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S OON after the defeat of the Gauls there lived in Rome a great man named Appius Claudius. He belonged to one of the highest families of the city. He was consul for two years, and for several years he held the office of censor (312-308 B.C.).
The censor was a very high and important officer. He was not only head of the department for taking the census, but he had charge of the collecting of the taxes, the erecting of public buildings, and the making of roads and streets.
Appius Claudius was a great soldier. Every Roman citizen had to be a soldier, and every man who was consul had to be able to lead armies and to fight and win battles. But Appius Claudius was chiefly famous for the great public works he planned and directed in Rome, which at that time was a city with a population of about three hundred thousand. One of these works was an aqueduct which brought water to the city from a lake eight miles distant. The Roman aqueducts were the best in the world. Some of them that were built over two thousand years ago are still in use.
But the greatest work of Appius Claudius was the making of a road from Rome to Capua, a distance of one hundred and twenty miles. This road was called the Appian Way in honor of Appius. It was also called the "queen of roads" because it was so well built. Parts of it are still in existence. The Romans had good roads as well as good aqueducts. They were the best road-builders in the world.
The Appian Way
While he was censor Appius Claudius very much improved Rome. He was called "the greatest of his countrymen in the works of peace." Even after he retired from office he had great influence in public affairs. His advice was asked by both plebeians and nobles.
Once during the first war which the Romans had with the Greeks the advice of Appius was of great benefit to Rome. At that time there were many Greek settlements in the south of Italy. One of the Greek towns was called Tarentum. It was built close to the sea and had a very good harbor.
Many of the people of this town were well educated. In those days the Greeks were mostly an educated people. They were fond of learning and of art. They called the Romans barbarians and were not friendly to them.
Once when a Roman fleet entered the bay of Tarentum, the people of the town attacked it and after taking five of the ships put the crews to death. When the news of this outrage reached Rome the Senate sent ambassadors to demand satisfaction. One of the ambassadors was a man named Lucius Posthumius. When they arrived at Tarentum they were met by a noisy crowd of people of the town, who made fun of their dress.
The Romans wore an outer dress called a toga. It was a large white woollen cloth, in the shape of a half circle, four or five yards long and of nearly the same width. In putting on this garment they doubled it lengthwise, then passed one end over the left shoulder and under the opposite arm and again over the left shoulder, the other end reaching nearly to the ground in front. The Tarentines laughed at the toga of the Roman ambassadors. They said it was a dress fit only for savages.
Roman with Toga
In a short time the ambassadors were taken to the public theatre, where the people had assembled to hear the message from Rome. Posthumius spoke to them in Greek, but as this was not his own language he pronounced many of the words in a peculiar way, and the Tarentines laughed. The Roman went on, however, in a dignified manner and finished his speech as if he had not noticed the insult.
Just then a Tarentine moved forward to the place where Posthumius stood and threw some dirt on his white toga. The ambassador held up the soiled garment with his hand and said that Tarentum would be made to suffer for the outrage. Then the theatre rang with laughter and offensive cries.
"Laugh on," said Posthumius, "you may laugh now but you shall weep hereafter. The stain on this toga shall be washed out in your blood!"
Then the ambassadors left the theatre and at once set out for Rome. When they appeared before the Senate Posthumius showed the stain on his toga as proof of the insult offered to Rome by the Tarentines. The Senate at once declared war on Tarentum and sent a powerful army to attack it.
A T this time the Tarentines had no general they thought would be able to fight the Romans. So they sent across the sea to Epirus, in Greece, for the king of that country to come and help them. The name of this king was Pyrrhus. He was a great soldier and commander and was nearly always engaged in war. He consented to help the Tarentines and crossed over to Italy with a great army in which there was a number of fighting elephants.
When Pyrrhus entered Tarentum he made himself master of the city. The Tarentines were very fond of plays and amusements of all kinds. Pyrrhus closed the theatres, stopped all the amusements and made the people drill as soldiers all day long.
As soon as he was ready to fight he marched out with his army of Greeks and Tarentines against the Romans, and there was a great battle near the city of Heraclea. Both sides fought well for hours, but the Greeks at last began to fall back. They could not stand against the steady, fierce attacks made by the Romans.
Then Pyrrhus brought his elephants upon the field. He had seventy of them, and they were thoroughly trained to fight. They would run into the ranks of the enemy, knock the soldiers down and trample them to death, or lay hold of them with their trunks and throw them high into the air.
ELEPHANTS OF PYRRHUS
As the elephants stood in line waiting for the order to charge, the Romans looked at them with wonder and fear. They knew nothing about elephants, for they had never seen any before. And when the huge beasts came charging furiously across the field, making strange noises, many of the Roman soldiers were terribly frightened and began to run away. The elephants killed hundreds of them, and in a few minutes the Roman army was put to flight.
It was saved from entire destruction by only one thing. A Roman soldier was brave enough to rush at an elephant while it was charging and cut off a part of its trunk with his sword. The animal, wild with pain, turned and ran back to the Greek lines, trampling down the soldiers and causing a great deal of confusion. In the excitement the Romans managed to escape across a river to a friendly city where they were safe.
Pyrrhus won the victory, but he lost thousands of men. When he saw the great number of his soldiers that lay dead on the field, he exclaimed:
"A few more such victories and I must return to Epirus alone!"
S HORTLY after the battle Pyrrhus sent his friend and favorite minister, Cineas, to Rome to offer terms of peace to the Senate. Cineas was a very eloquent man. Often when Pyrrhus could not conquer people in battle, Cineas by his clever speeches induced them to submit to the king and be his friends. This was why the Greeks used to say, "The tongue of Cineas wins more cities than the sword of Pyrrhus."
Cineas proposed to the Roman Senate that the Romans should not make war any longer on the Tarentines, nor on any of the Italian tribes that had helped them, and that all the lands Rome had taken from these tribes in past years should be given back. If the Romans would agree to these terms, then Pyrrhus would be their true friend.
The terms were not good for Rome, but Cineas was so smooth-spoken and so pleasant in proposing them that many of the senators were inclined to accept them. One day while they were discussing the matter in the Senate a thrilling scene occurred.
Appius Claudius was still living in Rome. He was very old and had become blind. For this reason he got the name Cæcus, a word which is Latin for blind. But his mind was remarkably clear, and he had not lost interest in public affairs. When he heard that the Senate was going to accept the terms offered by Pyrrhus he rose from his bed declaring that he would go and speak against the proposal.
So he was carried by his slaves to the Senate house, and his sons led the aged man to his seat. He began his speech amidst the deepest silence. His youth seemed to come back to him. Once more he was the bold censor of thirty years before. In fiery words he spoke against the plan for peace, saying it would be base and cowardly to yield to the Greek king.
"Let us fight on," he said, "as long as we have soldiers. Shall we submit to this Greek invader merely because we have lost one battle? Never! Never! I say. Better to lose all that we have than to disgrace ourselves by submitting!"
APPIUS CLAUDIUS IN THE SENATE
The patriotic old man went on speaking in this way until his strength failed him and he sank exhausted into his seat. His speech had so much effect on the senators that they immediately voted against the proposal of Pyrrhus and ordered Cineas to depart from Rome.
Then the war was carried on vigorously. A great battle was fought at Asculum, and again the Romans were defeated by the Greeks. But they were not discouraged. The Consul Curius Dentatus fought another battle against Pyrrhus at Beneventum, and won a glorious victory. The Greeks were utterly defeated, and Pyrrhus soon afterwards left Italy and returned to his own country.
Then the Romans speedily took possession of Tarentum and made its people pay well for their insult to the Roman ambassadors.
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S OON after the defeat of the Gauls there lived in Rome a great man named Appius Claudius. He belonged to one of the highest families of the city. He was consul for two years, and for several years he held the office of censor (312-308 B.C.).
The censor was a very high and important officer. He was not only head of the department for taking the census, but he had charge of the collecting of the taxes, the erecting of public buildings, and the making of roads and streets.
Appius Claudius was a great soldier. Every Roman citizen had to be a soldier, and every man who was consul had to be able to lead armies and to fight and win battles. But Appius Claudius was chiefly famous for the great public works he planned and directed in Rome, which at that time was a city with a population of about three hundred thousand. One of these works was an aqueduct which brought water to the city from a lake eight miles distant. The Roman aqueducts were the best in the world. Some of them that were built over two thousand years ago are still in use.
But the greatest work of Appius Claudius was the making of a road from Rome to Capua, a distance of one hundred and twenty miles. This road was called the Appian Way in honor of Appius. It was also called the "queen of roads" because it was so well built. Parts of it are still in existence. The Romans had good roads as well as good aqueducts. They were the best road-builders in the world.
The Appian Way
While he was censor Appius Claudius very much improved Rome. He was called "the greatest of his countrymen in the works of peace." Even after he retired from office he had great influence in public affairs. His advice was asked by both plebeians and nobles.
Once during the first war which the Romans had with the Greeks the advice of Appius was of great benefit to Rome. At that time there were many Greek settlements in the south of Italy. One of the Greek towns was called Tarentum. It was built close to the sea and had a very good harbor.
Many of the people of this town were well educated. In those days the Greeks were mostly an educated people. They were fond of learning and of art. They called the Romans barbarians and were not friendly to them.
Once when a Roman fleet entered the bay of Tarentum, the people of the town attacked it and after taking five of the ships put the crews to death. When the news of this outrage reached Rome the Senate sent ambassadors to demand satisfaction. One of the ambassadors was a man named Lucius Posthumius. When they arrived at Tarentum they were met by a noisy crowd of people of the town, who made fun of their dress.
The Romans wore an outer dress called a toga. It was a large white woollen cloth, in the shape of a half circle, four or five yards long and of nearly the same width. In putting on this garment they doubled it lengthwise, then passed one end over the left shoulder and under the opposite arm and again over the left shoulder, the other end reaching nearly to the ground in front. The Tarentines laughed at the toga of the Roman ambassadors. They said it was a dress fit only for savages.
Roman with Toga
In a short time the ambassadors were taken to the public theatre, where the people had assembled to hear the message from Rome. Posthumius spoke to them in Greek, but as this was not his own language he pronounced many of the words in a peculiar way, and the Tarentines laughed. The Roman went on, however, in a dignified manner and finished his speech as if he had not noticed the insult.
Just then a Tarentine moved forward to the place where Posthumius stood and threw some dirt on his white toga. The ambassador held up the soiled garment with his hand and said that Tarentum would be made to suffer for the outrage. Then the theatre rang with laughter and offensive cries.
"Laugh on," said Posthumius, "you may laugh now but you shall weep hereafter. The stain on this toga shall be washed out in your blood!"
Then the ambassadors left the theatre and at once set out for Rome. When they appeared before the Senate Posthumius showed the stain on his toga as proof of the insult offered to Rome by the Tarentines. The Senate at once declared war on Tarentum and sent a powerful army to attack it.
A T this time the Tarentines had no general they thought would be able to fight the Romans. So they sent across the sea to Epirus, in Greece, for the king of that country to come and help them. The name of this king was Pyrrhus. He was a great soldier and commander and was nearly always engaged in war. He consented to help the Tarentines and crossed over to Italy with a great army in which there was a number of fighting elephants.
When Pyrrhus entered Tarentum he made himself master of the city. The Tarentines were very fond of plays and amusements of all kinds. Pyrrhus closed the theatres, stopped all the amusements and made the people drill as soldiers all day long.
As soon as he was ready to fight he marched out with his army of Greeks and Tarentines against the Romans, and there was a great battle near the city of Heraclea. Both sides fought well for hours, but the Greeks at last began to fall back. They could not stand against the steady, fierce attacks made by the Romans.
Then Pyrrhus brought his elephants upon the field. He had seventy of them, and they were thoroughly trained to fight. They would run into the ranks of the enemy, knock the soldiers down and trample them to death, or lay hold of them with their trunks and throw them high into the air.
ELEPHANTS OF PYRRHUS
As the elephants stood in line waiting for the order to charge, the Romans looked at them with wonder and fear. They knew nothing about elephants, for they had never seen any before. And when the huge beasts came charging furiously across the field, making strange noises, many of the Roman soldiers were terribly frightened and began to run away. The elephants killed hundreds of them, and in a few minutes the Roman army was put to flight.
It was saved from entire destruction by only one thing. A Roman soldier was brave enough to rush at an elephant while it was charging and cut off a part of its trunk with his sword. The animal, wild with pain, turned and ran back to the Greek lines, trampling down the soldiers and causing a great deal of confusion. In the excitement the Romans managed to escape across a river to a friendly city where they were safe.
Pyrrhus won the victory, but he lost thousands of men. When he saw the great number of his soldiers that lay dead on the field, he exclaimed:
"A few more such victories and I must return to Epirus alone!"
S HORTLY after the battle Pyrrhus sent his friend and favorite minister, Cineas, to Rome to offer terms of peace to the Senate. Cineas was a very eloquent man. Often when Pyrrhus could not conquer people in battle, Cineas by his clever speeches induced them to submit to the king and be his friends. This was why the Greeks used to say, "The tongue of Cineas wins more cities than the sword of Pyrrhus."
Cineas proposed to the Roman Senate that the Romans should not make war any longer on the Tarentines, nor on any of the Italian tribes that had helped them, and that all the lands Rome had taken from these tribes in past years should be given back. If the Romans would agree to these terms, then Pyrrhus would be their true friend.
The terms were not good for Rome, but Cineas was so smooth-spoken and so pleasant in proposing them that many of the senators were inclined to accept them. One day while they were discussing the matter in the Senate a thrilling scene occurred.
Appius Claudius was still living in Rome. He was very old and had become blind. For this reason he got the name Cæcus, a word which is Latin for blind. But his mind was remarkably clear, and he had not lost interest in public affairs. When he heard that the Senate was going to accept the terms offered by Pyrrhus he rose from his bed declaring that he would go and speak against the proposal.
So he was carried by his slaves to the Senate house, and his sons led the aged man to his seat. He began his speech amidst the deepest silence. His youth seemed to come back to him. Once more he was the bold censor of thirty years before. In fiery words he spoke against the plan for peace, saying it would be base and cowardly to yield to the Greek king.
"Let us fight on," he said, "as long as we have soldiers. Shall we submit to this Greek invader merely because we have lost one battle? Never! Never! I say. Better to lose all that we have than to disgrace ourselves by submitting!"
APPIUS CLAUDIUS IN THE SENATE
The patriotic old man went on speaking in this way until his strength failed him and he sank exhausted into his seat. His speech had so much effect on the senators that they immediately voted against the proposal of Pyrrhus and ordered Cineas to depart from Rome.
Then the war was carried on vigorously. A great battle was fought at Asculum, and again the Romans were defeated by the Greeks. But they were not discouraged. The Consul Curius Dentatus fought another battle against Pyrrhus at Beneventum, and won a glorious victory. The Greeks were utterly defeated, and Pyrrhus soon afterwards left Italy and returned to his own country.
Then the Romans speedily took possession of Tarentum and made its people pay well for their insult to the Roman ambassadors.
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Secondary attacks:South Tyrolean Army Group
The Battle of Caporetto (also known as the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo, the Battle of Kobarid or the Battle of Karfreit as it was known by the Central Powers) was a battle on the Austro-Italian front of World War I. The battle was fought between the Entente and the Central Powers and took place from 24 October to 19 November 1917, near the town of Kobarid (now in north-western Slovenia, then part of the Austrian Littoral). The battle was named after the Italian name of the town (also known as Karfreit in German).
Austro-Hungarian forces, reinforced by German units, were able to break into the Italian front line and rout the Italian forces opposing them. The battle was a demonstration of the effectiveness of the use of stormtroopers and the infiltration tactics developed in part by Oskar von Hutier. The use of poison gas by the Germans also played a key role in the collapse of the Italian Second Army.
In August 1917 Paul von Hindenburg decided that to keep the Austro-Hungarians in the war, the Germans had to help them defeat the Italian army. Erich Ludendorff was opposed to this but was overruled. In September three experts from the Imperial General Staff, led by the chemist Otto Hahn, went to the Isonzo front to find a site suitable for a gas attack. They proposed attacking the quiet Caporetto sector, where a good road ran west through a mountain valley to the Venetian plain.
The Austro-Hungarian Army Group Boroević, commanded by Svetozar Boroević, was prepared for the offensive. In addition, a new 14th Army was formed with nine Austrian and six German divisions, commanded by the German Otto von Below. The Italians inadvertently helped by providing weather information over their radio.
Foul weather delayed the attack for two days but on 24 October there was no wind and the front was misted over. At 02:00, 894 metal tubes similar to Livens projectors (Gaswurfminen), dug into a reverse slope, were triggered electrically to simultaneously fire canisters containing 600 ml (21 imp fl oz; 20 US fl oz) of chlorine-arsenic agent and diphosgene, smothering the Italian trenches in the valley in a dense cloud of poison gas. Knowing that their gas masks could protect them only for two hours or less, the defenders fled for their lives, though 500–600 were still killed. Then the front was quiet until 06:00 when all the Italian wire and trenches to be attacked were bombarded by mortars.
At 06:41, 2,200 guns opened fire, many targeting the valley road along which reserves were advancing to plug the gap. At 08:00 two large mines were detonated under strong points on the heights bordering the valley and the infantry attacked. Soon they penetrated the almost undefended Italian fortifications in the valley, breaching the defensive line of the Italian Second Army between the IV and XXVII Corps. To protect the attackers' flanks Alpine Troops infiltrated the strong points and batteries along the crests of the adjoining ridges, Mount Matajur and the Kolovrat Range, laying out their telephone lines as they advanced to maintain contact with their artillery. Specially-trained and equipped stormtrooper units led attacks, making good use of the new German model 08/15 Maxim light machine gun, light trench mortars, mountain guns, flamethrowers and hand grenades.
The attackers in the valley marched almost unopposed along the excellent road toward Italy, some advanced 25 kilometres (16 mi) on the first day. The Italian army beat back the attackers on either side of the sector where the central column attacked, but Below's successful central penetration threw the entire Italian army into disarray. Forces had to be moved along the Italian front in an attempt to stem von Below's breakout, but this only weakened other points along the line and invited further attacks. At this point, the entire Italian position was threatened.
The Italian 2nd Army commander Luigi Capello was commanding while bedridden with fever. Realizing that his forces were ill-prepared for this attack and were being routed, Capello requested permission to withdraw back to the Tagliamento. He was overruled by Cadorna who believed that the Italian force could regroup and hold out. Finally, on 30 October 1917, Cadorna ordered the majority of the Italian force to retreat to the other side of the Tagliamento. It took the Italians four full days to cross the river, and by this time the German and Austro-Hungarian armies were on their heels. By 2 November, a German division had established a bridgehead on the Tagliamento. About this time, however, the rapid success of the attack caught up with them. The German and Austro-Hungarian supply lines were stretched to breaking point and consequently they were unable to launch another attack to isolate a part of the Italian army against the Adriatic. Cadorna was able to retreat further and by 10 November had established a position on the Piave River and Monte Grappa, where the last push of the German and Austro-Hungarian forces was met and defeated by Italian forces at the First Battle of Monte Grappa.
Even before the battle, Germany was struggling to feed and supply its armies in the field. Erwin Rommel, who, as a junior officer, won the Pour le Mérite for his exploits in the battle, often bemoaned the demands placed upon his "poorly fed troops". The Allied blockade of the German Empire, which the Kaiserliche Marine had been unable to break, was partly responsible for food shortages and widespread malnutrition in Germany and the Central Powers in general. When inadequate provisioning was combined with the gruelling night marches preceding the battle of Caporetto, a heavy toll was imposed on the German and Austro-Hungarian forces. Despite these logistical problems, the initial assault was extremely successful. However, as the area controlled by the combined Central Powers forces expanded, an already limited logistical capacity was overstrained. By the time the attack reached the Piave, the soldiers of the Central Powers were running low on supplies and were feeling the physical effects of exhaustion. As the Italians began to counter the pressure put on them, the German forces lost momentum and were once again caught up in another round of attrition warfare.
Sullivan called Caporetto "the greatest defeat in Italian military history." Schindler wrote "By any standard, Twelfth Isonzo [Caporetto] and its aftermath represented an unprecedented catastrophe for Italian arms." The disaster "came as a shock" and "triggered a search for scapegoats," culminating in a 1919 Italian military commission that investigated the causes of the debacle. At Rapallo, a Supreme War Council was created to improve Allied military co-operation and develop a common strategy. Luigi Cadorna was forced to resign after the defeat, a final straw according to the Prime Minister, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando. Cadorna was known to have maintained poor relations with the other generals on his staff and by the start of the battle, had sacked 217 generals, 255 colonels and 355 battalion commanders. In addition, he was detested by his troops as being too harsh. Cadorna had been directing the battle 20 miles (32 km) behind the front and retreated another 100 mi (160 km) to Padua when replaced by Armando Diaz and Pietro Badoglio. Italian propaganda offices were established, promising land and social justice to soldiers. Italy also accepted a more cautious military strategy from this point on. Diaz concentrated his efforts on rebuilding his shattered forces while taking advantage of the national rejuvenation that had been spurred by invasion and defeat.
Italian losses were enormous: 10,000 were killed, 30,000 wounded and 265,000 were taken prisoner – morale was so low among the Italian troops, mainly due to Cadorna's harsh disciplinary regime, that most of these surrendered willingly. 3,152 artillery pieces, 3,000 machine guns and 1,712 mortars were lost, along with a vast amount of stores and equipment.[a] In contrast, the Austro-Hungarians and Germans sustained 70,000 casualties.[b]
The last push of Austro-Hungarian and German forces was met and defeated by Italian forces at the First Battle of Monte Grappa: they had advanced more than 100 km (62 mi) in the direction of Venice, but they were not able to cross the Piave River. Although up to this point the Italians had been left to fight on their own, after Caporetto they were reinforced by six French infantry divisions and five British infantry divisions as well as sizeable air contingents. However, these troops played no role in stemming the advancing Germans and Austro-Hungarians, because they were deployed on the Mincio River, some 97 kilometres (60 mi) behind the Piave, as the British and French strategists did not believe the Piave line could be held. The Piave served as a natural barrier where the Italians could establish a new defensive line, which was held during the subsequent Battle of the Piave River and later served as springboard for the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, where the Austro-Hungarian army was finally defeated after four days of resistance.
Opera Nazionale Combattenti, an Italian charitable organisation, was setup in December 1917 in the immediate aftermath of the battle, to provide assistance to veterans of the First World War; it was closed in 1977.
After the battle, the term "Caporetto" gained a particular resonance in Italy. It is used to denote a terrible defeat – the failed General Strike of 1922 by the socialists was referred to by Mussolini as the "Caporetto of Italian Socialism". Many years after the war, Caporetto was still being used to destroy the credibility of the liberal state.
The Battle of Caporetto has been the subject of a number of books. The Swedish author F.J. Nordstedt (pseud. Christian Braw) wrote about the battle in his novel Caporetto. The bloody aftermath of Caporetto was vividly described by Ernest Hemingway in his novel A Farewell to Arms. Curzio Malaparte wrote an excoriation of the battle in his first book, Viva Caporetto, published in 1921. It was censored by the state and suppressed; it was finally published in 1980.
Today, a museum in the town of Kobarid is dedicated to the Isonzo Battles in general, and the Caporetto Battle in particular.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of Caporetto.|
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Secondary attacks:South Tyrolean Army Group
The Battle of Caporetto (also known as the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo, the Battle of Kobarid or the Battle of Karfreit as it was known by the Central Powers) was a battle on the Austro-Italian front of World War I. The battle was fought between the Entente and the Central Powers and took place from 24 October to 19 November 1917, near the town of Kobarid (now in north-western Slovenia, then part of the Austrian Littoral). The battle was named after the Italian name of the town (also known as Karfreit in German).
Austro-Hungarian forces, reinforced by German units, were able to break into the Italian front line and rout the Italian forces opposing them. The battle was a demonstration of the effectiveness of the use of stormtroopers and the infiltration tactics developed in part by Oskar von Hutier. The use of poison gas by the Germans also played a key role in the collapse of the Italian Second Army.
In August 1917 Paul von Hindenburg decided that to keep the Austro-Hungarians in the war, the Germans had to help them defeat the Italian army. Erich Ludendorff was opposed to this but was overruled. In September three experts from the Imperial General Staff, led by the chemist Otto Hahn, went to the Isonzo front to find a site suitable for a gas attack. They proposed attacking the quiet Caporetto sector, where a good road ran west through a mountain valley to the Venetian plain.
The Austro-Hungarian Army Group Boroević, commanded by Svetozar Boroević, was prepared for the offensive. In addition, a new 14th Army was formed with nine Austrian and six German divisions, commanded by the German Otto von Below. The Italians inadvertently helped by providing weather information over their radio.
Foul weather delayed the attack for two days but on 24 October there was no wind and the front was misted over. At 02:00, 894 metal tubes similar to Livens projectors (Gaswurfminen), dug into a reverse slope, were triggered electrically to simultaneously fire canisters containing 600 ml (21 imp fl oz; 20 US fl oz) of chlorine-arsenic agent and diphosgene, smothering the Italian trenches in the valley in a dense cloud of poison gas. Knowing that their gas masks could protect them only for two hours or less, the defenders fled for their lives, though 500–600 were still killed. Then the front was quiet until 06:00 when all the Italian wire and trenches to be attacked were bombarded by mortars.
At 06:41, 2,200 guns opened fire, many targeting the valley road along which reserves were advancing to plug the gap. At 08:00 two large mines were detonated under strong points on the heights bordering the valley and the infantry attacked. Soon they penetrated the almost undefended Italian fortifications in the valley, breaching the defensive line of the Italian Second Army between the IV and XXVII Corps. To protect the attackers' flanks Alpine Troops infiltrated the strong points and batteries along the crests of the adjoining ridges, Mount Matajur and the Kolovrat Range, laying out their telephone lines as they advanced to maintain contact with their artillery. Specially-trained and equipped stormtrooper units led attacks, making good use of the new German model 08/15 Maxim light machine gun, light trench mortars, mountain guns, flamethrowers and hand grenades.
The attackers in the valley marched almost unopposed along the excellent road toward Italy, some advanced 25 kilometres (16 mi) on the first day. The Italian army beat back the attackers on either side of the sector where the central column attacked, but Below's successful central penetration threw the entire Italian army into disarray. Forces had to be moved along the Italian front in an attempt to stem von Below's breakout, but this only weakened other points along the line and invited further attacks. At this point, the entire Italian position was threatened.
The Italian 2nd Army commander Luigi Capello was commanding while bedridden with fever. Realizing that his forces were ill-prepared for this attack and were being routed, Capello requested permission to withdraw back to the Tagliamento. He was overruled by Cadorna who believed that the Italian force could regroup and hold out. Finally, on 30 October 1917, Cadorna ordered the majority of the Italian force to retreat to the other side of the Tagliamento. It took the Italians four full days to cross the river, and by this time the German and Austro-Hungarian armies were on their heels. By 2 November, a German division had established a bridgehead on the Tagliamento. About this time, however, the rapid success of the attack caught up with them. The German and Austro-Hungarian supply lines were stretched to breaking point and consequently they were unable to launch another attack to isolate a part of the Italian army against the Adriatic. Cadorna was able to retreat further and by 10 November had established a position on the Piave River and Monte Grappa, where the last push of the German and Austro-Hungarian forces was met and defeated by Italian forces at the First Battle of Monte Grappa.
Even before the battle, Germany was struggling to feed and supply its armies in the field. Erwin Rommel, who, as a junior officer, won the Pour le Mérite for his exploits in the battle, often bemoaned the demands placed upon his "poorly fed troops". The Allied blockade of the German Empire, which the Kaiserliche Marine had been unable to break, was partly responsible for food shortages and widespread malnutrition in Germany and the Central Powers in general. When inadequate provisioning was combined with the gruelling night marches preceding the battle of Caporetto, a heavy toll was imposed on the German and Austro-Hungarian forces. Despite these logistical problems, the initial assault was extremely successful. However, as the area controlled by the combined Central Powers forces expanded, an already limited logistical capacity was overstrained. By the time the attack reached the Piave, the soldiers of the Central Powers were running low on supplies and were feeling the physical effects of exhaustion. As the Italians began to counter the pressure put on them, the German forces lost momentum and were once again caught up in another round of attrition warfare.
Sullivan called Caporetto "the greatest defeat in Italian military history." Schindler wrote "By any standard, Twelfth Isonzo [Caporetto] and its aftermath represented an unprecedented catastrophe for Italian arms." The disaster "came as a shock" and "triggered a search for scapegoats," culminating in a 1919 Italian military commission that investigated the causes of the debacle. At Rapallo, a Supreme War Council was created to improve Allied military co-operation and develop a common strategy. Luigi Cadorna was forced to resign after the defeat, a final straw according to the Prime Minister, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando. Cadorna was known to have maintained poor relations with the other generals on his staff and by the start of the battle, had sacked 217 generals, 255 colonels and 355 battalion commanders. In addition, he was detested by his troops as being too harsh. Cadorna had been directing the battle 20 miles (32 km) behind the front and retreated another 100 mi (160 km) to Padua when replaced by Armando Diaz and Pietro Badoglio. Italian propaganda offices were established, promising land and social justice to soldiers. Italy also accepted a more cautious military strategy from this point on. Diaz concentrated his efforts on rebuilding his shattered forces while taking advantage of the national rejuvenation that had been spurred by invasion and defeat.
Italian losses were enormous: 10,000 were killed, 30,000 wounded and 265,000 were taken prisoner – morale was so low among the Italian troops, mainly due to Cadorna's harsh disciplinary regime, that most of these surrendered willingly. 3,152 artillery pieces, 3,000 machine guns and 1,712 mortars were lost, along with a vast amount of stores and equipment.[a] In contrast, the Austro-Hungarians and Germans sustained 70,000 casualties.[b]
The last push of Austro-Hungarian and German forces was met and defeated by Italian forces at the First Battle of Monte Grappa: they had advanced more than 100 km (62 mi) in the direction of Venice, but they were not able to cross the Piave River. Although up to this point the Italians had been left to fight on their own, after Caporetto they were reinforced by six French infantry divisions and five British infantry divisions as well as sizeable air contingents. However, these troops played no role in stemming the advancing Germans and Austro-Hungarians, because they were deployed on the Mincio River, some 97 kilometres (60 mi) behind the Piave, as the British and French strategists did not believe the Piave line could be held. The Piave served as a natural barrier where the Italians could establish a new defensive line, which was held during the subsequent Battle of the Piave River and later served as springboard for the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, where the Austro-Hungarian army was finally defeated after four days of resistance.
Opera Nazionale Combattenti, an Italian charitable organisation, was setup in December 1917 in the immediate aftermath of the battle, to provide assistance to veterans of the First World War; it was closed in 1977.
After the battle, the term "Caporetto" gained a particular resonance in Italy. It is used to denote a terrible defeat – the failed General Strike of 1922 by the socialists was referred to by Mussolini as the "Caporetto of Italian Socialism". Many years after the war, Caporetto was still being used to destroy the credibility of the liberal state.
The Battle of Caporetto has been the subject of a number of books. The Swedish author F.J. Nordstedt (pseud. Christian Braw) wrote about the battle in his novel Caporetto. The bloody aftermath of Caporetto was vividly described by Ernest Hemingway in his novel A Farewell to Arms. Curzio Malaparte wrote an excoriation of the battle in his first book, Viva Caporetto, published in 1921. It was censored by the state and suppressed; it was finally published in 1980.
Today, a museum in the town of Kobarid is dedicated to the Isonzo Battles in general, and the Caporetto Battle in particular.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of Caporetto.|
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This was a name applied to a movement in American politics which attracted a large share of public attention during the period from 1851 to 1858. It was the revival or re-appearance under a new name of the Native American movement which, during the preceding quarter of a century, had made various organized efforts to engraft its principles upon the legislation and policy of the American government. These principles briefly stated, were
- the proscription of those who professed the Roman Catholic faith and,
- the exclusion of foreign-born citizens from all offices of trust and emolument in the government, whether federal, state, or municipal.
With the organization of government and the adoption of a written Constitution, the question of religious toleration naturally arose, and the principle of freedom of religion was incorporated in the Federal Constitution (Art. VI) which declared that "no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States ". This liberty of conscience was further assured by an amendment adopted in 1791, which declared that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." While the policy of the National Government was thus defined, and its law-making power was restrained from legislation hostile to the principle of freedom of religion, the individual states had reserved the right to regulate the question of religion and of a state Church within their respective jurisdictions, and the elimination from the Constitutions of the various states of the religious disqualifications which they contained affecting Roman Catholics was accomplished slowly and not without much resistance on the part of a considerable portion of the population. Thus, it was not until 1833 that the union between Church and State in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts was dissolved, and Catholics were relieved from having to pay taxes for the support of the state ( Protestant ) Church. New Jersey retained its anti-Catholic Constitution until 1844, and only in 1877 did New Hampshire expunge from its Constitution the provision disqualifying Catholics from holding office in that state. These, with instances from other states which might be added, show that the spirit of intolerance of the Roman Catholic religion still survived. Freedom of religion as asserted in the Federal Constitution was not by any means universally accepted in theory, still less in practice.
The Tory element in the population, composed almost wholly of adherents of the Church of England, was most prominent in its resistance to that principle. Many of these were secretly opposed to the total independence of the colonies. In New York, where they were most numerous, they had been the governing class; theirs was the state Church ; their wealth and social standing gave them a large share in the direction of public affairs which they rightly judged would be lost to them by the establishment of the republic on the principles of freedom and equality declared by Thomas Jefferson, and, when their mother country was compelled to acknowledge the independence of the colonies, over 30,000 of these Tories voluntarily deported themselves, most of them to England and Canada. Those who remained became identified with the political party known as the Federalists. Successful for a time in retaining the control of the newly-organized government, the leaders of that party "strove to preserve the political ascendency of Protestantism in the states both by Federal legislation affecting the naturalization of emigrants and by preventing legislation in their respective states for the relief of Catholics from their religious disabilities which was necessary to give effect to the liberal spirit and purpose of the Constitution" (see "U.S. Catholic Historical Records and Studies", Vol. III, p. 95).
Thus, John Jay, of New York, who afterwards became Chief Justice of the United States, succeeded in fastening upon the Constitution of his own state a provision which denied the privilege of citizenship to every foreign-born Catholic unless he would first abjure and renounce all allegiance to the pope in matters ecclesiastical. This provision remained in force until 1821, when the power and influence of the Federal party had well nigh disappeared. During the administration of the Federalist president, John Adams, 1798-1802, that same party forced the passage of the Alien Act, under which the president might expel from the county all aliens whom he might regard as disaffected towards the Government, as well as that other Act requiring a residence of fourteen years in the country before any foreign-born person could be admitted to citizenship. In brief, the Federalists were the Native Americans of their day, and Knownothingism, as the latest and, because of its excesses, the most odious manifestation of the Native American spirit, may be said to have had its genesis in the prejudices nursed by the Federalists against foreign-born citizens and in their intolerance of their fellow-citizens professing the Roman Catholicfaith. These offensive, not to say unlawful, sentiments found numerous advocates, not only among political demagogues and aspirants for public office, but also in the pulpit and in the religious press of those days. The tide of immigration which had set in was largely Irish and soon became distinctively Catholic in character. One of the inducements to this immigration was the hope it held out of release from the civil disabilities and the religious proscription under which the immigrants had laboured in their native land. When, therefore, a powerful party was founded exerting itself to exclude these immigrants from the privilege of citizenship because of their race and creed, it was most natural that they and their co-religionists of whatever race should, as they did, ally themselves with the opposing political party which supported those principles of political equality and freedom of religion which had been proclaimed as distinctive principles of the American scheme of government. The growing immigration and the increase in the number of naturalized citizens strengthened the party with which these immigrants had become identified, and the extension of their political influence, as shown at the elections, was used by the advocates of proscription as a justification of their policy. Throughout the various Native American and Knownothing movements which America has witnessed, political hostility and religious prejudice, the one supplementing the other, appear as the motive and inspiration. Knownothingism was only the development and application of the principles of Native Americanism whose character and origin we have briefly sketched.
During the half-century preceding the Knownothing era, the questions involved in that movement had been frequently agitated. Catholics and foreigners were denounced, mainly from Protestant pulpits, as enemies of the Republic. Books and newspapers calculated to inflame the passions of the mob against their Irish and Catholic neighbours were extensively circulated. Catholic bishops and priests were maligned, their religion misrepresented and ridiculed, and acts of violence were committed against Catholics and their property. The burning of the Convent of the Ursuline nuns at Charleston, Massachusetts, in 1834, by a Native American mod, and their cruel treatment of the unoffending nuns and their pupils, were the most notable manifestations, up to that time, of the evil effect of religious hatred. In 1835 the first formal organization of the partisans of the Native American movement under that name, was effected at New York City. Various newspapers, such as "The Protestant", "The Protestant Vindicator", "The Downfall of Babylon", and the like, were established in New York and New England as aids to the movement. The "evils of Popery" and the danger to arise to the Republic from tolerating the practice of the Catholic religion were staple topics of discussion by no inconsiderable number of ministers of religion, and under the impulse of these incitements the spirit of religious prejudice was kept alive; there were new aggressions upon the rights of Catholic citizens, the peace and order of the community were occasionally disturbed by acts of violence, and another decade in the history of Native Americanism terminated in the bloody riots which occurred at Philadelphia, in 1844, when several Catholic churches were attacked by the Native American mob, and two of them, St. Michael's and St. Augustine's, were deliberately fired and reduced to ashes, and the safety of those that remained were so endangered by the hostile demonstrations of the mob that public worship was suspended by order of Bishop Kenrick, and on Sunday, 12 May, 1844, all Catholic churches in that city were closed. Many houses tenanted by Irish Catholics were likewise wantonly destroyed by fire, some of the inmates were shot down at their doorsteps, and a number of other unoffending citizens lost their lives.
The party whose members were soon to be described as "Knownothings" was formally organized in 1852 in the City of New York. Although begun as a local society, it was designed to become a national organization. Its leaders had planned to concentrate in a single party the membership of various Native American orders already in existence and the "American Republicans", the "Order of United Americans", "Sons of America", and "United American Mechanics of the United States " formed the nucleus of the new party. It adopted the title of "National Council of the United States of North America." Among the initiate it was called the "Supreme Order of the Star-spangled Banner" and was sometimes familiarly spoken of as "Sam". Its published ritual declared (Article II) the purpose of the organization to be "to protect every American citizen in the legal and proper exercise of all his civil and religious rights and privileges ; to resist the insidious policy of the Church of Rome and all other foreign influence against our republican institutions in all lawful ways; to place in all offices of honour, trust or profit in the gift of the people or by appointment none but Native American Protestant citizens" (see American Politics, Book I, pp. 57-9). Article III declared "that a member must be a native-born citizen, a Protestant either born of Protestant parents or reared under Protestant influence, and not united in marriage with a Roman Catholic. . .no member who has a Roman Catholic wife shall be eligible to office in this order", etc. There were several degrees of membership as there were also state, district, and territorial councils, all of them subordinate to the National Council. The organization had the usual equipment of secret signs, grips, passwords, and the like. Upon his admission the member was required to take the following oath :--
Although the existence of the new party was generally known, and its political activities soon became manifest, all inquiries by outsiders respecting its organization and purpose, and especially as to the names of members, were met by those identified with the movement with the answer: "I don't know ". This was in conformity with that part of the oath which forbade the member "To expose the name of any member of their order nor reveal the existence of such an association", and from this answer so uniformly repeated the nickname "Knownothing" was invented and was applied to the party and its members, and thus the Native Americanism of that period has passed into history under the name of Knownothingism. Within three years state councils of the order were established in thirty-five states and territories, and its advocates claimed that it controlled one and a half million legal voters, or nearly one-half of the entire popular vote cast at the presidential election in 1852. For a time it confined its political activities to supporting candidates approved at the secret meetings of the councils who had been nominated by one or other of the older political parties, and the leaders of those parties were frequently surprised at the unexpected strength thus developed by the secretly favoured candidates; but by 1854 it directly nominated the candidates to be voted for. The party had been successful in the municipal elections in Philadelphia, Baltimore, San Francisco , New Orleans, and for a time in New York City. In 1854 the Knownothings sent forty representatives to Congress, and elected their candidate, Gardiner, Governor of Massachusetts, with a legislature of the same type. In New York, in the same year, the party polled 122,000 votes and in the next year was successful in that state, polling 146,000 votes. In 1855 New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island each elected a Knownothing governor, and the party carried the elections in nine different states.
In the Thirty-fifth Congress, which assembled in December, 1855, there were seventy-five Knownothing members elected as such. In 1856 Horace Greeley wrote: "The majority of the Banks men"--Banks being the candidate for Speaker of the House of Representatives--"are now members of Knownothing councils and some twenty or thirty of them actually believe in that swindle. Half of the Massachusetts delegation, two-thirds of that of Ohio and nearly all of that of Pennsylvania are Knownothings". In 1855 the Knownothing party suffered a serious reverse in Virginia, when Henry A. Wise, the Democratic candidate, was elected governor of that state, chiefly on the issue of his antagonism to Native American principles and policies. In 1856, at Philadelphia, the delegates of the Knownothing party held a convention at which they nominated Millard Fillmore as candidate for President. Opposed to them in that election were the Democratic party and the newly organized Republican party, both of whom had expressed their dissent from Native American principles. Speaking of this selection, Schouler says: "Their candidate Fillmore met with the most ignoble defeat, receiving only the eight electoral votes of Maryland, his adversary, James Buchanan, the nominee of the National Democratic party being triumphantly elected. For the Native Americans with their proscriptive tenets, the defeat was overwhelming. It was apparent that the American or Knownothing party had now nearly evaporated" (History of the U.S., IV, p. 357).
The American people had weighed the claims of the Knownothing party to be regarded as the saviours of the republic and had witnessed the criminal excesses to which that party had resorted in its efforts to secure political control, and the sober sense of the great mass of the people had repudiated both. Moreover the great controversy over slavery coupled with the claim of the right of a state to secede from the Union was pressing upon the attention of the nation to the exclusion of nearly every other question, so that upon the election of President Lincoln (1860) Knownothingism as an organized party had ceased to exist, and only its disagreeable memory remained.
The history of Knownothingism would be very imperfectly told without some account of the wrongs inflicted upon Catholics and the criminal excesses committed by the partisans of that movement. The same bitter attacks against the Catholics and the same incitements to violence could not fail to produce results similar to those which had characterized the earlier Native American movements. In 1851 the large Knownothing element in Providence, R. I., was excited over the establishment there of a community of Sisters of Mercy under the direction of Mother Xavier Warde. The cottage occupied by the sisters was attacked at night, and all the windows broken. In daytime, as the sisters passed through the streets, they were hooted at and otherwise insulted, and were openly threatened with the destruction of their convent. So persistent were these threats that the Mayor requested the sisters to abandon their residence in xxyyyk.htm">Providence so as to avert the threatened disorder. Soon afterwards a mob of Knownothing partisans fully armed was assembled whose purpose of attacking the convent had been openly announced. The bishop's house and one or more of the churches were likewise marked for destruction. After fruitless appeals to the civil authorities for protection, the Irish Catholics of xxyyyk.htm">Providence, under the prudent and resolute lead of Bishop O'Reilly, prepared to resist the mob and to repel any violence that might be attempted. The mob marched to the convent, but, finding it guarded by a number of Catholic Irishmen, with Bishop O'Reilly present and declaring that the sisters and their convent should be protected at whatever cost, the Knownothing leaders decided not to molest the convent, and the mob dispersed.
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In 1853, on the occasion of the visit to America of Archbishop Bedini, Apostolic Nuncio to the Court of Brazil, a great outcry was raised by the Knownothing element throughout the country, with whom were joined certain Italian refugees who had emigrated to escape the consequences of their criminal conduct at home. In all the cities visited by the archbishop hostile demonstrations were made against him. At Boston, Baltimore, Wheeling, St. Louis, and Cincinnati where the Nuncio took part in various solemn religious celebrations, there were scenes of disorder, and in some cases of bloodshed, provoked by the Knownothing speakers both lay and clerical, as well as by the anti-Catholic press. At Cincinnati, in December, 1853, a mob of 600 men armed with weapons of various sorts, and carrying lighted torches and ropes, marched to the cathedral intending to set it on fire and, as was believed, to hang the Nuncio. There was an encounter with the police, and the mob was dispersed, but not until after shots had been fired and several persons wounded. During 1854 there were numerous assaults upon Catholic churches throughout the country by the Knownothing element. St. Mary's church at Newark, N. J., was invaded by a mob made up of Knownothings and Orangemen from New York City; the windows were broken, some of the statuary destroyed, and one unoffending bystander, an Irish Catholic, was shot and killed. In October of the same year, at Ellsworth, Maine, Father John Bapst, S.J. , was dragged from the church, robbed of his watch and money, tarred and feathered, and ridden about the village on a rail.
On 4 July, at Manchester, N. H., St. Anne's church was attacked, its windows broken and furniture destroyed, the priest compelled to seek shelter away from his home, and the houses of Irish Catholics were likewise attacked, the inmates driven out, even the sick being dragged from their beds. At Bath, Me., the mob broke into the church and, after wrecking the altar and the pulpit, set fire to the building which was reduced to a heap of ashes. At Dorchester, Massachusetts, a keg of gunpowder was placed under the floor of the little Catholic church, it was fired at three o'clock in the morning and resulted in almost the total destruction of the building. Another Catholic church, at Sidney, Ohio, was blown up with gunpowder. At Massillon, Ohio, another church was burned, and an attempt made to burn the Ursuline Convent at Galveston, Texas. At Lawrence and at Chelsea, Massachusetts, the Catholic churches were attacked by the Knownothing mob, the windows smashed, and much other damage done. St. Mary's church at Norwalk, Conn., was set on fire and later its cross was sawed off the spire. A fire was started in the church of Sts. Peter and Paul in Brooklyn, and the building was saved only by the interference of the police aided by the militia, who drove off the mob. St. Mary's Church at Saugerties, N. Y., was set on fire and nearly destroyed by the fanatics, and an attempt made to burn the church at Palmyra, N. Y. The following year (1855), at Louisville, Ky., the elections were attended with such rioting and bloodshed, the result of Knownothing agitation, that the day (5 Aug.) acquired the name of "Bloody Monday". The cathedral was invaded by the mob and was saved from destruction only by the prudence of Bishop Spalding, who, in a letter to Bishop Kenrick summing up the results of the day's proceedings, said: "We have just passed through a reign of terror surpassed only by the Philadelphia riots. Nearly one hundred poor Irish have been butchered or burned and some twenty houses have been consumed in the flames. The City authorities, all Knownothings, looked calmly on and they are now endeavouring to lay the blame on the Catholics " (see "Life of Archbishop Spalding ", by J.L. Spalding, p. 185).
While their ignorant followers were engaged in these lawless proceedings the leaders were exerting themselves in various directions to secure legislation hostile to Catholics, especially to Irish immigrants, then mostly of that faith. In the legislatures of some of the states bills were proposed to authorize the visitation and inspection of convents and other religious institutions by state officials, and in Massachusetts, in 1854, such a law, known as the Nunneries Inspection Bill, was actually passed. Under this a legislative committee made a tour of inspection and in a very offensive manner visited several Catholic colleges and convents. In several states, notably in New York, church property bills were proposed which were designed to destroy the title to Catholic church property , which for the most part stood in the name of the bishop, there being then no law for the incorporation of Catholic churches by which such title might be securely held. In Congress efforts were made to restrict the benefits of the Homestead Laws to those who were actual citizens of the United States , and the old-time proposal to extend the period of residence to twenty-one years before a person could be admitted to citizenship was constantly agitated. Of lesser importance were the laws and ordinances passed in Massachusetts disbanding various volunteer militia companies bearing the name of some Irish patriot and composed for the most part of Catholic Irishmen.
These different measures were advocated in the newspaper organs, both secular and religious, of the Knownothing party. The New York Church Property Bill evoked the newspaper controversy between Archbishop Hughes and Senator Brooks which attracted attention all over the country. In addition, many books and pamphlets were put in circulation in support of the Knownothing claims. Much of this literature was grossly insulting to Catholics and especially to the Irish members of that Church, and the Catholic press of those days was busily engaged in meeting the charges made against the Church. Speaking of Knownothingism, the authors (Nicolay and Hay ) of the "Life of Lincoln" (Vol. II, p. 357) say: "Essentially it was a revival of the extinct Native American faction based upon a jealousy of and discrimination against foreign born voters, desiring an extension of their period of naturalization and their exclusion from office; also based upon a certain hostility to the Roman Catholic religion."
Schouler, another non-Catholic historian, says (History of the United States, Vol. V, p. 305): "They [the Knownothings] revived the bitter spirit of intolerance against the Roman Catholic Church such as ten years before had been shown in the riots of Charlestown and Philadelphia, by representing it as foreign, the handmaid of popular ignorance and bent on chaining Americans to the throne of the Vatican. . . . Catholic churches were assaulted every now and then by some crowd of Bible bigots helped on by the brawny friends of free fight inflamed by street preachers and the revelations of ' converted Jesuits' and 'escaped nuns' etc." Speaking of the partisans of the movement, Bishop J. L. Spalding said (Life of Archbishop Spalding, p. 174) they were "the depraved portion of our native population". He added: "It was not the American people who were seeking to make war on the Church, but merely a party of religious fanatics and unprincipled demagogues who as little represented the American people as did the mobs whom they incited to bloodshed and incendiarism. Their whole conduct was un-American and opposed to all the principles and traditions of our free institutions".
Brownson spoke of their prejudices as "contemptible"; "The Native-American Party", said he (Essays and Reviews, p. 428), "is not a party against admitting foreigners to the rights of citizenship, but simply against admitting a certain class of foreigners. It does not oppose Protestant Germans, Protestant Englishmen, Protestant Scotchmen, not even Protestant Irishmen. It is really opposed only to Catholic foreigners. The party is truly an anti-Catholic party, and is opposed chiefly to the Irish, because a majority of the emigrants to this country are probably from Ireland, and the greater part of these are Catholics."
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FREE Catholic Classes
This was a name applied to a movement in American politics which attracted a large share of public attention during the period from 1851 to 1858. It was the revival or re-appearance under a new name of the Native American movement which, during the preceding quarter of a century, had made various organized efforts to engraft its principles upon the legislation and policy of the American government. These principles briefly stated, were
- the proscription of those who professed the Roman Catholic faith and,
- the exclusion of foreign-born citizens from all offices of trust and emolument in the government, whether federal, state, or municipal.
With the organization of government and the adoption of a written Constitution, the question of religious toleration naturally arose, and the principle of freedom of religion was incorporated in the Federal Constitution (Art. VI) which declared that "no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States ". This liberty of conscience was further assured by an amendment adopted in 1791, which declared that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." While the policy of the National Government was thus defined, and its law-making power was restrained from legislation hostile to the principle of freedom of religion, the individual states had reserved the right to regulate the question of religion and of a state Church within their respective jurisdictions, and the elimination from the Constitutions of the various states of the religious disqualifications which they contained affecting Roman Catholics was accomplished slowly and not without much resistance on the part of a considerable portion of the population. Thus, it was not until 1833 that the union between Church and State in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts was dissolved, and Catholics were relieved from having to pay taxes for the support of the state ( Protestant ) Church. New Jersey retained its anti-Catholic Constitution until 1844, and only in 1877 did New Hampshire expunge from its Constitution the provision disqualifying Catholics from holding office in that state. These, with instances from other states which might be added, show that the spirit of intolerance of the Roman Catholic religion still survived. Freedom of religion as asserted in the Federal Constitution was not by any means universally accepted in theory, still less in practice.
The Tory element in the population, composed almost wholly of adherents of the Church of England, was most prominent in its resistance to that principle. Many of these were secretly opposed to the total independence of the colonies. In New York, where they were most numerous, they had been the governing class; theirs was the state Church ; their wealth and social standing gave them a large share in the direction of public affairs which they rightly judged would be lost to them by the establishment of the republic on the principles of freedom and equality declared by Thomas Jefferson, and, when their mother country was compelled to acknowledge the independence of the colonies, over 30,000 of these Tories voluntarily deported themselves, most of them to England and Canada. Those who remained became identified with the political party known as the Federalists. Successful for a time in retaining the control of the newly-organized government, the leaders of that party "strove to preserve the political ascendency of Protestantism in the states both by Federal legislation affecting the naturalization of emigrants and by preventing legislation in their respective states for the relief of Catholics from their religious disabilities which was necessary to give effect to the liberal spirit and purpose of the Constitution" (see "U.S. Catholic Historical Records and Studies", Vol. III, p. 95).
Thus, John Jay, of New York, who afterwards became Chief Justice of the United States, succeeded in fastening upon the Constitution of his own state a provision which denied the privilege of citizenship to every foreign-born Catholic unless he would first abjure and renounce all allegiance to the pope in matters ecclesiastical. This provision remained in force until 1821, when the power and influence of the Federal party had well nigh disappeared. During the administration of the Federalist president, John Adams, 1798-1802, that same party forced the passage of the Alien Act, under which the president might expel from the county all aliens whom he might regard as disaffected towards the Government, as well as that other Act requiring a residence of fourteen years in the country before any foreign-born person could be admitted to citizenship. In brief, the Federalists were the Native Americans of their day, and Knownothingism, as the latest and, because of its excesses, the most odious manifestation of the Native American spirit, may be said to have had its genesis in the prejudices nursed by the Federalists against foreign-born citizens and in their intolerance of their fellow-citizens professing the Roman Catholicfaith. These offensive, not to say unlawful, sentiments found numerous advocates, not only among political demagogues and aspirants for public office, but also in the pulpit and in the religious press of those days. The tide of immigration which had set in was largely Irish and soon became distinctively Catholic in character. One of the inducements to this immigration was the hope it held out of release from the civil disabilities and the religious proscription under which the immigrants had laboured in their native land. When, therefore, a powerful party was founded exerting itself to exclude these immigrants from the privilege of citizenship because of their race and creed, it was most natural that they and their co-religionists of whatever race should, as they did, ally themselves with the opposing political party which supported those principles of political equality and freedom of religion which had been proclaimed as distinctive principles of the American scheme of government. The growing immigration and the increase in the number of naturalized citizens strengthened the party with which these immigrants had become identified, and the extension of their political influence, as shown at the elections, was used by the advocates of proscription as a justification of their policy. Throughout the various Native American and Knownothing movements which America has witnessed, political hostility and religious prejudice, the one supplementing the other, appear as the motive and inspiration. Knownothingism was only the development and application of the principles of Native Americanism whose character and origin we have briefly sketched.
During the half-century preceding the Knownothing era, the questions involved in that movement had been frequently agitated. Catholics and foreigners were denounced, mainly from Protestant pulpits, as enemies of the Republic. Books and newspapers calculated to inflame the passions of the mob against their Irish and Catholic neighbours were extensively circulated. Catholic bishops and priests were maligned, their religion misrepresented and ridiculed, and acts of violence were committed against Catholics and their property. The burning of the Convent of the Ursuline nuns at Charleston, Massachusetts, in 1834, by a Native American mod, and their cruel treatment of the unoffending nuns and their pupils, were the most notable manifestations, up to that time, of the evil effect of religious hatred. In 1835 the first formal organization of the partisans of the Native American movement under that name, was effected at New York City. Various newspapers, such as "The Protestant", "The Protestant Vindicator", "The Downfall of Babylon", and the like, were established in New York and New England as aids to the movement. The "evils of Popery" and the danger to arise to the Republic from tolerating the practice of the Catholic religion were staple topics of discussion by no inconsiderable number of ministers of religion, and under the impulse of these incitements the spirit of religious prejudice was kept alive; there were new aggressions upon the rights of Catholic citizens, the peace and order of the community were occasionally disturbed by acts of violence, and another decade in the history of Native Americanism terminated in the bloody riots which occurred at Philadelphia, in 1844, when several Catholic churches were attacked by the Native American mob, and two of them, St. Michael's and St. Augustine's, were deliberately fired and reduced to ashes, and the safety of those that remained were so endangered by the hostile demonstrations of the mob that public worship was suspended by order of Bishop Kenrick, and on Sunday, 12 May, 1844, all Catholic churches in that city were closed. Many houses tenanted by Irish Catholics were likewise wantonly destroyed by fire, some of the inmates were shot down at their doorsteps, and a number of other unoffending citizens lost their lives.
The party whose members were soon to be described as "Knownothings" was formally organized in 1852 in the City of New York. Although begun as a local society, it was designed to become a national organization. Its leaders had planned to concentrate in a single party the membership of various Native American orders already in existence and the "American Republicans", the "Order of United Americans", "Sons of America", and "United American Mechanics of the United States " formed the nucleus of the new party. It adopted the title of "National Council of the United States of North America." Among the initiate it was called the "Supreme Order of the Star-spangled Banner" and was sometimes familiarly spoken of as "Sam". Its published ritual declared (Article II) the purpose of the organization to be "to protect every American citizen in the legal and proper exercise of all his civil and religious rights and privileges ; to resist the insidious policy of the Church of Rome and all other foreign influence against our republican institutions in all lawful ways; to place in all offices of honour, trust or profit in the gift of the people or by appointment none but Native American Protestant citizens" (see American Politics, Book I, pp. 57-9). Article III declared "that a member must be a native-born citizen, a Protestant either born of Protestant parents or reared under Protestant influence, and not united in marriage with a Roman Catholic. . .no member who has a Roman Catholic wife shall be eligible to office in this order", etc. There were several degrees of membership as there were also state, district, and territorial councils, all of them subordinate to the National Council. The organization had the usual equipment of secret signs, grips, passwords, and the like. Upon his admission the member was required to take the following oath :--
Although the existence of the new party was generally known, and its political activities soon became manifest, all inquiries by outsiders respecting its organization and purpose, and especially as to the names of members, were met by those identified with the movement with the answer: "I don't know ". This was in conformity with that part of the oath which forbade the member "To expose the name of any member of their order nor reveal the existence of such an association", and from this answer so uniformly repeated the nickname "Knownothing" was invented and was applied to the party and its members, and thus the Native Americanism of that period has passed into history under the name of Knownothingism. Within three years state councils of the order were established in thirty-five states and territories, and its advocates claimed that it controlled one and a half million legal voters, or nearly one-half of the entire popular vote cast at the presidential election in 1852. For a time it confined its political activities to supporting candidates approved at the secret meetings of the councils who had been nominated by one or other of the older political parties, and the leaders of those parties were frequently surprised at the unexpected strength thus developed by the secretly favoured candidates; but by 1854 it directly nominated the candidates to be voted for. The party had been successful in the municipal elections in Philadelphia, Baltimore, San Francisco , New Orleans, and for a time in New York City. In 1854 the Knownothings sent forty representatives to Congress, and elected their candidate, Gardiner, Governor of Massachusetts, with a legislature of the same type. In New York, in the same year, the party polled 122,000 votes and in the next year was successful in that state, polling 146,000 votes. In 1855 New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island each elected a Knownothing governor, and the party carried the elections in nine different states.
In the Thirty-fifth Congress, which assembled in December, 1855, there were seventy-five Knownothing members elected as such. In 1856 Horace Greeley wrote: "The majority of the Banks men"--Banks being the candidate for Speaker of the House of Representatives--"are now members of Knownothing councils and some twenty or thirty of them actually believe in that swindle. Half of the Massachusetts delegation, two-thirds of that of Ohio and nearly all of that of Pennsylvania are Knownothings". In 1855 the Knownothing party suffered a serious reverse in Virginia, when Henry A. Wise, the Democratic candidate, was elected governor of that state, chiefly on the issue of his antagonism to Native American principles and policies. In 1856, at Philadelphia, the delegates of the Knownothing party held a convention at which they nominated Millard Fillmore as candidate for President. Opposed to them in that election were the Democratic party and the newly organized Republican party, both of whom had expressed their dissent from Native American principles. Speaking of this selection, Schouler says: "Their candidate Fillmore met with the most ignoble defeat, receiving only the eight electoral votes of Maryland, his adversary, James Buchanan, the nominee of the National Democratic party being triumphantly elected. For the Native Americans with their proscriptive tenets, the defeat was overwhelming. It was apparent that the American or Knownothing party had now nearly evaporated" (History of the U.S., IV, p. 357).
The American people had weighed the claims of the Knownothing party to be regarded as the saviours of the republic and had witnessed the criminal excesses to which that party had resorted in its efforts to secure political control, and the sober sense of the great mass of the people had repudiated both. Moreover the great controversy over slavery coupled with the claim of the right of a state to secede from the Union was pressing upon the attention of the nation to the exclusion of nearly every other question, so that upon the election of President Lincoln (1860) Knownothingism as an organized party had ceased to exist, and only its disagreeable memory remained.
The history of Knownothingism would be very imperfectly told without some account of the wrongs inflicted upon Catholics and the criminal excesses committed by the partisans of that movement. The same bitter attacks against the Catholics and the same incitements to violence could not fail to produce results similar to those which had characterized the earlier Native American movements. In 1851 the large Knownothing element in Providence, R. I., was excited over the establishment there of a community of Sisters of Mercy under the direction of Mother Xavier Warde. The cottage occupied by the sisters was attacked at night, and all the windows broken. In daytime, as the sisters passed through the streets, they were hooted at and otherwise insulted, and were openly threatened with the destruction of their convent. So persistent were these threats that the Mayor requested the sisters to abandon their residence in xxyyyk.htm">Providence so as to avert the threatened disorder. Soon afterwards a mob of Knownothing partisans fully armed was assembled whose purpose of attacking the convent had been openly announced. The bishop's house and one or more of the churches were likewise marked for destruction. After fruitless appeals to the civil authorities for protection, the Irish Catholics of xxyyyk.htm">Providence, under the prudent and resolute lead of Bishop O'Reilly, prepared to resist the mob and to repel any violence that might be attempted. The mob marched to the convent, but, finding it guarded by a number of Catholic Irishmen, with Bishop O'Reilly present and declaring that the sisters and their convent should be protected at whatever cost, the Knownothing leaders decided not to molest the convent, and the mob dispersed.
