotic pressure - Osmotic potential - Isotonic solution - Hypertonic solution - Hypotonic solution - Turgor pressure - Hemolysis - Wall pressure - Plasmolysis - Deplasmolysis carry out an experiment on selective permeability of membrane State factors affecting osmosis Explain the role of osmosis in organisms Explain the factors affecting osmosis Describe what happens when a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic, hypotonic or isotonic solution Carry out an experiment to show plasmolysis in epidermal cells of an onion bulb Describe osmosis of animal cells in a hypertonic solution List down factors affecting active transport Define active transport Define the role of active transport in living things ----- Define nutrition Write down the importance of nutrition List down the modes of feeding in organisms Draw and label the external structure of a leaf Draw and label the internal structure of the leaf Name the parts of a leaf State the functions of the parts of a leaf Define photosynthesis Draw and label the chloroplast Describe the process of photosynthesis List down the importance of photosynthesis Explain some of the factors influencing photosynthesis Explain the factors affecting photosynthesis Explain how the leaf is adapted to the process of photosynthesis Test the presence of starch in a green leaf Investigate whether chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis Investigate whether light is necessary for photosynthesis carry out an experiment to investigate whether Carbon (IV) oxide is necessary for photosynthesis - Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis Define Chemicals of life List down types of carbohydrates Write down properties and functions of monosaccharaides Define disaccharides List properties and functions of disaccharides Define hydrolysis and condensation Define polysaccharides and lipids Write down the properties of polysaccharides and lipids carry out tests on - Starch - Reducing sugars - Non-reducing sugar - Lipids - Proteins - Vitamin c Write down the properties and functions of proteins Distinguish between carbohydrates, proteins and lipids Define enzymes Write down the properties and functions of enzymes Know the naming of the enzymes and their substrates Explain the importance of enzymes carry out an experiment on ----- - Effect of temperature on enzymes - Effects of enzyme concentration on the rate of a reaction - Effect of PH on enzyme activities Define hetetrophism List down the different modes of heterotrophism and describe them Define dentition Draw and label different types of teeth Describe the structure of a tooth Identify different types of teeth Describe the adaptations of the teeth to their functions Define dental formulae Describe and write down the dental formulae of herbivore carnivore and omnivore Write down the definition of herbivores, carnivores and omnivores Explain the adaptations of dental formulae in various groups of animals, to their mode of feeding Draw and label the internal structure of different types of teeth Write down the functions of the different parts of the internal structure of teeth Name and discuss common dental diseases Write down the adaptations of herbivores to their mode of feeding Write down the adaptations of carnivores to their modes of feeding Identify various organs associated with the digestive system of a rabbit Draw and label parts of the human digestive system Describe the regions of the alimentary canal of human digestive system Explain the functions of the human digestive system Describe the various regions of the human alimentary canal and their functions Describe how the ileum is adapted to its function Analyze the food content in the alimentary canal of a herbivore Carry out an experiment on the breakdown of starch by diastase enzymes Describe how the ileum is farther adapted to its functions Explain the end products of the digestion of various food Explain the function of the colon Explain the process of assimilation of food substances Write down the summary of chemical digestion in alimentary canal Write down the importance of vitamins in human nutrition Write down the sources of vitamins State deficiency diseases of various vitamins Write down the importance of mineral salts in human nutrition State the source of mineral salts State the deficiency diseases of mineral salts Write down the role of roughage in nutrition Write down the role of water in nutrition Discuss factors which determine energy requirements in human beings ----- Participate in group discussions and present findings on factors that determine energy requirements in human beings ----- #### **Introduction To Biology ** - Biology derived from Greek words-BIOS meaning LIFE and LOGOS meaning STUDY or KNOWLEDGE. - Biology means "life knowledge". It is the study of living things/organisms. ***Branches of Biology*** - Botany - study of plants. - Zoology - study of animals. - Microbiology - study' of microscopic organisms. - Morphology - study of external structure of organisms. - Anatomy - study of internal structure of organisms. - Physiology - study of the functioning or working of the cells or body. - Biochemistry - study of the chemistry of materials in living organisms. - Cytology - study of cells. - Genetics - study of inheritance. - Ecology- study of the relationship between organisms and their environment. - Taxonomy - sorting out of organisms into groups. - Histology - study of fine structure of tissues. - Virology - study of viruses. - Bacteriology - study of bacteria. - Entomology - study of insects. - Ichthyology - study of fish. ***Importance of Biology*** - One learns about the functioning of the human body. - One understands the developmental changes that take place in the body. - It contributes immensely to improved life. - It enables one to enter careers such as: Medicine, Nutrition, Public Health, Dentistry, Agriculture Environmental Studies. Teaching ***Characteristics of Living Things*** ***Life defined through observations of activities carried out by living things;*** - **Nutrition ** Nutrition is the processes by which food/nutrients are acquired/made and utilized by living organisms. Green plants and certain bacteria make their own food. ----- All other organisms feed on complex organic materials. - **Respiration ** This is the breakdown of food to provide energy. The energy released is used for various activities in the organism. - **Gaseous Exchange ** Process throw which respiratory gases(CO 2 &O 2 ) are taken in and out through a respiratory surface. - **Excretion ** Excretion is the removal of metabolic wastes from the body. Substances like urea, carbon dioxide (Carbon (IV) oxide). These substances are poisonous if allowed to accumulate in the body. - **Growth and Development ** Growth means irreversible change in size. All organisms increase in size that is, they grow. Development is irreversible change in complexity. As they do so, they also become differentiated in form. - **Reproduction-** Reproduction is the formation of new individuals of a species to ensure continued existence of a species and growth of its population. - **Irritability ** The ability of organisms to detect and respond to changes in the environment. This is of great survival value to the organism. - **Movement ** Is the progressive change in position from one place to another. Some organisms are sessile (i.e. fixed to the substratum). The majority of plants move only certain parts. ***Collection and Observation of Organisms*** Biology as a practical subject is learnt through humane handling of organisms. Materials needed for collection of organisms: Knives to cut portions of plant stem/root or uproot. - Polythene bags to put the collected plant or specimens. - Insect collecting jars. - Insect killing jars. - Hand gloves. - Sweep nets - Pooters - Traps ***Observation of Organisms*** Observe the plant/animal in its natural habitat before collecting. - Identify the exact place -on surface, under rock, on tree trunk, on branches. - What does it feed on? ----- - How does it interact with other animals and the environment? - How many of that kind of plant or animal are in a particular place? - Plant specimens placed on the bench and sorted out into;***seeds/stems/roots/leaves/fruits.*** - Animal specimens may be left inside polythene bags if transparent. - Others (killed ones) are put in petri dishes. - Use hand lens to observe the external features of small animals. ***Presenting the Results of Observations*** - Organisms are observed and important features noted down: colour, texture hard or soft; if hairy or not. Size is measured or estimated. - **Biological Drawings** - It is necessary to draw some of the organisms. In making a biological drawing, magnification (enlargement) is noted. - Indicate the magnification of your drawing. i.e how many times the drawing is larger/smaller than the actual specimen MG=length of drawing/length specimen ***How to Draw*** - Several drawings of one organism may be necessary to represent all features observed, e.g. - Anterior view of grasshopper shows all mouth parts properly, but not all limbs. Lateral (side) view shows all the legs. ***Collection, Observation and Recording of Organisms*** ***Collection*** - Plants and animals collected from the environment, near school or within school compound using nets, bottles and gloves. - Animals collected include:-arthropods, earthworms and small vertebrates like lizards/chameleons/ rodents. - Place in polythene bags and take to the laboratory. Stinging/poisonous insects killed using ether. - Other animals are observed live and returned to their natural habitat. - Plant specimen collected include:- leaves, flowers and whole plants. - Observations are made to show the following: Plants have roots, stems, leaves and flowers. Animals have legs, hair, hard outer covering, feathers, eyes, mouth, limbs and other appendages, ----- ***The differences between animals and plants collected.*** ***Comparison Between Plants And Animals*** |Plants|Animal| |---|---| |Plants are fixed in position and do not" l. move. 2. Respond slowly to stimuli. 3. Cells have cellulose cell walls. 4. Plants make their own food from simple materials such as CO and water using 2 light energy.|Most animals move in search of food, l. shelter and mates. 2. Respond quickly to stimuli. 3. Cells have no cell walls only a cell b 4. Animals feed on already made food.| ----- ## **Classification I ** ***Introduction*** - Classification is putting organisms into groups. - Classification is based on the study of external characteristics of organisms. - It involves detailed observation of structure and functions of organisms. - Organisms with similar characteristics are put in one group. - Differences in structure are used to distinguish one group from another. - The magnifying lens is an instrument that assists in the observation of fine structure e.g. hairs by enlarging them. ***Using a Magnifying Lens*** - A specimen is placed on the bench or held by hand, - Then the magnifying lens is moved towards the eye until the object is dearly focused and an enlarged image is seen. - The magnification can be worked out as follows: length of the drawing Magnification = length of the specimen - ***Note: magnification has no units.*** ***Nececity/need for Classification*** - To be able to identify organisms into their taxonomic groups. - To enable easier and systematic study of organisms. - To show evolutionary relationships in organisms. ***Major Units of Classification (Taxonomic Groups)*** - Taxonomy is the study of the characteristics of organisms for the purpose of classifying them. The groups are Taxa (singular Taxon). ***The taxonomic groups include:*** ----- - ***Species:*** This is the smallest unit of classification. Organisms of the same species resemble each other. The number of chromosomes in their cells is the same. Members of a species interbreed to produce fertile offspring. - ***Genus (plural genera*** *):* A genus is made up of a number of species that share several characteristics. Members of a genus cannot interbreed and if they do, the offspring are infertile. - ***Family:*** A family is made up of a number of genera that share several characteristics. - ***Order*** : A number of families with common characteristics make an order. - **Class** : Orders that share a number of characteristics make up a class. - ***Phylum/Division:*** A number of classes with similar characteristics make up a phylum (plural phyla) in animals. In plants this is called a division. ***Kingdom:*** This is made up of several phyla (in animals) or divisions (in plants). It is the largest taxonomic unit in classification. ***Kingdoms*** Living organisms are classified into five kingdoms; - Monera, - Protoctista, - Fungi, - Plantae - Animalia. ***Kingdom Fungi*** - Some are unicellular while others are multicellular. - They have no chlorophyll. - Most are saprophytic e.g. yeasts, moulds and mushrooms. - A few are parasitic e.g. ***Puccinia graminae.*** ***Kingdom Monera (Prokaryota)*** - These are very small unicellular organisms. - They lack a nuclear membrane - do not have any bound membrane organelles. ----- - Hence the name Prokaryota. - They are mainly bacteria, e.g. ***Vibrio cholerae*** *.* ***Kingdom Protoctista*** - They are unicellular organisms. Their nucleus and organelles are surrounded by membranes (eukaryotic). - They include algae, slime moulds - fungi-like and protozoa ***Kingdom Plantae*** - They are all multicellular. - They contain chlorophyll and are all autotrophic. They include; Bryophyta (mossplant), Pteridophyta (ferns) and Spermatophyta (seed bearing plants). ***Kingdom Animalia*** - These are all multicellular and heterotrophic. ----- Examples are annelida (earthworms), mollusca (snails),athropoda, chordata . - Example of Arthropods are ticks, butterflies. - Members of Chordata are fish, frogs and humans. ***External Features of Organisms*** ***In plants we should look for:-*** - Spore capsule and rhizoids in moss plants. - Sori and fronds in ferns. - Stem, leaves, roots, flowers, fruits and seeds in plants. ***In animals, some important features to look for are:*** - Segmentation, presence of limbs and, number of body parts, presence and number of antennae. These are found in phylum arthropoda: - Visceral clefts, notochord, nerve tube, fur or hair, scales, fins, mammary glands, feathers and wings. - These are found in chordata. ***Binomial Nomenclature*** - Organisms are known by their local names. - Scientists use scientific names to be able to communicate easily among themselves. - This method of naming uses two names, and is called Binomial nomenclature. The first name is the name of the genus: (generic name) which starts with a capital letter. The second name is the name of the species (specific name) which starts with a small letter. - The two names are underlined or written in italics. - Man belongs to the genus *Homo,* and the species, *sapiens.* - The scientific name of man is therefore *Homo sapiens.* - Maize belongs to the genus *Zea,* and the species *mays.* - The scientific name of maize is *Zea mays.* ***Practical Activities*** - Use of Collecting Nets, Cutting Instruments and Hand Lens. - Forceps are used to collect crawling and slow moving animals. - Sweep nets are used to catch flying insects. - Cutting instrument like scapel is used to cut specimen e.g. making sections. - Hand lens is used to magnify small plants and animals. - Drawing of the magnified organism are made and the linear magnification of each calculated. ***Collection and Detailed Observation of Small Plants and Animals*** ***e.g. moss, ferns, bean.*** Look for the following: - Moss plants: Rhizoids and spore capsules. ----- Fern plants: Rhizomes with adventitious roots; large leaves (fronds) with Sori (clusters of sporangia). Seed plants: Tree/shrub (woody) or non-woody (herbs) e.g. bean. - Root system - fibrous, adventitious and tap root. - Stem - position and length of interrnodes. - Type of leaves - simple or compound; arranged as alternate, opposite or whorled. - Flower - colour, number of parts, size and relative position of each: - Fruits - freshy or dry; edible or not edible. - Seeds - monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous. **Small animals e.g. earthworms, tick, grasshopper, butterfly, beetles.** Observe these animals to see: - Number of legs. - Presence or absence of wings. - Number of antennae. - Body covering. - Body parts. ----- ##### ***THE CELL *** ***Introduction*** - The cell is the basic unit of an organism. - All living organisms are made up of cells. - Some organisms are made up of one cell and others are said to be multicellular. - Other organisms are made of many cells and are said to be multicellular. - Cells are too little to see with the naked eye. - They can only be seen with the aid of a microscope. ***The microscope*** The microscope is used to magnify objects. ***Magnification*** - The magnifying power is usually inscribed on the lens. - To find out how many times a specimen is magnified, the magnifying power of the objective lens is multiplied by that of the eye piece lens. - If the eye piece magnification lens is x10 and the objective lens is x4, the total magnification is x40. - Magnification has no units. - It should always have the multiplication sign.e.g.x40 ----- **Microscope parts and their functions** |Parts|Function(s)| |---|---| |Eye piece|Has a lens which contributes to the magnification of the object under| |Coarse adjustment|i Moves the body tube up and down for long distances and it brings the into focus.| |Fine adjustment knob|Moves the body tube and brings the image into fine focus.| |Body tube Ji|Holds the eye piece and the revolving nose piece. It directs light from objective lenses to the eye piece lens.| |Revolving nose piece|Holds and brings objective lenses into position.| |Objective lens|Contributes to the magnification of the object.| |Arm/limb|It is for handling the microscope and also tilting it.| |Stage|Is the flat platform onto which the slide with the object is placed.| |Clips|They hold the slide firmly onto the stage.| |Condenser|Concentrates light onto the object.| |Diaphragm|~egulates the amount of light passing through the object.| |Mirror|Reflects light into the condenser.| |Hinge screw|Fixes the arm to the base and allows for tilting of the arm.| |Base/stand|Provides support to the microscope.| ***To View the Object*** - Turn the low power objective lens until it clicks into position. - Looking through the eye piece, ensure that enough light is passing through by adjusting the mirror. - This is indicated by a bright circular area known as the field of view. - Place the slide containing the specimen on stage and clip it into position. - Make sure that the specimen is in the centre of the field of view. - Using the coarse adjustment knob, bring the low power objective lens to the lowest point. - Turn the knob gently until the specimen comes into focus. - If finer details are required, use the fine adjustment knob. ----- - When using high power objective always move the fine adjustment knob upwards. ***Care of a Microscope*** - Great care should be taken when handling it. - Keep it away from the edge of the bench when using it. - Always hold it with both hands when moving it in the laboratory. - Clean the lenses with special lens cleaning paper. - Make sure that the low power objective clicks in position in line with eye piece lens before and after use. - Store the microscope in a dust-proof place free of moisture. ***Cell Structure as Seen Through the Light Microscope*** ***The cell as seen above has the following:*** ***Cell membrane (Plasma membrane):*** - This is a thin membrane enclosing cell contents. - It controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell. : ***Cytoplasm*** - This is a jelly-like substance in which chemical processes are carried out. - Scattered all over the cytoplasm are small structures called organelles. - Like an animal cell, the plant cell has a cell membrane, cytoplasm and a nucleus. ***vacuole.*** - Plant cells have permanent, central **vacuole.** It contains cell sap where sugars and salts are stored. ***Cell wall:*** - This is the outermost boundary of a plant cell. ----- - It is made of cellulose. - Between the cells is a middle lamella made of calcium pectate. ***Chloroplasts;*** - With special staining techniques it is possible to observe **chloroplasts.** - These are structures which contain chlorophyll, the green pigment responsible for trapping light for photosynthesis. ***The Electron Microscope (EM)*** - Capable of magnifying up to 500,000 times. - The specimen is mounted in vacuum chamber through which an electron beam is directed. - The image is projected on to a photographic plate. - The major **disadvantage** of the electron microscope is that it **cannot be used to** . **observe living objects** - However, it provides a **higher magnification** and **resolution** (ability to see close points as separate) than the light microscope so that specimen can be observed in more detail. ***Cell Structure as Seen Through Electron Microscope*** ----- ***The Plasma Membrane*** - Under the electron microscope, the plasma membrane is seen as a double layer. - This consists of a lipid layer sandwiched between two protein layers. - This arrangement is known as the unit membrane and the shows two lipid layers with proteins within. - Substances are transported across the membrane by active transport and diffusion. ***The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)*** - This is a network of tubular structures extending throughout the cytoplasm of the cell. - It serves as a network of pathways through which materials are transported from one part of the cell to the other. - An ER encrusted with ribosomes it is referred to as **rough endoplasmic reticulum** . - An ER that lacks ribosomes is referred to as **smooth endoplasmic reticulum.** - The rough endoplasmic reticulum transports **proteins** while the smooth endoplasmic reticulum transports **lipids.** ***The Ribosomes*** - These are small spherical structures attached to the ER. They consist of protein and ribonucleic acid (RNA). - They act as sites for the synthesis of proteins. ----- ***Goigi Bodies*** - Golgi bodies are thin, plate-like sacs arranged in stacks and distributed randomly in the cytoplasm. - Their function is packaging and transportation of glycol-proteins. - They also produce lysosomes. ***Mitochondria*** - Each mitochondrion is a rod-shaped organelle. - Made up of a smooth outer membrane and a folded inner membrane. - The foldings of the inner membrane are called **cristae.** - They increase the surface area for respiration. - The inner compartments called the matrix. - Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, where energy is produced. ***Lysosomes*** - These are vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes. - They are involved in the breakdown of micro-organisms, foreign macromolecules and damaged or worn-out cells and organelles .. ***The Nucleus*** - The nucle s is surrounded by a nuclear membrane which is a unit membrane. - The nuclear membrane has pores through which materials can move to the surrounding cytoplasm. The nucleus contains proteins and nucleic acid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and RNA. - The chromosomes are found in the nucleus. - They are the carriers of the genetic information of the cell. - The nucleolus is also located in the nucleus but it is only visible during the non-dividing phase of the cell. ***The Chloroplasts*** - These are found only in photosynthetic cells. - Each chloroplast consists of an outer unit. membrane enclosing a series of interconnected membranes called lamellae. - At various points along their length the lamellae form stacks of disc like structures called grana. - The lamellae are embedded in a granular material called the stroma. - The chloroplasts are sites of photosynthesis. - The light reaction takes place in the lamellae while the dark reactions take place in the stroma. ***Co*** ***mparison between animal cell and plant cell*** |Plant Cell|Animal Cell| |---|---| | Has a cell wall and a cell membrane. Nucleus at periphery. Have Has a large central vacuole. Are usually large. Are regular in shape. Has no centriole.| Has cell membrane only. Nucleus at the center. Have no chloroplasts. Has no vacuoles, they are small and scattered. Are usually small. Irregular in shape. Has centrioles.| ----- - Stores starch, oils and p rotein. - Store g l y co g en and fats. ***Cell Specialisation*** Cells are specialised to perform different functions in both plants and animals. **Example;** - Palisade cells have many chloroplasts for photosynthesis. - Root hair cells are long and thin to absorb water from the soil. - Red blood cells have haemoglobin which transports oxygen. - Sperm cells have a tail to swim to the egg. - Multicellular organisms cells that perform the same function are grouped together to form a tissue. - Each tissue is therefore made up of cells that are specialised to carry out a particular function. |Animal Tissues-|- Examples of animal tissues|Col3| |---|---|---| |Type of Tissue|Functions|Characteristics| |l. Epithelial Tissue (a) Squamous (b) Columnar (c) stratified (d) Cuboidal|Covering. allowing movement of materials Covering of internal organs. lining for Secretion. absorption e.g. in the Covering surfaces, protection e.g. the Absoption e.g. in the kidney tubules.|Thin flat cells. Cells that are longer than they Several layers of epithelial cells squamous. cuboidal or cube like cells.| |2. Muscular Tissue (a) Striated voluntary (b) Smooth involuntary (c) Cardiac muscle|Contraction, bringing about Contract and allow movement. cover internal organs; allow peristalsis. Cause contraction of the heart.|Contists of units called Are multicleated; have controlled by voluntary Are spindle-shaped. controlled by involuntary contract rhythmically; are (ability to contract is within)| |3. Supporting Tissue (a) Cartilage (b) Bone|Support the body. provide a rigid framework, protect soft tissue.|Cells that produce hard| |4. Blood|Transport of materials. protection|A complex tissue consisting of of cells suspended in a fluid| |5. Nerve Tissue|Receive stimuli and transmit impulses; co-ordinate body activities|Consists of cells called which are interconnected axons to enable transmission| ***Plant Tissues*** ***Example of plant tissues*** |Type of Tissue|Functions|Characteristics| |---|---|---| |L Meristematic|Undergo division and cause e.g. increase in length and girth|Small thin-walled celis, contain a lot of cytoplasm; found mostly at the tip of shoots and roots.| |2. Parenchyma|Photosynthesis gaseous suphport; storage.|Thin walled cells; vary in shape and size; many intercellular spaces.| ----- |3. Collenchyma|Strengthening.|Thickened walls; no intercellular spaces; found in cortex of stems.| |---|---|---| |4. Sclerenchyma|Strengthening.|Vary in shape; thick cell walls; are usually dead.| |5. Vascular (a) Xylem (b) Phloem|Transport materials. Transport of water and mineral Transport of organic materials (manufactured food).|Tubular vessels and trancheids joined end to end. Sieve elements joined to each other through sieve pores.| ***Organs*** - An organ is made up of different tissues - e.g. the heart, lungs, kidneys and the brain in animals and roots, stems and leaves in plants. ***Organ systems*** - Organs which work together form an organ system. - Digestive, excretory, nervous and circulatory in animals and transport and support system in plants. ***organism*** - Different organ systems form an organism. ***Practical Activities*** Observation and Identification of parts of a light microscope and their functions - A light microscope is provided. - Various parts are identified and observed. - Drawing and labelling of the microscope is done. - Functions of the parts of the mircroscope are stated. - Calculations of total magnification done using the formula. - **Eye piece lens maginification** x **objective lens rnaginification.** ***Preparation and Observation of Temporary Slides of Plant Cells*** - A piece of epidermis is made from the fleshy leaf of an onion bulb. It is placed on a microscope slide and a drop of water added. - A drop of iodine is added and a cover slip placed on top. - Observations are made, under low and medium power objective. - The cell wall and nucleus stain darker than other parts. - A labelled drawing is made. - The following are noted: **Nucleus, cell wall, cytoplasm and cell membrane.** ***Observation of permanent slides of animal cells*** - Permanent slides of animal cells are obtained e.g, of cheek cells, nerve cells and muscle cells. - The slide is mounted on the microscope and observations made under low power and medium power objectives. ----- - Labelled drawings of the cells are made. - A comparison between plant and animal cell is made. ***Observation and Estimation of Cell Size and Calculation of Magnification of*** ***Plant Cells.*** - Using the low power objective, a transparent ruler is placed on the stage of the microscope. - An estimation of the diameter of the field of view is made in millimeters. This is converted into micrometres (1mm=1000u) - A prepared slide of onion epidermal cells is mounted. - The cells across the centre of the field of view are counted from left and right and top to bottom. - The diameter of field of view is divided by the number of cells lying lengthwise to give an estimate of the length and width of each cell. ##### **Cell Physiology** ***Meaning of cell physiology*** - The term physiology refers to the functions that occur in living organisms. - Cell physiology refers to the process through which substances move across the cell membrane. - Several physiological processes take place inside the cell.e.g. respiration. Oxygen and glucose required enter the cell while carbon (IV) oxide and water produced leave the cell through the cell membrane. ***Structure and properties of cell membrane*** - The cell membrane is the protective barrier that shelter cellular contents. - Movement of all substances into and out of the cells takes place across the cell membrane. - It is made up of protein and lipid molecules. ----- - Lipid molecules have phosphate group attached to it on one end. - They are then referred to phospholipids. - The phospholipids are arranged to form a double layer. - The ends with phosphate group face outwards. - the proteins are scattered throughout the lipid double layer. - Some of these proteins act as carrier molecules that channel some material in and outside the cells. - The cell membrane allows certain molecules to pass through freely while others move through with difficulty and still others do not pass through at all. - This is selective permeability and the cell membrane is described as semi-permeable. ***Properties of cell membrane*** ***Permeability*** - The cell membrane is semi-permeable. - it allows small molecules that are soluble in lipid to pass through with more ease than water soluble molecules. - this is due to the presence of the phospholipids double layer. ***Polarlity*** - The cell membrane has electrical charges across its surface.it has positive charged ions on the outside and negatively charged ions on the inside.this property contributes to electrical impulses sent along nerve cells. - Sensitivity to changes in temperature and pH - Very high temperatures destroy the semi-permeability nature of the cell membrane because the proteins are denatured by extreme pH values have the same effect on the membrane permeability. - Physiological processes - Some of the physiological processes include diffusion, osmosis and active transport. ***Diffusion*** - Diffusion is the movement of molecules or ions from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration aided by a concentration gradient.. - diffusion continues to occur as long as there is a difference in concentration between two regions (concentration gradient). - Stops when an equilibrium is reached i.e., when the concentration of molecules is the same in both regions. - Diffusion is a process that occurs inside living organisms as well as the external environment.. - Does not require energy. ----- ***Factors Affecting Diffusion*** .~ - **Concentration Gradient** An increase in the concentration of molecules at one region results in a steeper concentration gradient which in turn increases the rate of diffusion. - **Temperature** High temperature increases kinetic energy of molecules. They move faster hence resulting in an increase in rate of diffusion, and vice versa. - **Size of Molecules or Ions** The smaller the size of molecules or ions, the faster their movement hence higher rate of diffusion. - **Density** The denser the molecules or ions diffusing, the slower the rate of diffusion, and vice versa. - **Medium** The medium through which diffusion occurs also affects diffusion of molecules or ions. For example, diffusion of molecules through gas and liquid media is faster than through a solid medium. - **Distance** This refers to the thickness or thinness of surface across which diffusion occurs. Rate of diffusion is faster when the distance is small i.e., thin surface. - **Surface Area to Volume Ratio** The larger the surface area to volume ratio, the faster the rate of diffusion. For example, in small organisms such as Amoeba the surface area to volume ratio, is greater hence faster diffusion than in larger organisms. ###### ***Role of Diffusion in Living Organisms *** **Some processes that depend on diffusion include the following:** - Gaseous exchange: Movement of gases through respiratory surfaces is by diffusion. - Absorption of materials into cells Cells obtain raw materials and nutrients from the surrounding tissue fluid and blood through diffusion, e.g., glucose needed for respiration diffuses from blood and tissue fluid into cells. Excretion: Removal of metabolic waste products like carbon (IV) oxide, and ammonia out of cells is by diffusion. - Absorption of the end-products of digestion from the intestines is by diffusion. ***Osmosis*** - Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of high water concentration to a region of low water concentration through a semi-permeable membrane. - Osmosis is a special type of diffusion that involves the **movement of water molecules only** and **not solute molecules.** - Osmosis takes place in cells across the cell membrane as well as across non-living membranes - e.g. cellophane or visking tubing which are also semi-permeable, - It is purely a physical process. ----- ***Factors Affecting Osmosis*** - **Size of solute molecules-** Osmosis' occurs ylnowhen solute molecules are too large to pass through a semipermeable membrane. - **Concentration Gradient .** Osmosis occurs when two solutions of unequal solute concentration are separated by a semi-permeable membrane. - **Temperature,.** High temperatures increase movement of water molecules hence influence osmosis. However, too high temperatures denature proteins in cell membrane and osmosis stops. - **Pressure** Increase in pressure affects movement of water molecules. As pressure increases inside a plant cell, osmosis decreases. ***Roles of Osmosis in Living Organisms*** The following processes depend on osmosis in living organisms: - Movement of water into cells from the surrounding tissue fluid and also from cell to cell. - Absorption of water from the soil and into the roots of plants. - Support in plants especially herbaceous ones, is provided by turgor pressure, which results from intake of water by osmosis. - Absorption of water from the alimentary canal in mammals. - Re-absorption of water in the kidney tubules. - Opening and closing stomata. ***Water Relations in Plant and Animal Cells*** The medium (solution) surrounding cells or organisms is described by the terms **hypotonic, hypertonic** and **isotonic.