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In 1853, on the occasion of the visit to America of Archbishop Bedini, Apostolic Nuncio to the Court of Brazil, a great outcry was raised by the Knownothing element throughout the country, with whom were joined certain Italian refugees who had emigrated to escape the consequences of their criminal conduct at home. In all the cities visited by the archbishop hostile demonstrations were made against him. At Boston, Baltimore, Wheeling, St. Louis, and Cincinnati where the Nuncio took part in various solemn religious celebrations, there were scenes of disorder, and in some cases of bloodshed, provoked by the Knownothing speakers both lay and clerical, as well as by the anti-Catholic press. At Cincinnati, in December, 1853, a mob of 600 men armed with weapons of various sorts, and carrying lighted torches and ropes, marched to the cathedral intending to set it on fire and, as was believed, to hang the Nuncio. There was an encounter with the police, and the mob was dispersed, but not until after shots had been fired and several persons wounded. During 1854 there were numerous assaults upon Catholic churches throughout the country by the Knownothing element. St. Mary's church at Newark, N. J., was invaded by a mob made up of Knownothings and Orangemen from New York City; the windows were broken, some of the statuary destroyed, and one unoffending bystander, an Irish Catholic, was shot and killed. In October of the same year, at Ellsworth, Maine, Father John Bapst, S.J. , was dragged from the church, robbed of his watch and money, tarred and feathered, and ridden about the village on a rail.
On 4 July, at Manchester, N. H., St. Anne's church was attacked, its windows broken and furniture destroyed, the priest compelled to seek shelter away from his home, and the houses of Irish Catholics were likewise attacked, the inmates driven out, even the sick being dragged from their beds. At Bath, Me., the mob broke into the church and, after wrecking the altar and the pulpit, set fire to the building which was reduced to a heap of ashes. At Dorchester, Massachusetts, a keg of gunpowder was placed under the floor of the little Catholic church, it was fired at three o'clock in the morning and resulted in almost the total destruction of the building. Another Catholic church, at Sidney, Ohio, was blown up with gunpowder. At Massillon, Ohio, another church was burned, and an attempt made to burn the Ursuline Convent at Galveston, Texas. At Lawrence and at Chelsea, Massachusetts, the Catholic churches were attacked by the Knownothing mob, the windows smashed, and much other damage done. St. Mary's church at Norwalk, Conn., was set on fire and later its cross was sawed off the spire. A fire was started in the church of Sts. Peter and Paul in Brooklyn, and the building was saved only by the interference of the police aided by the militia, who drove off the mob. St. Mary's Church at Saugerties, N. Y., was set on fire and nearly destroyed by the fanatics, and an attempt made to burn the church at Palmyra, N. Y. The following year (1855), at Louisville, Ky., the elections were attended with such rioting and bloodshed, the result of Knownothing agitation, that the day (5 Aug.) acquired the name of "Bloody Monday". The cathedral was invaded by the mob and was saved from destruction only by the prudence of Bishop Spalding, who, in a letter to Bishop Kenrick summing up the results of the day's proceedings, said: "We have just passed through a reign of terror surpassed only by the Philadelphia riots. Nearly one hundred poor Irish have been butchered or burned and some twenty houses have been consumed in the flames. The City authorities, all Knownothings, looked calmly on and they are now endeavouring to lay the blame on the Catholics " (see "Life of Archbishop Spalding ", by J.L. Spalding, p. 185).
While their ignorant followers were engaged in these lawless proceedings the leaders were exerting themselves in various directions to secure legislation hostile to Catholics, especially to Irish immigrants, then mostly of that faith. In the legislatures of some of the states bills were proposed to authorize the visitation and inspection of convents and other religious institutions by state officials, and in Massachusetts, in 1854, such a law, known as the Nunneries Inspection Bill, was actually passed. Under this a legislative committee made a tour of inspection and in a very offensive manner visited several Catholic colleges and convents. In several states, notably in New York, church property bills were proposed which were designed to destroy the title to Catholic church property , which for the most part stood in the name of the bishop, there being then no law for the incorporation of Catholic churches by which such title might be securely held. In Congress efforts were made to restrict the benefits of the Homestead Laws to those who were actual citizens of the United States , and the old-time proposal to extend the period of residence to twenty-one years before a person could be admitted to citizenship was constantly agitated. Of lesser importance were the laws and ordinances passed in Massachusetts disbanding various volunteer militia companies bearing the name of some Irish patriot and composed for the most part of Catholic Irishmen.
These different measures were advocated in the newspaper organs, both secular and religious, of the Knownothing party. The New York Church Property Bill evoked the newspaper controversy between Archbishop Hughes and Senator Brooks which attracted attention all over the country. In addition, many books and pamphlets were put in circulation in support of the Knownothing claims. Much of this literature was grossly insulting to Catholics and especially to the Irish members of that Church, and the Catholic press of those days was busily engaged in meeting the charges made against the Church. Speaking of Knownothingism, the authors (Nicolay and Hay ) of the "Life of Lincoln" (Vol. II, p. 357) say: "Essentially it was a revival of the extinct Native American faction based upon a jealousy of and discrimination against foreign born voters, desiring an extension of their period of naturalization and their exclusion from office; also based upon a certain hostility to the Roman Catholic religion."
Schouler, another non-Catholic historian, says (History of the United States, Vol. V, p. 305): "They [the Knownothings] revived the bitter spirit of intolerance against the Roman Catholic Church such as ten years before had been shown in the riots of Charlestown and Philadelphia, by representing it as foreign, the handmaid of popular ignorance and bent on chaining Americans to the throne of the Vatican. . . . Catholic churches were assaulted every now and then by some crowd of Bible bigots helped on by the brawny friends of free fight inflamed by street preachers and the revelations of ' converted Jesuits' and 'escaped nuns' etc." Speaking of the partisans of the movement, Bishop J. L. Spalding said (Life of Archbishop Spalding, p. 174) they were "the depraved portion of our native population". He added: "It was not the American people who were seeking to make war on the Church, but merely a party of religious fanatics and unprincipled demagogues who as little represented the American people as did the mobs whom they incited to bloodshed and incendiarism. Their whole conduct was un-American and opposed to all the principles and traditions of our free institutions".
Brownson spoke of their prejudices as "contemptible"; "The Native-American Party", said he (Essays and Reviews, p. 428), "is not a party against admitting foreigners to the rights of citizenship, but simply against admitting a certain class of foreigners. It does not oppose Protestant Germans, Protestant Englishmen, Protestant Scotchmen, not even Protestant Irishmen. It is really opposed only to Catholic foreigners. The party is truly an anti-Catholic party, and is opposed chiefly to the Irish, because a majority of the emigrants to this country are probably from Ireland, and the greater part of these are Catholics."
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World War Two was the deadliest war to take place in history, with over 70 million lives lost over the course of 6 years. Not only did the war see millions of soldiers and civilians losing their lives, it also saw mass murder on an unprecedented scale; a genocide that continues to haunt us today – The Holocaust.
The atrocities committed during the war led to the foundation of the United Nations, through which the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was born. It was created in the aftermath of the Holocaust, acknowledging that basic human rights are not always protected. The declaration is formed of 30 human privileges that everyone should be entitled to regardless of their identity, ranging from basic freedom entitlements to the right for artistic involvement.
Although the UDHR was not created until after the Holocaust, it is not hard to believe that almost every single right listed in this policy was taken away from millions during the Nazi period. Certain human rights violations immediately spring to mind when looking at genocide: the right to life, the right to be free from slavery, and the right to never be subjected to torturous or inhumane treatment. When looking at the Holocaust however, there are violations that are not immediately considered as they are not particularly obvious and took place years before the murder of Jews and ‘asocials’ began.
From the beginning it was the Nazi aim to dehumanise the Jews, to make them lose their faith, and to label them as outcasts and sub-humans who did not belong in German society. As early as April 1933, Jews had their right to an employment of their choosing taken away. A nationwide boycott of Jewish businesses was organised, and shortly following, Jews were expelled from the civil service, the judicial system, public medicine, and the army. Books were burnt that were written by Jews, or seen to be Jewish in any way, violating Article 27; the right to have all our works protected. Even education for Jewish children was limited due to the Law against Overcrowding in Schools and Universities. Article 26 states that children should be taught to respect everyone around them no matter what their ethnicity, religion, or background. However, schools were used to spread Nazi propaganda to the youngest members of society, whether this was propaganda targeting the disabled, Jews, or some other ‘asocial’ group.
Arguably one of the most overlooked aspects of the Holocaust – discrimination against the disabled – began with the Law for the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Offspring. Passed in July 1933, this law allowed the forced sterilisation of those with incurable physical or mental disabilities to prevent them from reproducing. Not only does this law violate the right to have a family, it is also inhumane and cruel. It also led to the creation of the T4 programme, whereby hundreds of thousands of disabled people were murdered by those trusted with their care.
Articles 15, the right to citizenship, and 16, the right to marry whoever we want regardless of our ethnicity or religion, were both violated in the 1935 Nuremberg Laws. These regulations stripped Jews of their German citizenship, forbade Jews from marrying or having sex with anyone non-Jewish, and once again segregated them from German society. Removing their citizenship not only stripped them of their rights as members of society, but also removed their identity, something that would have been incredibly traumatic for Jews, or indeed anyone.
The Evian Conference in July 1938 is in hindsight perhaps the most regrettable part of the build up to war in terms of Allied actions. With the refugee crisis growing, and thousands of Jews seeking to flee Germany before it’s too late, delegates of 32 countries gathered to discuss whether their country could accept Jewish immigrants facing persecution. In a disappointing, but perhaps all too familiar decision, almost none of the countries attending agreed to soften their immigration policy for fleeing Jews, with Britain, the USA, and France all opposing unrestricted and increased immigration. In hindsight of what followed, this conference was a dark day for Jews of Nazi-occupied land. Soon enough, Jewish passports began to be confiscated to prevent emigration, a move that went against Articles 13 and 14 of the UDHR: the right to move freely within our own country and others, and the right to seek protection in another country if we are at risk of harm.
Looking back, it is clear that the Nazi regime sought to demoralise and dehumanise their Jewish citizens from the minute they attained power. From restrictions violating their right to have a family, to marry whom they please, and to flee their country of persecution, there is no denying that Jews were to be seen as outcasts, as separate members of society, and as such were treated differently not only by the regime that propagated this agenda, but by ordinary Germans. Friends, family, and neighbours were pitted against one another. Although no one could have predicted the genocide that would take place, it is not hard to see that the road to the gas chamber was one filled with human rights violations and dehumanising treatment. In retrospect, perhaps the mass murder of millions by the Nazi regime was not such a surprise at all.
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World War Two was the deadliest war to take place in history, with over 70 million lives lost over the course of 6 years. Not only did the war see millions of soldiers and civilians losing their lives, it also saw mass murder on an unprecedented scale; a genocide that continues to haunt us today – The Holocaust.
The atrocities committed during the war led to the foundation of the United Nations, through which the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was born. It was created in the aftermath of the Holocaust, acknowledging that basic human rights are not always protected. The declaration is formed of 30 human privileges that everyone should be entitled to regardless of their identity, ranging from basic freedom entitlements to the right for artistic involvement.
Although the UDHR was not created until after the Holocaust, it is not hard to believe that almost every single right listed in this policy was taken away from millions during the Nazi period. Certain human rights violations immediately spring to mind when looking at genocide: the right to life, the right to be free from slavery, and the right to never be subjected to torturous or inhumane treatment. When looking at the Holocaust however, there are violations that are not immediately considered as they are not particularly obvious and took place years before the murder of Jews and ‘asocials’ began.
From the beginning it was the Nazi aim to dehumanise the Jews, to make them lose their faith, and to label them as outcasts and sub-humans who did not belong in German society. As early as April 1933, Jews had their right to an employment of their choosing taken away. A nationwide boycott of Jewish businesses was organised, and shortly following, Jews were expelled from the civil service, the judicial system, public medicine, and the army. Books were burnt that were written by Jews, or seen to be Jewish in any way, violating Article 27; the right to have all our works protected. Even education for Jewish children was limited due to the Law against Overcrowding in Schools and Universities. Article 26 states that children should be taught to respect everyone around them no matter what their ethnicity, religion, or background. However, schools were used to spread Nazi propaganda to the youngest members of society, whether this was propaganda targeting the disabled, Jews, or some other ‘asocial’ group.
Arguably one of the most overlooked aspects of the Holocaust – discrimination against the disabled – began with the Law for the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Offspring. Passed in July 1933, this law allowed the forced sterilisation of those with incurable physical or mental disabilities to prevent them from reproducing. Not only does this law violate the right to have a family, it is also inhumane and cruel. It also led to the creation of the T4 programme, whereby hundreds of thousands of disabled people were murdered by those trusted with their care.
Articles 15, the right to citizenship, and 16, the right to marry whoever we want regardless of our ethnicity or religion, were both violated in the 1935 Nuremberg Laws. These regulations stripped Jews of their German citizenship, forbade Jews from marrying or having sex with anyone non-Jewish, and once again segregated them from German society. Removing their citizenship not only stripped them of their rights as members of society, but also removed their identity, something that would have been incredibly traumatic for Jews, or indeed anyone.
The Evian Conference in July 1938 is in hindsight perhaps the most regrettable part of the build up to war in terms of Allied actions. With the refugee crisis growing, and thousands of Jews seeking to flee Germany before it’s too late, delegates of 32 countries gathered to discuss whether their country could accept Jewish immigrants facing persecution. In a disappointing, but perhaps all too familiar decision, almost none of the countries attending agreed to soften their immigration policy for fleeing Jews, with Britain, the USA, and France all opposing unrestricted and increased immigration. In hindsight of what followed, this conference was a dark day for Jews of Nazi-occupied land. Soon enough, Jewish passports began to be confiscated to prevent emigration, a move that went against Articles 13 and 14 of the UDHR: the right to move freely within our own country and others, and the right to seek protection in another country if we are at risk of harm.
Looking back, it is clear that the Nazi regime sought to demoralise and dehumanise their Jewish citizens from the minute they attained power. From restrictions violating their right to have a family, to marry whom they please, and to flee their country of persecution, there is no denying that Jews were to be seen as outcasts, as separate members of society, and as such were treated differently not only by the regime that propagated this agenda, but by ordinary Germans. Friends, family, and neighbours were pitted against one another. Although no one could have predicted the genocide that would take place, it is not hard to see that the road to the gas chamber was one filled with human rights violations and dehumanising treatment. In retrospect, perhaps the mass murder of millions by the Nazi regime was not such a surprise at all.
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Frontiersman - Explorer - Daniel Boone was born on November 2, October 22, old style date to Squire Boone, a weaver who had moved to America from England twenty years earlier. Squire and his wife Sarah, who lived in Pennsylvania, were members of a religious group called Quakers. They were tired of being cooped up and sneaked out of the house.
Pioneer, explorer, frontiersman Famous For: Exploration and settlement of Kentucky Daniel Boone was an American frontiersman and explorerbest known for his travels in what is now Kentucky.
Biographies for children. Biography of Daniel Boone, an early American explorer who crossed the Appalachian Mountains at the Cumberland Gap and forged a trail called the Wilderness Road for settlers to use, for elementry and middle school students. Fun online educational games and worksheets are provided free for each biography. Mexican-American War A war between the U.S. and Mexico that spanned from spring to fall The war was initiated by the U.S. and resulted in Mexico's defeat and the loss of approximately half of its national territory in the north. Daniel Boone (November 2, [O.S. October 22] – September 26, ) was an American pioneer, explorer, woodsman, and frontiersman, whose frontier exploits made him one of the first folk heroes of the United alphabetnyc.com(s): Rebecca Bryan Boone.
His most famous journey came inwhen he established the Wilderness Road across the Appalachians. This succeeded despite fierce opposition from several Native American tribes. His father was an English emigrant who worked as a weaver and blacksmith. As Daniel was the sixth child of the family, his parents could not afford to give him a formal education, although he did learn how to read.
His father gave him a rifle when he was twelve, and he showed immediate promise as a woodsman. By the age of 15, he was running a hunting business in North Carolina, where his family now lived.
Boone himself almost lost his life when ambushed, but used his survival skills to make it out alive. The following year, he married settled in the Yadkin Valley. Boone seemed content, raising six children, but he eventually started to yearn for a return to the adventurous life he had once craved.
This reached Floyd County, but two years later Boone would embark on a longer and more historically significant journey.
With teamster John Finley, an old army comrade, he led a team of four other men to find a way through the Appalachian Mountains to the far western frontier of America. Having blazed the new Wilderness Road through the gap, western Kentucky was open for settlement.
In AprilBoone set up a fort in a new Kentucky settlement, which he named Boonesborough.
The fortified nature of the settlement was a necessity, as some of the Native tribes in the region were known to be hostile to Europeans.
An increasing number of colonists settled there too, allowing it to become a substantial township. Later Life Resistance by some of the indigenous tribes, in particular the Cherokee and Shawnee people, continued for several years. He feared for her safety, as well as that of two other girls who had been abducted at the same time, but they told him after he had rescued them that they had been treated relatively well by their captors.
Boone himself received a gunshot wound to the ankle during a raid inalthough he made a good recovery. Inthe Shawnee captured Boone, although he was quickly able to escape. However, when Boonesborough settlers lent him money to buy land permits, he was robbed on the way to do so.
This caused fury among the settlers, some of whom sued. After several years of deteriorating relations, in Boone moved to Point Pleasant in present-day West Virginia.
He served in both military and civic roles there before moving again, this time to Missouri. Here he died at 85 on September 26th, The Daniel Boone Homestead in southeastern Pennsylvania, about 9 miles (14 km) southeast of Reading, preserves structures associated with Boone’s birthplace, and Nathan Boone’s house in Missouri is also a historical site.
June frontiersman Daniel Boone first saw the forests and valleys of present-day Kentucky. For more than a century, the Kentucky Historical Society has celebrated June 7 as "Boone Day. An American frontiersman and explorer, Daniel Boone was the greatest woodsman in United States history.
Free Lapbook, crafts and activities to learn about Daniel Boone. Daniel Boone (November 2, [O.S. October 22] – September 26, ) was an American pioneer, explorer, woodsman, and frontiersman, whose frontier exploits made him one of the first folk heroes of the United alphabetnyc.com(s): Rebecca Bryan Boone.
Daniel Boone (November 2, [O.S. October 22] – September 26, ) was an American pioneer, explorer, woodsman, and frontiersman, whose frontier exploits made him one of the first folk heroes of the United alphabetnyc.com is most famous for his exploration and settlement of what is now alphabetnyc.com was still considered part of Virginia but was on the western side of the Appalachian Mountains.
An American frontiersman and explorer, Daniel Boone was the greatest woodsman in United States history.
He left behind many lands that he had discovered, protected, settled, and improved. Daniel Boone was an American pioneer, explorer, woodsman, and frontiersman, whose frontier exploits made him one of the first folk heroes of the United States.
Benedict Arnold Captured many forts and was an effective military leader.
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Frontiersman - Explorer - Daniel Boone was born on November 2, October 22, old style date to Squire Boone, a weaver who had moved to America from England twenty years earlier. Squire and his wife Sarah, who lived in Pennsylvania, were members of a religious group called Quakers. They were tired of being cooped up and sneaked out of the house.
Pioneer, explorer, frontiersman Famous For: Exploration and settlement of Kentucky Daniel Boone was an American frontiersman and explorerbest known for his travels in what is now Kentucky.
Biographies for children. Biography of Daniel Boone, an early American explorer who crossed the Appalachian Mountains at the Cumberland Gap and forged a trail called the Wilderness Road for settlers to use, for elementry and middle school students. Fun online educational games and worksheets are provided free for each biography. Mexican-American War A war between the U.S. and Mexico that spanned from spring to fall The war was initiated by the U.S. and resulted in Mexico's defeat and the loss of approximately half of its national territory in the north. Daniel Boone (November 2, [O.S. October 22] – September 26, ) was an American pioneer, explorer, woodsman, and frontiersman, whose frontier exploits made him one of the first folk heroes of the United alphabetnyc.com(s): Rebecca Bryan Boone.
His most famous journey came inwhen he established the Wilderness Road across the Appalachians. This succeeded despite fierce opposition from several Native American tribes. His father was an English emigrant who worked as a weaver and blacksmith. As Daniel was the sixth child of the family, his parents could not afford to give him a formal education, although he did learn how to read.
His father gave him a rifle when he was twelve, and he showed immediate promise as a woodsman. By the age of 15, he was running a hunting business in North Carolina, where his family now lived.
Boone himself almost lost his life when ambushed, but used his survival skills to make it out alive. The following year, he married settled in the Yadkin Valley. Boone seemed content, raising six children, but he eventually started to yearn for a return to the adventurous life he had once craved.
This reached Floyd County, but two years later Boone would embark on a longer and more historically significant journey.
With teamster John Finley, an old army comrade, he led a team of four other men to find a way through the Appalachian Mountains to the far western frontier of America. Having blazed the new Wilderness Road through the gap, western Kentucky was open for settlement.
In AprilBoone set up a fort in a new Kentucky settlement, which he named Boonesborough.
The fortified nature of the settlement was a necessity, as some of the Native tribes in the region were known to be hostile to Europeans.
An increasing number of colonists settled there too, allowing it to become a substantial township. Later Life Resistance by some of the indigenous tribes, in particular the Cherokee and Shawnee people, continued for several years. He feared for her safety, as well as that of two other girls who had been abducted at the same time, but they told him after he had rescued them that they had been treated relatively well by their captors.
Boone himself received a gunshot wound to the ankle during a raid inalthough he made a good recovery. Inthe Shawnee captured Boone, although he was quickly able to escape. However, when Boonesborough settlers lent him money to buy land permits, he was robbed on the way to do so.
This caused fury among the settlers, some of whom sued. After several years of deteriorating relations, in Boone moved to Point Pleasant in present-day West Virginia.
He served in both military and civic roles there before moving again, this time to Missouri. Here he died at 85 on September 26th, The Daniel Boone Homestead in southeastern Pennsylvania, about 9 miles (14 km) southeast of Reading, preserves structures associated with Boone’s birthplace, and Nathan Boone’s house in Missouri is also a historical site.
June frontiersman Daniel Boone first saw the forests and valleys of present-day Kentucky. For more than a century, the Kentucky Historical Society has celebrated June 7 as "Boone Day. An American frontiersman and explorer, Daniel Boone was the greatest woodsman in United States history.
Free Lapbook, crafts and activities to learn about Daniel Boone. Daniel Boone (November 2, [O.S. October 22] – September 26, ) was an American pioneer, explorer, woodsman, and frontiersman, whose frontier exploits made him one of the first folk heroes of the United alphabetnyc.com(s): Rebecca Bryan Boone.
Daniel Boone (November 2, [O.S. October 22] – September 26, ) was an American pioneer, explorer, woodsman, and frontiersman, whose frontier exploits made him one of the first folk heroes of the United alphabetnyc.com is most famous for his exploration and settlement of what is now alphabetnyc.com was still considered part of Virginia but was on the western side of the Appalachian Mountains.
An American frontiersman and explorer, Daniel Boone was the greatest woodsman in United States history.
He left behind many lands that he had discovered, protected, settled, and improved. Daniel Boone was an American pioneer, explorer, woodsman, and frontiersman, whose frontier exploits made him one of the first folk heroes of the United States.
Benedict Arnold Captured many forts and was an effective military leader.
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Shocking is one word Jill Pruetz uses to describe the behavior she witnessed after a chimp was killed at her research site in Fongoli, Senegal. The fact that chimps would kill a member of their own community is extremely rare – most aggression is between communities – but the abuse that followed was completely unexpected.
“It was very difficult and quite gruesome to watch,” said Pruetz, a professor of anthropology at Iowa State University. “I couldn’t initially make sense of what was happening, and I didn’t expect them to be so aggressive with the body.”
Pruetz has witnessed many things since establishing her research site in 2001. She was the first to document chimps using tools to hunt prey. However, what she observed in 2013 was different. Pruetz and her research team documented the chimps’ behavior after discovering the body of Foudouko, a former leader of the Fongoli community, who was exiled from the group for five years. As Pruetz explains in the video above, the chimps – many of which Pruetz suspects killed Foudouko – abused and cannibalized his body for nearly four hours.
There is a lot of anecdotal information on how chimps grieve, but Pruetz says these chimps were not in mourning. The team’s reports and video, published in the International Journal of Primatology, build upon a 2014 study on lethal aggression. The younger adult male chimps were the most aggressive. Researchers noted that two of Foudouko’s former allies were the only ones that didn’t show any aggression. Pruetz says one of the two did yell at and hit the body, but it appeared to be an attempt to rouse Foudouko.
Few animals, other than humans, show such deadly aggression, and the field of primatology has been divided as to what causes this behavior among primates, Pruetz said. It is important to understand this deadly behavior because of the chimpanzee’s endangered status.
Pruetz has long thought that man-made environmental changes, which disrupt the chimp’s habitat, may contribute to the aggressive behavior researchers observed. She cannot say definitively if that was the case with Foudouko’s death. It’s likely that competition for a mate – there are more male than female chimps at Fongoli – and a power struggle with younger chimps were contributing factors.
The skewed gender balance at Fongoli may be linked to human factors. Pruetz says local residents have reported people hunting female chimps to get infants for the pet trade. Hunters capturing just one female chimp every few years would have a real impact on the community, because of their slow life history, she said.
Isolation and exile unique
The fact that Foudouko survived in isolation for several years is quite unusual. No one has ever recorded this happening for such a long period, Pruetz said. During the five years of his exile, Pruetz and her team observed Foudouko following the group from a distance, and privately interacting with some of his former allies, but these interactions were rare.
“It really struck us that Foudouko lived on the outskirts for so long,” Pruetz said. “Chimps are very social, so this type of isolation would be a huge stress, and it seemed Foudouko wanted to get back into the social group.”
Pruetz says Foudouko might have had a chance, if he had been more submissive. During the days before his death, researchers suspected he was in the area. Still, there was no indication or warning that the group would kill him, she said. As a leader, Foudouko was very dominant and feared by the other chimps. It’s possible the younger chimps were concerned he would try to regain a position of power, and decided to attack him, Pruetz said. The younger chimps outnumbered Foudouko and his allies, and they were in their physical prime, which gave them an advantage.
Even after the deadly attack, Pruetz says it was obvious the other chimps were still afraid of Foudouko. They showed signs of fear, especially when Foudouko’s body would jerk or move during the attacks. Once the chimps left the body, Pruetz and her team buried Foudouko. His bones will be exhumed for examination in the future.
Stacy Lindshield, an ISU lecturer in anthropology; Kelly Boyer Ontl, an ISU Ph.D. student; Elizabeth Cleaveland, a former ISU student now at the Ape Cognition and Conservation Initiative; Joshua Marshack, a lecturer at Colgate University; and Erin G. Wessling, a former ISU master’s student now at Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology; all contributed to this study.
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] | 3
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Shocking is one word Jill Pruetz uses to describe the behavior she witnessed after a chimp was killed at her research site in Fongoli, Senegal. The fact that chimps would kill a member of their own community is extremely rare – most aggression is between communities – but the abuse that followed was completely unexpected.
“It was very difficult and quite gruesome to watch,” said Pruetz, a professor of anthropology at Iowa State University. “I couldn’t initially make sense of what was happening, and I didn’t expect them to be so aggressive with the body.”
Pruetz has witnessed many things since establishing her research site in 2001. She was the first to document chimps using tools to hunt prey. However, what she observed in 2013 was different. Pruetz and her research team documented the chimps’ behavior after discovering the body of Foudouko, a former leader of the Fongoli community, who was exiled from the group for five years. As Pruetz explains in the video above, the chimps – many of which Pruetz suspects killed Foudouko – abused and cannibalized his body for nearly four hours.
There is a lot of anecdotal information on how chimps grieve, but Pruetz says these chimps were not in mourning. The team’s reports and video, published in the International Journal of Primatology, build upon a 2014 study on lethal aggression. The younger adult male chimps were the most aggressive. Researchers noted that two of Foudouko’s former allies were the only ones that didn’t show any aggression. Pruetz says one of the two did yell at and hit the body, but it appeared to be an attempt to rouse Foudouko.
Few animals, other than humans, show such deadly aggression, and the field of primatology has been divided as to what causes this behavior among primates, Pruetz said. It is important to understand this deadly behavior because of the chimpanzee’s endangered status.
Pruetz has long thought that man-made environmental changes, which disrupt the chimp’s habitat, may contribute to the aggressive behavior researchers observed. She cannot say definitively if that was the case with Foudouko’s death. It’s likely that competition for a mate – there are more male than female chimps at Fongoli – and a power struggle with younger chimps were contributing factors.
The skewed gender balance at Fongoli may be linked to human factors. Pruetz says local residents have reported people hunting female chimps to get infants for the pet trade. Hunters capturing just one female chimp every few years would have a real impact on the community, because of their slow life history, she said.
Isolation and exile unique
The fact that Foudouko survived in isolation for several years is quite unusual. No one has ever recorded this happening for such a long period, Pruetz said. During the five years of his exile, Pruetz and her team observed Foudouko following the group from a distance, and privately interacting with some of his former allies, but these interactions were rare.
“It really struck us that Foudouko lived on the outskirts for so long,” Pruetz said. “Chimps are very social, so this type of isolation would be a huge stress, and it seemed Foudouko wanted to get back into the social group.”
Pruetz says Foudouko might have had a chance, if he had been more submissive. During the days before his death, researchers suspected he was in the area. Still, there was no indication or warning that the group would kill him, she said. As a leader, Foudouko was very dominant and feared by the other chimps. It’s possible the younger chimps were concerned he would try to regain a position of power, and decided to attack him, Pruetz said. The younger chimps outnumbered Foudouko and his allies, and they were in their physical prime, which gave them an advantage.
Even after the deadly attack, Pruetz says it was obvious the other chimps were still afraid of Foudouko. They showed signs of fear, especially when Foudouko’s body would jerk or move during the attacks. Once the chimps left the body, Pruetz and her team buried Foudouko. His bones will be exhumed for examination in the future.
Stacy Lindshield, an ISU lecturer in anthropology; Kelly Boyer Ontl, an ISU Ph.D. student; Elizabeth Cleaveland, a former ISU student now at the Ape Cognition and Conservation Initiative; Joshua Marshack, a lecturer at Colgate University; and Erin G. Wessling, a former ISU master’s student now at Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology; all contributed to this study.
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In the opening of the year 1920, France was in a stronger position than she had been in for several generations. The Allied victory over Germany and the restoration of Alsace-Lorraine to France had placed France in the position which she occupied during the 17th and 18th century - that of the strongest power on the European continent. At the beginning of the year Raymond Poincaré was still president and Georges Clemenceau was still prime minister, but as both senatorial and presidential elections were due in January, important political changes occurred early in the year. At the general election for the Chamber of Deputies which took place in November 1919, there had been a strong tendency towards Conservatism, the Socialist Party being badly defeated. The elections for the Senate were held on January 11, and these exhibited the same trend of opinion as had been shown in the previous autumn. Owing to the postponement of elections during the war, two-thirds of the nine-year senatorial seats had to be contested, and altogether 240 senators had to be elected. The elections proved to be an overwhelming victory for the various Liberal and Republican groups, who secured 218 seats. The parties of the Right won 20 seats, and the Socialists won 2.
Whilst these important events were taking place in the internal politics of France, the final stages in the ratifying of the peace treaty with Germany were being passed through. The Treaty of Versailles was to come into force so soon as it had been ratified by Germany and by three of the principal Allied and Associated Powers; and since it had now been ratified by Germany and by France, the United Kingdom, Italy, and Japan (though not by the United States), it was only necessary that the protocols certifying these facts should be signed by the parties to the treaty, and formal peace would then exist between the Allied Powers and Germany. The Supreme Council of the Allies decided that this final ceremony should take place in Paris on January 10. Two delegates were sent by the German government to carry out the signing of the protocol, Baron Kurt von Lersner and Herr von Simson. The ceremony took place at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the Quai d'Orsay shortly after four o'clock on the afternoon of January 10. The protocol was signed by Clemenceau for France, by David Lloyd George for Britain, by Francesco Saverio Nitti for Italy, and by Keishiro Matsui for Japan; and, of course, by the two German delegates. The protocol was also signed by the representatives of various minor Allied and Associated countries, which had already ratified the treaty, these being Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Czechoslovakia, Guatemala, Panama, Peru, Poland, Siam, and Uruguay. The formal end of the war was timed at 6:15 p.m. on January 10, but the actual signing of the protocol took place, as already stated, somewhat earlier on that same afternoon.
On January 14, Léon Bourgeois was elected president of the Senate. And the election of the new president of France, by a joint session of the two houses of the legislature, was fixed for January 17. The two most important candidates were Paul Deschanel and Clemenceau. Among the other candidates was Field Marshal Ferdinand Foch, who, however, secured very little support. The rivalry between Deschanel and Clemenceau revealed certain very interesting tendencies in French politics. The contest turned mainly on the terms of peace which had been imposed upon Germany. Clemenceau's supporters contended that the terms of the Treaty of Versailles were satisfactory from the French point of view; his opponents declared that he had given way too much to the American and British standpoints, and that the peace was unsatisfactory, particularly in respect of the guarantees for the reparations due to France and in the matter of the French eastern frontier. A large body of French opinion had desired that France should secure the line of the Rhine as her eastern frontier. Deschanel represented these critics of the Treaty of Versailles. A preliminary ballot of the Republican groups gave 408 votes to Deschanel, and 389 votes to Clemenceau; and when this result was announced Clemenceau withdrew his candidature, but his name figured, nevertheless, in the formal voting of the National Assembly on January 17. Altogether 888 legislators cast their votes, and Deschanel secured no fewer than 734 votes. The success of Deschanel was regarded in France as in some sense a victory for the opponents of the Treaty of Versailles. Deschanel was born in 1856, and had held the office of president of the Chamber of Deputies. Poincaré was to remain in office as president until February 18.
On January 18, Clemenceau resigned from office as premier; and Poincaré entrusted Alexandre Millerand with the task of forming a cabinet. Millerand found no difficulty in obtaining the necessary support, and the full list of the members of his cabinet was published two days later. F. Marsal was minister of finance, A. Lefevre was minister of war, and A. Sarraut was minister for the colonies. Millerand, who himself took the portfolio of foreign affairs, was sixty years of age, and had greatly distinguished himself as minister for war during the critical days of 1914. His first reception by the Chamber of Deputies was somewhat stormy, and a vote of confidence on January 22 was only passed by 281 votes to 240. But a second vote of confidence on January 30 was passed by 510 votes to 70.
On February 5 and February 6, there was an important debate on foreign policy in the Chamber of Deputies; and a long speech was delivered by the prime minister. He said that the new cabinet had every intention of continuing the same foreign policy which had enabled France to surround herself with such faithful allies during the war. In reference to the Adriatic problem, Millerand said that the only desire of France was to reach a satisfactory solution of the difficulties existing in this part of the world - a solution in perfect agreement with the sister nation of Italy and with the Serbian people. In regard to the Bulgarian question the premier said that on the previous day he had received news that the Bulgarian parliament had ratified the treaty. Passing on to a consideration of the proposed peace terms for Turkey, Millerand answered certain criticisms which had been made earlier in the debate by Marcel Cachin. France, he declared, had important and historic interests in the East, and these she had no intention of abandoning. "M. Cachin declared yesterday that we appeared to be threatening the independence of the Syrian populations. No French government has ever entertained such a design, and it is a libel on France to reproach her with a policy of conquest which has never entered her mind. The only wish of France is to give these populations justice and a good administration. When yesterday I heard the government credited with intentions which it has not, I seemed to hear an echo of the slanders levelled by the German government at the work of France in Morocco."
Turning to the question of relations with Russia, Millerand said that contrary to the allegations of Cachin, Britain had been true to her agreements, and none of the Allies had entered into any agreement with the Soviet government. In regard to Poland, the French government intended to maintain the closest friendship with that country, and if she were attacked by the Bolsheviks she would receive every support. Finally, the prime minister dealt with the carrying out of the Treaty of Versailles. He said that the cabinet intended to maintain complete accord with France's allies; and although it was regrettable that the United States had not so far ratified the treaty, yet the Reparations Commission had begun its work smoothly, and he felt no anxiety as to the ultimate adhesion of America to the treaty. He said that Germany had been dilatory in the matter of fulfilling the stipulations of the treaty, particularly in regard to the essential deliveries of coal. "I mean to avail myself at the right moment of all the means placed at my disposal by the treaty, and I declare, without making any kind of threat, but merely in order that the position may be quite clear and well understood, that we do not intend to claim anything from Germany to which she is not strictly bound under the terms of the treaty, but we shall exact everything she owes us, and to obtain it we shall have recourse to the measures of all kinds provided for in the treaty."
After the conclusion of the debate the house passed a vote of confidence in the government by 513 votes to 68.
After his assumption of office on February 18, Deschanel sent the usual presidential message to parliament. Deschanel said that there was no higher destiny than that of serving France, and he thanked the legislators for having permitted him to continue to serve her in union with themselves. He hoped to maintain the national unity which had been so conspicuous during the war. "Our first duty is to define clearly our diplomatic, military, economic, and financial policy to the country. We can only build up our policy for the future on sound bases. I appeal to all the experience and talent of the members of this assembly on behalf of this act of sincerity and moral probity. To strengthen the unity between all peoples who fought for the right, and who, by reason of that fact, are great, to strengthen the bonds with those peoples whose affinities or interests bind them to us - this is the first guarantee of peace and the basis of that League of Nations to which the Treaty of Versailles entrusted the execution of certain capital clauses, and which we should support by means of effective action in order to spare the world fresh horrors. France wishes that the treaty to which Germany appended her signature shall be obeyed, and that the aggressor shall not take from her the fruits of her heroic sacrifices. She means to live in security. Today, as yesterday, our policy is an affair of will-power, energy, and faith. The Russian people fought by our side during three years for the cause of Liberty; may it, master of itself, soon resume in the plenitude of its genius the course of its civilizing mission. The Eastern question causes periodical wars. The fate of the Ottoman Empire has not yet been settled. Our secular interests, rights, and traditions ought to be safeguarded there too."
Turning to questions of internal politics, Deschanel said that the work of restoring France to prosperity would be arduous, and he declared that the person who evaded the payment of taxes was acting like a soldier who deserts his post on the field of battle. It was essential that conflicts between capital and labour should be avoided. In his peroration Deschanel exhorted the legislators to follow in the footsteps of the heroic Frenchmen who had won the war: "We shall accomplish our formidable task if we keep in our souls that sacred flame which rendered France the Republic Invincible, and saved the world."
In the middle of February the trial of Joseph Caillaux, the ex-prime minister of France, who had been under arrest for treason since January 1918, commenced. The case was regarded as the most important of the treason trials, of which there had been a long series since the middle of the war. Caillaux was tried before the Senate, sitting as a High Court of Justice, with Léon Bourgeois as president of the court. The prolonged delay in bringing Caillaux to trial was because investigations had to be made in many different parts of the world, including South America. Caillaux was charged with "having sought to weaken the security of the state abroad by intrigues, machination, and intelligence with the enemy of a nature likely to favour enemy action in regard to France, or her Allies, fighting against common enemies, and thus to advance the progress of the enemy armies." M. Lescouvé (the public prosecutor), M. Moinet, and others appeared for the prosecution. M. Giafferi, M. Moutet, and others appeared for the defense. The trial was extremely long and also in many respects extremely dramatic. The trial began, on February 17, with a series of interrogations by the president of the court, and this part of the scene alone lasted for several days. Next there came a cross-examination of the prisoner by the public prosecutor. All kinds of activity on the part of Caillaux was investigated in great detail and at great length. He was questioned regarding his relations with an enemy agent named Minotto, in South America, regarding his relations with another enemy agent, a certain Count Lipscher, and also in regard to his associations with the traitors Lenoir, Bolo, and Duval, who had already been executed for treason. The prisoner had also to account for his close association with various schemers in Italy, including the notorious Cavallini. During these interrogations, Caillaux frequently made long speeches on all manner of political questions. In the matter of Count Lipscher little to his discredit appears to have transpired; but apart from the details of the investigation it was obvious that if the prisoner had been entirely innocent of the charges brought against him, he had had a surprising amount of association with undesirable persons. And it was also established that the German government regarded Caillaux as the right man to approach under circumstances favourable to Germany. Moutet, speaking for the defense, attributed political motives to the accusers, and said that notwithstanding the fact that the world had been ransacked for evidence for many months, the evidence produced was of a ridiculous and trumpery character. After many weeks of investigation the capital charge of treason was dismissed, and the prosecution did not ask for the death sentence; but Caillaux was found guilty on the minor count of correspondence with the enemy, and was sentenced to three years' imprisonment, ten years' interdiction of rights of voting and eligibility for any public function, and five years' prohibition from appearing in certain places indicated by the government. It was found that his relations with Bolo and Almereyda did not fall within the penal code, but he was condemned for his friendship with Minotto, Cavallini, and to some extent for his association with Count Lipscher. Having already served more than two years' imprisonment, Caillaux was set at liberty at the end of the trial. The verdict was given on April 23.
During the spring there were serious labour troubles in France. At the end of February a serious dispute arose on the Paris, Lyon, and Mediterranean Railway system, owing to disciplinary measures which had been taken against one man. A strike was declared on that line on February 25, and subsequently spread to the state lines also. The government immediately called to the colours those employees who were in the Army Reserve. A general strike of railwaymen was declared on February 29; but the response was only partial, and an agreement was reached within twenty-four hours. At the beginning of May another railway strike broke out, and on this occasion the labour agitators hoped to make the strike universal, and it was supported by the General Confederation of Labour (CGT), who called out the seamen, dockers, and miners in support of the railwaymen. The aims of the General Confederation were not only economic, but also partly political; and they announced that they aimed at the international allotment of war burdens, an economic entente of all peoples on a basis of cooperation, at the cessation of all colonial expeditions, and at general disarmament. The response to the call on the part of the workers was, however, half-hearted and partial, though in certain localities, including Marseille, the strike was almost universal. The strike was extremely unpopular in the country at large, and the government took legal proceedings against the revolutionary ring-leaders. Within a week it was clear that the strike would fail, owing to the apathy or actual hostility of a large part of the working classes, but it was not until May 21 that the leaders of the General Confederation declared the strike at an end.
In February the government issued a new 5% state loan, which became known as the "Recovery Loan". The subscription lists remained open for several weeks, and it was announced in April that the total amount subscribed was 15,700,000,000 francs.
During the spring and summer certain differences of opinion, important but not fundamental, arose between the French and British governments. In a debate in the Chamber of Deputies on March 25, Louis Barthou, who had once been prime minister and was now chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the lower house, delivered a speech on foreign policy generally in which he took occasion to attack the policy of the British government. He complained that Britain had profited more than any other country by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles; and that the course of events had recently been such that the hatred of Germany was now directed almost exclusively against France. This was, he said, particularly the case in the matter of permitting Germany to deal with her own war criminals, for which concession Britain had gained all the credit in German eyes. The speaker made various other complaints against the British government in general and Lloyd George in particular; but it was clear before the end of his speech that he did not carry the Chamber with him. On the following day, Millerand made a reply in which he endeavoured to remove the bad impression created by Barthou's speech. The prime minister said that there was no "crisis in the alliance"; and he pointed out that the reason the concession to Germany in the matter of the war criminals was signed by the British prime minister was that at the time the note was sent the peace conference was sitting in London. The premier said, however, that France was determined to see the terms of the Treaty of Versailles fulfilled, and although the British government were in favour of allowing the German government to send troops into the Ruhr District, to suppress the Spartacist insurrection there, France viewed these movements of troops with grave concern.
The differences between the French and British governments were also apparent at the beginning of April, when the German government was suppressing the Spartacist revolt. To the east of the Allied armies in the occupied portion of Germany there was a neutral zone, into which, by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the German government were not allowed to send troops. During the Spartacist insurrection which followed the coup d'état in Berlin (see 1920 in Germany), the revolutionaries in the valley of the Ruhr, a highly industrialized district which was included in the neutral zone, took advantage of the unavoidable absence of the government forces to seize control of the entire administration of this important part of Germany. The German government applied for permission to send forces into this part of the neutral zone in the exceptional circumstances which had arisen, as without doing so it was impossible for them to overcome the revolt in the neutral zone itself, or to prevent the successful insurrection in that zone lending important support to the Spartacists farther east. The British, Italian, and American governments were all in favour of allowing the German government, which in the circumstances existing was a bulwark against the spread of Bolshevism, to send a limited number of troops into the neutral zone until law and order had been reestablished there. The French government, however, interposed obstacles to the granting of any such license to the German government. The revolt continued to spread, and at the beginning of April German troops marched into the Ruhr Valley to restore order, although no permission for them to do so had been granted by the Allies as a whole. Thereupon the French government, without the consent of the British and Italian governments, ordered their own troops to march forward into the neutral zone - though not into the same part of the neutral zone - and to occupy various German towns as a penalty for the German advance. Frankfurt, Darmstadt, and Hanau were occupied on April 6, and Homburg was entered on the following day. Black troops took part in the advance, a point which gave special umbrage to the Germans. This independent action on the part of the French government led to an interchange of somewhat sharp notes between London and Paris, the British government taking exception both to the French advance in itself and still more so to the fact that the advance had been made without due consultation with the other Allied governments. Within a few days, however, an agreement between the French and British governments was reached. The black troops were immediately withdrawn, and the French government made it clear that in the future they would not act without securing the consent of the other Allies. The British government on their side made it clear that they intended to see the terms of the Treaty of Versailles respected by the German government. After the suppression of the Ruhr revolt, both the German and French troops were withdrawn.
During the spring and summer there were various conferences between the French, British, and other Allied governments, at San Remo, Hythe, Spa, and elsewhere, these conferences relating largely to the reparations due from Germany under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. At these discussions similar differences of opinion appear to have existed between the British and French representatives, the British being more disposed than the French to recognize the difficulties with which the German government were confronted. But these differences of opinion only related to questions of method, and were in no way fundamental. In the middle of May Poincaré, the ex-president of France, resigned his position as president of the Reparations Commission, on account of what he regarded as the undue leniency which had been shown towards Germany. Millerand stated publicly, however, that he thought Poincaré's fears were groundless.
On May 23 a serious accident occurred to Deschanel. The president, who was travelling by night, fell from his train near Montargis. Considering the nature of the accident, the injuries sustained were not grave, and no bones were broken. But it subsequently transpired that the president was suffering from a serious nervous breakdown, owing to overwork, and he was unable to return to his official duties. His illness continued for weeks, and as he made no progress towards recovery, it was announced in the middle of September that in accordance with the recommendation of his medical advisers, the president had resigned his office.
It was soon evident that the great majority of public men desired that Millerand should himself become president. The premier at first declined to accede to these demands, but after some delay he consented to do so. The election took place on September 23, and out of 892 votes cast, no fewer than 695 were given Millerand. A Socialist candidate, Gustave Delory, obtained 69 votes. Millerand announced that he hoped somewhat to increase the powers of the presidential office, particularly in regard to foreign policy. Georges Leygues became prime minister and minister for foreign affairs; but otherwise the composition of the cabinet remained unchanged. On September 25 the Chamber of Deputies passed a vote of confidence in the new government by 515 votes to 71. It was notable that in the statements issued both by the new president and by the new government, it was proclaimed that France would do her utmost to make the League of Nations a success. At the end of November Leygues visited London to confer with British and Italian statesmen on the Greek crisis and other matters.
In the middle of November it was announced that the government proposed to reduce the period of military service from two years to eighteen months.
In November Lord Derby, the British ambassador in Paris, retired from that office, and was succeeded by Lord Hardinge. It was also announced that Paul Cambon, the veteran French ambassador in London, would retire in January 1921.
Throughout the year there was considerable, though intermittent, discussion on the proposal that France should resume diplomatic relations with the Vatican; and at the end of November the government proposal to renew relations was approved by the Chamber of Deputies by 387 votes to 210.
The defeat of the Socialists at the general election of 1919 appeared to have caused that party to become more extreme in its views. And after much discussion throughout the year 1920, a great Socialist conference held at Tours in December voted by a large majority in favour of adhesion to the so-called Third International, the international organization of Socialists which was under the control of the Bolsheviks of Moscow.
The financial situation in France gave occasion for most serious anxiety. Among other unfavourable features, the exchange value of the franc had fallen greatly since the end of the war, and, with fluctuations, stood at about 60 francs to the pound sterling during most of the year; and the value of the franc in terms of the American dollar was even lower.
The ordinary budget for 1920 provided for a revenue of 15,885,000,000 francs and for an expenditure of 17,860,000,000 francs. It was anticipated that the extraordinary expenditure would amount to over 7,000,000,000 francs.
- 2 February - France occupies Memel.
- 26 March - German government asks France for permission to use its own troops against rebellious Ruhr Red Army in the French-occupied area.
- 16 May - Joan of Arc is canonised. Over 30,000 people attended the ceremony in Rome, including 140 descendants of Joan of Arc's family. Pope Benedict XV presided over the rite.
- 17 May - French and Belgian troops leave the cities they have occupied in Germany.
- 4 June - Treaty of Trianon, Treaty of Peace between the Allies and Hungary.
- 14 July - France declares that Faisal I of Syria is deposed and occupies Damascus and Aleppo.
- 21 July - Interallied Mission to Poland is launched.
- 23 July - The French defeat the Syrian army in the Battle of Maysalun.
- 31 July - France prohibits the sale or prescription of contraceptives.
- 10 August - Treaty of Sèvres is signed.
- 23 December - United Kingdom and France ratify the border between French-held Syria and British Mandate Palestine.
Read more about this topic: 1920 In France
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Famous quotes containing the word events:
“If I have renounced the search of truth, if I have come into the port of some pretending dogmatism, some new church, some Schelling or Cousin, I have died to all use of these new events that are born out of prolific time into multitude of life every hour. I am as bankrupt to whom brilliant opportunities offer in vain. He has just foreclosed his freedom, tied his hands, locked himself up and given the key to another to keep.”
—Ralph Waldo Emerson (18031882)
“The return of the asymmetrical Saturday was one of those small events that were interior, local, almost civic and which, in tranquil lives and closed societies, create a sort of national bond and become the favorite theme of conversation, of jokes and of stories exaggerated with pleasure: it would have been a ready- made seed for a legendary cycle, had any of us leanings toward the epic.”
—Marcel Proust (18711922)
“Man is a stream whose source is hidden. Our being is descending into us from we know not whence. The most exact calculator has no prescience that somewhat incalculable may not balk the very next moment. I am constrained every moment to acknowledge a higher origin for events than the will I call mine.”
—Ralph Waldo Emerson (18031882)
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] | 1
|
In the opening of the year 1920, France was in a stronger position than she had been in for several generations. The Allied victory over Germany and the restoration of Alsace-Lorraine to France had placed France in the position which she occupied during the 17th and 18th century - that of the strongest power on the European continent. At the beginning of the year Raymond Poincaré was still president and Georges Clemenceau was still prime minister, but as both senatorial and presidential elections were due in January, important political changes occurred early in the year. At the general election for the Chamber of Deputies which took place in November 1919, there had been a strong tendency towards Conservatism, the Socialist Party being badly defeated. The elections for the Senate were held on January 11, and these exhibited the same trend of opinion as had been shown in the previous autumn. Owing to the postponement of elections during the war, two-thirds of the nine-year senatorial seats had to be contested, and altogether 240 senators had to be elected. The elections proved to be an overwhelming victory for the various Liberal and Republican groups, who secured 218 seats. The parties of the Right won 20 seats, and the Socialists won 2.
Whilst these important events were taking place in the internal politics of France, the final stages in the ratifying of the peace treaty with Germany were being passed through. The Treaty of Versailles was to come into force so soon as it had been ratified by Germany and by three of the principal Allied and Associated Powers; and since it had now been ratified by Germany and by France, the United Kingdom, Italy, and Japan (though not by the United States), it was only necessary that the protocols certifying these facts should be signed by the parties to the treaty, and formal peace would then exist between the Allied Powers and Germany. The Supreme Council of the Allies decided that this final ceremony should take place in Paris on January 10. Two delegates were sent by the German government to carry out the signing of the protocol, Baron Kurt von Lersner and Herr von Simson. The ceremony took place at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the Quai d'Orsay shortly after four o'clock on the afternoon of January 10. The protocol was signed by Clemenceau for France, by David Lloyd George for Britain, by Francesco Saverio Nitti for Italy, and by Keishiro Matsui for Japan; and, of course, by the two German delegates. The protocol was also signed by the representatives of various minor Allied and Associated countries, which had already ratified the treaty, these being Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Czechoslovakia, Guatemala, Panama, Peru, Poland, Siam, and Uruguay. The formal end of the war was timed at 6:15 p.m. on January 10, but the actual signing of the protocol took place, as already stated, somewhat earlier on that same afternoon.
On January 14, Léon Bourgeois was elected president of the Senate. And the election of the new president of France, by a joint session of the two houses of the legislature, was fixed for January 17. The two most important candidates were Paul Deschanel and Clemenceau. Among the other candidates was Field Marshal Ferdinand Foch, who, however, secured very little support. The rivalry between Deschanel and Clemenceau revealed certain very interesting tendencies in French politics. The contest turned mainly on the terms of peace which had been imposed upon Germany. Clemenceau's supporters contended that the terms of the Treaty of Versailles were satisfactory from the French point of view; his opponents declared that he had given way too much to the American and British standpoints, and that the peace was unsatisfactory, particularly in respect of the guarantees for the reparations due to France and in the matter of the French eastern frontier. A large body of French opinion had desired that France should secure the line of the Rhine as her eastern frontier. Deschanel represented these critics of the Treaty of Versailles. A preliminary ballot of the Republican groups gave 408 votes to Deschanel, and 389 votes to Clemenceau; and when this result was announced Clemenceau withdrew his candidature, but his name figured, nevertheless, in the formal voting of the National Assembly on January 17. Altogether 888 legislators cast their votes, and Deschanel secured no fewer than 734 votes. The success of Deschanel was regarded in France as in some sense a victory for the opponents of the Treaty of Versailles. Deschanel was born in 1856, and had held the office of president of the Chamber of Deputies. Poincaré was to remain in office as president until February 18.
On January 18, Clemenceau resigned from office as premier; and Poincaré entrusted Alexandre Millerand with the task of forming a cabinet. Millerand found no difficulty in obtaining the necessary support, and the full list of the members of his cabinet was published two days later. F. Marsal was minister of finance, A. Lefevre was minister of war, and A. Sarraut was minister for the colonies. Millerand, who himself took the portfolio of foreign affairs, was sixty years of age, and had greatly distinguished himself as minister for war during the critical days of 1914. His first reception by the Chamber of Deputies was somewhat stormy, and a vote of confidence on January 22 was only passed by 281 votes to 240. But a second vote of confidence on January 30 was passed by 510 votes to 70.
On February 5 and February 6, there was an important debate on foreign policy in the Chamber of Deputies; and a long speech was delivered by the prime minister. He said that the new cabinet had every intention of continuing the same foreign policy which had enabled France to surround herself with such faithful allies during the war. In reference to the Adriatic problem, Millerand said that the only desire of France was to reach a satisfactory solution of the difficulties existing in this part of the world - a solution in perfect agreement with the sister nation of Italy and with the Serbian people. In regard to the Bulgarian question the premier said that on the previous day he had received news that the Bulgarian parliament had ratified the treaty. Passing on to a consideration of the proposed peace terms for Turkey, Millerand answered certain criticisms which had been made earlier in the debate by Marcel Cachin. France, he declared, had important and historic interests in the East, and these she had no intention of abandoning. "M. Cachin declared yesterday that we appeared to be threatening the independence of the Syrian populations. No French government has ever entertained such a design, and it is a libel on France to reproach her with a policy of conquest which has never entered her mind. The only wish of France is to give these populations justice and a good administration. When yesterday I heard the government credited with intentions which it has not, I seemed to hear an echo of the slanders levelled by the German government at the work of France in Morocco."
Turning to the question of relations with Russia, Millerand said that contrary to the allegations of Cachin, Britain had been true to her agreements, and none of the Allies had entered into any agreement with the Soviet government. In regard to Poland, the French government intended to maintain the closest friendship with that country, and if she were attacked by the Bolsheviks she would receive every support. Finally, the prime minister dealt with the carrying out of the Treaty of Versailles. He said that the cabinet intended to maintain complete accord with France's allies; and although it was regrettable that the United States had not so far ratified the treaty, yet the Reparations Commission had begun its work smoothly, and he felt no anxiety as to the ultimate adhesion of America to the treaty. He said that Germany had been dilatory in the matter of fulfilling the stipulations of the treaty, particularly in regard to the essential deliveries of coal. "I mean to avail myself at the right moment of all the means placed at my disposal by the treaty, and I declare, without making any kind of threat, but merely in order that the position may be quite clear and well understood, that we do not intend to claim anything from Germany to which she is not strictly bound under the terms of the treaty, but we shall exact everything she owes us, and to obtain it we shall have recourse to the measures of all kinds provided for in the treaty."
After the conclusion of the debate the house passed a vote of confidence in the government by 513 votes to 68.
After his assumption of office on February 18, Deschanel sent the usual presidential message to parliament. Deschanel said that there was no higher destiny than that of serving France, and he thanked the legislators for having permitted him to continue to serve her in union with themselves. He hoped to maintain the national unity which had been so conspicuous during the war. "Our first duty is to define clearly our diplomatic, military, economic, and financial policy to the country. We can only build up our policy for the future on sound bases. I appeal to all the experience and talent of the members of this assembly on behalf of this act of sincerity and moral probity. To strengthen the unity between all peoples who fought for the right, and who, by reason of that fact, are great, to strengthen the bonds with those peoples whose affinities or interests bind them to us - this is the first guarantee of peace and the basis of that League of Nations to which the Treaty of Versailles entrusted the execution of certain capital clauses, and which we should support by means of effective action in order to spare the world fresh horrors. France wishes that the treaty to which Germany appended her signature shall be obeyed, and that the aggressor shall not take from her the fruits of her heroic sacrifices. She means to live in security. Today, as yesterday, our policy is an affair of will-power, energy, and faith. The Russian people fought by our side during three years for the cause of Liberty; may it, master of itself, soon resume in the plenitude of its genius the course of its civilizing mission. The Eastern question causes periodical wars. The fate of the Ottoman Empire has not yet been settled. Our secular interests, rights, and traditions ought to be safeguarded there too."
Turning to questions of internal politics, Deschanel said that the work of restoring France to prosperity would be arduous, and he declared that the person who evaded the payment of taxes was acting like a soldier who deserts his post on the field of battle. It was essential that conflicts between capital and labour should be avoided. In his peroration Deschanel exhorted the legislators to follow in the footsteps of the heroic Frenchmen who had won the war: "We shall accomplish our formidable task if we keep in our souls that sacred flame which rendered France the Republic Invincible, and saved the world."
In the middle of February the trial of Joseph Caillaux, the ex-prime minister of France, who had been under arrest for treason since January 1918, commenced. The case was regarded as the most important of the treason trials, of which there had been a long series since the middle of the war. Caillaux was tried before the Senate, sitting as a High Court of Justice, with Léon Bourgeois as president of the court. The prolonged delay in bringing Caillaux to trial was because investigations had to be made in many different parts of the world, including South America. Caillaux was charged with "having sought to weaken the security of the state abroad by intrigues, machination, and intelligence with the enemy of a nature likely to favour enemy action in regard to France, or her Allies, fighting against common enemies, and thus to advance the progress of the enemy armies." M. Lescouvé (the public prosecutor), M. Moinet, and others appeared for the prosecution. M. Giafferi, M. Moutet, and others appeared for the defense. The trial was extremely long and also in many respects extremely dramatic. The trial began, on February 17, with a series of interrogations by the president of the court, and this part of the scene alone lasted for several days. Next there came a cross-examination of the prisoner by the public prosecutor. All kinds of activity on the part of Caillaux was investigated in great detail and at great length. He was questioned regarding his relations with an enemy agent named Minotto, in South America, regarding his relations with another enemy agent, a certain Count Lipscher, and also in regard to his associations with the traitors Lenoir, Bolo, and Duval, who had already been executed for treason. The prisoner had also to account for his close association with various schemers in Italy, including the notorious Cavallini. During these interrogations, Caillaux frequently made long speeches on all manner of political questions. In the matter of Count Lipscher little to his discredit appears to have transpired; but apart from the details of the investigation it was obvious that if the prisoner had been entirely innocent of the charges brought against him, he had had a surprising amount of association with undesirable persons. And it was also established that the German government regarded Caillaux as the right man to approach under circumstances favourable to Germany. Moutet, speaking for the defense, attributed political motives to the accusers, and said that notwithstanding the fact that the world had been ransacked for evidence for many months, the evidence produced was of a ridiculous and trumpery character. After many weeks of investigation the capital charge of treason was dismissed, and the prosecution did not ask for the death sentence; but Caillaux was found guilty on the minor count of correspondence with the enemy, and was sentenced to three years' imprisonment, ten years' interdiction of rights of voting and eligibility for any public function, and five years' prohibition from appearing in certain places indicated by the government. It was found that his relations with Bolo and Almereyda did not fall within the penal code, but he was condemned for his friendship with Minotto, Cavallini, and to some extent for his association with Count Lipscher. Having already served more than two years' imprisonment, Caillaux was set at liberty at the end of the trial. The verdict was given on April 23.
During the spring there were serious labour troubles in France. At the end of February a serious dispute arose on the Paris, Lyon, and Mediterranean Railway system, owing to disciplinary measures which had been taken against one man. A strike was declared on that line on February 25, and subsequently spread to the state lines also. The government immediately called to the colours those employees who were in the Army Reserve. A general strike of railwaymen was declared on February 29; but the response was only partial, and an agreement was reached within twenty-four hours. At the beginning of May another railway strike broke out, and on this occasion the labour agitators hoped to make the strike universal, and it was supported by the General Confederation of Labour (CGT), who called out the seamen, dockers, and miners in support of the railwaymen. The aims of the General Confederation were not only economic, but also partly political; and they announced that they aimed at the international allotment of war burdens, an economic entente of all peoples on a basis of cooperation, at the cessation of all colonial expeditions, and at general disarmament. The response to the call on the part of the workers was, however, half-hearted and partial, though in certain localities, including Marseille, the strike was almost universal. The strike was extremely unpopular in the country at large, and the government took legal proceedings against the revolutionary ring-leaders. Within a week it was clear that the strike would fail, owing to the apathy or actual hostility of a large part of the working classes, but it was not until May 21 that the leaders of the General Confederation declared the strike at an end.
In February the government issued a new 5% state loan, which became known as the "Recovery Loan". The subscription lists remained open for several weeks, and it was announced in April that the total amount subscribed was 15,700,000,000 francs.
During the spring and summer certain differences of opinion, important but not fundamental, arose between the French and British governments. In a debate in the Chamber of Deputies on March 25, Louis Barthou, who had once been prime minister and was now chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the lower house, delivered a speech on foreign policy generally in which he took occasion to attack the policy of the British government. He complained that Britain had profited more than any other country by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles; and that the course of events had recently been such that the hatred of Germany was now directed almost exclusively against France. This was, he said, particularly the case in the matter of permitting Germany to deal with her own war criminals, for which concession Britain had gained all the credit in German eyes. The speaker made various other complaints against the British government in general and Lloyd George in particular; but it was clear before the end of his speech that he did not carry the Chamber with him. On the following day, Millerand made a reply in which he endeavoured to remove the bad impression created by Barthou's speech. The prime minister said that there was no "crisis in the alliance"; and he pointed out that the reason the concession to Germany in the matter of the war criminals was signed by the British prime minister was that at the time the note was sent the peace conference was sitting in London. The premier said, however, that France was determined to see the terms of the Treaty of Versailles fulfilled, and although the British government were in favour of allowing the German government to send troops into the Ruhr District, to suppress the Spartacist insurrection there, France viewed these movements of troops with grave concern.
The differences between the French and British governments were also apparent at the beginning of April, when the German government was suppressing the Spartacist revolt. To the east of the Allied armies in the occupied portion of Germany there was a neutral zone, into which, by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the German government were not allowed to send troops. During the Spartacist insurrection which followed the coup d'état in Berlin (see 1920 in Germany), the revolutionaries in the valley of the Ruhr, a highly industrialized district which was included in the neutral zone, took advantage of the unavoidable absence of the government forces to seize control of the entire administration of this important part of Germany. The German government applied for permission to send forces into this part of the neutral zone in the exceptional circumstances which had arisen, as without doing so it was impossible for them to overcome the revolt in the neutral zone itself, or to prevent the successful insurrection in that zone lending important support to the Spartacists farther east. The British, Italian, and American governments were all in favour of allowing the German government, which in the circumstances existing was a bulwark against the spread of Bolshevism, to send a limited number of troops into the neutral zone until law and order had been reestablished there. The French government, however, interposed obstacles to the granting of any such license to the German government. The revolt continued to spread, and at the beginning of April German troops marched into the Ruhr Valley to restore order, although no permission for them to do so had been granted by the Allies as a whole. Thereupon the French government, without the consent of the British and Italian governments, ordered their own troops to march forward into the neutral zone - though not into the same part of the neutral zone - and to occupy various German towns as a penalty for the German advance. Frankfurt, Darmstadt, and Hanau were occupied on April 6, and Homburg was entered on the following day. Black troops took part in the advance, a point which gave special umbrage to the Germans. This independent action on the part of the French government led to an interchange of somewhat sharp notes between London and Paris, the British government taking exception both to the French advance in itself and still more so to the fact that the advance had been made without due consultation with the other Allied governments. Within a few days, however, an agreement between the French and British governments was reached. The black troops were immediately withdrawn, and the French government made it clear that in the future they would not act without securing the consent of the other Allies. The British government on their side made it clear that they intended to see the terms of the Treaty of Versailles respected by the German government. After the suppression of the Ruhr revolt, both the German and French troops were withdrawn.
During the spring and summer there were various conferences between the French, British, and other Allied governments, at San Remo, Hythe, Spa, and elsewhere, these conferences relating largely to the reparations due from Germany under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. At these discussions similar differences of opinion appear to have existed between the British and French representatives, the British being more disposed than the French to recognize the difficulties with which the German government were confronted. But these differences of opinion only related to questions of method, and were in no way fundamental. In the middle of May Poincaré, the ex-president of France, resigned his position as president of the Reparations Commission, on account of what he regarded as the undue leniency which had been shown towards Germany. Millerand stated publicly, however, that he thought Poincaré's fears were groundless.
On May 23 a serious accident occurred to Deschanel. The president, who was travelling by night, fell from his train near Montargis. Considering the nature of the accident, the injuries sustained were not grave, and no bones were broken. But it subsequently transpired that the president was suffering from a serious nervous breakdown, owing to overwork, and he was unable to return to his official duties. His illness continued for weeks, and as he made no progress towards recovery, it was announced in the middle of September that in accordance with the recommendation of his medical advisers, the president had resigned his office.
It was soon evident that the great majority of public men desired that Millerand should himself become president. The premier at first declined to accede to these demands, but after some delay he consented to do so. The election took place on September 23, and out of 892 votes cast, no fewer than 695 were given Millerand. A Socialist candidate, Gustave Delory, obtained 69 votes. Millerand announced that he hoped somewhat to increase the powers of the presidential office, particularly in regard to foreign policy. Georges Leygues became prime minister and minister for foreign affairs; but otherwise the composition of the cabinet remained unchanged. On September 25 the Chamber of Deputies passed a vote of confidence in the new government by 515 votes to 71. It was notable that in the statements issued both by the new president and by the new government, it was proclaimed that France would do her utmost to make the League of Nations a success. At the end of November Leygues visited London to confer with British and Italian statesmen on the Greek crisis and other matters.
In the middle of November it was announced that the government proposed to reduce the period of military service from two years to eighteen months.
In November Lord Derby, the British ambassador in Paris, retired from that office, and was succeeded by Lord Hardinge. It was also announced that Paul Cambon, the veteran French ambassador in London, would retire in January 1921.
Throughout the year there was considerable, though intermittent, discussion on the proposal that France should resume diplomatic relations with the Vatican; and at the end of November the government proposal to renew relations was approved by the Chamber of Deputies by 387 votes to 210.
The defeat of the Socialists at the general election of 1919 appeared to have caused that party to become more extreme in its views. And after much discussion throughout the year 1920, a great Socialist conference held at Tours in December voted by a large majority in favour of adhesion to the so-called Third International, the international organization of Socialists which was under the control of the Bolsheviks of Moscow.
The financial situation in France gave occasion for most serious anxiety. Among other unfavourable features, the exchange value of the franc had fallen greatly since the end of the war, and, with fluctuations, stood at about 60 francs to the pound sterling during most of the year; and the value of the franc in terms of the American dollar was even lower.
The ordinary budget for 1920 provided for a revenue of 15,885,000,000 francs and for an expenditure of 17,860,000,000 francs. It was anticipated that the extraordinary expenditure would amount to over 7,000,000,000 francs.
- 2 February - France occupies Memel.
- 26 March - German government asks France for permission to use its own troops against rebellious Ruhr Red Army in the French-occupied area.
- 16 May - Joan of Arc is canonised. Over 30,000 people attended the ceremony in Rome, including 140 descendants of Joan of Arc's family. Pope Benedict XV presided over the rite.
- 17 May - French and Belgian troops leave the cities they have occupied in Germany.
- 4 June - Treaty of Trianon, Treaty of Peace between the Allies and Hungary.
- 14 July - France declares that Faisal I of Syria is deposed and occupies Damascus and Aleppo.
- 21 July - Interallied Mission to Poland is launched.
- 23 July - The French defeat the Syrian army in the Battle of Maysalun.
- 31 July - France prohibits the sale or prescription of contraceptives.
- 10 August - Treaty of Sèvres is signed.
- 23 December - United Kingdom and France ratify the border between French-held Syria and British Mandate Palestine.
Read more about this topic: 1920 In France
Other articles related to "events, event":
... Marathon, Copenhagen's annual marathon event ... It is the largest fashion event in Northern Europe ... Festival, which begins on the first Friday in July, is a popular annual event that is the result of Copenhagen's significant jazz scene ...
... history" has a symmetrical structure hinged around chapter 6–9, the flood story, with the events before the flood mirrored by the events after ... The "patriarchal history" recounts the events of the major patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, to whom God reveals himself and to whom the promise of descendants and land is made, while the story of ...
... and Giant Slalom make up the "technical events" in alpine ski racing ... This category separates them from the "speed events" like Super-G and Downhill ... In the United States, skiing events including slalom are managed by the U.S ...
... The 2002 Salt Lake City and the 2006 Turin Winter Olympic Games were also major events, though less popular ... Usain Bolt of Jamaica dominated the male sprinting events at the Beijing Olympics, in which he broke three world records, allowing him to be the first man to ever ... Association football's important events included two World Cups, one organized in South Korea, Japan, which saw Brazil win a record fifth title, and the other in Germany, which saw Italy's fourth ...
... of, and later accretions to, the narrative of events during Æthelred's long and complex reign ... Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which, as it reports events with a retrospect of 15 years, cannot help but interpret events with the eventual English defeat a foregone conclusion ... Yet, as virtually no strictly contemporary narrative account of the events of Æthelred's reign exists, historians are forced to rely on what evidence there is ...
Famous quotes containing the word events:
“If I have renounced the search of truth, if I have come into the port of some pretending dogmatism, some new church, some Schelling or Cousin, I have died to all use of these new events that are born out of prolific time into multitude of life every hour. I am as bankrupt to whom brilliant opportunities offer in vain. He has just foreclosed his freedom, tied his hands, locked himself up and given the key to another to keep.”
—Ralph Waldo Emerson (18031882)
“The return of the asymmetrical Saturday was one of those small events that were interior, local, almost civic and which, in tranquil lives and closed societies, create a sort of national bond and become the favorite theme of conversation, of jokes and of stories exaggerated with pleasure: it would have been a ready- made seed for a legendary cycle, had any of us leanings toward the epic.”
—Marcel Proust (18711922)
“Man is a stream whose source is hidden. Our being is descending into us from we know not whence. The most exact calculator has no prescience that somewhat incalculable may not balk the very next moment. I am constrained every moment to acknowledge a higher origin for events than the will I call mine.”
—Ralph Waldo Emerson (18031882)
| 6,199
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ENGLISH
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Today's society relies heavily on roads, and today just about all roads are paved, and we have the convenience of Interstates and US Highways to travel on. Before Dwight Eisenhower's Interstate System, and before the United States Numbered Highway system, there were no standards to which roads were built, most were not even paved, there were no required numbering systems, and ones that did exist were not organized in efficient ways. The US Route System, and later The Interstate System, have promoted massive growth, easier travel, greater tourism, and easier logistics in the United States.
The United States Highway system came out of a necessity to be able to travel across the country as fast as possible, for both civilian and military
…show more content…
Many felt that naming the highways would allow attachment of the highway to the area they ran through, but numbering them according to their location allowed for an unbiased numbering system that would qualm the fears of the critics of the numbered system (Weingroff). The new federal highways were paved, had a lane of travel in each direction, and had a grade limit when climbing, so through mountainous areas, switchbacks, which would later be eliminated when Eisenhower's system was implemented, were needed to climb steeper grades (Weingroff). The final highway system was approved in 1926 (Weingroff), and remained the premier system of highways in the western hemisphere until the 1960s.
Dwight D. Eisenhower, the 34th President of the United States and retired Army General created the brainchild of a system of highways in the United States that were similar to the Autobahn in Germany, which he visited while fighting in WWII, which had 2 travel lanes in each direction, and allowed fast speeds, allowing for more efficient travel across Germany (“Hitler's Autobahn?”). Eisenhower was also driven to streamline interstate travel because he had experienced the troubles of the early auto trails firsthand when he took part in the army's motor convoy across the Lincoln Highway, arguably the most famous early auto trail (Eisenhower).
Funding the interstate system
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Today's society relies heavily on roads, and today just about all roads are paved, and we have the convenience of Interstates and US Highways to travel on. Before Dwight Eisenhower's Interstate System, and before the United States Numbered Highway system, there were no standards to which roads were built, most were not even paved, there were no required numbering systems, and ones that did exist were not organized in efficient ways. The US Route System, and later The Interstate System, have promoted massive growth, easier travel, greater tourism, and easier logistics in the United States.
The United States Highway system came out of a necessity to be able to travel across the country as fast as possible, for both civilian and military
…show more content…
Many felt that naming the highways would allow attachment of the highway to the area they ran through, but numbering them according to their location allowed for an unbiased numbering system that would qualm the fears of the critics of the numbered system (Weingroff). The new federal highways were paved, had a lane of travel in each direction, and had a grade limit when climbing, so through mountainous areas, switchbacks, which would later be eliminated when Eisenhower's system was implemented, were needed to climb steeper grades (Weingroff). The final highway system was approved in 1926 (Weingroff), and remained the premier system of highways in the western hemisphere until the 1960s.
Dwight D. Eisenhower, the 34th President of the United States and retired Army General created the brainchild of a system of highways in the United States that were similar to the Autobahn in Germany, which he visited while fighting in WWII, which had 2 travel lanes in each direction, and allowed fast speeds, allowing for more efficient travel across Germany (“Hitler's Autobahn?”). Eisenhower was also driven to streamline interstate travel because he had experienced the troubles of the early auto trails firsthand when he took part in the army's motor convoy across the Lincoln Highway, arguably the most famous early auto trail (Eisenhower).
Funding the interstate system
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ENGLISH
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When reading the top ten discoveries it was difficult to pick the best discovery because they were all so diverse and contributed to anthropology and archaeology in different ways. What I have decided is most significant is the discovery made in Copenhagen, Denmark. The reason I choose this discovery is because it has the potential to answer the most questions. While other discoveries may have been more surprising or disproved a formally thought fact, this discovery comes with the ability to do many tests on many different aspects of the burial. Due to the unique nature of her well-preserved remains, scientists have access to materials that would usually be completely destroyed. Clothing, hair, tooth enamel, fingernails, brain and skin. In addition there are the remains of a young child. With the materials found not only can scientists look at the biomedical aspect of these two individual’s lives, but also they can make observations about their cultural and social facets. What is interesting from this discovery is that with the use of the tooth enamel, and biomedical analysis, they were able to answer the question of where this woman was from. With the surprising results of these tests, that she was in fact from 500 miles away in Germany, new questions came to light about why she was found so far from her home. Using her hair and finger nails they were able to conclude that she was likely sent away for marriage but made several trips back and forth at the end of her life. An explanation of this behavior was ascertained by the presence of the remains of the boy. From knowledge of traditional customs, it is probable that in order to secure the alliance created by the marriage, the woman was sent back to Germany with a boy from Denmark to be raised by her culture and from Denmark a relative of hers would be raised in Germany.
This discovery was extremely important in both the physical and social sciences. Organic materials, which under normal circumstances would have been completely disintegrated, have the potential to answer questions relating to genetics, evolution, biology, and other physical science fields. Using the data gathered by the physical scientists, questions relating to culture, relationships, hierarchy, and other social sciences can be answered. What I found surprising between all of the top ten discoveries was how even though they were all vastly different; they all had significant contributions to the fields in which they were concerned. Many of the discoveries changed the way people viewed a society, or a time period, or even the human race.
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|
When reading the top ten discoveries it was difficult to pick the best discovery because they were all so diverse and contributed to anthropology and archaeology in different ways. What I have decided is most significant is the discovery made in Copenhagen, Denmark. The reason I choose this discovery is because it has the potential to answer the most questions. While other discoveries may have been more surprising or disproved a formally thought fact, this discovery comes with the ability to do many tests on many different aspects of the burial. Due to the unique nature of her well-preserved remains, scientists have access to materials that would usually be completely destroyed. Clothing, hair, tooth enamel, fingernails, brain and skin. In addition there are the remains of a young child. With the materials found not only can scientists look at the biomedical aspect of these two individual’s lives, but also they can make observations about their cultural and social facets. What is interesting from this discovery is that with the use of the tooth enamel, and biomedical analysis, they were able to answer the question of where this woman was from. With the surprising results of these tests, that she was in fact from 500 miles away in Germany, new questions came to light about why she was found so far from her home. Using her hair and finger nails they were able to conclude that she was likely sent away for marriage but made several trips back and forth at the end of her life. An explanation of this behavior was ascertained by the presence of the remains of the boy. From knowledge of traditional customs, it is probable that in order to secure the alliance created by the marriage, the woman was sent back to Germany with a boy from Denmark to be raised by her culture and from Denmark a relative of hers would be raised in Germany.
This discovery was extremely important in both the physical and social sciences. Organic materials, which under normal circumstances would have been completely disintegrated, have the potential to answer questions relating to genetics, evolution, biology, and other physical science fields. Using the data gathered by the physical scientists, questions relating to culture, relationships, hierarchy, and other social sciences can be answered. What I found surprising between all of the top ten discoveries was how even though they were all vastly different; they all had significant contributions to the fields in which they were concerned. Many of the discoveries changed the way people viewed a society, or a time period, or even the human race.
| 491
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ENGLISH
| 1
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After Operation Market-Garden, a large part of the south of the Netherlands was liberated. However, the area above the major rivers was still in the hands of the German occupier. While Zeeland and the east of the Netherlands as far as Groningen and Friesland were liberated in following months, however the west of the Netherlands was still under German occupation. As the Autumn in 1944 turned into winter, food was becoming increasingly scarce. Hunger was a large problem in the major cities, despite public kitchens handing out a watery soup during those months. It is estimated that during this winter 22,000 people starved to death, which is now referred to as the Hunger Winter of ’45.
At the end of April in 1945, the Allies negotiated with the Germans to provide the West of food supplies. On 30th of April they came to agreement during the 2nd Food Conference at Achterveld. They agreed that British and American bombers were allowed to drop food supplies above the occupied western part of the Netherlands. These operations are known under the codenames; Manna and Chewhound. A less known operation is the food transport by road, under the codename; Faust.
On 2 May 1945 at 7:30 am the first loads of food are brought from depots in Nijmegen with Canadian and from Ede with British trucks to the Nude. The 'No Man's Land' between Wageningen and Rhenen. There, citizens, mainly from the city of Utrecht, transferred the food out the Allied trucks back into there own trucks. 200 Dodge trucks were donated by the allies to transport the food to Utrecht, where the food was stored for further distribution over the Western of the Netherlands. In Utrecht two main depots were formed, at the vegetable auction at the Croeselaan and the bread and flour factory the Korenschoof.
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CC-MAIN-2020-05
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https://www.operationfaust2020.nl/en/history/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00055.warc.gz
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After Operation Market-Garden, a large part of the south of the Netherlands was liberated. However, the area above the major rivers was still in the hands of the German occupier. While Zeeland and the east of the Netherlands as far as Groningen and Friesland were liberated in following months, however the west of the Netherlands was still under German occupation. As the Autumn in 1944 turned into winter, food was becoming increasingly scarce. Hunger was a large problem in the major cities, despite public kitchens handing out a watery soup during those months. It is estimated that during this winter 22,000 people starved to death, which is now referred to as the Hunger Winter of ’45.
At the end of April in 1945, the Allies negotiated with the Germans to provide the West of food supplies. On 30th of April they came to agreement during the 2nd Food Conference at Achterveld. They agreed that British and American bombers were allowed to drop food supplies above the occupied western part of the Netherlands. These operations are known under the codenames; Manna and Chewhound. A less known operation is the food transport by road, under the codename; Faust.
On 2 May 1945 at 7:30 am the first loads of food are brought from depots in Nijmegen with Canadian and from Ede with British trucks to the Nude. The 'No Man's Land' between Wageningen and Rhenen. There, citizens, mainly from the city of Utrecht, transferred the food out the Allied trucks back into there own trucks. 200 Dodge trucks were donated by the allies to transport the food to Utrecht, where the food was stored for further distribution over the Western of the Netherlands. In Utrecht two main depots were formed, at the vegetable auction at the Croeselaan and the bread and flour factory the Korenschoof.
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Mount Mitchell is the first North Carolina State Park located just outside Asheville. With an elevation of 6684 feet, Mount Mitchell is the highest peak East of the Mississippi River. Mount Mitchell has an abundance of trails and an observation tower at its peak. This is a very family friendly park with many activities for kids, a place to touch and discover many different skulls and furs of different animals, and a very rich history.
Originally inhabited solely by Native Americans until the 1700’s, Black Dome later renamed Mount Mitchell was first explored by Andre Michaux in 1787. During this time, he explored over 250 different species of plants. Soon after Michaux, it was explored by John Fraser who found the most abundant tree in the black mountains was a fir that had not yet been discovered. This tree was named the Fraser fir after its discoverer and is now used widely as a fresh Christmas tree in many homes in America. This botanical significance was one of the reasons the mountain much later became the first state park. In the early 1900’s logging became an extensive industry in this area and had begun to ruin the environment. Soon after North Carolina governor, Locke Craig, voiced his opinion on the destruction that was occurring and in 1925 a bill was introduced into the state legislature declaring it as a State Park. Thus, making Mount Mitchell, North Carolinas first state park and created their state park system.
The physical geography of the mountain also had a great significance. In 1835, Dr. Elisha Mitchell was the first to attempt to measure the height of the mountain. Dr. Mitchell was a professor of science at the University of North Carolina, and he had the idea that grandfather mountain, another peak in the black mountain range, was not the highest peak. He calculated the height of the peak to be 6476 feet, taller than that of grandfather mountain. His second calculation, however, was even closer to the actual height, this measurement was 6672 feet. This calculation was amazingly only 12 feet off from the actual modernly calculated height.
In the early 1950’s Thomas Clingman, one of Dr. Mitchell’s former students at UNC, attempted to dispute Dr. Mitchell’s findings. He argued that Elisha had measured another peak and that grandfather mountain was still the tallest peak in the black mountains. Clingman had measured the tallest peak to be 6941 feet, and insisted that this peak was not that of Mount Mitchell. In 1857, Dr. Mitchell returned to the peak of Mount Mitchell to verify his findings and fell 40 feet to his death. Upon modern discovery that this was, in fact, the tallest peak, it was at this point renamed Mount Mitchell in his honor. Dr. Mitchell, originally buried in the nearby town of Asheville, was then reburied at the top of the mountain. The park now has an observation point atop the mountain where visitors have an amazing 360-degree view of the mountain peaks that surround Mount Mitchell.
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Mount Mitchell is the first North Carolina State Park located just outside Asheville. With an elevation of 6684 feet, Mount Mitchell is the highest peak East of the Mississippi River. Mount Mitchell has an abundance of trails and an observation tower at its peak. This is a very family friendly park with many activities for kids, a place to touch and discover many different skulls and furs of different animals, and a very rich history.
Originally inhabited solely by Native Americans until the 1700’s, Black Dome later renamed Mount Mitchell was first explored by Andre Michaux in 1787. During this time, he explored over 250 different species of plants. Soon after Michaux, it was explored by John Fraser who found the most abundant tree in the black mountains was a fir that had not yet been discovered. This tree was named the Fraser fir after its discoverer and is now used widely as a fresh Christmas tree in many homes in America. This botanical significance was one of the reasons the mountain much later became the first state park. In the early 1900’s logging became an extensive industry in this area and had begun to ruin the environment. Soon after North Carolina governor, Locke Craig, voiced his opinion on the destruction that was occurring and in 1925 a bill was introduced into the state legislature declaring it as a State Park. Thus, making Mount Mitchell, North Carolinas first state park and created their state park system.
The physical geography of the mountain also had a great significance. In 1835, Dr. Elisha Mitchell was the first to attempt to measure the height of the mountain. Dr. Mitchell was a professor of science at the University of North Carolina, and he had the idea that grandfather mountain, another peak in the black mountain range, was not the highest peak. He calculated the height of the peak to be 6476 feet, taller than that of grandfather mountain. His second calculation, however, was even closer to the actual height, this measurement was 6672 feet. This calculation was amazingly only 12 feet off from the actual modernly calculated height.
In the early 1950’s Thomas Clingman, one of Dr. Mitchell’s former students at UNC, attempted to dispute Dr. Mitchell’s findings. He argued that Elisha had measured another peak and that grandfather mountain was still the tallest peak in the black mountains. Clingman had measured the tallest peak to be 6941 feet, and insisted that this peak was not that of Mount Mitchell. In 1857, Dr. Mitchell returned to the peak of Mount Mitchell to verify his findings and fell 40 feet to his death. Upon modern discovery that this was, in fact, the tallest peak, it was at this point renamed Mount Mitchell in his honor. Dr. Mitchell, originally buried in the nearby town of Asheville, was then reburied at the top of the mountain. The park now has an observation point atop the mountain where visitors have an amazing 360-degree view of the mountain peaks that surround Mount Mitchell.
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Robert Somervell did not know it at the time but he was not going to be allowed to take a break for long after leading the campaign to prevent a rumoured Bill for railway extension in the Lake District going before Parliament. Unknown to nearly everyone in the Lake District, discussions were taking place in Manchester concerning future water supplies for the city and in their sight was the lake known as Thirlmere.
The industrial might of Manchester had grown enormously over the previous decades and its need for water, to support both industrial and population growth, was a critical factor in maintaining future growth and prosperity. As early as 1851 Manchester had started pumping water from reservoirs in the Longdendale valley of Derbyshire to meet their needs. The work of designing and building these reservoirs was carried out by the engineer John Frederick Bateman. Since the mid-1860s, Bateman had been warning Manchester Waterworks Committee that additional supplies other than Longdendale were needed to support the city’s growth and demand for water. After looking at a number of alternative sources Bateman recommended that turning Thirlmere in the Lake District into a reservoir and piping the water to Manchester was the best long-term option. This recommendation was accepted. In August 1876 Manchester Corporation approved the purchase of land and water rights in the area. Their hope was to keep the scheme secret so that prices would not be inflated. This surreptitious behaviour could not last and it soon became apparent what was being planned. Reports in the press began to circulate about Manchester’s intention to apply for permission to dam Thirlmere and build a reservoir that would supply the city with fifty million gallons of water.
By early February 1877 a number of local residents were so concerned that they were jolted into action. About 60 people attended a meeting at the Prince of Wales Hotel in Grasmere, Robert Somervell being one of them. The meeting led to the formation of the Thirlmere Defence Association (TDA), the first such organised and coordinated campaign group in the Lake District. Somervell, as secretary of the TDA, used the three thousand names that Ruskin had given him for their earlier railway protest as a starting point to elicit support. The TDA soon had a fund of £3000 and a list of subscribers that included many notable names from the world of politics, academia, the church, and the arts. Local subscribers included Herbert and Walter Fletcher, and Hardwicke’s cousin, Edward Preston Rawnsley. There is no evidence that Hardwicke himself was a subscriber, at least in the early days. Somervell turned the library of his home into a TDA campaign office. Crucial to the TDA’s success was their engagement with the national press. Newspapers began highlighting the proposal, often with little support for Manchester’s case. As a result, the Corporation soon found itself facing protests from across the country, something which they had not expected or planned for.
Somervell and his supporters did not attempt to deny that Manchester needed more water. What they objected to was the proposal to take it from Thirlmere, arguing that other sources should be considered, and that even if Thirlmere had to be used, Manchester’s plan could be improved in many ways. Despite their success in generating wide-spread publicity and support the TDA had a major weakness. It was not a unified group speaking with one voice. There were different shareholders who had different motives in objecting to Manchester’s proposal. Some of the local landowners, knowing that they would lose land and homes, were primarily interested in maximising the amount of compensation they might receive. Others had no such land connections, their priority being to retain the beauty, tranquillity and nature of the Lake District as it was. Many TDA supporters were not from the Lake District and, as the law stood, had no legal grounds to contest the proposals.
The Parliamentary Bill to enable Manchester to proceed with its scheme was laid before Parliament in December 1877. In anticipation of this the TDA directed much of its publicity towards arguing that such an important Bill could not be discussed via normal Parliamentary procedure:
Thus, if the case is left to be argued out in the routine manner as between the promoters on the one side and the owners of certain mountain pastures on the other, the most important facts making against the scheme will be entirely overlooked.1
Fortunately for the TDA they were supported in this view by W.E. Forster, a member of Gladstone’s government. Normally, during the Committee stage of a Bill, only those parties who were directly impacted economically were allowed to give evidence. Forster proposed that as the Bill had generated widespread interest and the arguments against it were not only economic, it should be considered by a Special Committee which could hear evidence from all interested parties. This was agreed and the Committee were told to conclude their findings by 8 April. This presented the TDA with the opportunity to go before the Select Committee and present their evidence directly.
Although agreeing with Manchester, the Select Committee acknowledged that: ‘the public at large has also an inheritance in the beautiful scenery of these mountains and lakes’. This was a fundamental turning point for future conservation projects and a major victory for the TDA. It meant that the wider interests of the public, and not purely economic considerations, had to be taken into account when viewing such proposals in the future.
The TDA, of course, were not the only organisation giving evidence before the Select Committee. Other northern towns, for example, wanted to ensure that they could have access to the water from Thirlmere. The Select Committee’s report supported this view. As the Bill progressed in the House of Lords the TDA objected that so many changes had now been made to it that it was no longer the same Bill as originally proposed. The Lord’s Examiner on Standing Orders agreed and the Bill was rejected on technical grounds. The TDA knew, however, that this was a hollow victory and that Manchester Corporation would return with a revised Bill.
Manchester Corporation never expected the strength or nature of the opposition that the TDA were able to muster. The rejection of the Bill gave the TDA an opportunity to engage in further discussions with the Corporation to ensure that meaningful safeguards to their interests were included in the new Bill being prepared for Parliament. During 1878 Manchester Corporation engaged extensively with all the interested parties.
The TDA were undoubtedly helped throughout their campaign by the involvement of the CPS, especially members such as Octavia Hill and George John Shaw-Lefevre. The CPS brought much needed campaign and legal experience, as well as extensive political networking, to the resources available to the TDA.
A new ‘Manchester Corporation Waterworks Act’ returned to the House of Commons in early 1879 and received Royal Assent on 23 May. Proposals for new reservoirs, railways, roads, etc. were never to be viewed in the same light after Thirlmere. The opposition campaign had a profound impact in the long term on related projects. No longer was it sufficient for a public or private body to buy off the major stakeholders:
The mere fact of the controversy . . . does not constitute the major significance of this case. What made the Thirlmere Scheme especially noteworthy in its own time . . . was the conspicuous involvement of individuals and interests unconnected with property in its narrowest sense. . . . In tandem with organised attempts to protect physical access to private property, via rights of way or public footpaths, came assertions of a new kind of spectatorial right or lien on the land. It was asserted that the citizenry as a whole – the nation, that is to say – had a vested interest in preserving the traditional importance of certain rural landscapes.2
And what of Hardwicke’s involvement in this phase of the Thirlmere Scheme? A number of commentators have stated that he was heavily involved with Somervell in the campaign. There is, however, little evidence to support this view. During 1877, when the TDA was being formed and mobilised, Hardwicke was living in Bristol and trying to sort out his own future. During the early months of 1878 he was married and settling in at Wray. In January 1879 he left to travel to the Middle East for six months. Knowing all the key players involved Hardwicke would undoubtedly have given his support and time to help when he could, but this was probably very limited compared with his future campaigns.
Thirlmere was undoubtedly a watershed for the conservation movement and it is only right that the last word should be left to Robert Somervell who led the early pioneering work to preserve the Lake District. Looking back in old age on their efforts he concluded, with much under-statement:
It was under the influence of Ruskin that I now broke out in a new line altogether, and one in which I honestly think I was a humble pioneer. There is now a widespread public opinion, avowed and unquestionable, in favour of regarding beautiful places as worth preserving just because they are beautiful, and without regard to purely economic consideration. And I honestly think our agitation against Railways in the Lake District, and our fight to preserve the beautiful Wythburn Valley and Thirlmere from the Manchester Corporation were amongst the earliest efforts of this movement.3
Although the Thirlmere Scheme was finally approved in 1879 it did not end there. Building and engineering works did not commence for a number of years. By the time that they did, Hardwicke was firmly established in his role as defender of the Lakes.
- Harwood, John James. History and Description of the Thirlmere Water Scheme. Manchester, Henry Blacklock & Co., 1895, p. 79.
- Ritvo, Harriet. The Dawn of Green: Manchester, Thirlmere, and Modern Environmentalism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009, pp. 3-4.
- Somervell, Robert. Robert Somervell, for Thirty-Three Years Assistant Master and Bursar at Harrow School. Chapters of an Autobiography. Edited with additional material by his sons. London: Faber and Faber, 1935, p. 50.
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Robert Somervell did not know it at the time but he was not going to be allowed to take a break for long after leading the campaign to prevent a rumoured Bill for railway extension in the Lake District going before Parliament. Unknown to nearly everyone in the Lake District, discussions were taking place in Manchester concerning future water supplies for the city and in their sight was the lake known as Thirlmere.
The industrial might of Manchester had grown enormously over the previous decades and its need for water, to support both industrial and population growth, was a critical factor in maintaining future growth and prosperity. As early as 1851 Manchester had started pumping water from reservoirs in the Longdendale valley of Derbyshire to meet their needs. The work of designing and building these reservoirs was carried out by the engineer John Frederick Bateman. Since the mid-1860s, Bateman had been warning Manchester Waterworks Committee that additional supplies other than Longdendale were needed to support the city’s growth and demand for water. After looking at a number of alternative sources Bateman recommended that turning Thirlmere in the Lake District into a reservoir and piping the water to Manchester was the best long-term option. This recommendation was accepted. In August 1876 Manchester Corporation approved the purchase of land and water rights in the area. Their hope was to keep the scheme secret so that prices would not be inflated. This surreptitious behaviour could not last and it soon became apparent what was being planned. Reports in the press began to circulate about Manchester’s intention to apply for permission to dam Thirlmere and build a reservoir that would supply the city with fifty million gallons of water.
By early February 1877 a number of local residents were so concerned that they were jolted into action. About 60 people attended a meeting at the Prince of Wales Hotel in Grasmere, Robert Somervell being one of them. The meeting led to the formation of the Thirlmere Defence Association (TDA), the first such organised and coordinated campaign group in the Lake District. Somervell, as secretary of the TDA, used the three thousand names that Ruskin had given him for their earlier railway protest as a starting point to elicit support. The TDA soon had a fund of £3000 and a list of subscribers that included many notable names from the world of politics, academia, the church, and the arts. Local subscribers included Herbert and Walter Fletcher, and Hardwicke’s cousin, Edward Preston Rawnsley. There is no evidence that Hardwicke himself was a subscriber, at least in the early days. Somervell turned the library of his home into a TDA campaign office. Crucial to the TDA’s success was their engagement with the national press. Newspapers began highlighting the proposal, often with little support for Manchester’s case. As a result, the Corporation soon found itself facing protests from across the country, something which they had not expected or planned for.
Somervell and his supporters did not attempt to deny that Manchester needed more water. What they objected to was the proposal to take it from Thirlmere, arguing that other sources should be considered, and that even if Thirlmere had to be used, Manchester’s plan could be improved in many ways. Despite their success in generating wide-spread publicity and support the TDA had a major weakness. It was not a unified group speaking with one voice. There were different shareholders who had different motives in objecting to Manchester’s proposal. Some of the local landowners, knowing that they would lose land and homes, were primarily interested in maximising the amount of compensation they might receive. Others had no such land connections, their priority being to retain the beauty, tranquillity and nature of the Lake District as it was. Many TDA supporters were not from the Lake District and, as the law stood, had no legal grounds to contest the proposals.
The Parliamentary Bill to enable Manchester to proceed with its scheme was laid before Parliament in December 1877. In anticipation of this the TDA directed much of its publicity towards arguing that such an important Bill could not be discussed via normal Parliamentary procedure:
Thus, if the case is left to be argued out in the routine manner as between the promoters on the one side and the owners of certain mountain pastures on the other, the most important facts making against the scheme will be entirely overlooked.1
Fortunately for the TDA they were supported in this view by W.E. Forster, a member of Gladstone’s government. Normally, during the Committee stage of a Bill, only those parties who were directly impacted economically were allowed to give evidence. Forster proposed that as the Bill had generated widespread interest and the arguments against it were not only economic, it should be considered by a Special Committee which could hear evidence from all interested parties. This was agreed and the Committee were told to conclude their findings by 8 April. This presented the TDA with the opportunity to go before the Select Committee and present their evidence directly.
Although agreeing with Manchester, the Select Committee acknowledged that: ‘the public at large has also an inheritance in the beautiful scenery of these mountains and lakes’. This was a fundamental turning point for future conservation projects and a major victory for the TDA. It meant that the wider interests of the public, and not purely economic considerations, had to be taken into account when viewing such proposals in the future.
The TDA, of course, were not the only organisation giving evidence before the Select Committee. Other northern towns, for example, wanted to ensure that they could have access to the water from Thirlmere. The Select Committee’s report supported this view. As the Bill progressed in the House of Lords the TDA objected that so many changes had now been made to it that it was no longer the same Bill as originally proposed. The Lord’s Examiner on Standing Orders agreed and the Bill was rejected on technical grounds. The TDA knew, however, that this was a hollow victory and that Manchester Corporation would return with a revised Bill.
Manchester Corporation never expected the strength or nature of the opposition that the TDA were able to muster. The rejection of the Bill gave the TDA an opportunity to engage in further discussions with the Corporation to ensure that meaningful safeguards to their interests were included in the new Bill being prepared for Parliament. During 1878 Manchester Corporation engaged extensively with all the interested parties.
The TDA were undoubtedly helped throughout their campaign by the involvement of the CPS, especially members such as Octavia Hill and George John Shaw-Lefevre. The CPS brought much needed campaign and legal experience, as well as extensive political networking, to the resources available to the TDA.
A new ‘Manchester Corporation Waterworks Act’ returned to the House of Commons in early 1879 and received Royal Assent on 23 May. Proposals for new reservoirs, railways, roads, etc. were never to be viewed in the same light after Thirlmere. The opposition campaign had a profound impact in the long term on related projects. No longer was it sufficient for a public or private body to buy off the major stakeholders:
The mere fact of the controversy . . . does not constitute the major significance of this case. What made the Thirlmere Scheme especially noteworthy in its own time . . . was the conspicuous involvement of individuals and interests unconnected with property in its narrowest sense. . . . In tandem with organised attempts to protect physical access to private property, via rights of way or public footpaths, came assertions of a new kind of spectatorial right or lien on the land. It was asserted that the citizenry as a whole – the nation, that is to say – had a vested interest in preserving the traditional importance of certain rural landscapes.2
And what of Hardwicke’s involvement in this phase of the Thirlmere Scheme? A number of commentators have stated that he was heavily involved with Somervell in the campaign. There is, however, little evidence to support this view. During 1877, when the TDA was being formed and mobilised, Hardwicke was living in Bristol and trying to sort out his own future. During the early months of 1878 he was married and settling in at Wray. In January 1879 he left to travel to the Middle East for six months. Knowing all the key players involved Hardwicke would undoubtedly have given his support and time to help when he could, but this was probably very limited compared with his future campaigns.
Thirlmere was undoubtedly a watershed for the conservation movement and it is only right that the last word should be left to Robert Somervell who led the early pioneering work to preserve the Lake District. Looking back in old age on their efforts he concluded, with much under-statement:
It was under the influence of Ruskin that I now broke out in a new line altogether, and one in which I honestly think I was a humble pioneer. There is now a widespread public opinion, avowed and unquestionable, in favour of regarding beautiful places as worth preserving just because they are beautiful, and without regard to purely economic consideration. And I honestly think our agitation against Railways in the Lake District, and our fight to preserve the beautiful Wythburn Valley and Thirlmere from the Manchester Corporation were amongst the earliest efforts of this movement.3
Although the Thirlmere Scheme was finally approved in 1879 it did not end there. Building and engineering works did not commence for a number of years. By the time that they did, Hardwicke was firmly established in his role as defender of the Lakes.
- Harwood, John James. History and Description of the Thirlmere Water Scheme. Manchester, Henry Blacklock & Co., 1895, p. 79.
- Ritvo, Harriet. The Dawn of Green: Manchester, Thirlmere, and Modern Environmentalism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009, pp. 3-4.
- Somervell, Robert. Robert Somervell, for Thirty-Three Years Assistant Master and Bursar at Harrow School. Chapters of an Autobiography. Edited with additional material by his sons. London: Faber and Faber, 1935, p. 50.
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The first residents of the valleys and hills carved by the glaciers in Central New York were the Onundagaono members of the Haudenosaunee, or “people of the long house.” They were not unfamiliar with the densely forested hunting land here, where deer, wolves, bears, and panthers were among the denizens of the woods. The first settlers of European descent to arrive in what would become the Township of Homer and the County of Cortland were Joseph and Rhoda Todd Beebe and her brother, Amos Todd. Originally from New Haven, Connecticut, they journeyed up the Tioughnioga (pronounced tie-off-ni-o-ga) River to take possession of Lot No. 42 in New York State’s Military Tract. This Tract of 1.75 million acres of wilderness was parceled out into lots as payment for soldiers who fought successfully in the Continental Army for independence from Britain. Because Robert Harpur, a clerk in the office of the State Surveyor General, was enamored of the Greek and Roman names he came across in his classical education, names like Virgil, Tully, Solon, Cincinnatus, and Homer were assigned to locales in the area. Occasionally a few names from British literature, such as Dryden, Locke, and Milton were scattered in as well.
Arriving in the autumn of 1791, it is believed that the first three intrepid pioneers built a temporary shelter near the spot now marked by a large boulder and plaque erected in 1924 at the intersection of Hooker Avenue and Route 11 at the north end of the village of Homer. Like the Native Americans before them, these pioneers were able to demonstrate an ability to adapt to the harsh wilderness of central New York. Twice, according to lore, Rhoda Beebe was required to fend for herself. When the men went off to fetch runaway horses, a wolf had poked its nose into the rude shelter, but fortunately it merely sniffed and chose to leave her unscathed. Another time, in winter, when the men went down to Windsor, NY, for provisions, Rhoda’s food ran out before they returned and she was forced to subsist on roots and tree bark. Eventually, these settlers made their way to their Lot at the top of West Hill, cleared it, and started farming on what is now part of the Sweeney farm on Route 90. Agriculture has remained a significant occupational pursuit within the town, though many now commute to jobs nearby in light industry and higher education.
Back in 1793, when George Washington had started his second term as President of the young Republic, there were six families in the area, all from New England. The Beebes and Todd were joined by John Miller and his sons, Silas and Daniel; John House; James Mather; and James Moore. Darius Kinne came late in 1793, and others soon followed.
Like any fledgling culture trying to survive, the citizens of the newly independent Republic knew the importance of organization and government at the grassroots level. In 1794, Onondaga County broke off from Herkimer County. On March 5th of that year, Homer, derived from the name of the Greek poet, was organized as a huge township of Onondaga County and included what is now Cortlandville, Solon, Cincinnatus, Virgil, Harford, Lapeer, Taylor, and the southern halves of Truxton and Cuyler. The few residents of this 300 square mile township were to be served by town officers appointed by three Onondaga County judges.
On April 5, 1795, these town officers met at the home of “Squire” John Miller. The next year, the first election of a Homer Town Board was held. Only white males who owned property were legally eligible to vote, and the property qualification would remain until the new state Constitution of 1822. The “Squire” was elected the first supervisor of the Town of Homer. John Keep was “judge;” Amos Todd was the first “collector;” and Peter Ingersoll was the first town clerk. The clerk position continued to be an elected post until 1963 when it became an appointed position and has remained so. Today, the Town Clerk is responsible for maintaining town records, maintaining a record of local laws, issuing licenses and permits (such as marriage licenses, dog licenses, and conservation licenses), collecting town and county taxes, and taking the minutes at all Board meetings.
The early Town Minutes were handwritten (some more legibly than others), and writing continued until typing was used in 1943. The Minutes for the 1790s reveal some interesting job titles. There was a “constable,” or law enforcement officer, and a “fence viewer” whose paid responsibility was to see that all fences constraining livestock were kept in good repair by their owners. The “poormaster” took the indigent into his home and was allocated public funds for their needs (early welfare program). The “pound keeper” maintained an enclosure to keep stray animals — cattle, sheep, and swine — until they were claimed by the owner and compensation made for any damages sustained. The “sealer of weights and measures” was paid to attest to the accuracy of all scales and weighing devices used in commercial transactions.
By 1795, there were 29 families in the town. Four years later, there were fifty-two families. The first male child to be born in the town was born to the Moores, and, appropriately, they named him Homer. The first female child was Betsey House. The first wheeled vehicle in town was an ox cart brought in by John Hubbard in the spring of 1795, and the first frame building was a barn put up by Col. Moses Hopkins in 1798.
Annual town board meetings were held at board members’ homes until Tuesday, April 7, 1801. That meeting was held “at the meeting house in Homer” which was also “the school house on Lot No.45.” Lot No. 45 was the “Common,” or what would become the “Green.” The same edifice was used for both worship and schooling. Buildings were multi-functional even then. Later the structure was moved and now serves as the rear portion of the private residence at No.87 South Main Street.
Some of the resolutions drafted by the Town Board in the 1790s included: “no inhabitant of this Town shall bring in or take the care & charge of any cattle belonging to any inhabitants of any other Town (bulls excepted) upon the penalty of one Dollar per head ….;” “that the inhabitants of the Town build a bridge across the river at the mill;” and “all four footed beasts shall run at large…horses excepted.” This last resolution was replaced in 1812 by this one: “That horses, cattle, sheep & hogs be not suffered to run at large within half a mile of any meeting house, mill stone or tavern.” In 1801, the board voted to “give 4 Dollars for every wolf shot” and one dollar for bears killed during the months of May through August. Later, panthers were added to the list. In 1802, one Elijah Hayden, for the offense of swearing in public, was fined a sum of thirty shillings to be handed over to the poormaster. Look at the money the Town could bring in today by reinstating that ordinance!
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The first residents of the valleys and hills carved by the glaciers in Central New York were the Onundagaono members of the Haudenosaunee, or “people of the long house.” They were not unfamiliar with the densely forested hunting land here, where deer, wolves, bears, and panthers were among the denizens of the woods. The first settlers of European descent to arrive in what would become the Township of Homer and the County of Cortland were Joseph and Rhoda Todd Beebe and her brother, Amos Todd. Originally from New Haven, Connecticut, they journeyed up the Tioughnioga (pronounced tie-off-ni-o-ga) River to take possession of Lot No. 42 in New York State’s Military Tract. This Tract of 1.75 million acres of wilderness was parceled out into lots as payment for soldiers who fought successfully in the Continental Army for independence from Britain. Because Robert Harpur, a clerk in the office of the State Surveyor General, was enamored of the Greek and Roman names he came across in his classical education, names like Virgil, Tully, Solon, Cincinnatus, and Homer were assigned to locales in the area. Occasionally a few names from British literature, such as Dryden, Locke, and Milton were scattered in as well.
Arriving in the autumn of 1791, it is believed that the first three intrepid pioneers built a temporary shelter near the spot now marked by a large boulder and plaque erected in 1924 at the intersection of Hooker Avenue and Route 11 at the north end of the village of Homer. Like the Native Americans before them, these pioneers were able to demonstrate an ability to adapt to the harsh wilderness of central New York. Twice, according to lore, Rhoda Beebe was required to fend for herself. When the men went off to fetch runaway horses, a wolf had poked its nose into the rude shelter, but fortunately it merely sniffed and chose to leave her unscathed. Another time, in winter, when the men went down to Windsor, NY, for provisions, Rhoda’s food ran out before they returned and she was forced to subsist on roots and tree bark. Eventually, these settlers made their way to their Lot at the top of West Hill, cleared it, and started farming on what is now part of the Sweeney farm on Route 90. Agriculture has remained a significant occupational pursuit within the town, though many now commute to jobs nearby in light industry and higher education.
Back in 1793, when George Washington had started his second term as President of the young Republic, there were six families in the area, all from New England. The Beebes and Todd were joined by John Miller and his sons, Silas and Daniel; John House; James Mather; and James Moore. Darius Kinne came late in 1793, and others soon followed.
Like any fledgling culture trying to survive, the citizens of the newly independent Republic knew the importance of organization and government at the grassroots level. In 1794, Onondaga County broke off from Herkimer County. On March 5th of that year, Homer, derived from the name of the Greek poet, was organized as a huge township of Onondaga County and included what is now Cortlandville, Solon, Cincinnatus, Virgil, Harford, Lapeer, Taylor, and the southern halves of Truxton and Cuyler. The few residents of this 300 square mile township were to be served by town officers appointed by three Onondaga County judges.
On April 5, 1795, these town officers met at the home of “Squire” John Miller. The next year, the first election of a Homer Town Board was held. Only white males who owned property were legally eligible to vote, and the property qualification would remain until the new state Constitution of 1822. The “Squire” was elected the first supervisor of the Town of Homer. John Keep was “judge;” Amos Todd was the first “collector;” and Peter Ingersoll was the first town clerk. The clerk position continued to be an elected post until 1963 when it became an appointed position and has remained so. Today, the Town Clerk is responsible for maintaining town records, maintaining a record of local laws, issuing licenses and permits (such as marriage licenses, dog licenses, and conservation licenses), collecting town and county taxes, and taking the minutes at all Board meetings.
The early Town Minutes were handwritten (some more legibly than others), and writing continued until typing was used in 1943. The Minutes for the 1790s reveal some interesting job titles. There was a “constable,” or law enforcement officer, and a “fence viewer” whose paid responsibility was to see that all fences constraining livestock were kept in good repair by their owners. The “poormaster” took the indigent into his home and was allocated public funds for their needs (early welfare program). The “pound keeper” maintained an enclosure to keep stray animals — cattle, sheep, and swine — until they were claimed by the owner and compensation made for any damages sustained. The “sealer of weights and measures” was paid to attest to the accuracy of all scales and weighing devices used in commercial transactions.
By 1795, there were 29 families in the town. Four years later, there were fifty-two families. The first male child to be born in the town was born to the Moores, and, appropriately, they named him Homer. The first female child was Betsey House. The first wheeled vehicle in town was an ox cart brought in by John Hubbard in the spring of 1795, and the first frame building was a barn put up by Col. Moses Hopkins in 1798.
Annual town board meetings were held at board members’ homes until Tuesday, April 7, 1801. That meeting was held “at the meeting house in Homer” which was also “the school house on Lot No.45.” Lot No. 45 was the “Common,” or what would become the “Green.” The same edifice was used for both worship and schooling. Buildings were multi-functional even then. Later the structure was moved and now serves as the rear portion of the private residence at No.87 South Main Street.
Some of the resolutions drafted by the Town Board in the 1790s included: “no inhabitant of this Town shall bring in or take the care & charge of any cattle belonging to any inhabitants of any other Town (bulls excepted) upon the penalty of one Dollar per head ….;” “that the inhabitants of the Town build a bridge across the river at the mill;” and “all four footed beasts shall run at large…horses excepted.” This last resolution was replaced in 1812 by this one: “That horses, cattle, sheep & hogs be not suffered to run at large within half a mile of any meeting house, mill stone or tavern.” In 1801, the board voted to “give 4 Dollars for every wolf shot” and one dollar for bears killed during the months of May through August. Later, panthers were added to the list. In 1802, one Elijah Hayden, for the offense of swearing in public, was fined a sum of thirty shillings to be handed over to the poormaster. Look at the money the Town could bring in today by reinstating that ordinance!
| 1,591
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ENGLISH
| 1
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In sports, is it the judge, umpire, referee, or official who makes sure that everyone is playing by the rules? When it comes to the English language, it soon becomes clear that there are many different terms for the same thing in different sports. We’re looking at why in English there are so many different terms for sports officials.
Getting it right
People can tell if you don’t know the sport they love by the way you describe the officials to them. For instance, in tennis the judge overlooks the game in front of them, but in soccer it’s a referee, or in baseball it’s the umpire.
They are all essentially the same thing, an official person who remains impartial to both sides, and who is there to ensure the game is played fairly. If referees, umpires, and judges all do the same thing in sports, then why do they have to be named different things?
The changing of the name for the official is largely something that is done in English and in other languages the name remains the same. In Japanese, the official is called the shinpan while in French they are the arbitre. Those names are consistent throughout all sports in Japan and France, with sometimes an addition to identify who is the main official and who are the assistants.
In football, the terminology isn’t even consistent with the number of officials who keep track of the games. The overall person in charge of a football game is known as the referee, but there are also several judges who look out for specific things. There’s also an umpire alongside judges in charge of the line, downs, back, field, and side. It would be far easier if all of these officials had one universal name, but they do not.
Mixed up beginnings
All sports were not created at the same time, though many of them were created in either the UK, Canada, or the United States. That means the common language between them is English, but many of these sports such as soccer, basketball, baseball, football, and lacrosse, do not use the same term for official.
They were not created at the same time, or by the same people, so whoever was doing the making up of the rules must have chosen different terms for officials. Perhaps because many of these sports do not share a similar playing style, the creators were looking to differentiate them from other games.
From the outside looking in
Perhaps the reason why so many languages like French, Japanese, Arabic, and Chinese all use a consistent term for ‘official’ is that they come from an outside perspective. It was English-speaking people who largely codified the most popular sports in the world, and they were free to choose whatever term they wanted for official. By not being there at the beginning, countries like France and Japan were able to give the officials the same name across the board.
While the countries outside of those Anglicize ones use a consistent term, not all of them do. Spanish is the exception to the rule and follows the English-speaking method of naming officials. Ampayer is used for baseball umpires, while a soccer referee is an arbitro, and when it comes to tennis, the term juez is used to mean judge.
In general, many sports were created by different English-speaking people free to choose whatever term they wanted for their ‘officials.’ The rest of the world simply learned to play the games once they had been introduced and chose to use a consistent term. Well, at least in most cases that’s true, except for Spanish for some unknown reason.
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] | 2
|
In sports, is it the judge, umpire, referee, or official who makes sure that everyone is playing by the rules? When it comes to the English language, it soon becomes clear that there are many different terms for the same thing in different sports. We’re looking at why in English there are so many different terms for sports officials.
Getting it right
People can tell if you don’t know the sport they love by the way you describe the officials to them. For instance, in tennis the judge overlooks the game in front of them, but in soccer it’s a referee, or in baseball it’s the umpire.
They are all essentially the same thing, an official person who remains impartial to both sides, and who is there to ensure the game is played fairly. If referees, umpires, and judges all do the same thing in sports, then why do they have to be named different things?
The changing of the name for the official is largely something that is done in English and in other languages the name remains the same. In Japanese, the official is called the shinpan while in French they are the arbitre. Those names are consistent throughout all sports in Japan and France, with sometimes an addition to identify who is the main official and who are the assistants.
In football, the terminology isn’t even consistent with the number of officials who keep track of the games. The overall person in charge of a football game is known as the referee, but there are also several judges who look out for specific things. There’s also an umpire alongside judges in charge of the line, downs, back, field, and side. It would be far easier if all of these officials had one universal name, but they do not.
Mixed up beginnings
All sports were not created at the same time, though many of them were created in either the UK, Canada, or the United States. That means the common language between them is English, but many of these sports such as soccer, basketball, baseball, football, and lacrosse, do not use the same term for official.
They were not created at the same time, or by the same people, so whoever was doing the making up of the rules must have chosen different terms for officials. Perhaps because many of these sports do not share a similar playing style, the creators were looking to differentiate them from other games.
From the outside looking in
Perhaps the reason why so many languages like French, Japanese, Arabic, and Chinese all use a consistent term for ‘official’ is that they come from an outside perspective. It was English-speaking people who largely codified the most popular sports in the world, and they were free to choose whatever term they wanted for official. By not being there at the beginning, countries like France and Japan were able to give the officials the same name across the board.
While the countries outside of those Anglicize ones use a consistent term, not all of them do. Spanish is the exception to the rule and follows the English-speaking method of naming officials. Ampayer is used for baseball umpires, while a soccer referee is an arbitro, and when it comes to tennis, the term juez is used to mean judge.
In general, many sports were created by different English-speaking people free to choose whatever term they wanted for their ‘officials.’ The rest of the world simply learned to play the games once they had been introduced and chose to use a consistent term. Well, at least in most cases that’s true, except for Spanish for some unknown reason.
| 715
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Lime was a crucial resource both for farming and building.
The limestone bedrock that is prevalent throughout the peninsula was burned in these limekilns to produce powdered lime which was in high demand elsewhere.
In the early 1800s, large scale commercial production was in place with the limestone being ferried by boat to many limekilns throughout the county and even as far away as Pembrokeshire.
Powdered lime was used in farming to improve the land and in building it would be mixed with sand to produce a lime mortar as well as making the whitewash that adorned the exterior of many old houses.
The process involved lining the bottom of the central hole with straw and kindling then the kiln was filled with alternating limestone rock and coal dust mixed with clay. The fire was then started through a small gap in the side called the eye (Which is on the seaward side of this kiln). Once the limestone had been reduced to powder it was then raked out through the eye.
The limekiln photographed here is next to the road just north of the Hook Lighthouse. It was one of the last to be constructed on the peninsula as it is the only one not present on the 1841 Ordnance Survey map.
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https://hookpeninsula.com/coastal-life-blog/limekilns
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00172.warc.gz
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] | 7
|
Lime was a crucial resource both for farming and building.
The limestone bedrock that is prevalent throughout the peninsula was burned in these limekilns to produce powdered lime which was in high demand elsewhere.
In the early 1800s, large scale commercial production was in place with the limestone being ferried by boat to many limekilns throughout the county and even as far away as Pembrokeshire.
Powdered lime was used in farming to improve the land and in building it would be mixed with sand to produce a lime mortar as well as making the whitewash that adorned the exterior of many old houses.
The process involved lining the bottom of the central hole with straw and kindling then the kiln was filled with alternating limestone rock and coal dust mixed with clay. The fire was then started through a small gap in the side called the eye (Which is on the seaward side of this kiln). Once the limestone had been reduced to powder it was then raked out through the eye.
The limekiln photographed here is next to the road just north of the Hook Lighthouse. It was one of the last to be constructed on the peninsula as it is the only one not present on the 1841 Ordnance Survey map.
| 257
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Dismissed in her lifetime, African-American writer Zora Neale Hurston is considered a legend in ours
Zora Neale Hurston led many lives: novelist, anthropologist, maid, manicurist, voodoo apprentice, counterrevolutionary, trailblazer.
In her lifetime, she was dismissed by many of her male contemporaries. She died in poverty in 1960, and was buried in an unmarked grave.
A people do not throw their geniuses away.- Alice Walker
Her masterpiece, Their Eyes Were Watching God, sold fewer than 5,000 copies while she was alive.
Today, 500,000 copies of her books are sold every year.
Her ardent fans include writers Toni Morrison, Alice Walker, Ta-Nehisi Coates, Zadie Smith and Edwidge Danticat, rapper Cardi B, and singer Solange Knowles.
This month, her non-fiction book Barracoon, based on her interviews with the last survivor of the last transatlantic slave ship, is available to the public for the first time.
It comes 87 years after she first tried to publish it, and more than a half century after her death.
Our one-hour program is called "Jumping at the Sun: The politics and prose of Zora Neale Hurston." Click "listen" above to hear the full special.
Hurston interviewed Kossola (also known as Cudjo Lewis) in 1927. He was in his 90s, and lived in Africatown, Alabama — a community built by former slaves.
She described him as "the only man on earth who has in his heart the memory of his African home; the horrors of a slave raid; the barracoon; the Lenten tones of slavery; and who has 67 years of freedom in a foreign land behind him."
"Barracoon" refers to the enclosures slaves were held in on the coast of Africa before being shipped to North America.
A 'prophetic' writer
Hurston's most famous novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God, is about a young African-American woman named Janie Crawford and her quest for selfhood and love.
Haitian-American writer Edwidge Danticat describes the novel as both an adventure story and "an incredibly complex love story."
"It's a relatively short book that covers so much — poverty, migrant work, preservation and respect for Indigenous people, Indigenous land. There's even climate change in this novel from the 1930s," she says.
She first read Their Eyes Were Watching God in high school, during an elective course on black women's writing.
"I was blown away," she says. "I just thought, 'Wow, you can tell stories like that."
Part of Their Eyes Were Watching God involves a devastating hurricane in Florida. In its aftermath, local leaders want to separate the black and white corpses and bury them separately — even though the bloated bodies are difficult to tell apart.
"I remember when Hurricane Katrina came through, and we saw those images of what happens after a flood like that goes through a predominantly poor and black community. I thought it was the book on my screen," Danticat says.
"She was just prophetic in that sense."
Canadian writer Nicole Blades first read Hurston as a student at York University.
She says that while Hurston's books were written decades ago, they deal with issues surrounding race, racism and colorism that are still very present today.
"We're going through a shift. With the #MeToo movement, with Black Lives Matter, the volume on voices that have been pushed to the margins historically — that volume is being raised, and we're hearing these stories," she says.
"I think Zora Neale Hurston fits right in line with that."
'No job, no friends, and a lot of hope'
In 1925, Hurston arrived in Harlem. She had $1.50 and "no job, no friends, and a lot of hope."
She had grown up in the South and moved north, like many other African-Americans during the period historians call the Great Migration.