** - A solution whose solute concentration is more than that of the cell sap is said to be **hypertonic** . A cell placed in such a solution loses water to the surroundings by osmosis. - A solution whose solute concentration is less than that of the cell sap is said to be **hypotonic** . A cell placed in such a solution gains water from the surroundings by osmosis. - A solution which has the same solute concentration as the cell sap is said to be **isotonic** . When a cell is placed in such a solution there will be no net movement of water either into or out of the cell. ***Osmotic Pressure*** - The term osmotic pressure describes the tendency of the solution with a high solute concentration to draw water into itself when it is separated from distilled water or dilute solution by a semi-permeable membrane. - Osmotic pressure is measured by an osmometer. - When plant cells are placed in distilled water or in a hypotonic solution, the osmotic pressure in the cells is higher than the osmotic pressure of the medium. - This causes the water to enter the cells by osmosis. - The water collects in the vacuole which increases in size. ----- - As a result the cytoplasm is pushed outwards and it in turn presses the cell membrane next to the cell wall. This builds up water pressure (hydrostatic pressure) inside the cell. - When the cell is stretched to the maximum, the cell wall prevents further entry of water into the cell. - Then the cell is said to be **fully** turgid. - The hydrostatic pressure developed is known as **turgor** pressure. ***Plasmolysis*** - When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic medium, it loses water by osmosis. - The osmotic pressure of the cell is lower than that of the medium. - The vacuole decreases in size and the cytoplasm shrinks as a result of which the cell membrane loses contact with the cell wall. - The cell becomes flaccid. The whole process is described as plasmolysis. - **Incipient** plasmolysis is when a cell membrane just begins to lose contact with the cell wall. - Plasmolysis can be reversed by placing the cell in distilled water or hypotonic solution. - However, full plasmolysis may not be reversed if cell stays in that state for long. ***Wilting*** - The term wilting describes the drooping of leaves and stems of herbaceous plants after considerable amounts of water have been lost through transpiration. - It is observed in hot dry afternoons or in dry weather. - This is when the amount of water lost through transpiration exceeds the amount absorbed through the roots. - Individual cells lose turgor and become plasmolysed and the leaves and stems droop. - The condition is corrected at night when absorption of water by the roots continue while transpiration is absent. - Eventually, wilting plants may die if the soil water is not increased through rainfall or watering. ***Water Relations in Plants and Animals*** ***Haemolysis*** - Haemolysis is the bursting of cell membrane of red blood cells releasing their haemoglobin. - It occurs when red blood cells are placed in distilled water or hypotonic solution. - This is because the cell membrane does not resist further entry of water by osmosis after maximum water intake. ***Crenation*** - Takes place when red blood cells are placed in hypertonic solution. - They lose water by osmosis, shrink and their shape gets distorted. - **Animal cells** have mechanisms that regulate their salt water balance (osmoregulation) to prevent above processes that lead to death of cells. - An Amoeba placed in distilled water, i.e. hypotonic solution, removes excess water using a contractile vacuole. - The rate of formation of contractile vacuoles increases. **Active Transport** ----- - Active transport is the movement of solutes such as .glucose, amino acids and mineral ions; - From an area of their low concentration to an area of high concentration. - It is movement against a concentration gradient and therefore energy is required. - As such it only takes place in living organisms. - The energy needed comes from respiration. - Certain proteins in the cell surface membrane responsible for this movement are referred to as **carrier proteins or channel proteins.** - The shape of each type of carrier protein is specific to the type of substances conveyed through it. - It has been shown that the substance fits into a particular slot on the protein molecule, - As the protein changes from one form of shape to another the substance is moved across and energy is expended. ***Factors Affecting Active Transport*** ***Availability of oxygen*** - Energy needed for active transport is provided through respiration. - An increase in the amount of oxygen results in a higher rate of respiration. - If a cell is deprived of oxygen active transport stops . ***Temperature*** - Optimum temperature is required for respiration, hence for active transport. - Very high temperatures denature respiratory enzymes. - Very low temperatures inactivate enzymes too and active transport stops. ***Availability of carbohydrates*** - Carbohydrates are the main substrates for respiration. - Increase in amount of carbohydrate results in more energy production during respiration and hence more active transport. - Lack of carbohydrates causes active transport to stop. ***Metabolic poisons*** - Metabolic poisons e.g. cyanide inhibit respiration and stops active transport due to lack of energy. ***Role of Active Transport in Living Organisms*** Processes requiring active transport: - Absorption of mineral salts from the soil into plant roots. - Absorption of end products of digestion e.g. glucose and amino acids from the digestive tract into blood stream. - Excretion of metabolic products e.g.urea from the cells. - Re-absorption of useful substances and mineral salts back into blood capillaries from the kidney tubules. - Sodium-pump mechanism in nerve cells. - Re-absorption of useful materials from tissue fluid into the blood stream. ###### * Practical Activities * 1. **Experiment to Demonstrate Diffusion** ----- - Various coloured substances such as: dyes, plant extracts and chemicals like potassium pennanganate are used. Potassium manganate (VII) crystals are introduced to the bottom of a beaker filled - with water using a glass tubing or drinking straw which is then removed. - Observations are made and the disappearance of the crystals and subsequent uniform colouring of water noted. 2. **Experiment to Demonstrate Osmosis Using a Visking Thbing** - A strip of visking tubing 8-10 cm is cut and tied at one end using strong thread. - About 2 ml of 25% sucrose solution is put inside and the other end tied with thread. - The tubing is washed under running water and then blotted to dry. - It is immersed in a beaker containing distilled water and left for at least one hour or overnight. - It will then be observed that the visking tubing has greatly increased in size and has become firm. - A control experiment can be set up using distilled water inside the visking tubing in place of sucrose solution. **3.Experiment to Show Osmosis using Living Tissue** - Irish potato tubers are peeled and scooped out to make hollow space at the centre. - Sucrose solution is placed inside the hollow, and the potato tuber placed in a beaker or petri-dish with distilled water. A conttrol is set using a boiled potato. - Another one using distilled water inside hollow in place of sugar solution. - The experiment is left for 3 hours to 24 hours. **4.Experiment to Demonstrate Turgor and Plasmolysis in Onion Epidermal Cells** - Two strips of onion epidermis are obtained. - One is placed on a slide with distilled water while the other is placed on a slide with 25% sucrose solution and a coverslip placed on top of each. - The mounted epidermis is observed under low power microscope and then left for 30 minutes. - After 30 minutes, observations are made again. The cells in distilled water have greatly enlarged. Cells in 25 % sucrose have shrunk. ----- ##### **Nutrition in Plants and Animals** ***Structure of the Leaf*** ***External Structure*** - The external structure of the leaf consists of a leaf stalk or petiole and a broad leaf blade or lamina. - The lamina has a main vein midrib from which smaller veins originate. - The outline of the leaf is the margin and the tip forms the apex. ***Internal Structure of the Leaf*** ***Epidermis*** - This is the outer layer of cells, normally one cell thick. - It is found in both the upper and lower leaf surfaces. - The cells are arranged end to end. ----- - The epidermis offers protection and maintains the shape of the leaf. - It is covered by a layer of cuticle which reduces evaporation. ***Leaf Mesophyll*** Consists of the palisade layer, next to upper epidermis, and the spongy layer next to the lower epidermis. ***Palisade Mesophyll Layer*** The cells are elongated and arranged close to each other leaving narrow air spaces. These contain numerous chloroplasts and are the main photosynthetic cells. In most plants, the chloroplast are distributed fairly uniformly throughout the cytoplasm. In certain plants growing in shaded habitats in dim light, most chloroplasts migrate to the upper region of the palisade cells in order to maximise absorption of the limited light available. ***Spongy Mesophyll Layer*** - The cells are spherical in shape. - They are loosely arranged, with large intercellular spaces between them. - The spaces are airfilled and are linked to the stomatal pores. - The spongy mesophyll cells have fewer chloroplasts than the palisade mesophyll cells. ***Vascular Bundles*** - These are made up of the xylem and the phloem tissues. - The xylem transports water and mineral salts to the leaves. - The phloem transports food manufactured in the leaf to the other parts of the plant and from storage organs to other parts. ***Adaptations of Leaf for Photosynthesis*** - Presence of veins with vascular bundles. Xylem vessels transport water for photosynthesis. - Phloem transports manufactured food from leaves to other parts of the plant. - Leaf lamina is thin to allow for penetration of light over short distance to reach photosynthetic cells. Broad lamina provides a large surface area for absorption of light and carbon (IV) oxide. - Transparent cuticle and epidermal layer allow light to penetrate to mesophyll cells. - Palisade cells are close to the upper epidermis for maximum light absorption. - Presence of numerous chloroplasts in palisade mesophyll traps maximum light. - Chloroplast contain chlorophyll that traps light energy. - Spongy mesophyll layer has large intercellular air spaces allowing for gaseous exchange. Presence of stomata for efficient gaseous exchange (entry of carbon (IV) oxide into leaf and exit of oxygen). - Mosaic arrangement of leaves to ensure no overlapping of leaves hence every leaf is exposed to light. ###### ***Structure and Function of Chloroplasts *** Chloroplasts are large organelles (5 um in diameter) found in the cytoplasm of green plant cells. - They are visible under the light microscope. ----- - They contain chlorophyll, a green pigment and other carotenoids which are yellow, orange and red in colour. - Certain plants have red or purple leaves due to abundance of these other pigments. - Chlorophyll absorbs light energy and transforms it into chemical energy. - The other pigments absorb light but only to pass it onto chlorophyll. - The wall of chloroplast consists of an outer and an inner membrane. - The two make up the chloroplast envelop. - Inner membrane encloses a system of membranes called lamellae. At intervals, the membranes form stacks of fluid filed sacs known as grana (singular granum). - Chloroplast and other pigments are attached to the grana. - In between the lamellae is a gel-like stroma, that contains starch grains and lipid droplets. Enzymes for the dark stage reaction (light independent stage) are embedded in the stroma. - Enzymes for the light dependent stage occur in the grana. ###### ***Functions *** - .Absorption of light by chlorophyll and other pigments. Light stage of photosynthesis occurs on the grana. (transformation of light energy to chemical energy.) - Carbon fixation to form carbohydrate takes place in the stroma which has enzymes for dark stage of photosynthesis. ###### ***Process of Photosynthesis *** - Photosynthesis involves a series of chemical reactions, all of which take place inside chloroplasts. - A general equation for photosynthesis is: Carbon (IV)Oxide+Water [light energy] ---Glucose+Oxygen chlorophyll ----- 6CO 2+ 6H 2 O light C 6 H 12 O+6O 2 chlorophyll - The reaction occurs in two main phases or stages. - The initial state requires light and it is called the light dependent stage or simply light stage. - It takes place on the lamellae surfaces. - Its products are used in the dark stage. - The dark stage does not require light although it occurs in the light and is called light independent stage. ***Light-Stage*** - Two reactions take place that produce raw materials for the dark stage: - Light energy splits the water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. - This process is called photolysis. - The hydrogen is taken up by a hydrogen acceptor called Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) while oxygen is released as a by-product. 2H 2 O (l) light energy 4H+O 2 photolysis - Light energy strikes the chlorophyll molecules and sets in motion a series of reactions resulting in the production of a high energy molecule called adenosine triphophate (ATP). ***Dark Stage*** This stage involves the fixation of carbon i.e. the reduction of carbon (IV) oxide by addition of hydrogen to form carbohydrate. - It uses the products formed during the light stage. - *ATP* Carbon + Hydrogen --- Carbohydrates (IV) oxide - The synthesis of carbohydrates does not take place in a simple straight line reaction as shown in the equation above. - It involves a series of steps that constitute what is known as the Calvin cycle. Carbon (IV) oxide is taken up by a compound described as a carbon (IV) oxide acceptor. - This is a 5-carbon compound known as ribulose biphosphate and a six carbon compound is formed which is unstable and splits into two three-carbon compounds. - Hydrogen from the light reaction is added to the three carbon compound using energy (ATP) from the light reaction. The result is a three carbon (triose) sugar, (phosphoglycerate or PGA). - This is the first product of photosynthesis. - Glucose, other sugars as well as starch are made from condensation of the triose sugar molecules. The first product is a 3-carbon sugar which condenses to form glucose (6-C sugar). - From glucose, sucrose and eventually starch is made. - Sucrose is the form in which carbohydrate is transported from the leaves to other parts of the plant. - Starch is the storage product. - Other substances like oils and proteins are made from sugars. ----- - This involves incorporation of other elements e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur. ###### ***Factors Influencing Photosynthesis *** - Certain factors must be provided for before photosynthesis can take place. - The rate or amount of photosynthesis is also influenced by the quantity or quality of these same factors. ***Carbon(IV) Oxide Concentration*** Carbon (IV) oxide is one of the raw materials for photosynthesis. No starch is formed when leaves are enclosed in an atmosphere without carbon (IV) oxide. The concentration of carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere remains fairly constant at about 0.03% by volume. However, it is possible to vary the carbon (IV) oxide concentration under experimental conditions. Increasing the carbon (IV) oxide concentration up to 0.1 % increases the rate of photosynthesis. - Further increase reduces the rate. ***Light Intensity*** - Light supplies the energy for photosynthesis. - Plants kept in the dark do not form starch. - Generally, increase in light intensity up to a certain optimum, increases the rate of photosynthesis. - The optimum depends on the habitat of the plant. - Plants that grow in shady places have a lower optimum than those that grow in sunny places. ***Water*** - Water is necessary as a raw material for photosynthesis. - The amount of water available greatly affects the rate of photosynthesis. - The more water available, the more the photosynthetic rate, hence amount of food made. - Effect of water on photosynthesis can only be inferred from the yield of crops. It is the main determinant of yield (limiting factor in the tropics). ***Temperature*** - The reactions involved in photosynthesis are catalysed by a series of enzymes. - A suitable temperature is therefore necessary. - The optimum temperature for photosynthesis in most plants is around 30"C. - This depends on the natural habitat of the plant. Some plants in temperate regions have 20C as their optimum while others in the tropics have 45C as their optimum temperature. - The rate of photosynthesis decreases with a decrease in temperature below the optimum. In most plants, photosynthesis stops when temperatures approach OC although some arctic plant species can photosynthesise at -2C or even -3C. ----- - Likewise, increase in temperature above the optimum decreases the rate and finally the reactions stop at temperatures above 40c due to enzyme denaturation. - However, certain algae that live in hot springs e.g. *Oscilatoria* can photosynthesise at 75C ***Chlorophyll*** - Chlorophyll traps or harnesses the energy from light. - Leaves without chlorophyll do not form starch. ###### ***Chemical Compounds Which Constitute Living Organisms *** - All matter is made up of chemical elements, each of which exists in the form of smaller units called atoms. - Some of the elements occur in large amounts in living things. - These include carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. - Elements combine together to form compounds. - Some of these compounds are organic. - Organic compounds contain atoms of carbon combined with hydrogen and they are usually complex. - Other compounds are inorganic. - Most inorganic compounds do not contain carbon and hydrogen and they are usually less complex. - Cells contain hundreds of different classes of organic compounds. - However, there are four classes of organic compounds found in all cells. - These are: *carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.* ##### ***Carbohydrates *** - Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. - Hydrogen and oxygen occur in the ratio of 2: 1 as in water. - Carbohydrates are classified into three main groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. ***Monosaccharides*** - These are simple sugars. - The carbon atoms in these sugars form a chain to which hydrogen and oxygen atoms are attached. - Monosaccharides are classified according to the number of carbon atoms they possess. - The most common monosaccharides are: Glucose - found free in fruits and vegetables. Fructose - found free in fruits and in bee honey. Galactose - found combined in milk sugar. - The general formula for these monosaccharides is (CH 2 O)n where n is 6. - They have the same number of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen molecules i.e. C 6 H 12 O 6 *.* ***Properties of Monosaccharides*** - They are soluble in water. ----- - They are crystallisable. - They are sweet. - The are all reducing sugars. This is because they reduce blue copper (II) sulphate solution when heated to copper oxide which is red in colour and insoluble. ***Functions of Monosaccharides*** - They are oxidised in the cells to produce energy during respiration. Formation of important biological molecules e.g. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). - Some monosaccharides are important metabolic intermediates e.g. in photosynthesis and in respiration. - Monosaccharides are the units from which other more complex sugars are formed through condensation. ###### ***Disaccharides *** - These contain two monosaccharide units. The chemical process through which a large molecule (e.g. a disaccharide) is formed from smaller molecules is called condensation and it involves loss of water. Common examples of disaccharides include sucrose, maltose and lactose. |Monosaccharide units|Disaccharides| |---|---| |Glucose+fructose|Sucrose(cane sugar)| |Glucose+glucose|Maltose(malt sugar)| |Glucose+galactose|Lactose(milk sugar)| - Disaccharides are broken into their monosaccharide units by heating with dilute hydrochloric acid. - This is known as hydrolysis and involves addition of water molecules. - The same process takes place inside cells through enzymes. Sucrose+water_ --hydrolysis----------------- glucose+fructose ###### ***Properties of Disaccharides *** - Sweet tasting. - Soluble in water. - Crystallisable. - Maltose and lactose are reducing sugars while sucrose is non-reducing sugar. - Sucrose is the form in which carbohydrate is transported in plants: - This is because it is soluble andjchernically stable. - Sucrose is a storage carbohydrate in some plants e.g. sugar-cane and sugar-beet. - Disaccharides are hydrolysed to produce monosaccharide units which are readily metabolised by cell to provide energy. ###### ***Polysaccharides *** - If many monosaccharides are joined together through condensation, a polysaccharide is formed. - Polysaccharides may consist of hundreds or even thousands of monosaccharide units. - Examples of polysaccharides: Starch - storage material in plants. ----- Glycogen is a storage carbohydrate in animals like starch, but has longer chains. Inulin - a storage carbohydrate in some plants e.g. Dahlia. Cellulose - structural carbohydrate in plants. Chitin - forms exoskeleton in arthropods. ###### ***Importance and Functions of Polysaccharides *** - They are storage carbohydrates - starch in plants glycogen in animals. - They are hydrolysed to their contituent monosaccharide units and used for respiration. . - They form structural material e.g. cellulose makes cell walls. - Cellulose has wide commercial uses e.g. Fibre in cloth industry. Cellulose is used to make paper. - Carbohydrates combine with other molecules to form important structural compounds in living organisms. - Examples are: Pectins: Combine with calcium ions to form calcium pectate. Chitin: Combine with (NH) group. Makes the exoskeleton of arthropods, and walls of fungi. ###### ***Lipids *** - These are fats and oils. - Fats are solid at room temperature while oils are liquid. - They are made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen atoms. - The structural units of lipids are fatty acids and glycerol. Fatty acids are made up of hydrocarbon chain molecules with a carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end. - In the synthesis of a lipid, three fatty acid molecules combine with one glycerol molecule to form a triglyceride. - Three molecules of water are lost in the process. - This is a condensation reaction and water is given off. - Lipids are hydrolysed e.g. during digestion to fatty acids and glycerol, water is added. *condensation* Glycerol + 3 Fatty *hydrolysis* Lipid + Water acids ##### ***Properties *** - Fats are insoluble in water but dissolve in organic solvents e.g. in alcohols. - They are chemically inactive, hence used as food storage compounds. ###### ***Functions of Lipids *** - ***Structural materials*** - as structural material they make up the cell membrane. - ***Source of energy*** - they are energy rich molecules. One molecule of lipid provides more energy than a carbohydrate molecule. - ***Storage compound*** - They are stored as food reserves in plants. ----- - In animals e.g. mammals, all excess food taken is converted to fats which are stored in adipose tissue, and around internal organs such as the heart and kidneys. - ***Insulation*** - They provide insulation in animals living in cold climates. A lot of fat is stored under the skin e.g. blubber in seals. - ***Protection*** - Complex lipids e.g. wax on leaf surfaces protects the plant against waterloss and overheating. - **Fats stored around some internal organs acts as shock absorbers**, thus protecting the organs. - ***Source of Metabolic Water*** **-:-** lipids when oxidised produce metabolic water which supplements water requirements in the body. Desert animals e.g. the camel accumulate large quantities of fat in the hump which when oxidised releases metabolic water. ##### ***Proteins *** - Proteins are the most abundant organic compounds in cells and constitute 50% of total dry weight. - Proteins are compounds which are made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sometimes sulphur and phosphorus. - The structural units of proteins are amino acids. - The nature of a protein is determined by the types of amino acids it is made of. - There are about 20 common amino acids that make up proteins. ***Essential and Non-Essential Amino Acids*** - Essential amino acids are those which cannot be synthesised in the body of an organism and must therefore be provided in the diet. - There are ten amino acids which are essential for humans. - These are valine, leucine, phenylalanine, lysine, tryptophan, isoleucine, methionine, threonine, histidine and arginine. - Non-essential amino acids are those which the body can synthesise and therefore need not be available in the diet. - There are ten of them. - These are glycine, alanine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid, serine, tyrosine, proline, glutamine, arginine and cysteine. - Proteins are essential in the diet because they are not stored in the body. - Excess amino acids are deaminated. ###### ***Formation of Proteins *** - Proteins are made up of many amino acid units joined together through peptide bonds. - When two amino acids are joined together a dipeptide is formed. - The chemical process involved is called condensation and a molecule of water is eliminated . - When many amino acids are joined together a polypeptide chain is formed. - The nature of a particular protein depends on the types, number and sequence of amino acids from which it is made. ----- ***Functions of Proteins*** - ***As structural materials*** ***proteins*** **-** Are the basic building structures of protoplasms. Proteins in conjunction with lipid form the cell membrane. Examples of structural proteins include: Keratin (in hair, nails, hoofs, feathers and wool) Silk in spider's web. Elastin forms ligaments that join bones to each other. - **.** ***Protective proteins*** Antibodies that protect the body against foreign antigens. Fribrogen and thrombin are involved in clot formation, preventing entry of micro-organisms when blood vessel is cut. - **.** ***As functional chemical compounds*** Examples are hormones and enzymes that act as regulators in the body. Respiratory pigments. Examples are haemoglobin that transports oxygen in the blood and myoglobin that stores up oxygen in muscles. Contractile proteins - make up muscles, i.e. myosin and actin. Proteins combine with other chemical groups to form important substances e.g. mucin in saliva. - **.** ***Source of energy*** Proteins are a source of energy in extreme conditions when carbohydrates and fats are not available e.g. in starvation. ***Enzymes*** - Enzymes are biological catalysts that increase the rate of chemical reaction in the body. - They are all produced inside cells. - Some are intracellular and they catalyse reactions within the cells . - Others are extracellular and are secreted out of the cells where they work. e.g. digestive enzymes. ***Properties of Enzymes*** - Enzymes are protein in nature. - Enzymes are specific to the type of reaction they catalyse. - This is referred to as substrate specificity. - Enzymes work in very small amounts. - They remain unchanged after the reaction. - They catalyse reversible reactions. They work very fast (high turnover numbers) e.g. the enzyme catalase works on 600 thousand molecules of hydrogen peroxide in one second. ----- ***Naming of enzymes*** Enzymes are named by adding the suffix -ase to: *Name of substrate that they work on e.g.* carbohydrates - carbohydrases e.g.sucrase. Starch (amylose) - amylase Protein - proteinase (protease) Lipids -lipases *Type of chemical reaction catalised e.g.* Oxidation - oxidase Reduction - reductase Hydrolysis - hydrolase ##### ***Factors Affecting Enzyme Action *** ***Temperature*** - Enzymes are sensitive to temperature changes. - Generally, the rate of an enzymecontrolled reaction doubles with every 10 [O] C increase in temperature. However, temperatures above 40C do not favour enzyme reaction. - This is because enzymes are denatured by high temperatures. ***pH*** - Every enzyme has a particular pH range over which it works best. - Some enzymes work best in acidic media while others function better in alkaline media. - Many enzymes function well under neutral conditions. ***Enzyme Concentration*** - Under conditions where the substrate is in excess, the rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction increases as the enzyme concentration is increased. ***Substrate Concentration*** - If the concentration of the substrate is increased while that of the enzyme remains constant, the rate of the reaction will increase for sometime and then become constant. - Any further increase in substrate concentration will not result in corresponding increase in the rate of the reaction. ***Enzyme Inhibitors*** - These are substances that either compete with substrates for enzyme active sites or combine with enzymes and hence they inhibit the enzyme reaction. - e.g. certain drugs, cyanide and nerve gas. ***Co-factors*** - Most enzymes require the presence of other compounds known as co-factors which are non-proteins. - There are three groups of co-factors. - Inorganic ions - e.g. iron, magnesium, copper and zinc. - Complex organic molecules known as prosthetic groups are attached to the enzyme ----- e.g. flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) derived from vitamin B2 (riboflavin). - Co-enzymes e.g. coenzyme A is involved in respiration. - All co-enzymes are derived from vitamins. ### ***Nutrition in Animals=*** # *Heterotrophism * ***Meaning and Types of Heterotrophism*** - This is a mode of nutrition whereby organisms feed on complex organic matter from other plants or animals. - All animals are heterotrophs. - Their mode of feeding is also said to be holozoic to distinguish it from other special types of heterotrophic nutrition namely: saprophytism parasitism. Saprophytism/saprotrophysim- occurs in most fungi and some forms of bacteria. - Saprophytes feed on dead organic matter and cause its decomposition or decay. - Parasitism is a mode of feeding whereby one organism called the parasite feeds on or lives in another organism called the host and harms it. ----- ##### ***Modes of Feeding in Animals *** - Animals have developed various structures to capture and ingest food. - The type of structures present depend on the method of feeding and the type of food. - **Carnivorous** animals feed on whole animals or portions of their flesh. - **Herbiverous** animals feed on plant material. - ***Omnivorous*** animals feed on both plants and animal materials. ***Feeding in Mammals*** - The jaws and teeth of mammals are modified according to the type of food eaten. - Mammals have different kinds of teeth. - Each type of teeth has a particular role to play in the feeding process. ***Feeding in Mammals*** - The jaws and teeth of mammals are modified according to the type of food eaten. - Mammals have different kinds of teeth. - Each type of teeth has a particular role to play in the feeding process. - This condition is described as heterodont. - The teeth of reptiles and amphibians are all similar in shape and carry out the same function. - They are said to be homodont. ###### **Types of Mammalian Teeth ** - Mammals have four kinds of teeth. - The incisors are found at the front of the jaw. - They are sharp-edged and are used for biting. - The canines are located at the sides of the jaw. - They are pointed and are used for tearing and piercing. - The premolars are next to the canines and the molars are at the back of the jaw. - Both premolars and molars are used for crushing and grinding. - Teeth are replaced only once in a lifetime. - The first set is the milk or deciduous teeth. - These are replaced by the second set or the permanent teeth. - Dentition refers to the type of teeth, the number and their arrangement in the jaw. ----- - A dental formula shows the type and number of teeth in each half of the jaw. - The number of teeth in half of the upper jaw is represented above a line and those on the lower jaw below the line. - The first letter of each type of teeth is used in the formula i.e. i =incisors, c = canines, pm = premolars and m = molars. The total number is obtained by multiplying by two (for the two halves of each jaw). ###### *** Adaptation of Teeth to Feeding *** - In general, incisors are for cutting, canines for tearing while premolars and molars are for grinding. - However, specific modifications are observed in different mammals as an adaptation to the type of food they eat. - Teeth of Herbivores - Incisors are long and flat with a sharp chisellike edge for cutting. - The enamel coating is thicker in front than at the back so that as the tooth wears out, a sharp edge is maintained. - Canines are reduced or absent. - If absent, the space left is called the diastema. - The diastema allows the tongue to hold food and push it to the grinding teeth at the back of the mouth. ***Premolars and molars:*** - These are transversely ridged. - The ridges on the upper teeth fit into grooves on the lower ones. - This gives a sideways grinding surface. - The teeth of herbivores have open roots i.e., wide opening into the pulp cavity. - This ensures a continued adequate supply of food and oxygen to the tooth. - In some herbivores, such as rabbits and elephants, the incisors continue to grow throughout life. ***Teeth of Carnivores*** - Incisors are reduced in size and pointed. - They are well suited for grasping food and holding prey. - Canines are long, pointed and curved. - They are used for piercing and tearing flesh as well as for attack and defence. - ***Premolars and molars*** *:* In general, they are long and longitudinally ridged to increase surface area for crushing . - ***Carnassial Teeth*** *:* These are the last premolars on the upper jaw and the first molars on the lower one. - They are enlarged for cutting flesh. - They act as a pair of shears. - They also crush bones. - The teeth of carnivores have closed roots i.e., only a very small opening of the pulp cavity to allow food and oxygen to keep teeth alive. - Once broken, no re-growth can take place. ***Teeth of Omnivores*** ----- - Incisors have a wide surface for cutting. - Canines are bluntly pointed for tearing. - Premolars and molars have cusps for crushing and grinding. - The premolars have two blunt cusps while the molars have three to four. **Internal Structure of tooth** ***The tooth consists of two main parts:*** ***Crown:*** The portion above the gum; it is covered by the enamel. ***Root:*** The portion below the gum; it is covered by the cement. - The tooth has two roots. ***Neck*** *:* Is the region at the same level with the gum. - It forms the junction between the crown and the root. - It is covered by enamel. Incisors and canines have one root only. - Premolars have one or two roots while molars have two to three roots each. - Internally, the bulk of the tooth is made up of dentine which consists of living cells and extends to the root. - It is composed of calcium salts, collagen and water. - It is harder than bone but wears out with use. - This is why it is covered by enamel which is the hardest substance in a mammal's body. ***Pulp Cavity*** *:* Contains blood vessels which provide nutrients to the dentine and remove waste products. - It also contains nerve endings which detect heat, cold and pain. **Cement:** Fixes the tooth firmly to the jaw bone. ##### ***Common Dental Diseases *** ***Dental Carries*** - *Dental carries* are the holes or cavities that are formed as acid corrodes enamel and eventually the dentine. - ***Causes*** This is caused by bacteria acting on the food left between teeth and on the cusp. Acids are formed that eventually corrode the enamel. The pulp cavity is eventually reached. A lot of pain is experienced then. ----- The bacteria then infect the pulp cavity and the whole tooth decays. - ***Treatment*** Treatment depends on the extent of the dental caries: Extraction of Tooth. Filling - this involves replacing the dentine with amalgam, a mixture of hard elements e.g. silver and tin. Root Canal Treatment - This involves surgery and reconstruction. It saves severely damaged teeth. The nerves in the root canal are surgically severed. The tooth is cleaned and filled up with amalgam. ###### ***Periodontal Diseases *** - These are diseases of the gum. - The gum becomes inflamed, and starts bleeding. - Progression of the disease leads to infection of the fibres in the periodontal membranes and the tooth becomes loose. - This condition is known as pyorrhoea. - The diseases are caused by poor cleaning of the teeth. - The accumulation of food particles leading to formation of plaque, lack of adequate vitamin A and C in the diet. ***Treatment*** - Nutrition - by taking adequate balanced diet rich in vitamins A and C. - Antibiotics are used to kill bacteria. - Anti-inflamatory drugs are given. - Antiseptic is prescribed to use in cleaning the mouth daily to prevent further proliferation of bacteria. - The plaque is removed-drilled away - a procedure known as scaling. ##### ***Care of Teeth *** In order to maintain healthy teeth the following points should be observed: - A proper diet that includes calcium and vitamins, particularly vitamin D is essential. - The diet should also contain very small quantities of fluorine to strengthen the enamel. - Large quantities of fluorine are harmful. - The enamel becomes brown, a condition known as dental flourosis. - Chewing of hard fibrous foods like carrots and sugar cane to strengthen and cleanse the teeth. - Proper use of teeth e.g. not using teeth to open bottles and cut thread. - Regular and thorough brushing of teeth after meals. - Dental floss can be used to clean between the teeth. - Not eating sweets and sugary foods between meals. - Regular visits to the dentist for checkup. - Washing the mouth with strong salt solution or with any other mouth wash with antiseptic properties. ***Digestive System and Digestion in Humans*** - Organs that are involved with feeding in humans constitute the digestive system. ----- ###### ***Digestive System and Associated Glands *** - Human digestive system starts at the mouth and ends at the anus. - This is the alimentary canal. - Digestion takes place inside the lumen of the alimentary canal. The epithelial wall that faces the lumen has mucus glands (goblet cells). - These secrete mucus that lubricate food and prevent the wall from being digested by digestive enzymes. - Present at specific regions are glands that secrete digestive enzymes. - The liver and pancreas are organs that are closely associated with the alimentary canal. - Their secretions get into the lumen and assist in digestions. ***Digestive system consists of:*** - Mouth. - Oesophagus. - Stomach. - Small intestines - consist of duodenum, the first part next to the stomach, ileum - the last part that ends up in a vestigial caecum and appendix which are nonfunctional. - Large intestines consist of: colon and rectum that ends in the anus. ***Ingestion, Digestion and Absorption*** - Feeding in humans involves the following processes: - *Ingestion* : This is the introduction of the food into the mouth. - *Digestion:* This is the mechanical and chemical breakdown of the food into simpler, soluble and absorbable units. - *Absorption:* Taking into blood the digested products. - *Assimilation:* Use of food in body cells. - Mechanical breakdown of the food takes place with the help of the teeth. - Chemical digestion involves enzymes. ***Digestion in the Mouth*** - In the mouth, both mechanical and chemical digestion takes place. - Food is mixed with saliva and is broken into smaller particles by the action of teeth. - Saliva contains the enzyme amylase. - It also contains water and mucus which lubricate and soften food in order to make swallowing easy. - Saliva is slightly alkaline and thus provides a suitable pH for amylase to act on cooked starch, changing it to maltose. - The food is then swallowed in the form of semisolid balls known as boluses. - Each bolus moves down the oesophagus by a process known as peristalsis. - Circular and longitudinal muscles along the wall of the alimentary canal contract and relax pushing the food along. ***Digestion in the Stomach*** ----- - In the stomach, the food is mixed with gastric juice secreted by gastric glands in the stomach wall. - Gastric juice contains pepsin, rennin and hydrochloric acid. - The acid provides a low pH of 1.5-2.0 suitable for the action of pepsin. - Pepsin breaks down protein into peptides. - Rennin coagulates the milk protein casein. - The stomach wall has strong circular and longitudinal muscles whose contraction mixes the food with digestive juices in the stomach. ***Digestion in the Duodenum*** - In the duodenum the food is mixed with bile and pancreatic juice. - Bile contains bile salts and bile pigments. - The salts emulsify fats, thus providing a large surface area for action of lipase. - Pancreatic juice contains three enzymes: Trypsin which breaks down proteins into peptides and amino acids, Amylase which breaks down starch into maltose, and Lipase which breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. - These enzymes act best in an alkaline medium which is provided for by the bile. ***Digestion in ileum*** - Epithelial cells in ileum secrete intestinal juice, also known as succus entericus. - This contains enzymes which complete the digestion of protein into amino acids, carbohydrates into monosaccharides and lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. ***Absorption*** - This is the diffusion of the products of digestion into the blood of the animal. - It takes place mainly in the small intestines though alcohol and some glucose are absorbed in the stomach. ***The ileum is adapted for absorption in the following ways:*** - It is highly coiled. - The coiling ensures that food moves along slowly to allow time for its digestion and absorption. - It is long to provide a large surface area for absorption. The epithelium has many finger-like projections called villi (singular villus). - They greatly increase the surface area for absorption. - Villi have microvilli that further increase the surface area for absorption. - The wall of villi has thin epithelial lining to facilitate fast diffusion of products of digestion. - Has numerous blood vessels for transport of the end products of digestion. - Has lacteal vessels; for absorption of fatty acids and glycerol and transport of lipids. ***Absorption of Glucose and Amino Acids*** - Glucose and other monosaccharides as well as amino acids are absorbed through the villi epithelium and directly into the blood capillaries. ----- - First they are carried to the liver through the hepatic portal vein, then taken to all organs via circulatory system. ***Absorption of Fatty Acids and Glycerol*** - Fatty acids and glycerol diffuse through the epithelial cells of villi and into the lacteal. - When inside the villi epithelial cells, the fatty acids combine with glycerol to make tiny fat droplets which give the lacteal a milky appearance. - The lacteals join the main lymph vessel that empties its contents into the bloodstream in the thoracic region. - Once inside the blood, the lipid droplets are hydrolysed to fatty acids and glycerol. ***Absorption of Vitamins and Mineral Salts*** - Vitamins and mineral salts are absorbed into the blood capillaries in' the villi. Water is mainly absorbed in the colon. As a result the undigested food is in a semi-solid form (faeces) when it reaches the rectum. - ***Egestion*** **:** This is removal of undigested or indigestible material from the body. Faeces are temporarily stored in the rectum then voided through the anus. Opening of the anus is controlled by sphincter muscles - ***Assimilation:*** This is the incorporation of the food into the cells where it is used for various chemical processes. ***Carbohydrates*** - used to provide energy for the body. - Excess glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles. - Some of the excess carbohydrates are also converted into fat in the liver and stored in the adipose tissue' (fat storage tissue), in the mesenteries and in the connective tissue under the skin, around the heart and other internal organs. ***Proteins*** - Amino acids are used to build new cells and repair worn out ones. - They are also used for the synthesis of protein compounds. - Excess amino acids are de-aminated in the liver. - Urea is formed from the nitrogen part. - The remaining carbohydrate portion is used for energy or it is converted to glycogen or fat and stored. ***Lipids*** - Fats are primarily stored in the fat storage tissues. - When carbohydrates intake is low in the body, fats are oxidised to provide energy. - They are also used as structural materials e.g. phospholipids in cell membrane. They act as cushion, protecting delicate organs like the heart. - Stored fats under the skin act as heat insulators. ***Summar*** ***y*** ***o*** ***f*** ***di*** ***g*** ***estion in humans*** ----- ~~trypsin~~ |produced|Col2|Col3|Col4|Col5|Col6| |---|---|---|---|---|---| |Salivary glands (Saliva) p|7.4|Water, and salts|||Soften and lubricate food, provide neutral pH.| |||Amylase|Starch|Maltose|Glucose if food stays longer mouth.| |Stomach (Gastric Juice)|1'.8|Hydrochloric acid|Nucleo- proteins|Nucleic + protein|Not an enzyme but the nuclear proteins. 1. Kills micro-organisms. 2. Provides acidic medium. 3. Activates enzyme pepsinogen and protennin.| |||Rennin|Milk protein|Curd coagulated milk (casein)|abundant in infants secreted prorennin.| |||Pepsin|Protein|Peptones|Secreted as pepsinogen| |Pancrease (Pancreati juice)|8.8|Trypsin|Protein|Peptones|Secreted as trypsinogen activated by enterokinase to trypsin| |||Chymotrypsi n|Peptones, casein|Amino acids|Secreted as chymotrypsin activated to trypsin.| |||Amylase|Starch glycogen|Maltose Maltose|| |||Lipase|Lipids|Fatty acids and|PH in duodenum lowered to by acid from stomach| |||Sodium bicarbonate|||Provides alkaline conditions| |Ileum (succus entericus)|8.3|Peptidases (erepsin)|Peptides|Amino acids|Erepsin contains a mixture peptidases| |||Invertase made of sucrase|Sucrose -|Fructose + glucose|| |||Lactase|Lactose|Galactose + glucose|| |||Maltase|Maltose|Glucose|| |||Lipase|Lipids|Fatty acids and|| |||Enterokinase|||Activates trypsinogen to| ***Importance of Vitamins, Mineral Salts, Roughage and Water in Human Nutrition*** ***Vitamins*** ----- - These are organic compounds that are essential for proper growth, development and functioning of the body. - Vitamins are required in very small quantities. - They are not stored and must be included in the diet. - Vitamins Band C are soluble in water, the rest are soluble in fat. - Various vitamins are used in different ways. ***Mineral Salts*** - Mineral ions are needed in the human body. - Some are needed in small amounts while others are needed in very small amounts (trace). - All are vital to human health. - Nevertheless, their absence results in noticeable mulfunction of the body processes. ###### **Water ** - Water is a constituent of blood and intercellular fluid. - It is also a constituent of cytoplasm. - Water makes up to 60-70% of total fresh weight in humans. - No life can exist without water. ***Functions of Water*** - Acts as a medium in which chemical reactions in the body takes place. - Acts as a solvent and it is used to transport materials within the body. - Acts as a coolant due to its high latent heat of vaporisation. - Hence, evaporation of sweat lowers body temperature. - Takes part in chemical reactions i.e. hydrolysis. ***Vitamins, sources, uses and the deficiency disease resulting from their absence in diet*** |Name of Vitamin|Sources|Uses in body|Deficiency disease(s)/Disorder I| |---|---|---|---| |A (retinol) Soluble|Liver, egg-yolk, carrots, milk, spinach|Synthesis of rhodopsin, Control of growth of epithelium|Hardening of cornea of the eye (xerophthalmia), poor night resistance to diseases of skin and is reduced.| |B, (Thiamine)|Yeast, whole grain, liver, kidney, beans, meat, spinach|Formation f the enzyme carboxylase important in conversion of pyruvic respiration.|Beriberi - swelling of the feet; slowing of heartbeat and intestinal disorder.| |B2 (Riboflavin)|Whole grain, eggs, milk, groundnuts, cheese, yeast|Formation of f1avoproteins that form enzymes and for|Sores on tongue surface and comers of the mouth.| |B3 (Nicotinic|Liver, kidneys, milk yeast whole grain.|Makes co-enzyme 1 and 2 (NAD & NAD P) It is also co-enzyme A needed in respiration.|'I Pellagra inflammation of nervous disorders leading to| ----- |B, (Pantothenic acid)|In most natural foods|Forms parts of co- enzyme A.|Poor co-ordination of muscles nervous muscle cramp.| |---|---|---|---| |B6 (Pryidoxine) water soluble 4|Eggs, kidneys, whole grain, vegetables.|Makes a co-enzyme for amino acids metabolism.|Irritability, depression, dermatitis| |Potassium|Milk, eggs, liver, vegetables, bananas.|Col3|In intracellular body fluids buffer and for nerve transmission.|Col5|Nervour transmission interfered with.| |---|---|---|---|---|---| |p Chloride|Table salt, sea foods.||Present in tissue fluid. water balance essential for digestion. Constituent of hydrochloric acid.||| |Magnesium|Green vegetables.||Also needed as a co-factor respirator enzymes. Muscle contraction.||| |Iodine|Iodised table salt and food.||Constituent of the hormone thyroxine that controls metabolism.||In young animals leads cretinism. Simple goitre adults.| |Manganese|Eggs, milk, fish.||Activates certain enzymes.||| |Iron|Liver, greet leaves, lean meat, grains, milk.||A constituent of haemoglobin and myoblobin.||Anaemia.| |Sulphur|Protein foods Milk, eggs, liver,||A constituent of some needed in synthesis of certain enzymes and phospholipids iInn intracellular body fluids cell membranes.||Nervour transmission| |Potassium|vegetables, bananas.||buffer and for nerve transmission.||interfered with.| |Copper p Chlor ide|Table salt, sea foods.||Catalyses use of iron, a Present in tissue fluid. constituent of cytochrome water balance essential for oxidase (an enzyme)||Needed in ve ry small amounts.| |Cobalt|||digestion. Constituent of Influences the use of hydrochloric acid. iron (found in Vitamin ~2)'||Needed in very small amounts.| |Magne sium Zi|Fruits and vGSerygeneettnha evbseliegsseedta ibnl e s. S te he ed as io mf l en tary Used||NAleseod neede fdoerd p aros pae cro g-fraocwtothr respira tor enzymes. Muscle h i i fl ki g f iicnno stnuhtleirn am.c tainounf. a cture||Needed in very small amount s.| ||||||| |BJ2 F(cluyoanrionceo balam in Iodine|cIcou adc nuisabel idbta ytcaebalee sal Wbaacteter,r ifar,u mitse aant, fmooildk., e ggs and|t raefndd b d f RNA|loCoodn scteitlluse, nsyt notfh tehseis h Strengthening of en thyroxine that cont|ormone Pernicio amel rols|In young animals leads uNse aendaeedm inia s. m all acmreotiunnistm s.. Simple goitre| ||||metabolism.||adults.| ||fish.||||| |FMoalincg aacnide sI ev it M (water|ELgivgesr,,m girleke, nfi s h. vegetables|Synt n cle and|hesis of Activates certain en oproteins erythrocytes|Anaemi zymes. pregna women|a. (most common in nt )| |~"|||||| |" Iron Vitamin H Biotin|Liver, greet Synthesised by leaves, lean mea intestinal grains, milk.|t, Prot|A constituent of haemoglobin and eins synthesis, used myoblobin.||Anaemia.| A constituent of some kidneyeggs carboxylation A constituent of some ----- ~~t~~ |Col1|vegetables.|Col3|Col4| |---|---|---|---| |Molybdenu m|Plant seeds|Activates enzyme system in mucleic acid metabolism.|Very small amounts needed, excess is dangerous.| |Chromium||Involved in use of glucose.|Needed in small| ###### ***Roughage *** - Roughage is dietary fibre and it consists mainly of cellulose. - It adds bulk to the food and provides grip for the gut muscles to enhance peristalsis. - Roughage does not provide any nutritional value because humans and all animals not produce cellulase enzyme to digest cellulose. - In herbivores symbiotic bacteria in the gut produce cellulase that digests cellulose. ###### ***Factors Determining Energy Requirements in Humans *** - ***Age:*** Infants, for instance, need a greater proportion of protein than adults. - ***Sex*** *:* males generally require more carbohydrates than females. - The requirements of specific nutrients for females depends on the stage of development in the life cycle. - **Adolescent girls** require more iron in their diet; expectant and nursing mothers require a lot of proteins and mineral salts. - ***State of Health*** **:** A sick individual requires more of certain nutrients e.g. proteins, than a healthy one. - ***Occupation:*** An office worker needs less nutrients than a manual worker. ##### ***Balanced Diet *** - A diet is balanced when it contains all the body's nutrient requirements and in the right amounts or proportions. ***A balanced diet should contain the following:*** - Carbohydrates - Proteins - Lipids - Vitamins - Mineral Salts - Water - Dietary fibre or roughage ***Malnutrition*** ----- - This is faulty or bad feeding where the intake of either less or more than the required amount of food or total lack of some food components. ***Deficiency Diseases*** - Deficiency diseases result from prolonged absence of certain components in the diet. Examples are: ***Marasmus:*** - Lack of enough food reuslts in thin arms and legs, severe loss of fluid, general body wasting sunken eyes. - ***Kwashiorkor *** Lack of protein in the diet of children. The symptoms of kwashiorkor include wasting of the body, red thin hair, swollen abdomen and scaly skin. - Other deficiency diseases are due to lack of accessory food factors (vitamins and mineral salts.). Such diseases include *rickets, goitre and anaemia.* - Treatment of these deficiency diseases is by supplying the patient with the component missing in the diet. ##### ***THE END *** ***Practical Activities *** Experiments to show that Carbon (IV) Oxide is necessary for Photosynthesis - Experiment to Show Effect of Light on Photosynthesis - Experiment to Show the Effect of Chlorophyll on Photosynthesis - Experiment To Observe Stomata Distribution in Different Leaves - Test for Reducing Sugar - Test for non-reducing sugar - Test for Lipids; (a) Grease Spot Test (b) Emulsion Test - Test for Proteins -Biuret Test - Experiment To Investigate Presence of Enzyme in Living Tissue - Dissection of a Rabbit to show the Digestive System ----- |
AGRICULTURE FORM IV NOTES <br><br>27.0.0 Livestock Production V (Poultry) (25 Lessons) <br><br>28.0.0 Livestock Production VI (Cattle) (16 Lessons) <br><br>29.0.0 Farm Power and Machinery (18 Lessons) <br><br>30.0.0 Agricultural Economics III (Production Economics) (20 Lessons) <br><br>31.0.0 Agricultural Economics IV (Farm Accounts) (10 Lessons) <br><br>32.0.0 Agricultural Economics V(Agricultural Marketing and Organisations) (10 Lessons) 33.0.0 <br><br>Agroforestry (10 Lessons) Livestock Production V (Poultry) Introduction <br><br> Poultry industry in Kenya has developed tremendously due to the use of artificial incubation and brooding and easy availability of hybrid birds, both eggers and broilers. Poultry production has become an easy source of income and food for the rural as well <br><br>as the urban communities. <br><br> The term poultry includes domestic birds such as turkeys, ducks, geese, pheasants, <br><br>doves and pigeons. <br><br> Of late ostrich farming has become a lucrative activity. Poultry production starts with incubation of eggs. <br><br>Parts of an Egg Shell <br><br> Forms 10-12% of the whole egg content. Made of calcium and phosphorus. Protects the inner egg contents. Shell membrane Made of inner and outer membranes. Lining of the egg shell. Constitutes 1 % of the total egg content. Albumen (egg white) About 55-60% of the total egg content. It is divided into chalaza, thick and thin albumen. Chalaza holds the egg yolk in position. Albumen serves as food for the chick. Yolk 30-33% of the total egg content. Supply embryo with nutrients. <br><br> Germinal disc -The embryo which develops into a chick if fertilized. Vitelline membrane - Gives the yolk its round shape. Air sac <br><br> Keeps the egg fresh by allowing <br><br>gaseous exchange. <br><br> Provides oxygen for the embryo <br><br>Egg Candling: <br><br>2 <br><br>This is the practice of determining the internal qualities of an egg by examining it against a light source. <br><br>Procedure <br><br> <br><br>The egg is placed on a hole made on a .cardboard box. This is called a candling box. <br><br> A sou rce of light is placed in the box directly under the egg. <br><br>The observer then looks through the egg against the source of light below. Abnormalities on and within the egg can be seen through the translucent shell. <br><br>Incubation <br><br> <br><br>Involves the provision of fertile eggs with the proper condition for embryonic development. <br><br>Selection of Eggs for Incubation <br><br> Should be fertile. Should be of medium size about 55- 60gms in weight. Should have smooth shell. Should be oval shaped. Should not be cracked. Eggs should be clean to ensure that pores are open. Should not have abnormalities such as blood spots, meat spots and double yolk. <br><br>. <br><br> Eggs should not be more than 5 days old. Eggs should be fresh that is collected within one week. <br><br>Internal egg qualities can be determined through the egg candling process. Natural Incubation <br><br> <br><br>This involves the use of a broody hen which sits on the eggs to provide them with conditions necessary for hatching. Takes 20-21 days. The hen is given about 10-15 eggs. <br><br>Signs' of Broodiness in Poultry <br><br> Moulting of the hen. Making some noise at the laying nests. <br><br>Tendency to sit on an egg after laying. <br><br>Feathers are raised. It becomes aggressive when disturbed. It stops laying. <br><br>3 Preparation and Management of Natural Incubation <br><br> When broody the hen should be provided with a nesting nest or a saucershaped nest <br><br>The hen is given "China eggs" to sit on to induce broodiness. <br><br>scooped on the ground. The nest shall be lined with soft bedding and fertile eggs provided. The eggs are set in the evening or night. The bird is dusted to control external parasites. The hen is allowed t hour outside to feed and exercise everyday. <br><br> Broken eggs should be removed immediately. The hen should not be disturbed. <br><br>Advantages of Natural Incubation <br><br> High hatchability. Low risk involved. Useful in small scale production. <br><br>It is cheap. <br><br> Less laborious. Less skill is required. <br><br>Disadvantages of Natural Incubation <br><br> It is not <br><br>Egg production is low because the hen will not lay eggs during incubation. possible to plan when to incubate. If the hen dies the eggs will be destroyed. If the hen deserts the eggs or refuses to sit on them the farmer will incur losses. Only few chicks can be hatched at a time by one hen. <br><br> Diseases and parasites could easily be transmitted to the chicks. <br><br>Artificial Incubation <br><br> This is the use of artificial device known as an incubator for hatching eggs. <br><br>Conditions Necessary for Artificial Hatching of Eggs <br><br> <br><br>Temperature - maintain at 37.5C-39.4 C throughout to control the rate of embryonic development of the chick. High or low temperatures are lethal. <br><br> Ventilation - Good air circulation. Carbon dioxide: oxygen ratio maintained at 0.03%:21 %. Relative humidity - <br><br>Maintained at 60%. High humidity leads to marshy chicks Turning of Eggs Done 3-4 times a day to facilitate uniform distribution of heat for uniform <br><br>development of chick. <br><br> Turn slowly 180 clockwise along the axis to avoid breaking the blood vessels. Some incubators have automatic turning mechanism. <br><br> Cleanliness - cleaning and disinfecting the incubator with formaldehyde solution. Advantages of Artificial Incubation <br><br> Artificial incubation leads to higher egg production because broodiness in the hens is <br><br>It facilitates large scale production of chicks. Incubators are always ready when needed. <br><br>not required, so there is more time for laying eggs. <br><br>Disadvantages of Artificial Incubation <br><br> High initial capital in buying an incubator. High level of management and attention is required. <br><br>5 High risks involved in turning the eggs. <br><br>It is not economical for only a small number of eggs. <br><br>Brooding and Rearing of Chicks <br><br> Brooding is the rearing of day old chicks upto 8 weeks old for the layer chicks and 2 <br><br>weeks for the broiler chicks. For successful brooding the source of the chicks should be considered. <br><br>Sources of Chicks The following factors should be considered: <br><br> The reputation of the supplier (hatchery). Time taken by the chicks in transit. Proper sexing and breed identification. <br><br>Brooding <br><br>Natural Brooding <br><br> A hen is allowed to take care of the chicks. She provides them with warmth and security. She stays with the chicks for 8 weeks and then rejects them. <br><br> It is Advantages <br><br>cheap. Less labour is needed. Suitable for small scale. <br><br>Disadvantages of Natural Brooding <br><br> Not possible to produce large numbers of chicks. The hen goes off laying during brooding time. Only possible when a broody hen is available. Artificial Brooding <br><br>The chicks are raised artificially in a structure known as a brooder until they are 8 weeks old. Brooder Requirements <br><br>Temperature - should be about 35C in the 15th week and reduced to 21C by the 8th week. Litter - wood shavings which are capable of absorbing 60% moisture without showing wetness should be used. Space confinement - Done by use of hardboards which are about 25cm high and form a circular space. A space of 1m2 for 25 chicks is required. <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> <br><br>Feeders and waterers - should be enough for the chicks and evenly distributed in the brooder. <br><br> Ventilators - windows should be enough to allow proper air circulation but direct <br><br>draught should be avoided. <br><br>Types of Heaters in the Brooder <br><br> One infrared bulb 240 watts can raise 100 chicks. Kerosene burners - Hurricane lamps can raise 100 chicks. Charcoal burners - these are specially made jikos with heat deflectors. <br><br>Electric heaters - one ordinary bulb 100 watts can raise 30 chicks. <br><br>Brooder Management Preparation Before Chicks Arrive Start 2-3 days before arrival. <br><br>The brooder house should be cleaned to remove old litter and then disinfected. New litters 5-1Ocm high should be put in and covered with absorbent materials/news papers. Equipment should be cleaned, disinfected and tested to make sure that they are working. The brooder is lit about 6 hours before the chicks arrive. Feed and water should be placed into shallow containers. <br><br> Brooder space should be confined with a hard board to prevent chicks straying far <br><br> from the source of heat. <br><br>Management After Arrival of the Chicks <br><br> Chicks are placed in the brooder during the day to familiarize with the brooder. If chicks arrive stressed and weak they should be given glucose solution in the waterers. In case the heat source is charcoal burners they should be covered with wire mesh. Feed chicks with chick mash which is later mixed with growers mash as the chicks grow. <br><br> Clean water should be provided and changed regularly. <br><br> Constant attention should be given to the chicks for the first 2 weeks. Any vices should be checked and controlled. Any dead chicks should be removed as soon as seen. Ventilation should be used to control the temperature and humidity in the brooder. Constant disinfection is required at the entrance to avoid diseases. Brooder space should be increased as the chicks grow. Debeaking should be done at 10 days old. Vaccination against diseases such as Gumboro after 2 weeks, New Castle at 3-4 <br><br>weeks and fowl typhoid at 7 weeks. Dusting to control external parasites. Growers' mash should be introduced gradually at 7 weeks old. Chicks are removed from the brooder when they are 8 weeks old. On average the chick uses about 1.5kg - 2.2kg of chick mash by the time it is 8 weeks <br><br>old. <br><br>Temperature Control in the Brooder <br><br>If the brooder temperatures are low the following should be done: Brooder space is reduced. Heaters are increased. Ventilators are closed. <br><br>If the brooder temperatures are too high the following should be done: Brooder space is increased. Heaters should be reduced. Ventilators should be opened. Management of the Growers Growers should be fed on growers' mash. <br><br>The growers are birds at the age of 9 weeks to the point of lay that is at 18 weeks. <br><br>By this time the growers should be occupying the main poultry house. Sick birds should be isolated and treated. A foot bath for constant disinfection should be placed at the entrance. Each bird is fed 115 gms per day of growers' mash. Greens and soluble grit should also be provided. <br><br> <br><br> Clean water should be provided all the time (adilibitum). Drenching against internal parasites should be done by adding a dewormer into the <br><br>water. <br><br> Vermins should be controlled. Litter should be kept dry by turning. Vaccination should be done as required. Layer pullets require dimly lit house. Management of the Layers <br><br> Layers' mash should be introduced at 18 weeks and increased gradually. <br><br> Clean water should be provided adlibitum. Green leaves should be provided to keep the birds busy thus preventing cannibalism <br><br>The birds start laying at 18-21 weeks. The birds should be vaccinated against New Castle and fowl typhoid. Enough floor space roosts, feeders and waterers should be provided. Each hen should be given 120gms per day of layers' mash. <br><br>Eggs should be collected twice a day at noon and in the evening. <br><br>and improve the yellow colour of the yolk. <br><br> Grains should be given in addition to the layers' mash at the rate of 65gms per bird <br><br>per day. Soluble grit or oyster shells should be provided at all times for efficient digestion and strong shelled eggs. Layers should be fed according to their body weight and the rate of egg production for example a 70kg bag should feed 100 layers for 4-5 days. Enough laying nests should be provided at least 1 per 5 layers. The laying boxes should be dimly lit to reduce egg eating. <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> Debeaking should be done when necessary. Broken eggs and dead birds should be disposed off properly. The non-layers and cannibals should be culled. <br><br>Management of Broilers <br><br> Broilers are table birds kept for meat production. <br><br>They have high growth rates or high feed conversion ratio. The objective is to produce a kilogram of quality poultry meat from less than two kg of broiler feed. The broiler chick requires special broiler feed from day old to 4 weeks of age. <br><br> Broiler starters' mash or crumbs should be fed. <br><br> <br><br>This contains coccidiostat, high level of protein, vitamins and trace elements for early growth. From 4 weeks to 8 weeks they are given broiler follow-on mash or pellets. This feed contains high level of metabolisable energy to ensure a good cover of subcutaneous fat in the finished broiler. From 8 weeks until slaughter finisher pellets should be given to increase the size. Adequate clean water should be provided at all times (adlibitum). High level of hygiene should be maintained to reduce mortality rate. Birds should be dusted with appropriate pesticides to control external parasites. <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> Deworming should be done routinely. <br><br>Vaccination against common diseases should be done. <br><br> Dead birds should be disposed off properly. Broilers should be kept under deep litter system, the house should be well ventilated <br><br>and well lit. <br><br>Poultry Rearing Systems <br><br> extensive, <br><br> intensive systems. semi intensive <br><br>The Extensive Systems <br><br>Free Range <br><br> Birds are set free throughout the day to fend for themselves. Birds are confined in night shelters for the night. There is no supplementation. Advantages <br><br> Birds eat insects and green leaves therefore less feed is required. Cheap method. Cannibalism and egg eating are reduced since the birds are not crowded. Manure is evenly spread in the runs. Birds get plenty of exercises thus helping to keep in good health. <br><br>Low labour requirement. <br><br> No need to <br><br>provide grit as birds pick it from the soil. <br><br>Disadvantages <br><br> More land is required if a farmer wants to rear many birds. Birds can be stolen or eaten by predators. Eggs get lost in the vegetation or stolen. Difficult to determine layers from non-layers. Birds get easily infected with diseases and parasites of the area. Breeding programme is not easy to follow. <br><br> Eggs get dirty. <br><br>10 Birds can destroy crops where perimeter fencing is not constructed. Low productivity per unit area. <br><br>Semi-Intensive Fold System <br><br> Birds are confined in small portable structures called folds. A fold measures 3.5m <br><br>long, 1.5m wide and 1.5m height. <br><br> Birds get plenty of sunlight. Birds get fresh grass as the fold is moved to new grounds. <br><br> of the fold is roofed while the rest is enclosed with wire mesh. <br><br>Advantages <br><br> Manure is evenly spread in the field. Reduces build up of parasites and diseases since the fold is moved often. Birds are protected from predators. <br><br>Less feed is used because birds eat grass. <br><br>Disadvantages <br><br> <br><br>Few birds are kept per fold. It is laborious since the folds are moved from one place to the other. Individual egg production record is difficult to keep. because of high frequency of handling. The return per unit area of land is low. <br><br> The fold does not last long <br><br> <br><br>Intensive System Deep Litter System <br><br> Birds are confined in a house throughout their life. <br><br>The floor of the house is made up of litter which accumulates over time. Enough feeders, waterers and laying boxes are provided depending on the number of birds and space available. <br><br> Movable roosts and perches made of timber frames should be provided in the house. <br><br>Stress and vices should be watched closely and controlled. Eggs should be collected as frequently as possible to prevent dirt and egg eating. The house should be dimly lit. The floor space requirement should be 1m2 per 2-3 birds. Advantages <br><br> High stocking rate per unit area of land. Useful method when rearing breeding stock. <br><br>Low labour requirement. Fast accumulation of manure. There is control of feeding, egg production and movement of birds. No loss of eggs. Safety of the birds is guaranteed from predators. <br><br>11 May be difficult to find litter. <br><br>Individual records of the birds are not possible. Eggs become dirty if laid on the floor. Feeders and waterers may be contaminated by the litter. The system encourages broodiness in hens. Regular cleaning of the house is not necessary since the litter absorbs the droppings. <br><br> Easy collection of eggs. <br><br>Disadvantages <br><br> High incidence of cannibalism like egg eating, feather plucking and toe pecking. Pests and disease causing organisms accumulate in the litter. High infestation of diseases if the management is below standard. <br><br>If there is a disease outbreak, it can spread very quickly throughout the house due to the communal housing. <br><br> High cost of building deep litter house. Battery Cage System <br><br> Birds are confined in cages which are placed in the poultry house. The cages are <br><br> Each cage contains 1-3 birds. made of wire mesh <br><br> Water and feed troughs together with eggs trays are fitted along the front side of <br><br>the cages. The floor of the cages should be slanting to allow the eggs to roll out of the cages. <br><br> Droppings from the cages fall from behind for easy cleaning. <br><br> Advantages <br><br> Records are easily kept therefore culling is easy. Birds do not become broody. More eggs are collected due to restricted movement of the hens and complete <br><br>control of egg eating. Tender meat is obtained from the culls because the muscles have not been toughened much. <br><br> Handling is easier than in the other systems and individual attention to hens is given. <br><br> Stocking rate is very high. <br><br> Vices are greatly reduced. Birds do not contaminate the food and water. Wire floors prevent re-infestation of parasitic worms and coccidiosis. No bullying during feeding. <br><br>Eggs are clean because hens do not step on them. The system can easily be mechanised. <br><br>Sick birds can be detected easily and isolated for treatment. <br><br> Low labour requirement. <br><br>Disadvantages <br><br> Requires high level of management. Higher maintenance costs where automation is used. Birds may get fatigue due to lack of exercises thus lowering productivity. Birds develop bruises on combs, breasts and toes as they stick their necks out-to <br><br>Initial costs for cages, equipment and house are excessively high. <br><br>feed and walk in the cages. <br><br> Not useful when rearing breeding stock and the rearing of broilers. Cannot be used for brooding young chicks. Stress and Vices in Chicken <br><br> <br><br>Stress is a condition imposed on the birds making them disturbed and uncomfortable. Stress reduces production and brings about poor performance. <br><br> Vices are habits developed by animals. These affect production and health of the birds. <br><br>13 Usually they are bad habits. <br><br>Cause of Stress in Poultry <br><br> Sudden changes in routine management. Presence of strangers in the poultry house. Presence of animals and vermins. Constant and poor handling. Sudden weather changes. Disturbance of the pecking order. Disease and pest attack. Poultry house should be kept quiet and constructed away from noise. Poultry house should be insulated to maintain constant temperatures. Parasites and diseases should be controlled. Change in routine management should be gradual. Vices Cannibalism (toe and vent pecking). <br><br>Too much noise. <br><br>Egg eating. Pecking and Cannibalism <br><br> Situation where birds peck at each other resulting in death or injury. <br><br>Effects: Culling rate is increased (economic loss). <br><br>The appearance of the carcass is spoiled thereby reducing its market value. Causes of Cannibalism <br><br> Overcrowding in the house. High temperatures in the poultry house making the birds uncomfortable. Too bright light. External parasite infestation. Inadequate and incorrect feeding. Idleness of the birds. Greediness of the birds. Disturbances of the pecking order. Prolapses of the rectum which occurs once in a while. Bright light in the lying boxes. <br><br> Dusting should be done to control external parasites. Provide enough balanced ration. Birds should be kept busy. New/strange birds should not be allowed in the house. <br><br>The house should be dimly lit for the layers. Laying nests should be darkened and above the ground. <br><br>Egg Eating A vice influenced by the following: <br><br> Presence of broken or soft shelled eggs. Mineral deficiencies. Bright light in the laying nests. Greediness of the birds. <br><br>Idleness of the birds. Inadequate laying nests. <br><br>Preventive Measures <br><br> Eggs should be collected regularly. Laying boxes raised above the ground. Laying boxes should be darkened. Birds should be given balanced ration. Debeaking should be done as need be. Birds should be kept according to age groups. Injured birds should be isolated and treated. <br><br>Marketing of Poultry Products <br><br> Poultry products include eggs and meat. <br><br>Marketing of Eggs <br><br> Eggs are delicate and perishable foods and have the highest value when fresh. <br><br>The factors considered when sorting out and grading eggs for the market include: <br><br> <br><br>Size/weight of the egg - large eggs fetch high prices than small ones. The average weight should be about 57gms. Shape of the egg - The normal egg shape is oval, with a broad end and a narrow end. <br><br> Cleanliness - Consumers prefer clean eggs. Colour of the shell - Brown eggs are popular with the consumers. Candling qualities - candling is done to determine freshness of the eggs and presence <br><br>of any other egg abnormalities. Shell texture - should be smooth and without cracks. Poultry Meat <br><br> Broilers are slaughtered at the age of 1-2.5months old with a life weight of 1.5-2kgs. The birds are killed and dressed in a clean way before being wrapped in clean bags ready for sale. The meat is sold in hotels and restaurants. <br><br>15 Introduction <br><br> Cattle production is a widely distributed enterprise in Kenya. <br><br> Most farming communities choose between the exotic and the' local breeds or their <br><br>crosses depending on the environmental conditions. <br><br> Whereas the backbone of beef industry in Kenya is made up of the indigenous <br><br>animals