Harlem was just becoming the unofficial capital of black America, and it was the epicentre of an artistic explosion. The writers, artists and musicians of the Harlem Renaissance were experimenting with new forms and setting stereotypes ablaze.
"There was this sense that two generations after slavery, it was time to announce a spiritual emancipation that went along with the political emancipation from slavery," says Cheryl Wall, a professor of English at Rutgers University who studies Hurston, the Harlem Renaissance, and black women's writing.
"They wanted to create more honest expressions of the consciousness and creativity of 'the race,' as they would have said."
Members of the Harlem Renaissance, like Hurston and Langston Hughes, created some of the most dynamic and enduring literature of the 20th century.
But there was often tension between political leaders — who wanted artists to advance the race — and the artists themselves.
"Artists did not want to be told, 'Oh, well, you can't write that, because that won't reflect well on black people,'" Wall says.
Hurston, in particular, resisted calls to appease others with her writing.
"She wasn't really concerned with making a good impression on white Americans. She just arrived as who she was," says Wall.
Studying voodoo, tall tales and folk music in the south
As a student at Barnard College, Hurston took a detour from her literary career to study anthropology with pioneering scholar Franz Boas.
She returned to Eatonville — the all-black Florida town where she grew up — to conduct fieldwork, and studied voodoo in New Orleans. She also conducted fieldwork in Haiti, Jamaica, Honduras, and the Bahamas.
In both her anthropology and her fiction, she tried to capture vernacular speech as faithfully as possible.
The reception was not always positive.
When she tried to published Barracoon in 1931, one publisher offered to buy it if she rewrote the book "in language rather than dialect." She refused.
Here's an example of Hurston's use of vernacular speech in Their Eyes Were Watching God.
In this scene, the main character's grandmother talks to her about her hopes for the future.
The use of vernacular speech was also fiercely debated by black writers. Some argued since that dialect had been used in minstrel shows to caricature black people, it should be abandoned by black writers.
"She wasn't trying to imitate the minstrel stage. She was trying to find a literary equivalent for the language she had heard spoken all her life," Wall says.
'She glories in ... contradictions and complexities'
Hurston's political views sometimes put her at odds with her fellow black writers.
She once famously said, "I do not belong to the sobbing school of Negrohood who hold that nature somehow gave them a lowdown dirty deal and whose feelings are all hurt about it … No, I do not weep at the world. I am too busy sharpening my oyster knife."
Wall says Hurston's worldview was shaped by her upbringing in Eatonville, one of the first all-black incorporated towns in America.
"There was a black mayor. Black people owned the store. Black people ran the school. There was a sense of autonomy in Eatonville that Hurston was very proud of, and that she really wanted to use as an example in her own life and in the lives of others," she says.
"I think a valid criticism of Hurston is that in her zeal to promote the plentitude of black culture, that she does turn a blind eye to some of the suffering."
I think we want black artists in general, and black women in particular, to just symbolize one thing ... and Hurston doesn't really let us do that.- Cheryl Wall
As she got older, Hurston's politics became more iconoclastic. After the Supreme Court decision in Brown vs. the Board of Education, which desegregated schools, Hurston argued the case had been decided wrongly. Segregationists then used her position to say that not all black people supported integration.
Wall says Hurston was a complicated, contradictory figure — but we shouldn't be surprised.
"We are ready to allow that kind of complexity to white male artists. I think we want black artists in general and black women in particular to just symbolize one thing," she says.
"Hurston doesn't really let us do that. She glories in the contradictions and complexities that define her persona."
The final years
The last years of Zora Neale Hurston's life were not easy.
In 1948, she was falsely accused of molesting a young boy. The charges were dropped a year later, but the scandal had a devastating effect on her career, and it nearly drove her to suicide.
My junior year in high school, that was the year that Zora died. And I had no idea she had ever lived.- Alice Walker
In 1950, a Miami Herald reporter realized Hurston was working as a maid in a Florida hotel.
She said she had taken the job just to "live a little." In fact, she could not find a publisher for her work, and needed the money.
She spent the last ten years of her life obsessed with a revisionist history of King Herod the Great. In 1955, she wrote to Winston Churchill, asking him to write a foreword. The book has never been published.
In 1960, after a series of strokes, Hurston died in a welfare home in Saint Lucie County, Florida.
'A people do not throw their geniuses away'
For years, her remains lay in an unmarked pauper's grave. Her writing virtually disappeared from the public arena.
Alice Walker, the Pulitzer Prize-winning author of The Color Purple, grew up not knowing who Hurston was.
"I think my junior year in high school, that was the year that Zora died. And I had no idea she had ever lived," she said in a lecture at Barnard College in 2003.
"I had no idea — none — that there were black women writers."
When Walker finally discovered Hurston's writing, she was captivated. She set out to find Hurston's resting place, bought her a headstone, and became a fierce champion of her work.
"A people do not throw their geniuses away. If they do, it is our duty as witnesses for the future to collect them again for the sake of our children. If necessary, bone by bone," Walker wrote.
It was the beginning of Hurston's literary resurrection.
Today, she is considered a legend by a new generation of black writers.
British novelist Zadie Smith first read Their Eyes Were Watching God as a teenager. The experience shaped her as both a reader and an aspiring writer.
"If you're a kid, and you want to do something, and you don't see many people who look like you doing the thing you want to do, it's a great joy to find out that it has been done — not just competently, but brilliantly," she says.
Hurston is now is among the most beloved and widely-read African-American writers in history.
Click "listen" above to hear the full special. "Jumping at the Sun: The politics and prose of Zora Neale Hurston" was produced by Pauline Holdsworth, with help from music producer Dean Ples.
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Dismissed in her lifetime, African-American writer Zora Neale Hurston is considered a legend in ours
Zora Neale Hurston led many lives: novelist, anthropologist, maid, manicurist, voodoo apprentice, counterrevolutionary, trailblazer.
In her lifetime, she was dismissed by many of her male contemporaries. She died in poverty in 1960, and was buried in an unmarked grave.
A people do not throw their geniuses away.- Alice Walker
Her masterpiece, Their Eyes Were Watching God, sold fewer than 5,000 copies while she was alive.
Today, 500,000 copies of her books are sold every year.
Her ardent fans include writers Toni Morrison, Alice Walker, Ta-Nehisi Coates, Zadie Smith and Edwidge Danticat, rapper Cardi B, and singer Solange Knowles.
This month, her non-fiction book Barracoon, based on her interviews with the last survivor of the last transatlantic slave ship, is available to the public for the first time.
It comes 87 years after she first tried to publish it, and more than a half century after her death.
Our one-hour program is called "Jumping at the Sun: The politics and prose of Zora Neale Hurston." Click "listen" above to hear the full special.
Hurston interviewed Kossola (also known as Cudjo Lewis) in 1927. He was in his 90s, and lived in Africatown, Alabama — a community built by former slaves.
She described him as "the only man on earth who has in his heart the memory of his African home; the horrors of a slave raid; the barracoon; the Lenten tones of slavery; and who has 67 years of freedom in a foreign land behind him."
"Barracoon" refers to the enclosures slaves were held in on the coast of Africa before being shipped to North America.
A 'prophetic' writer
Hurston's most famous novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God, is about a young African-American woman named Janie Crawford and her quest for selfhood and love.
Haitian-American writer Edwidge Danticat describes the novel as both an adventure story and "an incredibly complex love story."
"It's a relatively short book that covers so much — poverty, migrant work, preservation and respect for Indigenous people, Indigenous land. There's even climate change in this novel from the 1930s," she says.
She first read Their Eyes Were Watching God in high school, during an elective course on black women's writing.
"I was blown away," she says. "I just thought, 'Wow, you can tell stories like that."
Part of Their Eyes Were Watching God involves a devastating hurricane in Florida. In its aftermath, local leaders want to separate the black and white corpses and bury them separately — even though the bloated bodies are difficult to tell apart.
"I remember when Hurricane Katrina came through, and we saw those images of what happens after a flood like that goes through a predominantly poor and black community. I thought it was the book on my screen," Danticat says.
"She was just prophetic in that sense."
Canadian writer Nicole Blades first read Hurston as a student at York University.
She says that while Hurston's books were written decades ago, they deal with issues surrounding race, racism and colorism that are still very present today.
"We're going through a shift. With the #MeToo movement, with Black Lives Matter, the volume on voices that have been pushed to the margins historically — that volume is being raised, and we're hearing these stories," she says.
"I think Zora Neale Hurston fits right in line with that."
'No job, no friends, and a lot of hope'
In 1925, Hurston arrived in Harlem. She had $1.50 and "no job, no friends, and a lot of hope."
She had grown up in the South and moved north, like many other African-Americans during the period historians call the Great Migration.
Harlem was just becoming the unofficial capital of black America, and it was the epicentre of an artistic explosion. The writers, artists and musicians of the Harlem Renaissance were experimenting with new forms and setting stereotypes ablaze.
"There was this sense that two generations after slavery, it was time to announce a spiritual emancipation that went along with the political emancipation from slavery," says Cheryl Wall, a professor of English at Rutgers University who studies Hurston, the Harlem Renaissance, and black women's writing.
"They wanted to create more honest expressions of the consciousness and creativity of 'the race,' as they would have said."
Members of the Harlem Renaissance, like Hurston and Langston Hughes, created some of the most dynamic and enduring literature of the 20th century.
But there was often tension between political leaders — who wanted artists to advance the race — and the artists themselves.
"Artists did not want to be told, 'Oh, well, you can't write that, because that won't reflect well on black people,'" Wall says.
Hurston, in particular, resisted calls to appease others with her writing.
"She wasn't really concerned with making a good impression on white Americans. She just arrived as who she was," says Wall.
Studying voodoo, tall tales and folk music in the south
As a student at Barnard College, Hurston took a detour from her literary career to study anthropology with pioneering scholar Franz Boas.
She returned to Eatonville — the all-black Florida town where she grew up — to conduct fieldwork, and studied voodoo in New Orleans. She also conducted fieldwork in Haiti, Jamaica, Honduras, and the Bahamas.
In both her anthropology and her fiction, she tried to capture vernacular speech as faithfully as possible.
The reception was not always positive.
When she tried to published Barracoon in 1931, one publisher offered to buy it if she rewrote the book "in language rather than dialect." She refused.
Here's an example of Hurston's use of vernacular speech in Their Eyes Were Watching God.
In this scene, the main character's grandmother talks to her about her hopes for the future.
The use of vernacular speech was also fiercely debated by black writers. Some argued since that dialect had been used in minstrel shows to caricature black people, it should be abandoned by black writers.
"She wasn't trying to imitate the minstrel stage. She was trying to find a literary equivalent for the language she had heard spoken all her life," Wall says.
'She glories in ... contradictions and complexities'
Hurston's political views sometimes put her at odds with her fellow black writers.
She once famously said, "I do not belong to the sobbing school of Negrohood who hold that nature somehow gave them a lowdown dirty deal and whose feelings are all hurt about it … No, I do not weep at the world. I am too busy sharpening my oyster knife."
Wall says Hurston's worldview was shaped by her upbringing in Eatonville, one of the first all-black incorporated towns in America.
"There was a black mayor. Black people owned the store. Black people ran the school. There was a sense of autonomy in Eatonville that Hurston was very proud of, and that she really wanted to use as an example in her own life and in the lives of others," she says.
"I think a valid criticism of Hurston is that in her zeal to promote the plentitude of black culture, that she does turn a blind eye to some of the suffering."
I think we want black artists in general, and black women in particular, to just symbolize one thing ... and Hurston doesn't really let us do that.- Cheryl Wall
As she got older, Hurston's politics became more iconoclastic. After the Supreme Court decision in Brown vs. the Board of Education, which desegregated schools, Hurston argued the case had been decided wrongly. Segregationists then used her position to say that not all black people supported integration.
Wall says Hurston was a complicated, contradictory figure — but we shouldn't be surprised.
"We are ready to allow that kind of complexity to white male artists. I think we want black artists in general and black women in particular to just symbolize one thing," she says.
"Hurston doesn't really let us do that. She glories in the contradictions and complexities that define her persona."
The final years
The last years of Zora Neale Hurston's life were not easy.
In 1948, she was falsely accused of molesting a young boy. The charges were dropped a year later, but the scandal had a devastating effect on her career, and it nearly drove her to suicide.
My junior year in high school, that was the year that Zora died. And I had no idea she had ever lived.- Alice Walker
In 1950, a Miami Herald reporter realized Hurston was working as a maid in a Florida hotel.
She said she had taken the job just to "live a little." In fact, she could not find a publisher for her work, and needed the money.
She spent the last ten years of her life obsessed with a revisionist history of King Herod the Great. In 1955, she wrote to Winston Churchill, asking him to write a foreword. The book has never been published.
In 1960, after a series of strokes, Hurston died in a welfare home in Saint Lucie County, Florida.
'A people do not throw their geniuses away'
For years, her remains lay in an unmarked pauper's grave. Her writing virtually disappeared from the public arena.
Alice Walker, the Pulitzer Prize-winning author of The Color Purple, grew up not knowing who Hurston was.
"I think my junior year in high school, that was the year that Zora died. And I had no idea she had ever lived," she said in a lecture at Barnard College in 2003.
"I had no idea — none — that there were black women writers."
When Walker finally discovered Hurston's writing, she was captivated. She set out to find Hurston's resting place, bought her a headstone, and became a fierce champion of her work.
"A people do not throw their geniuses away. If they do, it is our duty as witnesses for the future to collect them again for the sake of our children. If necessary, bone by bone," Walker wrote.
It was the beginning of Hurston's literary resurrection.
Today, she is considered a legend by a new generation of black writers.
British novelist Zadie Smith first read Their Eyes Were Watching God as a teenager. The experience shaped her as both a reader and an aspiring writer.
"If you're a kid, and you want to do something, and you don't see many people who look like you doing the thing you want to do, it's a great joy to find out that it has been done — not just competently, but brilliantly," she says.
Hurston is now is among the most beloved and widely-read African-American writers in history.
Click "listen" above to hear the full special. "Jumping at the Sun: The politics and prose of Zora Neale Hurston" was produced by Pauline Holdsworth, with help from music producer Dean Ples.
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Paleontologists from the University of Michigan have uncovered a thrilling find only 10 miles south of Ann Arbor near the town of Chelsea, Michigan. A partial skeleton of a 12,000 year old mammoth was discovered—including parts of its skull, tusks, pelvis, and shoulder blades—but that’s not all. Dig leader and University of Michigan professor of paleontology Daniel Fisher said that the site has "excellent evidence of human activity” preserved with the mammoth remains.
In geological terms, mammoths were roaming the United States in the recent past, only disappearing about 12,000 years ago. Mammoth and mastodon fossils are found frequently in Michigan too, but Fisher says this is one of the more complete finds. Most importantly, multiple lines of evidence have been discovered indicating human involvement. Three large boulders were found next to the mammoth that were seemingly deliberately placed. These rocks could have been used as anchors to keep the mammoth carcass stored in a pond—a method of meat preservation Fisher says he has seen in other prehistoric civilizations throughout the world.
A small stone that could potentially be a cutting tool was also found with the mammoth bones. To confirm that this animal was butchered by humans, researchers will examine the bones for cut marks that would indicate people were processing it for meat. A third piece of evidence is the organized way the neck vertebrae of the mammoth were found. “An animal doesn’t just come apart naturally leaving a sequence of tightly articulated vertebrae like that,” Fisher said, indicating that the animal would have had to have been moved by humans for paleontologists to find the bones laid out in such a fashion.
This fossil was only discovered earlier this week by farmer and property owner James Bristle who called in Fisher when he realized what he had found: “We didn't know what it was, but we knew it was certainly a lot bigger than a cow bone.” Additional study will help researchers learn more about the interaction between early humans and American megafauna during the end of the last Ice Age. It is unknown exactly when humans began inhabiting certain parts of the Americas, and when this mammoth is firmly dated and the human butchery is confirmed, this would change the known history of the earliest human inhabitants of Michigan.
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] | 2
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Paleontologists from the University of Michigan have uncovered a thrilling find only 10 miles south of Ann Arbor near the town of Chelsea, Michigan. A partial skeleton of a 12,000 year old mammoth was discovered—including parts of its skull, tusks, pelvis, and shoulder blades—but that’s not all. Dig leader and University of Michigan professor of paleontology Daniel Fisher said that the site has "excellent evidence of human activity” preserved with the mammoth remains.
In geological terms, mammoths were roaming the United States in the recent past, only disappearing about 12,000 years ago. Mammoth and mastodon fossils are found frequently in Michigan too, but Fisher says this is one of the more complete finds. Most importantly, multiple lines of evidence have been discovered indicating human involvement. Three large boulders were found next to the mammoth that were seemingly deliberately placed. These rocks could have been used as anchors to keep the mammoth carcass stored in a pond—a method of meat preservation Fisher says he has seen in other prehistoric civilizations throughout the world.
A small stone that could potentially be a cutting tool was also found with the mammoth bones. To confirm that this animal was butchered by humans, researchers will examine the bones for cut marks that would indicate people were processing it for meat. A third piece of evidence is the organized way the neck vertebrae of the mammoth were found. “An animal doesn’t just come apart naturally leaving a sequence of tightly articulated vertebrae like that,” Fisher said, indicating that the animal would have had to have been moved by humans for paleontologists to find the bones laid out in such a fashion.
This fossil was only discovered earlier this week by farmer and property owner James Bristle who called in Fisher when he realized what he had found: “We didn't know what it was, but we knew it was certainly a lot bigger than a cow bone.” Additional study will help researchers learn more about the interaction between early humans and American megafauna during the end of the last Ice Age. It is unknown exactly when humans began inhabiting certain parts of the Americas, and when this mammoth is firmly dated and the human butchery is confirmed, this would change the known history of the earliest human inhabitants of Michigan.
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Ghosts in skulls are said to haunt a number of places, particularly in England. While the skulls might not be physically attached to bodies, they seem to be emotionally attached to houses where they wish to continue to live in spirit. When the skulls are removed from the house, either through burial or some disposal effort, the skulls protest with Hauntings and Poltergeist activity.
Many so-called screaming skulls belong to victims of religious persecution during the 16th century Reformation incited by King Henry VIII or from Oliver Cromwell’s Roundheads during the English Civil War in the mid-17th century. Other screaming skulls are from people who lost their heads in various violent episodes, such as murders.
The victims share a common wish, however, often expressed on their deathbeds, which is to be buried within the walls of the house; otherwise their spirits will not rest in peace. When their wishes are ignored with burials in a grave or vault, they reportedly protest with unexplained happenings and strange noises, such as bangs, crashes and moans. Usually, a house’s occupants make the connection between the disturbances and the burial, and disinter the skull for placement within the house, atop a staircase, beam or table. One screaming skull resides in a home encased in glass.
Trouble ensues any time someone tries to rid the house of the skull. People have taken drastic measures, such as throwing the skulls in moats, lakes or rivers. They have tried to break them up, burn them, grind them to dust, or bury them in quicklime or in the walls of mountains. Nothing works.
Sometimes, it is said, the skull will settle for simply terrifying the villain with an inexplicable reappearance in its original place. More often, the skull allegedly will take its revenge by bringing the person some type of bad luck, even death to him or a relative. Violent storms or fires may destroy the property. Or, crops may fail and cattle may dry up or die.
Some of the most famous screaming skulls are:
The Wardley Skull
This screaming skull belongs to Wardley Hall, located a few miles outside Manchester, England. The skull, which dates from the reign of Edward VI, is associated with both an improbable legend and a likely tale.
The legend involves Roger Downes, a dissolute member of the family who owned the house at the time of the English Civil War. One day while in London drinking and carousing, Downes vowed that he would kill the first man he would meet. A poor, hapless tailor chanced by and Downes thrust his sword through him. Downes was arrested and tried for the murder, but his influence at court enabled him to go free.
Comeuppance was soon at hand, however. Shortly thereafter Downes was crossing London Bridge in a drunken and rowdy state. He attacked a watchman with his rapier. The watchman fought back and was strong enough to successfully sever Downes’ head from his body with one blow of his weapon.
The watchman and his friends sent the head to Wardley Hall. Later, the skull was placed in an aperture in the wall above the house’s main staircase, but not before several unsuccessful efforts allegedly were made to get rid of it by burning or drowning. Subsequent efforts to move the skull met with violent responses such as destructive storms.
But such a colorful story was discounted because the last Downes of Wardley, oddly enough named Roger and also a rake, was buried in the family vault with his head intact. Rather, the skull was more likely to be that of Dom Edward Ambrose Barlow, identified in the History of Wardley Hall, Lancashire by H. V. Hart-Davis and S. Holme.
It seems that before the English Civil War and its religious persecutions against Catholics, Francis Downes owned Wardley Hall. He and his wife were devout Catholics and they dangerously allowed Mass to be celebrated in the Hall’s chapel. Barlow, a Benedictine monk who had successfully eluded authorities for 24 years, met his fate on Easter Sunday 1641 while offi ciating at neighboring Morleys Hall.
Barlow was seized, arrested, tried and condemned to be hanged, drawn and quartered. His head was impaled either at a Manchester church or Lancaster castle. Downes secretly removed it and took it back to Wardley, where he hid it so well that all trace of it was lost until the mid- 18th century.
At that time, Wardley was owned by Matthew Moreton, who found the skull in a box that had accidentally fallen out of a ruined wall. A servant later thought it was the skull of an animal and threw it into the moat. That night, a terrible storm broke out, and Moreton theorized that it was the skull screaming for its place to be restored in the house. Moreton drained the moat and recovered the skull.
The Bettiscombe Skull
A screaming skull that takes its name from an old farmhouse near Lyme Regis, Dorset, England, and is tied to a local legend. The skull traditionally was thought to be long to a slave from the West Indies brought to Bettiscombe Manor to serve Azariah Pinney in the 17th century.
The slave was either the victim of, or the perpetrator of, a murder. On his deathbed he stated that his spirit would not rest and would haunt Bettiscombe until his body was taken back to his homeland. Contrary to his wish, he was buried on English soil in Bettiscombe churchyard, and he thereafter fulfilled his warning by haunting the place in protest. Screams were heard from the grave, and unexplained noises were heard in the farmhouse. The noises were silenced only when the body was dug up.
Renewed attempts to bury it brought about the same noisy reactions. This procedure was repeated so often that the skeleton was lost and only the head remained. The skull finally came to rest on a winding staircase leading to the roof of the house.
The myth was shattered, however, when Professor Gilbert Causey of the Royal College of Surgeons concluded that the skull belonged to a prehistoric woman in her early twenties, perhaps a sacrifi cial victim meant to bring prosperity to an earlier dwelling built on the site. In spite of this pronouncement, the skull remains at Bettiscombe Manor as insurance against the professor’s possible misdiagnosis.
The Burton Agnes Skull
This screaming skull is associated with the North Yorkshire home built in 1598 by three sisters of the Griffith family. One sister, Ann, had a fateful meeting with robbers on a road near her home. One of the robbers struck her when she refused to part with a ring once belonging to her mother. Hearing her cries, villagers rescued the beaten woman and carried her home, where she died five days later. Ann’s dying wish was that her head should be buried in the walls of her home, which was called Burton Agnes.
Instead, the family buried her under the old Norman church on the grounds. Shortly thereafter, strange noises were heard in the house. The sisters suspected that it was Ann pleading to come home. They had her coffin opened. To their astonishment, the body was completely intact while the head had become severed; the skull was grinning.
The parish priest recommended that the head be removed and taken back to the house. This the sisters did, whereupon all noises stopped. The noises did not reoccur until the house passed by inheritance to the Boynton family, who had the skull removed.
Once again, Ann made it clear that she was not to be banished from Burton Agnes. The skull again was subdued only when it came to rest on a table in the hall. Years later, another inheritor bricked the skull up somewhere behind the paneling; it still has not been found. Even though Ann’s wish was finally honored, she reportedly makes a ghostly appearance around the anniversary of her death.
Tunstead Farm Skull
An imperfect skull named “Dickie,” probably that of a woman, haunts a farmhouse, Tunstead Farm, near Chapel- en-le-Frith, England. According to one legend, a girl was murdered at some unknown date in the room where the skull is kept. Another legend says that Ned Dixon, an ancestor of the farmhouse’s owners, was murdered in the room. The house also is said to be haunted by a woman’s ghost, which appeared in the late 19th century to herald the death of the tenant’s daughter.
Dickie is said to function as an unworldly guardian of the house. It has been said to sound noises and knockings at the approach of strangers. Some of these disturbances, including the rattling of farm tools in the barn, has been so severe that temporary hired help have complained and even fled the premises. Dickie also has sounded warnings upon the birthing or illness of farm animals, or upon the imminent death of a member of the family.
Like other screaming skulls, Dickie resents relocation. Once it was stolen and taken to Disley. An ensuing racket at both Tunstead Farm and Disley was so unendurable that the thieves gladly returned it. Similar disturbance broke out after the skull was buried in consecrated ground.
Further Reading :
- Hole, Christina. Haunted England. London: B. T. Batsford, 1940.
- Maple, Erie. The Realm of Ghosts. New York: A. S. Barnes & Co., 1964.
- Whitaker, Terence. Haunted England. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1987.
Back to Ghost Glossary
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Ghosts in skulls are said to haunt a number of places, particularly in England. While the skulls might not be physically attached to bodies, they seem to be emotionally attached to houses where they wish to continue to live in spirit. When the skulls are removed from the house, either through burial or some disposal effort, the skulls protest with Hauntings and Poltergeist activity.
Many so-called screaming skulls belong to victims of religious persecution during the 16th century Reformation incited by King Henry VIII or from Oliver Cromwell’s Roundheads during the English Civil War in the mid-17th century. Other screaming skulls are from people who lost their heads in various violent episodes, such as murders.
The victims share a common wish, however, often expressed on their deathbeds, which is to be buried within the walls of the house; otherwise their spirits will not rest in peace. When their wishes are ignored with burials in a grave or vault, they reportedly protest with unexplained happenings and strange noises, such as bangs, crashes and moans. Usually, a house’s occupants make the connection between the disturbances and the burial, and disinter the skull for placement within the house, atop a staircase, beam or table. One screaming skull resides in a home encased in glass.
Trouble ensues any time someone tries to rid the house of the skull. People have taken drastic measures, such as throwing the skulls in moats, lakes or rivers. They have tried to break them up, burn them, grind them to dust, or bury them in quicklime or in the walls of mountains. Nothing works.
Sometimes, it is said, the skull will settle for simply terrifying the villain with an inexplicable reappearance in its original place. More often, the skull allegedly will take its revenge by bringing the person some type of bad luck, even death to him or a relative. Violent storms or fires may destroy the property. Or, crops may fail and cattle may dry up or die.
Some of the most famous screaming skulls are:
The Wardley Skull
This screaming skull belongs to Wardley Hall, located a few miles outside Manchester, England. The skull, which dates from the reign of Edward VI, is associated with both an improbable legend and a likely tale.
The legend involves Roger Downes, a dissolute member of the family who owned the house at the time of the English Civil War. One day while in London drinking and carousing, Downes vowed that he would kill the first man he would meet. A poor, hapless tailor chanced by and Downes thrust his sword through him. Downes was arrested and tried for the murder, but his influence at court enabled him to go free.
Comeuppance was soon at hand, however. Shortly thereafter Downes was crossing London Bridge in a drunken and rowdy state. He attacked a watchman with his rapier. The watchman fought back and was strong enough to successfully sever Downes’ head from his body with one blow of his weapon.
The watchman and his friends sent the head to Wardley Hall. Later, the skull was placed in an aperture in the wall above the house’s main staircase, but not before several unsuccessful efforts allegedly were made to get rid of it by burning or drowning. Subsequent efforts to move the skull met with violent responses such as destructive storms.
But such a colorful story was discounted because the last Downes of Wardley, oddly enough named Roger and also a rake, was buried in the family vault with his head intact. Rather, the skull was more likely to be that of Dom Edward Ambrose Barlow, identified in the History of Wardley Hall, Lancashire by H. V. Hart-Davis and S. Holme.
It seems that before the English Civil War and its religious persecutions against Catholics, Francis Downes owned Wardley Hall. He and his wife were devout Catholics and they dangerously allowed Mass to be celebrated in the Hall’s chapel. Barlow, a Benedictine monk who had successfully eluded authorities for 24 years, met his fate on Easter Sunday 1641 while offi ciating at neighboring Morleys Hall.
Barlow was seized, arrested, tried and condemned to be hanged, drawn and quartered. His head was impaled either at a Manchester church or Lancaster castle. Downes secretly removed it and took it back to Wardley, where he hid it so well that all trace of it was lost until the mid- 18th century.
At that time, Wardley was owned by Matthew Moreton, who found the skull in a box that had accidentally fallen out of a ruined wall. A servant later thought it was the skull of an animal and threw it into the moat. That night, a terrible storm broke out, and Moreton theorized that it was the skull screaming for its place to be restored in the house. Moreton drained the moat and recovered the skull.
The Bettiscombe Skull
A screaming skull that takes its name from an old farmhouse near Lyme Regis, Dorset, England, and is tied to a local legend. The skull traditionally was thought to be long to a slave from the West Indies brought to Bettiscombe Manor to serve Azariah Pinney in the 17th century.
The slave was either the victim of, or the perpetrator of, a murder. On his deathbed he stated that his spirit would not rest and would haunt Bettiscombe until his body was taken back to his homeland. Contrary to his wish, he was buried on English soil in Bettiscombe churchyard, and he thereafter fulfilled his warning by haunting the place in protest. Screams were heard from the grave, and unexplained noises were heard in the farmhouse. The noises were silenced only when the body was dug up.
Renewed attempts to bury it brought about the same noisy reactions. This procedure was repeated so often that the skeleton was lost and only the head remained. The skull finally came to rest on a winding staircase leading to the roof of the house.
The myth was shattered, however, when Professor Gilbert Causey of the Royal College of Surgeons concluded that the skull belonged to a prehistoric woman in her early twenties, perhaps a sacrifi cial victim meant to bring prosperity to an earlier dwelling built on the site. In spite of this pronouncement, the skull remains at Bettiscombe Manor as insurance against the professor’s possible misdiagnosis.
The Burton Agnes Skull
This screaming skull is associated with the North Yorkshire home built in 1598 by three sisters of the Griffith family. One sister, Ann, had a fateful meeting with robbers on a road near her home. One of the robbers struck her when she refused to part with a ring once belonging to her mother. Hearing her cries, villagers rescued the beaten woman and carried her home, where she died five days later. Ann’s dying wish was that her head should be buried in the walls of her home, which was called Burton Agnes.
Instead, the family buried her under the old Norman church on the grounds. Shortly thereafter, strange noises were heard in the house. The sisters suspected that it was Ann pleading to come home. They had her coffin opened. To their astonishment, the body was completely intact while the head had become severed; the skull was grinning.
The parish priest recommended that the head be removed and taken back to the house. This the sisters did, whereupon all noises stopped. The noises did not reoccur until the house passed by inheritance to the Boynton family, who had the skull removed.
Once again, Ann made it clear that she was not to be banished from Burton Agnes. The skull again was subdued only when it came to rest on a table in the hall. Years later, another inheritor bricked the skull up somewhere behind the paneling; it still has not been found. Even though Ann’s wish was finally honored, she reportedly makes a ghostly appearance around the anniversary of her death.
Tunstead Farm Skull
An imperfect skull named “Dickie,” probably that of a woman, haunts a farmhouse, Tunstead Farm, near Chapel- en-le-Frith, England. According to one legend, a girl was murdered at some unknown date in the room where the skull is kept. Another legend says that Ned Dixon, an ancestor of the farmhouse’s owners, was murdered in the room. The house also is said to be haunted by a woman’s ghost, which appeared in the late 19th century to herald the death of the tenant’s daughter.
Dickie is said to function as an unworldly guardian of the house. It has been said to sound noises and knockings at the approach of strangers. Some of these disturbances, including the rattling of farm tools in the barn, has been so severe that temporary hired help have complained and even fled the premises. Dickie also has sounded warnings upon the birthing or illness of farm animals, or upon the imminent death of a member of the family.
Like other screaming skulls, Dickie resents relocation. Once it was stolen and taken to Disley. An ensuing racket at both Tunstead Farm and Disley was so unendurable that the thieves gladly returned it. Similar disturbance broke out after the skull was buried in consecrated ground.
Further Reading :
- Hole, Christina. Haunted England. London: B. T. Batsford, 1940.
- Maple, Erie. The Realm of Ghosts. New York: A. S. Barnes & Co., 1964.
- Whitaker, Terence. Haunted England. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1987.
Back to Ghost Glossary
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ENGLISH
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How hitler brought germany into world war 2?
First of all, it's important that you understand Hitler did not actually plan on the entire world being at war during his first invasions. He envisioned a purely European war in which the United States would not participate. During this European war, the "Aryan" countries would be united, the Thousand Year Reich would gain more living space and resources for its people, and those people who the Reich considered inferior would be eliminated. He wrote later on that he believed a massive confrontation between the Nazis and the US would happen around 1980, for control of the world. THe reason Hitler declared war on the US was because Japan basically forced his hand through the Pearl Harbor attacks. Hitler could not afford to let Japan fight the US alone. I think deep down, Hitler knew Germany wasn't ready for a war against the United States. If Hitler didn't think that, many of his military staff certainly did.
Anyway, it's important that we study the methods Hitler used to come to power and keep power in Germany during the 1930's, because it teaches us how irrational dictatorship can thrive under the right conditions, and do incredibly destructive things. Hitler's rise to power happened through a combination of quick and successful strikes against his many rivals, careful timing, making allies with the right people at the right times, and through a whole mythology and ideology of German nationalism that relied on symbols and political rallies to inspire people. The aftermath of World War I had made the German people very bitter about many things, and he also appealed to this general sentiment. He also kept power through reliance on police organizations like the SS and Gestapo that operated outside the boundaries of civil law.
By the time he started annexing neighboring territories, and sending troops into Poland, he had the support of the German people...some willingly, others by brute force.
well he did not bring germany into world war 2 .he was the one who started the world war 2.
By sheer ignorance..
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How hitler brought germany into world war 2?
First of all, it's important that you understand Hitler did not actually plan on the entire world being at war during his first invasions. He envisioned a purely European war in which the United States would not participate. During this European war, the "Aryan" countries would be united, the Thousand Year Reich would gain more living space and resources for its people, and those people who the Reich considered inferior would be eliminated. He wrote later on that he believed a massive confrontation between the Nazis and the US would happen around 1980, for control of the world. THe reason Hitler declared war on the US was because Japan basically forced his hand through the Pearl Harbor attacks. Hitler could not afford to let Japan fight the US alone. I think deep down, Hitler knew Germany wasn't ready for a war against the United States. If Hitler didn't think that, many of his military staff certainly did.
Anyway, it's important that we study the methods Hitler used to come to power and keep power in Germany during the 1930's, because it teaches us how irrational dictatorship can thrive under the right conditions, and do incredibly destructive things. Hitler's rise to power happened through a combination of quick and successful strikes against his many rivals, careful timing, making allies with the right people at the right times, and through a whole mythology and ideology of German nationalism that relied on symbols and political rallies to inspire people. The aftermath of World War I had made the German people very bitter about many things, and he also appealed to this general sentiment. He also kept power through reliance on police organizations like the SS and Gestapo that operated outside the boundaries of civil law.
By the time he started annexing neighboring territories, and sending troops into Poland, he had the support of the German people...some willingly, others by brute force.
well he did not bring germany into world war 2 .he was the one who started the world war 2.
By sheer ignorance..
| 410
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Women first organized and collectively fought for suffrage at the national level in July of 1848. Suffragists such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott convened a meeting of over 300 people in Seneca Falls, New York. In the following decades, women marched, protested, lobbied, and even went to jail. By the 1870s, women pressured Congress to vote on an amendment that would recognize their suffrage rights. This amendment was sometimes known as the Susan B. Anthony Amendment and became the 19th Amendment.
The amendment reads:
"The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex."
Although the women’s rights movement was born in New England, women first won suffrage victories in the West. In the Dakota Territory, women were able to vote in school elections beginning in 1883. Legislation that would have provided full suffrage to women lost by one vote in 1875. A similar bill passed the territorial legislature in 1885 but was vetoed by the territorial governor, Gilbert Pierce. If Governor Pierce had not struck down the law, women from the Dakota Territory would have joined those in the Wyoming and Utah territories in winning voting rights on the same terms as men.
When South Dakota became a state in 1889, the new state constitution included the word “male” in the section designating voting eligibility. However, it also called for the new state legislature to send a proposed state constitutional amendment to the voters in 1890 which would extend voting eligibility to women. Susan B. Anthony embarked on a speaking tour of South Dakota to campaign for the amendment and set up an office there. Many other national suffrage leaders like Anna Howard Shaw and Carrie Chapman Catt toured the state as well. But the amendment was defeated by the voters. Similar amendments in 1895 and 1898 did not pass the legislature.
"Women Are People"
Many prominent men and women of South Dakota supported woman suffrage. Congressman John Pickler, who as a member of the territorial legislature introduced a woman suffrage bill in 1885, was nicknamed “Petticoats Pickler” because of his work along with his wife Alice for the vote. The Picklers also worked for the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) and the two causes were often discussed together. Emma Smith Devoe was a dedicated advocate for both temperance and woman suffrage. She and her husband John were founders of the South Dakota Equal Suffrage Association in 1890. Emma set up local chapters all over the state. She and John moved away shortly after the defeat of the 1890 measure, but Emma continued to fight for suffrage in several other states and sent letters of encouragement back to the suffragists in South Dakota during their continued campaigns.
Suffragists often cited the state’s motto, “Under God the People Rule” to which they would add “Women Are People” when arguing for women’s enfranchisement. Campaigns were difficult because South Dakota was sparsely populated; traveling around for speaking and education tours could be physically demanding. Fundraising was always a challenge. Organizing for the vote waned as one measure after another went down in defeat.
A New Way for Suffrage in South Dakota
In the twentieth century, there was a resurgence of suffrage activism in South Dakota. Mary Shields “Mamie” Pyle organized the South Dakota Universal Franchise League in 1911 after another woman suffrage referendum was voted down in November 1910. Pyle, who had never worked for temperance, distanced the suffragists from the WCTU, believing that combining the two issues had hurt the suffrage movement in the past. This strategy would help neutralize the arguments of influential anti-suffrage organizers in the state who were tied to the liquor industry. The League started a newspaper called the South Dakota Messenger, edited by Ruth B. Hipple, to spread the word about women’s rights. The Messenger could reach people in remote areas that were difficult for speakers to visit. Although a suffrage amendment was again defeated in 1914, the election results suggested that support for women’s right to vote was growing.
The 1916 ballot in South Dakota included both prohibition and woman suffrage amendments. Emma Smith Devoe returned to the state to campaign. The prohibition amendment passed; the woman suffrage amendment did not. Two years later, another state constitutional amendment passed the legislature and was sent to the voters. This one, called the Citizenship Amendment, revised voting eligibility in the state. It added the requirement of U.S. citizenship (which had not been required before) but removed the word “male.” When the amendment passed in November 1918, women in South Dakota were finally eligible to vote under the same terms as men.
After decades of arguments for and against women's suffrage across the country, Congress finally passed the 19th Amendment in June 1919. After Congress approved the 19th Amendment, at least 36 states needed to vote in favor of it for it to become law. This process is called ratification
On December 4, 1919, South Dakota voted to ratify the 19th Amendment. By August of 1920, 36 states (including South Dakota) ratified the amendment, ensuring that across the country, the right to vote could not be denied based on sex.
South Dakota Places of Women's Suffrage: Brown County Courthouse
Built in 1904, the Brown County Courthouse in Aberdeen, South Dakota was the center of political life in the county. On June 18, 1909, the South Dakota Equal Suffrage League held a convention at the courthouse. The courthouse is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is open for tours by appointment.
Last updated: August 15, 2019
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Women first organized and collectively fought for suffrage at the national level in July of 1848. Suffragists such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott convened a meeting of over 300 people in Seneca Falls, New York. In the following decades, women marched, protested, lobbied, and even went to jail. By the 1870s, women pressured Congress to vote on an amendment that would recognize their suffrage rights. This amendment was sometimes known as the Susan B. Anthony Amendment and became the 19th Amendment.
The amendment reads:
"The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex."
Although the women’s rights movement was born in New England, women first won suffrage victories in the West. In the Dakota Territory, women were able to vote in school elections beginning in 1883. Legislation that would have provided full suffrage to women lost by one vote in 1875. A similar bill passed the territorial legislature in 1885 but was vetoed by the territorial governor, Gilbert Pierce. If Governor Pierce had not struck down the law, women from the Dakota Territory would have joined those in the Wyoming and Utah territories in winning voting rights on the same terms as men.
When South Dakota became a state in 1889, the new state constitution included the word “male” in the section designating voting eligibility. However, it also called for the new state legislature to send a proposed state constitutional amendment to the voters in 1890 which would extend voting eligibility to women. Susan B. Anthony embarked on a speaking tour of South Dakota to campaign for the amendment and set up an office there. Many other national suffrage leaders like Anna Howard Shaw and Carrie Chapman Catt toured the state as well. But the amendment was defeated by the voters. Similar amendments in 1895 and 1898 did not pass the legislature.
"Women Are People"
Many prominent men and women of South Dakota supported woman suffrage. Congressman John Pickler, who as a member of the territorial legislature introduced a woman suffrage bill in 1885, was nicknamed “Petticoats Pickler” because of his work along with his wife Alice for the vote. The Picklers also worked for the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) and the two causes were often discussed together. Emma Smith Devoe was a dedicated advocate for both temperance and woman suffrage. She and her husband John were founders of the South Dakota Equal Suffrage Association in 1890. Emma set up local chapters all over the state. She and John moved away shortly after the defeat of the 1890 measure, but Emma continued to fight for suffrage in several other states and sent letters of encouragement back to the suffragists in South Dakota during their continued campaigns.
Suffragists often cited the state’s motto, “Under God the People Rule” to which they would add “Women Are People” when arguing for women’s enfranchisement. Campaigns were difficult because South Dakota was sparsely populated; traveling around for speaking and education tours could be physically demanding. Fundraising was always a challenge. Organizing for the vote waned as one measure after another went down in defeat.
A New Way for Suffrage in South Dakota
In the twentieth century, there was a resurgence of suffrage activism in South Dakota. Mary Shields “Mamie” Pyle organized the South Dakota Universal Franchise League in 1911 after another woman suffrage referendum was voted down in November 1910. Pyle, who had never worked for temperance, distanced the suffragists from the WCTU, believing that combining the two issues had hurt the suffrage movement in the past. This strategy would help neutralize the arguments of influential anti-suffrage organizers in the state who were tied to the liquor industry. The League started a newspaper called the South Dakota Messenger, edited by Ruth B. Hipple, to spread the word about women’s rights. The Messenger could reach people in remote areas that were difficult for speakers to visit. Although a suffrage amendment was again defeated in 1914, the election results suggested that support for women’s right to vote was growing.
The 1916 ballot in South Dakota included both prohibition and woman suffrage amendments. Emma Smith Devoe returned to the state to campaign. The prohibition amendment passed; the woman suffrage amendment did not. Two years later, another state constitutional amendment passed the legislature and was sent to the voters. This one, called the Citizenship Amendment, revised voting eligibility in the state. It added the requirement of U.S. citizenship (which had not been required before) but removed the word “male.” When the amendment passed in November 1918, women in South Dakota were finally eligible to vote under the same terms as men.
After decades of arguments for and against women's suffrage across the country, Congress finally passed the 19th Amendment in June 1919. After Congress approved the 19th Amendment, at least 36 states needed to vote in favor of it for it to become law. This process is called ratification
On December 4, 1919, South Dakota voted to ratify the 19th Amendment. By August of 1920, 36 states (including South Dakota) ratified the amendment, ensuring that across the country, the right to vote could not be denied based on sex.
South Dakota Places of Women's Suffrage: Brown County Courthouse
Built in 1904, the Brown County Courthouse in Aberdeen, South Dakota was the center of political life in the county. On June 18, 1909, the South Dakota Equal Suffrage League held a convention at the courthouse. The courthouse is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is open for tours by appointment.
Last updated: August 15, 2019
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How many readers have sat and wondered where our Christmas traditions originate?
Weave all heard of St Nick, but when did we start bringing in trees to decorate, only for them to shed needles all over the floor ? Who thought of it and how did it catch on?
Well it all starts with the winter solstice, which usually falls on the 21st or 22nd of December – a time when we experience our shortest day and longest night. The evergreen fir tree was used, at this time of year, to celebrate winter festivals (pagan and Christian) for thousands of years. Pagans used branches of it to decorate their homes during the winter solstice, as it made them think of the spring to come. The Romans used Fir Trees to decorate their temples at the festival of Saturnalia. Christians use it as a sign of everlasting life with God.
However, the custom of decorating an entire tree was still unknown in Britain until the 19th century. Some say it was George the III’s German-born wife, Charlotte of Mecklenberg-Strelitz who, gave a party for children and used a decorated tree to add to the ambience.
Others point to trees becoming popular in 1848, after an artists drawing appeared in the London Illustrated News of Prince Albert – Queen Victoria’s German husband – having a Christmas Tree set up in Windsor Castle. The publication of the drawing helped what was largely a German tradition become popular in the UK.
In Victorian times, the tree would have been decorated with candles to represent stars, whereas in Germany, Christmas Trees were decorated with edible things, such as gingerbread and gold covered apples. Glass makers then began to make small ornaments similar to some of the decorations used today.
Their use at public entertainments, charity bazaars and in hospitals made them increasingly familiar however, and in 1906 a charity was set up specifically to ensure even poor children in London slums ‘who had never seen a Christmas tree’ would enjoy one that year.
However, following the horrors of World War 1, the tradition could have easily died as anti-German sentiments impacted on their popularity. Fortunately, the effect didn’t last too long and by the mid-1920s the use of Christmas trees had spread to all classes.
There were a few mishaps though as, initially real candles were used and until someone came up with the invention of electric lights fires were far too common. Nonetheless the tradition remained popular and by 1933 a restriction was placed on the importation of foreign trees. This led to the ‘rapid growth of a new industry’ – the growing of Christmas trees within Britain and today, the number of trees grown in Britain is in their millions; despite the abundance of artificial trees!
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How many readers have sat and wondered where our Christmas traditions originate?
Weave all heard of St Nick, but when did we start bringing in trees to decorate, only for them to shed needles all over the floor ? Who thought of it and how did it catch on?
Well it all starts with the winter solstice, which usually falls on the 21st or 22nd of December – a time when we experience our shortest day and longest night. The evergreen fir tree was used, at this time of year, to celebrate winter festivals (pagan and Christian) for thousands of years. Pagans used branches of it to decorate their homes during the winter solstice, as it made them think of the spring to come. The Romans used Fir Trees to decorate their temples at the festival of Saturnalia. Christians use it as a sign of everlasting life with God.
However, the custom of decorating an entire tree was still unknown in Britain until the 19th century. Some say it was George the III’s German-born wife, Charlotte of Mecklenberg-Strelitz who, gave a party for children and used a decorated tree to add to the ambience.
Others point to trees becoming popular in 1848, after an artists drawing appeared in the London Illustrated News of Prince Albert – Queen Victoria’s German husband – having a Christmas Tree set up in Windsor Castle. The publication of the drawing helped what was largely a German tradition become popular in the UK.
In Victorian times, the tree would have been decorated with candles to represent stars, whereas in Germany, Christmas Trees were decorated with edible things, such as gingerbread and gold covered apples. Glass makers then began to make small ornaments similar to some of the decorations used today.
Their use at public entertainments, charity bazaars and in hospitals made them increasingly familiar however, and in 1906 a charity was set up specifically to ensure even poor children in London slums ‘who had never seen a Christmas tree’ would enjoy one that year.
However, following the horrors of World War 1, the tradition could have easily died as anti-German sentiments impacted on their popularity. Fortunately, the effect didn’t last too long and by the mid-1920s the use of Christmas trees had spread to all classes.
There were a few mishaps though as, initially real candles were used and until someone came up with the invention of electric lights fires were far too common. Nonetheless the tradition remained popular and by 1933 a restriction was placed on the importation of foreign trees. This led to the ‘rapid growth of a new industry’ – the growing of Christmas trees within Britain and today, the number of trees grown in Britain is in their millions; despite the abundance of artificial trees!
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ENGLISH
| 1
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THE SALVATION ARMY HISTORY
William Booth embarked upon his ministerial career in 1852. His crusade was to win the lost multitudes of London to Christ. He went into the streets of London to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ to the poor, the homeless, the hungry and the destitute.
Booth abandoned the conventional concept of a church and a pulpit and took his message to the people. His fervor led to disagreement with the leaders of the church in London. They preferred traditional measures. As a result, he withdrew from the church and traveled throughout England conducting evangelistic meetings. His wife, Catherine, was a major force in The Salvation Army movement.
In 1865, William Booth was invited to hold a series of evangelistic meetings in the east end of London. He set up a tent in a Quaker graveyard and his services became an instant success. This proved to be the end of his wanderings as an independent traveling evangelist. His renown as a religious leader spread throughout London. His followers were a vigorous group dedicated to fight for the souls of men and women.
Thieves, prostitutes, gamblers and drunkards were among Booth's first converts to Christianity. His congregations were desperately poor. He preached hope and salvation. His aim was to lead them to Christ and to link them to a church for further spiritual guidance. Even though they were converted, churches did not accept Booth's followers because of what they had been. Booth gave their lives direction in a spiritual manner and put them to work to save others who were like themselves. They too preached and sang in the streets as a living testimony to the power of God.
In 1867, Booth had only 10 full-time workers. By 1874, the numbers had grown to 1,000 volunteers and 42 evangelists. They served under the name "The Christian Mission." Booth assumed the title of a General Superintendent. His followers called him "General." Known as the "Hallelujah Army,'" the converts spread out of the east end of London into neighboring areas and then to other cities.
Booth was reading a printer's proof of the 1878 Annual Report when the noticed the statement, '"The Christian Mission under the Superintendent's of the Rev. William Booth is a volunteer army. He crossed out the words "Volunteer Army'" and penned in "Salvation Army'" From those words came the basis of the foundation deed of The Salvation Army which was adopted in August of that same year.
Converts became soldiers of Christ and are known as Salvationists. They launched an offensive throughout the British Isles. In some instances there were real battles as organized gangs mocked and attacked soldiers as they went about their work. In spite of the violence and persecution, some 250,000 persons were converted under the ministry of the Salvationists between 1881 and 1,885.
Meanwhile, the Army was gaining a foothold in the United States. Lieutenant Eliza Shirley had left England to join her parents who had migrated to America earlier in search of work. She held the first meeting of The Salvation Army in America in Philadelphia in 1879. The Salvationists were received enthusiastically. Shirley wrote to General Booth begging for reinforcements. None were available at first. Glowing reports of the work in Philadelphia convinced Booth to send an official group to pioneer the work in America in 1880.
On March 10, 1880, Commissioner George Scott Railton and seven women officers knelt on the dockside at Battery Park in New York City to give thanks for their safe arrival. This was to be their first official street meeting held in the United States. These pioneers were to be met with similar unfriendly actions, as was the case in Great Britain. They were ridiculed, arrested and attacked. Several officers and soldiers even gave their lives.
Three years later, Railton and the seven "Hallelujah Lassies"' had expanded their operation into California, Connecticut, Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio and Pennsylvania.
President Grover Cleveland received a delegation of Salvation Army officers in 1886 and gave the organization a warm personal endorsement. This was the first recognition from the White House that was to be followed by similar receptions from succeeding presidents of the United States.
Termed as the "invasion of the United States," The Salvation Army movement expanded rapidly to Canada, Australia, France, Switzerland, India, South Africa, Iceland and Germany. Currently in the United States, there are more than 10,000 local neighborhood units, and The Salvation Army is active in virtually every corner of the world
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] | 4
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THE SALVATION ARMY HISTORY
William Booth embarked upon his ministerial career in 1852. His crusade was to win the lost multitudes of London to Christ. He went into the streets of London to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ to the poor, the homeless, the hungry and the destitute.
Booth abandoned the conventional concept of a church and a pulpit and took his message to the people. His fervor led to disagreement with the leaders of the church in London. They preferred traditional measures. As a result, he withdrew from the church and traveled throughout England conducting evangelistic meetings. His wife, Catherine, was a major force in The Salvation Army movement.
In 1865, William Booth was invited to hold a series of evangelistic meetings in the east end of London. He set up a tent in a Quaker graveyard and his services became an instant success. This proved to be the end of his wanderings as an independent traveling evangelist. His renown as a religious leader spread throughout London. His followers were a vigorous group dedicated to fight for the souls of men and women.
Thieves, prostitutes, gamblers and drunkards were among Booth's first converts to Christianity. His congregations were desperately poor. He preached hope and salvation. His aim was to lead them to Christ and to link them to a church for further spiritual guidance. Even though they were converted, churches did not accept Booth's followers because of what they had been. Booth gave their lives direction in a spiritual manner and put them to work to save others who were like themselves. They too preached and sang in the streets as a living testimony to the power of God.
In 1867, Booth had only 10 full-time workers. By 1874, the numbers had grown to 1,000 volunteers and 42 evangelists. They served under the name "The Christian Mission." Booth assumed the title of a General Superintendent. His followers called him "General." Known as the "Hallelujah Army,'" the converts spread out of the east end of London into neighboring areas and then to other cities.
Booth was reading a printer's proof of the 1878 Annual Report when the noticed the statement, '"The Christian Mission under the Superintendent's of the Rev. William Booth is a volunteer army. He crossed out the words "Volunteer Army'" and penned in "Salvation Army'" From those words came the basis of the foundation deed of The Salvation Army which was adopted in August of that same year.
Converts became soldiers of Christ and are known as Salvationists. They launched an offensive throughout the British Isles. In some instances there were real battles as organized gangs mocked and attacked soldiers as they went about their work. In spite of the violence and persecution, some 250,000 persons were converted under the ministry of the Salvationists between 1881 and 1,885.
Meanwhile, the Army was gaining a foothold in the United States. Lieutenant Eliza Shirley had left England to join her parents who had migrated to America earlier in search of work. She held the first meeting of The Salvation Army in America in Philadelphia in 1879. The Salvationists were received enthusiastically. Shirley wrote to General Booth begging for reinforcements. None were available at first. Glowing reports of the work in Philadelphia convinced Booth to send an official group to pioneer the work in America in 1880.
On March 10, 1880, Commissioner George Scott Railton and seven women officers knelt on the dockside at Battery Park in New York City to give thanks for their safe arrival. This was to be their first official street meeting held in the United States. These pioneers were to be met with similar unfriendly actions, as was the case in Great Britain. They were ridiculed, arrested and attacked. Several officers and soldiers even gave their lives.
Three years later, Railton and the seven "Hallelujah Lassies"' had expanded their operation into California, Connecticut, Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio and Pennsylvania.
President Grover Cleveland received a delegation of Salvation Army officers in 1886 and gave the organization a warm personal endorsement. This was the first recognition from the White House that was to be followed by similar receptions from succeeding presidents of the United States.
Termed as the "invasion of the United States," The Salvation Army movement expanded rapidly to Canada, Australia, France, Switzerland, India, South Africa, Iceland and Germany. Currently in the United States, there are more than 10,000 local neighborhood units, and The Salvation Army is active in virtually every corner of the world
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ENGLISH
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The Supreme Court Case, the University of California v. Bakke, serves a landmark trial that forever changed the legal landscape in America. The case began when Allan Bakke applied to the University of California Davis school of Medicine on two separate occasions. The applications were delivered to the school in 1973 and 1974.
On the application, Bakke stated that he was a Caucasian male. Bakke was ultimately rejected both times.
After conducting his own research, Bakke discovered that other applicants, who were accepted to the school, had lower scores than he did. Bakke believed that these individuals were accepted because they stated “minority status” on their respective applications. Bakke also discovered that students who were poorer than he was had a better chance of getting accepted even when his grades were better.
Bakke was very upset that he was rejected when students with worse scores were accepted. He was so upset, in fact, that he filed a lawsuit against the University of California. He filed the suit because he felt that the school was unfairly accepting students based on their race and poverty level. He claimed that the School had violated his 14th Amendment rights, which are awarded to all American citizens.
He also claimed that the school was violating Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which states that no ethnic or racial advantages should be granted to a particular group by any academic institution or program that receives government money. Bakke claimed that he was being discriminated against because he kept getting rejected.
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke: The Case Profile
The Regents of the University of California v. Bakke case took place on October 8, 1977. Bakke filed the suit, claiming the University was guilty of unfairly treating him because of his race. The Regents of the University of California v. Bakke was heard by the Supreme Court of the United States and decided on June 28th of 1978.
The Regents of the University of California v. Bakke: The Verdict
The United States Supreme Court in the Regents of the University of California v. Bakke case ruled in favor of Bakke. The Court found that the University of California was guilty of violating both the 14th Amendment and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
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The Supreme Court Case, the University of California v. Bakke, serves a landmark trial that forever changed the legal landscape in America. The case began when Allan Bakke applied to the University of California Davis school of Medicine on two separate occasions. The applications were delivered to the school in 1973 and 1974.
On the application, Bakke stated that he was a Caucasian male. Bakke was ultimately rejected both times.
After conducting his own research, Bakke discovered that other applicants, who were accepted to the school, had lower scores than he did. Bakke believed that these individuals were accepted because they stated “minority status” on their respective applications. Bakke also discovered that students who were poorer than he was had a better chance of getting accepted even when his grades were better.
Bakke was very upset that he was rejected when students with worse scores were accepted. He was so upset, in fact, that he filed a lawsuit against the University of California. He filed the suit because he felt that the school was unfairly accepting students based on their race and poverty level. He claimed that the School had violated his 14th Amendment rights, which are awarded to all American citizens.
He also claimed that the school was violating Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which states that no ethnic or racial advantages should be granted to a particular group by any academic institution or program that receives government money. Bakke claimed that he was being discriminated against because he kept getting rejected.
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke: The Case Profile
The Regents of the University of California v. Bakke case took place on October 8, 1977. Bakke filed the suit, claiming the University was guilty of unfairly treating him because of his race. The Regents of the University of California v. Bakke was heard by the Supreme Court of the United States and decided on June 28th of 1978.
The Regents of the University of California v. Bakke: The Verdict
The United States Supreme Court in the Regents of the University of California v. Bakke case ruled in favor of Bakke. The Court found that the University of California was guilty of violating both the 14th Amendment and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
| 483
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Thousands of eager men came from all points on the globe to the Fraser River in search of gold. They overturned boulders and dug trenches to find the gold lightn1ngs that they had all read and heard about.
Meanwhile, perched on the rocks above the Fraser River were empty drying racks – branches tied together at regular intervals – waiting for the annual migration of salmon up the river and the large numbers of First Nations fishers who would be there to catch them.
Every summer from the beginning of July to the end of August, native fishers lowered long poles with nets tied at the ends into the Fraser River as Coho and Spring Salmon swam in their annual migration up the river.
At every point along the Fraser Canyon, before the railroad was built, a drying rack could be seen. Some of these racks were hundreds of years old.
Salmon was an integral part of the diet and trade for the members of the Interior Salish tribes who inhabited the Fraser Canyon. There was no big game in this area and what fish could be caught would be used for sustenance or trade with other tribes and the Hudson’s Bay Company at Fort Langley.
By the late 1840s, salmon had surpassed furs as its most important trade item for the Hudson’s Bay Company in the west. By the time the Fraser River gold rush was declared in 1858, large quantities of salted salmon were being shipped from Fort Langley.
The annual salmon migration was at the heart of the conflict that arose between First Nations and gold seekers that escalated into the “Canyon War” in the summer of 1858.
C.P. Lyons, in his book “Milestones on the Mighty Fraser” published in 1950, recalled watching these traditional techniques. One of the fishers, Mr. Lorenzetto, explained that the fishing racks they used were passed down from generation to generation and for good reason. People risked their lives to build them! Lorenzetto’s grandfather slipped on the precipitous rocks and fell to his death trying to re-build one of the racks.
Fish heads were cut off and placed in a bucket for drying while the body of the fish was placed on an angle so the blood would drain off. After the fish was cleaned, and the roe was collected, the backbone was split from the flesh down to the tail of the fish, but not separated.
The fish was spread flat on a board and slit into strips by a series of cuts one inch apart. This way, the fish dried more quickly and uniformly than a solid piece. Sharpened twigs were then threaded through the flesh to keep it spread open in a platter shape while drying.
The final step was to hang the fish up in rows on the poles under the roof for three weeks.
The fish heads were dried and kept for soup. Broth from boiled fish heads was used for colds and other ailments. Roe hung on thin poles and dried for later use, when it was fried or roasted.
Salmon Cache Trees
Surplus dried salmon was once stored in pits or suitable trees such as Douglas fir. They favoured trees with many low branches that made for easy climbing. Old poles and rough boards were laid from limb to limb like a platform. Food was piled on this platform and covered with bark or cedar boards, but sometimes huge boxes were made.
The Upper St’át’imc whose territory was invaded by thousands of miners seeking gold in Lillooet district and beyond, were faced with hunger and starvation. Their dependence on salmon, for trade and sustenance was impeded by the influx of miners who disturbed important spawning grounds. Salmon runs which had failed for the year prior, failed again that year and then the next. Hundreds of their people died of starvation during the winter of 1858 and again in 1859.
Captain Donellan, former chief of San Francisco police force, recalled his experiences during the Fraser River gold rush, including a pact reached at Washington Bar.
There was at this point a rancheria or a village of natives, who lived principally upon the salmon caught in the river; and it was reported that these natives would allow no miners to stop or congregate in their neighbourhood….The natives, for a while, were surly; but in a short time an amicable understanding was entered into, by which the miners agreed to…not disturb them in their fisheries. These fisheries were carried on with scoop or dip nets in the early mornings, and in the evenings from about 4 o’clock till dark…It was for fear that the miners would work in the water and disturb their fisheries that the natives looked with disfavour upon their approach; but upon the agreement that during fishing hours the miners would kep away from the river, everything was arranged to the satisfaction of both parties – and the pact was kept.