and their crosses, and based in the somewhat drier areas, the-dairy industry is mainly based on the exotic breeds and their crosses and common in the wetter regions of Kenya. <br><br> Whatever production undertaken, the returns depend mostly on the management <br><br>levels provided to these animals. <br><br> A productive herd starts with good management of the young stock. <br><br>Raising of Young Stock. <br><br> The young one of cattle is known as a calf. <br><br>Feeding Dairy Calves <br><br> Newborn calves should be given colostrums within the first 3-5 days of their life. Colostrum is important for the following reasons: It is highly digestible. It contains antibiotics. It is highly nutritious. It serves as a laxative. It is highly palatable. Calves can be fed <br><br>using natural method (direct suckling) or artificially/bucket feeding. Natural Method <br><br> In this method, calves suckle the mother directly. Advantages <br><br> The calf takes milk at body temperature. The milk is free from contaminants. Less problems of scouring. <br><br>Disadvantages <br><br> Underfeeding of the calf may result. Cows may not let down milk in case the calf dies. <br><br>16 Difficult to keep accurate production records. <br><br>Artificial/Bucket Feeding <br><br> The calf is trained to feed from the bucket immediately after birth. <br><br>The calf is trained as follows: <br><br> Well measured milk is put in a clean bucket. <br><br>Index finger is inserted into the mouth of the calf. The head of the calf is lowered slowly into the bucket until the calf starts to drink the milk. The finger is withdrawn slowly as the calf continues to drink from the bucket. The procedure is repeated until the calf gets used to the process. Advantages <br><br> Possible to regulate the amount of milk given to the calf <br><br>Easy to keep accurate production record/milk yields of the cow. <br><br>The cow does not need the presence of the calf in order to let down milk Easy to maintain high hygiene standards. <br><br>Disadvantages Laborious <br><br> Calf may be given cold milk Equipment used and the stockman may be dirty leading to scours <br><br>Preparation of artificial colostrums <br><br>Ingredients used A fresh egg whipped in 0.86 litres of warm water One teaspoonful of cod liver oil One tablespoonful of castor oil Note; colostrums is fed to the calves three times a day for the first 4 days of life and <br><br>Litre of warm water <br><br>thereafter twice a day. Weaning of calves Early weaning <br><br> Calf is fed on whole milk up to the tenth week then it is weaned Calf is given milk equal to 10% of its body weight up to the 8th week After 8th week, milk is reduced gradually by 1 kg until weaning Calf is given early <br><br>weaning concentrates and soft forage <br><br>Early Weaning Guide <br><br>Age in weeks Whole milk(kg/day) Concentrates(kg/day) <br><br>17 1 <br><br>Colostrums ad libitum - <br><br>2-3 5 - <br><br>4-5 6 0.25kg/day <br><br>6-7 6 0.5kg/day <br><br>8-9 5 0.75kg/day <br><br>10-11 4 1.00kg/day <br><br>12-3 - 1.50kg/day <br><br>14-15 - 2.ookg/day <br><br>16 - 2.ookg/day <br><br>Late weaning <br><br> Calf is fed on whole milk up to the 3rd week, when milk is replaced gradually with <br><br>skim milk. <br><br> At the age of 3weeks the calf is introduced to calf pellets or pencils and green <br><br>fodder. The calf continues to be given additional skim milk up to the age of 14 weeks when maximum amount of milk is given. Skim milk is reduced from 14 weeks to 16 weeks when weaning is done. <br><br>The calf is given plenty of clean water. <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> Late weaning guide <br><br>Skim milk Age in weeks Whole milk Concentrates <br><br>(kg/day) (kg/day) (kg/day) <br><br>Colostrums ad libitum - - <br><br>2 3.5 - - <br><br>3 4 - - <br><br>4.5 0.25kg/day 1 <br><br>4.0 0.5kg/day 3 <br><br>3.0 0.75kg/day 5 <br><br>- 1.00kg/day 7 <br><br>- 2.00kg/day 8 <br><br>- 2.00kg/day 4 <br><br>- <br><br>2.00kg/day 18 <br><br>4 Rearing of replacement stock <br><br> <br><br>The replacement stock includes young heifers and bulls which have been selected for breeding to replace the old stock. <br><br>Management Practice <br><br> Parasite control-Spraying against external parasites and deworming against <br><br>internal parasites. <br><br> Disease control-Calves are vaccinated routinely against diseases such as; <br><br> Blackquater-at 4 months old. <br><br> Anthrax and Blackquater at 6 months old <br><br> Brucellosis - 3-8 months old (heifers). <br><br> Castration - for male calves not selected for breeding. Removal of Extra Teats ; <br><br>Identification - Suitable methods are used. It allows proper record keeping. <br><br> These teats are known as supernumerary teats which make milking of the <br><br>animal difficult. <br><br> They are clipped off with teat clippers. <br><br> Dehorning/Disbudding - The removal of horn buds using suitable methods. <br><br>Calf Housing <br><br>Requirement of a Calf Pen; <br><br> Be warm and dry. Have adequate space to allow exercise and feeding. Have proper drainage to avoid dampness. Draught free to prevent chilling. Be well ventilated to allow fresh air. <br><br>Should be clean and easy to clean. <br><br>Should be properly lit and allow sunlight for Vitamin D. Have a solid floor raised above the ground. The floor should be slanted for <br><br>drainage. <br><br> Constructed near the milking parlour. Mobile/Movable Pens <br><br> Have an open floor to allow grass into the pen. Kept outdoors in the pastures to allow the calf to nibble on pastures. Single <br><br>Easily moved from one place to another to avoid soiling. <br><br>Housing <br><br> Calves should be housed singly up to the age of 3 weeks, when they are put in group <br><br>pens. <br><br> This is to avoid them licking each other and swallowing hairs which form indigestible <br><br>balls. <br><br>Milk and Milking <br><br> Milk is the white lacteal substance secreted by the mammary glands of the female <br><br>mammals. <br><br>Composition of Milk <br><br> Protein - Casein and whey. Carbohydrates - Lactose Minerals - mainly calcium and phosphorus. Water <br><br>Fat - Butter fat. <br><br>Factors Affecting Milk Composition <br><br> Age of the animal. Conditions of the animal. Completeness of milking. Physiological conditions such as diseases. <br><br>Stage of lactation and pregnancy. <br><br>Structure of the Udder The udder is composed of the following parts: <br><br> Alveolus cells - synthesize and secrete milk. Gland cistern - space where milk collects from the lobes. <br><br>Lobule - a group of alveolus cells. Lobe - Several lobules grouped together and drained by lactiferous ducts. <br><br> Teat -An organ which <br><br>Teat cistern - A space where milk collects before emission. drains each quarter of the udder. <br><br>Milk Secretion <br><br>The process of milk secretion is known as lactogenesis. taken to the udder via blood vessels. In the udder the nutrients are carried into the alveoli cells where metabolic reactions take place to build up these nutrients into milk. <br><br> The digested food is <br><br> <br><br> A hormone prolactine is secreted by pituitary gland which brings about <br><br>lactogenesis. The milk secreted is then stored in the upper parts of the udder waiting to be released. <br><br> <br><br>Milk Let -Down <br><br>21 The process of milk let-down occurs naturally when the animal is stimulated. Milk secreted moves from alveolar region through the ducts to the gland cistern. Oxytocin, a hormone secreted by the pituitary gland causes the contraction of the <br><br>udder muscles forcing the milk down the teats. <br><br> Oxytocin hormone lasts 7 -10 minutes in the blood stream hence fast milking is <br><br>important to withdraw the milk. <br><br> Milk is withdrawn from the teats by gently squeezing them. <br><br>Factors Influencing Milk Let-Down <br><br> Presence of the calf. Presence of the milkman/milker. Rattling of the milk equipment. Massaging or washing the udder. <br><br>Site of the food/feeding the animal. <br><br> Sight of the milk parlour. <br><br>Factors Inhibiting Milk Let-Down <br><br> Beating the animal/inflicting pain to the animal. Presence of strangers and animals for example dogs. Poor milking techniques. Absence of the calf (in case the cow is used to it). <br><br>Clean Milk Production The following factors are essential for clean milk production: <br><br> A healthy lactating cow. A healthy and clean milker. Clean and properly constructed milking parlour. Clean and disinfected milking equipment. Proper handling of the milk after milking. <br><br> Milking Procedure <br><br> <br><br>The animals are brought near the milking parlour 15-20 minutes before milking to get into the mood of being milked. <br><br> Milking materials such as equipment, feeds, ropes, stools and salve are collected and <br><br>placed near the milking parlour. The animals are allowed into the milking stall one by one as the milking proceeds as follows: The animal is restrained in the stall. Feed is weighed and placed into the feed trough. The udder is thoroughly washed, disinfected and dried with a clean cloth. A strip cup is used to test for mastitis on each quarter. Milking proceeds by squeezing the teats with the full hand. If machine milking the <br><br>teat cups are placed on the teats. <br><br>22 For hand milking start with the hindquarters and finish with the forequarters. Fast milking should take about 8 minutes then end with stripping the udder. The milk is weighed and recorded. The animal is then released. <br><br>Dry Cow Therapy <br><br> <br><br>This is the infusion of antibiotics into the teat canal of a cow that is preparing for drying off. It prevents bacterial infection which leads to mastitis. <br><br>Milk Products <br><br> Pasteurized milk - milk that is heated and cooled immediately. Ultra Heat Treated (UHT) - milk heated to a temperature of 130-135C, packed and <br><br>then cooled. <br><br> Butter - Milk butter fat separated by a process known as churning. Cream -A layer <br><br>of is: that collects at the top of the milk when left to stand. <br><br> Cheese - Milk proteins which have been compressed. Ghee - Milk fat made from heating cream or butter. Skim milk - Milk without butter fat. Marketing of Milk <br><br> <br><br>The Kenya Dairy Board regulates the production and sale of milk and milk products through various Dairy Co-operative Societies. <br><br> Processors and distributors of milk and milk products include; o KCC, o Brookside <br><br>Dairies, o Tuzo, o Delamere Dairies o Limuru Dairies. Done by draught animals such as camels, donkeys, horses and elephants. <br><br> Used in land preparation and transportation. <br><br>Disadvantages <br><br> <br><br>Slow. <br><br>Need enough food. Animals are liable to sickness and get tired. <br><br>Wind Power <br><br>To pump water from boreholes. <br><br> Generate electricity. To winnow crops such as beans, finger millet and rice. <br><br>Disadvantages <br><br> Not easy to control and may not be available when needed. <br><br>Water Power <br><br>Irrigation. <br><br> Difficult to use in the farm because it is not easy to control. Biomas <br><br>Grinding mills (to grind maize grains). Disadvantages <br><br> wood or biogas <br><br>This includes: charcoal power. <br><br>Charcoal/Wood Fuel Energy <br><br>Uses Dehydrating of some crops. <br><br>Provides heat for boiling water and cooking. <br><br>Curing of tobacco. <br><br>Disadvantages <br><br> <br><br>Exhaustible. <br><br>It cannot be used directly in some farm operations. <br><br>Large quantities are required. <br><br>They are bulky hence difficult to transport. <br><br>Biogas <br><br>Uses Provides heat and light for cooking, boiling water and lighting. Produces electricity. <br><br>Disadvantages <br><br>Only possible where there are animals under zero grazing unit. It is labour-consuming. <br><br> Large quantities of dung are required. Cannot be used directly in some farm operations. Fossil Fuels <br><br>These include: <br><br> natural gas. petroleum oils coal, <br><br>Uses Natural gas is used for cooking, heating and lighting. Electrical Power <br><br>Petrol or diesel is burned in internal combustion engines to produce power. <br><br>Kerosene is the main source of power to light rural homes. <br><br>It includes: <br><br> hydro-electrical power (HEP), <br><br> geothermal, <br><br> nuclear <br><br> power stored in batteries. <br><br> Nuclear energy is a potential source of power which has not yet been used in the farms. <br><br>Uses of Electrical Power <br><br> <br><br>Runs stationary machines such as milling machines, grinding mills, cooling machines and water pumps. <br><br> Supplies heat and light for operations of brooders. <br><br>Disadvantages <br><br> <br><br>Cannot be used directly in some farm operations. <br><br>Lack of electricity in the rural areas. <br><br>Power failures can lead to high losses. <br><br>It is costly to install and maintain. Uses <br><br> Used by all the plants in photosynthesis. Dehydrating crops such as vegetables, maize grains, beans and hay. Boils water which drives turbines to produce power for minor uses. <br><br>Provides heat and light. <br><br>Disadvantage <br><br>Low concentration of energy on cloudy days. Expensive In collecting and concentrating equipment. Cannot be used directly in some farm operations. <br><br> Requires skilled labour to install and maintain. <br><br>Tractor <br><br> The tractor has an internal combustion engine which burns petrol or diesel to produce power. <br><br> <br><br>This power is then passed to the gear box from where it is transmitted in various ways. common tractor engine is a four stroke cycle engine. <br><br>The <br><br>The four strokes are: <br><br> <br><br>Induction stroke. <br><br>Compression stroke. <br><br>Power stroke. <br><br>Exhaust stroke. <br><br>Induction Stroke <br><br> <br><br>Piston moves down. <br><br>Inlet valve opens. <br><br>Fuel and air get into the cylinder. <br><br>Compression Stroke <br><br> <br><br>Inlet valve is closed. <br><br>Piston moves up the cylinder. <br><br>Fuel-air mixture is compressed. <br><br>Power Stroke <br><br> The increased pressure forces the <br><br>A spark is produced at spark plug, igniting the fuel-air mixture. piston down the cylinder. <br><br>Exhaust Stroke Advantages of the Four Stroke Engines <br><br> Have efficient fuel and oil utilization. <br><br>Produce high power which can do heavy farm work. <br><br>Perform a wide range of farm operations. <br><br>Are effectively cooled with water thus allowing the production of large engine size. gasses are effectively expelled from the cylinders. <br><br>Found in small machines such as mowers, motor bikes, and water pumps which do light jobs in the farm. <br><br> All the cycles are completed in two strokes of the piston. <br><br> These strokes are; <br><br>Induction and compression stroke <br><br> The piston is at the bottom <br><br> Piston moves up uncovering the inlet port <br><br> Fuel-air mixure is drawn in <br><br> Ignition occurs when the piston reaches the top <br><br> Piston is forced downward compressing the mixture in the crank. Power and exhaust stroke <br><br> The piston is at the top <br><br> Ignited gases produce pressure which force the piston downwards <br><br> The piston covers the inlet port and traps fresh fuel-air mixture in the crank case <br><br> Piston moves further down to uncover the exhaust port <br><br> Fuel-air mixture transferred from the crankcase to the combustion chamber. What Advantages of two stroke engine? <br><br> Cheap to buy and easy to maintain <br><br> Economical in fuel consumption <br><br> Can be used in a wide range of farmland, including hilly areas <br><br> Can do small tasks in the farm which would be un-economical to do using the four stroke engine. <br><br>What disadvantages of two stroke engine? <br><br> <br><br>They produce less power hence cannot be used for heavy duties. <br><br>They are inefficient in burning fuel to produce power. <br><br>They are air cooled thus limiting the size of the engine. Systems of a Tractor <br><br>The modern tractor has the following systems: <br><br>The fuel system. Electrical system Ignition system Cooling system <br><br> Power transmission system. <br><br>The Fuel System <br><br>Supplies fuel to the engine. Categorized into two types depending on the fuel used. These are: <br><br>The petrol fuel system. <br><br>The diesel fuel system <br><br>The Petrol Fuel System <br><br>Consists of: <br><br> <br><br>Fuel tank - storage of fuel. Fuel filter - removes foreign particles from the fuel. Carburettor <br><br>atomises fuel into spray. introduces fuel-air mixture into the engines. Regulates fuel-air into suitable proportions. <br><br> Delivery pipe - connects all the devices. <br><br>Fuel pump - forces fuel into the carburettor. <br><br>Maintenance <br><br> Cleaning the carburettor regularly. Cleaning the fuel filter in petrol. Cleaning the hole in the fuel tank cap. <br><br>The Diesel Fuel System Consists of: <br><br> Delivery pipes - connect the various devices. <br><br>Fuel tank - storage of fuel. Fuel injection pump - pumps diesel through injection nozzles and breaks into fine spray. Fuel filters - remove foreign particles from the fuel. cylinder. <br><br>Fuel is ignited by compression of air and fuel mixture in the cylinder. <br><br>It produces a lot of smoke since the diesel <br><br>is not completely burnt. <br><br>It is relatively heavy in weight and suited <br><br>for heavy duties. <br><br>Diesel Engine <br><br> It has an injection pump. <br><br> The fuel and air are mixed within the It produces little smoke because <br><br>etrol is completely burnt. <br><br> Petrol engine is light in weight and <br><br>uited for light duties. <br><br>Petrol engine <br><br> It has a carburettor <br><br> Fuel and air are mixed in the carburettor <br><br>b Electrical System Consists of the following: <br><br> Battery <br><br> Converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Stores electrical energy produced by the running <br><br> <br><br>Ignition circuit - provide the electrical required by the spark plugs. current that produces a spark in the engine. <br><br> Generator circuit - provide the electrical current that starts the engine. <br><br>Lighting circuit - supply the electrical current required for the lighting system. circuit - starts the engine. <br><br>Starter motor <br><br>31 Care and Maintenance of a Tractor Battery <br><br> The level of electrolyte should be kept just above the plate by topping with distilled water. Corroded terminals should be scrapped clean and smeared with grease. The battery should be tightly fixed in a box to avoid spillage and damage. The battery should be fitted correctly on the tractor. The battery should be charged regularly and periodically. In case of long storage the battery contents should be kept upside down. The generator fan belt should always be functional to ensure the battery is always charged. <br><br> Ignition System Consists of: <br><br> <br><br>Ignition - change the low voltage from the battery to high voltage current required by the spark plugs. Condenser - absorbs the self-induced current in the primary circuit. <br><br>stores current for a short time. passes electric current to the distributor. <br><br> Distributor - distributes the high voltage current to the spark plugs. Contact breaker - Interrupts the normal flow of current in the primary circuit. <br><br>State the Maintenance practices carried on the Ignition System <br><br> <br><br>The carbon deposits on the spark plug electrodes should be removed. <br><br>The spark plugs whose electrodes are worn out should be replaced. <br><br>The contact breaker points should be cleaned. <br><br>The breaker points should be adjusted so that they lie between O.30mm and 0.50mm. The condenser should be replaced regularly. The ignition systems should always be kept dry. Ignition wires with poor insulation should be replaced. Cooling System <br><br> <br><br>The cooling system aims at preventing the engine from overheating which would cause piston zeisure in the cylinder. <br><br> Some tractor engines are cooled by air while others are cooled by water. <br><br>State the Characteristics of Air Cooled Engines <br><br> They are simple in construction. They have fins and a fan blade which assists the circulation. <br><br>32 Care and Maintenance of Water Cooling system <br><br> <br><br>The water pumps should be lubricated regularly. <br><br>Clean water should be used in the radiator and trash removed from the fins. <br><br>All pipes should be fitted tightly to avoid blockage. <br><br>The radiator should be filled with clean water before starting the day's work. <br><br>Fan belt tension should be checked regularly and if too tight or too loose should be adjusted accordingly. <br><br>Lubrication System <br><br> This system is aimed at supplying oil to all parts of the engine where friction is likely to occur. <br><br>Importance of Lubrication system <br><br> <br><br>It helps to increase the efficiency of the machine and reduces the rate of wear and tear of moving parts. <br><br> <br><br>It reduces the heat created by the rubbing surfaces and acts as a seal between them. <br><br>It acts as a cleaning agent because it washes off all the dust, dirt, soot and metal chippings from the oil paths to the sump. <br><br>Types of Lubrication Systems; Splash feed type Force feed type Oil mist type Types of Lubricants <br><br> SAE 10 - This is thin engine oil which gives little protection when heated. <br><br> <br><br>SAE 50 - This is thicker engine oil which is recommended for protecting the bearings. <br><br>SAE 90 - 100 - These are transmission oils which are recommended for clutch, gear box, wheel lubrication and ball bearings. <br><br> Note: SAE - Society of Automobile Engines. <br><br>Care and Maintenance of Lubrication Systems <br><br> Old or contaminated oil should not be used for lubrication. Oil should be drained when still hot to avoid sticking on the walls of the sump. <br><br>The oil filters should be replaced when necessary. <br><br>The correct type of oil should be used as per the manufacturers' instructions. Power Transmission <br><br>System <br><br> <br><br>The function of this system is to transfer power from the tractor engine to the drive shaft, the wheel axle, the power take off shaft and the hydraulic system. <br><br> The system consists of the clutch, gear box, differential and the final drive. <br><br>The power transmitted from the engine is made available for use through the following: <br><br> <br><br>The propeller shaft - it connects the gear box to the differential. <br><br>The power take off shaft (PTO shaft) -It is located at the rear part of the tractor and rotates at the same speed as the crankshaft of the engine. <br><br> Hydraulic system - it is operated by the use of a lever near the drivers seat. It is connected to the 3-point linkage and helps to lower or raise implements mounted on the 3-point <br><br> Draw bar <br><br>linkages such as ploughs, mowers, planters and sprayers. <br><br>It is a one-point linkage at the rear part of the tractor. It serves for the attachment of trailed implements that can be used during harrowing, transportation or rolling. <br><br> Tractor Servicing <br><br> <br><br>The aim of tractor servicing is to keep the tractor in good and efficient working conditions. <br><br>Tractor servicing is either; <br><br>short long term. <br><br>List the Short Term Tractor Servicing <br><br> It includes: <br><br>34 Water level in the radiator should be checked and if possible topped up. <br><br>Checking the engine oil daily by use of a dip stick. <br><br>If the oil level is low, it should be added. <br><br>The fuel level should be checked at the start of every day's work and added if necessary. <br><br>The level of the electrolyte should be checked daily and topped up with distilled water accordingly. <br><br>Nuts and bolts should be tightened every day. Lost nuts and bolts should be replaced before the day's work. Grease should be applied by use of grease gun through the nipples. Large sediments from the sediments bowl should be removed. <br><br> <br><br>The tyre pressure should be checked daily before the day's work. <br><br>The fan belt tension should be checked to ensure that it deflects between 1.9cm and 2.5cm when pushed. <br><br> <br><br>The brake shaft bearing should be greased. <br><br>The brake fluid level is maintained at the recommended level. <br><br>Long Term Services <br><br> The engine oil should be drained completely from the oil sump and replaced with new oil. <br><br> <br><br>The gear box oil should be checked and refilled as recommended. <br><br>The oil in the differential should be replaced as recommended. The linkage and the pulley attachment should be greased. The pulley oil level should be checked and added if need be. The dirty oil should be removed and replaced with clean one. One-point hitch implements ; <br><br>Are attached to the tractor at only one point that is, the draw bar. They include all trailed implements such as the trailers, heavy harrows, planters and rollers. <br><br> Three point hitch implements; <br><br>Are implements attached to the tractor at three points that is, the top linkage point and two lower linkage points. They are operated by the hydraulic system. They include ploughs, most harrows, subsoiler, planters, mower, ridgers, sprayers and rotavators. <br><br> Trailers <br><br> They are one-point hitch implements. They are used for transportation of goods. Small ones have two wheels while big ones have four wheels. <br><br>Maintenance <br><br> Worn out tyres should be replaced. <br><br>All the moving parts should be lubricated. Tyre pressure should be adjusted to the correct pressure. <br><br>Loose nuts and bolts should be tightened, worn-out ones should be replaced. The implements should be kept under a shed during long storage. <br><br>Ploughs <br><br> <br><br>They are primary tillage implements. The common type of ploughs include: Disc ploughs. Mould board ploughs. <br><br>Disc ploughs <br><br> It is made up of heavy steel concave discs of 60-70cm diameter. <br><br><br><br>36 Parts and Functions of a disc plough <br><br> The hitchmast: <br><br>Is an attachment for the three point hitch. Made up of two side links and a top link. These are parts connected to hydraulic system of a tractor for lifting and pulling. <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> Depth wheel: <br><br>The beam: Supports all other parts. It also adds weight for better penetration. <br><br>Used when driving on highway, it also controls the depth of ploughing. May not be present in all disc ploughs. <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> <br><br>The standard or leg: Connects the discs to the beam. <br><br>The hub: Allows the discs to rotate smoothly hence does the cutting of furrow slices. scrapers: Remove the trash and mud or soil which cling to the discs, invert the furrow slices. <br><br>The Disc blades: Cut and <br><br> Rear furrow wheel: Controls the depth of digging and stabilises the discs. The cutting angle should be adjusted at 35 - 50 from the I ine of travel. <br><br>Achieved by pivoting the beam or the standard. <br><br> Depth of digging: This is corrected by changing the height of depth wheel or adjusting hydraulic <br><br>system and adding weights. <br><br>Care and Maintenance of Disc Plough <br><br> <br><br>Check for loose nuts and bolts and replace them. <br><br>Sharpen the disc blades if blunt. <br><br>Lubricate the rotating parts by use of oil/grease to reduce friction. <br><br>Paint the exposed parts for example the beam/framework. <br><br>Clean the implement at the end of each day's work before storage. <br><br>Store the implements in a shed. <br><br>The unpainted parts should be coated with old engine oil to prevent rust. Uses of a Disc Plough <br><br> Used in areas with the following conditions: <br><br> Opening up pasture land. <br><br>Virgin land with many obstacles. <br><br>Land with too much trash or tall vegetation. <br><br>Mouldboard ploughs <br><br> <br><br>This primary tillage implement is suited in areas without obstacles such as stones, tree stumps, and roots. <br><br> It gives a uniform depth of ploughing. <br><br><br><br>38 Parts and Functions Mouldboard ploughs <br><br> Share: This makes the horizontal cut and starts the turning of the furrow slices. Mouldboard: Continues the turning of the furrow slices and pulverizes the soil. Disc coulter: Makes a vertical cut in the soil to separate the furrow slice from the un-ploughed land. Knife coulter: Is a vertical knife which cuts trash and earth ahead of the share. <br><br>Skim coulter: Removes any trash from between the furrow slices. It is the part where the share, mould board and the landside are attached. Frog: Landside: Stabilizes the plough and absorbs the side forces created when furrow is turned. Shin: Leading edge of a mouldboard. Care and Maintenance <br><br> Lubricate the rolling parts for example wheel bearings and disc coulter bearings. Paint scratched parts of the plough. Sharpen the share or replace if worn out. Check all loose nuts and bolts and replace where necessary. Clean the implement after each day's work to remove soil, mud and trash. For long storage, keep under a shed and apply lubricants. <br><br>Adjustment <br><br> Depth: Pi tch: controlled by altering the length of the top link. Front furrow width: Controlled by cross shaft adjustment lever or by rotating the cross shaft crank. Lateral levelling: Controlled by tractor lift rod. <br><br>Controlled by raising or lowering the depth wheel. Controlled by hydraulic control lever setting. <br><br> Operational differences between a disc and a mouldboard <br><br>Disc Plough Mouldboard Plough <br><br>Suitable on field with stones, Cannot be used on fields with stone, <br><br> roots and stumps. roots or stumps. <br><br>Inverts the furrow slices completely. Does not invert the furrow slices completely. <br><br> More secondary operations are Fewer secondary operations are <br><br> necessary after it has been used. needed. Cuts at varying points. Operates at uniform depth. <br><br> Not easily broken by obstacles. Can easily be broken by obstacles. <br><br>Requires less power to operate. Requires more power to operate. <br><br>Harrows <br><br> <br><br>They are secondary cultivation implements. <br><br> The common ones are: <br><br>There are different types of harrows. disc, Harrows spring tine Harrows spike tooth harrows. <br><br>Disc Harrows <br><br> It comprises of a set of gangs with concave discs. <br><br><br><br>Uses <br><br> Mixing the soil particles. lumps of soil. Levelling the seedbed by breaking large <br><br>40 Killing weeds. <br><br>Disk harrows can be classified according to the arrangement of the gangs such a; s tandem, double tandem offset tandem. <br><br>Depth Adjustment <br><br> Use of hydraulic force. Use of light or heavy harrows. Use of regulating wheels. <br><br>Adding weights on the harrows. <br><br>Care and Maintenance <br><br> <br><br>Lubricate the shafts and bearings. Check for loose nuts and bolts daily. <br><br>Clean and oil before storage. <br><br>Spring Tine Harrow <br><br> Is made up of flat and curved tines which act as springs. Uses Mixes trash and soil thus preventing wind erosion. <br><br>Levels and smoothens the seedbed. <br><br>Breaks the soil clods. <br><br>Aerates the soil. <br><br>A djustments <br><br> Depth is controlled by the horizontal connecting link and depth wheel. For individual tine, use crossbar and loosening the screws. <br><br>Care and Maintenance <br><br>Check for loose nuts and bolts and tighten them if necessary. Clean after use. <br><br> <br><br> Oil the lever mechanism. S pike Tooth Harrows <br><br> Consists of a metal framework with rigid metal spikes which break up the soil by vigorously <br><br>hitting large lumps of soils as it is pulled through the soil. Uses <br><br>It smoothens and compacts the soil. It breaks big lumps of soil into small particles. Can be used for cultivating small crops if well set. <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> Subsoilers <br><br>Heavy and require high horse power to pull. Ploughing depth of 51-90cm. <br><br> <br><br> <br><br>F unctions <br><br>Break up compacted soil. Break up the hardpan. <br><br>Care and Maintenance Clean it after use Check the point and if worn out, replace it. <br><br> <br><br> Oil when not in use. <br><br>Ridger <br><br>It is double mould board plough used to make ridges and furrows. <br><br>It is used to prevent water logging and draining through furrows for easy harvesting of root crops. This is an equipment used to compact the soil gently especially where tiny seeds are to be planted. <br><br>Rotavators: (Rotary cultivators) <br><br> Work on the principles of high speed of revolving flail blades which beat and cut the soil together with <br><br>trash. <br><br>It is an equipment for both primary and secondary tillage operations. shaft of a tractor. Uses <br><br> It is driven by the P.T.O. <br><br>Breaks up large soil particles into small ones. <br><br> Mixes the vegetation and the soil. <br><br> Achieves two operations in one pass. <br><br> Adjustments <br><br>Forward speed of the tractor gives a fine tilth of the seedbed done through the gearbox. <br><br> Depth of work done by control of depth wheel. <br><br>Slip clutch may break in case the knives come across obstructions Mowers <br><br>Uses <br><br> clearing the field. cutting overgrown grass Cutting grass for hay or silage making, <br><br>Reciprocating Mower <br><br>Parts and Functions <br><br> Swath board: To remove the cut crop. Swath stick: Keeps the cut crop falling correctly. <br><br>Shoe: Has a runner to absorb the weight and wear. <br><br>Cutter bar: Is a flat bar which guides the fingers. <br><br> Wear plate: Counteracts downward force and holds the knives. <br><br> Adjustments <br><br>To adjust knife register by moving the whole bar away or towards the yoke. <br><br> Knife lead: The outer shoe should be adjusted to be outer than the inner shoe by 4cm. <br><br>Maintenance <br><br>Check for loose nuts and bolts and tighten where necessary. <br><br> Keep knife section sharp. <br><br>Lubricate the knife parts. <br><br> Keep all the parts tight. Check knife to ledger plate cup for best cutting. Rotary Mowers <br><br>Cutting edge consists of two blades fitted opposite to each other on horizontal disc. <br><br>The cutting blades swing round at high speed horizontally to the ground hence cutting is effected. <br><br>Adjustment and Maintenance <br><br>Blades should be sharp. <br><br> Guards to be fitted around the blades to protect the operator from flying objects. <br><br>Lubricate the P.T.O. shafts. <br><br>Check the gear-box oil regularly and fill to the right level if necessary. <br><br>Planters <br><br>They are machines used for sowing seeds. There are two types: <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> Row crop planters. Seed drills. <br><br>Functions of the Planters <br><br> Meter the seed and fertilizers from seed and fertilizer hopper. Open the seed furrow. Deposit the seed in the furrow through the delivery tubes. Cover the seed <br><br>Functions of Parts of a Seed Plate <br><br>Filler plate: gives proper seed depth. False ring: allows the seed to fall from the seed plate into the boot. Knockout pawl: pushes the seeds out of the cell by the roller action. Cut-off pawl: prevents more than one seed remaining in a plate cell. Cells: shaped holes to hold the seed. <br><br> Adjustments <br><br> Adjust the coulters depth for the right crop. All the shafts should be free to turn. <br><br>Fix the right seed plate. Place the planter in the level position. <br><br>Care and Maintenance Check all loose nuts, bolts and tighten them. Clean and oil the planter after use. Grease the drive sprockets regularly. <br><br>Seeders <br><br>The grain drill sows grains of wheat, barley, oats, peas, beans and alfalfa seeds. <br><br>Parts that can be adjusted to change the sowing rate; <br><br> <br><br>Select the side of the feed wheel recommended on the drill charts for the seed-rate. Change the speed of the wheels by changing the gears or sprockets or both. Change the position of the feed gate in the cup. Use reducers below the feed wheel. Care and Maintenance <br><br> Keep seed and fertilizer hoppers dry and clean after each day's work. Check the drive shaft and lubricate them. Paint the parts for example fertilizer hopper to be shiny <br><br>Combine Harvester Use <br><br> Harvesting cereal crops for example maize, wheat and barley. It is designed to do the following: Cutting Threshing. Winnowing Bagging <br><br>Parts of a Combine Harvester <br><br>Cutter bar - cuts the grain head. Pick up reel- direct crop into the cutter bar, Elevator - channels the cut grain to the threshing drum. <br><br> Winnowing ran - fans trash up onto a straw walker and directs it out of the combine harvester. <br><br> Delivery tube - delivers the clean .grains into a collecting tank from where it is bagged. <br><br>Maintenance of a Combine Harvester <br><br>Loose nuts and bolts should be tightened. <br><br> Remove all foreign materials stuck in the machine at the end of the day's work. <br><br>Ridgers <br><br>They are used for harvesting tuber crops and for making furrows or ridges. Maintenance <br><br>Lubricate the moving parts. <br><br>Clean the implement after use. <br><br>Store under a shed. <br><br> Repair or replace worn-out or broken parts. Unpainted parts should be oiled during long storage. <br><br>Loose nuts and bolts should be tightened. <br><br>Shares should be sharpened if blunt. <br><br>Foragers <br><br>They are tractor mounted and operated by power from the P.T.O. shaft . <br><br> Used for harvesting forage crops such as Napier grass, sorghum and maize. <br><br> Maintenance <br><br>Tighten loose nuts and bolts. Lubricate moving parts. Store in a shed. Clean after the day's work. <br><br> Repair/replace worn out or broken parts. Unpainted parts should be oiled to prevent rust. <br><br>Maize Shellers <br><br>These are stationary implements which are either hand or tractor driven. <br><br>They consist of. a rotating disc which shell maize grains from cobs. <br><br>Maintenance <br><br> Greasing moving parts. Removing any stuck maize cobs. <br><br>Store in a shed. Repair or replace worn out or broken parts. <br><br>Animal Drawn Implements <br><br>Ox Plough <br><br> Ox-plough is a simple type of a mouldboard plough which is pulled by a pair of oxen, donkeys or <br><br>camels. <br><br><br><br>47 Main beam - It is the main component onto which all the other parts are attached. Mouldboard - It <br><br>inverts the cut furrow slice upside down. Plough share -It cuts the furrow slices. Land wheel- It regulates the depth of plough. <br><br> rod - It is on this rod that a chain is connected on which a yoke is linked. It forms the draught mechanism of the plough. <br><br>What are the Advantages of an Ox-Plough Over Tractor Drawn Plough ? <br><br>Less skill is required to operate it. <br><br> Cheap to buy and maintain. Useful where tractors cannot be used for example steep slopes. <br><br> What are the disadvantages of an Ox-Plough Over Tractor Drawn Plough ? <br><br> Much time is wasted in training oxen. <br><br>Tedious and laborious to the driver of the animals and the controller of the implement. <br><br> Animals can be sick or in poor physical state. <br><br>Extra land is required as grazing fields for the oxen. Care and Maintenance <br><br>Sharpen or replacing of the worn out share <br><br> Replacement of worn out parts such as hooks and draw bar assembly. <br><br> Wash off the soil after use. Oiling the shiny parts e.g mouldboard <br><br>Paint the handles, beam and braces to prevent rusting. Ox-Drawn Cart <br><br> These are small carriages harnessed to the animals by a yoke The small carts have only two <br><br>wheels bigger ones have four. <br><br> Carts are used for transport. They are pulled by animals in singles or in pairs Introduction <br><br> The agricultural sector is a key player in the economy of our country. It is a major employer and brings a lot of national income through foreign exchange. <br><br>National Income <br><br> These are the total earnings from goods and services produced by a country in a <br><br>period of one year. <br><br> Relationship Between Firm and Household <br><br> A household is considered to be a unit comprising a farmer and family members. A firm on the other hand, is any manufacturing or processing unit which consumes <br><br>It produces raw materials and consumes manufactured goods. <br><br>raw materials and produces manufactured goods. <br><br> Both household and firm generate income, which in turn, is used to: <br><br>Improve the standard of living of the household members by paying for essential goods and services. <br><br> <br><br> The firms build more industries to create more employment and revenue through <br><br>salaries and wages. <br><br> Finance government projects through taxes and hence further national <br><br>development. <br><br> Gross Domestic Product (G.D.P.) <br><br> This is the sum total of all goods and services produced in a country in a period of one <br><br>year. <br><br> Gross National Product (G.N.P.) <br><br>49 Is the sum total of G.D.P. and the difference between income inflow (revenue coming into the country from outside) and income outflow (money going out of the country It represents the total income earned within the country and by foreign investors). from abroad. <br><br> <br><br> Per Capita Income <br><br>Is the Gross National Income (in terms of revenue) divided by the number of people living in the country. <br><br> <br><br>It is not a good measure of the economic well-being of the people because of the <br><br>uneven distribution of income among them. Contribution of Agriculture to National Development <br><br> The interaction between household and the firm generate income which is used to <br><br>finance further expansion of the firms. <br><br> This creates more employment and revenue. The government taxes the income to finance national <br><br> development programmes such as; health, education, water, energy communication. <br><br>Factors of Production <br><br> A factor of production is anything that contributes directly to output, that is, it is a <br><br>productive resource. <br><br> Productive resources usually employed in the production of goods and services. Incl <br><br>ude: Land Labour Capital Management <br><br> Land <br><br> As a factor of production, refers to the natural characteristics and properties of a <br><br>given area of land. <br><br> The key factor here is productivity for example soil fertility, presence of water and <br><br>minerals and is always fixed and has no geographical mobility. <br><br> Labor <br><br> Besides being a consumer, human beings are also a factor of production. They provide the labour force (human power) required in the production process. Labour is assessed in terms of productivity and not mere numbers of workers or <br><br>labourers. <br><br> Labour is measured in terms of man hours, man days or man months. The labourer's <br><br>productive capacity depends on such factors as; age, health, state of nutrition level of education. <br><br> The amount of work and the efficiency with which it is performed determines the <br><br>quality of labour. <br><br>Capital <br><br>51 Fixed/durable; Capital for example machinery, buildings permanent improvements on land like fences, <br><br>roads, irrigation facilities water supply system. <br><br>Working capital; Which include consumer goods such as; <br><br>fertilizers, livestock feeds, <br><br> <br><br> fuel in store, pesticides. <br><br>Liquid capital; For example; <br><br>ready money, bank deposits, shares in financial institutions. <br><br>Management; <br><br>It is a process of decision making in the farm. <br><br> Managers use their knowledge and judgment to decide how to combine the other <br><br>three productive resources in the best way possible. <br><br> They make plans, execute them and bear the risks or consequences which such plans <br><br>entail. <br><br>Production Function Definition <br><br> Production function is a physical relationship between inputs and outputs in a <br><br>production process. It tells the quantity of output (product) that may be expected from a given combination of inputs. <br><br> <br><br> Production function may be expressed in table form or graphically as a curve. 1. <br><br>Unit of feed Body wt. Marginal products (kg) - <br><br>Gains (kg) <br><br>0 212 <br><br>10 222 10 <br><br><br><br>2 0 3 0 3 0 50 60 70 8 0 90 10 0 238 51 2 61 2 2 69 2 75 2 8 0 283 28 5 28 6 1 6 13 1 0 8 6 5 3 2 1 <br><br>Types of Production Functions A production function assumes three forms which may be treated as different types: <br><br> Increasing Returns Constant Returns Decreasing (Diminishing) Returns <br><br> Increasing Returns <br><br> <br><br>In this type, each additional unit of input results in a larger increase in output than the preceding unit. Constant Returns <br><br> This shows that resources are under utilized. <br><br> The amount of the product increases by the same amount for each additional input; <br><br> Again here resources are under utilized. that is constant returns to input factor. <br><br>Decreasing (Diminishing) Returns <br><br> Here, each additional unit of input results in a smaller increase in output than the <br><br>preceding unit. <br><br> Resource use is stretched to the maximum. It gives rise to <br><br>It is the most commonly encountered form in agricultural enterprises; the law of Diminishing Returns. <br><br>Examples: <br><br> Feeding dairy cows for milk production with varying amounts of feed. Crop responses to application of varying amounts of fertilizers. Use of varying units of labour on fixed unit of land. <br><br>53 Economic Laws and Principles The Law of Diminishing Returns <br><br> The law of diminishing returns states that; if successive units of one input are added to fixed quantities of other inputs a point is eventually reached where additional product (output) per additional unit of input declines. This law is encountered practically in all forms of agricultural production. It is useful in determining the most rational and profitable level of production. <br><br>Example: Production of maize at varying levels of N.P.K. fertilizer application on a fixed area of land. <br><br>Unit ofNPK Fertilizer Total Yields <br><br>Marginal Products (bags) - 17 15 14 7 3 0 -5 -8 -10 <br><br>(bags) <br><br>30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 10 27 42 56 63 65 65 60 52 42 <br><br>Zones of a production function curves <br><br>Zones of a production function curves these are: <br><br> Irrational zone or Zone I. Rational zone or Zone II Irrational zone or Zone III. <br><br> The three zones are arrived at by drawing two perpendicular lines through the <br><br>production function curve, one at MP = AP and another at MP=O. In Zone I resources are not fully utilized while in Zone III, excessive application of resources leads to production decline or loss. It is not economical to produce at these levels. In Zone II resources are maximally utilized resulting in maximum production. It is therefore economical (or wise) to produce at this level. <br><br> <br><br> <br><br> Principle of Substitution States-if the output in a production process is constant, it is profitable to substitute one input factor for another, as long as it is cheaper than its next alternative. <br><br> This principle is applicable in a situation where more than one variable input factors are <br><br>used. <br><br> For example feeding hay and concentrates for milk production, farmyard manure and <br><br>phosphatic fertilizers in the production of maize. <br><br> The basic problem that the producer wishes to solve when two input factors are used in combination is in what proportions must the variable inputs be combined in order to produce at a minimum cost and hence attain maximum profit. <br><br> To solve the above problem, the producer must determine the least cost combination <br><br>of inputs used. <br><br> The least cost combination is attained at a point where the Marginal Rate of <br><br>Substitution (MRS) equals the inverse of price ratio of the factors involved. <br><br>55 That is: <br><br> x2 = P X1 <br><br> X1= P X2 <br><br>X1 - first input factor X2- second input factor <br><br> - change (increase or decrease) <br><br>P - price (cost of input fators) <br><br>Examples: Producing 20 bags of maize using varying combinations of farmyard manure and <br><br>phosphate fertilizers. <br><br> Price of farm yard manure (FYM) is KShs10/- per unit and that of phosphate fertilizer is <br><br>Kshs 50/- per unit In the above example, the following assumptions are made: A fixed quantity of output is to be produced. Relative prices of input factors do not change drastically during the period of <br><br>Input factors in combination substitute for one another at varying rates. <br><br>production. <br><br>NOTE: one input factor substitutes for the other at diminishing varying marginal rate of substitution. <br><br>Principle of Equimarginal Returns <br><br> This principle states ; That the last unit of an input factor spent in one enterprise yields a marginal return exactly equal to the marginal return earned from the last unit invested in each of the other enterprises.' <br><br>Example <br><br> <br><br>If the last shs.100/- spent buying cattle feed will return more than shs. 100/= spent on buying fertilizer for growing maize, then it is advisable to purchase more feed up to a point where the last shs.lOO/- spent on it will return exactly the same as the last shs.100/- spent on fertilizers. <br><br> This concept is only relevant in a situation where farmers do not have adequate capital to employ inputs up to the level where marginal revenue equals the marginal cost. <br><br>The principal of Profit Maximization The profit is defined as the difference, in monetary terms, between the total returns <br><br>(income) and total costs (expenses) in a production process. <br><br> Profit maximisation aims at obtaining the highest returns at a minimum cost per unit of <br><br>input factor used. <br><br> This can be done by considering two concepts. <br><br>Marginal Concept <br><br> Profit is maximised when the marginal (additional or extra) revenue (MR) is equal to, <br><br>or slightly higher than, the marginal cost (Mc). <br><br> At this point every added input factor brings in higher returns than the expenses <br><br>incurred in investing it. This is arrived at by analyzing the total cost and total revenue earned from a particular <br><br>enterprise and then subtracting the former from the latter. <br><br>When calculating the profit using whatever concept, the following assumptions are made: Cost of inputs (such as fertilizers, labour) remains constant during the period of <br><br>production. <br><br> Price of the produce (product) remains unchanged. only varying costs directly involved are considered. <br><br> Fixed costs are ignored that is <br><br>Farm Planning <br><br> Planning is the process of establishing the organizational objectives and defining the <br><br>means of achieving them. <br><br>Factors to consider in drawing a farm plan. Size of the farm. Environmental factors. The current trends in labour markets. Farmer's objectives and preferences. Possible production enterprises. Existing market conditions and price trends. Availability and cost of farm inputs. Government regulations/policy. Security. Communication and transport facilities Farm Budgeting Farm budgeting is the process of estimating the future outcomes of a proposed farm <br><br>plan, <br><br> That is; the future incomes and expenses of a farm plan. Importance of Farm Budgeting <br><br>It helps the farm in decision making. It helps the farmer to predict future It helps the farmer to avoid incurring losses by investing in less profitable enterprises. It helps the farmer to secure loans from financial institutions such as Agricultural Finance Corporation and commercial banks. It ensures a periodic analysis of the farm business. It acts as a record which can be used for future reference. weaknesses in farm operations. <br><br> returns that is planning ahead. It is necessary when a farmer wants to replace or reduce enterprise. <br><br> Complete Budget A complete budget is necessary when the farmer wants to start a new business where It involves a <br><br>both the variable costs and the fixed costs are likely to be affected. major change or reorganization in the farm business. <br><br>Agricultural Services Available to the Farmer: Agricultural production efficiency is greatly increased by services rendered to the <br><br>farming communities by; Government institutions Non-governmental organizations. <br><br>Some of these services are: <br><br> Extension and Training: Banking Services: Credit: Extension and Training: farmer's training centres. <br><br> In the field and in <br><br>Banking Services: These enables the farmers to save some of their farm income and invest them in <br><br>future projects. Credit: <br><br> Credit is a financial assistance advanced to agricultural farmers to finance their farm <br><br> It is a borrowed resource. projects and repay it with interest. <br><br>Types of Credit Credit is categorised according to; Time of repayment The types of projects to be financed. <br><br> Examples are: Short-term Credit Repayable within one year and is advanced for the purchase of; <br><br> seeds, fertilizers, animal feeds . <br><br>Medium-term Credit Repayable within 2 - 5 years and is used to finance projects such as; <br><br> fencing materials, purchase of livestock, light farm equipment . <br><br>59 Long-term Credit Repayable period is up to 15 years and even more. It is given for the long-term or durable projects such as; <br><br> purchase of land, construction of soil and water conservation structures, farm buildings, irrigation projects for perennial cash crops for example; <br><br> coffee, farm machinery implements. <br><br>Sources of Credit Co-operative societies and unions. Crop boards. Commercial banks. Agricultural Finance Corporation. Insurance companies. Individual money lenders. Settlement fund trustee. Artificial Insemination Services: <br><br> Provides farmers with semen from improved or superior bulls to improve their <br><br>livestock herds through controlled breeding. <br><br>Agricultural Research Organization <br><br> These develop and pass on to farmers, improved production techniques as well as crop and livestock species with better performance in different ecological zones. <br><br>Marketing Outlets <br><br> These are agencies that ensure effective and efficient conveyance of farm produce to <br><br>points of processing and consumption. <br><br> They are largely crop marketing boards or corporations and cooperative societies. <br><br> Veterinary Services <br><br> <br><br>In the field are veterinary officers who help the farmer in treating and controlling livestock diseases and parasites. <br><br>Farm Input Supplies <br><br> Farmers are able to obtain their farm inputs from organizations such as co-operatives <br><br>and private companies. <br><br> These organizations bring inputs closer to the farmers for example Kenya Farmers <br><br>Association and private agrovets. <br><br> Tractor Hire Services <br><br>60 This involves hiring of tractors and machinery at a cost by farmers who are not <br><br>privileged to own their own. <br><br>Sources Ministry of Agriculture Individual farmers. Risks and Uncertainties in Farming Uncertainty-is the state of not knowing about future events or outcomes. Risks-is the difference (divergence) between the expected and the actual <br><br> Private contractors. Other service providers. <br><br>outcome. <br><br>Types of Risks and Uncertainties Fluctuation of commodity prices. Physical yield uncertainty. Ownership uncertainty. Outbreak of pests and diseases. Sickness and injury. New production technique. Obsolescence for example machinery may become outdated or obsolete within a <br><br>short time. <br><br> Death of either farmer or livestock. Natural catastrophies such as; <br><br> floods, drought, earthquakes, storm and strong winds which may destroy crops or kill the animals. <br><br>Ways in Which Farmers Adjust to Risks and Uncertainties <br><br> Diversification. Selecting more certain enterprises. Contracting. Insurance. Input rationing. Flexibility in production methods. Adopting modern methods of production. Introduction <br><br> Financial and physical records if accurately kept in the farm serve as very important <br><br>tools in decision-making. <br><br> The records are kept in several books and statements as follows: Financial <br><br>Documents <br><br>They include: <br><br> Invoices. Receipts. Delivery notes Purchase records. <br><br>An Invoice <br><br> This is a document issued by the seller to the buyer for goods taken on credit, and <br><br>payment to be done later. <br><br> The original is given to the buyer and duplicate retained by seller. <br><br>The invoice shows the following: <br><br> The buyer and seller. Date of transaction. Amount involved. Invoice number. <br><br>A Receipt <br><br> This is a document issued by the seller to the buyer when cash payment for goods <br><br>delivered is made. <br><br>It shows the following: <br><br> The buyer and the seller. Date of transaction. Amount involved. Serial number <br><br>Delivery Note <br><br> It is a document which shows that the goods have been delivered. The receiver verifies the goods and then signs on the delivery note. <br><br> People involved in the transaction. Date of delivery. Journal: <br><br>It is a book of first entry showing a record of all business transactions arranged in the order in which they occur. Its pages are divided vertically into five sections. The information is posted to the ledger Inventory: <br><br> <br><br> This is a list of all the possession/assets item by item and their market value. Such items are land, livestock, tools and equipment and crops in the store. Valuation is an estimation of the value of each asset or item, based on market price or <br><br>cost of production. <br><br> Local Purchase Order: <br><br> <br><br>Issued by the purchasing officer of the supplier for example school. It shows people involved in the transaction, types and amounts of goods ordered and dates. It should be written and signed by the authorised officer. It is written in duplicate and the original is given to the supplier. <br><br>Financial Books Ledger: <br><br>Is a book which contains individual accounts. It is a principle book of accounts in which entries contained in all the other books are entered. It is a storehouse of all the transactions. <br><br> Each page is numbered and vertically divided into two equal parts namely credit and <br><br>debit. <br><br> Each part is further sub-divided into four sections. Cash Book: All the receipts of cash or cheque are recorded on the debit and all payments are <br><br>recorded on the credit side. Example: Enter the following entries in the cash book. <br><br> 2.7.05-Bought D.A.P. fertilizer and paid cheque of shs. 5,000. 3.7.05-Received shs.5,000 cash from Ngala. <br><br>1.7.05 -Received shs.2,000 from Ndete by cheque. <br><br>63 4.7.05 -Paid water bill for shs 400 in cash. 9.7.05-Paid telephone bill of 1,500 by cheque. 11.7.05 -Deposited shs.2,000 in the bank. 20.7.05 -Withdrew shs.2,000 from the bank for home use. <br><br>- <br><br>CR Details Cash Bank Date <br><br>2,000 2.7.05 D.A.P <br><br> 5,00 4.7.05 <br><br>Water bill Telephone billl <br><br>9.7.05 <br><br>02, 000 <br><br>20.7.05 Cash Financial Statements <br><br>Cash Account Sheet <br><br> Each sale or purchase is entered twice, once in the total column and once in the <br><br>It involves the recording of sales and receipts, purchases and expense. <br><br>analysis column. <br><br> The sum of all the entries in the total column should always equal the sum of the <br><br>entries in all the other columns. <br><br> The cash analysis account sheet is given above. The Balance Sheet It is a financial statement of assets and liabilities recorded on a given date. <br><br> It shows the financial position of a farm business at a glance (snapshot). <br><br>Assets are items owned by the farmer, <br><br>These include: Property (money, goods and buildings). Debts receivable from other people. Goods and services paid for in advance. <br><br>Assets can be divided into two: <br><br> Fixed assets: assets of permanent nature and not easily converted into cash. Current assets: assets which can be easily converted into cash. <br><br> Liabilities are claims to the farmer's property such as bank overdraft and <br><br>debts payable. They are divided into: <br><br> Current liabilities - debts which must be paid within a short time. <br><br> Long term liabilities - debts which are payable over many years or over a long period. <br><br>Profit and Loss Account <br><br> Prepared at the end of a calendar year. <br><br>It is a final account which summarises the sale and receipts (income flowing in the business) and the purchases and expenses (flowing out of the business). <br><br> Note: If assets are more than liabilities then the balancing factor is net capital (in the <br><br>liability side) hence the farm business is said to be solvent. <br><br> <br><br>If the liabilities are more than the assets, then the balancing factor is a loss (in the asset side) hence the farm business is insolvent. <br><br> To calculate profit or loss, account, valuation is done by having an inventory of all the <br><br>assets. <br><br> Valuation of the assets is determined by market price and cost of production for <br><br>machinery and buildings as depreciation factor, is attached. <br><br>Format of a balance sheet Balance sheet of Katilo school as 31-12-2009 Format <br><br>Profit and Loss Account of Kitheko Farm at 31-12-2009 <br><br>Sales and Receipts Shs. Cts. Purchase & Expenses Shs. Cts. <br><br>I. Income during the year I. Opening valuation <br><br>2. Debts receivable Expenditure during the year 2. <br><br>3. <br><br>Debts payable Balance (being farm a profit or net income) <br><br>3. Closing valuation <br><br> Balance (being a loss) <br><br>TOTAL TOTAL Introduction <br><br> Agricultural marketing is an economic activity which involves the distribution of farm <br><br>produce from the farm to the consumer. <br><br>Market and Marketing <br><br> Market is an institution for the exchange of goods and services or a place where <br><br>selling and buying of goods takes place. <br><br> Marketing refers to the flow of goods and services from the producer to the <br><br>consumers. <br><br>Marketing Functions <br><br> Transportation - Movement of goods from production centres to the consumption <br><br>centres. <br><br> Buying and selling - Purchase of goods from the producer to be sold to the consumer. Storage - Agricultural products are seasonal hence storage is necessary. Processing-Changing of raw form into utili sable form. Grading and standardisation - Sorting into uniform lots of certain qualities. Assembling - Collecting the farm produce from the farm to the market centres. <br><br>66 Collecting market information To know the prices, supply and demand of certain <br><br>commodities. <br><br> Advertising - Making the consumers aware of the produce. Bearing of risks - Such as fire risk, price fluctuation. Financing or expenditure on other processes. Packaging or putting into small packs and labelling. Packing or putting produce In containers such as bags. Middlemen (itinerant trader) - are the people who buy from the producer and sell to other agencies. <br><br> Wholesalers - Buy in bulk and sell to the retailers. Retailers - Buy from the wholesalers and sell in small units to the consumers. <br><br>Problems in Marketing Agricultural Produce <br><br> Farm produce are bulky, that is weight and volume are high but low in monetary value thus <br><br>difficult to transport. <br><br> Most of the agricultural products are perishable for example milk, vegetables and fruits. Storage problems (since they are bulky they require a lot of space). Lack of proper transport system since agricultural products are in the rural areas and the market <br><br>are situated in urban centres. <br><br> Lack of market information hence farmers are exploited by middlemen. Price Theory <br><br> Price is the amount of money paid in exchange for goods or services. Price theory is concerned with the determination of price of any commodity. Price is determined where demand for and supply of any commodity are equal to each other. <br><br>Demand <br><br> The law of demand states that quantity demanded changes inversely with the price. Demand <br><br>It is the quantity of any commodity which is purchased at any price within a given time. <br><br>Curve <br><br> The curve slopes from left to right downwards. This means people buy more at lower prices and vice versa. <br><br>Factors Affecting the Demand of a Commodity <br><br> Population New inventions. Taste and preference of the individual. Price of the substitute commodities. Price expectations. Culture and social values of the consumers. Price of commodities having joint demand for example tractors and diesel. <br><br>Income of the consumer. <br><br> Advertisement. <br><br>Elasticity of Demand <br><br> It is the responsiveness of demand to a change in price. <br><br> Elasticity of demand = Percentage change in quantity demanded Percentage change in <br><br>price <br><br>Types of Elasticity of Demand <br><br> Elastic demand is one where the ratio is more than 1. Unitary elasticity is one where the ratio is equal to 1. Inelastic demand is one where the ratio <br><br>is less than 1. <br><br>Supply <br><br> Supply is the quantity of any commodity which is offered for sale at any price at a given time. <br><br>69 The law of supply states that when price rises, quantity supplied increases and when price falls <br><br>quantity supplied decreases (other factors held constant). <br><br>The curve rises from left to right upwards. <br><br> This means that people are willing to offer more for sale at higher prices. <br><br>SUPPLY CURVE <br><br><br><br>SUPPLY CURVE <br><br>Factors Affecting Supply of a Commodity <br><br> Number of sellers Price of substitute commodities. New technology. Price expectation. Peace and security. Weather conditions. Policy of the government. Cost of production of the commodities. <br><br>Elasticity of Supply This refers to the rate at which quantity supplied changes due to a change in price level. <br><br>. . <br><br> Percentage change in quantity supplied Elasticity of Supply= Percentage change in Price <br><br>Type of Elasticity of Supply <br><br> Elastic supply one where the ratio is more than 1. <br><br>70 Unitary elasticity of supply is one where the ratio is equal to 1. In elastic supply is one where <br><br>the ratio is less than 1. <br><br> One of the problems of agricultural produce is that supply does not readily adjust to <br><br>price changes. <br><br>Equilibrium Price <br><br> That means whatever is offered for sale at the market is bought. <br><br>Is the price at which demand and supply are equal. <br><br>In the graph below, the quantity supplied and demanded are equal at a price of Shs.300 and quantity of 80kg. <br><br> At this point the price is higher than shs.300 then the supply will be greater than demand and <br><br>there will be surplus hence price will fall. If, on the other hand, the price is less than shs.300 demand will be greater than supply hence shortage and rise in price. <br><br> <br><br><br><br>Agricultural Organization <br><br> Agricultural organizations are agencies which, through their activities, promote agricultural <br><br>development. <br><br> These organizations are co-operatives and statutory boards. <br><br>Co-operatives <br><br> A co-operative is an organisation of people with a common aim of pooling their resources to <br><br>achieve their objectives. <br><br>Functions of Co-operatives A co-operative society carries out the following functions: <br><br>71 Collecting and assembling members' produce. Processing the farm produce after collection. Transportation of members' produce to market points. Negotiation of fair prices with the purchasing agencies for the members' produce. Purchase and distribution to members of farm inputs. Storage of members' produce before transmission to market points. Provision of credit facilities to members on easy terms. <br><br>Training and education of members on improved farming techniques. <br><br> Offering farm machinery services to their members on hire terms for farm operations. Co-operatives may invest in other viable ventures and the profits realised are shared among members in form of dividends or bonuses. Formation and Structure of Co- operatives <br><br> The formation of a co-operative takes the following stages: <br><br> <br><br>Individuals with common interest collect together to form a primary co- operative society <br><br> At least ten (10) members qualify for registration. Each primary co-operative society elect their office bearers consisting of chairman, <br><br>secretary and treasurer. <br><br> Several primary co-operative societies are usually amalgamated to form a district <br><br>cooperative union. <br><br> Tertiary co-operative unions are nationwide organizations to which the secondary co- <br><br>operative unions are affiliated. <br><br> Examples are Kenya Planters Co-operative Union, Kenya Farmers Union, Kenya <br><br>Cooperative Creameries, Co-operative Bank of Kenya, etc. <br><br> Apex organizations. This is represented in Kenya by Kenya National Federation of Co- operatives which is an affiliate of the International Co-operative Alliance. Problems Facing Co-operatives Co-operatives encounter the following problems in their operations: <br><br> Managerial problems arising from: <br><br> Financial mismanagement due to poor accounting. <br><br> Corruption and misappropriation of cooperative resources by the personnel in <br><br>the system. <br><br> Lack of advisory services on technical operations. <br><br>Inability to meet the set obligations of providing credit facilities due to malpractices. <br><br> The nature of agricultural products and associated problems. <br><br> Bulkiness hence difficulties in transportation and storage. Perishability of <br><br>produce hence difficult to sustain quality. <br><br> Inadequate capital to invest in the cooperative undertakings. <br><br> Transport problems due to poor roads. <br><br>72 This hampers the produce getting to the market points in time. Statutory <br><br>Boards <br><br> A statutory board is an organization established by an Act of Parliament <br><br>and charged with the running or managing of a certain industry within the government sector. <br><br>Marketing Boards <br><br> Some of the statutory boards are charged with the marketing of certain farm produce <br><br>and are thus called marketing boards. <br><br> Examples are the Coffee Board, Pyrethrum Board, Cotton Seed and Lint Marketing Board, Tea Boards, National Cereals and Produce Board, Kenya Meat Commission, the Dairy Board of Kenya and others. <br><br> Their marketing functions are to look for market and better prices. <br><br> Research Organization <br><br> These are research centres which among other things, carry out research and trials on: Development of new varieties and cultivars of crops. Breeding disease and pest resistant varieties of crops and types of animals. Adaptations of crop and livestock species to ecological conditions of certain areas. Use of fertilizers and pesticides on crops in specific areas. Development of early maturing and high yielding species. Soil testing and crop analysis. Advisory services of agro-economic aspects. <br><br>Other Organizations Kenya National Farmers' Union negotiates for: Reasonable and affordable prices of farm inputs. Better prices for farm produce. Better credit facilities. Better control of diseases and pest. <br><br>Agricultural Society of Kenya <br><br> Organizes agricultural shows in the country. Encourages improvement of livestock through exhibitions and educating farmers <br><br>Organizes the running of young farmers' clubs. <br><br> Organizes and finances the ploughing contests during which farmers learn the modern <br><br>techniques of seedbed preparation. Publish "Kenya Farmers" magazines. To expose the young students and encourage them to appreciate agriculture as a <br><br>profession in their career. <br><br> To encourage the youth to develop leadership qualities through assignment of small <br><br>farming projects. <br><br> Organizing students exchange programmes with other club members both locally and <br><br>abroad. <br><br> To develop better farming skills through judging competitions, annual rallies and <br><br>camps. <br><br>Agricultural Based Women Groups <br><br> These are self-help groups whose objective is to uplift the economic status of their <br><br>members by carrying out agricultural related activities. Introduction <br><br> <br><br>In Kenya land use is changing from extensive methods of farming to more productive and sustainable intensive methods. <br><br> Agroforestry is a method of farming which has become increasingly important. <br><br>Definition <br><br> This is the practice of integrating a variety of land use <br><br>It combines tree growing, pasture and crop production practice on the same piece of land to improve the output of the land. <br><br>Forms of Agroforestry <br><br> Agroforestry; <br><br> It is a combination of trees/shrubs and crops in agricultural production. <br><br> Silvopastoral: It is a combination of growing tree/shrubs, pastoral and keeping of <br><br> Agrosilvopastoral: <br><br>livestock. <br><br>It is a combination of growing trees/shrubs, animals, pastures, and crops. Importance of Agroforestry <br><br> Environmental protection. Source of income. Afforestation for timber production. Maintenance of soil fertility. Aesthetic value. Labour saving in firewood collection. Source of food and feed. Source of fuel wood. <br><br>Important Trees and Shrubs for Particular Purposes <br><br>75 Eucalyptus Spp; Timber, Bee forage, Fuel wood, Medicinal, Production of essential oils. <br><br> Acacia Spp; <br><br> Leaves and pods eaten by animals, Provision of shade. <br><br> Cajanus cajan (pigeon peas); <br><br> Proteinous feed for human, Used as fodder Firewood. <br><br> Croton megalocarpus(croton); <br><br> Fuel wood timber for poles Handles for hand tools. <br><br> Erythrina abyssinica (flame tree); <br><br> Wood carvings, Bee forage, Nitrogen fixation Medicinal. Markhamia lutea (markhamia tree); <br><br> Timber for construction, Shade, Soil protection, Bee forage. <br><br> Grevillea robusta (silky oak.) <br><br> Timber, Fuel wood, Fodder, Bee forage, Soil protection, Wind breaker Shade. <br><br> Sesbania sesban (sesbania); Fodder, Nitrogen fixation, Shade, Fuel wood. <br><br> Calliandra calothyrsus (calliandra); <br><br> Fuel wood, Fodder, Nitrogen fixation, Shade, Bee forage. <br><br> Persea american (avocado) ; <br><br> Fodder, Fruit production, Shade, Fuel wood. <br><br> Mangifera indica (mango); <br><br>76 Characteristics of Agroforestry Tree Species: <br><br> Fast growth rate. Deep rooted. Nitrogen fixation ability. Be multipurpose in nature. Should not possess competitive ability with main crop .. Have coppicing and lopping ability. Have appropriate canopy - should not shade others. Nutritious and palatable. <br><br> By-product production ability. Trees and Shrubs to Avoid at Certain Sites and Reasons <br><br> Eucalyptus Spp.