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Thousands of eager men came from all points on the globe to the Fraser River in search of gold. They overturned boulders and dug trenches to find the gold lightn1ngs that they had all read and heard about.
Meanwhile, perched on the rocks above the Fraser River were empty drying racks – branches tied together at regular intervals – waiting for the annual migration of salmon up the river and the large numbers of First Nations fishers who would be there to catch them.
Every summer from the beginning of July to the end of August, native fishers lowered long poles with nets tied at the ends into the Fraser River as Coho and Spring Salmon swam in their annual migration up the river.
At every point along the Fraser Canyon, before the railroad was built, a drying rack could be seen. Some of these racks were hundreds of years old.
Salmon was an integral part of the diet and trade for the members of the Interior Salish tribes who inhabited the Fraser Canyon. There was no big game in this area and what fish could be caught would be used for sustenance or trade with other tribes and the Hudson’s Bay Company at Fort Langley.
By the late 1840s, salmon had surpassed furs as its most important trade item for the Hudson’s Bay Company in the west. By the time the Fraser River gold rush was declared in 1858, large quantities of salted salmon were being shipped from Fort Langley.
The annual salmon migration was at the heart of the conflict that arose between First Nations and gold seekers that escalated into the “Canyon War” in the summer of 1858.
C.P. Lyons, in his book “Milestones on the Mighty Fraser” published in 1950, recalled watching these traditional techniques. One of the fishers, Mr. Lorenzetto, explained that the fishing racks they used were passed down from generation to generation and for good reason. People risked their lives to build them! Lorenzetto’s grandfather slipped on the precipitous rocks and fell to his death trying to re-build one of the racks.
Fish heads were cut off and placed in a bucket for drying while the body of the fish was placed on an angle so the blood would drain off. After the fish was cleaned, and the roe was collected, the backbone was split from the flesh down to the tail of the fish, but not separated.
The fish was spread flat on a board and slit into strips by a series of cuts one inch apart. This way, the fish dried more quickly and uniformly than a solid piece. Sharpened twigs were then threaded through the flesh to keep it spread open in a platter shape while drying.
The final step was to hang the fish up in rows on the poles under the roof for three weeks.
The fish heads were dried and kept for soup. Broth from boiled fish heads was used for colds and other ailments. Roe hung on thin poles and dried for later use, when it was fried or roasted.
Salmon Cache Trees
Surplus dried salmon was once stored in pits or suitable trees such as Douglas fir. They favoured trees with many low branches that made for easy climbing. Old poles and rough boards were laid from limb to limb like a platform. Food was piled on this platform and covered with bark or cedar boards, but sometimes huge boxes were made.
The Upper St’át’imc whose territory was invaded by thousands of miners seeking gold in Lillooet district and beyond, were faced with hunger and starvation. Their dependence on salmon, for trade and sustenance was impeded by the influx of miners who disturbed important spawning grounds. Salmon runs which had failed for the year prior, failed again that year and then the next. Hundreds of their people died of starvation during the winter of 1858 and again in 1859.
Captain Donellan, former chief of San Francisco police force, recalled his experiences during the Fraser River gold rush, including a pact reached at Washington Bar.
There was at this point a rancheria or a village of natives, who lived principally upon the salmon caught in the river; and it was reported that these natives would allow no miners to stop or congregate in their neighbourhood….The natives, for a while, were surly; but in a short time an amicable understanding was entered into, by which the miners agreed to…not disturb them in their fisheries. These fisheries were carried on with scoop or dip nets in the early mornings, and in the evenings from about 4 o’clock till dark…It was for fear that the miners would work in the water and disturb their fisheries that the natives looked with disfavour upon their approach; but upon the agreement that during fishing hours the miners would kep away from the river, everything was arranged to the satisfaction of both parties – and the pact was kept.
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ENGLISH
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In 1238, Ibn al-Ahmar rose up against Ibn Hud and conquered parts of the province of Granada. He established the kingdom of Granada, which extended from the mountains of Sierra Nevada to Gibraltar and which was originally made up of the province of Granada (where he set up his court), the provinces of Malaga and Almeria, and part of the provinces of Cordoba, Jaen, Sevilla, and Cadiz.
Before he died in 1273, Ahmar gave some of these territories to King Fernando who he helped to conquer Seville.
For about 250 years, this Moorish kingdom was ruled by 20 monarchs, and had a thriving Muslim community and a strong Islamic culture.
Unfortunately, the kingdom was gradually undermined due to the internal disagreements between its rulers and the successive conquests of various parts of the kingdom by the Christian armies. Its situation was becoming ever more precarious and the Catholic Monarchs decided to conquer the capital as the final step towards unity in Spain. On 2nd January 1492, Granada surrendered.
Although the treaties signed by the Catholic Monarchs with Boabdil for the surrender of Granada stated that the different languages, religions and customs would be respected, after a few years it became clear that this was not happening in practice, and Cardinal Cisneros insisted that everyone, regardless of their religion, be baptised.
The inquisitors had never been happy with these treaties which they believed slowed down their attempts to reduce the Muslim population and the practice of Islam in Spain. They also thought a Muslim revolt was imminent and that it was useless to expect peaceful conversion to Christianity. Cardinal Ximenes therefore asked Isabel and Fernando for permission to continue his inquisition activities and they agreed. Consequently, on 18th December 1499, some three thousand Moors were baptised, a major mosque in Granada was converted to a church and the burning of supposed religious books and documents began.
This understandably led to revolts and protests with a lot of unrest among those who had been forced to convert to Christianity, and a series of mutinies followed, culminating in the 1680 revolt which was finally put down. The most determined rebels fled to the Alpujarras where there was a violent uprising several years later.
Although promises were made that the treaties would be honoured, this did not happen and Ximenes announced that those Moors who refused to be baptised would be expelled. These baptisms were carried out en mass and at an incredible speed - so fast in fact that there was no time for religious instruction to be given to the new "converts". It has been estimated that between 50,000 and 70,000 Muslims were forcibly baptised in this way in Granada. The offer of emigration to Africa was really only a hollow promise and only available for those who were able to pay and who had not already been baptised.
After the Catholic Monarchs died, things got progressively worse: Queen Juana forbade the Moriscos to wear their national dress, and Carlos V introduced a theological council in 1526 which attempted to reform them. These rules were not rigidly imposed and people were able to avoid them by paying certain taxes. That all changed, however, with Felipe II who prohibited the use of Moorish dress, language and customs. As a result, there was a violent uprising on 24th December 1568. It began in the Albaicín and continued on into the Alpujarras with the Morisco Aben-Humeya being proclaimed king. Reinforcements were sent from Africa and the revolt extended to the rest of the province of Granada. Churches were burnt, villages ransacked and Christians were murdered. Following the death of Aben-Humeya, the uprising was eventually quashed in 1571. The rebels were then expelled from the kingdom and it was subsequently repopulated by Spaniards from other parts of the country.
In the centuries that followed, peace returned to Granada and it became an important cultural centre.
However, in 1808, Napoleon installed his brother Bonaparte on the Spanish throne. The Alhambra was at this time in a sorry state, and having fallen into disrepair in recent years and inhabited by thieves and beggars, it was used as a barracks by Napoleon's troops. During one of their retreats, they were responsible for blowing up two of its towers (Torre de Siete Suelos and the Torre de Agua) which were left in ruins. There was strong Spanish resistance to the Napoleonic Invasion, and consequently in 1812, he was replaced by the Spanish King Fernando VII.
The Spanish inquisition lasted from 1478 until 1834, an incredible 350 years. The idea behind any inquisition is to root out non-believers or anti-establishment individuals and the Spanish inquisition was used for both political and religious reasons. Following the conquest of Spain by the Catholic monarchs in 1492, there still remained a wealth of different religions living in Spain: Jews, Protestants, Catholics and Muslims. Believing it to be a way or reuniting Spain, Fernando and Isabel asked Pope Sixtus IV for permission in 1478 to "purify the people of Spain". He gave his reluctant approval and it was his duty to appoint the Inquisitor General.
In his role as the first Inquisitor General in 1483, Tomas de Torquemada was responsible for establishing the rules of the inquisition and branches in various cities. During the fifteen years he was in control, 2000 Spaniards were executed. The main aim of the Inquisition was to punish, torture and execute Jews and later Muslims who had converted to Christianity but who were insincere about their new religion. People could be accused by the general population. If they admitted to any wrongdoings and turned in any other wrongdoers, they would be released or given a short prison sentence. However, if they refused to cooperate, then they would be either publicly executed or sentenced to life imprisonment.
The fate of those accused, particularly rich Jewish usurers whose goods could later be be confiscated by the church, was decided on at the autos-da-fé (the trials of faith). These were large, solemn occasions and designed to instill fear and respect in those who attended them. One of the squares where these were held was the Bibarrambla square. Two processions would converge in the square: one bringing the accused from wherever they were being held prisoner, and the other with the heads from a nearby church. It was a long affair, going on from dawn to dusk, and stopping for lunch - a huge banquet - which was watched by those standing trial. Sentences would then announced in the afternoon, and those found guilty would either be taken away to be burnt or burnt in Bibarrambla itself, and the innocent would be pardoned.
The Inquisition, characterised by its cruelty and brutality, was finally abolished in 1834.
External links: wikipedia the Spanish Inquisition
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In 1238, Ibn al-Ahmar rose up against Ibn Hud and conquered parts of the province of Granada. He established the kingdom of Granada, which extended from the mountains of Sierra Nevada to Gibraltar and which was originally made up of the province of Granada (where he set up his court), the provinces of Malaga and Almeria, and part of the provinces of Cordoba, Jaen, Sevilla, and Cadiz.
Before he died in 1273, Ahmar gave some of these territories to King Fernando who he helped to conquer Seville.
For about 250 years, this Moorish kingdom was ruled by 20 monarchs, and had a thriving Muslim community and a strong Islamic culture.
Unfortunately, the kingdom was gradually undermined due to the internal disagreements between its rulers and the successive conquests of various parts of the kingdom by the Christian armies. Its situation was becoming ever more precarious and the Catholic Monarchs decided to conquer the capital as the final step towards unity in Spain. On 2nd January 1492, Granada surrendered.
Although the treaties signed by the Catholic Monarchs with Boabdil for the surrender of Granada stated that the different languages, religions and customs would be respected, after a few years it became clear that this was not happening in practice, and Cardinal Cisneros insisted that everyone, regardless of their religion, be baptised.
The inquisitors had never been happy with these treaties which they believed slowed down their attempts to reduce the Muslim population and the practice of Islam in Spain. They also thought a Muslim revolt was imminent and that it was useless to expect peaceful conversion to Christianity. Cardinal Ximenes therefore asked Isabel and Fernando for permission to continue his inquisition activities and they agreed. Consequently, on 18th December 1499, some three thousand Moors were baptised, a major mosque in Granada was converted to a church and the burning of supposed religious books and documents began.
This understandably led to revolts and protests with a lot of unrest among those who had been forced to convert to Christianity, and a series of mutinies followed, culminating in the 1680 revolt which was finally put down. The most determined rebels fled to the Alpujarras where there was a violent uprising several years later.
Although promises were made that the treaties would be honoured, this did not happen and Ximenes announced that those Moors who refused to be baptised would be expelled. These baptisms were carried out en mass and at an incredible speed - so fast in fact that there was no time for religious instruction to be given to the new "converts". It has been estimated that between 50,000 and 70,000 Muslims were forcibly baptised in this way in Granada. The offer of emigration to Africa was really only a hollow promise and only available for those who were able to pay and who had not already been baptised.
After the Catholic Monarchs died, things got progressively worse: Queen Juana forbade the Moriscos to wear their national dress, and Carlos V introduced a theological council in 1526 which attempted to reform them. These rules were not rigidly imposed and people were able to avoid them by paying certain taxes. That all changed, however, with Felipe II who prohibited the use of Moorish dress, language and customs. As a result, there was a violent uprising on 24th December 1568. It began in the Albaicín and continued on into the Alpujarras with the Morisco Aben-Humeya being proclaimed king. Reinforcements were sent from Africa and the revolt extended to the rest of the province of Granada. Churches were burnt, villages ransacked and Christians were murdered. Following the death of Aben-Humeya, the uprising was eventually quashed in 1571. The rebels were then expelled from the kingdom and it was subsequently repopulated by Spaniards from other parts of the country.
In the centuries that followed, peace returned to Granada and it became an important cultural centre.
However, in 1808, Napoleon installed his brother Bonaparte on the Spanish throne. The Alhambra was at this time in a sorry state, and having fallen into disrepair in recent years and inhabited by thieves and beggars, it was used as a barracks by Napoleon's troops. During one of their retreats, they were responsible for blowing up two of its towers (Torre de Siete Suelos and the Torre de Agua) which were left in ruins. There was strong Spanish resistance to the Napoleonic Invasion, and consequently in 1812, he was replaced by the Spanish King Fernando VII.
The Spanish inquisition lasted from 1478 until 1834, an incredible 350 years. The idea behind any inquisition is to root out non-believers or anti-establishment individuals and the Spanish inquisition was used for both political and religious reasons. Following the conquest of Spain by the Catholic monarchs in 1492, there still remained a wealth of different religions living in Spain: Jews, Protestants, Catholics and Muslims. Believing it to be a way or reuniting Spain, Fernando and Isabel asked Pope Sixtus IV for permission in 1478 to "purify the people of Spain". He gave his reluctant approval and it was his duty to appoint the Inquisitor General.
In his role as the first Inquisitor General in 1483, Tomas de Torquemada was responsible for establishing the rules of the inquisition and branches in various cities. During the fifteen years he was in control, 2000 Spaniards were executed. The main aim of the Inquisition was to punish, torture and execute Jews and later Muslims who had converted to Christianity but who were insincere about their new religion. People could be accused by the general population. If they admitted to any wrongdoings and turned in any other wrongdoers, they would be released or given a short prison sentence. However, if they refused to cooperate, then they would be either publicly executed or sentenced to life imprisonment.
The fate of those accused, particularly rich Jewish usurers whose goods could later be be confiscated by the church, was decided on at the autos-da-fé (the trials of faith). These were large, solemn occasions and designed to instill fear and respect in those who attended them. One of the squares where these were held was the Bibarrambla square. Two processions would converge in the square: one bringing the accused from wherever they were being held prisoner, and the other with the heads from a nearby church. It was a long affair, going on from dawn to dusk, and stopping for lunch - a huge banquet - which was watched by those standing trial. Sentences would then announced in the afternoon, and those found guilty would either be taken away to be burnt or burnt in Bibarrambla itself, and the innocent would be pardoned.
The Inquisition, characterised by its cruelty and brutality, was finally abolished in 1834.
External links: wikipedia the Spanish Inquisition
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The 75th anniversary of the Battle of Hong Kong is being commemorated across Canada by veterans and survivors of Japanese occupation and their families. About 2,000 Canadians fought to defend Hong Kong against Japanese occupation in Canada’s first combat mission of the Second World War.
“They were relatively inexperienced. A lot of them were new recruits,” says Patrick Donovan, curator of the exhibit Hong Kong and the Home Front at the Morrin Centre in Québec City, Quebec. “A lot of them learned to fire their rifles on the boat ride over.”
The Royal Rifles of Canada, Quebec City’s main English-speaking regiment, and the Winnipeg Grenadiers were sent to Hong Kong in fall of 1941 to join a battalion of commonwealth forces totalling 14,000 troops.
On December 8, 1941, Japanese aircraft began attacking Hong Kong. A day earlier, they had attacked Pearl Harbor. The defence of Hong Kong ended almost three weeks later when Canadian and other defending troops were forced to surrender. Among Canadian troops, 290 were killed and 493 were wounded.
Hong Kong and several other countries and territories were occupied by Japan for the duration of the war. On November 4, 1948, the International Military Tribunals for the Far East found 25 Japanese military and government officials guilty of committing war crimes and crimes against humanity during the Second World War.
Personal experiences of war
“The occupation is something we never talk about,” says Sovita Chander, whose father grew up in Japanese-occupied British Malay. The former president of the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, which runs the Morrin Centre, Chander says she learned about this period of her father’s life through his memoirs.
“I can’t imagine my own children — now in university — having to go through that, and my heart goes out to my parents who were so young at that time,” says Chander.
“A lot of them learned to fire their rifles on the boat ride over.”
Her father’s memoirs describe how at the age of six, he and his family spent a day in an underground shelter as the Japanese army passed overhead. The next day, he watched his father stay with a dying Indian soldier, who he buried the next day.
“Despite the atrocities, horror, and depravation, he held no animosity for the former occupiers,” says Chander of her father, noting that Malaya was also a British colony. “He developed an international outlook that was liberal and tolerant.”
Chander says it’s important to tell the story of the people from the Québec City region who were in Hong Kong, including some people who were involved with the Morrin Centre at the time.
“We tend to focus a lot on the victories of the war and it tends to glorify the whole business of war,” says Donovan of the Centre’s exhibit. “It’s important to look at some of the defeats, and this story is a tragedy.”
He says the soldiers who were not killed were held in Japanese Prisoner of War camps for the duration of the War. Many prisoners died of malnutrition or diseases related to lack of food.
According to Veterans Affairs Canada, more than 550 of the almost 2,000 Canadians who went to Hong Kong never returned.
“It’s important to look at some of the defeats, and this story is a tragedy.”
“The Japanese still have not come to terms with what they did in the Second World War,” says Judy Lam Maxwell, whose mother lived under Japanese occupation in Hong Kong as a child.
“She had told me that because her father was a doctor, he could hide the kids in the hospital and they would be safe from harm,” says Lam Maxwell. “My mom, her siblings, and her mom are fortunate to have survived.” She says that her grandfather, or Goong Goong, was tortured by the Japanese, but also survived.
Commemorating the Battle
Lam Maxwell heard the stories of other survivors when she travelled to Hong Kong with ex-servicemen from Canada several years ago. She collected newspaper articles from Canada and Hong Kong that will be part of an exhibit at Centre A in Vancouver, B.C. later this year to commemorate the Battle of Hong Kong.
“Many of the Canadians and immigrants from Hong Kong living in Canada do not know this history and it’s important for museums and historians to share the significant link between Canada and Hong Kong,” says King Wan, president of the Chinese Canadian Military Museum Society.
The Chinese Canadian Military Museum in Vancouver will showcase “Force 136” on May 14 as part of Asian Heritage Month to commemorate Chinese-Canadians who joined the Special Operations Executive in East Asia during the war.
Many prisoners died of malnutrition or diseases related to lack of food.
He notes that at the time, people of Chinese descent were prohibited from joining Canada’s armed forces. While many were rejected, recruiters who were eager to meet quotas accepted some Chinese-Canadians who enlisted.
The policy against Chinese recruitment was rescinded after the British government pressured the Canadian government to recruit Chinese-Canadians, as they could easily assimilate into East-Asian society and work for the army undercover. More than 700 Chinese-Canadians joined the Canadian army, mostly in British Columbia.
The museum will also commemorate the Battle of Hong Kong with another exhibit in the fall.
For Wan, whose family immigrated to Canada from Hong Kong, he feels these events are especially important so that we remember the service of both Chinese and Canadian soldiers who served in Asia and in the Battle of Hong Kong.
A poster recalls the Battle of Hong Kong to enlist new recruits to join the Royal Rifles of Canada, based in Quebec City. Source: Canadian Museum of History.
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The 75th anniversary of the Battle of Hong Kong is being commemorated across Canada by veterans and survivors of Japanese occupation and their families. About 2,000 Canadians fought to defend Hong Kong against Japanese occupation in Canada’s first combat mission of the Second World War.
“They were relatively inexperienced. A lot of them were new recruits,” says Patrick Donovan, curator of the exhibit Hong Kong and the Home Front at the Morrin Centre in Québec City, Quebec. “A lot of them learned to fire their rifles on the boat ride over.”
The Royal Rifles of Canada, Quebec City’s main English-speaking regiment, and the Winnipeg Grenadiers were sent to Hong Kong in fall of 1941 to join a battalion of commonwealth forces totalling 14,000 troops.
On December 8, 1941, Japanese aircraft began attacking Hong Kong. A day earlier, they had attacked Pearl Harbor. The defence of Hong Kong ended almost three weeks later when Canadian and other defending troops were forced to surrender. Among Canadian troops, 290 were killed and 493 were wounded.
Hong Kong and several other countries and territories were occupied by Japan for the duration of the war. On November 4, 1948, the International Military Tribunals for the Far East found 25 Japanese military and government officials guilty of committing war crimes and crimes against humanity during the Second World War.
Personal experiences of war
“The occupation is something we never talk about,” says Sovita Chander, whose father grew up in Japanese-occupied British Malay. The former president of the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, which runs the Morrin Centre, Chander says she learned about this period of her father’s life through his memoirs.
“I can’t imagine my own children — now in university — having to go through that, and my heart goes out to my parents who were so young at that time,” says Chander.
“A lot of them learned to fire their rifles on the boat ride over.”
Her father’s memoirs describe how at the age of six, he and his family spent a day in an underground shelter as the Japanese army passed overhead. The next day, he watched his father stay with a dying Indian soldier, who he buried the next day.
“Despite the atrocities, horror, and depravation, he held no animosity for the former occupiers,” says Chander of her father, noting that Malaya was also a British colony. “He developed an international outlook that was liberal and tolerant.”
Chander says it’s important to tell the story of the people from the Québec City region who were in Hong Kong, including some people who were involved with the Morrin Centre at the time.
“We tend to focus a lot on the victories of the war and it tends to glorify the whole business of war,” says Donovan of the Centre’s exhibit. “It’s important to look at some of the defeats, and this story is a tragedy.”
He says the soldiers who were not killed were held in Japanese Prisoner of War camps for the duration of the War. Many prisoners died of malnutrition or diseases related to lack of food.
According to Veterans Affairs Canada, more than 550 of the almost 2,000 Canadians who went to Hong Kong never returned.
“It’s important to look at some of the defeats, and this story is a tragedy.”
“The Japanese still have not come to terms with what they did in the Second World War,” says Judy Lam Maxwell, whose mother lived under Japanese occupation in Hong Kong as a child.
“She had told me that because her father was a doctor, he could hide the kids in the hospital and they would be safe from harm,” says Lam Maxwell. “My mom, her siblings, and her mom are fortunate to have survived.” She says that her grandfather, or Goong Goong, was tortured by the Japanese, but also survived.
Commemorating the Battle
Lam Maxwell heard the stories of other survivors when she travelled to Hong Kong with ex-servicemen from Canada several years ago. She collected newspaper articles from Canada and Hong Kong that will be part of an exhibit at Centre A in Vancouver, B.C. later this year to commemorate the Battle of Hong Kong.
“Many of the Canadians and immigrants from Hong Kong living in Canada do not know this history and it’s important for museums and historians to share the significant link between Canada and Hong Kong,” says King Wan, president of the Chinese Canadian Military Museum Society.
The Chinese Canadian Military Museum in Vancouver will showcase “Force 136” on May 14 as part of Asian Heritage Month to commemorate Chinese-Canadians who joined the Special Operations Executive in East Asia during the war.
Many prisoners died of malnutrition or diseases related to lack of food.
He notes that at the time, people of Chinese descent were prohibited from joining Canada’s armed forces. While many were rejected, recruiters who were eager to meet quotas accepted some Chinese-Canadians who enlisted.
The policy against Chinese recruitment was rescinded after the British government pressured the Canadian government to recruit Chinese-Canadians, as they could easily assimilate into East-Asian society and work for the army undercover. More than 700 Chinese-Canadians joined the Canadian army, mostly in British Columbia.
The museum will also commemorate the Battle of Hong Kong with another exhibit in the fall.
For Wan, whose family immigrated to Canada from Hong Kong, he feels these events are especially important so that we remember the service of both Chinese and Canadian soldiers who served in Asia and in the Battle of Hong Kong.
A poster recalls the Battle of Hong Kong to enlist new recruits to join the Royal Rifles of Canada, based in Quebec City. Source: Canadian Museum of History.
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Composer and member of the suffrage movement 1911
Composed ‘The March of the Women’
‘Because I have conducted my own operas and love sheep-dogs; because I generally dress in tweeds; …because I have written books, spoken speeches, broadcast, and don’t always make sure that my hat is on straight; for these and other equally pertinent reasons, in a certain sense I am well known.’ Ethel Smyth
Ethel Smyth was an English composer and writer. In 1910 she was very famous and Durham University gave her an Honorary Doctorate for her musical achievements. She had also fallen in love with Emmeline Pankhurst. The women were both 52 years old.
Pankhurst had started the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU). It believed in ‘Deeds, not words’. Smyth decided to stop her own work and give two years’ service to the suffragettes. The suffragette movement needed a song for their members. Ethel wrote ‘The March of the Women’ for them. It was presented to Pankhurst at a WSPU meeting.
The first performance of the song was at the Albert Hall in London on March 23, 1911. It was then sung at meetings and on marches.
A booklet included the words and music. People could carry it easily, and it could be given out at meetings. Designer and socialist Mary “May” Morris designed the cover. May was the daughter of the well-known socialist poet and designer William Morris. It was produced in1911 and dedicated to the WSPU.
The opening words of the song.
Shout, shout, up with your song!
Cry with the wind, for the dawn is breaking;
March, march, swing you along,
Wide blows our banner, and hope is waking
You can listen to the song online
She had co-founded the Women Writers’ Suffrage League and wrote popular women’s suffrage plays.
In 1912 the WSPU had a new campaign. They decided to smash the windows of houses and offices of people who did not want women to vote. They chose shops, and political offices in central London. At precisely 5:30 p.m. on March 1st hundreds of women pulled hammers and rocks out of their handbags and started throwing. Pankhurst and Smyth were there too. Both women were arrested along with over a hundred other women.
Smyth was sent to Holloway Prison for two months, though she was only there for three weeks. The conductor Thomas Beecham visited her. He was Smyth’s friend. He saw suffragettes in the prison yard singing ‘The March of the Women’. Smyth put her arm out through the bars of her prison cell and conducted the music with a toothbrush. That was Ethel Smyth!
Ethel was a strong fighter for equality, whether it was equal votes for women or dealing with the men running classical music. She broke the windows of politicians who were against votes for women. She also cracked the glass ceiling of one of America’s most famous concert halls: The Metropolitan Opera. She wrote six operas! No other British composer had done that at the time. You can listen to her work online.
The writer Claire Tomalin said, ‘Ethel’s work did not stand in the way of her social activities, or her many passionate friendships. Throughout her life, she loved intensely, without regard to age or gender. She did defy – or perhaps rather ignore – all the stereotypes of her time, whether in matters of work, sex, class or even manners.’
The sheet music for ‘The March of the Women’
The words were by Cecily Hamilton.
The Front cover of a booklet for ‘The March of the Women’.
Picture from the Lewis Orchard Collection Ref.9180, Surrey History Centre.
Smyth on stage at a WSPU meeting in 1912.
Picture from The Women’s Library collection, LSE Library
Voices and Visibility 2019
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] | 11
|
Composer and member of the suffrage movement 1911
Composed ‘The March of the Women’
‘Because I have conducted my own operas and love sheep-dogs; because I generally dress in tweeds; …because I have written books, spoken speeches, broadcast, and don’t always make sure that my hat is on straight; for these and other equally pertinent reasons, in a certain sense I am well known.’ Ethel Smyth
Ethel Smyth was an English composer and writer. In 1910 she was very famous and Durham University gave her an Honorary Doctorate for her musical achievements. She had also fallen in love with Emmeline Pankhurst. The women were both 52 years old.
Pankhurst had started the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU). It believed in ‘Deeds, not words’. Smyth decided to stop her own work and give two years’ service to the suffragettes. The suffragette movement needed a song for their members. Ethel wrote ‘The March of the Women’ for them. It was presented to Pankhurst at a WSPU meeting.
The first performance of the song was at the Albert Hall in London on March 23, 1911. It was then sung at meetings and on marches.
A booklet included the words and music. People could carry it easily, and it could be given out at meetings. Designer and socialist Mary “May” Morris designed the cover. May was the daughter of the well-known socialist poet and designer William Morris. It was produced in1911 and dedicated to the WSPU.
The opening words of the song.
Shout, shout, up with your song!
Cry with the wind, for the dawn is breaking;
March, march, swing you along,
Wide blows our banner, and hope is waking
You can listen to the song online
She had co-founded the Women Writers’ Suffrage League and wrote popular women’s suffrage plays.
In 1912 the WSPU had a new campaign. They decided to smash the windows of houses and offices of people who did not want women to vote. They chose shops, and political offices in central London. At precisely 5:30 p.m. on March 1st hundreds of women pulled hammers and rocks out of their handbags and started throwing. Pankhurst and Smyth were there too. Both women were arrested along with over a hundred other women.
Smyth was sent to Holloway Prison for two months, though she was only there for three weeks. The conductor Thomas Beecham visited her. He was Smyth’s friend. He saw suffragettes in the prison yard singing ‘The March of the Women’. Smyth put her arm out through the bars of her prison cell and conducted the music with a toothbrush. That was Ethel Smyth!
Ethel was a strong fighter for equality, whether it was equal votes for women or dealing with the men running classical music. She broke the windows of politicians who were against votes for women. She also cracked the glass ceiling of one of America’s most famous concert halls: The Metropolitan Opera. She wrote six operas! No other British composer had done that at the time. You can listen to her work online.
The writer Claire Tomalin said, ‘Ethel’s work did not stand in the way of her social activities, or her many passionate friendships. Throughout her life, she loved intensely, without regard to age or gender. She did defy – or perhaps rather ignore – all the stereotypes of her time, whether in matters of work, sex, class or even manners.’
The sheet music for ‘The March of the Women’
The words were by Cecily Hamilton.
The Front cover of a booklet for ‘The March of the Women’.
Picture from the Lewis Orchard Collection Ref.9180, Surrey History Centre.
Smyth on stage at a WSPU meeting in 1912.
Picture from The Women’s Library collection, LSE Library
Voices and Visibility 2019
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ENGLISH
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Abraham Lincoln: Breaking Down the Myth of a Perfect President
Fred Kaplan on the Antislavery Moralist Who Distrusted Abolitionism
Our 16th president is often either vilified or deified, his great strengths exaggerated, his flaws minimized or disregarded. Since the assassination that transformed him into a martyr, it has been nearly impossible to see Lincoln plain, almost as difficult as Robert Browning remarked it was to see “Shelley plain,” the Romantic poet whose early death had made him a legend rather than a man.
Lincoln was of course born into a world that shaped him. He was not originally a mythologized face on Mount Rushmore, the perfect president who freed the slaves and saved the Union. He was in no rush to free any slaves at all. He believed the slave problem would best be solved by voluntary deportation, known as colonization. One of the legacies of emancipation would, he feared, be a hundred years or more of volatile racism. As a minority president, he found himself backed into a corner by secession, a corner from which he reluctantly took the Union to war to save it. The South started the war to save slavery. The North fought it to keep the Union intact. Like many Americans, Lincoln believed the war would be short. He never imagined it would be as devastatingly long as it turned out to be. The South would, he hoped, relent, or its armies be defeated quickly. Slow to realize no peaceful solution or wartime compromise possible, he stumbled in his choice of strategies, mostly because he misjudged the South, partly because of his ameliorative personality.
Lincoln had no specific plan for postwar reconstruction and national reunification. Whatever he may have attempted if he had lived was likely to have been no more successful, however, than what followed his death. Southern racism was too deeply entrenched ever to have acquiesced in civil rights for blacks without bitter resistance. It’s unlikely that if Lincoln had not been assassinated, America’s racial history would have been a better one. The conflict between state sovereignty and federal authority, differing interpretations of the Constitution, and the belief, deeply embedded in white America’s psyche and laws, that the United States was exclusively a white man’s country would have persisted, regardless of Lincoln’s longevity.
Early in the 19th century, John Quincy Adams, our sixth president, had become convinced that slavery would destroy the Union. Slavery would be ended, he came to believe, only through a civil war. The emancipation schemes his contemporaries proposed, including voluntary immigration of free blacks and emancipated slaves to a nation of their own, seemed to him impractical and unjust. He refused to support the American Colonization Society. Lincoln, who also abhorred slavery as a moral crime, put all his hopes in the Colonization Society. Adams thought it absurd to suppose that free blacks would immigrate voluntarily to Africa or that slave owners would ever cooperate in emancipation. Convinced that slavery would not be the rock against which the nation split, Lincoln believed the South would not succumb to the folly of secession. Adams knew the Southern mind better, having observed its uncompromising, quasi-violent character day after day in Congress from 1833 to 1848. By temperament and willful self-delusion, Lincoln hoped (until the reality was forced upon him) that good sense and the “better angels of our nature” would prevail. Over time, slavery would be eliminated peacefully. Adams never believed that possible. There were no “better angels.”
“One of the legacies of emancipation would, [Lincoln] feared, be a hundred years or more of volatile racism.”
As political philosophers, these two presidents, our most literate, forward-looking statesmen of the 19th century, held similar views about how to guide America toward a prosperous future. Both belonged to the Whig Party that existed from 1832 to 1856. At first a Federalist, then a National Republican, Adams, after 1832, aligned himself with the segment of the National Republicans that morphed into the Whig Party. Yet he always kept his distance from whatever party he had an association with. At heart, he detested parties and party politics. Lincoln was always a party man, at first a Whig and then one of the Republican Party’s leading founding members. Adams worked mostly from the outside, by personality outspoken and a radical; Lincoln from inside, a consensus politician who met his destiny when conciliation was no longer possible. On matters of policy (a national bank, paper money, trade, education, infrastructure, manufacturing, and the proper balance between federal and state power), they were, with the exception of how to deal with slavery, entirely in agreement.
The why and how of that exception illuminate much about Lincoln and the crosscurrents of his life and times. Both Adams and Lincoln were antislavery moralists. Lincoln, unlike Adams, never became an antislavery activist, even when a brutal civil war forced him to take action against slavery. Adams envisioned a multiracial America as inevitable. Long before his death he became deeply sympathetic to abolitionists and abolitionism. Lincoln distrusted abolitionism. Though he believed slavery a moral abomination incompatible with American principles, and looked toward its eventual elimination, he desired that all blacks residing in the United States immigrate to a land of their own. He worried that the attempt of the two races to occupy the same country would lead to a century or more of racial conflict.
Different as they were by background and temperament, Lincoln and Adams had much in common. Both were masters of English prose, Adams in the classical style of the late 18th century into which he had been born, Lincoln in the colloquial style of common speech that became the hallmark of modern American prose. Though they diverged on the issue of antislavery activism, both had an abiding commitment to the dynamic interaction among literature, character formation, and public life. Lincoln and his favorite newspaper, his hometown Sangamo Journal, admired everything about Adams except his outspoken antislavery activism. Abolition and abolitionists were the third rail of national politics for Whig newspapers and politicians.
As a personality and writer, Adams had one foot in the 18th century; Lincoln, one foot in the 21st. In their own time and on slavery and racism, they meet, diverge, and illuminate each other. Surprisingly, on these issues, Adams is more a citizen of the 21st century than Lincoln. Their lives also overlapped. Congressman Lincoln was in the hall of the House of Representatives when, in February 1848, Congressman Adams suffered a fatal stroke. Interweaving their direct and indirect relationship, especially on the most controversial issue of the first half of the 19th century, reveals a dynamic relevant to our past and present. Mutually complementary, Adams and Lincoln, in their differences and similarities, represent the richness of the American experience and the complicated challenge of leading a divided country. They also, together, testify to the long-standing and complicated historical relationship between leadership and moral self-definition.
“In April 1865, in Ford’s Theatre, Lincoln knew that he had saved the Union and ended slavery, but also that the racism underlying slavery was widespread and powerful.”
The achievements of Adams and Lincoln were immense. Yet the praise is better highlighted if the reality is honored. It demeans the man and his situation to simplify Lincoln. He was “the Great Emancipator” in a limited sense only. And by using a historically inaccurate wish fulfillment version of Lincoln, we make the burden heavier on other presidents, including candidates for the presidency in our own time. The mythologized, ahistorical Lincoln is an impossible standard. No one can measure up to it, not even Lincoln. He was a great president, despite his limited vision and his conciliatory politics; despite his inability to embrace some version of abolitionism; despite his fixation on colonization; despite his belief, almost to the end of his life, that America should remain a white man’s country; despite his mistakes as commander in chief, especially his attempt to bribe the South back into the Union and his counterproductive efforts to keep the border states from breaking away; and, most of all, despite his willingness to buy union at the cost of perpetuating slavery indefinitely.
Circumstances beyond Lincoln’s control determined a series of momentous events for him and the nation. They also determined the degree to which he could become an active agent of change. To his immense credit, when faced with disunion, he drew a number of practical and moral lines in the interest of which he was willing to take great risks. The first was the nonextension of slavery into the territories. Abolitionists could, understandably, think this so little as to be almost contemptible. But given who Lincoln was and what he faced politically, it was important enough to have significant consequences. The second was that military force was required to keep the Union intact. Faced with secession, he decided to resupply Fort Sumter, though there was reason to believe the Confederacy would respond with force, initiating armed conflict. And faced with the likelihood that the war would be prolonged excruciatingly or even lost, he at last, in 1863, decided on partial emancipation. And when he finally found the right generals and gave up his efforts to bribe the border states, he also discovered the courage, born of desperation, to commit himself to black manpower to strengthen his army and weaken the Confederacy.
For John Quincy Adams, all this would have seemed a recognition of the inevitable. For abolitionists such as Wendell Phillips, William Lloyd Garrison, Frederick Douglass, and H. Ford Douglas, Lincoln’s journey toward the place they had long occupied seemed painfully slow. That he would not have arrived there had he not been forced by circumstances beyond his control to confront the abyss does not, however, detract from the courage it took to do it. White America had no desire to shed blood or pay money to emancipate slaves. Lincoln had to find ways, halting, difficult, and indirect as they were, to take white America down the road of what became total war and, eventually, total emancipation. At the end, he well knew that this extraordinary accomplishment had left the country with a damaging reality, an almost fatal wound: the difficulty of reconciliation between North and South, between anti-black racism and white America. Eight million bitterly resentful white Southerners would be forced to co-exist with four million ex-slaves whose freedom they deplored and whose liberators they detested.
The result: the failure of reconstruction; the virtual re-enslavement of most Southern blacks; Jim Crow; the civil rights movement; and the still existing post-Civil War hangover of widespread racial prejudice. In April 1865, in Ford’s Theatre, Lincoln knew that he had saved the Union and ended slavery, but also that the racism underlying slavery was widespread and powerful. When he died, he had no solution for this reality, and he knew that his beloved country had entered into a century and more of racial misery. The racism that he feared would dominate black-white relations, white America’s unwillingness to share power with what it believed to be an inferior race, would have characterized the United States even if he had remained president until March 1869: Jim Crow would still have become the new Southern reality; the North would eventually have looked the other way; the white knights of the Ku Klux Klan would have raised their torches as they rode, burning and lynching in the night; the march across the bridge at Selma would have been in America’s future; Ferguson and Dallas still would have happened. The racist alt-right and white nationalist movements would have arisen. I don’t think that this hypothetical Lincoln, melancholy and pessimistic by nature, leaving office after eight wearying years, would have been a happy man. Of course, happiness was not in his nature, but it was not in the historical reality, either.
From Lincoln and the Abolitionists. Used with permission of Harper Perennial. Copyright © 2018 by Fred Kaplan.
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] | 10
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Abraham Lincoln: Breaking Down the Myth of a Perfect President
Fred Kaplan on the Antislavery Moralist Who Distrusted Abolitionism
Our 16th president is often either vilified or deified, his great strengths exaggerated, his flaws minimized or disregarded. Since the assassination that transformed him into a martyr, it has been nearly impossible to see Lincoln plain, almost as difficult as Robert Browning remarked it was to see “Shelley plain,” the Romantic poet whose early death had made him a legend rather than a man.
Lincoln was of course born into a world that shaped him. He was not originally a mythologized face on Mount Rushmore, the perfect president who freed the slaves and saved the Union. He was in no rush to free any slaves at all. He believed the slave problem would best be solved by voluntary deportation, known as colonization. One of the legacies of emancipation would, he feared, be a hundred years or more of volatile racism. As a minority president, he found himself backed into a corner by secession, a corner from which he reluctantly took the Union to war to save it. The South started the war to save slavery. The North fought it to keep the Union intact. Like many Americans, Lincoln believed the war would be short. He never imagined it would be as devastatingly long as it turned out to be. The South would, he hoped, relent, or its armies be defeated quickly. Slow to realize no peaceful solution or wartime compromise possible, he stumbled in his choice of strategies, mostly because he misjudged the South, partly because of his ameliorative personality.
Lincoln had no specific plan for postwar reconstruction and national reunification. Whatever he may have attempted if he had lived was likely to have been no more successful, however, than what followed his death. Southern racism was too deeply entrenched ever to have acquiesced in civil rights for blacks without bitter resistance. It’s unlikely that if Lincoln had not been assassinated, America’s racial history would have been a better one. The conflict between state sovereignty and federal authority, differing interpretations of the Constitution, and the belief, deeply embedded in white America’s psyche and laws, that the United States was exclusively a white man’s country would have persisted, regardless of Lincoln’s longevity.
Early in the 19th century, John Quincy Adams, our sixth president, had become convinced that slavery would destroy the Union. Slavery would be ended, he came to believe, only through a civil war. The emancipation schemes his contemporaries proposed, including voluntary immigration of free blacks and emancipated slaves to a nation of their own, seemed to him impractical and unjust. He refused to support the American Colonization Society. Lincoln, who also abhorred slavery as a moral crime, put all his hopes in the Colonization Society. Adams thought it absurd to suppose that free blacks would immigrate voluntarily to Africa or that slave owners would ever cooperate in emancipation. Convinced that slavery would not be the rock against which the nation split, Lincoln believed the South would not succumb to the folly of secession. Adams knew the Southern mind better, having observed its uncompromising, quasi-violent character day after day in Congress from 1833 to 1848. By temperament and willful self-delusion, Lincoln hoped (until the reality was forced upon him) that good sense and the “better angels of our nature” would prevail. Over time, slavery would be eliminated peacefully. Adams never believed that possible. There were no “better angels.”
“One of the legacies of emancipation would, [Lincoln] feared, be a hundred years or more of volatile racism.”
As political philosophers, these two presidents, our most literate, forward-looking statesmen of the 19th century, held similar views about how to guide America toward a prosperous future. Both belonged to the Whig Party that existed from 1832 to 1856. At first a Federalist, then a National Republican, Adams, after 1832, aligned himself with the segment of the National Republicans that morphed into the Whig Party. Yet he always kept his distance from whatever party he had an association with. At heart, he detested parties and party politics. Lincoln was always a party man, at first a Whig and then one of the Republican Party’s leading founding members. Adams worked mostly from the outside, by personality outspoken and a radical; Lincoln from inside, a consensus politician who met his destiny when conciliation was no longer possible. On matters of policy (a national bank, paper money, trade, education, infrastructure, manufacturing, and the proper balance between federal and state power), they were, with the exception of how to deal with slavery, entirely in agreement.
The why and how of that exception illuminate much about Lincoln and the crosscurrents of his life and times. Both Adams and Lincoln were antislavery moralists. Lincoln, unlike Adams, never became an antislavery activist, even when a brutal civil war forced him to take action against slavery. Adams envisioned a multiracial America as inevitable. Long before his death he became deeply sympathetic to abolitionists and abolitionism. Lincoln distrusted abolitionism. Though he believed slavery a moral abomination incompatible with American principles, and looked toward its eventual elimination, he desired that all blacks residing in the United States immigrate to a land of their own. He worried that the attempt of the two races to occupy the same country would lead to a century or more of racial conflict.
Different as they were by background and temperament, Lincoln and Adams had much in common. Both were masters of English prose, Adams in the classical style of the late 18th century into which he had been born, Lincoln in the colloquial style of common speech that became the hallmark of modern American prose. Though they diverged on the issue of antislavery activism, both had an abiding commitment to the dynamic interaction among literature, character formation, and public life. Lincoln and his favorite newspaper, his hometown Sangamo Journal, admired everything about Adams except his outspoken antislavery activism. Abolition and abolitionists were the third rail of national politics for Whig newspapers and politicians.
As a personality and writer, Adams had one foot in the 18th century; Lincoln, one foot in the 21st. In their own time and on slavery and racism, they meet, diverge, and illuminate each other. Surprisingly, on these issues, Adams is more a citizen of the 21st century than Lincoln. Their lives also overlapped. Congressman Lincoln was in the hall of the House of Representatives when, in February 1848, Congressman Adams suffered a fatal stroke. Interweaving their direct and indirect relationship, especially on the most controversial issue of the first half of the 19th century, reveals a dynamic relevant to our past and present. Mutually complementary, Adams and Lincoln, in their differences and similarities, represent the richness of the American experience and the complicated challenge of leading a divided country. They also, together, testify to the long-standing and complicated historical relationship between leadership and moral self-definition.
“In April 1865, in Ford’s Theatre, Lincoln knew that he had saved the Union and ended slavery, but also that the racism underlying slavery was widespread and powerful.”
The achievements of Adams and Lincoln were immense. Yet the praise is better highlighted if the reality is honored. It demeans the man and his situation to simplify Lincoln. He was “the Great Emancipator” in a limited sense only. And by using a historically inaccurate wish fulfillment version of Lincoln, we make the burden heavier on other presidents, including candidates for the presidency in our own time. The mythologized, ahistorical Lincoln is an impossible standard. No one can measure up to it, not even Lincoln. He was a great president, despite his limited vision and his conciliatory politics; despite his inability to embrace some version of abolitionism; despite his fixation on colonization; despite his belief, almost to the end of his life, that America should remain a white man’s country; despite his mistakes as commander in chief, especially his attempt to bribe the South back into the Union and his counterproductive efforts to keep the border states from breaking away; and, most of all, despite his willingness to buy union at the cost of perpetuating slavery indefinitely.
Circumstances beyond Lincoln’s control determined a series of momentous events for him and the nation. They also determined the degree to which he could become an active agent of change. To his immense credit, when faced with disunion, he drew a number of practical and moral lines in the interest of which he was willing to take great risks. The first was the nonextension of slavery into the territories. Abolitionists could, understandably, think this so little as to be almost contemptible. But given who Lincoln was and what he faced politically, it was important enough to have significant consequences. The second was that military force was required to keep the Union intact. Faced with secession, he decided to resupply Fort Sumter, though there was reason to believe the Confederacy would respond with force, initiating armed conflict. And faced with the likelihood that the war would be prolonged excruciatingly or even lost, he at last, in 1863, decided on partial emancipation. And when he finally found the right generals and gave up his efforts to bribe the border states, he also discovered the courage, born of desperation, to commit himself to black manpower to strengthen his army and weaken the Confederacy.
For John Quincy Adams, all this would have seemed a recognition of the inevitable. For abolitionists such as Wendell Phillips, William Lloyd Garrison, Frederick Douglass, and H. Ford Douglas, Lincoln’s journey toward the place they had long occupied seemed painfully slow. That he would not have arrived there had he not been forced by circumstances beyond his control to confront the abyss does not, however, detract from the courage it took to do it. White America had no desire to shed blood or pay money to emancipate slaves. Lincoln had to find ways, halting, difficult, and indirect as they were, to take white America down the road of what became total war and, eventually, total emancipation. At the end, he well knew that this extraordinary accomplishment had left the country with a damaging reality, an almost fatal wound: the difficulty of reconciliation between North and South, between anti-black racism and white America. Eight million bitterly resentful white Southerners would be forced to co-exist with four million ex-slaves whose freedom they deplored and whose liberators they detested.
The result: the failure of reconstruction; the virtual re-enslavement of most Southern blacks; Jim Crow; the civil rights movement; and the still existing post-Civil War hangover of widespread racial prejudice. In April 1865, in Ford’s Theatre, Lincoln knew that he had saved the Union and ended slavery, but also that the racism underlying slavery was widespread and powerful. When he died, he had no solution for this reality, and he knew that his beloved country had entered into a century and more of racial misery. The racism that he feared would dominate black-white relations, white America’s unwillingness to share power with what it believed to be an inferior race, would have characterized the United States even if he had remained president until March 1869: Jim Crow would still have become the new Southern reality; the North would eventually have looked the other way; the white knights of the Ku Klux Klan would have raised their torches as they rode, burning and lynching in the night; the march across the bridge at Selma would have been in America’s future; Ferguson and Dallas still would have happened. The racist alt-right and white nationalist movements would have arisen. I don’t think that this hypothetical Lincoln, melancholy and pessimistic by nature, leaving office after eight wearying years, would have been a happy man. Of course, happiness was not in his nature, but it was not in the historical reality, either.
From Lincoln and the Abolitionists. Used with permission of Harper Perennial. Copyright © 2018 by Fred Kaplan.
| 2,526
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Jackson frq common man
Era of the common man
He was indeed a war hero before he was elected as president and helped him gain presidency. At this time, states differed on how electoral votes were assigned. Henry Clay was the polar opposite of John Quincy Adams—Adams a puritanical, moral man and Clay a hard-living gambler with an urge to duel—however, Clay did not feel the animosity toward him that he felt toward Jackson. He said, It will separate the Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites, free them from the power of the states, and enable them to pursue happiness in their own way. Often, the individuals who were appointed were unskilled at best, and incapable at worst, of fulfilling the responsibilities of their posts. Related Interests. Some states assigned electoral votes to reflect the popular vote, while other states assigned electoral votes according to the votes of their legislature. In President Jacksons second annual address in , he said, the consequences of a speedy removal will be important to the United States, to individual states, and to the Indians themselves. Democrats also defended the Spoils System as a necessary element of an efficient government.
According to the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, the decision now went to the House of Representatives, who would select a winner from the top three electoral vote-earners—in this case, Jackson, Adams, and Crawford.
He selected officers best suited to fill the duties and serve their country.
The jacksonian period has been celebrated as the era of the common man to what extent
The force bill says, the union must be preserved. The Indians did have to travel a great ways, some as many as a thousand miles and some had to do it in the winter, this is known as the trail of tears. Some states assigned electoral votes to reflect the popular vote, while other states assigned electoral votes according to the votes of their legislature. They had taken their case before the Supreme Court. The case was entitled Worchester vs. Again, the choice came down to Adams and Jackson. Additionally, with the new attitudes reflecting the demise of aristocracy, the common man now expected politicians to cater to them. He showed his courage and valor in support of his country before he even ever became the president of the United States. He worked in joint cooperation with Congress and his formal cabinet. It shows Jackson as a hero, this was before he was ever president. He strived to select men who fit for each area of his cabinet that could help assist him in unifying this great nation.
He did it only to strengthen everyone especially his people in the hopes to strengthening and unifying the United States as a nation. He worked in joint cooperation with Congress and his formal cabinet.
The Indians did have to travel a great ways, some as many as a thousand miles and some had to do it in the winter, this is known as the trail of tears.
Although not nearly on the national scale of later elections, this was the premier era of baby-kissing and hand-shaking as a means to election. Again, the choice came down to Adams and Jackson.
He was indeed a war hero before he was elected as president and helped him gain presidency. Jackson did not do that, he did what he felt was right and was in support of a free government. However, the electoral system complicated what was an otherwise simple voting process.
He took into consideration the effects of the act on all parties. Along with new political parties came new attitudes. Jackson and Adams, who emerged as the front-runners, were a study in contradiction. The suffrage movement brought power to the common man, and the common men responded by turning out in droves to vote. All the tribes had fought back and resulted in a lot of bloodshed but the Cherokee had taken a different approach at trying to keep their land. The Whig Party, which served as the backbone for the modern Republican Party, toyed with moral reform early on. He worked in joint cooperation with Congress and his formal cabinet. Adams, a staunch nationalist and a typical New Englander, was reserved and aloof, while Jackson, the westerner and war hero, glad-handed his way to political popularity. Conversely, Jackson believed in appointing his own staff comprised of his supporters, which also allowed him to eliminate the Adams and Clay supporters from his administration. He did what he felt was right even in the face of adversity. At this time, states differed on how electoral votes were assigned. It was a compromise of the tariff issue that had been going on. The Spoils System had several negative consequences. Jackson was a president who was a common man who tried to the best of his abilities to help his people. Jackson had already earned respect as a war hero, and with his strategy to identify himself as a common man just like the people he would represent, he was able to garner the necessary votes to beat Adams and earn the presidency in
Days after Adams was selected as President, he chose Clay as his Secretary of State, a coveted position because frequently the individual in this role went on to be president.
based on 9 review
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Jackson frq common man
Era of the common man
He was indeed a war hero before he was elected as president and helped him gain presidency. At this time, states differed on how electoral votes were assigned. Henry Clay was the polar opposite of John Quincy Adams—Adams a puritanical, moral man and Clay a hard-living gambler with an urge to duel—however, Clay did not feel the animosity toward him that he felt toward Jackson. He said, It will separate the Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites, free them from the power of the states, and enable them to pursue happiness in their own way. Often, the individuals who were appointed were unskilled at best, and incapable at worst, of fulfilling the responsibilities of their posts. Related Interests. Some states assigned electoral votes to reflect the popular vote, while other states assigned electoral votes according to the votes of their legislature. In President Jacksons second annual address in , he said, the consequences of a speedy removal will be important to the United States, to individual states, and to the Indians themselves. Democrats also defended the Spoils System as a necessary element of an efficient government.
According to the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, the decision now went to the House of Representatives, who would select a winner from the top three electoral vote-earners—in this case, Jackson, Adams, and Crawford.
He selected officers best suited to fill the duties and serve their country.
The jacksonian period has been celebrated as the era of the common man to what extent
The force bill says, the union must be preserved. The Indians did have to travel a great ways, some as many as a thousand miles and some had to do it in the winter, this is known as the trail of tears. Some states assigned electoral votes to reflect the popular vote, while other states assigned electoral votes according to the votes of their legislature. They had taken their case before the Supreme Court. The case was entitled Worchester vs. Again, the choice came down to Adams and Jackson. Additionally, with the new attitudes reflecting the demise of aristocracy, the common man now expected politicians to cater to them. He showed his courage and valor in support of his country before he even ever became the president of the United States. He worked in joint cooperation with Congress and his formal cabinet. It shows Jackson as a hero, this was before he was ever president. He strived to select men who fit for each area of his cabinet that could help assist him in unifying this great nation.
He did it only to strengthen everyone especially his people in the hopes to strengthening and unifying the United States as a nation. He worked in joint cooperation with Congress and his formal cabinet.
The Indians did have to travel a great ways, some as many as a thousand miles and some had to do it in the winter, this is known as the trail of tears.
Although not nearly on the national scale of later elections, this was the premier era of baby-kissing and hand-shaking as a means to election. Again, the choice came down to Adams and Jackson.
He was indeed a war hero before he was elected as president and helped him gain presidency. Jackson did not do that, he did what he felt was right and was in support of a free government. However, the electoral system complicated what was an otherwise simple voting process.
He took into consideration the effects of the act on all parties. Along with new political parties came new attitudes. Jackson and Adams, who emerged as the front-runners, were a study in contradiction. The suffrage movement brought power to the common man, and the common men responded by turning out in droves to vote. All the tribes had fought back and resulted in a lot of bloodshed but the Cherokee had taken a different approach at trying to keep their land. The Whig Party, which served as the backbone for the modern Republican Party, toyed with moral reform early on. He worked in joint cooperation with Congress and his formal cabinet. Adams, a staunch nationalist and a typical New Englander, was reserved and aloof, while Jackson, the westerner and war hero, glad-handed his way to political popularity. Conversely, Jackson believed in appointing his own staff comprised of his supporters, which also allowed him to eliminate the Adams and Clay supporters from his administration. He did what he felt was right even in the face of adversity. At this time, states differed on how electoral votes were assigned. It was a compromise of the tariff issue that had been going on. The Spoils System had several negative consequences. Jackson was a president who was a common man who tried to the best of his abilities to help his people. Jackson had already earned respect as a war hero, and with his strategy to identify himself as a common man just like the people he would represent, he was able to garner the necessary votes to beat Adams and earn the presidency in
Days after Adams was selected as President, he chose Clay as his Secretary of State, a coveted position because frequently the individual in this role went on to be president.
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Imagine the pressure of feeling differently than many of the townspeople around you and planning things in secret to upset the status quo.
Imagine hearing whispers about traitors among us and people who should be hung in the public square, knowing that they were referring to and your friends. What would it be like to hold a hunting rifle or even a farm implement and going into battle against a professional, uniformed and well-equipped army?
These were the type of psychological challenges that the patriots of the revolutionary war faced. Objectively, they were facing overwhelming odds with limited support.
In fact, John Adams speculated that only about one-third of the population wanted independence, while one-third were neutral, and one-third remained loyal to Britain. Revolution was hardly the popular thing to do given that two-thirds of the citizens were not supportive.
Tomorrow is the Fourth of July and our area has many festive celebrations planned to honor these patriots and the country. It seems like a good time to consider the amazing psychological drama the revolution presented while paying tribute to the sacrifices that went into forming our unique, sovereign, democratic nation.
The psychology of the American Revolution is intriguing, as it involves risking everything- life, family, property, careers- to go against the mainstream, armed primarily with a passionate desire for freedom.
The founding fathers believed in what they were doing and felt deeply enough to go against friends, family, and many countrymen to create the revolution. Some say it was the country’s first civil war for that reason.
Few people know that Benjamin Franklin’s son was a British loyalist and the royal governor of New Jersey. When the patriots imprisoned him, Franklin could have easily gotten him out of jail, but he left him languishing in prison because he was furious at him for not supporting the cause.
One of the reasons there was not greater initial support for the revolution and the government that followed was due to fear of how “the common citizen” would handle a direct democracy. There was fear that people would act mostly in their own self-interest, rather than in the interest of the country.
This would result in the election of officials who would simply reward those that voted for them, rather than safeguarding the health of the country.
On July 4, 1776, Franklin was leaving Independence Hall when a woman asked him what had happened. He responded, “We have given you a republic if you are able to keep it.”
Those words still ring true today as the concerns of the founders have proven to be prophetic. We have a divided country, with many different facets battling, not necessarily for the health of the country overall, but for their own agendas and self-interests.
Still, it can't be much worse than it was at the beginning when two-thirds of the population was not interested in self-determination. Psychologically, we all often face choices between what is good for us individually as opposed to what may be good for the group as a whole.
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Our revolution was based on philosophy stemming from the period of enlightenment and it was believed that humans were happiest when free and self-governed. It was thought that democracy or self-governance could only occur, much less survive, if there were a commonly accepted moral code to provide needed structure and guidance. It was understood, that proliferating laws could not govern human morality but would lead to the binding and tethering of citizens. In other words, citizens needed to behave civilly in order for a democracy to function.
It was just a little over a year ago, that Capital Gazette and our community lost five patriots to unjustified violence. Much like the patriots who lost their lives to create our nation, our patriots also fought for freedom and independence of thought.
Adams believed that it was not gunfire that won the revolution, but the concept of freedom and individual liberty taking root in our psyche, that turned the tide. Gunfire eventually stills, but the thoughts and ideas of our patriots live on!
Adams, became the second president of the U.S., taking office after George Washington. He openly encouraged the celebration of America’s birthday on the Fourth of July and said: “I believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival.”
It is this common love of our country that serves as the wellspring of our patriotism and tomorrow's celebrations.
Our country’s founding involved many exceptional people who overcame fear and risk for the benefit of others. Let's enjoy tomorrow’s celebration while considering these many patriots, including out local five, who sacrificed so much to help make America an exceptional nation!
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Imagine the pressure of feeling differently than many of the townspeople around you and planning things in secret to upset the status quo.
Imagine hearing whispers about traitors among us and people who should be hung in the public square, knowing that they were referring to and your friends. What would it be like to hold a hunting rifle or even a farm implement and going into battle against a professional, uniformed and well-equipped army?
These were the type of psychological challenges that the patriots of the revolutionary war faced. Objectively, they were facing overwhelming odds with limited support.
In fact, John Adams speculated that only about one-third of the population wanted independence, while one-third were neutral, and one-third remained loyal to Britain. Revolution was hardly the popular thing to do given that two-thirds of the citizens were not supportive.
Tomorrow is the Fourth of July and our area has many festive celebrations planned to honor these patriots and the country. It seems like a good time to consider the amazing psychological drama the revolution presented while paying tribute to the sacrifices that went into forming our unique, sovereign, democratic nation.
The psychology of the American Revolution is intriguing, as it involves risking everything- life, family, property, careers- to go against the mainstream, armed primarily with a passionate desire for freedom.
The founding fathers believed in what they were doing and felt deeply enough to go against friends, family, and many countrymen to create the revolution. Some say it was the country’s first civil war for that reason.
Few people know that Benjamin Franklin’s son was a British loyalist and the royal governor of New Jersey. When the patriots imprisoned him, Franklin could have easily gotten him out of jail, but he left him languishing in prison because he was furious at him for not supporting the cause.
One of the reasons there was not greater initial support for the revolution and the government that followed was due to fear of how “the common citizen” would handle a direct democracy. There was fear that people would act mostly in their own self-interest, rather than in the interest of the country.
This would result in the election of officials who would simply reward those that voted for them, rather than safeguarding the health of the country.
On July 4, 1776, Franklin was leaving Independence Hall when a woman asked him what had happened. He responded, “We have given you a republic if you are able to keep it.”
Those words still ring true today as the concerns of the founders have proven to be prophetic. We have a divided country, with many different facets battling, not necessarily for the health of the country overall, but for their own agendas and self-interests.