-should not be planted near water sources because it would absorb <br><br>the water. <br><br> Eucalyptus Spp. -should not be planted on the arable land as the roots have <br><br>allelophathic effects on other vegetation including crops. <br><br> Tall trees should not be planted near farm buildings because they may fall and damaging the buildings, their roots will break the building stones gradually. Bushy trees or shrubs should not be near farm buildings as they may harbour <br><br>predators. <br><br> Tall trees planted with main crop of a lower canopy intercept the rainfall, <br><br>affecting the growth of the main crop. <br><br> Cypress trees have leaves which produce acidity in the soil preventing <br><br>undergrowth beneath the tree. <br><br> These trees should not be planted within the farm but at the periphery. Tree <br><br>Nursery <br><br> Tree nurseries are structures used to raise tree seedlings until they are ready for <br><br>transplanting. <br><br> There are 2 main types: Bare root nurseries: <br><br>These are also known as 'Swaziland' beds where the seedlings are raised directly into the soil. Disadvantages <br><br> Root damage when uprooting the seedlings. Difficult to transport. Lower survival rate after transplanting. <br><br>Containerized nursery: <br><br> The seedlings in this type of nursery are raised in containers such as pots, polythene <br><br>bags or tubes and tins. <br><br>Advantages <br><br> Higher survival rate after transplanting. No root damage. Successful in arid areas. <br><br>Disadvantages <br><br> Labour intensive. Difficult to get containers. Sometimes it may be difficult to get the right type of soil to use in the containers. <br><br>Seed Collection and Preparation <br><br>Seed Collection <br><br>Seeds should be collected from; Adaptable trees, High yielding, Healthy Resistant to pests /diseases. The mother plant should be identified first. <br><br>The following methods used to collect seeds. <br><br> Shaking the tree. Gathering from under the tree. Lopping of the tree. Climbing on the trees. Hooking method. Seed Preparation <br><br> This done when seeds are collected from a fresh fruit, they should be soaked in <br><br>water, then washed and dried. <br><br> Cleaning and sorting: done to remove immature seeds, rotten seeds, broken or <br><br>damaged seeds. <br><br> Drying: Done by sun-drying or oven drying. Seed testing: this determines; <br><br>78 Seed quality for percentage purity, Seed weight, Moisture content, Germination percentage. <br><br> Seeds should be stored in dry containers at room temperature. Seed treatment: seeds are treated first to break the seed dormancy and ensure rapid <br><br>germination; Hot water treatment: used to soften the seed coat to make it more permeable to <br><br>water. <br><br> Examples of seeds which require this treatment are leucaenia, calliandra and <br><br>acacia. <br><br> Mechanical breaking: done by nicking the seed coat with a knife for easy entrance <br><br>of water for example seeds of croton trees. Light burning: applied to the wattle tree seeds. Nursery Management The following are the practices carried out in the nursery when the seedlings are growing: <br><br> Mulching: <br><br> Aim is to reduce excessive evaporation, Moderates the soil temperature, When it decays it improves the soil structure, Reduces the impact of the raindrops. <br><br> Weeding: <br><br> Done to reduce competition for growth factors by uprooting the weeds, Watering: Use a sharp pointed stick. Done by use of a watering can Done twice a day in the morning and in the evening. <br><br> Pricking out: <br><br> bed, <br><br>It is the removal of seedlings in an overcrowded area to another nursery <br><br> Root pruning: <br><br>This allows the seedlings to grow strong and healthy. It is the cutting of the roots longer than the pots. <br><br> Root pruning is done for the following reasons; <br><br> Make lifting easier Encourage fast establishment. Reduce damage to the seedlings. Shading: <br><br>Encourage development of a short dense and strong rooting system. <br><br> Done to reduce the intensity of sunlight . Dark conditions should be avoided. Pest and disease control: <br><br> Use of appropriate chemicals, Sterilization of soil through heat treatment, <br><br>Fencing to protect seedlings against animal damage. <br><br> Hardening off: <br><br> It is the practice of preparing seedlings to adapt to the ecological conditions <br><br>prevailing in the seedbed. <br><br> It involves gradual reduction of shade and watering 1-2weeks before <br><br>transplanting. Transplanting: <br><br> The practice of transferring seedlings from the nursery bed to the main field where <br><br>they grow to maturity. Procedure of Transplanting <br><br> Holes are dug early before transplanting. Topsoil is mixed with compost manure. The seedlings are watered well a day before transplanting. The seedlings are removed from the nurseries carefully with a ball of soil for the bare <br><br>root seedlings and roots trimmed for the containerized seedlings. <br><br> The seedling is placed in the hole at the same height it was in the nursery. The container is removed carefully. The soil is returned into the hole and firmed around the seedling. The seedling is watered and mulched. Care and Management of Trees <br><br>Protection: From damage by animals such as goats and cattle by eating the leaves. It is done by fencing the fields or using small poles around each seedling with or <br><br>without wire nettings, can be done for individual trees or an entire field. <br><br> Pruning and trimming: <br><br> Pruning is the removal of extra or unwanted parts of a plant. The unwanted part may be due to breakage, overcrowding, pests or disease <br><br>attacks and over production. <br><br> Pruning initiates growth of shoots and trains the tree to have the required shape. <br><br> Regular cutting back of the trees is known as coppicing, It is done at the beginning of each cropping season to reduce competition <br><br>for water, minerals, nutrients and sunlight with crops. <br><br> The materials pruned or coppiced are used as fuel wood or for fodder crops. <br><br> Grafting old trees: <br><br> This is the practice of uniting two separate woody stems. The part with the rooting system is known as root stock (base) The part which is grafted onto the rootstock is called a scion which has <br><br>buds that develop into the future plant. <br><br> The ability of the scion and the rootstock to form a successful union is <br><br>known as compatibility. <br><br> Methods of grafting include whip or tongue grafting, side grafting and <br><br>approach grafting. Agroforestry Practices <br><br> Alley Cropping/Hedgerow Intercropping: <br><br> The growing of multipurpose trees and shrubs together with crops. <br><br> Benefits <br><br> Provision of green manure. Used as fence and mark boundaries. Acts as windbreaks. Suppress weeds. Source of timber and fuel wood. <br><br>Improve soil fertility through nitrogen fixation and organic matter. Multi-storey cropping ; <br><br> This is the growing together of trees of different heights. The system is based on crops which can tolerate shading. The trees and crops form different levels of canopy which look like storey. <br><br> Benefits <br><br> Increases water conservation for pastures. None of the crops or trees included will be shaded. Act as windbreak for crops. Creates suitable micro-climate in the area. Trees are used for timber, fuel wood and forage. <br><br> Woodlots (farm forests) <br><br> These are plots of land set aside for trees only. They are established in the hilly and less productive parts of the farm. Fast growing tree species such as Eucalyptus spp. should be grown. <br><br>Sites for Agroforestry: <br><br> Farm boundaries - provide live fences. <br><br>81 River banks - protect water catchment areas. Terraces - for soil conservation. Steep slopes - as contour hedges to encourage water seepage. <br><br> Homesteads - provision of shade and <br><br>windbreak <br><br>Tree Harvesting Methods <br><br> Pollarding; <br><br> This is the extensive cutting back of the crown of the tree about 2-3 meters <br><br>above the ground level to harvest all the side branches. It stimulates the development of a new crown and branches. <br><br> Coppicing; <br><br> Cutting the main stem of the tree completely at a height of 10 - 50 cm above the <br><br>ground. <br><br> The tree should be cut in a slanting angle. <br><br> Lopping or side pruning ; <br><br> The removal of selected branches of the tree Done to produce fuel wood and fodder. <br><br> Shaking of the tree ; <br><br> This is a method of harvesting pods and seeds from trees without cutting the tree. <br><br> Cutting back; <br><br> The tree is cut from the base to allow new growth as done in coffee when <br><br>changing the cycle. <br><br> Thinning; <br><br> The removal of some of the trees growing in lines to give the remaining trees <br><br>enough space to grow. |
# AGRICULTURE FORM IV NOTES #### 27.0.0 Livestock Production V (Poultry) (25 Lessons) 28.0.0 Livestock Production VI (Cattle) (16 Lessons) 29.0.0 Farm Power and Machinery (18 Lessons) 30.0.0 Agricultural Economics III (Production Economics) (20 Lessons) 31.0.0 Agricultural Economics IV (Farm Accounts) (10 Lessons) 32.0.0 Agricultural Economics V(Agricultural Marketing and Organisations) (10 Lessons) 33.0.0 Agroforestry (10 Lessons) # Livestock Production V (Poultry) ### Introduction #### Poultry industry in Kenya has developed tremendously due to the use of artificial incubation and brooding and easy availability of hybrid birds, both eggers and broilers. Poultry production has become an easy source of income and food for the rural as well as the urban communities. The term poultry includes domestic birds such as turkeys, ducks, geese, pheasants, . doves and pigeons Of late ostrich farming has become a lucrative activity. Poultry production starts with incubation of eggs. 1 ----- #### Parts of an Egg Shell Forms 10-12% of the whole egg content. Made of calcium and phosphorus. Protects the inner egg contents. Shell membrane Made of inner and outer membranes. Lini l. ng of the egg shel Constitutes 1 % of the total egg content. Albumen (egg white) About 55-60% of the total egg content. It is divided into chalaza, thick and thin albumen. . Chalaza holds the egg yolk in position Albumen serves as food for the chick. Yolk 30-33% of the total egg content. Supply embryo with nutrients. Germinal disc -The embryo which develops into a chick if fertilized. Vitelline membrane - Gives the yolk its round shape. Air sac Keeps the egg fresh by allowing . gaseous exchange Provides oxygen for the embryo : ### Egg Candling 2 ----- #### This is the practice of determining the internal qualities of an egg by examining it . against a light source Procedure The egg is placed on a hole made on a .cardboard box. This is called a candling box. A sou rce of light is placed in the box directly under the egg. The observer then looks through the egg against the source of light below. Abnormalities on and within the egg can be seen through the translucent shell. ### Incubation #### Involves the provision of fertile eggs with the proper condition for embryonic development. Selection of Eggs for Incubation Should be fertile. Should be of medium size about 55- 60gms in weight. Should have smooth shell. Should be oval shaped. Should not be cracked. Eggs should be clean to ensure that pores are open. Should not have abnormalities such as blood spots, meat spots and double yolk. . Eggs should not be more than 5 days old. Eggs should be fresh that is collected within one week. Internal egg qualities can be determined through the egg candling process. ### Methods of Incubation #### Natural Incubation This involves the use of a broody hen which sits on the eggs to provide them with . conditions necessary for hatching Takes 20-21 days. The hen is given about 10-15 eggs. Signs' of Broodiness in Poultry . Tendency to sit on an egg after laying Moulting of the hen. Making some noise at the laying nests. Feathers are raised. It becomes aggressive when disturbed. It stops laying. 3 ----- #### Preparation and Management of Natural Incubation The hen is given "China eggs" to sit on to induce broodiness. When broody the hen should be provided with a nesting nest or a saucershaped nest scooped on the ground. The nest shall be lined with soft bedding and fertile eggs provided. The eggs are set in the evening or night. The bird is dusted to control external parasites. The hen is allowed t hour outside to feed and exercise everyday. Broken eggs should be removed immediately. 4 ----- #### The hen should not be disturbed. Advantages of Natural Incubation It is cheap. High hatchability. Low risk involved. Useful in small scale production. Less skill is required. Less laborious. Disadvantages of Natural Incubation Egg production is low because the hen will not lay eggs during incubation. It is not possible to plan when to incubate. If the hen dies the eggs will be destroyed. If the hen deserts the eggs or refuses to sit on them the farmer will incur losses. Only few chicks can be hatched at a time by one hen. Diseases and parasites could easily be transmitted to the chicks. ### Artificial Incubation #### This is the use of artificial device known as an incubator for hatching eggs. Conditions Necessary for Artificial Hatching of Eggs Temperature - maintain at 37.5C-39.4 C throughout to control the rate of embryonic development of the chick. High or low temperatures are lethal. Ventilation - Good air circulation. Carbon dioxide: oxygen ratio maintained at 0.03%:21 %. Relative humidity - Maintained at 60%. High humidity leads to marshy chicks low humidity the chick may stick to the shell. Turning of Eggs Done 3-4 times a day to facilitate uniform distribution of heat for uniform development of chick. Turn slowly 180 clockwise along the axis to avoid breaking the blood vessels. Some incubators have automatic turning mechanism. Cleanliness - cleaning and disinfecting the incubator with formaldehyde solution. Advantages of Artificial Incubation It facilitates large scale production of chicks. Incubators are always ready when needed. Artificial incubation leads to higher egg production because broodiness in the hens is not required, so there is more time for laying eggs. Disadvantages of Artificial Incubation . High initial capital in buying an incubator . High level of management and attention is required 5 ----- #### It is not economical for only a small number of eggs. H rni . igh risks involved in tu ng the eggs ### Brooding and Rearing of Chicks #### Brooding is the rearing of day old chicks upto 8 weeks old for the layer chicks and 2 weeks for the broiler chicks. For successful brooding the source of the chicks should be considered. Sources of Chicks The following factors should be considered: The reputation of the supplier (hatchery). Time taken by the chicks in transit. Proper sexing and breed identification. ### Brooding #### Natural Brooding A hen is allowed to take care of the chicks. She provides them with warmth and security. She stays with the chicks for 8 weeks and then rejects them. Advantages It is cheap. Less labour is needed. Suitable for small scale. Disadvantages of Natural Brooding . Not possible to produce large numbers of chicks . The hen goes off laying during brooding time ### Only possible when a broody hen is available. Artificial Brooding #### The chicks are raised artificially in a structure known as a brooder until they are 8 weeks old. Brooder Requirements Temperature - should be about 35C in the 15th week and reduced to 21C by the 8 [t][h] week. Litter - wood shavings which are capable of absorbing 60% moisture without showing wetness should be used. Space confinement - Done by use of hardboards which are about 25cm high and form a circular space. A space of 1m [2] for 25 chicks is required. 6 ----- #### Feeders and waterers - should be enough for the chicks and evenly distributed in the brooder. Ventilators - windows should be enough to allow proper air circulation but direct . draught should be avoided Types of Heaters in the Brooder Electric heaters - one ordinary bulb 100 watts can raise 30 chicks. One infrared bulb 240 watts can raise 100 chicks. Kerosene burners - Hurricane lamps can raise 100 chicks. Charcoal burners - these are specially made jikos with heat deflectors. ### Brooder Management #### Preparation Before Chicks Arrive Start 2-3 days before arrival. The brooder house should be cleaned to remove old litter and then disinfected. New litters 5-1Ocm high should be put in and covered with absorbent materials/news papers. Equipment should be cleaned, disinfected and tested to make sure that they are . working The brooder is lit about 6 hours before the chicks arrive. Feed and water should be placed into shallow containers. Brooder space should be confined with a hard board to prevent chicks straying far from the source of heat. ### Management After Arrival of the Chicks #### Chicks are placed in the brooder during the day to familiarize with the brooder. If chicks arrive stressed and weak they should be given glucose solution in the waterers. In case the heat source is charcoal burners they should be covered with wire mesh. Feed chicks with chick mash which is later mixed with growers mash as the chicks . grow . Clean water should be provided and changed regularly . Constant attention should be given to the chicks for the first 2 weeks Any vices should be checked and controlled. Any dead chicks should be removed as soon as seen. Ventilation should be used to control the temperature and humidity in the brooder. Constant disinfection is required at the entrance to avoid diseases. Brooder space should be increased as the chicks grow. . Debeaking should be done at 10 days old Vaccination against diseases such as Gumboro after 2 weeks, New Castle at 3-4 weeks and fowl typhoid at 7 weeks. Dusting to control external parasites. 7 ----- #### . Growers' mash should be introduced gradually at 7 weeks old Chicks are removed from the brooder when they are 8 weeks old. On average the chick uses about 1.5kg - 2.2kg of chick mash by the time it is 8 weeks old. ### Temperature Control in the Brooder #### If the brooder temperatures are low the following should be done: Brooder space is reduced. Heaters are increased. Ventilators are closed. If the brooder temperatures are too high the following should be done: Brooder space is increased. Heaters should be reduced. ### Ventilators should be opened. Management of the Growers #### The growers are birds at the age of 9 weeks to the point of lay that is at 18 weeks. Growers should be fed on growers' mash. By this time the growers should be occupying the main poultry house. 8 ----- #### Sick birds should be isolated and treated. A foot bath for constant disinfection should be placed at the entrance. Each bird is fed 115 gms per day of growers' mash. Greens and soluble grit should also be provided. Clean water should be provided all the time (adilibitum). Drenching against internal parasites should be done by adding a dewormer into the water. Vermins should be controlled. Litter should be kept dry by turning. Vaccination should be done as required. ### Layer pullets require dimly lit house. Management of the Layers #### Layers' mash should be introduced at 18 weeks and increased gradually. The birds start laying at 18-21 weeks. The birds should be vaccinated against New Castle and fowl typhoid. Enough floor space roosts, feeders and waterers should be provided. Each hen should be given 120gms per day of layers' mash. Clean water should be provided adlibitum. Eggs should be collected twice a day at noon and in the evening. Green leaves should be provided to keep the birds busy thus preventing cannibalism and improve the yellow colour of the yolk. Grains should be given in addition to the layers' mash at the rate of 65gms per bird per day. Soluble grit or oyster shells should be provided at all times for efficient digestion and strong shelled eggs. Layers should be fed according to their body weight and the rate of egg production for example a 70kg bag should feed 100 layers for 4-5 days. Enough laying nests should be provided at least 1 per 5 layers. The laying boxes should be dimly lit to reduce egg eating. Debeaking should be done when necessary. Broken eggs and dead birds should be disposed off properly. The non-layers and cannibals should be culled. ### Management of Broilers #### Broilers are table birds kept for meat production. They have high growth rates or high feed conversion ratio. The objective is to produce a kilogram of quality poultry meat from less than two kg of broiler feed. The broiler chick requires special broiler feed from day old to 4 weeks of age. Broiler starters' mash or crumbs should be fed. 9 ----- #### This contains coccidiostat, high level of protein, vitamins and trace elements for early growth. From 4 weeks to 8 weeks they are given broiler follow-on mash or pellets. This feed contains high level of metabolisable energy to ensure a good cover of subcutaneous fat in the finished broiler. From 8 weeks until slaughter finisher pellets should be given to increase the size. Adequate clean water should be provided at all times (adlibitum). High level of hygiene should be maintained to reduce mortality rate. Birds should be dusted with appropriate pesticides to control external parasites. Deworming should be done routinely. Vaccination against common diseases should be done. Dead birds should be disposed off properly. Broilers should be kept under deep litter system, the house should be well ventilated and well lit. ### Poultry Rearing Systems #### extensive, semi intensive intensive systems. ### The Extensive Systems Free Range #### Birds are set free throughout the day to fend for themselves. . Birds are confined in night shelters for the night There is no supplementation. Advantages Birds eat insects and green leaves therefore less feed is required. Cheap method. Cannibalism and egg eating are reduced since the birds are not crowded. Manure is evenly spread in the runs. Low labour requirement. Birds get plenty of exercises thus helping to keep in good health. No need to . provide grit as birds pick it from the soil Disadvantages More land is required if a farmer wants to rear many birds. Birds can be stolen or eaten by predators. . Eggs get lost in the vegetation or stolen. Eggs get dirty Difficult to determine layers from non-layers. Birds get easily infected with diseases and parasites of the area. . Breeding programme is not easy to follow 10 ----- #### Birds can destroy crops where perimeter fencing is not constructed. Low productivity per unit area. ### Semi-Intensive Fold System #### Birds are confined in small portable structures called folds. A fold measures 3.5m long, 1.5m wide and 1.5m height. of the fold is roofed while the rest is enclosed with wire mesh. . Birds get plenty of sunlight Birds get fresh grass as the fold is moved to new grounds. Advantages Manure is evenly spread in the field. . Less feed is used because birds eat grass Reduces build up of parasites and diseases since the fold is moved often. Birds are protected from predators. Disadvantages Few birds are kept per fold. It is laborious since the folds are moved from one place to the other. . Individual egg production record is difficult to keep The fold does not last long because of high frequency of handling. The return per unit area of land is low. ### Intensive System Deep Litter System #### . Birds are confined in a house throughout their life The floor of the house is made up of litter which accumulates over time. Enough feeders, waterers and laying boxes are provided depending on the number of birds and space available. Movable roosts and perches made of timber frames should be provided in the house. Stress and vices should be watched closely and controlled. Eggs should be collected as frequently as possible to prevent dirt and egg eating. The house should be dimly lit. The floor space requirement should be 1m [2] per 2-3 birds. Advantages . High stocking rate per unit area of land Low labour requirement. Fast accumulation of manure. There is control of feeding, egg production and movement of birds. Safety of the birds is guaranteed from predators. No loss of eggs. Useful method when rearing breeding stock. 11 ----- #### Regular cleaning of the house is not necessary since the litter absorbs the droppings. . Easy collection of eggs Disadvantages High incidence of cannibalism like egg eating, feather plucking and toe pecking. Pests and disease causing organisms accumulate in the litter. Individual records of the birds are not possible. May be difficult to find litter. Eggs become dirty if laid on the floor. Feeders and waterers may be contaminated by the litter. . The system encourages broodiness in hens High infestation of diseases if the management is below standard. If there is a disease outbreak, it can spread very quickly throughout the house due to the communal housing. . High cost of building deep litter house 12 ----- ### Battery Cage System #### Birds are confined in cages which are placed in the poultry house. The cages are made of wire mesh Each cage contains 1-3 birds. Water and feed troughs together with eggs trays are fitted along the front side of the cages. The floor of the cages should be slanting to allow the eggs to roll out of the cages. Droppings from the cages fall from behind for easy cleaning. Advantages . Records are easily kept therefore culling is easy Birds do not become broody. More eggs are collected due to restricted movement of the hens and complete . control of egg eating Tender meat is obtained from the culls because the muscles have not been toughened much. Handling is easier than in the other systems and individual attention to hens is given. . Stocking rate is very high Vices are greatly reduced. Eggs are clean because hens do not step on them. The system can easily be mechanised. Birds do not contaminate the food and water. Sick birds can be detected easily and isolated for treatment. Wire floors prevent re-infestation of parasitic worms and coccidiosis. No bullying during feeding. Low labour requirement. Disadvantages Initial costs for cages, equipment and house are excessively high. Requires high level of management. Higher maintenance costs where automation is used. Birds may get fatigue due to lack of exercises thus lowering productivity. In case of disease outbreak, spreading is very fast. Birds develop bruises on combs, breasts and toes as they stick their necks out-to feed and walk in the cages. Not useful when rearing breeding stock and the rearing of broilers. Cannot be used for brooding young chicks. ### Stress and Vices in Chicken #### Stress is a condition imposed on the birds making them disturbed and uncomfortable. Stress reduces production and brings about poor performance. Vices are habits developed by animals. These affect production and health of the birds. 13 ----- #### Usually they are bad habits. ### Cause of Stress in Poultry #### Sudden changes in routine management. Presence of strangers in the poultry house. Presence of animals and vermins. Too much noise. Constant and poor handling. Sudden weather changes. Disturbance of the pecking order. Overcrowding Poor hygiene. Disease and pest attack. ### Lack of food and water. Control of Stress #### Poultry house should be kept quiet and constructed away from noise. Poultry house should be insulated to maintain constant temperatures. Parasites and diseases should be controlled. Change in routine management should be gradual. Enough feed and water should be provided. ### Vices #### Feather pecking. Cannibalism (toe and vent pecking). E . gg eating ### Pecking and Cannibalism #### Situation where birds peck at each other resulting in death or injury. Effects: Feather and body growth rate IS reduced. Loss of birds due to death may result from cannibalism. Culling rate is increased (economic loss). ### The appearance of the carcass is spoiled thereby reducing its market value. Causes of Cannibalism #### . Overcrowding in the house High temperatures in the poultry house making the birds uncomfortable. Too bright light. External parasite infestation. Inadequate and incorrect feeding. Idleness of the birds. Greediness of the birds. Disturbances of the pecking order. Prolapses of the rectum which occurs once in a while. Bright light in the lying boxes. ### Preventive Measures #### Ample spacing should be provided on the floor, feeders, waterers and laying boxes. Overheating should be avoided during brooding. 14 ----- #### The house should be dimly lit for the layers. Laying nests should be darkened and above the ground. Dusting should be done to control external parasites. Provide enough balanced ration. Birds should be kept busy. New/strange birds should not be allowed in the house. ### Egg Eating #### A vice influenced by the following: . Presence of broken or soft shelled eggs Idleness of the birds. Inadequate laying nests. Mineral deficiencies. Bright light in the laying nests. Greediness of the birds. ### Preventive Measures #### Eggs should be collected regularly. Laying boxes raised above the ground. Laying boxes should be darkened. Birds should be given balanced ration. Debeaking should be done as need be. Birds should be kept busy with greens. . Birds should be kept according to age groups Injured birds should be isolated and treated. ### Marketing of Poultry Products #### Poultry products include eggs and meat. Marketing of Eggs Eggs are delicate and perishable foods and have the highest value when fresh. The factors considered when sorting out and grading eggs for the market include: Size/weight of the egg - large eggs fetch high prices than small ones. The average weight should be about 57gms. Shape of the egg - The normal egg shape is oval, with a broad end and a narrow end. Cleanliness - Consumers prefer clean eggs. Colour of the shell - Brown eggs are popular with the consumers. Candling qualities - candling is done to determine freshness of the eggs and presence of any other egg abnormalities. Shell texture - should be smooth and without cracks. ### Poultry Meat #### Broilers are slaughtered at the age of 1-2.5months old with a life weight of 1.5-2kgs. The birds are killed and dressed in a clean way before being wrapped in clean bags ready for sale. The meat is sold in hotels and restaurants. 15 ----- #### Whole birds can be sold live in local markets. # Livestock Production VI (Cattle) ### Introduction #### Cattle production is a widely distributed enterprise in Kenya. Most farming communities choose between the exotic and the' local breeds or their crosses depending on the environmental conditions. Whereas the backbone of beef industry in Kenya is made up of the indigenous animals and their crosses, and based in the somewhat drier areas, the-dairy industry is mainly based on the exotic breeds and their crosses and common in the wetter regions of Kenya. Whatever production undertaken, the returns depend mostly on the management levels provided to these animals. A productive herd starts with good management of the young stock. ### Raising of Young Stock. #### The young one of cattle is known as a calf. ### Feeding Dairy Calves #### Newborn calves should be given colostrums within the first 3-5 days of their life. ### Colostrum is important for the following reasons: #### It is highly digestible. It contains antibiotics. It is highly nutritious. It serves as a laxative. It is highly palatable. Calves can be fed ### using natural method (direct suckling) or artificially/bucket feeding. Natural Method #### In this method, calves suckle the mother directly. ### Advantages #### The calf takes milk at body temperature. The milk is free from contaminants. Less problems of scouring. ### Disadvantages #### Underfeeding of the calf may result. Cows may not let down milk in case the calf dies. 16 ----- #### Difficult to keep accurate production records. ### Artificial/Bucket Feeding #### The calf is trained to feed from the bucket immediately after birth. ### The calf is trained as follows: #### Well measured milk is put in a clean bucket. Index finger is inserted into the mouth of the calf. The head of the calf is lowered slowly into the bucket until the calf starts to drink the milk. The finger is withdrawn slowly as the calf continues to drink from the bucket. ### The procedure is repeated until the calf gets used to the process. Advantages #### Easy to keep accurate production record/milk yields of the cow. Possible to regulate the amount of milk given to the calf The cow does not need the presence of the calf in order to let down milk Easy to maintain high hygiene standards. ### Disadvantages #### Laborious Calf may be given cold milk Equipment used and the stockman may be dirty leading to scours ### Preparation of artificial colostrums Ingredients used #### A fresh egg whipped in 0.86 litres of warm water Litre of warm water One teaspoonful of cod liver oil One tablespoonful of castor oil Note; colostrums is fed to the calves three times a day for the first 4 days of life and thereafter twice a day. ### Weaning of calves Early weaning #### Calf is fed on whole milk up to the tenth week then it is weaned Calf is given milk equal to 10% of its body weight up to the 8 [th] week After 8 [th] week, milk is reduced gradually by 1 kg until weaning Calf is given early weaning concentrates and soft forage ### Earl y Weanin g Guide 17 ----- |1|Colostrums ad libitum|-| |---|---|---| |2-3|5|-| |4-5|6|0.25kg/day| |6-7|6|0.5kg/day| |8-9|5|0.75kg/day| |10-11|4|1.00kg/day| |12-3|-|1.50kg/day| |14-15|-|2.ookg/day| |16|-|2.ookg/day| ### Late weaning #### Calf is fed on whole milk up to the 3 [rd] week, when milk is replaced gradually with skim milk. At the age of 3weeks the calf is introduced to calf pellets or pencils and green fodder. The calf is given plenty of clean water. The calf continues to be given additional skim milk up to the age of 14 weeks when maximum amount of milk is given. Skim milk is reduced from 14 weeks to 16 weeks when weaning is done. ### Late weanin g g uide |Age in weeks|Whole milk (kg/day)|Concentrates (kg/day)|Skim milk (kg/day)| |---|---|---|---| |1|Colostrums ad libitum|-|-| |2|3.5|-|-| |3|4|-|-| |4|4.5|0.25kg/day|1| |5|4.0|0.5kg/day|3| |6|3.0|0.75kg/day|5| |7|-|1.00kg/day|7| |8-14|-|2.00kg/day|8| |15|-|2.00kg/day|4| |16|-|2.00kg/day|4| 18 ----- ### Rearing of replacement stock #### The replacement stock includes young heifers and bulls which have been selected for breeding to replace the old stock. ### Management Practice Parasite control -Spraying against external parasites and deworming against #### internal parasites. ### Disease control -Calves are vaccinated routinely against diseases such as; #### Blackquater-at 4 months old. Anthrax and Blackquater at 6 months old Brucellosis - 3-8 months old (heifers). ### Castration - for male calves not selected for breeding. Identification - Suitable methods are used. It allows proper record keeping. Removal of Extra Teats ; #### These teats are known as supernumerary teats which make milking of the animal difficult. They are clipped off with teat clippers. ### Dehorning/Disbudding - The removal of horn buds using suitable methods. Calf Housing #### Requirement of a Calf Pen; Should be clean and easy to clean. Be warm and dry. Have adequate space to allow exercise and feeding. Should be properly lit and allow sunlight for Vitamin D. Have proper drainage to avoid dampness. Draught free to prevent chilling. Be well ventilated to allow fresh air. ### Types of Pens #### These can be; permanent mobile/movable. ### Permanent Pens 19 ----- #### Have a solid floor raised above the ground. The floor should be slanted for drainage. ### Constructed near the milking parlour. Mobile/Movable Pens #### Have an open floor to allow grass into the pen. Easily moved from one place to another to avoid soiling. ### Kept outdoors in the pastures to allow the calf to nibble on pastures. Single Housing #### Calves should be housed singly up to the age of 3 weeks, when they are put in group pens. This is to avoid them licking each other and swallowing hairs which form indigestible balls. ### Milk and Milking #### Milk is the white lacteal substance secreted by the mammary glands of the female mammals. ### Composition of Milk #### Protein - Casein and whey. Fat - Butter fat. Carbohydrates - Lactose Minerals - mainly calcium and phosphorus. Water ### Factors Affecting Milk Composition #### Age of the animal. Conditions of the animal. Stage of lactation and pregnancy. Completeness of milking. Type of breed. Season of the year. Type of food eaten. Physiological conditions such as diseases. ### Milk Secretion and Milk Let-down #### Milk is secreted by the mammary glands which is an accessory gland of the reproductive system. The mammary gland of a cow is known as an udder. 20 ----- ### Structure of the Udder #### The udder is composed of the following parts: Alveolus cells - synthesize and secrete milk. Lobule - a group of alveolus cells. Lobe - Several lobules grouped together and drained by lactiferous ducts. Gland cistern - space where milk collects from the lobes. Teat cistern - A space where milk collects before emission. Teat -An organ which drains each quarter of the udder. ### Milk Secretion The process of milk secretion is known as lactogenesis. The digested food is #### taken to the udder via blood vessels. In the udder the nutrients are carried into the alveoli cells where metabolic reactions take place to build up these nutrients into milk. ### A hormone prolactine is secreted by pituitary gland which brings about #### lactogenesis. The milk secreted is then stored in the upper parts of the udder waiting to be released. ### Milk Let -Down 21 ----- #### The process of milk let-down occurs naturally when the animal is stimulated. Milk secreted moves from alveolar region through the ducts to the gland cistern. ### Oxytocin, a hormone secreted by the pituitary gland causes the contraction of the #### udder muscles forcing the milk down the teats. Oxytocin hormone lasts 7 -10 minutes in the blood stream hence fast milking is important to withdraw the milk. Milk is withdrawn from the teats by gently squeezing them. ### Factors Influencing Milk Let-Down #### Presence of the calf. Presence of the milkman/milker. Rattling of the milk equipment. Site of the food/feeding the animal. Massaging or washing the udder. Sight of the milk parlour. ### Factors Inhibiting Milk Let-Down #### Beating the animal/inflicting pain to the animal. Presence of strangers and animals for example dogs. Poor milking techniques. Absence of the calf (in case the cow is used to it). ### Clean Milk Production #### The following factors are essential for clean milk production: A healthy lactating cow. A healthy and clean milker. Clean and properly constructed milking parlour. Clean and disinfected milking equipment. Proper handling of the milk after milking. ### Milking Procedure #### The animals are brought near the milking parlour 15-20 minutes before milking to get into the mood of being milked. Milking materials such as equipment, feeds, ropes, stools and salve are collected and placed near the milking parlour. The animals are allowed into the milking stall one by one as the milking proceeds as follows: The animal is restrained in the stall. Feed is weighed and placed into the feed trough. The udder is thoroughly washed, disinfected and dried with a clean cloth. A strip cup is used to test for mastitis on each quarter. Milking proceeds by squeezing the teats with the full hand. If machine milking the teat cups are placed on the teats. 22 ----- #### For hand milking start with the hindquarters and finish with the forequarters. Fast milking should take about 8 minutes then end with stripping the udder. The milk is weighed and recorded. The animal is then released. ### Dry Cow Therapy #### This is the infusion of antibiotics into the teat canal of a cow that is preparing for drying off. It prevents bacterial infection which leads to mastitis. ### Milk Products #### Pasteurized milk - milk that is heated and cooled immediately. Ultra Heat Treated (UHT) - milk heated to a temperature of 130-135C, packed and then cooled. Butter - Milk butter fat separated by a process known as churning. Cream -A layer of is: that collects at the top of the milk when left to stand. Cheese - Milk proteins which have been compressed. Ghee - Milk fat made from heating cream or butter. ### Skim milk - Milk without butter fat. Marketing of Milk #### The Kenya Dairy Board regulates the production and sale of milk and milk products through various Dairy Co-operative Societies. Processors and distributors of milk and milk products include; o KCC, o Brookside Dairies, o Tuzo, o Delamere Dairies o Limuru Dairies. ### Marketing of Beef #### Done by the following: Individual fanners through the local slaughter house. Livestock marketing division. Kenya Meat Commission. Farmer's Choice. ## Farm Power and Machinery Introduction #### Farm power is any form of energy used in the farm to do work. . Sources of Farm Power 23 ----- Human Power #### Performs light tasks. Quality of work produced is variable. Takes a long time to complete a task. Animal Power 24 ----- Done by draught animals such as camels, donkeys, horses and elephants. #### Used in land preparation and transportation. Disadvantages #### Slow. Animals are liable to sickness and get tired. Need enough food. Wind Power #### To pump water from boreholes. To winnow crops such as beans, finger millet and rice. Generate electricity. Disadvantages #### Not easy to control and may not be available when needed. Water Power Irrigation. #### Grinding mills (to grind maize grains). Disadvantages Difficult to use in the farm because it is not easy to control. Biomas This includes: wood or charcoal biogas power. Charcoal/Wood Fuel Energy Uses #### Provides heat for boiling water and cooking. Dehydrating of some crops. Curing of tobacco. Disadvantages #### Exhaustible. It cannot be used directly in some farm operations. Large quantities are required. They are bulky hence difficult to transport. Biogas Uses #### Provides heat and light for cooking, boiling water and lighting. 25 ----- #### Produces electricity. Disadvantages Only possible where there are animals under zero grazing unit. It is labour-consuming. #### Large quantities of dung are required. Cannot be used directly in some farm operations. Fossil Fuels These include: #### coal, petroleum oils natural gas. Uses #### Petrol or diesel is burned in internal combustion engines to produce power. Kerosene is the main source of power to light rural homes. Natural gas is used for cooking, heating and lighting. Electrical Power It includes: #### hydro-electrical power (HEP), geothermal, nuclear power stored in batteries. Nuclear energy is a potential source of power which has not yet been used in the farms. Uses of Electrical Power #### Runs stationary machines such as milling machines, grinding mills, cooling machines and water pumps. #### Supplies heat and light for operations of brooders. Disadvantages #### Cannot be used directly in some farm operations. Lack of electricity in the rural areas. Power failures can lead to high losses. It is costly to install and maintain. Solar Energy Energy obtained from the sun. 26 ----- Uses #### Provides heat and light. Used by all the plants in photosynthesis. Dehydrating crops such as vegetables, maize grains, beans and hay. Boils water which drives turbines to produce power for minor uses. Disadvantage Low concentration of energy on cloudy days. Expensive In collecting and concentrating equipment. Cannot be used directly in some farm operations. #### Requires skilled labour to install and maintain. Tractor #### The tractor has an internal combustion engine which burns petrol or diesel to produce power. This power is then passed to the gear box from where it is transmitted in various ways. The common tractor engine is a four stroke cycle engine. The four strokes are: #### Induction stroke. Compression stroke. Power stroke. Exhaust stroke. Induction Stroke #### Piston moves down. Inlet valve opens. Fuel and air get into the cylinder. Compression Stroke #### Inlet valve is closed. Piston moves up the cylinder. Fuel-air mixture is compressed. Power Stroke #### A spark is produced at spark plug, igniting the fuel-air mixture. The increased pressure forces the piston down the cylinder. Exhaust Stroke 27 ----- #### Exhaust valve opens. Piston moves up the cylinder. Burned fuel-air mixture expelled. Advantages of the Four Stroke Engines #### Produce high power which can do heavy farm work. Have efficient fuel and oil utilization. Perform a wide range of farm operations. Are effectively cooled with water thus allowing the production of large engine size. Exhaust gasses are effectively expelled from the cylinders. Disadvantages #### Are expensive to buy and maintain Their use is limited in some areas; Tractor can only be used on flat or gently sloping areas Require skilled personnel and support services 28 ----- The Two Stroke Engines #### Found in small machines such as mowers, motor bikes, and water pumps which do light jobs in the farm. #### All the cycles are completed in two strokes of the piston. These strokes are; Induction and compression stroke #### The piston is at the bottom Piston moves up uncovering the inlet port Fuel-air mixure is drawn in Ignition occurs when the piston reaches the top Piston is forced downward compressing the mixture in the crank. Power and exhaust stroke The piston is at the top Ignited gases produce pressure which force the piston downwards The piston covers the inlet port and traps fresh fuel-air mixture in the crank case Piston moves further down to uncover the exhaust port Fuel-air mixture transferred from the crankcase to the combustion chamber. What Advantages of two stroke engine? #### Cheap to buy and easy to maintain Economical in fuel consumption Can be used in a wide range of farmland, including hilly areas Can do small tasks in the farm which would be un-economical to do using the four stroke engine. What disadvantages of two stroke engine? #### They produce less power hence cannot be used for heavy duties. They are inefficient in burning fuel to produce power. They are air cooled thus limiting the size of the engine. 29 ----- Systems of a Tractor The modern tractor has the following systems: The fuel system. Electrical system Ignition system #### Cooling system Power transmission system. The Fuel System Supplies fuel to the engine. Categorized into two types depending on the fuel used. These are: #### The petrol fuel system. The diesel fuel system The Petrol Fuel System Consists of: #### Fuel tank - storage of fuel. Fuel filter - removes foreign particles from the fuel. Carburettor atomises fuel into spray. introduces fuel-air mixture into the engines. Regulates fuel-air into suitable proportions. #### Fuel pump - forces fuel into the carburettor. Delivery pipe - connects all the devices. Maintenance #### Cleaning the carburettor regularly. Cleaning the fuel filter in petrol. Cleaning the hole in the fuel tank cap. The Diesel Fuel System Consists of: #### Fuel tank - storage of fuel. Fuel injection pump - pumps diesel through injection nozzles and breaks into fine spray. Fuel filters - remove foreign particles from the fuel. Delivery pipes - connect the various devices. Maintenance #### Replacing the fuel filter. Bleeding in case air is trapped in the system. 30 ----- #### Cleaning the sediment bowl regularly. Structural and Functional Differences Between Petrol and Diesel Engines |efore it gets into the engine.|cylinder. | |---|---| |Fuel is ignited by an electric spark. |Fuel is ignited by compression of air and fuel mixture in the cylinder. | |It produces little smoke because etrol is completely burnt.|It produces a lot of smoke since the diesel is not completely burnt. | |Petrol engine is light in weight and uited for light duties.|It is relatively heavy in weight and suited for heavy duties.| |Petrol engine|Diesel Engine | |It has a carburettor |It has an injection pump. | |Fuel and air are mixed in the carburettor |The fuel and air are mixed within the| b Electrical System Consists of the following: #### Battery Converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Stores electrical energy produced by the running #### Ignition circuit - provide the electrical required by the spark plugs. current that produces a spark in the engine. #### Generator circuit - provide the electrical current that starts the engine. Lighting circuit - supply the electrical current required for the lighting system. Starter motor circuit - starts the engine. 31 ----- Care and Maintenance of a Tractor Battery #### The level of electrolyte should be kept just above the plate by topping with distilled water. Corroded terminals should be scrapped clean and smeared with grease. The battery should be tightly fixed in a box to avoid spillage and damage. The battery should be fitted correctly on the tractor. The battery should be charged regularly and periodically. In case of long storage the battery contents should be kept upside down. The generator fan belt should always be functional to ensure the battery is always charged. Ignition System Consists of: #### Ignition - change the low voltage from the battery to high voltage current required by the spark plugs. #### Condenser - absorbs the self-induced current in the primary circuit. stores current for a short time. passes electric current to the distributor. #### Distributor - distributes the high voltage current to the spark plugs. Contact breaker - Interrupts the normal flow of current in the primary circuit. State the Maintenance practices carried on the Ignition System #### The carbon deposits on the spark plug electrodes should be removed. The spark plugs whose electrodes are worn out should be replaced. The contact breaker points should be cleaned. The breaker points should be adjusted so that they lie between O.30mm and 0.50mm. The condenser should be replaced regularly. The ignition systems should always be kept dry. Ignition wires with poor insulation should be replaced. Cooling System #### The cooling system aims at preventing the engine from overheating which would cause piston zeisure in the cylinder. #### Some tractor engines are cooled by air while others are cooled by water. State the Characteristics of Air Cooled Engines #### They are simple in construction. They have fins and a fan blade which assists the circulation. 32 ----- #### They are light in weight for they have no radiators and water jackets. Limitations #### They get hot quickly and use heavy lubricating oil. The cooling is not adequate under all conditions especially when carrying heavy loads. Water Cooled Systems #### It consists of the radiator, water jackets, water hoses, water pump, thermostat and a fanning mechanism. #### Water is used to absorb heat from the engine block at a reasonable rate. Care and Maintenance of Water Cooling system #### The water pumps should be lubricated regularly. Clean water should be used in the radiator and trash removed from the fins. All pipes should be fitted tightly to avoid blockage. The radiator should be filled with clean water before starting the day's work. Fan belt tension should be checked regularly and if too tight or too loose should be adjusted accordingly. Lubrication System #### This system is aimed at supplying oil to all parts of the engine where friction is likely to occur. Importance of Lubrication system #### It helps to increase the efficiency of the machine and reduces the rate of wear and tear of moving parts. #### It reduces the heat created by the rubbing surfaces and acts as a seal between them. It acts as a cleaning agent because it washes off all the dust, dirt, soot and metal chippings from the oil paths to the sump. Types of Lubrication Systems; 33 ----- Splash feed type Force feed type Oil mist type Types of Lubricants #### SAE 10 - This is thin engine oil which gives little protection when heated. SAE 50 - This is thicker engine oil which is recommended for protecting the bearings. SAE 90 - 100 - These are transmission oils which are recommended for clutch, gear box, wheel lubrication and ball bearings. Note: SAE - Society of Automobile Engines. Care and Maintenance of Lubrication Systems #### Old or contaminated oil should not be used for lubrication. Oil should be drained when still hot to avoid sticking on the walls of the sump. The oil filters should be replaced when necessary. The correct type of oil should be used as per the manufacturers' instructions. Power Transmission System #### The function of this system is to transfer power from the tractor engine to the drive shaft, the wheel axle, the power take off shaft and the hydraulic system. #### The system consists of the clutch, gear box, differential and the final drive. The power transmitted from the engine is made available for use through the following: #### The propeller shaft - it connects the gear box to the differential. The power take off shaft (PTO shaft) -It is located at the rear part of the tractor and rotates at the same speed as the crankshaft of the engine. #### Hydraulic system - it is operated by the use of a lever near the drivers seat. It is connected to the 3-point linkage and helps to lower or raise implements mounted on the 3-point linkages such as ploughs, mowers, planters and sprayers. Draw bar It is a one-point linkage at the rear part of the tractor. It serves for the attachment of trailed implements that can be used during harrowing, transportation or rolling. Tractor Servicing #### The aim of tractor servicing is to keep the tractor in good and efficient working conditions. Tractor servicing is either; short long term. List the Short Term Tractor Servicing It includes: 34 ----- #### Checking the engine oil daily by use of a dip stick. If the oil level is low, it should be added. The fuel level should be checked at the start of every day's work and added if necessary. Water level in the radiator should be checked and if possible topped up. The level of the electrolyte should be checked daily and topped up with distilled water accordingly. Nuts and bolts should be tightened every day. Lost nuts and bolts should be replaced before the day's work. Grease should be applied by use of grease gun through the nipples. Large sediments from the sediments bowl should be removed. #### The tyre pressure should be checked daily before the day's work. The fan belt tension should be checked to ensure that it deflects between 1.9cm and 2.5cm when pushed. #### The brake shaft bearing should be greased. The brake fluid level is maintained at the recommended level. Long Term Services #### The engine oil should be drained completely from the oil sump and replaced with new oil. The gear box oil should be checked and refilled as recommended. The oil in the differential should be replaced as recommended. The linkage and the pulley attachment should be greased. The pulley oil level should be checked and added if need be. The dirty oil should be removed and replaced with clean one. Farm Machinery Tractor Drawn Implements #### These are implements which are attached to the tractor during operation. State the two categories. Tractor Drawn Implements #### One-point hitch implements ; Are attached to the tractor at only one point that is, the draw bar. They include all trailed implements such as the trailers, heavy harrows, planters and rollers. #### Three point hitch implements; Are implements attached to the tractor at three points that is, the top linkage point and two lower linkage points. They are operated by the hydraulic system. They include ploughs, most harrows, subsoiler, planters, mower, ridgers, sprayers and rotavators. 35 ----- Trailers #### They are one-point hitch implements. They are used for transportation of goods. Small ones have two wheels while big ones have four wheels. Maintenance #### All the moving parts should be lubricated. Tyre pressure should be adjusted to the correct pressure. Worn out tyres should be replaced. Loose nuts and bolts should be tightened, worn-out ones should be replaced. The implements should be kept under a shed during long storage. Ploughs #### They are primary tillage implements. The common type of ploughs include: Disc ploughs. Mould board ploughs. Disc ploughs #### It is made up of heavy steel concave discs of 60-70cm diameter. 36 ----- Parts and Functions of a disc plough The hitchmast: Is an attachment for the three point hitch. Made up of two side links and a top link. These are parts connected to hydraulic system of a tractor for lifting and pulling. #### The beam: Supports all other parts. It also adds weight for better penetration. Depth wheel: Used when driving on highway, it also controls the depth of ploughing. May not be present in all disc ploughs. #### The standard or leg : Connects the discs to the beam. The hub: Allows the discs to rotate smoothly hence does the cutting of furrow slices. The scrapers : Remove the trash and mud or soil which cling to the discs, Disc blades: Cut and invert the furrow slices. #### Rear furrow wheel: Controls the depth of digging and stabilises the discs. Adjustment . 37 ----- The cutting angle should be adjusted at 35 - 50 from the I ine of travel. Achieved by pivoting the beam or the standard. #### Depth of digging: This is corrected by changing the height of depth wheel or adjusting hydraulic system and adding weights. Care and Maintenance of Disc Plough #### Check for loose nuts and bolts and replace them. Sharpen the disc blades if blunt. Lubricate the rotating parts by use of oil/grease to reduce friction. Paint the exposed parts for example the beam/framework. Clean the implement at the end of each day's work before storage. Store the implements in a shed. The unpainted parts should be coated with old engine oil to prevent rust. Uses of a Disc Plough Used in areas with the following conditions: #### Virgin land with many obstacles. Land with too much trash or tall vegetation. Opening up pasture land. Mouldboard ploughs #### This primary tillage implement is suited in areas without obstacles such as stones, tree stumps, and roots. #### It gives a uniform depth of ploughing. 38 ----- Parts and Functions Mouldboard ploughs #### Share: This makes the horizontal cut and starts the turning of the furrow slices. Mouldboard: Continues the turning of the furrow slices and pulverizes the soil. Disc coulter: Makes a vertical cut in the soil to separate the furrow slice from the un-ploughed land. Skim coulter: Removes any trash from between the furrow slices. Frog: It is the part where the share, mould board and the landside are attached. Landside: Stabilizes the plough and absorbs the side forces created when furrow is turned. Shin: Leading edge of a mouldboard. Knife coulter : Is a vertical knife which cuts trash and earth ahead of the share. Care and Maintenance #### Lubricate the rolling parts for example wheel bearings and disc coulter bearings. Paint scratched parts of the plough. Sharpen the share or replace if worn out. Check all loose nuts and bolts and replace where necessary. Clean the implement after each day's work to remove soil, mud and trash. For long storage, keep under a shed and apply lubricants. Adjustment #### Depth: Controlled by raising or lowering the depth wheel. Controlled by hydraulic control lever setting. #### Pi tch: controlled by altering the length of the top link. Front furrow width: Controlled by cross shaft adjustment lever or by rotating the cross shaft crank. Lateral levelling: Controlled by tractor lift rod. Operational differences between a disc and a mouldboard |Disc Plough|Mouldboard Plough | |---|---| |Suitable on field with stones, roots and stumps.|Cannot be used on fields with stone, roots or stumps. | |Does not invert the furrow slices completely. |Inverts the furrow slices completely.| |More secondary operations are necessary after it has been used.|Fewer secondary operations are needed.| 39 ----- |Cuts at varying points. |Operates at uniform depth. | |---|---| |Not easily broken by obstacles. |Can easily be broken by obstacles. | |Requires less power to operate. |Requires more power to operate.| Harrows #### They are secondary cultivation implements. There are different types of harrows. The common ones are: disc, Harrows spring tine Harrows spike tooth harrows. Disc Harrows #### It comprises of a set of gangs with concave discs. Uses #### Mixing the soil particles. Levelling the seedbed by breaking large lumps of soil. 40 ----- #### Killing weeds. Disk harrows can be classified according to the arrangement of the gangs such a; s tandem, double tandem offset tandem. Depth Adjustment #### Adding weights on the harrows. Use of hydraulic force. Use of light or heavy harrows. Use of regulating wheels. Care and Maintenance #### Check for loose nuts and bolts daily. Lubricate the shafts and bearings. Clean and oil before storage. Spring Tine Harrow #### Is made up of flat and curved tines which act as springs. Uses #### Levels and smoothens the seedbed. Breaks the soil clods. Mixes trash and soil thus preventing wind erosion. Aerates the soil. A djustments - Depth is controlled by the horizontal connecting link and depth wheel. - For individual tine, use crossbar and loosening the screws. Care and Maintenance - Check for loose nuts and bolts and tighten them if necessary. - Clean after use. - Oil the lever mechanism. S pike Tooth Harrows - Consists of a metal framework with rigid metal spikes which break up the soil by vigorously hitting large lumps of soils as it is pulled through the soil. Uses - It smoothens and compacts the soil. - It breaks big lumps of soil into small particles. - Can be used for cultivating small crops if well set. 41 ----- Subsoilers - Heavy and require high horse power to pull. - Ploughing depth of 51-90cm. F unctions - Break up compacted soil. - Break up the hardpan. Care and Maintenance - Clean it after use - Check the point and if worn out, replace it. - Oil when not in use. Ridger - It is double mould board plough used to make ridges and furrows. - It is used to prevent water logging and draining through furrows for easy harvesting of root crops. Rollers 42 ----- This is an equipment used to compact the soil gently especially where tiny seeds are to be planted. Rotavators: (Rotary cultivators) - Work on the principles of high speed of revolving flail blades which beat and cut the soil together with trash. - It is an equipment for both primary and secondary tillage operations. - It is driven by the P.T.O. shaft of a tractor. Uses - Breaks up large soil particles into small ones. - Mixes the vegetation and the soil. - Achieves two operations in one pass. Adjustments - Forward speed of the tractor gives a fine tilth of the seedbed done through the gearbox. - Depth of work done by control of depth wheel. - Slip clutch may break in case the knives come across obstructions Mowers Uses - Cutting grass for hay or silage making, cutting overgrown grass clearing the field. Reciprocating Mower Parts and Functions - Swath stick: Keeps the cut crop falling correctly. Swath board: To remove the cut crop. - Shoe: Has a runner to absorb the weight and wear. - Cutter bar: Is a flat bar which guides the fingers. - Wear plate: Counteracts downward force and holds the knives. Adjustments - To adjust knife register by moving the whole bar away or towards the yoke. - Knife lead: The outer shoe should be adjusted to be outer than the inner shoe by 4cm. Maintenance - Check for loose nuts and bolts and tighten where necessary. - Keep knife section sharp. - Lubricate the knife parts. - Check knife to ledger plate cup for best cutting. Keep all the parts tight. 43 ----- Rotary Mowers - Cutting edge consists of two blades fitted opposite to each other on horizontal disc. - The cutting blades swing round at high speed horizontally to the ground hence cutting is effected. Adjustment and Maintenance - Blades should be sharp. - Guards to be fitted around the blades to protect the operator from flying objects. - Lubricate the P.T.O. shafts. - Check the gear-box oil regularly and fill to the right level if necessary. Planters - They are machines used for sowing seeds. - There are two types: Row crop planters. Seed drills. Functions of the Planters - Meter the seed and fertilizers from seed and fertilizer hopper. - Open the seed furrow. - Deposit the seed in the furrow through the delivery tubes. - Cover the seed Functions of Parts of a Seed Plate - Filler plate: gives proper seed depth. - False ring: allows the seed to fall from the seed plate into the boot. - Knockout pawl: pushes the seeds out of the cell by the roller action. - Cut-off pawl: prevents more than one seed remaining in a plate cell. - Cells: shaped holes to hold the seed. Adjustments - Adjust the coulters depth for the right crop. - Fix the right seed plate. - Place the planter in the level position. - All the shafts should be free to turn. Care and Maintenance 44 ----- - Check all loose nuts, bolts and tighten them. - Clean and oil the planter after use. - Grease the drive sprockets regularly. Seeders - The grain drill sows grains of wheat, barley, oats, peas, beans and alfalfa seeds. Parts that can be adjusted to change the sowing rate; - Select the side of the feed wheel recommended on the drill charts for the seed-rate. Change the speed of the wheels by changing the gears or sprockets or both. Change the position of the feed gate in the cup. Use reducers below the feed wheel. Care and Maintenance - Keep seed and fertilizer hoppers dry and clean after each day's work. - Check the drive shaft and lubricate them. - Paint the parts for example fertilizer - hopper to be shiny Combine Harvester Use - Harvesting cereal crops for example maize, wheat and barley. It is designed to do the following: Cutting Threshing. Winnowing Bagging Parts of a Combine Harvester - Cutter bar - cuts the grain head. - Pick up reel- direct crop into the cutter bar, - Elevator - channels the cut grain to the threshing drum. - Winnowing ran - fans trash up onto a straw walker and directs it out of the combine harvester. - Delivery tube - delivers the clean .grains into a collecting tank from where it is bagged. Maintenance of a Combine Harvester - Loose nuts and bolts should be tightened. - Remove all foreign materials stuck in the machine at the end of the day's work. Ridgers - They are used for harvesting tuber crops and for making furrows or ridges. 45 ----- Maintenance - Lubricate the moving parts. - Clean the implement after use. - Store under a shed. - Repair or replace worn-out or broken parts. - Loose nuts and bolts should be tightened. - Unpainted parts should be oiled during long storage. - Shares should be sharpened if blunt. Foragers - They are tractor mounted and operated by power from the P.T.O. shaft . - Used for harvesting forage crops such as Napier grass, sorghum and maize. Maintenance Tighten loose nuts and bolts. 46 ----- Lubricate moving parts. Store in a shed. - Clean after the day's work. - Repair/replace worn out or broken parts. - Unpainted parts should be oiled to prevent rust. Maize Shellers - These are stationary implements which are either hand or tractor driven. - They consist of. a rotating disc which shell maize grains from cobs. Maintenance - Greasing moving parts. - Removing any stuck maize cobs. - Repair or replace worn out or broken parts. Store in a shed. Animal Drawn Implements Ox Plough - Ox-plough is a simple type of a mouldboard plough which is pulled by a pair of oxen, donkeys or camels. 47 ----- #### Explain the functions of the following parts of an ox-plough - Main beam - It is the main component onto which all the other parts are attached. Mouldboard - It inverts the cut furrow slice upside down. Plough share -It cuts the furrow slices. Land wheel- It regulates the depth of plough. - rod - It is on this rod that a chain is connected on which a yoke is linked. - It forms the draught mechanism of the plough. What are the Advantages of an Ox-Plough Over Tractor Drawn Plough ? - Less skill is required to operate it. - Useful where tractors cannot be used for example steep slopes. Cheap to buy and maintain. What are the disadvantages of an Ox-Plough Over Tractor Drawn Plough ? - Much time is wasted in training oxen. - Tedious and laborious to the driver of the animals and the controller of the implement. - Animals can be sick or in poor physical state. - Extra land is required as grazing fields for the oxen. Adjustments - Depth of plough is controlled by the land wheel and rod Care and Maintenance - Sharpen or replacing of the worn out share - Replacement of worn out parts such as hooks and draw bar assembly. - Oiling the shiny parts e.g mouldboard Wash off the soil after use. - Paint the handles, beam and braces to prevent rusting. Ox-Drawn Cart - These are small carriages harnessed to the animals by a yoke The small carts have only two wheels bigger ones have four. - They are pulled by animals in singles or in pairs Carts are used for transport. Maintenance 48 ----- - Moving parts should be oiled - The yoke should be repaired when worn out or replaced if not repaired - Tyre pressure should be checked and adjusted accordingly Repair other damages on the cart. # Agricultural Economics III: (Production Economics) ### Introduction #### The agricultural sector is a key player in the economy of our country. It is a major employer and brings a lot of national income through foreign exchange. ### National Income #### These are the total earnings from goods and services produced by a country in a period of one year. ### Relationship Between Firm and Household #### A household is considered to be a unit comprising a farmer and family members. It produces raw materials and consumes manufactured goods. A firm on the other hand, is any manufacturing or processing unit which consumes raw materials and produces manufactured goods. Both household and firm generate income, which in turn, is used to: Improve the standard of living of the household members by paying for essential goods and services. The firms build more industries to create more employment and revenue through salaries and wages. Finance government projects through taxes and hence further national development. ### Gross Domestic Product (G.D.P.) #### This is the sum total of all goods and services produced in a country in a period of one year. ### Gross National Product (G.N.P.) 49 ----- #### Is the sum total of G.D.P. and the difference between income inflow (revenue coming into the country from outside) and income outflow (money going out of the country by foreign investors). It represents the total income earned within the country and from abroad. ### Per Capita Income #### Is the Gross National Income (in terms of revenue) divided by the number of people living in the country. It is not a good measure of the economic well-being of the people because of the uneven distribution of income among them. 50 ----- ### Contribution of Agriculture to National Development #### The interaction between household and the firm generate income which is used to finance further expansion of the firms. This creates more employment and revenue. The government taxes the income to finance national development programmes such as; health, education, water, energy ### communication . Factors of Production #### A factor of production is anything that contributes directly to output, that is, it is a productive resource. Productive resources usually employed in the production of goods and services. Incl ude: Land Labour Capital Management ### Land #### As a factor of production, refers to the natural characteristics and properties of a given area of land. The key factor here is productivity for example soil fertility, presence of water and minerals and is always fixed and has no geographical mobility. ### Labor #### Besides being a consumer, human beings are also a factor of production. They provide the labour force (human power) required in the production process. Labour is assessed in terms of productivity and not mere numbers of workers or labourers. Labour is measured in terms of man hours, man days or man months. The labourer's productive capacity depends on such factors as; age, health, state of nutrition level of education. The amount of work and the efficiency with which it is performed determines the quality of labour. ### Capital 51 ----- #### Capital refers to all man-made assets that help land and labour to produce. It is categorized into: Fixed/durable; Working capital Liquid capital ### Fixed/durable; #### Capital for example machinery, buildings permanent improvements on land like fences, roads, irrigation facilities water supply system. ### Working capital; #### Which include consumer goods such as; fertilizers, livestock feeds, fuel in store, pesticides. ### Liquid capital; #### For example; ready money, bank deposits, shares in financial institutions. ### Management; #### It is a process of decision making in the farm. Managers use their knowledge and judgment to decide how to combine the other three productive resources in the best way possible. They make plans, execute them and bear the risks or consequences which such plans entail. ### Production Function #### Definition Production function is a physical relationship between inputs and outputs in a production process. It tells the quantity of output (product) that may be expected from a given combination of inputs. Production function may be expressed in table form or graphically as a curve. Examples: Feeding pigs for pork production at varying levels of concentrate feed. 52 ----- |1.|Col2|Col3| |---|---|---| |Unit of feed|Body wt. Gains (kg)|Marginal products (kg)| |0 10 2 0 3 0 3 0 50 60 70 8 0 90 10 0|212 222 238 25 1 26 1 26 9 27 5 28 0 283 28 5 28 6|- 10 1 6 13 1 0 8 6 5 3 2 1| ### Types of Production Functions #### A production function assumes three forms which may be treated as different types: Increasing Returns Constant Returns Decreasing (Diminishing) Returns ### Increasing Returns #### In this type, each additional unit of input results in a larger increase in output than the preceding unit. This shows that resources are under utilized. ### Constant Returns #### The amount of the product increases by the same amount for each additional input; that is constant returns to input factor. Again here resources are under utilized. ### Decreasing (Diminishing) Returns #### Here, each additional unit of input results in a smaller increase in output than the preceding unit. Resource use is stretched to the maximum. It is the most commonly encountered form in agricultural enterprises; It gives rise to . the law of Diminishing Returns ### Examples: #### . Feeding dairy cows for milk production with varying amounts of feed . Crop responses to application of varying amounts of fertilizers . Use of varying units of labour on fixed unit of land 53 ----- ### Economic Laws and Principles The Law of Diminishing Returns #### The law of diminishing returns states that; if successive units of one input are added to fixed quantities of other inputs a point is eventually reached where additional product (output) per additional unit of input declines. This law is encountered practically in all forms of agricultural production. It is useful in determining the most rational and profitable level of production. ### Example: #### Production of maize at varying levels of N.P.K. fertilizer application on a fixed area of land. |Unit ofNPK Fertilizer (bags)|Total Yields|Marginal Products (bags)| |---|---|---| |30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300|10 27 42 56 63 65 65 60 52 42|- 17 15 14 7 3 0 -5 -8 -10| ### Zones of a production function curves 54 ----- ### Zones of a production function curves these are: #### Irrational zone or Zone I. Rational zone or Zone II Irrational zone or Zone III. The three zones are arrived at by drawing two perpendicular lines through the production function curve, one at MP = AP and another at MP=O. In Zone I resources are not fully utilized while in Zone III, excessive application of resources leads to production decline or loss. It is not economical to produce at these levels. In Zone II resources are maximally utilized resulting in maximum production. It is therefore economical (or wise) to produce at this level. ### Principle of Substitution States- if the output in a production process is constant, it is profitable to substitute one #### input factor for another, as long as it is cheaper than its next alternative. This principle is applicable in a situation where more than one variable input factors are used. For example feeding hay and concentrates for milk production, farmyard manure and phosphatic fertilizers in the production of maize. The basic problem that the producer wishes to solve when two input factors are used in combination is in what proportions must the variable inputs be combined in order to produce at a minimum cost and hence attain maximum profit. To solve the above problem, the producer must determine the least cost combination of inputs used. The least cost combination is attained at a point where the Marginal Rate of ### Substitution ( MRS) equals the inverse of price ratio of the factors involved. 