Still, it can't be much worse than it was at the beginning when two-thirds of the population was not interested in self-determination. Psychologically, we all often face choices between what is good for us individually as opposed to what may be good for the group as a whole.
Events & Entertainment Newsletter
Plan your weekend with this weekly Thursday email.
Our revolution was based on philosophy stemming from the period of enlightenment and it was believed that humans were happiest when free and self-governed. It was thought that democracy or self-governance could only occur, much less survive, if there were a commonly accepted moral code to provide needed structure and guidance. It was understood, that proliferating laws could not govern human morality but would lead to the binding and tethering of citizens. In other words, citizens needed to behave civilly in order for a democracy to function.
It was just a little over a year ago, that Capital Gazette and our community lost five patriots to unjustified violence. Much like the patriots who lost their lives to create our nation, our patriots also fought for freedom and independence of thought.
Adams believed that it was not gunfire that won the revolution, but the concept of freedom and individual liberty taking root in our psyche, that turned the tide. Gunfire eventually stills, but the thoughts and ideas of our patriots live on!
Adams, became the second president of the U.S., taking office after George Washington. He openly encouraged the celebration of America’s birthday on the Fourth of July and said: “I believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival.”
It is this common love of our country that serves as the wellspring of our patriotism and tomorrow's celebrations.
Our country’s founding involved many exceptional people who overcame fear and risk for the benefit of others. Let's enjoy tomorrow’s celebration while considering these many patriots, including out local five, who sacrificed so much to help make America an exceptional nation!
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ENGLISH
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In 1933, Nazi students at more than 30 German universities pillaged libraries in search of books they considered to be "un-German." Among the writings thrown into the flames were political texts, literature, and even art books by or about such noted figures as Paul Klee.
It seems unworthy of me to undertake anything against such crude attacks. For even if it were true that I am a Jew and came from Galicia that would not affect my values as a person or my achievement by an iota.
—Paul Klee, letter to his wife, April 6, 1933
Monographs about Klee
From 1921, German-Swiss painter and graphic artist Paul Klee (1879–1940) taught at the Bauhaus—the school of art, architecture, and design founded by Walter Gropius in 1919. In 1931, shortly before the Bauhaus closed under Nazi pressure, Klee moved to Düsseldorf to teach at the Düsseldorf Academy. The Nazis deemed his art "degenerate," and monographs about Klee were banished and burned.
Seventeen of Klee's paintings were later displayed at the Nazi "Degenerate Art" exhibition in Munich in 1937. Klee himself had left Germany in 1933 and settled in Bern, Switzerland.
Critical Thinking Questions
- Why were books about particular artists burned?
- How did the German public react to the book burnings? What were some of the reactions outside of Germany?
- Why do oppressive regimes promote or support censorship and book burning? How might this be a warning sign of mass atrocity?
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In 1933, Nazi students at more than 30 German universities pillaged libraries in search of books they considered to be "un-German." Among the writings thrown into the flames were political texts, literature, and even art books by or about such noted figures as Paul Klee.
It seems unworthy of me to undertake anything against such crude attacks. For even if it were true that I am a Jew and came from Galicia that would not affect my values as a person or my achievement by an iota.
—Paul Klee, letter to his wife, April 6, 1933
Monographs about Klee
From 1921, German-Swiss painter and graphic artist Paul Klee (1879–1940) taught at the Bauhaus—the school of art, architecture, and design founded by Walter Gropius in 1919. In 1931, shortly before the Bauhaus closed under Nazi pressure, Klee moved to Düsseldorf to teach at the Düsseldorf Academy. The Nazis deemed his art "degenerate," and monographs about Klee were banished and burned.
Seventeen of Klee's paintings were later displayed at the Nazi "Degenerate Art" exhibition in Munich in 1937. Klee himself had left Germany in 1933 and settled in Bern, Switzerland.
Critical Thinking Questions
- Why were books about particular artists burned?
- How did the German public react to the book burnings? What were some of the reactions outside of Germany?
- Why do oppressive regimes promote or support censorship and book burning? How might this be a warning sign of mass atrocity?
| 351
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ENGLISH
| 1
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It is a truth universally acknowledged that Jane Austen is one of the most influential writers to this day.
Jane Austen was born on December 16, 1775 in Steventon, a village in the English county of Hampshire. The daughter of a rector, Austen was an avid reader with access to her father’s library and would often read novels aloud to her family in the evenings. As early as 11 years old, Austen would also compose her own poetry to share with her family.
As she grew older, Austen began to write longer works. Her first novel was titled Elinor and Marrianne, which she read aloud to her family in 1796. This was the first draft for what would later be retitled as Sense and Sensibility. Austen wanted to publish a novel, but as a woman, she wasn’t legally able to sign her own contracts. Fortunately, her older brother Henry was more than willing to help her become published and sign on her behalf.
Austen eventually found a publisher, Thomas Egerton, who agreed to publish the polished draft of Sense and Sensibility “on commission,” this meant that the book was published at the author’s financial risk. If the books didn’t sell, the author would be responsible for paying the publisher for all costs associated with publishing. At this point in her life, Austen was living with her widowed mother and unmarried older sister, Cassandra; finances were strained, and they were reliant on her brothers for income. This was a huge risk, but one she was willing to take. Jane, through Henry, signed the dotted line. In October of 1811, Sense and Sensibility was published, the author listed anonymously. To the world and for the rest of her lifetime, Jane was simply “A Lady”.
Sense and Sensibility was a hit, and the first-edition sold out by mid-1813. Her most widely-known work, Pride and Prejudice, was published in January of 1813, and a second-edition of that title was released in October of the same year. When Mansfield Park was published in 1814, all of the first-edition copies sold within six months. Even the Prince Regent admired Austen’s novels, though she disliked him. Nevertheless, she dedicated the 1815 novel, Emma, to the Prince Regent by request of the Prince Regent’s librarian.
In early 1816, Austen began to feel unwell, but pushed through the warning signs of illness. Sadly, she didn’t have much choice. Henry, a banker by trade, fell into debt in March when his bank failed; worse, this also cost his brothers large sums from their investments. This meant that there was little income for Jane, her widowed mother, and Cassandra. Though the income from her books was minuscule compared to what her brothers contributed, the family needed the money. Austen completed the first draft of Persuasion by July, and rewrote the final two chapters in August. She began to work on a new novel, which would be posthumously published in its incomplete form and titled Sanditon. She completed twelve chapters by March of 1817, before she had a relapse. The last time Jane Austen held a pen to write is clearly marked in her own hand … March 18, 1817.
Austen died at the age of 41 on July 18, 1817, with her beloved sister Cassandra at her side. Following her death, Henry, Cassandra and Jane’s publisher John Murray worked together to publish Austen’s last finished novels, Persuasion and Northanger Abbey. For both titles, Henry wrote a biographical note revealing Jane’s identity as the author of her well-loved books.
Austen’s influence — like her drive to be published — has persisted through to modern times. We see it everywhere, in books, in movies and in classrooms. Her works have been adapted for stage and screen multiple times, to include a forthcoming film of Emma in 2020, and her works have been retold into many different settings: New York neighborhoods, college campuses, Pakistan and India, fantasy worlds, high schools, outer space and more.
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It is a truth universally acknowledged that Jane Austen is one of the most influential writers to this day.
Jane Austen was born on December 16, 1775 in Steventon, a village in the English county of Hampshire. The daughter of a rector, Austen was an avid reader with access to her father’s library and would often read novels aloud to her family in the evenings. As early as 11 years old, Austen would also compose her own poetry to share with her family.
As she grew older, Austen began to write longer works. Her first novel was titled Elinor and Marrianne, which she read aloud to her family in 1796. This was the first draft for what would later be retitled as Sense and Sensibility. Austen wanted to publish a novel, but as a woman, she wasn’t legally able to sign her own contracts. Fortunately, her older brother Henry was more than willing to help her become published and sign on her behalf.
Austen eventually found a publisher, Thomas Egerton, who agreed to publish the polished draft of Sense and Sensibility “on commission,” this meant that the book was published at the author’s financial risk. If the books didn’t sell, the author would be responsible for paying the publisher for all costs associated with publishing. At this point in her life, Austen was living with her widowed mother and unmarried older sister, Cassandra; finances were strained, and they were reliant on her brothers for income. This was a huge risk, but one she was willing to take. Jane, through Henry, signed the dotted line. In October of 1811, Sense and Sensibility was published, the author listed anonymously. To the world and for the rest of her lifetime, Jane was simply “A Lady”.
Sense and Sensibility was a hit, and the first-edition sold out by mid-1813. Her most widely-known work, Pride and Prejudice, was published in January of 1813, and a second-edition of that title was released in October of the same year. When Mansfield Park was published in 1814, all of the first-edition copies sold within six months. Even the Prince Regent admired Austen’s novels, though she disliked him. Nevertheless, she dedicated the 1815 novel, Emma, to the Prince Regent by request of the Prince Regent’s librarian.
In early 1816, Austen began to feel unwell, but pushed through the warning signs of illness. Sadly, she didn’t have much choice. Henry, a banker by trade, fell into debt in March when his bank failed; worse, this also cost his brothers large sums from their investments. This meant that there was little income for Jane, her widowed mother, and Cassandra. Though the income from her books was minuscule compared to what her brothers contributed, the family needed the money. Austen completed the first draft of Persuasion by July, and rewrote the final two chapters in August. She began to work on a new novel, which would be posthumously published in its incomplete form and titled Sanditon. She completed twelve chapters by March of 1817, before she had a relapse. The last time Jane Austen held a pen to write is clearly marked in her own hand … March 18, 1817.
Austen died at the age of 41 on July 18, 1817, with her beloved sister Cassandra at her side. Following her death, Henry, Cassandra and Jane’s publisher John Murray worked together to publish Austen’s last finished novels, Persuasion and Northanger Abbey. For both titles, Henry wrote a biographical note revealing Jane’s identity as the author of her well-loved books.
Austen’s influence — like her drive to be published — has persisted through to modern times. We see it everywhere, in books, in movies and in classrooms. Her works have been adapted for stage and screen multiple times, to include a forthcoming film of Emma in 2020, and her works have been retold into many different settings: New York neighborhoods, college campuses, Pakistan and India, fantasy worlds, high schools, outer space and more.
| 894
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
The first Moon landing took less than a decade. Why is NASA going so slowly?
It’s the old saying of “Cheap, fast, good. You can have any two.” Project Apollo had to be fast, and the work had to be very, very good in order to be safe and successful. Fortunately, Apollo had a very high budget (nearly 5% of Federal spending at the time), so it was able to accomplish incredible things on a compressed schedule. NASA knew that things were very different when Constellation was proposed. The work still has to be very, very good, but budgets today are far more constrained. NASA is now only about 0.5% of Federal budget. As a result, the program will to take longer than the first time around. But this is the responsible thing to do, and it helps insure the safety of our astronauts.
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] | 1
|
The first Moon landing took less than a decade. Why is NASA going so slowly?
It’s the old saying of “Cheap, fast, good. You can have any two.” Project Apollo had to be fast, and the work had to be very, very good in order to be safe and successful. Fortunately, Apollo had a very high budget (nearly 5% of Federal spending at the time), so it was able to accomplish incredible things on a compressed schedule. NASA knew that things were very different when Constellation was proposed. The work still has to be very, very good, but budgets today are far more constrained. NASA is now only about 0.5% of Federal budget. As a result, the program will to take longer than the first time around. But this is the responsible thing to do, and it helps insure the safety of our astronauts.
| 176
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Palmer may look like it grew organically, like any other town. But it was actually designed by the government as a planned agricultural community. In fact, Palmer was part of FDR’s New Deal Resettlement Projects during the Great Depression: More than 200 families volunteered to move to Alaska to try farming in the Last Frontier!
“The Colony Project,” as it was known, transported families from their farms in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan to the fertile soils of the Mat-Su valley. First, hundreds of Civilian Conservation Corps workers came to cut roads, dig wells, and construct buildings in what is present-day
It was quite an endeavor, and the town grew quickly. Nurses, teachers, and administrators joined the community and lived in a dormitory that is now the Colony Inn. (You can also recognize the other Colony buildings: single story structures featuring shiplap siding and located within two blocks of the government office.)
The husbands drew straws for their homesteads, which were either 40 or 80 acres, and got to work immediately, clearing forests, building homes, and digging wells. Mosquitoes drove cows, horses, and humans crazy, making the work that much harder. But come the winter holidays of 1935, every colony family was settled in a home.
And it was quite a risk for the families, since this was no free ride. Before leaving the Midwest, they signed $3,000 loans for their land, to be paid over 30 years at 3% interest. To put that in perspective, today it would be a $500,000 loan!
The government pulled out in 1939. Today, families still work the Colony farms, though few of the original operations are left. Havemeister Farm off Bogard Road, for example, is the only original dairy still going.
But the produce that’s grown in the valley today is just as spectacular as it was back then. Check it out at Palmer’s Friday Fling markets and at the state fair, held here every August. And don’t miss the museum’s excellent display on the Colony project.
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Palmer may look like it grew organically, like any other town. But it was actually designed by the government as a planned agricultural community. In fact, Palmer was part of FDR’s New Deal Resettlement Projects during the Great Depression: More than 200 families volunteered to move to Alaska to try farming in the Last Frontier!
“The Colony Project,” as it was known, transported families from their farms in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan to the fertile soils of the Mat-Su valley. First, hundreds of Civilian Conservation Corps workers came to cut roads, dig wells, and construct buildings in what is present-day
It was quite an endeavor, and the town grew quickly. Nurses, teachers, and administrators joined the community and lived in a dormitory that is now the Colony Inn. (You can also recognize the other Colony buildings: single story structures featuring shiplap siding and located within two blocks of the government office.)
The husbands drew straws for their homesteads, which were either 40 or 80 acres, and got to work immediately, clearing forests, building homes, and digging wells. Mosquitoes drove cows, horses, and humans crazy, making the work that much harder. But come the winter holidays of 1935, every colony family was settled in a home.
And it was quite a risk for the families, since this was no free ride. Before leaving the Midwest, they signed $3,000 loans for their land, to be paid over 30 years at 3% interest. To put that in perspective, today it would be a $500,000 loan!
The government pulled out in 1939. Today, families still work the Colony farms, though few of the original operations are left. Havemeister Farm off Bogard Road, for example, is the only original dairy still going.
But the produce that’s grown in the valley today is just as spectacular as it was back then. Check it out at Palmer’s Friday Fling markets and at the state fair, held here every August. And don’t miss the museum’s excellent display on the Colony project.
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ENGLISH
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Summarize 3 to 4 main points on the history of the black middle class in America.© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 9, 2019, 6:30 pm ad1c9bdddf
The following excerpt, entitled 'The Black Middle Class: Toward a Paradigm of Unity in Afro-American Studies', taken from
divides the history of the Black middle class into three periods; the Slave Period, the Rural Period, and the Urban Period. This should help you focus your assignment in to the main points that you want to have summarized. It also reviews the experience of Blacks in business and the professions, which you may or may not wish to include in your assignment. I will post the entire excerpt below in case you are unable to reach it through the link above.
The Black middle class is a small part of the Black community, but it has more and lives with less hardship than the majority of Black people. Middle-class people have smaller family units, higher incomes, more homeownership, more education, jobs with more authority and independence, more and higher quality consumption of necessity items and luxury items, etc. The fact is that some Black people have always lived better than most. But it is also true that the Black middle class has been very insecure at every stage of Black history. Middle-class privilege has been rooted more in the shifting character of status than in the firmer base of economic ownership.
THE SLAVE PERIOD
The overwhelming reality of the slave system was that all Black people had the same basic class position, that of being a slave. This class did not own anything; most importantly, they did not own themselves. Therefore, in strict terms, most Blacks were in the same class during slavery. However, the objective differentiation that did matter was in the technical division of labor.
The basic distinction between house slaves and field slaves was the difference between service work in the house and production work in the field. Some specialized production by skilled craft workers took place near the slavemaster's house (e.g., the blacksmith) but the main production was done as field work. Field slaves worked collectively (though not with a high level of interdependence, as later developed in assembly line factory-production) and had more limited contact with whites. House slaves were fewer in number and often developed very close ties with their white masters. This close association became the first basis for status distinctions among Blacks in the United States: an aristocracy based on color and style. The more "white blood" (the lighter in skin color), the higher the status; the more one was able to "mimic white behavior" (through hand-me-down clothes, speech, etc.), the more status one had.
House slaves were conditioned to have commitment and loyalty to the slavemaster. This point is dramatically made by Malcolm X in a 1963 interview on the radio in Philadelphia:
The house Negro was the one who lived in, the master's house, ate the master's food, at the master's table usually - after the master had finished with it. He dressed like the master, which means he wore the same type of clothing that the master did, but usually it was clothing handed down to him by the master. He identified the master's house as his own. If the master said, "We have a fine house here," the house Negro would say, "Yes, our house is a fine house." Whenever the master said, "We," he said, "We." If the master said, "We have good food on our table," the house Negro would chime in and say, "Yes, we have plenty of food, boss, on our table." The house Negro would also identify himself so closely with his master that when the master was sick the house Negro would say, "What's the matter, boss, we's sick?" When the master was sick he was sick. If the master's house caught on fire the house Negro would fight harder to put the flames out or keep the flames from enveloping the master's house than the master would himself.
The other group of privileged Blacks within the slave system was called "freedmen." Some free Blacks owned land, but as E. Franklin Frazier pointed out in the The Negro in the United States, most were only subsistence farmers:
In 1830 the free Negroes owned about 32,000 acres of land valued at $184,184, and by 1860 both the acreage and the value of the farms owned by free Negroes had doubled. Since nearly half (43%) of the farms owned by the 1,200 free Negro farm owners contained 25 acres or less, it may be assumed that these farms were used for subsistence rather than for commercial enterprises.
Ira Berlin notes the slave system was so threatening to free Blacks that they were often uncooperative and decidedly conservative with respect to the well-being of their fellow Blacks who were in slavery:
Standing a step above the slave, free Negroes simply had too much to lose to take the lead in breaking the bonds of servitude. They too suffered the pains of white oppression, but free Negroes could look down to slavery as well as up to complete freedom. They could see how their status might degenerate, and they knew that whites needed only the flimsiest excuse to take their liberty. Having learned to squeeze a few precious benefits from their caste status, they were not about to surrender them without a guarantee of something better. Freedom within the context of slavery gave free Negroes something to protect and transformed them into a conservative caste. The general insecurity of free Negro life, the sure knowledge that free Negroes suffered whenever whites felt threatened, and their growing material prosperity reinforced that conservatism.
Berlin goes on to point out that the conflict between free Blacks and Black slaves was caused by slavemasters who were interested in preventing Black unity against the slave system:
'Whites promoted these differences between free Negroes and slaves, just as they tried to divide field hands and house servants, unskilled bondsmen and slave artisans. They gladly rewarded free Negroes who informed on slaves, just as they almost always freed slaves who revealed impending insurrections.
Some free Blacks were slaveowners themselves. Much of this can be explained by the fact that they often purchased their family members and friends. However, like white slaveowners, some Blacks did own slaves for their own economic advantage. Berlin provides further insight into how an economic system based on slavery functioned to divide Blacks:
Economic success in the South depended largely on the ownership of slaves, and free Negroes were no more exempt from this than whites. Although most free Negro slaveholders were truly benevolent despots, owning only their families and friends to prevent their enslavement or forcible deportation, a small minority of wealthy freemen exploited slaves for commercial purposes. This small group of free Negroes were generally the wealthiest and best-connected members of their caste...
Slaveholding free Negro planters identified...closely with the Southern ideal. Andrew Durnford, who owned a Louisiana plantation which he worked with some seventy-five slaves, was finely attuned to the planter ideology and considered himself a patriarchal master in the best tradition. Although he raided endlessly against the seeming incompetence and indolence of his "rascally negroes" he took pride in his role as their protector as well as their owner. When Norbert Rillieux, a French-trained free Negro engineer who had invented a new method of refining sugar, offered Durnford $50,000 for use of his plantation to test the vacuum process, the planter turned him down, noting that he could not "give up control of his people." Durnford's people of course were slaves and he treated them as such despite their similar complexion. With the exception of his personal body servant, he never showed any interest in releasing them from bondage. In 1835, Durnford traveled north to Virginia to purchase additional hands for himself and his white mentor, John McDonogh. During his trip, he confronted, perhaps for the first time, the Southern distaste for slave traders, as opposed to those who bought and used slaves, and he consciously manipulated that idea to obtain lower prices. Yet, throughout his lengthy discussion with McDonogh on what he called "Negro traders," he showed not the slightest understanding that the term when applied to him might have two additional meanings, for Durnford literally was a Negro trader and some blacks might consider his actions treasonable. These possibilities were lost on Durnford because he fully identified with the white slaveowning elite. Many wealthy freemen, like Durnford, considered themselves more white than black, no matter what their precise racial heritage. They showed little sympathy for the slave and had few qualms about the morality of slavery. Durnford's Northern-educated son, who urged amelioration of slave conditions - not emancipation - had no greater sense of identification with blacks than his father. He supported African colonization for slaves - but not for himself - spoke of colonization as reparation, and lauded the plan to return blacks to "the land of their fathers."
These few Black slaveowners wanted to retain their class privilege.
An additional group with special standing was the skilled craft workers (or artisans). Slaves were the dominant skilled craft workers in many areas of the South, and as such they were accorded certain privileges. Some free Blacks were skilled craft workers in both the North and the South. Marcus Christian provides an example of ...
This solution offers some information to help with an assignment to summarize 3-4 points about the history of the black middle class in America.
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Summarize 3 to 4 main points on the history of the black middle class in America.© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 9, 2019, 6:30 pm ad1c9bdddf
The following excerpt, entitled 'The Black Middle Class: Toward a Paradigm of Unity in Afro-American Studies', taken from
divides the history of the Black middle class into three periods; the Slave Period, the Rural Period, and the Urban Period. This should help you focus your assignment in to the main points that you want to have summarized. It also reviews the experience of Blacks in business and the professions, which you may or may not wish to include in your assignment. I will post the entire excerpt below in case you are unable to reach it through the link above.
The Black middle class is a small part of the Black community, but it has more and lives with less hardship than the majority of Black people. Middle-class people have smaller family units, higher incomes, more homeownership, more education, jobs with more authority and independence, more and higher quality consumption of necessity items and luxury items, etc. The fact is that some Black people have always lived better than most. But it is also true that the Black middle class has been very insecure at every stage of Black history. Middle-class privilege has been rooted more in the shifting character of status than in the firmer base of economic ownership.
THE SLAVE PERIOD
The overwhelming reality of the slave system was that all Black people had the same basic class position, that of being a slave. This class did not own anything; most importantly, they did not own themselves. Therefore, in strict terms, most Blacks were in the same class during slavery. However, the objective differentiation that did matter was in the technical division of labor.
The basic distinction between house slaves and field slaves was the difference between service work in the house and production work in the field. Some specialized production by skilled craft workers took place near the slavemaster's house (e.g., the blacksmith) but the main production was done as field work. Field slaves worked collectively (though not with a high level of interdependence, as later developed in assembly line factory-production) and had more limited contact with whites. House slaves were fewer in number and often developed very close ties with their white masters. This close association became the first basis for status distinctions among Blacks in the United States: an aristocracy based on color and style. The more "white blood" (the lighter in skin color), the higher the status; the more one was able to "mimic white behavior" (through hand-me-down clothes, speech, etc.), the more status one had.
House slaves were conditioned to have commitment and loyalty to the slavemaster. This point is dramatically made by Malcolm X in a 1963 interview on the radio in Philadelphia:
The house Negro was the one who lived in, the master's house, ate the master's food, at the master's table usually - after the master had finished with it. He dressed like the master, which means he wore the same type of clothing that the master did, but usually it was clothing handed down to him by the master. He identified the master's house as his own. If the master said, "We have a fine house here," the house Negro would say, "Yes, our house is a fine house." Whenever the master said, "We," he said, "We." If the master said, "We have good food on our table," the house Negro would chime in and say, "Yes, we have plenty of food, boss, on our table." The house Negro would also identify himself so closely with his master that when the master was sick the house Negro would say, "What's the matter, boss, we's sick?" When the master was sick he was sick. If the master's house caught on fire the house Negro would fight harder to put the flames out or keep the flames from enveloping the master's house than the master would himself.
The other group of privileged Blacks within the slave system was called "freedmen." Some free Blacks owned land, but as E. Franklin Frazier pointed out in the The Negro in the United States, most were only subsistence farmers:
In 1830 the free Negroes owned about 32,000 acres of land valued at $184,184, and by 1860 both the acreage and the value of the farms owned by free Negroes had doubled. Since nearly half (43%) of the farms owned by the 1,200 free Negro farm owners contained 25 acres or less, it may be assumed that these farms were used for subsistence rather than for commercial enterprises.
Ira Berlin notes the slave system was so threatening to free Blacks that they were often uncooperative and decidedly conservative with respect to the well-being of their fellow Blacks who were in slavery:
Standing a step above the slave, free Negroes simply had too much to lose to take the lead in breaking the bonds of servitude. They too suffered the pains of white oppression, but free Negroes could look down to slavery as well as up to complete freedom. They could see how their status might degenerate, and they knew that whites needed only the flimsiest excuse to take their liberty. Having learned to squeeze a few precious benefits from their caste status, they were not about to surrender them without a guarantee of something better. Freedom within the context of slavery gave free Negroes something to protect and transformed them into a conservative caste. The general insecurity of free Negro life, the sure knowledge that free Negroes suffered whenever whites felt threatened, and their growing material prosperity reinforced that conservatism.
Berlin goes on to point out that the conflict between free Blacks and Black slaves was caused by slavemasters who were interested in preventing Black unity against the slave system:
'Whites promoted these differences between free Negroes and slaves, just as they tried to divide field hands and house servants, unskilled bondsmen and slave artisans. They gladly rewarded free Negroes who informed on slaves, just as they almost always freed slaves who revealed impending insurrections.
Some free Blacks were slaveowners themselves. Much of this can be explained by the fact that they often purchased their family members and friends. However, like white slaveowners, some Blacks did own slaves for their own economic advantage. Berlin provides further insight into how an economic system based on slavery functioned to divide Blacks:
Economic success in the South depended largely on the ownership of slaves, and free Negroes were no more exempt from this than whites. Although most free Negro slaveholders were truly benevolent despots, owning only their families and friends to prevent their enslavement or forcible deportation, a small minority of wealthy freemen exploited slaves for commercial purposes. This small group of free Negroes were generally the wealthiest and best-connected members of their caste...
Slaveholding free Negro planters identified...closely with the Southern ideal. Andrew Durnford, who owned a Louisiana plantation which he worked with some seventy-five slaves, was finely attuned to the planter ideology and considered himself a patriarchal master in the best tradition. Although he raided endlessly against the seeming incompetence and indolence of his "rascally negroes" he took pride in his role as their protector as well as their owner. When Norbert Rillieux, a French-trained free Negro engineer who had invented a new method of refining sugar, offered Durnford $50,000 for use of his plantation to test the vacuum process, the planter turned him down, noting that he could not "give up control of his people." Durnford's people of course were slaves and he treated them as such despite their similar complexion. With the exception of his personal body servant, he never showed any interest in releasing them from bondage. In 1835, Durnford traveled north to Virginia to purchase additional hands for himself and his white mentor, John McDonogh. During his trip, he confronted, perhaps for the first time, the Southern distaste for slave traders, as opposed to those who bought and used slaves, and he consciously manipulated that idea to obtain lower prices. Yet, throughout his lengthy discussion with McDonogh on what he called "Negro traders," he showed not the slightest understanding that the term when applied to him might have two additional meanings, for Durnford literally was a Negro trader and some blacks might consider his actions treasonable. These possibilities were lost on Durnford because he fully identified with the white slaveowning elite. Many wealthy freemen, like Durnford, considered themselves more white than black, no matter what their precise racial heritage. They showed little sympathy for the slave and had few qualms about the morality of slavery. Durnford's Northern-educated son, who urged amelioration of slave conditions - not emancipation - had no greater sense of identification with blacks than his father. He supported African colonization for slaves - but not for himself - spoke of colonization as reparation, and lauded the plan to return blacks to "the land of their fathers."
These few Black slaveowners wanted to retain their class privilege.
An additional group with special standing was the skilled craft workers (or artisans). Slaves were the dominant skilled craft workers in many areas of the South, and as such they were accorded certain privileges. Some free Blacks were skilled craft workers in both the North and the South. Marcus Christian provides an example of ...
This solution offers some information to help with an assignment to summarize 3-4 points about the history of the black middle class in America.
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November 4, 1922: Howard Carter discovers King Tut’s tomb
On this day in 1922, British archaeologist Howard Carter had all but given up on finding the tomb of King Tutankhamen. But then he stepped on a platform covered in sand, and history was made.
A sickly child
Carter was born in in 1874 in Kensington, England, and turned out to be a sickly child. Due to his frail nature, he was homeschooled for much of his life. It was during that time that he traveled to the Norfolk town of Swaffham, the birthplace of his parents.
While there, he visited nearby Didlington Hall–a local mansion containing a sizable collection of Egyptian antiques. His passion for the culture was awakened upon first glance, and he found his way to Egypt by the tender age of 17.
An unwavering passion
By the time Carter arrived in Egypt, most of the ancient tombs had already been discovered. Still, he could not be dissuaded. The final resting place of King Tutankhamen had yet to be found, and he was going to discover it.
Starting out as a painter, he quickly worked his way up to archaeologist under the tutelage of Flinders Petrie. By the age of 25, he was appointed Inspector General of Monuments for Upper Egypt by the Director of the Egyptian Antiquities Service.
Around 1908, he was introduced to Lord Carnarvon–the man who would change his life.
The discovery of a lifetime
Under Carnarvon’s sponsorship, Carter began to excavate. By 1914, he had secured several valuable antiques but had yet to hit the jackpot.
Years and years went by until Lord Carnarvon gave up hope and returned to England. Carter, however, could not be deterred and he begged his sponsor for one more chance.
On November 1, 1922, Howard Carter made the discovery of a lifetime. Only three days after starting back on the job, he stepped onto a platform he discovered while clearing away debris. It turned out to be the first step of a sunken staircase, leading into an unknown tomb.
After a slow and meticulous excavation, workers discovered the intact royal seals of King Tutankhamun. It would be 15 full days until Lord Carnarvon arrived back on the scene, but when he did, they experienced the moment they both had been waiting for: a small hole was made in the sealed doorway, and they viewed the world of hidden treasures inside.
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November 4, 1922: Howard Carter discovers King Tut’s tomb
On this day in 1922, British archaeologist Howard Carter had all but given up on finding the tomb of King Tutankhamen. But then he stepped on a platform covered in sand, and history was made.
A sickly child
Carter was born in in 1874 in Kensington, England, and turned out to be a sickly child. Due to his frail nature, he was homeschooled for much of his life. It was during that time that he traveled to the Norfolk town of Swaffham, the birthplace of his parents.
While there, he visited nearby Didlington Hall–a local mansion containing a sizable collection of Egyptian antiques. His passion for the culture was awakened upon first glance, and he found his way to Egypt by the tender age of 17.
An unwavering passion
By the time Carter arrived in Egypt, most of the ancient tombs had already been discovered. Still, he could not be dissuaded. The final resting place of King Tutankhamen had yet to be found, and he was going to discover it.
Starting out as a painter, he quickly worked his way up to archaeologist under the tutelage of Flinders Petrie. By the age of 25, he was appointed Inspector General of Monuments for Upper Egypt by the Director of the Egyptian Antiquities Service.
Around 1908, he was introduced to Lord Carnarvon–the man who would change his life.
The discovery of a lifetime
Under Carnarvon’s sponsorship, Carter began to excavate. By 1914, he had secured several valuable antiques but had yet to hit the jackpot.
Years and years went by until Lord Carnarvon gave up hope and returned to England. Carter, however, could not be deterred and he begged his sponsor for one more chance.
On November 1, 1922, Howard Carter made the discovery of a lifetime. Only three days after starting back on the job, he stepped onto a platform he discovered while clearing away debris. It turned out to be the first step of a sunken staircase, leading into an unknown tomb.
After a slow and meticulous excavation, workers discovered the intact royal seals of King Tutankhamun. It would be 15 full days until Lord Carnarvon arrived back on the scene, but when he did, they experienced the moment they both had been waiting for: a small hole was made in the sealed doorway, and they viewed the world of hidden treasures inside.
| 539
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ENGLISH
| 1
|
The French Revolution had many causes including; economic, political, and geographic factors that built up until people decided to take a stand. An example of this is in document number eleven which has both ----- and ----- factors from a social science perspective. This document shows the members of the national assembly who decided to take a stand and vowed to not separate until they made a constitution later known as the “Tennis Court Oath”. This document really shows the persistence the people of France had to make life equally fair for both the royals, peasants and everyone in between.
As you now know there are many factors that led up to the French Revolution and one of the biggest causes was economic crisis. While the royal family was happy having banquets the people of France were starving and many could barely afford the price of a four pond loaf of bread. In document number fifteen it shows how the price of bread skyrocketed in just a year’s time and how much of a person’s income was spent on bread. Not only was the price outrageous but it was the main element in their diet so they could not go without it. This document is a secondary source and it shows both political and economic views in a social science perspective. Another example of economic disarray is in document number ten. In this document it shows the financial problems in France during 1789. The economy was so unhealthy that not only were the urban commoners in debt the king also was. When adding up the price of food, rent, tithe, taxes, and clothing it put the commoners at an astonishing 170% total, and although it was a lesser amount the king was also in debt by a whopping 60%. This document has both political and economic points and even though it is a secondary source it really makes you think about how hard it must have been for the people to just survive.
Throughout history there have been many people who wanted power, to be a leader and stand over others and show that they are of a greater class. And to the people king Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were trying to show their dominance. Political views have always been a big part of society and they were also a huge contributor to the start of the French Revolution. Document number one has a painting for both King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette which clearly shows that they are rich and powerful. As you look at Marie in this picture you can see that she had no problem paying a price to look beautiful and Louis wardrobe indicates that he has big luxuries and they love to show it. This document is a primary source and has political, economic, and cultural perspectives. Another great example for a political cause is document number three. This document not only has a political perspective it also shows economic, cultural, and psychologically perspectives in a primary source. It talks about the hardships a woman and her husband are facing trying to meet the demands of the royals, the document states “The taxes and feudal dues are crushing us.” What sent many people over the edge was not being treated fairly until they finally snapped.
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] | 1
|
The French Revolution had many causes including; economic, political, and geographic factors that built up until people decided to take a stand. An example of this is in document number eleven which has both ----- and ----- factors from a social science perspective. This document shows the members of the national assembly who decided to take a stand and vowed to not separate until they made a constitution later known as the “Tennis Court Oath”. This document really shows the persistence the people of France had to make life equally fair for both the royals, peasants and everyone in between.
As you now know there are many factors that led up to the French Revolution and one of the biggest causes was economic crisis. While the royal family was happy having banquets the people of France were starving and many could barely afford the price of a four pond loaf of bread. In document number fifteen it shows how the price of bread skyrocketed in just a year’s time and how much of a person’s income was spent on bread. Not only was the price outrageous but it was the main element in their diet so they could not go without it. This document is a secondary source and it shows both political and economic views in a social science perspective. Another example of economic disarray is in document number ten. In this document it shows the financial problems in France during 1789. The economy was so unhealthy that not only were the urban commoners in debt the king also was. When adding up the price of food, rent, tithe, taxes, and clothing it put the commoners at an astonishing 170% total, and although it was a lesser amount the king was also in debt by a whopping 60%. This document has both political and economic points and even though it is a secondary source it really makes you think about how hard it must have been for the people to just survive.
Throughout history there have been many people who wanted power, to be a leader and stand over others and show that they are of a greater class. And to the people king Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were trying to show their dominance. Political views have always been a big part of society and they were also a huge contributor to the start of the French Revolution. Document number one has a painting for both King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette which clearly shows that they are rich and powerful. As you look at Marie in this picture you can see that she had no problem paying a price to look beautiful and Louis wardrobe indicates that he has big luxuries and they love to show it. This document is a primary source and has political, economic, and cultural perspectives. Another great example for a political cause is document number three. This document not only has a political perspective it also shows economic, cultural, and psychologically perspectives in a primary source. It talks about the hardships a woman and her husband are facing trying to meet the demands of the royals, the document states “The taxes and feudal dues are crushing us.” What sent many people over the edge was not being treated fairly until they finally snapped.
| 619
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
When you vote in an election, you’re never voting alone. The moment you step into a polling station, you are walking in the footsteps of thousands of people who fought for their right to vote.
The story of the right to vote in Canada is the story of a centuries-long struggle to extend democratic rights to all citizens. It’s a chaotic tale that includes rebellions and riots, as well as protests, and visits to the Supreme Court of Canada. Without further ado, here is the story of voting rights in what is now Canada.
Democracy before Canada
Any story about democracy in what is now Canada has to begin with Indigenous peoples – the First Nations, Inuit and Métis – who have long had their own unique laws and systems of governance. Indigenous groups had (and still have) their own distinct political systems, created to fit the needs of their communities.
Many of these political systems have been inclusive and democratic. Before and after contact with Europeans, both the Mi’kmaq and the Iroquois had village councils that operated by building consensus. The political systems of the Inuit and the Métis were also very egalitarian, meaning all people were treated as equals.1
Women have often played key roles in Indigenous systems of governance. For example, among the Iroquois, women conducted all assemblies connected to the sachems (peace chiefs), and had the power to nominate, censure, and even recall sachems. This was happening at a time when European women were almost completely excluded from participation in politics.2
Because women are the life-givers in our Nation it is the women who carry the water... And so any decision that impacts the water or impacts life is a decision that requires women. And that’s a huge consequence and that’s a huge thing because that means that any decision that we make that will affect life, we must ask women.
Dawnis Kennedy (Anishinaabe), as quoted in the Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls.
Compared with many Indigenous societies, the European colony of New France, which included large parts of present-day Quebec and Ontario, was extremely undemocratic. New France was controlled by a governor appointed by the King of France.3 This isn’t to say there wasn’t any voting going on. Early in the history of the colony, the people of New France were allowed to vote for representatives called syndics. The syndics, however, had no real power and the position ceased to exist after 1674.4 New France remained largely undemocratic until it was taken over by the British Empire in 1763.
Rebellion and responsible government
When the British established colonies in what is now Canada, they brought with them their own form of governance, which included elected assemblies (also known as legislatures or parliaments). It would be a mistake to call these colonies democratic, however, partly because these elected assemblies had very little power.
Real control lay in the hands of governors appointed by the British government in London – and those governors could (and often did) ignore any law the legislatures tried to pass.
Many voters began to resent the power of the governors and wanted to reform the political system so that power rested in the legislatures. In 1837 and 1838, things got so bad that some reformers rebelled against the British government. The British army crushed those rebellions, burning villages, executing leaders and deporting those who had participated.
After the rebellions, reformers kept trying to push for change using peaceful methods, and eventually achieved their goal. In 1848, Nova Scotia won “responsible government” – a government where elected representatives held most of the power. The other colonies followed suit soon after.
Brawls, booze and ballots
In 1867, some of the British colonies in North America joined to form the new nation of Canada, which inherited the system of responsible government. This didn’t mean that everyone was happy with the voting process, however. Many people recognized that elections were messy, violent affairs rife with corruption and vote buying.
Until 1874, all voters had to announce their vote publicly. Unscrupulous candidates could bribe potential voters with alcohol, or hire a gang of bullies to protect their supporters while scaring off his opponent’s voters. This combination of gangs and drunkenness meant that violence at polling stations was commonplace, and at least 20 people died in 20 different election riots before 1867.5 No one knows how many more were injured.
In 1874, Canada introduced the secret ballot, so that people now voted privately. This made it harder to intimidate voters or to buy their vote, because you could never be certain for whom they were going to vote. It was a great improvement, though the problems of violence and corruption did not go away entirely.
Passions ran so high that a terrible fight broke out. Punches and every other offensive and defensive tactic were employed. In the blink of an eye table legs were turned into swords and the rest into shields… the faces of many and the bodies of nearly all attested to the doggedness of the fighting.
Description of an election brawl that broke out at a Montreal polling station in 1820.
By 1874, Canada had responsible government and the secret ballot. Despite this, many people were still very critical Canada’s political system, because it severely restricted who had the right to vote.
Women and Indigenous people were almost completely excluded from voting and few minorities were represented in the legislatures.7 Initially, Roman Catholics were also banned from voting, though most restrictions on Catholic voting were removed by the 1830s. Enslaved people were similarly banned from voting until 1834, when slavery was abolished throughout the British Empire, including in the territories that would become Canada.
In many places, the law also blocked poor people from voting: in order to vote, you were required to own a certain amount of property. Starting in the 1870s, Canadian labour activists called for an end to property requirements in voting.8 Property requirements were eliminated from federal elections in 1920, but in some places, they stuck around for a very long time. On Prince Edward Island, property requirements still existed as late as 1964. In fact, if a voter owned enough property in two or more electoral districts,9 they could actually vote multiple times in a single election!10
For many years, even if you were an eligible male who met all property requirements, there was another big obstacle to voting – distance. Each electoral district had only one voting location, called a polling station. In the days before cars, a journey to the polling station could take an entire day or more. There’s no way to tell how many voters gave up their right to vote in the face of long distances and terrible weather.
All these restrictions meant that elections were usually decided by a truly tiny slice of the adult population. Sometimes, the results were absurd. For example, the first election on Vancouver Island, held in 1856, saw only 40 people vote, electing just seven members to the legislature.11
There is no inalienable right in any man to exercise the franchise.
John A. Macdonald in Parliament in 1865, arguing that voting is not a right, but a privilege. Later generations of Canadians would disagree with him and declare that all Canadian citizens should have the right to vote.
For Indigenous people, the path to voting rights was long and difficult. Since the founding of the first British colonies in North America, Indigenous people had generally been prevented from voting in colonial, provincial or federal elections.
In 1876, the Canadian government passed the Indian Act, which was meant to control the lives of Indigenous people and was used as a tool for assimilation. The Act did not attempt to acknowledge the many forms of Indigenous governance that already existed. Instead, it ignored them and imposed a European governance system. The Act created elected chiefs and band councils to govern Indigenous communities, and only allowed adult males to vote.
The Act also declared if an Indigenous person wanted to have the right to vote in a federal election, they must become “enfranchised”, which meant giving up their “Indian status”. This often meant having to leave the safety and support of their community. It also meant being cut off from their culture. As well, enfranchised Indigenous people lost access to their Treaty rights. In the 1920 and 30s, the Canadian government even gave itself the power to remove Indian Status against the will of an Indigenous person through forcible enfranchisement. Enfranchisement became a tool for assimilation of Indigenous people.13
It was not until 1960 that those deemed status Indians by the government gained the right to vote without having to be enfranchised. Inuit men and women had won the right to vote slightly earlier, in 1950 – but ballot boxes were not in all communities until 1962, and communities without a ballot box were unable to vote.
We have considered the elective system as not being intended for us Indians and we would therefore return to our old method of selecting our life chiefs according to our Constitution of Iroquois government.
From a petition of the clan mothers of St. Regis to the Governor General of Canada, demanding the re-institution of Indigenous governance, 1898
By the mid-nineteenth century, the largest single group of people who could not vote were women. In fact, in 1867, Canada’s new constitution, the British North America Act, made a point of officially excluding women from voting.
Ten years later, in 1877, a group of women in Toronto founded what would become the Toronto Women’s Suffrage Association — Canada’s first organization dedicated to achieving voting rights for women.15 It would not be the last. During the 1880s and 1890s, similar organizations would be founded by women in almost every other province. By 1900, some women were winning the right to vote in municipal elections across Canada, but women still could not vote provincially or federally.
Some women first won the right to vote provincially in Manitoba in 1916, and other provinces and territories soon followed. Some women first voted in a federal election in 1917, although they could only vote if they were serving in the armed forces or had relatives that were serving in the armed forces!
In 1918, a federal law was passed that ensured no one could be denied the right to vote in a federal election due to their gender. Even that wasn’t the end of the story, though. In Quebec, women only won the right to vote provincially in 1944, after many years of activism and advocacy.
We are going to insist on women having the vote…. We are heartily sick of being governed, ruled, judged, sentenced, imprisoned and even hanged by men and man-made laws.
Women’s rights advocate Mary Cotton Wisdom writing in Cotton’s Weekly, 1909.
After 1918, many people still faced voting restrictions. Governments in Canada often banned visible minorities from voting. For example, in British Columbia, Indo Canadians and Chinese Canadians were denied the vote until 1947, and Japanese Canadians could not vote until 1949. Even Japanese Canadians who had fought for Canada in the First World War (1914–1918) were blocked from voting. The federal government often supported these racist bans, with Japanese Canadians unable to vote in a national election until 1949.
Religious groups also sometimes faced discrimination. Some religious groups, such as Mennonites and Doukhobors, were prevented from voting in federal elections from 1917 to 1920. The ban was because most members of both these groups refused to perform military service for religious reasons, and the government wanted voters who would support Canada’s participation in the First World War. The Doukhobors were again blocked from voting federally from 1934 until 1955.17
For other groups, it took even longer to win the right to vote. Three groups in particular had to fight for their right to vote in court. The courts ruled that the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, introduced in 1982, protected everyone’s right to vote. However, Canadians with intellectual disabilities won the right to vote only in 1988. So did judges, who had been disqualified from voting since 1874, because it was thought that judges needed to be impartial. Finally, in 2002, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that all prison inmates had the right to vote, as guaranteed in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.18
Every citizen of Canada has the right to vote in an election of members of the House of Commons or a legislative assembly and to be qualified for membership therein.
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, section 3.
Even when people had the right to vote, there could still be barriers that prevented them from casting a ballot. This was especially true for persons with disabilities. For example, for some individuals with mobility issues, polling stations could be difficult or even impossible to access.
In the 1980s and 1990s, Canadians with disabilities pushed for reforms that would make voting more accessible to all. In response, the federal government made changes to the voting process. Legislation was passed requiring nearly all polling stations to be wheelchair accessible. Elections Canada also began using mobile polling stations that could travel to institutions where seniors and persons with disabilities live, essentially bringing the ballot box straight to some voters.
For visually impaired voters, special templates were created to help them mark their own ballot. What’s more, if a voter was unable to mark their own ballot because of a physical disability, new rules allowed a government official to mark the ballot for them, in the presence of a witness. Last but not least, the government expanded the use of a mail-in ballot, so that Canadian citizens could vote regardless of where they were in the world. It’s all a far cry from the days where there was only one polling station that could take more than a day to travel to.19
For many Indigenous people, their struggle for democratic rights did not end in the 1960s, when they won right to vote in federal, provincial and municipal elections. They also want to have their traditional forms of governance acknowledged and respected. One example of the struggle for Indigenous self-governance is the story of the Nisga’a people.
The Nisga’a spent almost a century asking the governments of British Columbia and Canada to acknowledge their land rights. Connected to this was the right to govern their own land. In May of 2000, after decades of negotiations, a final agreement was ratified by the Nisga’a, Canada and British Columbia. Known as the Nisga’a Treaty, it is the first Indigenous Treaty created in modern times in British Columbia.
One focus of the treaty is Indigenous self-government. The Nisga’a are now governed by the Nisga’a Lisims Government, as well as four village governments – all of which are democratically elected. At the same time, these governments operate within the framework of the Canadian constitution and the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. For the first time in many years, the Nisga’a have control of their own land and their own governance.
Voting for the future
The history of the right to vote in Canada is a messy story. Over hundreds of years, countless individuals have fought to improve our democracy and to have voting recognized as a fundamental right. The next time you have the chance to cast your ballot in an election, take a moment to think of all the people who stood up and demanded the right to vote. In the present, Canadians are still talking about how to make voting as fair, accessible and democratic as possible.
Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.
Part of Article 21 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Who in my community might face obstacles to voting, and what can I do to help remove those obstacles?
How can I motivate others to use their right to vote?
In addition to voting, how can I take part in our political system?
1 Arthur J. Ray, ed. An Illustrated History of Canada’s Native People: I Have Lived Here since the World Began (Toronto: Key Porter Books Ltd., 2010), 27.
2 Ibid., 26.
3 Conrad, Margaret and Alvin Finkel, History of the Canadian Peoples, Volume 1: Beginnings to 1867– 5th ed. (Toronto: Pearson Education Canada, 2009), 89-90.
4 Elections Canada. A History of the Vote in Canada – 2nd ed. (Ottawa: Office of the Chief Electoral Officer of Canada, xii
5 Ibid, 3.
7 For a short while, between 1809 and 1849, women in Quebec who owned the required amount of property were allowed to vote, as there was no law preventing women from voting. Women were officially banned from voting in what is now Quebec and Ontario in 1849. Other provinces also passed laws at this time officially banning women from voting. See A History of the Vote in Canada – 2nded., 21 and 61-62, as well as “Rights of Quebec women to vote and to stand for office,” Elections Quebec., accessed January 25, 2016. One of the first members of a minority group to be elected to a legislature in what is now Canada was Ezekiel Hart, who was Jewish. He was elected to the Assembly of Lower Canada (now Quebec) in 1807. It would be many more years, however, before either women or people from a visible minority were elected to office in what would become Canada. See the Dictionary of Canadian Biography
8 A History of the Vote in Canada, 42.
9 An electoral district is a geographical area with defined borders. For example, Canada is divided into 338 electoral districts, and each of those districts is represented in parliament by one person. Normally, that individual is selected in an election by the voters in the district.
10 PEI used to have electoral districts with two representatives – the first representative, called an Assemblyman, was elected by all voters. The second representative, called a Councillor, was chosen by voters who owned at least $325 worth of property in that district. This meant that if a voter had property in multiple electoral districts, they might be able to vote for Councillors in more than one district. The property requirement was finally eliminated by new provincial legislation passed in 1964. Elections PEI, White Paper on Democratic Renewal, Charlottetown: Elections PEI, 2015, accessed July 8, 2019, 6.
11 A History of the Vote in Canada, 34.
12 Ibid, 42.
13 Arthur J. Ray, ed. An Illustrated History of Canada’s Native People, 203-204.
14 As quoted in Joan Sangster, One Hundred Years of Struggle: The History of Women and the Vote in Canada (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2018), 51.
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When you vote in an election, you’re never voting alone. The moment you step into a polling station, you are walking in the footsteps of thousands of people who fought for their right to vote.
The story of the right to vote in Canada is the story of a centuries-long struggle to extend democratic rights to all citizens. It’s a chaotic tale that includes rebellions and riots, as well as protests, and visits to the Supreme Court of Canada. Without further ado, here is the story of voting rights in what is now Canada.
Democracy before Canada
Any story about democracy in what is now Canada has to begin with Indigenous peoples – the First Nations, Inuit and Métis – who have long had their own unique laws and systems of governance. Indigenous groups had (and still have) their own distinct political systems, created to fit the needs of their communities.
Many of these political systems have been inclusive and democratic. Before and after contact with Europeans, both the Mi’kmaq and the Iroquois had village councils that operated by building consensus. The political systems of the Inuit and the Métis were also very egalitarian, meaning all people were treated as equals.1
Women have often played key roles in Indigenous systems of governance. For example, among the Iroquois, women conducted all assemblies connected to the sachems (peace chiefs), and had the power to nominate, censure, and even recall sachems. This was happening at a time when European women were almost completely excluded from participation in politics.2
Because women are the life-givers in our Nation it is the women who carry the water... And so any decision that impacts the water or impacts life is a decision that requires women. And that’s a huge consequence and that’s a huge thing because that means that any decision that we make that will affect life, we must ask women.
Dawnis Kennedy (Anishinaabe), as quoted in the Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls.
Compared with many Indigenous societies, the European colony of New France, which included large parts of present-day Quebec and Ontario, was extremely undemocratic. New France was controlled by a governor appointed by the King of France.3 This isn’t to say there wasn’t any voting going on. Early in the history of the colony, the people of New France were allowed to vote for representatives called syndics. The syndics, however, had no real power and the position ceased to exist after 1674.4 New France remained largely undemocratic until it was taken over by the British Empire in 1763.
Rebellion and responsible government
When the British established colonies in what is now Canada, they brought with them their own form of governance, which included elected assemblies (also known as legislatures or parliaments). It would be a mistake to call these colonies democratic, however, partly because these elected assemblies had very little power.
Real control lay in the hands of governors appointed by the British government in London – and those governors could (and often did) ignore any law the legislatures tried to pass.
Many voters began to resent the power of the governors and wanted to reform the political system so that power rested in the legislatures. In 1837 and 1838, things got so bad that some reformers rebelled against the British government. The British army crushed those rebellions, burning villages, executing leaders and deporting those who had participated.
After the rebellions, reformers kept trying to push for change using peaceful methods, and eventually achieved their goal. In 1848, Nova Scotia won “responsible government” – a government where elected representatives held most of the power. The other colonies followed suit soon after.
Brawls, booze and ballots
In 1867, some of the British colonies in North America joined to form the new nation of Canada, which inherited the system of responsible government. This didn’t mean that everyone was happy with the voting process, however. Many people recognized that elections were messy, violent affairs rife with corruption and vote buying.
Until 1874, all voters had to announce their vote publicly. Unscrupulous candidates could bribe potential voters with alcohol, or hire a gang of bullies to protect their supporters while scaring off his opponent’s voters. This combination of gangs and drunkenness meant that violence at polling stations was commonplace, and at least 20 people died in 20 different election riots before 1867.5 No one knows how many more were injured.
In 1874, Canada introduced the secret ballot, so that people now voted privately. This made it harder to intimidate voters or to buy their vote, because you could never be certain for whom they were going to vote. It was a great improvement, though the problems of violence and corruption did not go away entirely.
Passions ran so high that a terrible fight broke out. Punches and every other offensive and defensive tactic were employed. In the blink of an eye table legs were turned into swords and the rest into shields… the faces of many and the bodies of nearly all attested to the doggedness of the fighting.
Description of an election brawl that broke out at a Montreal polling station in 1820.
By 1874, Canada had responsible government and the secret ballot. Despite this, many people were still very critical Canada’s political system, because it severely restricted who had the right to vote.
Women and Indigenous people were almost completely excluded from voting and few minorities were represented in the legislatures.7 Initially, Roman Catholics were also banned from voting, though most restrictions on Catholic voting were removed by the 1830s. Enslaved people were similarly banned from voting until 1834, when slavery was abolished throughout the British Empire, including in the territories that would become Canada.
In many places, the law also blocked poor people from voting: in order to vote, you were required to own a certain amount of property. Starting in the 1870s, Canadian labour activists called for an end to property requirements in voting.8 Property requirements were eliminated from federal elections in 1920, but in some places, they stuck around for a very long time. On Prince Edward Island, property requirements still existed as late as 1964. In fact, if a voter owned enough property in two or more electoral districts,9 they could actually vote multiple times in a single election!10
For many years, even if you were an eligible male who met all property requirements, there was another big obstacle to voting – distance. Each electoral district had only one voting location, called a polling station. In the days before cars, a journey to the polling station could take an entire day or more. There’s no way to tell how many voters gave up their right to vote in the face of long distances and terrible weather.
All these restrictions meant that elections were usually decided by a truly tiny slice of the adult population. Sometimes, the results were absurd. For example, the first election on Vancouver Island, held in 1856, saw only 40 people vote, electing just seven members to the legislature.11
There is no inalienable right in any man to exercise the franchise.
John A. Macdonald in Parliament in 1865, arguing that voting is not a right, but a privilege. Later generations of Canadians would disagree with him and declare that all Canadian citizens should have the right to vote.
For Indigenous people, the path to voting rights was long and difficult. Since the founding of the first British colonies in North America, Indigenous people had generally been prevented from voting in colonial, provincial or federal elections.
In 1876, the Canadian government passed the Indian Act, which was meant to control the lives of Indigenous people and was used as a tool for assimilation. The Act did not attempt to acknowledge the many forms of Indigenous governance that already existed. Instead, it ignored them and imposed a European governance system. The Act created elected chiefs and band councils to govern Indigenous communities, and only allowed adult males to vote.
The Act also declared if an Indigenous person wanted to have the right to vote in a federal election, they must become “enfranchised”, which meant giving up their “Indian status”. This often meant having to leave the safety and support of their community. It also meant being cut off from their culture. As well, enfranchised Indigenous people lost access to their Treaty rights. In the 1920 and 30s, the Canadian government even gave itself the power to remove Indian Status against the will of an Indigenous person through forcible enfranchisement. Enfranchisement became a tool for assimilation of Indigenous people.13
It was not until 1960 that those deemed status Indians by the government gained the right to vote without having to be enfranchised. Inuit men and women had won the right to vote slightly earlier, in 1950 – but ballot boxes were not in all communities until 1962, and communities without a ballot box were unable to vote.
We have considered the elective system as not being intended for us Indians and we would therefore return to our old method of selecting our life chiefs according to our Constitution of Iroquois government.
From a petition of the clan mothers of St. Regis to the Governor General of Canada, demanding the re-institution of Indigenous governance, 1898
By the mid-nineteenth century, the largest single group of people who could not vote were women. In fact, in 1867, Canada’s new constitution, the British North America Act, made a point of officially excluding women from voting.
Ten years later, in 1877, a group of women in Toronto founded what would become the Toronto Women’s Suffrage Association — Canada’s first organization dedicated to achieving voting rights for women.15 It would not be the last. During the 1880s and 1890s, similar organizations would be founded by women in almost every other province. By 1900, some women were winning the right to vote in municipal elections across Canada, but women still could not vote provincially or federally.
Some women first won the right to vote provincially in Manitoba in 1916, and other provinces and territories soon followed. Some women first voted in a federal election in 1917, although they could only vote if they were serving in the armed forces or had relatives that were serving in the armed forces!
In 1918, a federal law was passed that ensured no one could be denied the right to vote in a federal election due to their gender. Even that wasn’t the end of the story, though. In Quebec, women only won the right to vote provincially in 1944, after many years of activism and advocacy.
We are going to insist on women having the vote…. We are heartily sick of being governed, ruled, judged, sentenced, imprisoned and even hanged by men and man-made laws.
Women’s rights advocate Mary Cotton Wisdom writing in Cotton’s Weekly, 1909.
After 1918, many people still faced voting restrictions. Governments in Canada often banned visible minorities from voting. For example, in British Columbia, Indo Canadians and Chinese Canadians were denied the vote until 1947, and Japanese Canadians could not vote until 1949. Even Japanese Canadians who had fought for Canada in the First World War (1914–1918) were blocked from voting. The federal government often supported these racist bans, with Japanese Canadians unable to vote in a national election until 1949.
Religious groups also sometimes faced discrimination. Some religious groups, such as Mennonites and Doukhobors, were prevented from voting in federal elections from 1917 to 1920. The ban was because most members of both these groups refused to perform military service for religious reasons, and the government wanted voters who would support Canada’s participation in the First World War. The Doukhobors were again blocked from voting federally from 1934 until 1955.17
For other groups, it took even longer to win the right to vote. Three groups in particular had to fight for their right to vote in court. The courts ruled that the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, introduced in 1982, protected everyone’s right to vote. However, Canadians with intellectual disabilities won the right to vote only in 1988. So did judges, who had been disqualified from voting since 1874, because it was thought that judges needed to be impartial. Finally, in 2002, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that all prison inmates had the right to vote, as guaranteed in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.18
Every citizen of Canada has the right to vote in an election of members of the House of Commons or a legislative assembly and to be qualified for membership therein.
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, section 3.
Even when people had the right to vote, there could still be barriers that prevented them from casting a ballot. This was especially true for persons with disabilities. For example, for some individuals with mobility issues, polling stations could be difficult or even impossible to access.
In the 1980s and 1990s, Canadians with disabilities pushed for reforms that would make voting more accessible to all. In response, the federal government made changes to the voting process. Legislation was passed requiring nearly all polling stations to be wheelchair accessible. Elections Canada also began using mobile polling stations that could travel to institutions where seniors and persons with disabilities live, essentially bringing the ballot box straight to some voters.
For visually impaired voters, special templates were created to help them mark their own ballot. What’s more, if a voter was unable to mark their own ballot because of a physical disability, new rules allowed a government official to mark the ballot for them, in the presence of a witness. Last but not least, the government expanded the use of a mail-in ballot, so that Canadian citizens could vote regardless of where they were in the world. It’s all a far cry from the days where there was only one polling station that could take more than a day to travel to.19
For many Indigenous people, their struggle for democratic rights did not end in the 1960s, when they won right to vote in federal, provincial and municipal elections. They also want to have their traditional forms of governance acknowledged and respected. One example of the struggle for Indigenous self-governance is the story of the Nisga’a people.
The Nisga’a spent almost a century asking the governments of British Columbia and Canada to acknowledge their land rights. Connected to this was the right to govern their own land. In May of 2000, after decades of negotiations, a final agreement was ratified by the Nisga’a, Canada and British Columbia. Known as the Nisga’a Treaty, it is the first Indigenous Treaty created in modern times in British Columbia.
One focus of the treaty is Indigenous self-government. The Nisga’a are now governed by the Nisga’a Lisims Government, as well as four village governments – all of which are democratically elected. At the same time, these governments operate within the framework of the Canadian constitution and the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. For the first time in many years, the Nisga’a have control of their own land and their own governance.
Voting for the future
The history of the right to vote in Canada is a messy story. Over hundreds of years, countless individuals have fought to improve our democracy and to have voting recognized as a fundamental right. The next time you have the chance to cast your ballot in an election, take a moment to think of all the people who stood up and demanded the right to vote. In the present, Canadians are still talking about how to make voting as fair, accessible and democratic as possible.
Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.
Part of Article 21 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Who in my community might face obstacles to voting, and what can I do to help remove those obstacles?
How can I motivate others to use their right to vote?
In addition to voting, how can I take part in our political system?