55 ----- #### That is: x 2 = P X 1 X 1 = P X 2 X 1 - first input factor X 2 - second input factor - change (increase or decrease) P - price (cost of input fators) ### Examples: #### Producing 20 bags of maize using varying combinations of farmyard manure and phosphate fertilizers. Price of farm yard manure (FYM) is KShs10/- per unit and that of phosphate fertilizer is Kshs 50/- per unit |X (P-fert) 1|x (N-fert) 2|X (MRS) 2 X 1| |---|---|---| |100kg units|100kg units|| |I 2 3 4 5 6 7|9.00 4.00 2.80 2.40 2.00 1.80 1.65|- 5.1 1.20 0.40 0.40 0.20 015| 56 ----- #### In the above example, the following assumptions are made: A fixed quantity of output is to be produced. Input factors in combination substitute for one another at varying rates. Relative prices of input factors do not change drastically during the period of production. ### NOTE: one input factor substitutes for the other at diminishing varying marginal rate of #### substitution. ### Principle of Equimarginal Returns #### This principle states ; That the last unit of an input factor spent in one enterprise yields a marginal return exactly equal to the marginal return earned from the last unit invested in each of the other enterprises.' ### Example #### If the last shs.100/- spent buying cattle feed will return more than shs. 100/= spent on buying fertilizer for growing maize, then it is advisable to purchase more feed up to a point where the last shs.lOO/- spent on it will return exactly the same as the last shs.100/- spent on fertilizers. This concept is only relevant in a situation where farmers do not have adequate capital . to employ inputs up to the level where marginal revenue equals the marginal cost ### The principal of Profit Maximization #### The profit is defined as the difference, in monetary terms, between the total returns (income) and total costs (expenses) in a production process. Profit maximisation aims at obtaining the highest returns at a minimum cost per unit of input factor used. This can be done by considering two concepts. ### Marginal Concept #### Profit is maximised when the marginal (additional or extra) revenue (MR) is equal to, or slightly higher than, the marginal cost (Mc). At this point every added input factor brings in higher returns than the expenses . incurred in investing it ### Net Revenue Concepts #### Profit is said to be maximized in a production process when the Net Revenue (differences between total revenue and total costs) is the highest that is ; NR = TR - TC. 57 ----- #### This is arrived at by analyzing the total cost and total revenue earned from a particular enterprise and then subtracting the former from the latter. ### When calculating the profit using whatever concept, the following assumptions are made: #### Cost of inputs (such as fertilizers, labour) remains constant during the period of production. Price of the produce (product) remains unchanged. Fixed costs are ignored that is only varying costs directly involved are considered. ### Farm Planning #### Planning is the process of establishing the organizational objectives and defining the m . eans of achieving them Factors to consider in drawing a farm plan. Size of the farm. Environmental factors. The current trends in labour markets. Farmer's objectives and preferences. Possible production enterprises. . Existing market conditions and price trends Availability and cost of farm inputs. Government regulations/policy. Security. Communication and transport facilities ### Farm Budgeting #### Farm budgeting is the process of estimating the future outcomes of a proposed farm plan, That is; the future incomes and expenses of a farm plan. ### Importance of Farm Budgeting #### . It helps the farm in decision making It helps the farmer to predict future returns that is planning ahead. It helps the farmer to avoid incurring losses by investing in less profitable enterprises. It helps the farmer to secure loans from financial institutions such as Agricultural Finance Corporation and commercial banks. It ensures a periodic analysis of the farm business. It acts as a record which can be used for future reference. It pinpoints strengths or weaknesses in farm operations. ### Types of Budgets Partial Budget #### It represents financial effects on minor changes in a farm organisation. 58 ----- #### It is necessary when a farmer wants to replace or reduce enterprise. ### Complete Budget #### A complete budget is necessary when the farmer wants to start a new business where both the variable costs and the fixed costs are likely to be affected. It involves a major change or reorganization in the farm business. ### Agricultural Services Available to the Farmer: #### Agricultural production efficiency is greatly increased by services rendered to the farming communities by; Government institutions Non-governmental organizations. Some of these services are: Extension and Training: Banking Services: Credit: ### Extens In the field and in ion and Training: #### farmer's training centres. ### Banking Services: #### These enables the farmers to save some of their farm income and invest them in ### future projects. Credit: #### Credit is a financial assistance advanced to agricultural farmers to finance their farm projects and repay it with interest. It is a borrowed resource. ### Types of Credit #### Credit is categorised according to; Time of repayment The types of projects to be financed. Examples are: ### Short-term Credit #### Repayable within one year and is advanced for the purchase of; seeds, fertilizers, animal feeds . ### Medium-term Credit #### Repayable within 2 - 5 years and is used to finance projects such as; fencing materials, purchase of livestock, light farm equipment . 59 ----- ### Long-term Credit #### Repayable period is up to 15 years and even more. It is given for the long-term or durable projects such as; purchase of land, construction of soil and water conservation structures, farm buildings, irrigation projects for perennial cash crops for example; coffee, farm machinery implements. ### Sources of Credit #### Co-operative societies and unions. Crop boards. Commercial banks. . Agricultural Finance Corporation Insurance companies. Individual money lenders. Settlement fund trustee. ### Artificial Insemination Services: #### Provides farmers with semen from improved or superior bulls to improve their . livestock herds through controlled breeding ### Agricultural Research Organization #### These develop and pass on to farmers, improved production techniques as well as crop and livestock species with better performance in different ecological zones. ### Marketing Outlets #### These are agencies that ensure effective and efficient conveyance of farm produce to points of processing and consumption. They are largely crop marketing boards or corporations and cooperative societies. ### Veterinary Services #### In the field are veterinary officers who help the farmer in treating and controlling livestock diseases and parasites. ### Farm Input Supplies #### Farmers are able to obtain their farm inputs from organizations such as co-operatives and private companies. These organizations bring inputs closer to the farmers for example Kenya Farmers Association and private agrovets. ### Tractor Hire Services 60 ----- #### This involves hiring of tractors and machinery at a cost by farmers who are not privileged to own their own. ### Sources #### Ministry of Agriculture Private contractors. Individual farmers. Other service providers. ### Risks and Uncertainties in Farming Uncertainty - is the state of not knowing about future events or outcomes. #### Risks-is the difference (divergence) between the expected and the actual outcome. ### Types of Risks and Uncertainties #### Fluctuation of commodity prices. Physical yield uncertainty. Ownership uncertainty. Outbreak of pests and diseases. Sickness and injury. New production technique. Obsolescence for example machinery may become outdated or obsolete within a short time. Death of either farmer or livestock. Natural catastrophies such as; floods, drought, earthquakes, storm and strong winds which may destroy crops or kill the animals. ### Ways in Which Farmers Adjust to Risks and Uncertainties #### Diversification. Selecting more certain enterprises. Contracting. Insurance. Input rationing. Flexibility in production methods. Adopting modern methods of production. # Agricultural Economics IV: arm Accounts (F ) 61 ----- ### Introduction #### Financial and physical records if accurately kept in the farm serve as very important tools in decision-making. ### The records are kept in several books and statements as follows: Financial Documents #### They include: Invoices. Receipts. Delivery notes Purchase records. ### An Invoice #### This is a document issued by the seller to the buyer for goods taken on credit, and payment to be done later. The original is given to the buyer and duplicate retained by seller. The invoice shows the following: The buyer and seller. Date of transaction. Amount involved. Invoice number. ### A Receipt #### This is a document issued by the seller to the buyer when cash payment for goods delivered is made. It shows the following: The buyer and the seller. Date of transaction. Amount involved. Serial number ### Delivery Note #### It is a document which shows that the goods have been delivered. The receiver verifies the goods and then signs on the delivery note. ### Features: #### The delivery note shows the following: Goods delivered as per order. Quality or condition. 62 ----- #### People involved in the transaction. ### Date of delivery. Journal: #### It is a book of first entry showing a record of all business transactions arranged in the order in which they occur. Its pages are divided vertically into five sections. ### The information is posted to the ledger Inventory: #### This is a list of all the possession/assets item by item and their market value. Such items are land, livestock, tools and equipment and crops in the store. Valuation is an estimation of the value of each asset or item, based on market price or cost of production. ### Local Purchase Order: #### Issued by the purchasing officer of the supplier for example school. It shows people involved in the transaction, types and amounts of goods ordered and dates. It should be written and signed by the authorised officer. It is written in duplicate and the original is given to the supplier. ### Financial Books Ledger: #### Is a book which contains individual accounts. It is a principle book of accounts in which entries contained in all the other books are entered. It is a storehouse of all the transactions. Each page is numbered and vertically divided into two equal parts namely credit and debit. ### Each part is further sub-divided into four sections. Cash Book: #### It is a book where transactions involving cash or cheque payments are recorded. It involves cash or cheque payments and receipts. It is divided into two parts - debit and credit side. All the receipts of cash or cheque are recorded on the debit and all payments are recorded on the credit side. Example: Enter the following entries in the cash book. 1.7.05 -Received shs.2,000 from Ndete by cheque. 2.7.05-Bought D.A.P. fertilizer and paid cheque of shs. 5,000. 3.7.05-Received shs.5,000 cash from Ngala. 63 ----- #### 4.7.05 -Paid water bill for shs 400 in cash. 9.7.05-Paid telephone bill of 1,500 by cheque. 11.7.05 -Deposited shs.2,000 in the bank. 20.7.05 -Withdrew shs.2,000 from the bank for home use. ### Cash Book record |- DR|Col2|Col3|Col4|CR|Col6|Col7|Col8| |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| |Date|Details|Cash|Bank|Date|Details|Cash|Bank| |1.7.05 3.7.05 11.7.05|Received from Ndete Received from Ngala Cash|5,00 02, 000|2,000|2.7.05 4.7.05 9.7.05 20.7.05|D.A.P Water bill Telephone billl Cash|400 500|5,000 2,000| ### Financial Statements Cash Account Sheet #### It involves the recording of sales and receipts, purchases and expense. Each sale or purchase is entered twice, once in the total column and once in the analysis column. The sum of all the entries in the total column should always equal the sum of the entries in all the other columns. ### The cash analysis account sheet is given above. The Balance Sheet #### It is a financial statement of assets and liabilities recorded on a given date. It shows the financial position of a farm business at a glance (snapshot). ### Assets are items owned by the farmer, #### These include: Property (money, goods and buildings). Debts receivable from other people. Goods and services paid for in advance. ### Assets can be divided into two: #### Fixed assets: assets of permanent nature and not easily converted into cash. Current assets: assets which can be easily converted into cash. 64 ----- #### ### Liabilities are claims to the farmer's property such as bank overdraft and debts payable. They are divided into: #### Current liabilities - debts which must be paid within a short time. Long term liabilities - debts which are payable over many years or over a long period. ### Profit and Loss Account #### Prepared at the end of a calendar year. It is a final account which summarises the sale and receipts (income flowing in the business) and the purchases and expenses (flowing out of the business). ### Note: If assets are more than liabilities then the balancing factor is net capital (in the #### liability side) hence the farm business is said to be solvent. If the liabilities are more than the assets, then the balancing factor is a loss (in the asset side) hence the farm business is insolvent. To calculate profit or loss, account, valuation is done by having an inventory of all the assets. Valuation of the assets is determined by market price and cost of production for machinery and buildings as depreciation factor, is attached. ### Format of a balance sheet Balance sheet of Katilo school as 31-12-2009 |Assets|Shs .|Cts.|Liabilities|Shs.|Cts.| |---|---|---|---|---|---| |Fixed Assets Land Buildings Fences and other structures Current Assets Livestock Debts receivable Cash in bank Cash in hand Sub-total|||Long-term Liabilities Long-term loan for land development Loans payable over 15 years Current Liabilities - -Debts payable -Credits from friends -Short-term loans Sub-total||| |Total|||Total||| 65 ----- ### Format Profit and Loss Account of Kitheko Farm at 31-12-2009 |Sales and Receipts|Shs.|Cts.|Purchase & Expenses|Shs.|Cts.| |---|---|---|---|---|---| |I. Income during the year 2. Debts receivable 3. Closing valuation Balance (being a loss)|||I. Opening valuation 2. Expenditure during the year 3. Debts payable Balance (being farm a profit or net income)||| |TOTAL|||TOTAL||| # Agricultural Economics V (Agricultural Marketing and Organizations) ### Introduction #### Agricultural marketing is an economic activity which involves the distribution of farm produce from the farm to the consumer. ### Market and Marketing #### Market is an institution for the exchange of goods and services or a place where selling and buying of goods takes place. Marketing refers to the flow of goods and services from the producer to the consumers. ### Marketing Functions #### Transportation - Movement of goods from production centres to the consumption centres. Buying and selling - Purchase of goods from the producer to be sold to the consumer. Storage - Agricultural products are seasonal hence storage is necessary. Processing-Changing of raw form into utili sable form. Grading and standardisation - Sorting into uniform lots of certain qualities. Assembling - Collecting the farm produce from the farm to the market centres. 66 ----- #### Collecting market information To know the prices, supply and demand of certain commodities. Advertising - Making the consumers aware of the produce. Bearing of risks - Such as fire risk, price fluctuation. Financing or expenditure on other processes. Packaging or putting into small packs and labelling. Packing or putting produce In containers such as bags. ### Marketing Agencies and Institutions 67 ----- #### Middlemen (itinerant trader) - are the people who buy from the producer and sell to other agencies. Wholesalers - Buy in bulk and sell to the retailers. Retailers - Buy from the wholesalers and sell in small units to the consumers. ### Problems in Marketing Agricultural Produce #### Farm produce are bulky, that is weight and volume are high but low in monetary value thus difficult to transport. Most of the agricultural products are perishable for example milk, vegetables and fruits. Storage problems (since they are bulky they require a lot of space). Lack of proper transport system since agricultural products are in the rural areas and the market are situated in urban centres. Lack of market information hence farmers are exploited by middlemen. ### Price Theory #### Price is the amount of money paid in exchange for goods or services. Price theory is concerned with the determination of price of any commodity. Price is determined where demand for and supply of any commodity are equal to each other. ### Demand #### It is the quantity of any commodity which is purchased at any price within a given time. ### The law of demand states that quantity demanded changes inversely with the price. Demand Curve #### . The curve slopes from left to right downwards This means people buy more at lower prices and vice versa. ### Demand Curve 68 ----- ### Factors Affecting the Demand of a Commodity #### Population Income of the consumer. New inventions. Taste and preference of the individual. Price of the substitute commodities. Price expectations. Advertisement. Culture and social values of the consumers. . Price of commodities having joint demand for example tractors and diesel ### Elasticity of Demand #### . It is the responsiveness of demand to a change in price ### Elasticity of demand = Percentage change in quantity demanded Percentage change in price Types of Elasticity of Demand Elastic demand is one where the ratio is more than 1. Unitary elasticity is one where the ratio is equal to 1. Inelastic demand is one where the ratio is less than 1. Supply #### . Supply is the quantity of any commodity which is offered for sale at any price at a given time 69 ----- #### The law of supply states that when price rises, quantity supplied increases and when price falls quantity supplied decreases (other factors held constant). . The curve rises from left to right upwards . This means that people are willing to offer more for sale at higher prices SUPPLY CURVE SUPPLY CURVE ### Factors Affecting Supply of a Commodity #### Number of sellers Price of substitute commodities. . New technology Price expectation. Peace and security. Weather conditions. . Policy of the government Cost of production of the commodities. ### Elasticity of Supply #### This refers to the rate at which quantity supplied changes due to a change in price level. . . Percentage change in quantity supplied Elasticity of Supply= Percentage change in Price ### Type of Elasticity of Supply Elastic supply one where the ratio is more than 1. 70 ----- ### Unitary elasticity of supply is one where the ratio is equal to 1. In elastic supply is one where the ratio is less than 1. #### One of the problems of agricultural produce is that supply does not readily adjust to price changes. ### Equilibrium Price #### Is the price at which demand and supply are equal. That means whatever is offered for sale at the market is bought. In the graph below, the quantity supplied and demanded are equal at a price of Shs.300 and . quantity of 80kg At this point the price is higher than shs.300 then the supply will be greater than demand and there will be surplus hence price will fall. If, on the other hand, the price is less than shs.300 demand will be greater than supply hence . shortage and rise in price ### Agricultural Organization #### Agricultural organizations are agencies which, through their activities, promote agricultural development. These organizations are co-operatives and statutory boards. ### Co-operatives #### A co-operative is an organisation of people with a common aim of pooling their resources to achieve their objectives. ### Functions of Co-operatives #### A co-operative society carries out the following functions: 71 ----- #### Collecting and assembling members' produce. Processing the farm produce after collection. Transportation of members' produce to market points. Negotiation of fair prices with the purchasing agencies for the members' produce. Purchase and distribution to members of farm inputs. Storage of members' produce before transmission to market points. Provision of credit facilities to members on easy terms. Training and education of members on improved farming techniques. Offering farm machinery services to their members on hire terms for farm operations. Co-operatives may invest in other viable ventures and the profits realised are shared ### among members in form of dividends or bonuses. Formation and Structure of Co- operatives #### The formation of a co-operative takes the following stages: Individuals with common interest collect together to form a primary co- operative society At least ten (10) members qualify for registration. Each primary co-operative society elect their office bearers consisting of chairman, secretary and treasurer. Several primary co-operative societies are usually amalgamated to form a district cooperative union. Tertiary co-operative unions are nationwide organizations to which the secondary co- operative unions are affiliated. Examples are Kenya Planters Co-operative Union, Kenya Farmers Union, Kenya Cooperative Creameries, Co-operative Bank of Kenya, etc. Apex organizations. This is represented in Kenya by Kenya National Federation of Co### operatives which is an affiliate of the International Co-operative Alliance. Problems Facing Co-operatives #### Co-operatives encounter the following problems in their operations: Managerial problems arising from: Financial mismanagement due to poor accounting. Corruption and misappropriation of cooperative resources by the personnel in the system. Lack of advisory services on technical operations. Inability to meet the set obligations of providing credit facilities due to malpractices. The nature of agricultural products and associated problems. Bulkiness hence difficulties in transportation and storage. Perishability of produce hence difficult to sustain quality. Inadequate capital to invest in the cooperative undertakings. Transport problems due to poor roads. 72 ----- ### This hampers the produce getting to the market points in time. Statutory Boards #### A statutory board is an organization established by an Act of Parliament and charged with the running or managing of a certain industry within the government sector. ### Marketing Boards #### Some of the statutory boards are charged with the marketing of certain farm produce and are thus called marketing boards. Examples are the Coffee Board, Pyrethrum Board, Cotton Seed and Lint Marketing Board, Tea Boards, National Cereals and Produce Board, Kenya Meat Commission, the Dairy Board of Kenya and others. Their marketing functions are to look for market and better prices. ### Research Organization #### These are research centres which among other things, carry out research and trials on: Development of new varieties and cultivars of crops. Breeding disease and pest resistant varieties of crops and types of animals. Adaptations of crop and livestock species to ecological conditions of certain areas. Use of fertilizers and pesticides on crops in specific areas. Development of early maturing and high yielding species. Soil testing and crop analysis. Advisory services of agro-economic aspects. ### Other Organizations #### Kenya National Farmers' Union negotiates for: Reasonable and affordable prices of farm inputs. Better prices for farm produce. Better credit facilities. Better control of diseases and pest. ### r Ag icultural Society of Kenya #### Organizes agricultural shows in the country. Encourages improvement of livestock through exhibitions and educating farmers Organizes the running of young farmers' clubs. Organizes and finances the ploughing contests during which farmers learn the modern techniques of seedbed preparation. Publish "Kenya Farmers" magazines. ### Young Farmers and 4-K Clubs. #### These are student organizations whose objectives are: 73 ----- #### To expose the young students and encourage them to appreciate agriculture as a profession in their career. To encourage the youth to develop leadership qualities through assignment of small farming projects. Organizing students exchange programmes with other club members both locally and abroad. To develop better farming skills through judging competitions, annual rallies and camps. ### Agricultural Based Women Groups #### These are self-help groups whose objective is to uplift the economic status of their members by carrying out agricultural related activities. 74 ----- ### Their success depends on the following factors: #### Commitment of their leaders. Motivation of the members. Sacrifice for each other. # Agroforestry ### Introduction #### In Kenya land use is changing from extensive methods of farming to more productive and sustainable intensive methods. Agroforestry is a method of farming which has become increasingly important. ### Definition #### This is the practice of integrating a variety of land use It combines tree growing, pasture and crop production practice on the same piece of land to improve the output of the land. ### Forms of Agroforestry #### ### Agroforestry; #### It is a combination of trees/shrubs and crops in agricultural production. ### Silvopastoral: It is a combination of growing tree/shrubs, pastoral and keeping of livestock. Agrosilvopastoral: #### It is a combination of growing trees/shrubs, animals, pastures, and crops. ### Importance of Agroforestry #### Environmental protection. Source of income. Afforestation for timber production. Maintenance of soil fertility. Aesthetic value. Labour saving in firewood collection. Source of food and feed. Source of fuel wood. ### Important Trees and Shrubs for Particular Purposes 75 ----- #### ### Eucalyptus Spp; #### Timber, Bee forage, Fuel wood, Medicinal, Production of essential oils. ### Acacia Spp ; #### Leaves and pods eaten by animals, Provision of shade. ### Cajanus cajan (pigeon peas) ; #### Proteinous feed for human, Used as fodder Firewood. ### Croton megalocarpus(croton); #### Fuel wood timber for poles Handles for hand tools. ### Erythrina abyssinica (flame tree); #### Wood carvings, Bee forage, Nitrogen fixation Medicinal. ### Markhamia lutea (markhamia tree ); #### Timber for construction, Shade, Soil protection, Bee forage. ### Grevillea robusta (silky oak.) #### Timber, Fuel wood, Fodder, Bee forage, Soil protection, Wind breaker Shade. ### Sesbania sesban (sesbania) ; #### Fodder, Nitrogen fixation, Shade, Fuel wood. ### Calliandra calothyrsus (calliandra) ; #### Fuel wood, Fodder, Nitrogen fixation, Shade, Bee forage. ### Persea american (avocado ) ; #### Fodder, Fruit production, Shade, Fuel wood. ### Mangifera indica (mango) ; 76 ----- #### Fruit production, Shade trees, Wind break, Soil protection, Fuel wood. ### Characteristics of Agroforestry Tree Species: #### Fast growth rate. Deep rooted. Nitrogen fixation ability. By-product production ability. Be multipurpose in nature. Should not possess competitive ability with main crop .. Have coppicing and lopping ability. Have appropriate canopy - should not shade others. Nutritious and palatable. ### Trees and Shrubs to Avoid at Certain Sites and Reasons Eucalyptus Spp .-should not be planted near water sources because it would absorb #### the water. ### Eucalyptus Spp . -should not be planted on the arable land as the roots have allelophathic effects on other vegetation including crops. Tall trees should not be planted near farm buildings because they may fall and #### damaging the buildings, their roots will break the building stones gradually. ### Bushy trees or shrubs should not be near farm buildings as they may harbour #### predators. ### Tall trees planted with main crop of a lower canopy intercept the rainfall, #### affecting the growth of the main crop. ### Cypress trees have leaves which produce acidity in the soil preventing #### undergrowth beneath the tree. ### These trees should not be planted within the farm but at the periphery. Tree Nursery #### Tree nurseries are structures used to raise tree seedlings until they are ready for transplanting. ## There are 2 main types: Bare root nurseries : ### These are also known as 'Swaziland' beds where the seedlings are raised directly into the #### soil. ### Advantages #### Cheap and less time consuming. Require less labour Occupy a small space. Many seedlings are raised in a small space. Transportation of seedlings is easy. 77 ----- ### Disadvantages #### Root damage when uprooting the seedlings. Difficult to transport. Lower survival rate after transplanting. ### Containerized nursery: #### The seedlings in this type of nursery are raised in containers such as pots, polythene bags or tubes and tins. ### Advantages #### Higher survival rate after transplanting. No root damage. Successful in arid areas. ### Disadvantages #### Labour intensive. Difficult to get containers. Sometimes it may be difficult to get the right type of soil to use in the containers. ### Seed Collection and Preparation Seed Collection #### Seeds should be collected from; Adaptable trees, High yielding, Healthy Resistant to pests /diseases. The mother plant should be identified first. ### The following methods used to collect seeds. #### Shaking the tree. Gathering from under the tree. Lopping of the tree. Climbing on the trees. Hooking method. ### Seed Preparation #### This done when seeds are collected from a fresh fruit, they should be soaked in water, then washed and dried. Cleaning and sorting: done to remove immature seeds, rotten seeds, broken or damaged seeds. Drying: Done by sun-drying or oven drying. Seed testing: this determines; 78 ----- #### Seed quality for percentage purity, Seed weight, Moisture content, Germination percentage. Seeds should be stored in dry containers at room temperature. Seed treatment: seeds are treated first to break the seed dormancy and ensure rapid germination; Hot water treatment: used to soften the seed coat to make it more permeable to water. ### Examples of seeds which require this treatment are leucaenia, calliandra and acacia. #### Mechanical breaking: done by nicking the seed coat with a knife for easy entrance ### of water for example seeds of croton trees. #### Light burning: applied to the wattle tree seeds. ### Nursery Management #### The following are the practices carried out in the nursery when the seedlings are growing: ### Mulching: #### Aim is to reduce excessive evaporation, Moderates the soil temperature, When it decays it improves the soil structure, Reduces the impact of the raindrops. ### Weeding: #### Done to reduce competition for growth factors by uprooting the weeds, ### Use a sharp pointed stick. Watering: #### Done by use of a watering can Done twice a day in the morning and in the evening. : ### Pricking out #### It is the removal of seedlings in an overcrowded area to another nursery bed, ### This allows the seedlings to grow strong and healthy. Root pruning: #### It is the cutting of the roots longer than the pots. Root pruning is done for the following reasons; Make lifting easier Encourage fast establishment. Reduce damage to the seedlings. Encourage development of a short dense and strong rooting system. ### Shading: #### Done to reduce the intensity of sunlight . Dark conditions should be avoided. 79 ----- ### Pest and disease control: #### Use of appropriate chemicals, Sterilization of soil through heat treatment, Fencing to protect seedlings against animal damage. : ### Hardening off #### It is the practice of preparing seedlings to adapt to the ecological conditions prevailing in the seedbed. ### It involves gradual reduction of shade and watering 1-2 weeks before #### transplanting. ### Transplanting: #### The practice of transferring seedlings from the nursery bed to the main field where they grow to maturity. ### Procedure of Transplanting #### Holes are dug early before transplanting. Topsoil is mixed with compost manure. The seedlings are watered well a day before transplanting. The seedlings are removed from the nurseries carefully with a ball of soil for the bare root seedlings and roots trimmed for the containerized seedlings. The seedling is placed in the hole at the same height it was in the nursery. The container is removed carefully. The soil is returned into the hole and firmed around the seedling. ### The seedling is watered and mulched. Care and Management of Trees Protection: #### From damage by animals such as goats and cattle by eating the leaves. It is done by fencing the fields or using small poles around each seedling with or without wire nettings, can be done for individual trees or an entire field. : ### Pruning and trimming #### Pruning is the removal of extra or unwanted parts of a plant. The unwanted part may be due to breakage, overcrowding, pests or disease attacks and over production. Pruning initiates growth of shoots and trains the tree to have the required shape. Regular cutting back of the trees is known as coppicing, It is done at the beginning of each cropping season to reduce competition for water, minerals, nutrients and sunlight with crops. The materials pruned or coppiced are used as fuel wood or for fodder crops. : ### Grafting old trees #### This is the practice of uniting two separate woody stems. ### The part with the rooting system is known as root stock (base) 80 ----- ### The part which is grafted onto the rootstock is called a scion which has #### buds that develop into the future plant. The ability of the scion and the rootstock to form a successful union is ### known as compatibility. #### Methods of grafting include whip or tongue grafting, side grafting and approach grafting. ### Agroforestry Practices #### : ### Alley Cropping/Hedgerow Intercropping #### The growing of multipurpose trees and shrubs together with crops. ### Benefits #### Improve soil fertility through nitrogen fixation and organic matter. Provision of green manure. Used as fence and mark boundaries. Acts as windbreaks. Suppress weeds. Source of timber and fuel wood. ### Multi-storey cropping ; #### This is the growing together of trees of different heights. The system is based on crops which can tolerate shading. The trees and crops form different levels of canopy which look like storey. ### Benefits #### Increases water conservation for pastures. None of the crops or trees included will be shaded. Act as windbreak for crops. Creates suitable micro-climate in the area. Trees are used for timber, fuel wood and forage. ### Woodlots (farm forests) #### These are plots of land set aside for trees only. They are established in the hilly and less productive parts of the farm. Fast growing tree species such as Eucalyptus spp. should be grown. ### Sites for Agroforestry: #### Farm boundaries - provide live fences. 81 ----- #### River banks - protect water catchment areas. Homesteads - provision of shade and windbreak Terraces - for soil conservation. Steep slopes - as contour hedges to encourage water seepage. ### Tree Harvesting Methods Pollarding ; This is the extensive cutting back of the crown of the tree about 2-3 meters #### above the ground level to harvest all the side branches. It stimulates the development of a new crown and branches. ### Coppicing; Cutting the main stem of the tree completely at a height of 10 - 50 cm above the #### ground. The tree should be cut in a slanting angle. ### Lopping or side pruning ; #### The removal of selected branches of the tree Done to produce fuel wood and fodder. ### Shaking of the tree ; #### This is a method of harvesting pods and seeds from trees without cutting the tree. ### Cutting back; #### The tree is cut from the base to allow new growth as done in coffee when changing the cycle. ### Thinning; #### The removal of some of the trees growing in lines to give the remaining trees enough space to grow. 82 ----- |
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