1 Arthur J. Ray, ed. An Illustrated History of Canada’s Native People: I Have Lived Here since the World Began (Toronto: Key Porter Books Ltd., 2010), 27.
2 Ibid., 26.
3 Conrad, Margaret and Alvin Finkel, History of the Canadian Peoples, Volume 1: Beginnings to 1867– 5th ed. (Toronto: Pearson Education Canada, 2009), 89-90.
4 Elections Canada. A History of the Vote in Canada – 2nd ed. (Ottawa: Office of the Chief Electoral Officer of Canada, xii
5 Ibid, 3.
7 For a short while, between 1809 and 1849, women in Quebec who owned the required amount of property were allowed to vote, as there was no law preventing women from voting. Women were officially banned from voting in what is now Quebec and Ontario in 1849. Other provinces also passed laws at this time officially banning women from voting. See A History of the Vote in Canada – 2nded., 21 and 61-62, as well as “Rights of Quebec women to vote and to stand for office,” Elections Quebec., accessed January 25, 2016. One of the first members of a minority group to be elected to a legislature in what is now Canada was Ezekiel Hart, who was Jewish. He was elected to the Assembly of Lower Canada (now Quebec) in 1807. It would be many more years, however, before either women or people from a visible minority were elected to office in what would become Canada. See the Dictionary of Canadian Biography
8 A History of the Vote in Canada, 42.
9 An electoral district is a geographical area with defined borders. For example, Canada is divided into 338 electoral districts, and each of those districts is represented in parliament by one person. Normally, that individual is selected in an election by the voters in the district.
10 PEI used to have electoral districts with two representatives – the first representative, called an Assemblyman, was elected by all voters. The second representative, called a Councillor, was chosen by voters who owned at least $325 worth of property in that district. This meant that if a voter had property in multiple electoral districts, they might be able to vote for Councillors in more than one district. The property requirement was finally eliminated by new provincial legislation passed in 1964. Elections PEI, White Paper on Democratic Renewal, Charlottetown: Elections PEI, 2015, accessed July 8, 2019, 6.
11 A History of the Vote in Canada, 34.
12 Ibid, 42.
13 Arthur J. Ray, ed. An Illustrated History of Canada’s Native People, 203-204.
14 As quoted in Joan Sangster, One Hundred Years of Struggle: The History of Women and the Vote in Canada (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2018), 51.
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Canada is a country with a rich history of waves of immigrants from European countries.
Scandinavia was seen by the Government of Canada as a good source of immigrants. Scandinavians were thought to be a hardy people who could successfully clear the land and farm in the wilderness. An agent was sent by the government to Scandinavia in 1872 to encourage farmers to cross the Atlantic. He assisted a Danish businessman Sorensen S. Heller to recruit individuals and families for settlement in New Brunswick.
Heller called himself Captain. It is not known whether this was because he was a ship captain or a captain in the military. After visiting North America in 1869, Captain Heller made an agreement with the Province of New Brunswick to deliver 500 Danish settlers. He was to be paid a bounty of $10 for every person he brought to the province. He managed to sign up about 30 people for his venture.
In 1872 Heller and the settlers boarded a steamship in Copenhagen and sailed to Halifax where they transferred to another ship that took them to Saint John. There they boarded a paddlewheel steamer and traveled up the Saint John River to a tributary called the Salmon River. They disembarked and walked more than two miles into what was to be their home in northern New Brunswick. According to their agreement with the government of the province everyone over 18 years of age was given 100 acres of land.
The Danish settlers agreed to clear part of the land and to build a house of not less than 16 by 20 feet. The first immigrants were also promised jobs working on the railway. The pay was to be not less than one dollar a day. After three years the immigrants were to have at least 10 acres of their land under cultivation.
At first their settlement was called Hellerup after the Danish businessman who had brought them there. He went back to Copenhagen to encourage another group of Danes to move to his settlement in the New World. In 1873 he arrived back in Hellerup with 80 more Danish immigrants.
It was not long before the Danes concluded that the rosy picture Heller had painted of life in New Brunswick was not true. The work of clearing the land was difficult and there were no jobs to be had on the railway. To make up for this lack of paying work the government of New Brunswick made a payment to each family. Perhaps because the settlers felt betrayed by Heller they renamed their community New Denmark.
In 1873 New Denmark had 111 people. Many of the single men in the original settlement quickly left. There were few single Danish women for them to marry and the work of carving a farm out of dense forest was difficult. They moved on to larger communities in the United States.
Visit the New Denmark Memorial Museum to learn more about this special community. The museum collection is made up of portraits, farm machinery, small tools, china, books and numerous artefacts that belonged to the local Danish settlers. Typical garments worn by the Danish people of the time are also on display.
Each year they celebrate “Founders Day” on the Sunday closest to June 19th.
Discover New Denmark… the oldest Danish settlement in Canada.
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Canada is a country with a rich history of waves of immigrants from European countries.
Scandinavia was seen by the Government of Canada as a good source of immigrants. Scandinavians were thought to be a hardy people who could successfully clear the land and farm in the wilderness. An agent was sent by the government to Scandinavia in 1872 to encourage farmers to cross the Atlantic. He assisted a Danish businessman Sorensen S. Heller to recruit individuals and families for settlement in New Brunswick.
Heller called himself Captain. It is not known whether this was because he was a ship captain or a captain in the military. After visiting North America in 1869, Captain Heller made an agreement with the Province of New Brunswick to deliver 500 Danish settlers. He was to be paid a bounty of $10 for every person he brought to the province. He managed to sign up about 30 people for his venture.
In 1872 Heller and the settlers boarded a steamship in Copenhagen and sailed to Halifax where they transferred to another ship that took them to Saint John. There they boarded a paddlewheel steamer and traveled up the Saint John River to a tributary called the Salmon River. They disembarked and walked more than two miles into what was to be their home in northern New Brunswick. According to their agreement with the government of the province everyone over 18 years of age was given 100 acres of land.
The Danish settlers agreed to clear part of the land and to build a house of not less than 16 by 20 feet. The first immigrants were also promised jobs working on the railway. The pay was to be not less than one dollar a day. After three years the immigrants were to have at least 10 acres of their land under cultivation.
At first their settlement was called Hellerup after the Danish businessman who had brought them there. He went back to Copenhagen to encourage another group of Danes to move to his settlement in the New World. In 1873 he arrived back in Hellerup with 80 more Danish immigrants.
It was not long before the Danes concluded that the rosy picture Heller had painted of life in New Brunswick was not true. The work of clearing the land was difficult and there were no jobs to be had on the railway. To make up for this lack of paying work the government of New Brunswick made a payment to each family. Perhaps because the settlers felt betrayed by Heller they renamed their community New Denmark.
In 1873 New Denmark had 111 people. Many of the single men in the original settlement quickly left. There were few single Danish women for them to marry and the work of carving a farm out of dense forest was difficult. They moved on to larger communities in the United States.
Visit the New Denmark Memorial Museum to learn more about this special community. The museum collection is made up of portraits, farm machinery, small tools, china, books and numerous artefacts that belonged to the local Danish settlers. Typical garments worn by the Danish people of the time are also on display.
Each year they celebrate “Founders Day” on the Sunday closest to June 19th.
Discover New Denmark… the oldest Danish settlement in Canada.
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The Canterbury Tales 2 Essay Research Paper
The Canterbury Tales 2 Essay, Research Paper The Canterbury Tales is a poetic story of a group of people, who were going to pilgrimage. They were going to the tomb of St. Thomas a Bechet in Canterbury, which is about sixty miles from London in England. In that group, there were clergy and laity people. And in the poem Chaucer described all of them so well that we can easily see the picture of how they lived and how they behaved in manners of work and other ways of life. And while he was describing, he also criticized some members of the clergy position, because of their abusing of their position and doing things that they were not supposed to do, or not doing something they were supposed to do in their position. Among those people whom Chaucer criticized very much were the Friar and the Pardoner. In the medieval society, where people were very religious, illiterate and superstitious, the Friar was respected as God himself. The Friar s job in the church was to help people, who committed crime, by giving them a guide to pray for a certain time so that they can receive absolution. But the Friar in the Canterbury Tales was not honest and dedicated in doing his job. He abused his position by taking money from people who came to confess. He told them that they would get absolution if they pay him and thus broke the vow of obedience because it is against the Catholic Church. He broke the vow of chastity by having adulterous relationships with other women. By wearing expensive clothes, spending his time with wealthy people rather than helping beggars or sick lepers, he broke the vow of poverty. The Pardoner is a person who says prayer for dead people so that the sins they had committed in life would be forgiven. The Pardoner of The Canterbury Tales abused his position by selling some papers which he claimed if people bought, their time in purgatory would be shortened after death; he sold them for very high price. He also claimed that he had Virgin Mary s veil, which would have been 1330 years after Mary died. He also claimed that he had St. Peter s sail and said the pig bones, he always carried with him, were relics of St. Peter. Chucer also criticized him by implying him as a homosexual by referring him to a gelding or a mare. Nowadays, it sounds almost impossible, that someone like Friar would take money from people for confession or like the Pardoner, would sell pardons. Because people today are not so superstitious anymore that someone would just deceive them in that way. The light of education has given them the power to think clearly and scientifically. But this is in Western countries, where most of the people are educated. The situation is not the same in my country, where a large number of people are still illiterate. They are so ignorant and credulous that people like Friar or Pardoner can easily deceive them. In the village, where I used to live in my country, most of the people were uneducated farmer. And there was a man in that village who claimed himself to be the saint from Allah (God), and said that if people pay him, he would pray for them, which would give them a better chance of having a good harvest. Unfortunately, most of the people believe him and pay a certain amount of their income every month, even though it is very hard for those poor people. And there is no hope that the situation would change, until there a big change occurs, until they are blessed by the light of education.
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The Canterbury Tales 2 Essay Research Paper
The Canterbury Tales 2 Essay, Research Paper The Canterbury Tales is a poetic story of a group of people, who were going to pilgrimage. They were going to the tomb of St. Thomas a Bechet in Canterbury, which is about sixty miles from London in England. In that group, there were clergy and laity people. And in the poem Chaucer described all of them so well that we can easily see the picture of how they lived and how they behaved in manners of work and other ways of life. And while he was describing, he also criticized some members of the clergy position, because of their abusing of their position and doing things that they were not supposed to do, or not doing something they were supposed to do in their position. Among those people whom Chaucer criticized very much were the Friar and the Pardoner. In the medieval society, where people were very religious, illiterate and superstitious, the Friar was respected as God himself. The Friar s job in the church was to help people, who committed crime, by giving them a guide to pray for a certain time so that they can receive absolution. But the Friar in the Canterbury Tales was not honest and dedicated in doing his job. He abused his position by taking money from people who came to confess. He told them that they would get absolution if they pay him and thus broke the vow of obedience because it is against the Catholic Church. He broke the vow of chastity by having adulterous relationships with other women. By wearing expensive clothes, spending his time with wealthy people rather than helping beggars or sick lepers, he broke the vow of poverty. The Pardoner is a person who says prayer for dead people so that the sins they had committed in life would be forgiven. The Pardoner of The Canterbury Tales abused his position by selling some papers which he claimed if people bought, their time in purgatory would be shortened after death; he sold them for very high price. He also claimed that he had Virgin Mary s veil, which would have been 1330 years after Mary died. He also claimed that he had St. Peter s sail and said the pig bones, he always carried with him, were relics of St. Peter. Chucer also criticized him by implying him as a homosexual by referring him to a gelding or a mare. Nowadays, it sounds almost impossible, that someone like Friar would take money from people for confession or like the Pardoner, would sell pardons. Because people today are not so superstitious anymore that someone would just deceive them in that way. The light of education has given them the power to think clearly and scientifically. But this is in Western countries, where most of the people are educated. The situation is not the same in my country, where a large number of people are still illiterate. They are so ignorant and credulous that people like Friar or Pardoner can easily deceive them. In the village, where I used to live in my country, most of the people were uneducated farmer. And there was a man in that village who claimed himself to be the saint from Allah (God), and said that if people pay him, he would pray for them, which would give them a better chance of having a good harvest. Unfortunately, most of the people believe him and pay a certain amount of their income every month, even though it is very hard for those poor people. And there is no hope that the situation would change, until there a big change occurs, until they are blessed by the light of education.
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Invisibility and Marginal visibility It is a fact that the discipline of History, at least until the eighth decade of the twentieth century, was an extremely male-dominated subject. The main characters, whether they were warriors, writers, rulers, philosophers, or scientists were almost invariably male. Granted there were a few exceptions, but as the saying goes, these exceptions only proved the rule. Women characters like the South Indian monarch Rudramadevi or the European philosopher Isabella d'Aste can be mentioned as isolated islands in a sea dominated by male characters. This invisibility or marginal visibility (call it whatever you want) was so well entrenched in the subject of History that until a couple of decades ago, no one even seemed to question it. The research on women related issues has been relatively lesser. Even when such research was done, women were sometimes presented as the helpless victims of social oppression and at other times the research relating to male-female relationships wasn't done properly.
Coming to the topic at hand, the situation in Assam in the 19th century was somewhat distinct from the rest of the country. This was because there was a certain amount of difference in the way the Brahmin and non-Brahmin (both tribal and non-tribal) women were treated by their male counterparts when compared to the rest of the country. While Brahmin women here faced the usual discrimination as in the rest of the country (pre-puberty marriage, a hellish life as a widow, lack of access to education and restrictions on remarriage) the non-Brahmin women were slightly better off at least as far as choosing their husband and the age of marriage is concerned. But as far as the domestic division of labor and the general status of women was concerned, non-Brahmin women weren't much better off either. Nevertheless, there was somewhat more inter-gender equality in Assam compared to the rest of the country.
Winds of change The nineteenth century and the first half of the twenty-first are one of special mention as several new factors came together in this period to create conditions for change. Three factors are of particular importance – the coming of the British and the spread of a new educational system in the region, secondly, the activities of the Baptist missionaries in the region and thirdly the rise of Gandhian mass agitation from the 1920s onwards.
The new education system meant the rise of a new generation of educated youth – Anandaram Dhekial Phukan, Gunabhiram Baruah, and Hemchandra Baruah – were probably the best representatives of this change. Anandaram Dhekial Phukan proposed three important changes in the prevailing system of marriages – firstly the difference of ae between the groom and the bride should not be more than five years, secondly all marriages should be registered and thirdly the prospective groom and the bride should have some time for courtship so as to know each other better. The work of Gunabhiram Baruah and Hemchandra Baruah in the field of promotion of widow remarriage is well known in the region.
The contribution of the missionaries is also quite important in this context. The missionaries were mainly charged up with the zeal of spreading Christianity and completing what they saw as the 'white man's burden'. To do this, they had to spread education among all sections of society. This led to an emphasis on the education of women. The progress was much better than in the rest of India, although the overall effect was still quite negligible. The missionaries had to adopt some innovative methods to get around the restrictions placed on upper-caste women. They started giving 'Jenana' education, in which missionaries went to the houses of the women and gave them lessons. There are individual cases of success but at the macro level, the effect was not very huge. The same can be claimed of the efforts by the individual reformers mentioned in the previous paragraph. As always happens, the grip of conventions and customs was so strong that even if these few individuals were to shout at the top of their voice, their voice would still get drowned out by the conservative voices.
The cry for freedom A considerable change came with the coming of Gandhi into the Indian political scene. It should be remembered that Gandhi made his frost visit to Assam in the year 1921, at the height of non-cooperation. Since Gandhian protests didn't require weapons, women were as eligible as men to participate in these. Some women came forward to form political organizations of their own while others participated in the less glamorous 'constructive' work that mainly included the promotion of khadi in the household. Among women of the former category, the most notable representative was Chandra Prabha Saikiani, whose fiery speeches were considerably influential in inspiring a fresh generation of freedom fighters, both male and female. Another phase came with the starting of the Quit India agitation. Now women were firmly into the nationalist circle, carrying the national flag in processions (Kanaklata was the most notable example) and sometimes even engaging in revolutionary violence, mostly sabotage activities.
After independence India became independent in 1947. Whether this Azadi (freedom) was jhoothi (false) or not is another matter altogether, but the post-independence period has been somewhat chequered for women in general and women of Assam and the North-East in particular. On the one hand, there have been numerous schemes and laws to help women with various grievances while on the other hand, there seems to be no end to the cases of crimes against women. This is especially true of strife-torn areas like Manipur where there are allegations of the army personnel had engaged in rape and molestations in the garb of anti-terror operations. Not too dissimilar allegations have been raised (since the colonial times in fact) about cases in the tea gardens where female workers are routinely subjected to sexual violence by their supervisors or the managers and owners of these establishments. Gender equality in the North-East is indeed somewhat better than that of other places in the country. Yet there are challenges for us moving forward, as there were before the reformers of the 19th century.
(The primary input for this article was the ideas gathered at the 9th Lakshmi Devi memorial lecture delivered by Professor Priyam Goswami)
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Invisibility and Marginal visibility It is a fact that the discipline of History, at least until the eighth decade of the twentieth century, was an extremely male-dominated subject. The main characters, whether they were warriors, writers, rulers, philosophers, or scientists were almost invariably male. Granted there were a few exceptions, but as the saying goes, these exceptions only proved the rule. Women characters like the South Indian monarch Rudramadevi or the European philosopher Isabella d'Aste can be mentioned as isolated islands in a sea dominated by male characters. This invisibility or marginal visibility (call it whatever you want) was so well entrenched in the subject of History that until a couple of decades ago, no one even seemed to question it. The research on women related issues has been relatively lesser. Even when such research was done, women were sometimes presented as the helpless victims of social oppression and at other times the research relating to male-female relationships wasn't done properly.
Coming to the topic at hand, the situation in Assam in the 19th century was somewhat distinct from the rest of the country. This was because there was a certain amount of difference in the way the Brahmin and non-Brahmin (both tribal and non-tribal) women were treated by their male counterparts when compared to the rest of the country. While Brahmin women here faced the usual discrimination as in the rest of the country (pre-puberty marriage, a hellish life as a widow, lack of access to education and restrictions on remarriage) the non-Brahmin women were slightly better off at least as far as choosing their husband and the age of marriage is concerned. But as far as the domestic division of labor and the general status of women was concerned, non-Brahmin women weren't much better off either. Nevertheless, there was somewhat more inter-gender equality in Assam compared to the rest of the country.
Winds of change The nineteenth century and the first half of the twenty-first are one of special mention as several new factors came together in this period to create conditions for change. Three factors are of particular importance – the coming of the British and the spread of a new educational system in the region, secondly, the activities of the Baptist missionaries in the region and thirdly the rise of Gandhian mass agitation from the 1920s onwards.
The new education system meant the rise of a new generation of educated youth – Anandaram Dhekial Phukan, Gunabhiram Baruah, and Hemchandra Baruah – were probably the best representatives of this change. Anandaram Dhekial Phukan proposed three important changes in the prevailing system of marriages – firstly the difference of ae between the groom and the bride should not be more than five years, secondly all marriages should be registered and thirdly the prospective groom and the bride should have some time for courtship so as to know each other better. The work of Gunabhiram Baruah and Hemchandra Baruah in the field of promotion of widow remarriage is well known in the region.
The contribution of the missionaries is also quite important in this context. The missionaries were mainly charged up with the zeal of spreading Christianity and completing what they saw as the 'white man's burden'. To do this, they had to spread education among all sections of society. This led to an emphasis on the education of women. The progress was much better than in the rest of India, although the overall effect was still quite negligible. The missionaries had to adopt some innovative methods to get around the restrictions placed on upper-caste women. They started giving 'Jenana' education, in which missionaries went to the houses of the women and gave them lessons. There are individual cases of success but at the macro level, the effect was not very huge. The same can be claimed of the efforts by the individual reformers mentioned in the previous paragraph. As always happens, the grip of conventions and customs was so strong that even if these few individuals were to shout at the top of their voice, their voice would still get drowned out by the conservative voices.
The cry for freedom A considerable change came with the coming of Gandhi into the Indian political scene. It should be remembered that Gandhi made his frost visit to Assam in the year 1921, at the height of non-cooperation. Since Gandhian protests didn't require weapons, women were as eligible as men to participate in these. Some women came forward to form political organizations of their own while others participated in the less glamorous 'constructive' work that mainly included the promotion of khadi in the household. Among women of the former category, the most notable representative was Chandra Prabha Saikiani, whose fiery speeches were considerably influential in inspiring a fresh generation of freedom fighters, both male and female. Another phase came with the starting of the Quit India agitation. Now women were firmly into the nationalist circle, carrying the national flag in processions (Kanaklata was the most notable example) and sometimes even engaging in revolutionary violence, mostly sabotage activities.
After independence India became independent in 1947. Whether this Azadi (freedom) was jhoothi (false) or not is another matter altogether, but the post-independence period has been somewhat chequered for women in general and women of Assam and the North-East in particular. On the one hand, there have been numerous schemes and laws to help women with various grievances while on the other hand, there seems to be no end to the cases of crimes against women. This is especially true of strife-torn areas like Manipur where there are allegations of the army personnel had engaged in rape and molestations in the garb of anti-terror operations. Not too dissimilar allegations have been raised (since the colonial times in fact) about cases in the tea gardens where female workers are routinely subjected to sexual violence by their supervisors or the managers and owners of these establishments. Gender equality in the North-East is indeed somewhat better than that of other places in the country. Yet there are challenges for us moving forward, as there were before the reformers of the 19th century.
(The primary input for this article was the ideas gathered at the 9th Lakshmi Devi memorial lecture delivered by Professor Priyam Goswami)
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The Old Testament
The Old Testament part of the Bible was written many hundreds of years before Jesus was born. Many details about the coming Saviour (“Christ”) were predicted by the writers in several books of the Old Testament. Jesus’ life and death fulfilled these prophecies (promises from God) with incredible accuracy. Let’s look at just few of these:
Isaiah 7:14: The virgin will be with child and will give birth to a son, and will call him Immanuel.
The name Immanuel literally means “God with us” and is a prediction that the coming Christ would be God. The writer goes on to call this child that would be born “Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace” (Isaiah 9:6).
Micah 5:2. This prophecy predicts Bethlehem as the birthplace of the coming ruler:
But you, Bethlehem . . . out of you will come for me one who will be ruler over Israel, whose origins are from of old, from ancient times.
Isaiah 53. Here we read several clear predictions about the future Christ:
He was despised and rejected by men, a man of sorrows, and familiar with suffering. Like one from whom men hide their faces, he was despised, and we [honoured] him not. Surely he took up our [weaknesses] and carried our sorrows, yet we considered him stricken by God, [judged] by him and afflicted. But he was pierced for our [wrongdoings], he was crushed for our [evils]; the punishment that brought us peace was upon him, and by his wounds we are healed (vv. 3–5).
Not only was the Christ going to be God Himself, He would suffer so that we could receive peace and healing from God. His death would be the means by which the split between God and us (caused by our self-centredness) would be mended. The prophecy in Isaiah 53 continues by telling us that the Christ would die for our wrongdoings and sorrows willingly (vv. 6-7).
Why does it matter that the Old Testament makes some predictions about the coming Christ?
The New Testament
The New Testament (written by people who were alive at the same time as Jesus) is filled with references to how Jesus fulfils the promises of the Old Testament. The Old Testament is like the Christ’s ‘CV’, and the New Testament shows that Jesus fits the criteria perfectly! Let’s look at some examples!
Matthew 1:22–23 says: All this [an angel appearing to Joseph in a dream to explain Mary’s pregnancy] took place to fulfil what the Lord had said through the prophet: “The virgin will be with child and will give birth to a son, and they will call him Immanuel”—which means, “God with us”.
This passage also goes on to say that Jesus was born in Bethlehem (Matthew 2:1–6), fulfilling the prophecy of Micah.
Also the promise of Isaiah 53:6–7 was fulfilled by Jesus when He was arrested and sentenced to death. He did not fight the arrest, but went willingly to the cross for us.
There are many other prophecies that were fulfilled by Jesus; too many to go into in this article. Why not ask your Scripture Reader or Chaplain to share with you some of the other ways Jesus proved His identity?
We can also find out more about who Jesus was by listening to the words of those who knew Him best.
The Words of His Followers
John, one of Jesus’ first followers, wrote his eye-witness account of Jesus’ life. Near the beginning of his book he said this of Jesus: “We have seen his glory, the glory of the One and Only, who came from the Father, full of grace and truth” (John 1:14). John said that Jesus, as God, “came from the Father,” to be “seen” and live as a man.
On several occasions Jesus spoke in clear terms about His identity. Have a look at some of them in John’s gospel: 8:23, 58; 14:1-7.
John wasn’t alone in saying that Jesus was God. Paul, one of the earliest followers of Jesus who had previously hated Christians, wrote many letters to different people and churches. Paul always confirmed that Jesus is God.
Philippians 2:5–7: Your attitude should be the same as that of Christ Jesus: who, being in very nature God . . . made himself nothing, taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness.
Here Jesus is presented as fully God and man. He always existed as God. But He willingly laid aside His glory to become the ‘God-man’—the humble Servant, obedient to death. Jesus was God and remained God, even when He became a man.
Were John and Paul (and many, many others) just mistaken about Jesus? Were they deliberately lying about Him? Did they dream up the idea of Jesus as God? Not at all! Jesus Himself said He was God.
Jesus’ Own Words
The most important thing to consider when it comes to Jesus is what He actually said about Himself. He made some shocking claims!
[Jesus] said to [his followers], “The Son of Man (another title for Jesus as God’s Ruler) is going to be betrayed into the hands of men. They will kill him, and after three days he will rise.” But they did not understand what he meant and were afraid to ask him about it (Mark 9:30–32).
Jesus was very clear about His identity and His mission—He came to die for us and to rise from the dead after three days. So let’s look at some of the different reactions Jesus got.
The Jewish listeners understood Jesus perfectly. In fact, His words made them very angry because He claimed to be God and so they actually tried to kill Him! In one tense conversation between Jesus and a group of Jewish leaders, He said, “Before Abraham (an important figure in Israel’s ancient history) was born, I am!” (John 8:58). The phrase “I Am” is another name for God, which God used in the Old Testament (Exodus 3:14). The Jewish religious leaders understood perfectly that Jesus was calling Himself God. And they refused to believe Him. Instead they wanted to kill Him for claiming to be God, by stoning Him with rocks.
At another time when Jesus was teaching publicly, He asked: “Who do people say the Son of Man is?” (Matthew 16:13). After hearing the many things the crowds thought He was (a good man, teacher, etc.), He then asked the same question to His closest followers, “Who do you say I am?” (v.15). His followers, who knew Him the best, thought something very different.
Simon Peter said, “You are the Christ, the Son of the living God” (v.16). Instead of rejecting this statement that He was God, Jesus agreed saying, “Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah, for this was not revealed to you by man, but by my Father in heaven” (v.17). Jesus claimed to be God and wanted His disciples to believe and depend upon this truth as well.
Finally, it is worth noting that doubt was also a common reaction. More than a week after Jesus had risen from the dead, Thomas (another follower of Jesus) had not yet seen Him. No one could convince Thomas that Jesus was alive. “Unless I see the nail marks in his hands and put my finger where the nails were, and put my hand into his side, I will not believe” (John 20:25).
A week later his disciples were in the house again and Thomas was with them. Though the doors were locked, Jesus came and stood among them and said, “Peace be with you!” Then he said to Thomas, “Put your finger here; see my hands. Reach out your hand and put it into my side. Stop doubting and believe” (John 20:26–27).
Jesus understood Thomas’ doubt and, rather than rejecting Thomas, He did everything necessary to assure Thomas of the truth. Awestruck, Thomas replied, “My Lord and my God!” (v.28). With these words, Thomas admitted that Jesus, having risen from the dead, was indeed God!
Jesus understands our doubt too and He appreciates our honesty. He wants us to speak with Him and read about Him in the Bible so that we can be sure of who He is.
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The Old Testament
The Old Testament part of the Bible was written many hundreds of years before Jesus was born. Many details about the coming Saviour (“Christ”) were predicted by the writers in several books of the Old Testament. Jesus’ life and death fulfilled these prophecies (promises from God) with incredible accuracy. Let’s look at just few of these:
Isaiah 7:14: The virgin will be with child and will give birth to a son, and will call him Immanuel.
The name Immanuel literally means “God with us” and is a prediction that the coming Christ would be God. The writer goes on to call this child that would be born “Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace” (Isaiah 9:6).
Micah 5:2. This prophecy predicts Bethlehem as the birthplace of the coming ruler:
But you, Bethlehem . . . out of you will come for me one who will be ruler over Israel, whose origins are from of old, from ancient times.
Isaiah 53. Here we read several clear predictions about the future Christ:
He was despised and rejected by men, a man of sorrows, and familiar with suffering. Like one from whom men hide their faces, he was despised, and we [honoured] him not. Surely he took up our [weaknesses] and carried our sorrows, yet we considered him stricken by God, [judged] by him and afflicted. But he was pierced for our [wrongdoings], he was crushed for our [evils]; the punishment that brought us peace was upon him, and by his wounds we are healed (vv. 3–5).
Not only was the Christ going to be God Himself, He would suffer so that we could receive peace and healing from God. His death would be the means by which the split between God and us (caused by our self-centredness) would be mended. The prophecy in Isaiah 53 continues by telling us that the Christ would die for our wrongdoings and sorrows willingly (vv. 6-7).
Why does it matter that the Old Testament makes some predictions about the coming Christ?
The New Testament
The New Testament (written by people who were alive at the same time as Jesus) is filled with references to how Jesus fulfils the promises of the Old Testament. The Old Testament is like the Christ’s ‘CV’, and the New Testament shows that Jesus fits the criteria perfectly! Let’s look at some examples!
Matthew 1:22–23 says: All this [an angel appearing to Joseph in a dream to explain Mary’s pregnancy] took place to fulfil what the Lord had said through the prophet: “The virgin will be with child and will give birth to a son, and they will call him Immanuel”—which means, “God with us”.
This passage also goes on to say that Jesus was born in Bethlehem (Matthew 2:1–6), fulfilling the prophecy of Micah.
Also the promise of Isaiah 53:6–7 was fulfilled by Jesus when He was arrested and sentenced to death. He did not fight the arrest, but went willingly to the cross for us.
There are many other prophecies that were fulfilled by Jesus; too many to go into in this article. Why not ask your Scripture Reader or Chaplain to share with you some of the other ways Jesus proved His identity?
We can also find out more about who Jesus was by listening to the words of those who knew Him best.
The Words of His Followers
John, one of Jesus’ first followers, wrote his eye-witness account of Jesus’ life. Near the beginning of his book he said this of Jesus: “We have seen his glory, the glory of the One and Only, who came from the Father, full of grace and truth” (John 1:14). John said that Jesus, as God, “came from the Father,” to be “seen” and live as a man.
On several occasions Jesus spoke in clear terms about His identity. Have a look at some of them in John’s gospel: 8:23, 58; 14:1-7.
John wasn’t alone in saying that Jesus was God. Paul, one of the earliest followers of Jesus who had previously hated Christians, wrote many letters to different people and churches. Paul always confirmed that Jesus is God.
Philippians 2:5–7: Your attitude should be the same as that of Christ Jesus: who, being in very nature God . . . made himself nothing, taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness.
Here Jesus is presented as fully God and man. He always existed as God. But He willingly laid aside His glory to become the ‘God-man’—the humble Servant, obedient to death. Jesus was God and remained God, even when He became a man.
Were John and Paul (and many, many others) just mistaken about Jesus? Were they deliberately lying about Him? Did they dream up the idea of Jesus as God? Not at all! Jesus Himself said He was God.
Jesus’ Own Words
The most important thing to consider when it comes to Jesus is what He actually said about Himself. He made some shocking claims!
[Jesus] said to [his followers], “The Son of Man (another title for Jesus as God’s Ruler) is going to be betrayed into the hands of men. They will kill him, and after three days he will rise.” But they did not understand what he meant and were afraid to ask him about it (Mark 9:30–32).
Jesus was very clear about His identity and His mission—He came to die for us and to rise from the dead after three days. So let’s look at some of the different reactions Jesus got.
The Jewish listeners understood Jesus perfectly. In fact, His words made them very angry because He claimed to be God and so they actually tried to kill Him! In one tense conversation between Jesus and a group of Jewish leaders, He said, “Before Abraham (an important figure in Israel’s ancient history) was born, I am!” (John 8:58). The phrase “I Am” is another name for God, which God used in the Old Testament (Exodus 3:14). The Jewish religious leaders understood perfectly that Jesus was calling Himself God. And they refused to believe Him. Instead they wanted to kill Him for claiming to be God, by stoning Him with rocks.
At another time when Jesus was teaching publicly, He asked: “Who do people say the Son of Man is?” (Matthew 16:13). After hearing the many things the crowds thought He was (a good man, teacher, etc.), He then asked the same question to His closest followers, “Who do you say I am?” (v.15). His followers, who knew Him the best, thought something very different.
Simon Peter said, “You are the Christ, the Son of the living God” (v.16). Instead of rejecting this statement that He was God, Jesus agreed saying, “Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah, for this was not revealed to you by man, but by my Father in heaven” (v.17). Jesus claimed to be God and wanted His disciples to believe and depend upon this truth as well.
Finally, it is worth noting that doubt was also a common reaction. More than a week after Jesus had risen from the dead, Thomas (another follower of Jesus) had not yet seen Him. No one could convince Thomas that Jesus was alive. “Unless I see the nail marks in his hands and put my finger where the nails were, and put my hand into his side, I will not believe” (John 20:25).
A week later his disciples were in the house again and Thomas was with them. Though the doors were locked, Jesus came and stood among them and said, “Peace be with you!” Then he said to Thomas, “Put your finger here; see my hands. Reach out your hand and put it into my side. Stop doubting and believe” (John 20:26–27).
Jesus understood Thomas’ doubt and, rather than rejecting Thomas, He did everything necessary to assure Thomas of the truth. Awestruck, Thomas replied, “My Lord and my God!” (v.28). With these words, Thomas admitted that Jesus, having risen from the dead, was indeed God!
Jesus understands our doubt too and He appreciates our honesty. He wants us to speak with Him and read about Him in the Bible so that we can be sure of who He is.
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The survey of early society in Mesopotamia is deemed indispensable to understand the development of human civilisation. Mesopotamian society and Civilization was one of the most of import and advanced society in those yearss. Mesopotamia was located in the land which fell between the two great rivers i.e. Tigris and Euphrates. These rivers were elephantine rivers and the civilisation in between these rivers grew because these rivers were a beginning of abundant H2O supply. Since H2O was indispensable to growing of society and civilisation, the historiographers consider the function of these rivers in rise of Mesopotamian civilisation as really of import. Although rivers had a batch of H2O, the Mesopotamian land itself did non have much of a rainfall. They therefore focused on development of an irrigation system by which they could utilize the river H2O to water their harvests. The canal system was build at a little graduated table every bit early as 6000 B.C. at a little degree. It proved really utile and the production of nutrient points grew significantly due to this factor. Although ab initio the irrigation system was at really basic phase, it expanded as the metropolis provinces after their constitution focused on the betterment of canal system and reservoirs etc.
Due to this addition in H2O supply, people settled in Mesopotamia and some even migrated at that place from environing countries. The society was therefore established and it was turning. When the figure of people grew significantly, the metropoliss were developed which proved to be the chief centres of the whole part. These metropoliss were really of import as they were the centre of economic activities, the spiritual activities and cultural activities as good. When the population of these metropoliss increased and at that place grew a demand to set up an order, the governmental set up was established with the authorization which could chief control in the metropolis province and the environing countries. The metropolis provinces now had proper authoritiess and those authoritiess were really advanced by the criterion of clip. They non merely maintained order in society but besides focused on development of certain undertakings like edifices, temples and defensive walls which were for the improvement of the metropolis. The defensive walls became really of import as they used to protect the metropolis provinces from encroachers as the land was good suited to pull the encroachers.
Equally far as governmental system is concerned, the early Mesopotamian metropolis provinces used to form regular assemblies of work forces and these assemblies bestowed authorization to certain persons who were all powerful and they wielded authorization of authorities. So it could be said that it was an indirect democracy. It may be noted this was in initial stage. When the swayers became powerful, they developed imperiums and did non experience the demand to take the countenance of the people to utilize governmental powers.
Equally far as society is concerned, it had different societal categories and this differentiation grew with the transition of clip. It was non at that place in early yearss of constitution but different classed developed with the transition of clip. These categories included the upper category which included authorities officials, warriors and the priests who were spiritual leaders, the in-between category which had freewomans who were engaged in commercial activities and who were husbandmans, and the lower category which chiefly consisted of slaves who served the other categories. The differences between the categories were of really serious nature.
The system of disposal was greatly improved by one of the male monarchs, Hammurabi when imperium was established. He provided a fundamental law which is known as Hammurabi codification and is regarded as really of import in the developed of human civilisation. It led to constitution of proper system of authorities on the footing of this codification which was a complete fundamental law. The jurisprudence was provided to run the personal businesss of province and penalties were provided for the discourtesies.
The south Asiatic part besides played an of import function in the development of human civilisation. The early societies of Harrapa and Mohenjodaro are regarded as really of import for understanding the development of human civilisation. Harrapa is located on the bank of a river in Punjab state of modern twenty-four hours Pakistan and it once more proves the fact that the early societies developed on river Bankss because the H2O was such an indispensable demand. Therefore, the human colonies developed merely following to some good H2O beginning.
The survey of civilisation in Harrapa and Mohenjodaro reveals that these were metropoliss of those yearss and which were really advanced metropoliss of their times. They had their system of authorities like the authorities of the metropolis provinces and they had the distinguishable civilization of their ain. The archaeologists have found so many things from these sites which clearly set up that these societies had a rich civilization. The cultural activities were chief beginning of past clip for the people in these metropoliss apart from gaining their supports. It has been established that like Mesopotamian metropoliss, the ancient metropoliss of South Asia were besides commercial and concern centres of their times. It has besides been pointed by certain bookmans that people from these metropoliss traded points with the people from Mesopotamian metropoliss. So both these had trade between them.
Agribusiness was the chief beginning of support and abundant nutrient was produced. The ground once more was handiness of H2O. It was handiness of nutrient supply that attracted people from the environing countries to come and settle at that place in these metropoliss. Due to handiness of nutrient supply, the population of the metropoliss besides increased greatly as agribusiness was good plenty to run into the nutrient demands of the people in the metropoliss. If we study in item, we find that these metropoliss had educational establishments and even a university has been found in Mohenjodaro. This reflects the degree of promotion of these metropoliss and their civilisation. The remains found in the signifier of clayware points and coins and other such things besides indicate that these people were educated and they had great heads.
The society was divided into categories like the society in Mesopotamia. There was upper category, so there was category which was engaged in gaining support for themselves like the husbandmans and the business communities and in conclusion there were category pf retainers who served the members of upper category. The spiritual component was besides at that place as we find from the remains.
To reason, we would state that both these early societies were vivacious but the society in Mesopotamia was more vivacious. It had developed irrigation system which was rather advanced by the criterions of clip. Then the authorities system was rather effectual as we see the authorities taking development undertakings like edifice walls for defence intents. This was more advancement compared to south Asiatic societies of those times. The Mesopotamian civilisation was besides more advanced in footings of governmental system and constitutional development. We find Hammurabi jurisprudence there but no such jurisprudence in instance of South Asiatic societies. Therefore the Mesopotamian civilisation was more advanced.
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The survey of early society in Mesopotamia is deemed indispensable to understand the development of human civilisation. Mesopotamian society and Civilization was one of the most of import and advanced society in those yearss. Mesopotamia was located in the land which fell between the two great rivers i.e. Tigris and Euphrates. These rivers were elephantine rivers and the civilisation in between these rivers grew because these rivers were a beginning of abundant H2O supply. Since H2O was indispensable to growing of society and civilisation, the historiographers consider the function of these rivers in rise of Mesopotamian civilisation as really of import. Although rivers had a batch of H2O, the Mesopotamian land itself did non have much of a rainfall. They therefore focused on development of an irrigation system by which they could utilize the river H2O to water their harvests. The canal system was build at a little graduated table every bit early as 6000 B.C. at a little degree. It proved really utile and the production of nutrient points grew significantly due to this factor. Although ab initio the irrigation system was at really basic phase, it expanded as the metropolis provinces after their constitution focused on the betterment of canal system and reservoirs etc.
Due to this addition in H2O supply, people settled in Mesopotamia and some even migrated at that place from environing countries. The society was therefore established and it was turning. When the figure of people grew significantly, the metropoliss were developed which proved to be the chief centres of the whole part. These metropoliss were really of import as they were the centre of economic activities, the spiritual activities and cultural activities as good. When the population of these metropoliss increased and at that place grew a demand to set up an order, the governmental set up was established with the authorization which could chief control in the metropolis province and the environing countries. The metropolis provinces now had proper authoritiess and those authoritiess were really advanced by the criterion of clip. They non merely maintained order in society but besides focused on development of certain undertakings like edifices, temples and defensive walls which were for the improvement of the metropolis. The defensive walls became really of import as they used to protect the metropolis provinces from encroachers as the land was good suited to pull the encroachers.
Equally far as governmental system is concerned, the early Mesopotamian metropolis provinces used to form regular assemblies of work forces and these assemblies bestowed authorization to certain persons who were all powerful and they wielded authorization of authorities. So it could be said that it was an indirect democracy. It may be noted this was in initial stage. When the swayers became powerful, they developed imperiums and did non experience the demand to take the countenance of the people to utilize governmental powers.
Equally far as society is concerned, it had different societal categories and this differentiation grew with the transition of clip. It was non at that place in early yearss of constitution but different classed developed with the transition of clip. These categories included the upper category which included authorities officials, warriors and the priests who were spiritual leaders, the in-between category which had freewomans who were engaged in commercial activities and who were husbandmans, and the lower category which chiefly consisted of slaves who served the other categories. The differences between the categories were of really serious nature.
The system of disposal was greatly improved by one of the male monarchs, Hammurabi when imperium was established. He provided a fundamental law which is known as Hammurabi codification and is regarded as really of import in the developed of human civilisation. It led to constitution of proper system of authorities on the footing of this codification which was a complete fundamental law. The jurisprudence was provided to run the personal businesss of province and penalties were provided for the discourtesies.
The south Asiatic part besides played an of import function in the development of human civilisation. The early societies of Harrapa and Mohenjodaro are regarded as really of import for understanding the development of human civilisation. Harrapa is located on the bank of a river in Punjab state of modern twenty-four hours Pakistan and it once more proves the fact that the early societies developed on river Bankss because the H2O was such an indispensable demand. Therefore, the human colonies developed merely following to some good H2O beginning.
The survey of civilisation in Harrapa and Mohenjodaro reveals that these were metropoliss of those yearss and which were really advanced metropoliss of their times. They had their system of authorities like the authorities of the metropolis provinces and they had the distinguishable civilization of their ain. The archaeologists have found so many things from these sites which clearly set up that these societies had a rich civilization. The cultural activities were chief beginning of past clip for the people in these metropoliss apart from gaining their supports. It has been established that like Mesopotamian metropoliss, the ancient metropoliss of South Asia were besides commercial and concern centres of their times. It has besides been pointed by certain bookmans that people from these metropoliss traded points with the people from Mesopotamian metropoliss. So both these had trade between them.
Agribusiness was the chief beginning of support and abundant nutrient was produced. The ground once more was handiness of H2O. It was handiness of nutrient supply that attracted people from the environing countries to come and settle at that place in these metropoliss. Due to handiness of nutrient supply, the population of the metropoliss besides increased greatly as agribusiness was good plenty to run into the nutrient demands of the people in the metropoliss. If we study in item, we find that these metropoliss had educational establishments and even a university has been found in Mohenjodaro. This reflects the degree of promotion of these metropoliss and their civilisation. The remains found in the signifier of clayware points and coins and other such things besides indicate that these people were educated and they had great heads.
The society was divided into categories like the society in Mesopotamia. There was upper category, so there was category which was engaged in gaining support for themselves like the husbandmans and the business communities and in conclusion there were category pf retainers who served the members of upper category. The spiritual component was besides at that place as we find from the remains.
To reason, we would state that both these early societies were vivacious but the society in Mesopotamia was more vivacious. It had developed irrigation system which was rather advanced by the criterions of clip. Then the authorities system was rather effectual as we see the authorities taking development undertakings like edifice walls for defence intents. This was more advancement compared to south Asiatic societies of those times. The Mesopotamian civilisation was besides more advanced in footings of governmental system and constitutional development. We find Hammurabi jurisprudence there but no such jurisprudence in instance of South Asiatic societies. Therefore the Mesopotamian civilisation was more advanced.
hypertext transfer protocol: //www.aramsociety.org/
| 1,493
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Hudson River School
Today, the United States' borders are much larger than what they were 250 years ago. With the release from British authority, the United States faced the challenge of expanding westwards, bound by no outside law.
Art was perhaps the most compelling form of storytelling. Whether it was about certain war victories, discovery of land, or peace treaties, art was a popular way of depicting what had taken place.
Art during this era was also a form of propaganda: it had to be beautiful, depict the west as a place of grand spectacles and such. It shouldn't be a surprise to anyone that heavy romantic themes would dominate this era of art. This was called the Hudson River School movement, which often exaggerated the beauty of American nature. As a result, we get to explore three major themes associated with Western Expansion: discovery, exploration, and settlement. Examine how these pictures make you as the audience feel, and how it might relate to the successful expansion westwards.Read More »
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|
Hudson River School
Today, the United States' borders are much larger than what they were 250 years ago. With the release from British authority, the United States faced the challenge of expanding westwards, bound by no outside law.
Art was perhaps the most compelling form of storytelling. Whether it was about certain war victories, discovery of land, or peace treaties, art was a popular way of depicting what had taken place.
Art during this era was also a form of propaganda: it had to be beautiful, depict the west as a place of grand spectacles and such. It shouldn't be a surprise to anyone that heavy romantic themes would dominate this era of art. This was called the Hudson River School movement, which often exaggerated the beauty of American nature. As a result, we get to explore three major themes associated with Western Expansion: discovery, exploration, and settlement. Examine how these pictures make you as the audience feel, and how it might relate to the successful expansion westwards.Read More »
| 204
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Kindertransport: The Saving of 10,000 Jewish Children From Nazi-Occupied Europe
When you think about World War I and World War II, the stories that usually come up are ones about people making both incredible and harrowing journeys — soldiers traveling into hostile war zones or innocent people being shuffled into concentration camps — and these journeys come to represent a huge element of the human condition. One journey that few remember, however, is that of the kindertransport.
In late 1938 and early 1939, about 10,000 Jewish children were taken from Nazi-occupied Europe to Britain in what was later called the "kindertransport". Many of the children were uprooted from their homes during the Hanukkah holiday and had to travel without their parents — some got to travel with their siblings if they were lucky.
The Nuremberg Laws first passed by Nazi Germany in 1935, played a large role in ostracizing German Jews from their country. The laws were some of the first that formally excluded the Jewish population from German life, like stripping them of their citizenship and outlawing marriage between Germans and Jews.
The kindertransport project came just nine months before the start of World War II. Most of the children who were sent by train to the United Kingdom were from Germany and Austria. Later in the war, children from Poland and Czechoslovakia were also brought to the United Kingdom.
Some of the displaced children were either sent into foster care or schools, while others were sent to hostels and farms. Many of the children ended up being the only people in their families who survived the war.
The kindertransport rescue effort started just a few days after the Night of Broken Glass. Jewish leaders in Britain appealed to the UK Prime Minister to temporarily allow Jewish minors to enter the country without their legal guardians. The British Cabinet debated the issue for just a day; before long they were accepting infants to teens as old as 17 to take the train into the country.
A special task force in Britain was assigned to inspect the homes of families who wanted to take in the refugee children. Th task force didn't interview or question the motives of the foster families, they simply made sure the homes were clean and that the families seemed normal.
The government had to prioritized the kids based on several factors. Teens and children in concentration camps, Jewish orphans, Polish kids who were being threatened with deportation, and children whose parents were now too poor to care for them are prioritized for transport. Additionally, children who had at least one parent in a concentration camp were allowed to leave their home country.
Throughout the 9-month rescue mission, thousands of unaccompanied kids came into the UK. The final transport came from the Netherlands; 74 children boarded a passenger freighter that would end up being the last to leave the country freely for the remainder of the war.
In 2013, the event was commemorated at St. James' Palace in Britain. Survivors gathered to reunite at the bittersweet event, and many were able to share their stories about leaving their country at such a young age.
Because they could only leave with one tiny suitcase, many of the children only brought along a single memento of home other than their essential clothing. Some carried dolls in traditional Austrian clothing, others brought drawing pencils, a sock puppet, and ice skates.
The One Thousand Children was a similar rescue mission during World War II that brought around 1,400 children from Nazi Europe to the United States. The OTC, however, wasn't nearly as organized as the kindertransport. In 1939, one senator tried to pass a bill to admit nearly 20,000 unaccompanied Jewish children into the country, but Congress declined the bill.
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Kindertransport: The Saving of 10,000 Jewish Children From Nazi-Occupied Europe
When you think about World War I and World War II, the stories that usually come up are ones about people making both incredible and harrowing journeys — soldiers traveling into hostile war zones or innocent people being shuffled into concentration camps — and these journeys come to represent a huge element of the human condition. One journey that few remember, however, is that of the kindertransport.
In late 1938 and early 1939, about 10,000 Jewish children were taken from Nazi-occupied Europe to Britain in what was later called the "kindertransport". Many of the children were uprooted from their homes during the Hanukkah holiday and had to travel without their parents — some got to travel with their siblings if they were lucky.
The Nuremberg Laws first passed by Nazi Germany in 1935, played a large role in ostracizing German Jews from their country. The laws were some of the first that formally excluded the Jewish population from German life, like stripping them of their citizenship and outlawing marriage between Germans and Jews.
The kindertransport project came just nine months before the start of World War II. Most of the children who were sent by train to the United Kingdom were from Germany and Austria. Later in the war, children from Poland and Czechoslovakia were also brought to the United Kingdom.
Some of the displaced children were either sent into foster care or schools, while others were sent to hostels and farms. Many of the children ended up being the only people in their families who survived the war.
The kindertransport rescue effort started just a few days after the Night of Broken Glass. Jewish leaders in Britain appealed to the UK Prime Minister to temporarily allow Jewish minors to enter the country without their legal guardians. The British Cabinet debated the issue for just a day; before long they were accepting infants to teens as old as 17 to take the train into the country.
A special task force in Britain was assigned to inspect the homes of families who wanted to take in the refugee children. Th task force didn't interview or question the motives of the foster families, they simply made sure the homes were clean and that the families seemed normal.
The government had to prioritized the kids based on several factors. Teens and children in concentration camps, Jewish orphans, Polish kids who were being threatened with deportation, and children whose parents were now too poor to care for them are prioritized for transport. Additionally, children who had at least one parent in a concentration camp were allowed to leave their home country.
Throughout the 9-month rescue mission, thousands of unaccompanied kids came into the UK. The final transport came from the Netherlands; 74 children boarded a passenger freighter that would end up being the last to leave the country freely for the remainder of the war.
In 2013, the event was commemorated at St. James' Palace in Britain. Survivors gathered to reunite at the bittersweet event, and many were able to share their stories about leaving their country at such a young age.
Because they could only leave with one tiny suitcase, many of the children only brought along a single memento of home other than their essential clothing. Some carried dolls in traditional Austrian clothing, others brought drawing pencils, a sock puppet, and ice skates.
The One Thousand Children was a similar rescue mission during World War II that brought around 1,400 children from Nazi Europe to the United States. The OTC, however, wasn't nearly as organized as the kindertransport. In 1939, one senator tried to pass a bill to admit nearly 20,000 unaccompanied Jewish children into the country, but Congress declined the bill.
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Columbus, The Indians, and Human Progress Arawak men and women, naked, tawny, and full of wonder, emerged from their villages onto the island's beaches and swam out to get a closer look at the strange big boat. When Columbus and his sailors came ashore, carrying swords, speaking oddly, the Arawaks ran to greet them, brought them food, water, gifts.
Both of Hughes' paternal great-grandmothers were enslaved African Americans and both of his paternal great-grandfathers were white slave owners in Kentucky. One of the first women to attend Oberlin Collegeshe married Lewis Sheridan Learyalso of mixed racebefore her studies.
See The Talented Tenth. Charles Langston later moved with his family to Kansas, where he was active as an educator and activist for voting and rights for African Americans. Hughes' father left his family soon after the boy was born and later divorced Carrie.
The senior Hughes traveled to Cuba and then Mexico, seeking to escape the enduring racism in the United States. Through the black American oral tradition and drawing from the activist experiences of her generation, Mary Langston instilled in her grandson a lasting sense of racial pride.
In his autobiography The Big Sea, he wrote: Then it was that books began to happen to me, and I began to believe in nothing but books and the wonderful world in books—where if people suffered, they suffered in beautiful language, not in monosyllables, as we did in Kansas.
Later, Hughes lived again with his mother Carrie in Lincoln, Illinois.
She had remarried when he was still an adolescent. The family moved to Cleveland, Ohiowhere he attended high school and was taught by Helen Maria Chesnuttwhom he found inspiring.
While in grammar school in Lincoln, Hughes was elected class poet. He stated that in retrospect he thought it was because of the stereotype about African Americans having rhythm.
There were only two of us Negro kids in the whole class and our English teacher was always stressing the importance of rhythm in poetry. Well, everyone knows, except us, that all Negroes have rhythm, so they elected me as class poet.
His first piece of jazz poetry, "When Sue Wears Red," was written while he was in high school. He lived briefly with his father in Mexico in Upon graduating from high school in JuneHughes returned to Mexico to live with his father, hoping to convince him to support his plan to attend Columbia University.
Hughes later said that, prior to arriving in Mexico, "I had been thinking about my father and his strange dislike of his own people. I didn't understand it, because I was a Negro, and I liked Negroes very much.
On these grounds, he was willing to provide financial assistance to his son, but did not support his desire to be a writer. Eventually, Hughes and his father came to a compromise: Hughes would study engineering, so long as he could attend Columbia. His tuition provided, Hughes left his father after more than a year.
He left in because of racial prejudice. He was attracted more to the African-American people and neighborhood of Harlem than to his studies, but he continued writing poetry.
Malone inspending six months traveling to West Africa and Europe. Malone for a temporary stay in Paris. In Novemberhe returned to the U. After assorted odd jobs, he gained white-collar employment in as a personal assistant to historian Carter G. As the work demands limited his time for writing, Hughes quit the position to work as a busboy at the Wardman Park Hotel.
There he encountered poet Vachel Lindsaywith whom he shared some poems. Impressed with the poems, Lindsay publicized his discovery of a new black poet. By this time, Hughes's earlier work had been published in magazines and was about to be collected into his first book of poetry.
Hughes at university in The following year, Hughes enrolled in Lincoln Universitya historically black university in Chester County, Pennsylvania. He joined the Omega Psi Phi fraternity.
After Hughes earned a B.The Madonna of th Street Faith and Community in Italian Harlem, Book Review The Madonna of th Street by Rabert A.
Orsi reveals a perspective on how religion effects the every day lives of the Italian immigrants living . Harlem was a symbolic and imaginative articulation of the religious experi- ence of suffering and hope in the Italian-American family and community; he has also raised the question of how seriously denominational bureaucracies.
The Italian American Experience: Politics, Society & Identity. Satisfies Intellectual Foundations (SUNY General Education): Diversity Faith and Community in Italian Harlem, (3rd ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Final Essay TOTAL LETTER GRADES BASED ON PERCENTAGE. The Mayor of San Jose, California Sam Liccardo. (Photo: Courtesy of EAC) Tadias Magazine By Tadias Staff. September 4th, New York (TADIAS) — Every September for the last fourteen years, rain or shine, the city of San Jose in California has formally honored the heritage of its vibrant Ethiopian American residents with a flag-raising ceremony at City Hall in recognition of the Ethiopian.
The Catholic Church And The Church - The Roman Catholic Church is a religious community that is similar to the Orthodox Church. The Roman Catholic Church has what they call mass every Sunday.
Social Work and Religious Diversity Suggested Readings on the Religious Diversity of New York City Zain Abdullah, Black Mecca: The African Muslims of Harlem, Robert Orsi, The Madonna of th Street: Faith and Community in Italian Harlem, Yale University Press,
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Columbus, The Indians, and Human Progress Arawak men and women, naked, tawny, and full of wonder, emerged from their villages onto the island's beaches and swam out to get a closer look at the strange big boat. When Columbus and his sailors came ashore, carrying swords, speaking oddly, the Arawaks ran to greet them, brought them food, water, gifts.
Both of Hughes' paternal great-grandmothers were enslaved African Americans and both of his paternal great-grandfathers were white slave owners in Kentucky. One of the first women to attend Oberlin Collegeshe married Lewis Sheridan Learyalso of mixed racebefore her studies.
See The Talented Tenth. Charles Langston later moved with his family to Kansas, where he was active as an educator and activist for voting and rights for African Americans. Hughes' father left his family soon after the boy was born and later divorced Carrie.
The senior Hughes traveled to Cuba and then Mexico, seeking to escape the enduring racism in the United States. Through the black American oral tradition and drawing from the activist experiences of her generation, Mary Langston instilled in her grandson a lasting sense of racial pride.
In his autobiography The Big Sea, he wrote: Then it was that books began to happen to me, and I began to believe in nothing but books and the wonderful world in books—where if people suffered, they suffered in beautiful language, not in monosyllables, as we did in Kansas.
Later, Hughes lived again with his mother Carrie in Lincoln, Illinois.
She had remarried when he was still an adolescent. The family moved to Cleveland, Ohiowhere he attended high school and was taught by Helen Maria Chesnuttwhom he found inspiring.
While in grammar school in Lincoln, Hughes was elected class poet. He stated that in retrospect he thought it was because of the stereotype about African Americans having rhythm.
There were only two of us Negro kids in the whole class and our English teacher was always stressing the importance of rhythm in poetry. Well, everyone knows, except us, that all Negroes have rhythm, so they elected me as class poet.
His first piece of jazz poetry, "When Sue Wears Red," was written while he was in high school. He lived briefly with his father in Mexico in Upon graduating from high school in JuneHughes returned to Mexico to live with his father, hoping to convince him to support his plan to attend Columbia University.
Hughes later said that, prior to arriving in Mexico, "I had been thinking about my father and his strange dislike of his own people. I didn't understand it, because I was a Negro, and I liked Negroes very much.
On these grounds, he was willing to provide financial assistance to his son, but did not support his desire to be a writer. Eventually, Hughes and his father came to a compromise: Hughes would study engineering, so long as he could attend Columbia. His tuition provided, Hughes left his father after more than a year.
He left in because of racial prejudice. He was attracted more to the African-American people and neighborhood of Harlem than to his studies, but he continued writing poetry.
Malone inspending six months traveling to West Africa and Europe. Malone for a temporary stay in Paris. In Novemberhe returned to the U. After assorted odd jobs, he gained white-collar employment in as a personal assistant to historian Carter G. As the work demands limited his time for writing, Hughes quit the position to work as a busboy at the Wardman Park Hotel.
There he encountered poet Vachel Lindsaywith whom he shared some poems. Impressed with the poems, Lindsay publicized his discovery of a new black poet. By this time, Hughes's earlier work had been published in magazines and was about to be collected into his first book of poetry.
Hughes at university in The following year, Hughes enrolled in Lincoln Universitya historically black university in Chester County, Pennsylvania. He joined the Omega Psi Phi fraternity.
After Hughes earned a B.The Madonna of th Street Faith and Community in Italian Harlem, Book Review The Madonna of th Street by Rabert A.
Orsi reveals a perspective on how religion effects the every day lives of the Italian immigrants living . Harlem was a symbolic and imaginative articulation of the religious experi- ence of suffering and hope in the Italian-American family and community; he has also raised the question of how seriously denominational bureaucracies.
The Italian American Experience: Politics, Society & Identity. Satisfies Intellectual Foundations (SUNY General Education): Diversity Faith and Community in Italian Harlem, (3rd ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Final Essay TOTAL LETTER GRADES BASED ON PERCENTAGE. The Mayor of San Jose, California Sam Liccardo. (Photo: Courtesy of EAC) Tadias Magazine By Tadias Staff. September 4th, New York (TADIAS) — Every September for the last fourteen years, rain or shine, the city of San Jose in California has formally honored the heritage of its vibrant Ethiopian American residents with a flag-raising ceremony at City Hall in recognition of the Ethiopian.
The Catholic Church And The Church - The Roman Catholic Church is a religious community that is similar to the Orthodox Church. The Roman Catholic Church has what they call mass every Sunday.
Social Work and Religious Diversity Suggested Readings on the Religious Diversity of New York City Zain Abdullah, Black Mecca: The African Muslims of Harlem, Robert Orsi, The Madonna of th Street: Faith and Community in Italian Harlem, Yale University Press,
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From NPR, transcript here.
Michelle Scott is reading from the Common Core math standards for fifth-graders. She'll be teaching fifth next year, along with John Gries. And together, they're writing—and rewriting—lessons they'll need come September.
For the last sentence, did he want to say, “they're re-writing lessons they'll need if September comes”? He inverted the last part, put the verb “come” in the front and omitted “if”, right?
As far as I could determine, it seems only “if” with subjunctive voice could be used in this way. I don't think it's a subjunctive voice. In my impression, the subjunctive voice stands for those occasions when you're not sure whether it will happen or not, such as “If it were to rain, I'd pick you up.”
September will come sooner or later (it's not in limbo), so I'm wondering how to explain the sentence.
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https://ell.stackexchange.com/questions/24834/is-come-september-a-kind-of-inversion/24836
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|
From NPR, transcript here.
Michelle Scott is reading from the Common Core math standards for fifth-graders. She'll be teaching fifth next year, along with John Gries. And together, they're writing—and rewriting—lessons they'll need come September.
For the last sentence, did he want to say, “they're re-writing lessons they'll need if September comes”? He inverted the last part, put the verb “come” in the front and omitted “if”, right?
As far as I could determine, it seems only “if” with subjunctive voice could be used in this way. I don't think it's a subjunctive voice. In my impression, the subjunctive voice stands for those occasions when you're not sure whether it will happen or not, such as “If it were to rain, I'd pick you up.”
September will come sooner or later (it's not in limbo), so I'm wondering how to explain the sentence.
| 198
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ENGLISH
| 1
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The life of medieval princesses is somewhat romanticized in contemporary thought giving the impression of fairy tales and castles. However, the women of the Middle Ages who became princesses and queens had complex lives filled with politics, public opinion, and societal pressures.
The Middle Ages were a time very much dominated by men, but a number of women were able to rise to prominence. Women were typically resigned to the background – in most cases they could not ascend to the thrown in a reigning capacity and must be considered Queen Consort, and their lives were dominated by the men in their family (primarily fathers and husbands).
Political and Cultural Roles
Princesses, or daughters of other suitably high-ranking nobles, were used as political pawns to gain power and forge alliances. From childhood many girls were promised to kings, and many marriages occurred before the princess reached her teenage years. The young women were uprooted from their home and sent throughout Europe to be married, often never to see their home kingdom again.
Marriages were the ultimate political alliances as they were seen to be permanent (divorce was not acceptable in the Middle Ages) and children created from the union become heirs to two kingdoms. As such, the primary purpose of a princess or young queen was to produce an heir, more specifically, a male heir. Daughters were valuable for forging other alliances, but it was the male heir, who could ascend to the throne after his father, that was most desired. Once an heir was born, it was also the rule of the mother to rear the child to be a ruler and forever championing his cause.
Despite living materially privileged lives at court, princesses and queens held tremendous responsibility and faced many challenges. Many courts distrusted foreigners, believing them to be unfaithful to their new kingdom and role, which made it difficult for a new queen or princess to hold much power or respect. Also, it was highly common and even acceptable for men to take mistresses, but women were not allowed the same privilege. It was an enduring challenge for many monarchs to face the infidelity of their husband and continue to command respect.
Notable Middle Ages Princesses
Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204) became Queen of England in 1152 upon marrying King Henry II. Despite an initially pleasant marriage, Eleanor became disenchanted with her husband and changed her loyalty to her sons, the future King Richard I and King John. She encouraged her sons to rebel against Henry II resulting in her imprisonment for sixteen years. Despite the troublesome politics, Eleanor was a renowned patron of music and the arts who frequently employed highly-respected troubadours.
The life of Queen Berengaria of Navarre was strongly influenced by Eleanor of Aquitaine, who arranged the marriage of the Basque princess to her son Richard I the Lionheart. As Richard was en route to the Holy Land to fight in the Third Crusade, Berengaria was sent to Sicily to be married. The marriage was neither happy nor productive as no heir was produced. Richard died in 1199 and Berengaria had never been to England, of which she was queen. She resided in France for the rest of her life eventually becoming Dame of Le Mans as appointed by King Philip of France. She was a firm ruler and surprised the clergy who wanted to take advantage of having a woman in charge.
Some princesses and queens, such as Isabelle of Angouleme, were just as power-hungry as their husbands and fathers. Isabelle (1187-1246) married King John despite having been promised to a French count. After John’s death Isabelle marries Hugh de Lusignan, the son of the count to whom she was originally betrothed. The ambitious queen plots to rebel against King Philip of France, and when this is unsuccessful plans to poison him, which also fails. As a result of her unpopularity and failed plots, Isabelle retires to an abbey where she eventually died.
Eleanor of Castile (1241-1290) married King Edward I to become Queen Consort of England. She played a very active political role in the English court, and from 1270-1273 accompanied her husband on a Crusade. It is said of Eleanor of Castile that she was a voice of reason for Edward, who was known to be temperamental.
Queen Constance of Germany and Sicily was the daughter of King Roger II of Sicily. At the age of 32 she married 21 year-old Henry VI of Germany, son of the current Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick Barbossa. Constance was a dutiful queen but never became attached to Germany and struggled to produce an heir. At the age of 40 she became pregnant after being nicknamed the ‘Barren Queen.’ When her cousin William II died, Constance became heir to the throne of Sicily and eventually gave up her German crown. After Henry’s death, Constance and her son Frederick reigned in Sicily.
Queen Joanna of England was the daughter of King Henry II of England and Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine. She was married to King William II of Sicily and had a happy marriage, though without producing any heirs. After William’s death, political upheaval occurred in Sicily and Joanna was essentially kept prisoner in a palace without any of the inheritance due to her.
Richard the Lionheart of England, her elder brother, came to her aid and asked her to be a companion to Berengaria of Navarre, his new wife, during the Crusade. Upon returning to France, Joanna married Count Raymond VI of Toulouse, though this proved an unhappy and tumultuous marriage resulting in her flight to Fontevraud Abbey, where she soon died.
Queen Ingeborg of Denmark was Queen of France from 1213-1223 though she married King Philip Augustus in 1193. The night of her marriage Ingeborg was rejected by her new husband, and the reason for this rejection have been cause for speculation throughout history. She fought to maintain the marriage and with the help of two Popes prevented an annulment. Philip married Agnes of Meran, but after her death allowed Ingeborg the title of Queen, even though they did not live together.
The princesses and queens chronicled above grant insight into the trials and tribulations of being a medieval woman. Though some of these women conformed to the expectation of passivity, many royal women displayed great strength of character, bravery, and determination.
Other notable Middle Ages princesses include:
- Matilda of Flanders
- Good Queen Maude
- Queen Matilda
- Queen Matilda of Boulogne
- Eleanor of Provence
- Isabella of France
- Philippa of Hainault
- Catherine of Valois
- Margaret of Anjou
- Elizabeth Woodville
- Anne Neville
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The life of medieval princesses is somewhat romanticized in contemporary thought giving the impression of fairy tales and castles. However, the women of the Middle Ages who became princesses and queens had complex lives filled with politics, public opinion, and societal pressures.
The Middle Ages were a time very much dominated by men, but a number of women were able to rise to prominence. Women were typically resigned to the background – in most cases they could not ascend to the thrown in a reigning capacity and must be considered Queen Consort, and their lives were dominated by the men in their family (primarily fathers and husbands).
Political and Cultural Roles
Princesses, or daughters of other suitably high-ranking nobles, were used as political pawns to gain power and forge alliances. From childhood many girls were promised to kings, and many marriages occurred before the princess reached her teenage years. The young women were uprooted from their home and sent throughout Europe to be married, often never to see their home kingdom again.
Marriages were the ultimate political alliances as they were seen to be permanent (divorce was not acceptable in the Middle Ages) and children created from the union become heirs to two kingdoms. As such, the primary purpose of a princess or young queen was to produce an heir, more specifically, a male heir. Daughters were valuable for forging other alliances, but it was the male heir, who could ascend to the throne after his father, that was most desired. Once an heir was born, it was also the rule of the mother to rear the child to be a ruler and forever championing his cause.
Despite living materially privileged lives at court, princesses and queens held tremendous responsibility and faced many challenges. Many courts distrusted foreigners, believing them to be unfaithful to their new kingdom and role, which made it difficult for a new queen or princess to hold much power or respect. Also, it was highly common and even acceptable for men to take mistresses, but women were not allowed the same privilege. It was an enduring challenge for many monarchs to face the infidelity of their husband and continue to command respect.
Notable Middle Ages Princesses
Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204) became Queen of England in 1152 upon marrying King Henry II. Despite an initially pleasant marriage, Eleanor became disenchanted with her husband and changed her loyalty to her sons, the future King Richard I and King John. She encouraged her sons to rebel against Henry II resulting in her imprisonment for sixteen years. Despite the troublesome politics, Eleanor was a renowned patron of music and the arts who frequently employed highly-respected troubadours.
The life of Queen Berengaria of Navarre was strongly influenced by Eleanor of Aquitaine, who arranged the marriage of the Basque princess to her son Richard I the Lionheart. As Richard was en route to the Holy Land to fight in the Third Crusade, Berengaria was sent to Sicily to be married. The marriage was neither happy nor productive as no heir was produced. Richard died in 1199 and Berengaria had never been to England, of which she was queen. She resided in France for the rest of her life eventually becoming Dame of Le Mans as appointed by King Philip of France. She was a firm ruler and surprised the clergy who wanted to take advantage of having a woman in charge.
Some princesses and queens, such as Isabelle of Angouleme, were just as power-hungry as their husbands and fathers. Isabelle (1187-1246) married King John despite having been promised to a French count. After John’s death Isabelle marries Hugh de Lusignan, the son of the count to whom she was originally betrothed. The ambitious queen plots to rebel against King Philip of France, and when this is unsuccessful plans to poison him, which also fails. As a result of her unpopularity and failed plots, Isabelle retires to an abbey where she eventually died.
Eleanor of Castile (1241-1290) married King Edward I to become Queen Consort of England. She played a very active political role in the English court, and from 1270-1273 accompanied her husband on a Crusade. It is said of Eleanor of Castile that she was a voice of reason for Edward, who was known to be temperamental.
Queen Constance of Germany and Sicily was the daughter of King Roger II of Sicily. At the age of 32 she married 21 year-old Henry VI of Germany, son of the current Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick Barbossa. Constance was a dutiful queen but never became attached to Germany and struggled to produce an heir. At the age of 40 she became pregnant after being nicknamed the ‘Barren Queen.’ When her cousin William II died, Constance became heir to the throne of Sicily and eventually gave up her German crown. After Henry’s death, Constance and her son Frederick reigned in Sicily.
Queen Joanna of England was the daughter of King Henry II of England and Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine. She was married to King William II of Sicily and had a happy marriage, though without producing any heirs. After William’s death, political upheaval occurred in Sicily and Joanna was essentially kept prisoner in a palace without any of the inheritance due to her.
Richard the Lionheart of England, her elder brother, came to her aid and asked her to be a companion to Berengaria of Navarre, his new wife, during the Crusade. Upon returning to France, Joanna married Count Raymond VI of Toulouse, though this proved an unhappy and tumultuous marriage resulting in her flight to Fontevraud Abbey, where she soon died.
Queen Ingeborg of Denmark was Queen of France from 1213-1223 though she married King Philip Augustus in 1193. The night of her marriage Ingeborg was rejected by her new husband, and the reason for this rejection have been cause for speculation throughout history. She fought to maintain the marriage and with the help of two Popes prevented an annulment. Philip married Agnes of Meran, but after her death allowed Ingeborg the title of Queen, even though they did not live together.
The princesses and queens chronicled above grant insight into the trials and tribulations of being a medieval woman. Though some of these women conformed to the expectation of passivity, many royal women displayed great strength of character, bravery, and determination.
Other notable Middle Ages princesses include:
- Matilda of Flanders
- Good Queen Maude
- Queen Matilda
- Queen Matilda of Boulogne
- Eleanor of Provence
- Isabella of France
- Philippa of Hainault
- Catherine of Valois
- Margaret of Anjou
- Elizabeth Woodville
- Anne Neville
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In January, 1778, France acknowledged the independence of the United States of America and entered into treaty with them. In the spring Sir William Howe resigned, and Sir Henry Clinton succeeded him in command. After wintering in Philadelphia, the British commander discovered that he could do nothing with his troops shut up in a luxurious city, while Washington was watching him in a strongly intrenched position a few miles distant, and with constantly increasing forces now trained to war; and moreover, a French fleet with reinforcements was now looked for. So he evacuated the Quaker City on the 18th of June, 1778, and began his march to New York, followed by Washington with an army now equal to his own. On the 28th of June Cornwallis was encamped near Monmouth, N.J., where was fought the most brilliant battle of the war, which Washington nearly lost, nevertheless, by the disobedience of Lee, his second in command, at a critical moment. Boiling with rage, the commander-in-chief rode up to Lee and demanded why he had disobeyed orders. Then, it is said, with a tremendous oath he sent the marplot to the rear, and Lee's military career ignominiously ended. Four years after, this military adventurer, who had given so much trouble, died in a mean tavern in Philadelphia, disgraced, unpitied, and forlorn.
The battle of Monmouth did not prevent the orderly retreat of the British to New York, when Washington resumed his old post at White Plains, east of the Hudson in Westchester County, whence he had some hopes of moving on New York, with the aid of the French fleet under the Count d'Estaing. But the big French ships could not cross the bar, so the fleet sailed for Newport with a view of recapturing that town and repossessing Rhode Island. Washington sent Greene and La Fayette thither with reinforcements for Sullivan, who was in command. The enterprise failed from an unexpected storm in November, which compelled the French admiral to sail to Boston to refit, after which he proceeded to the West Indies. It would appear that the French, thus far, sought to embarrass the English rather than to assist the Americans. The only good that resulted from the appearance of D'Estaing at Newport was the withdrawal of the British troops to New York.
It is singular that the positions of the opposing armies were very much as they had been two years before. The headquarters of Washington were at White Plains, on the Hudson, and those of Clinton at New York, commanding the harbor and the neighboring heights. Neither army was strong enough for offensive operations with any reasonable hope of success, and the commanding generals seem to have acted on the maxim that "discretion is the better part of valor." Both armies had been strongly reinforced, and the opposing generals did little else than fortify their positions and watch each other. A year passed in virtual inaction on both sides, except that the British carried on a series of devastating predatory raids in New England along the coast of Long Island Sound, in New York State (with the savage aid of the Indians), in New Jersey, and in the South,--there making a more formal movement and seizing the coast of Georgia and South Carolina. No battles of any account were fought. There was some skirmishing, but no important military movements were made on either side. Washington, in December, 1778, removed his headquarters to Middlebrook, N.J., his forces being distributed in a series of camps from the Delaware north and east to Rhode Island. The winter he passed in patient vigilance; he wrote expostulating letters to Congress, and even went personally to Philadelphia to labor with its members. Meanwhile Clinton was taking his ease, to the disgust of the British government.
There was a cavilling, criticising spirit among the different parties in America; for there were many who did not comprehend the situation, and who were disappointed that nothing decisive was done. Washington was infinitely annoyed at the stream of detraction which flowed from discontented officers, and civilians in power, but held his soul in patience, rarely taking any notice of the innumerable slanders and hostile insinuations. He held together his army, now chiefly composed of veterans, and nearly as numerous as the troops of the enemy. One thing he saw clearly,--that the maintenance of an army in the field, held together by discipline, was of more importance, from a military point of view, than the occupation of a large city or annoying raids of destruction. While he was well intrenched in a strong position, and therefore safe, the British had the command of the Hudson, and ships-of-war could ascend the river unmolested as far as West Point, which was still held by the Americans and was impregnable. Outside of New York the British did not possess a strong fortress in the country, at least in the interior, except on Lake Champlain,--not one in New England. West Point, therefore, was a great eyesore to the English generals and admirals. Its possession would be of incalculable advantage in case any expedition was sent to the North.
And the enemy came very near getting possession of this important fortress, not by force, but by treachery. Benedict Arnold, disappointed in his military prospects, alienated from his cause, overwhelmed with debts, and utterly discontented and demoralized, had asked to be ordered from Philadelphia and put in command of West Point. He was sent there in August, 1780. He was a capable and brave man; he had the confidence of Washington, in spite of his defects of character, and moreover he had rendered important services. In an evil hour he lost his head and listened to the voice of the tempter, and having succeeded in getting himself put in charge of the stronghold of the Hudson, he secretly negotiated with Clinton for its surrender.
Everybody is familiar with the details of that infamy, which is inexplicable on any other ground than partial insanity. No matter what may be said in extenuation, Arnold committed the greatest crime known to civilized nations. He contrived to escape the just doom which awaited him, and, from having become traitor, even proceeded to enter the active service of the enemy and to raise his hand against the country which, but for these crimes, would have held him in honorable remembrance. The heart of English-speaking nations has ever been moved to compassion for the unfortunate fate of the messenger who conducted the treasonable correspondence between Arnold and Clinton,--one of the most accomplished officers in the British army, Major André. No influence--not even his deeply moved sympathy--could induce Washington to interfere with the decision of the court-martial that André should be hanged as a spy, so dangerous did the commander deem the attempted treachery. The English have erected to the unfortunate officer a monument in Westminster Abbey.
The contemplated surrender of West Point to the enemy suggests the demoralization which the war had already produced, and which was deplored by no one more bitterly than by Washington himself. "If I were called upon," he writes, "to draw a picture of the times and of men, from what I have seen, heard, and in part know, I should in one word say that idleness, dissipation, and extravagance seem to have laid fast hold of most of them; that speculation, peculation, and an insatiable thirst for riches seem to have got the better of every other consideration...; that party disputes and personal quarrels are the great business of the day; whilst the momentous concerns of an empire, an accumulating debt, ruined finances, depreciated money, and want of credit ... are but secondary considerations."
All war produces naturally and logically this demoralization, especially in countries under a republican government. Profanity, drunkenness, and general recklessness as to money matters were everywhere prevailing vices; and this demoralization was, in the eyes of Washington, more to be dreaded than any external dangers that had thus far caused alarm and distress. "I have," wrote he, "seen without despondency even for a moment, the hours which America has styled her gloomy ones; but I have beheld no day since the commencement of hostilities that I have thought her liberties were in such imminent danger as at present."
"He had faced," says Henry Cabot Lodge, in his interesting life of Washington, "the enemy, the bleak winters, raw soldiers, and all the difficulties of impecunious government, with a cheerful courage that never failed. But the spectacle of wide-spread popular demoralization, of selfish scramble for plunder, and of feeble administration at the centre of government, weighed upon him heavily." And all this at the period of the French alliance, which it was thought would soon end the war. Indeed, hostilities were practically over at the North, and hence the public lassitude. Nearly two years had passed without an important battle.
When Clinton saw that no hope remained of subduing the Americans, the British government should have made peace and recognized the independence of the States. But the obstinacy of the king of England was phenomenal, and his ministers were infatuated. They could not reconcile themselves to the greatness of their loss. Their hatred of the rebels was too bitter for reason to conquer. Hitherto the contest had not been bloody nor cruel. Few atrocities had been committed, except by the rancorous Tories, who slaughtered and burned without pity, and by the Indians who were paid by the British government. Prisoners, on the whole, had been humanely treated by both the contending armies, although the British prison-ships of New York and their "thousand martyrs" have left a dark shadow on the annals of the time. Neither in Boston nor New York nor Philadelphia had the inhabitants uttered loud complaints against the soldiers who had successively occupied their houses, and who had lived as comfortably and peaceably as soldiers in English garrison towns. Some villages had been burned, but few people had been massacred. More inhumanity was exhibited by both Greeks and Turks in the Greek Revolution in one month than by the forces engaged during the whole American war. The prime minister of England, Lord North, was the most amiable and gentle of men. The brothers Howe would fain have carried the olive-branch in one hand while they bore arms in the other. It seemed to be the policy of England to do nothing which would inflame animosities, and prevent the speedy restoration of peace. Spies of course were hanged, and traitors were shot, in accordance with the uniform rules of war. I do not read of a bloodthirsty English general in the whole course of the war, like those Russian generals who overwhelmed the Poles; nor did the English generals seem to be really in earnest, or they would have been bolder in their operations, and would not have been contented to be shut up for two years in New York when they were not besieged.
At length Clinton saw he must do something to satisfy the government at home, and the government felt that a severer policy should be introduced into warlike operations. Clinton perceived that he could not penetrate into New England, even if he could occupy the maritime cities. He could not ascend the Hudson. He could not retain New Jersey. But the South was open to his armies, and had not been seriously invaded.
As Washington personally was not engaged in the military operations at the South, I can make only a passing allusion to them. It is not my object to write a history of the war, but merely to sketch it so far as Washington was directly concerned. The South was left, in the main, to defend itself against the raids which the British generals made in its defenceless territories, and these were destructive and cruel. But Gates was sent to cope with Cornwallis and Tarleton. Washington himself could not leave his position near New York, as he had to watch Clinton, defend the Hudson, and make journeys to Philadelphia to urge Congress to more vigorous measures. Congress, however, was helpless and the State governments were inactive.
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In January, 1778, France acknowledged the independence of the United States of America and entered into treaty with them. In the spring Sir William Howe resigned, and Sir Henry Clinton succeeded him in command. After wintering in Philadelphia, the British commander discovered that he could do nothing with his troops shut up in a luxurious city, while Washington was watching him in a strongly intrenched position a few miles distant, and with constantly increasing forces now trained to war; and moreover, a French fleet with reinforcements was now looked for. So he evacuated the Quaker City on the 18th of June, 1778, and began his march to New York, followed by Washington with an army now equal to his own. On the 28th of June Cornwallis was encamped near Monmouth, N.J., where was fought the most brilliant battle of the war, which Washington nearly lost, nevertheless, by the disobedience of Lee, his second in command, at a critical moment. Boiling with rage, the commander-in-chief rode up to Lee and demanded why he had disobeyed orders. Then, it is said, with a tremendous oath he sent the marplot to the rear, and Lee's military career ignominiously ended. Four years after, this military adventurer, who had given so much trouble, died in a mean tavern in Philadelphia, disgraced, unpitied, and forlorn.
The battle of Monmouth did not prevent the orderly retreat of the British to New York, when Washington resumed his old post at White Plains, east of the Hudson in Westchester County, whence he had some hopes of moving on New York, with the aid of the French fleet under the Count d'Estaing. But the big French ships could not cross the bar, so the fleet sailed for Newport with a view of recapturing that town and repossessing Rhode Island. Washington sent Greene and La Fayette thither with reinforcements for Sullivan, who was in command. The enterprise failed from an unexpected storm in November, which compelled the French admiral to sail to Boston to refit, after which he proceeded to the West Indies. It would appear that the French, thus far, sought to embarrass the English rather than to assist the Americans. The only good that resulted from the appearance of D'Estaing at Newport was the withdrawal of the British troops to New York.
It is singular that the positions of the opposing armies were very much as they had been two years before. The headquarters of Washington were at White Plains, on the Hudson, and those of Clinton at New York, commanding the harbor and the neighboring heights. Neither army was strong enough for offensive operations with any reasonable hope of success, and the commanding generals seem to have acted on the maxim that "discretion is the better part of valor." Both armies had been strongly reinforced, and the opposing generals did little else than fortify their positions and watch each other. A year passed in virtual inaction on both sides, except that the British carried on a series of devastating predatory raids in New England along the coast of Long Island Sound, in New York State (with the savage aid of the Indians), in New Jersey, and in the South,--there making a more formal movement and seizing the coast of Georgia and South Carolina. No battles of any account were fought. There was some skirmishing, but no important military movements were made on either side. Washington, in December, 1778, removed his headquarters to Middlebrook, N.J., his forces being distributed in a series of camps from the Delaware north and east to Rhode Island. The winter he passed in patient vigilance; he wrote expostulating letters to Congress, and even went personally to Philadelphia to labor with its members. Meanwhile Clinton was taking his ease, to the disgust of the British government.
There was a cavilling, criticising spirit among the different parties in America; for there were many who did not comprehend the situation, and who were disappointed that nothing decisive was done. Washington was infinitely annoyed at the stream of detraction which flowed from discontented officers, and civilians in power, but held his soul in patience, rarely taking any notice of the innumerable slanders and hostile insinuations. He held together his army, now chiefly composed of veterans, and nearly as numerous as the troops of the enemy. One thing he saw clearly,--that the maintenance of an army in the field, held together by discipline, was of more importance, from a military point of view, than the occupation of a large city or annoying raids of destruction. While he was well intrenched in a strong position, and therefore safe, the British had the command of the Hudson, and ships-of-war could ascend the river unmolested as far as West Point, which was still held by the Americans and was impregnable. Outside of New York the British did not possess a strong fortress in the country, at least in the interior, except on Lake Champlain,--not one in New England. West Point, therefore, was a great eyesore to the English generals and admirals. Its possession would be of incalculable advantage in case any expedition was sent to the North.
And the enemy came very near getting possession of this important fortress, not by force, but by treachery. Benedict Arnold, disappointed in his military prospects, alienated from his cause, overwhelmed with debts, and utterly discontented and demoralized, had asked to be ordered from Philadelphia and put in command of West Point. He was sent there in August, 1780. He was a capable and brave man; he had the confidence of Washington, in spite of his defects of character, and moreover he had rendered important services. In an evil hour he lost his head and listened to the voice of the tempter, and having succeeded in getting himself put in charge of the stronghold of the Hudson, he secretly negotiated with Clinton for its surrender.
Everybody is familiar with the details of that infamy, which is inexplicable on any other ground than partial insanity. No matter what may be said in extenuation, Arnold committed the greatest crime known to civilized nations. He contrived to escape the just doom which awaited him, and, from having become traitor, even proceeded to enter the active service of the enemy and to raise his hand against the country which, but for these crimes, would have held him in honorable remembrance. The heart of English-speaking nations has ever been moved to compassion for the unfortunate fate of the messenger who conducted the treasonable correspondence between Arnold and Clinton,--one of the most accomplished officers in the British army, Major André. No influence--not even his deeply moved sympathy--could induce Washington to interfere with the decision of the court-martial that André should be hanged as a spy, so dangerous did the commander deem the attempted treachery. The English have erected to the unfortunate officer a monument in Westminster Abbey.
The contemplated surrender of West Point to the enemy suggests the demoralization which the war had already produced, and which was deplored by no one more bitterly than by Washington himself. "If I were called upon," he writes, "to draw a picture of the times and of men, from what I have seen, heard, and in part know, I should in one word say that idleness, dissipation, and extravagance seem to have laid fast hold of most of them; that speculation, peculation, and an insatiable thirst for riches seem to have got the better of every other consideration...; that party disputes and personal quarrels are the great business of the day; whilst the momentous concerns of an empire, an accumulating debt, ruined finances, depreciated money, and want of credit ... are but secondary considerations."
All war produces naturally and logically this demoralization, especially in countries under a republican government. Profanity, drunkenness, and general recklessness as to money matters were everywhere prevailing vices; and this demoralization was, in the eyes of Washington, more to be dreaded than any external dangers that had thus far caused alarm and distress. "I have," wrote he, "seen without despondency even for a moment, the hours which America has styled her gloomy ones; but I have beheld no day since the commencement of hostilities that I have thought her liberties were in such imminent danger as at present."
"He had faced," says Henry Cabot Lodge, in his interesting life of Washington, "the enemy, the bleak winters, raw soldiers, and all the difficulties of impecunious government, with a cheerful courage that never failed. But the spectacle of wide-spread popular demoralization, of selfish scramble for plunder, and of feeble administration at the centre of government, weighed upon him heavily." And all this at the period of the French alliance, which it was thought would soon end the war. Indeed, hostilities were practically over at the North, and hence the public lassitude. Nearly two years had passed without an important battle.
When Clinton saw that no hope remained of subduing the Americans, the British government should have made peace and recognized the independence of the States. But the obstinacy of the king of England was phenomenal, and his ministers were infatuated. They could not reconcile themselves to the greatness of their loss. Their hatred of the rebels was too bitter for reason to conquer. Hitherto the contest had not been bloody nor cruel. Few atrocities had been committed, except by the rancorous Tories, who slaughtered and burned without pity, and by the Indians who were paid by the British government. Prisoners, on the whole, had been humanely treated by both the contending armies, although the British prison-ships of New York and their "thousand martyrs" have left a dark shadow on the annals of the time. Neither in Boston nor New York nor Philadelphia had the inhabitants uttered loud complaints against the soldiers who had successively occupied their houses, and who had lived as comfortably and peaceably as soldiers in English garrison towns. Some villages had been burned, but few people had been massacred. More inhumanity was exhibited by both Greeks and Turks in the Greek Revolution in one month than by the forces engaged during the whole American war. The prime minister of England, Lord North, was the most amiable and gentle of men. The brothers Howe would fain have carried the olive-branch in one hand while they bore arms in the other. It seemed to be the policy of England to do nothing which would inflame animosities, and prevent the speedy restoration of peace. Spies of course were hanged, and traitors were shot, in accordance with the uniform rules of war. I do not read of a bloodthirsty English general in the whole course of the war, like those Russian generals who overwhelmed the Poles; nor did the English generals seem to be really in earnest, or they would have been bolder in their operations, and would not have been contented to be shut up for two years in New York when they were not besieged.
At length Clinton saw he must do something to satisfy the government at home, and the government felt that a severer policy should be introduced into warlike operations. Clinton perceived that he could not penetrate into New England, even if he could occupy the maritime cities. He could not ascend the Hudson. He could not retain New Jersey. But the South was open to his armies, and had not been seriously invaded.
As Washington personally was not engaged in the military operations at the South, I can make only a passing allusion to them. It is not my object to write a history of the war, but merely to sketch it so far as Washington was directly concerned. The South was left, in the main, to defend itself against the raids which the British generals made in its defenceless territories, and these were destructive and cruel. But Gates was sent to cope with Cornwallis and Tarleton. Washington himself could not leave his position near New York, as he had to watch Clinton, defend the Hudson, and make journeys to Philadelphia to urge Congress to more vigorous measures. Congress, however, was helpless and the State governments were inactive.
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The Beginning of the Tattoo – The history of the first tattoo is often debated as being anywhere from 12,000 BC to 5,000 years ago. Tattoos have been found on mummies all over the world, most dating back to around 5,000 or more years ago. Tattoos have also been recorded as being seen on Native Americans. A tattoo can represent many things: a loved one, a hobby, a favorite pet – just about anything can be made into body ink.
The meaning of tattoo is quite clear in many languages. In Tahitian, the word “tatau” literally means “to mark something.”
It has been speculated that tattoos were originally an accident. This is because the Samoan word, “tatau” literally means “open wound.” Scientists and Historians around the world believe that thousands of years ago, someone had a scratch or other sort of small wound. This person more than likely wiped the blood from the wound off with their hand, which was covered with ash and soot from a fire. Of course, once the wound healed – they found a permanent mark was left behind. (“Tattoos are created by inserting colored materials beneath the skin’s surface.”)
Otzi the Iceman
While it is widely accepted that tattoos have been around for thousands of years, the oldest known tattoo is on a man named Otzi, who was found in the Alps. The body of Otzi the Iceman dates back to about the fourth or fifth millennium BCE. It is estimated that Otzi had at least 57 tattoos. These tattoos were simple lines and dots on his left knee forming a cross, as well as dots and lines on his right ankle and his lower spine. However, it has been debated that these are actually acupuncture wounds and not tattoos.
Tattoo Facts From Around The World
– In Russia, about 120 miles north of the Chinese border; mummies were found with tattoos representing animals, as well as griffins and monsters.
– It is estimated that tattooing has been around for at least 10,000 years in Japan. They began the practice of pricking the skin to insert colored dyes. This is the beginning of the modern form of tattooing as we know it.
– Mummies were found in Egypt dating from 2160 BC to 1994 BC that had tattoos. The female mummies had abstract, geometric patterns tattooed onto their bodies.
– Polynesians use tattoos to define title and rank among their tribes.
– Hawaiians believed that tattoos protected their bodies in the next world, as well as keeping them healthy in this world.
– “Tax-Paid” was tattooed onto slaves sold to Asia from Ancient Greece and Rome.
– One of the most well known examples of forced tattooing is during World War II. During this time, the Nazis used tattoos as a way to identify Jewish people, which would help them find and identify escaped prisoners from their concentration camps.
Purpose Of Tattoos
The purpose of tattoos ranges from rituals, rites of passage, and ways of distinguishing ranks. Historically, tattoos consisted of symbols that represented religious beliefs, forms of decoration for bravery (much like a medal,) or even protection. They were also used as a form of punishment to mark convicts and criminals.
In the modern age, people use tattoos as a form of self expression. They are also used as memorials to lost loved ones or religious symbols. On a sour note, they are also used to mark members of gangs.
Tattoos have also been commonly used by members of the service. The US Army, The British Navy, etc – many of these men would tattoo themselves in honor of their country, their family, or which branch they belong to.
No matter when tattooing may have began or what it is used to represent, it is a common practice in the world today; and will continue to be for years to come.
– – –
Tattoo You; “A Brief History of Tattoos”
WikiPedia; “History of Tattooing”
Designboom; “A brief history of tattoos”
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The Beginning of the Tattoo – The history of the first tattoo is often debated as being anywhere from 12,000 BC to 5,000 years ago. Tattoos have been found on mummies all over the world, most dating back to around 5,000 or more years ago. Tattoos have also been recorded as being seen on Native Americans. A tattoo can represent many things: a loved one, a hobby, a favorite pet – just about anything can be made into body ink.
The meaning of tattoo is quite clear in many languages. In Tahitian, the word “tatau” literally means “to mark something.”
It has been speculated that tattoos were originally an accident. This is because the Samoan word, “tatau” literally means “open wound.” Scientists and Historians around the world believe that thousands of years ago, someone had a scratch or other sort of small wound. This person more than likely wiped the blood from the wound off with their hand, which was covered with ash and soot from a fire. Of course, once the wound healed – they found a permanent mark was left behind. (“Tattoos are created by inserting colored materials beneath the skin’s surface.”)
Otzi the Iceman
While it is widely accepted that tattoos have been around for thousands of years, the oldest known tattoo is on a man named Otzi, who was found in the Alps. The body of Otzi the Iceman dates back to about the fourth or fifth millennium BCE. It is estimated that Otzi had at least 57 tattoos. These tattoos were simple lines and dots on his left knee forming a cross, as well as dots and lines on his right ankle and his lower spine. However, it has been debated that these are actually acupuncture wounds and not tattoos.
Tattoo Facts From Around The World
– In Russia, about 120 miles north of the Chinese border; mummies were found with tattoos representing animals, as well as griffins and monsters.
– It is estimated that tattooing has been around for at least 10,000 years in Japan. They began the practice of pricking the skin to insert colored dyes. This is the beginning of the modern form of tattooing as we know it.
– Mummies were found in Egypt dating from 2160 BC to 1994 BC that had tattoos. The female mummies had abstract, geometric patterns tattooed onto their bodies.
– Polynesians use tattoos to define title and rank among their tribes.
– Hawaiians believed that tattoos protected their bodies in the next world, as well as keeping them healthy in this world.
– “Tax-Paid” was tattooed onto slaves sold to Asia from Ancient Greece and Rome.
– One of the most well known examples of forced tattooing is during World War II. During this time, the Nazis used tattoos as a way to identify Jewish people, which would help them find and identify escaped prisoners from their concentration camps.
Purpose Of Tattoos
The purpose of tattoos ranges from rituals, rites of passage, and ways of distinguishing ranks. Historically, tattoos consisted of symbols that represented religious beliefs, forms of decoration for bravery (much like a medal,) or even protection. They were also used as a form of punishment to mark convicts and criminals.
In the modern age, people use tattoos as a form of self expression. They are also used as memorials to lost loved ones or religious symbols. On a sour note, they are also used to mark members of gangs.
Tattoos have also been commonly used by members of the service. The US Army, The British Navy, etc – many of these men would tattoo themselves in honor of their country, their family, or which branch they belong to.
No matter when tattooing may have began or what it is used to represent, it is a common practice in the world today; and will continue to be for years to come.
– – –
Tattoo You; “A Brief History of Tattoos”
WikiPedia; “History of Tattooing”
Designboom; “A brief history of tattoos”
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If there is one thing that marks the landscape of the medieval time period it must be religion. The study and practice of religion was a central focus in the lives of many European people during the first century. The two main religions that began and spread quickly during this first century were Christianity and Islam. Christianity and Islam are two of the most widely recognized and practiced religions in the world. Both religions have many things in common, as well as various differences. Christianity and Islam are both based on the some of the same ideals and have some common beliefs. However, the way in which each religion was spread throughout Europe during the first century, and even today, is very different. This essay will explore these various differences by looking at a brief history of both religions and also by examining the means by which both religions were spread.
Christianity began and grew at the beginning of the turn of the Common Era in Europe. The ideals of this new religion were, and still are, based on the teachings of Jesus Christ, who claimed to be the son of God and the savior of men on Earth. The central theme of Christianity is the belief that Jesus was crucified, resurrected, and then ascended into heaven with the promise that he would return to earth. Another central theme of the Christian religion is the principle known as the Holy Trinity. This is the idea that Jesus was a single divine entity with three equal parts, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Over time these teachings and beliefs grew and changed and eventually became the Christian religion that we see today.
The Islamic religion grew in a very similar path as that of Christianity. Out of the city of Mecca, located on the Arabian Peninsula, came a prophet by the name of Muhammad. Muhammad claimed that he had received visions from the angel Gabriel. These revelations were believed to be the same that were received by other prophets, namely Moses and Jesus.
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If there is one thing that marks the landscape of the medieval time period it must be religion. The study and practice of religion was a central focus in the lives of many European people during the first century. The two main religions that began and spread quickly during this first century were Christianity and Islam. Christianity and Islam are two of the most widely recognized and practiced religions in the world. Both religions have many things in common, as well as various differences. Christianity and Islam are both based on the some of the same ideals and have some common beliefs. However, the way in which each religion was spread throughout Europe during the first century, and even today, is very different. This essay will explore these various differences by looking at a brief history of both religions and also by examining the means by which both religions were spread.
Christianity began and grew at the beginning of the turn of the Common Era in Europe. The ideals of this new religion were, and still are, based on the teachings of Jesus Christ, who claimed to be the son of God and the savior of men on Earth. The central theme of Christianity is the belief that Jesus was crucified, resurrected, and then ascended into heaven with the promise that he would return to earth. Another central theme of the Christian religion is the principle known as the Holy Trinity. This is the idea that Jesus was a single divine entity with three equal parts, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Over time these teachings and beliefs grew and changed and eventually became the Christian religion that we see today.
The Islamic religion grew in a very similar path as that of Christianity. Out of the city of Mecca, located on the Arabian Peninsula, came a prophet by the name of Muhammad. Muhammad claimed that he had received visions from the angel Gabriel. These revelations were believed to be the same that were received by other prophets, namely Moses and Jesus.
| 381
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Early Cycladic female figure
Cycladic figures are the earliest examples of European marble sculpture. They date to the 3rd millennium BC, but they were only rediscovered more than 4000 years later, following excavations in the late 19th century. Archaeologists first regarded them as primitive “idols”, while artists of the avant-garde considered them paragons of abstract formal purity. These statues thus played an important role in the birth of modern European art.
Few figures are known that are as large as the Budapest example. It shows a nude woman with arms crossed; the outstretched feet suggest that the figure was probably laid flat. Only the nose was plastically modelled on the face. Further details were originally painted. Some of the outlines are still visible: note the right eye and the band on the forehead (a hair-ribbon or diadem?).
Most figures were found in tombs, placed beside the dead, but their precise function is not known. We do not know who they depict, since we have no knowledge of what their makers thought about the gods and the world. They are the creations of an unknown people.
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Early Cycladic female figure
Cycladic figures are the earliest examples of European marble sculpture. They date to the 3rd millennium BC, but they were only rediscovered more than 4000 years later, following excavations in the late 19th century. Archaeologists first regarded them as primitive “idols”, while artists of the avant-garde considered them paragons of abstract formal purity. These statues thus played an important role in the birth of modern European art.
Few figures are known that are as large as the Budapest example. It shows a nude woman with arms crossed; the outstretched feet suggest that the figure was probably laid flat. Only the nose was plastically modelled on the face. Further details were originally painted. Some of the outlines are still visible: note the right eye and the band on the forehead (a hair-ribbon or diadem?).
Most figures were found in tombs, placed beside the dead, but their precise function is not known. We do not know who they depict, since we have no knowledge of what their makers thought about the gods and the world. They are the creations of an unknown people.
| 237
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ENGLISH
| 1
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In 1632 Cecilius Calvert 2nd Lord Baltimore, a Roman Catholic, was given Maryland. Many were unhappy with the way that he ruled this land as he had the power to make grants of land and was also head of the church. Lord Baltimore's brother Leonard was the governor. Former head of the Kent Island Colony, William Claiborne captured St. Mary's City, the capital, and then continued throughout Maryland stealing and sending jesuit priests back to England in 1644. Leonard returned in 1646 to take back Maryland and then died the following year. Cecilius appointed William Stone the new governor in 1648. Governor Stone allowed many Puritans to move to Maryland, settling along the Severn River in an area that is now known as Annapolis. They called it providence. It became required that all Maryland landowners took an oath of loyalty to Lord Baltimore. This went against Parliamentary rule. In 1652 Parliamentary officials and a couple hundred soldiers arrived to bring both Virginia and Maryland under their rule. In 1654, Stone resigned as governor but nearly 5 months later a ship arrived with a letter stating that he was still the governor causing him to challenge the Parliament. He organized the St. Mary's militia of between 200 and 300 men and headed towards Providence on March 20th. The Puritans under their leader Captain Fuller prepared for the militia and called on Captain Roger Heamans to help. On the 25th the militia formed up in the mouth of Spa Creek awaiting an attack. Undetected Fuller took nearly 200 men to flank the Royalists. St. Mary's Militia was able to maneuver and protect themselves. The battle was postponed until the following morning. A 30 minute battle commenced in the morning and then it was over. St. Mary's Militia took a great lost compared to the Puritans and many including Stone were sentenced to death due to treason. Following the battle Calverts returned to power.
The Battle of the Severn is not a widely known about battle due to its shortness. Though, it was not a long battle it ended a longer war and was important to colonial history and later the American Revolution. This marker is the only physical marker regarding this battle and its location.
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In 1632 Cecilius Calvert 2nd Lord Baltimore, a Roman Catholic, was given Maryland. Many were unhappy with the way that he ruled this land as he had the power to make grants of land and was also head of the church. Lord Baltimore's brother Leonard was the governor. Former head of the Kent Island Colony, William Claiborne captured St. Mary's City, the capital, and then continued throughout Maryland stealing and sending jesuit priests back to England in 1644. Leonard returned in 1646 to take back Maryland and then died the following year. Cecilius appointed William Stone the new governor in 1648. Governor Stone allowed many Puritans to move to Maryland, settling along the Severn River in an area that is now known as Annapolis. They called it providence. It became required that all Maryland landowners took an oath of loyalty to Lord Baltimore. This went against Parliamentary rule. In 1652 Parliamentary officials and a couple hundred soldiers arrived to bring both Virginia and Maryland under their rule. In 1654, Stone resigned as governor but nearly 5 months later a ship arrived with a letter stating that he was still the governor causing him to challenge the Parliament. He organized the St. Mary's militia of between 200 and 300 men and headed towards Providence on March 20th. The Puritans under their leader Captain Fuller prepared for the militia and called on Captain Roger Heamans to help. On the 25th the militia formed up in the mouth of Spa Creek awaiting an attack. Undetected Fuller took nearly 200 men to flank the Royalists. St. Mary's Militia was able to maneuver and protect themselves. The battle was postponed until the following morning. A 30 minute battle commenced in the morning and then it was over. St. Mary's Militia took a great lost compared to the Puritans and many including Stone were sentenced to death due to treason. Following the battle Calverts returned to power.
The Battle of the Severn is not a widely known about battle due to its shortness. Though, it was not a long battle it ended a longer war and was important to colonial history and later the American Revolution. This marker is the only physical marker regarding this battle and its location.
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Nehmetawy(nḥm.t-ˁw3ỉ; "she who embraces those in need") is a goddess in the ancient Egyptian religion. She is not very widely known. Nehmetawy was the wife of snake god Nehebu-kau, or in other places of worship, like in Hermopolis, the wife of Thoth. Her depictions are anthropomorph, with a sistrum-shaped headdress, often with a child in her lap.
Ancient Egyptian religion was a complex system of polytheistic beliefs and rituals that formed an integral part of ancient Egyptian society. It centered on the Egyptians' interaction with many deities believed to be present in, and in control of, the world. Rituals such as prayer and offerings were provided to the gods to gain their favor. Formal religious practice centered on the pharaoh, the rulers of Egypt, believed to possess a divine power by virtue of their position. They acted as intermediaries between their people and the gods, and were obligated to sustain the gods through rituals and offerings so that they could maintain maat, the order of the cosmos. The state dedicated enormous resources to Egyptian rituals and to the construction of the temples.
In Egyptian mythology, Nehebkau was originally the explanation of the cause of binding of Ka and Ba after death. Thus his name, which means (one who) brings together Ka. Since these aspects of the soul were said to bind after death, Nehebkau was said to have guarded the entrance to Duat, the underworld.
Hermopolis was a major city in antiquity, located near the boundary between Lower and Upper Egypt.
Hatshepsut was the fifth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. She was the second historically-confirmed female pharaoh, the first being Sobekneferu.
Thoth is one of the ancient Egyptian deities. In art, he was often depicted as a man with the head of an ibis or a baboon, animals sacred to him. His feminine counterpart was Seshat, and his wife was Ma'at.
Ninḫursaĝ, also known as Damgalnuna or Ninmah, was the ancient Sumerian mother goddess of the mountains, and one of the seven great deities of Sumer. She is principally a fertility goddess. Temple hymn sources identify her as the "true and great lady of heaven" and kings of Sumer were "nourished by Ninhursag's milk". Sometimes her hair is depicted in an omega shape and at times she wears a horned head-dress and tiered skirt, often with bow cases at her shoulders. Frequently she carries a mace or baton surmounted by an omega motif or a derivation, sometimes accompanied by a lion cub on a leash. She is the tutelary deity to several Sumerian leaders.
Neferneferuaten Nefertiti was an Egyptian queen and the Great Royal Wife of Akhenaten, an Egyptian Pharaoh. Nefertiti and her husband were known for a religious revolution, in which they worshiped one god only, Aten, or the sun disc. With her husband, she reigned at what was arguably the wealthiest period of Ancient Egyptian history. Some scholars believe that Nefertiti ruled briefly as Neferneferuaten after her husband's death and before the accession of Tutankhamun, although this identification is a matter of ongoing debate. If Nefertiti did rule as Pharaoh, her reign was marked by the fall of Amarna and relocation of the capital back to the traditional city of Thebes.
Meretseger was a Theban cobra-goddess in ancient Egyptian religion, in charge with guarding and protecting the vast Theban Necropolis — on the west bank of the Nile, in front of Thebes — and especially the heavily guarded Valley of the Kings. Her cult was typical of the New Kingdom of Egypt.
Tiye was the daughter of Yuya and Tjuyu. She became the Great Royal Wife of the Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep III. She was the mother of Akhenaten and grandmother of Tutankhamun. Her mummy was identified as "The Elder Lady" found in the tomb of Amenhotep II (KV35) in 2010.
Ankhesenamun was a queen of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. Born as Ankhesenpaaten, she was the third of six known daughters of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten and his Great Royal Wife Nefertiti, and became the Great Royal Wife of her half-brother Tutankhamun. The change in her name reflects the changes in Ancient Egyptian religion during her lifetime after her father's death. Her youth is well documented in the ancient reliefs and paintings of the reign of her parents. Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun shared the same father but Tutankhamun's mother has recently been established by genetic evidence as one of Akhenaten's sisters, a daughter of Amenhotep III.
Hetepheres II was a Queen of Ancient Egypt during the 4th dynasty.
Merneith was a consort and a regent of Ancient Egypt during the First Dynasty. She may have been a ruler of Egypt in her own right, based on several official records. If this was the case, she may have been the first female pharaoh and the earliest queen regnant in recorded history. Her rule occurred around 2950 BC for an undetermined period. Merneith’s name means "Beloved by Neith" and her stele contains symbols of that ancient Egyptian deity. She may have been Djer's daughter and was probably Djet's senior royal wife. The former meant that she would have been the great-granddaughter of unified Egypt's first pharaoh, Narmer. She was also the mother of Den, her successor.
Maathorneferure was an Ancient Egyptian queen, the Great Royal Wife of Ramesses II.
Tjuyu was an Egyptian noblewoman and the mother of queen Tiye, and the wife of Yuya. She is the grandmother of Akhenaten, and great grandmother of Tutankhamun.
Great Royal Wife, or alternatively, Chief King's Wife, is the term that was used to refer to the principal wife of the pharaoh of Ancient Egypt, who served many official functions.
The Tale of Two Brothers is an ancient Egyptian story that dates from the reign of Seti II, who ruled from 1200 to 1194 BC during the 19th Dynasty of the New Kingdom. The story is preserved on the Papyrus D'Orbiney, which is currently preserved in the British Museum.
Wosret, Waset, or Wosyet meaning "the powerful" was an Egyptian goddess whose cult was centered on Thebes in Upper Egypt. Her name was the same as the Egyptian name of the city. She was a minor goddess, but three pharaohs during the Twelfth Dynasty incorporated her name into theirs: Senwosret, or Senusret, means "man of Wosret".
Tiaa or Tia'a was an ancient Egyptian queen consort during the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. She was the Great Royal Wife of Pharaoh Amenhotep II and the mother of Thutmose IV.
Werethekau was an Ancient Egyptian deity. She served as the personification of supernatural powers.
Heqet is an Egyptian goddess of fertility, identified with Hathor, represented in the form of a frog. To the Egyptians, the frog was an ancient symbol of fertility, related to the annual flooding of the Nile. Heqet was originally the female counterpart of Khnemu, or the wife of Khnemu by whom she became the mother of Heru-ur. It has been proposed that her name is the origin of the name of Hecate, the Greek goddess of witchcraft.
The Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt is classified as the first dynasty of the New Kingdom of Egypt, the era in which ancient Egypt achieved the peak of its power. The Eighteenth Dynasty spanned the period from 1549/1550 to 1292 BC. This dynasty is also known as the Thutmosid Dynasty for the four pharaohs named Thutmose.
Raet (Rˁỉ.t) or Raet-Tawy (Rˁỉ.t-tȝ.wỉ) is an ancient Egyptian solar goddess, the female aspect of Ra. Her name is simply the female form of Ra's name; the longer name Raet-Tawy means "Raet of the Two Lands".
Mehit or Mehyt was an Ancient Egyptian goddess. In the Early Dynastic period she was depicted as a reclining lioness with three bent poles projecting from her back. In that era she appears in numerous early dynastic sealings and ivory artifacts, usually together with a representation of an Upper Egyptian shrine. Her main places of worship were Hierakonpolis and Thinis.
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Nehmetawy(nḥm.t-ˁw3ỉ; "she who embraces those in need") is a goddess in the ancient Egyptian religion. She is not very widely known. Nehmetawy was the wife of snake god Nehebu-kau, or in other places of worship, like in Hermopolis, the wife of Thoth. Her depictions are anthropomorph, with a sistrum-shaped headdress, often with a child in her lap.
Ancient Egyptian religion was a complex system of polytheistic beliefs and rituals that formed an integral part of ancient Egyptian society. It centered on the Egyptians' interaction with many deities believed to be present in, and in control of, the world. Rituals such as prayer and offerings were provided to the gods to gain their favor. Formal religious practice centered on the pharaoh, the rulers of Egypt, believed to possess a divine power by virtue of their position. They acted as intermediaries between their people and the gods, and were obligated to sustain the gods through rituals and offerings so that they could maintain maat, the order of the cosmos. The state dedicated enormous resources to Egyptian rituals and to the construction of the temples.
In Egyptian mythology, Nehebkau was originally the explanation of the cause of binding of Ka and Ba after death. Thus his name, which means (one who) brings together Ka. Since these aspects of the soul were said to bind after death, Nehebkau was said to have guarded the entrance to Duat, the underworld.
Hermopolis was a major city in antiquity, located near the boundary between Lower and Upper Egypt.
Hatshepsut was the fifth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. She was the second historically-confirmed female pharaoh, the first being Sobekneferu.
Thoth is one of the ancient Egyptian deities. In art, he was often depicted as a man with the head of an ibis or a baboon, animals sacred to him. His feminine counterpart was Seshat, and his wife was Ma'at.
Ninḫursaĝ, also known as Damgalnuna or Ninmah, was the ancient Sumerian mother goddess of the mountains, and one of the seven great deities of Sumer. She is principally a fertility goddess. Temple hymn sources identify her as the "true and great lady of heaven" and kings of Sumer were "nourished by Ninhursag's milk". Sometimes her hair is depicted in an omega shape and at times she wears a horned head-dress and tiered skirt, often with bow cases at her shoulders. Frequently she carries a mace or baton surmounted by an omega motif or a derivation, sometimes accompanied by a lion cub on a leash. She is the tutelary deity to several Sumerian leaders.
Neferneferuaten Nefertiti was an Egyptian queen and the Great Royal Wife of Akhenaten, an Egyptian Pharaoh. Nefertiti and her husband were known for a religious revolution, in which they worshiped one god only, Aten, or the sun disc. With her husband, she reigned at what was arguably the wealthiest period of Ancient Egyptian history. Some scholars believe that Nefertiti ruled briefly as Neferneferuaten after her husband's death and before the accession of Tutankhamun, although this identification is a matter of ongoing debate. If Nefertiti did rule as Pharaoh, her reign was marked by the fall of Amarna and relocation of the capital back to the traditional city of Thebes.
Meretseger was a Theban cobra-goddess in ancient Egyptian religion, in charge with guarding and protecting the vast Theban Necropolis — on the west bank of the Nile, in front of Thebes — and especially the heavily guarded Valley of the Kings. Her cult was typical of the New Kingdom of Egypt.
Tiye was the daughter of Yuya and Tjuyu. She became the Great Royal Wife of the Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep III. She was the mother of Akhenaten and grandmother of Tutankhamun. Her mummy was identified as "The Elder Lady" found in the tomb of Amenhotep II (KV35) in 2010.
Ankhesenamun was a queen of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. Born as Ankhesenpaaten, she was the third of six known daughters of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten and his Great Royal Wife Nefertiti, and became the Great Royal Wife of her half-brother Tutankhamun. The change in her name reflects the changes in Ancient Egyptian religion during her lifetime after her father's death. Her youth is well documented in the ancient reliefs and paintings of the reign of her parents. Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun shared the same father but Tutankhamun's mother has recently been established by genetic evidence as one of Akhenaten's sisters, a daughter of Amenhotep III.
Hetepheres II was a Queen of Ancient Egypt during the 4th dynasty.
Merneith was a consort and a regent of Ancient Egypt during the First Dynasty. She may have been a ruler of Egypt in her own right, based on several official records. If this was the case, she may have been the first female pharaoh and the earliest queen regnant in recorded history. Her rule occurred around 2950 BC for an undetermined period. Merneith’s name means "Beloved by Neith" and her stele contains symbols of that ancient Egyptian deity. She may have been Djer's daughter and was probably Djet's senior royal wife. The former meant that she would have been the great-granddaughter of unified Egypt's first pharaoh, Narmer. She was also the mother of Den, her successor.
Maathorneferure was an Ancient Egyptian queen, the Great Royal Wife of Ramesses II.
Tjuyu was an Egyptian noblewoman and the mother of queen Tiye, and the wife of Yuya. She is the grandmother of Akhenaten, and great grandmother of Tutankhamun.
Great Royal Wife, or alternatively, Chief King's Wife, is the term that was used to refer to the principal wife of the pharaoh of Ancient Egypt, who served many official functions.
The Tale of Two Brothers is an ancient Egyptian story that dates from the reign of Seti II, who ruled from 1200 to 1194 BC during the 19th Dynasty of the New Kingdom. The story is preserved on the Papyrus D'Orbiney, which is currently preserved in the British Museum.
Wosret, Waset, or Wosyet meaning "the powerful" was an Egyptian goddess whose cult was centered on Thebes in Upper Egypt. Her name was the same as the Egyptian name of the city. She was a minor goddess, but three pharaohs during the Twelfth Dynasty incorporated her name into theirs: Senwosret, or Senusret, means "man of Wosret".
Tiaa or Tia'a was an ancient Egyptian queen consort during the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt. She was the Great Royal Wife of Pharaoh Amenhotep II and the mother of Thutmose IV.
Werethekau was an Ancient Egyptian deity. She served as the personification of supernatural powers.
Heqet is an Egyptian goddess of fertility, identified with Hathor, represented in the form of a frog. To the Egyptians, the frog was an ancient symbol of fertility, related to the annual flooding of the Nile. Heqet was originally the female counterpart of Khnemu, or the wife of Khnemu by whom she became the mother of Heru-ur. It has been proposed that her name is the origin of the name of Hecate, the Greek goddess of witchcraft.
The Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt is classified as the first dynasty of the New Kingdom of Egypt, the era in which ancient Egypt achieved the peak of its power. The Eighteenth Dynasty spanned the period from 1549/1550 to 1292 BC. This dynasty is also known as the Thutmosid Dynasty for the four pharaohs named Thutmose.
Raet (Rˁỉ.t) or Raet-Tawy (Rˁỉ.t-tȝ.wỉ) is an ancient Egyptian solar goddess, the female aspect of Ra. Her name is simply the female form of Ra's name; the longer name Raet-Tawy means "Raet of the Two Lands".
Mehit or Mehyt was an Ancient Egyptian goddess. In the Early Dynastic period she was depicted as a reclining lioness with three bent poles projecting from her back. In that era she appears in numerous early dynastic sealings and ivory artifacts, usually together with a representation of an Upper Egyptian shrine. Her main places of worship were Hierakonpolis and Thinis.
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ENGLISH
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Who Was C.S. Lewis?
Writer and scholar C.S. Lewis taught at Oxford University and became a renowned Christian apologist writer, using logic and philosophy to support the tenets of his faith. He is also known throughout the world as the author of The Chronicles of Narnia fantasy series, which have been adapted into various films for the big and small screens.
Clive Staples Lewis was born in Belfast, Ireland, on November 29, 1898, to Flora August Hamilton Lewis and Albert J. Lewis. As a toddler, Clive declared that his name was Jack, which is what he was called by family and friends. He was close to his older brother Warren and the two spent much time together as children.
Lewis was enraptured by fantastic animals and tales of gallantry, and hence the brothers created the imaginary land of Boxen, complete with an intricate history that served them for years. Lewis' mother died when he was 10, and he went on to receive his pre-college education at boarding schools and from a tutor. During WWI, he served with the British army and was sent home after being wounded by shrapnel. He then chose to live as a surrogate son with Janie Moore, the mother of a friend of Lewis' who was killed in the war.
Teaching Career at Oxford and Wartime Broadcasts
Lewis graduated from Oxford University with a focus on literature and classic philosophy, and in 1925 he was awarded a fellowship teaching position at Magdalen College, which was part of the university. There, he also joined the group known as The Inklings, an informal collective of writers and intellectuals who counted among their members Lewis' brother Warren and J.R.R. Tolkien. It was through conversations with group members that Lewis found himself re-embracing Christianity after having become disillusioned with the faith as a youth. He would go on to become renowned for his rich apologist texts, in which he explained his spiritual beliefs via platforms of logic and philosophy.
Lewis began publishing work in the mid-1920s with his first book, the satirical Dymer (1926). After penning other titles — including The Allegory of Love (1936), for which he won the Hawthornden Prize — he released in 1938 his first sci-fi work, Out of the Silent Planet, the first of a space trilogy which dealt sub-textually with concepts of sin and desire. Later, during WWII, Lewis gave highly popular radio broadcasts on Christianity which won many converts; his speeches were collected in the work Mere Christianity.
Books and Film Legacy
Lewis was a prolific author of fiction and nonfiction who wrote dozens of books over the course of his career. His faith-based arguments as seen in texts like The Great Divorce (1946) and Miracles (1947) are held in high regard by many theologians, scholars and general readers. His satirical fiction novel The Screwtape Letters (1942) is also a beloved classic. Lewis also continued his love affair with classic mythology and narratives during his later years: His book Till We Have Faces: A Myth Retold (1956) featured the story of Psyche and Cupid. He also penned an autobiography, Surprised by Joy: The Shape of My Early Life (1955).
Lewis' landmark series, The Chronicles of Narnia, has seen a number of on-screen iterations, including a cartoon version of The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe that was released in 1979 and a 1989 film series. Additionally, in 2005, a big-screen adaptation of The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe hit movie theaters, starring Tilda Swinton as the witch Jadis and Liam Neeson as the voice of Aslan. Two more Narnia films were brought to theaters as well: Prince Caspian (2008) and The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (2010). A movie version of The Silver Chair was slated to hit theaters in the near future, with filming starting in the winter of 2018.
Lewis' relationship with his wife, Joy, has also been depicted in Shadowlands, presented as a play and two films; one of the film versions was directed by Richard Attenborough and starred Anthony Hopkins as Lewis.
'The Chronicles of Narnia'
During the 1940s, Lewis began writing the seven books that would comprise The Chronicles of Narnia children's series, with The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe (1950) being the first release. The story focused on four siblings who, during wartime, walk through an armoire to enter the magical world of Narnia, a land resplendent with mythical creatures and talking animals. Throughout the series, a variety of Biblical themes are presented; one prominent character is Aslan, a lion and the ruler of Narnia, who has been interpreted as a Jesus Christ figure. (Lewis would assert that his Narnia stories weren't a direct allegory to the real world.)
Though the book received some negative reviews, it was generally well-received by readers, and the series retained its international popularity over the following decades.
Marriage and Later Life
In 1954, Lewis joined the faculty of Cambridge University as a literature professor, and in 1956 he married an American English teacher, Joy Gresham, with whom he had been in correspondence. Lewis was full of happiness during the years of their marriage, though Gresham died of cancer in 1960. Lewis grieved deeply for his wife and shared his thoughts in the book A Grief Observed, using a pen name.
In 1963, Lewis resigned from his Cambridge position after experiencing heart trouble. He died on November 22, 1963, in Headington, Oxford.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us!
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Who Was C.S. Lewis?
Writer and scholar C.S. Lewis taught at Oxford University and became a renowned Christian apologist writer, using logic and philosophy to support the tenets of his faith. He is also known throughout the world as the author of The Chronicles of Narnia fantasy series, which have been adapted into various films for the big and small screens.
Clive Staples Lewis was born in Belfast, Ireland, on November 29, 1898, to Flora August Hamilton Lewis and Albert J. Lewis. As a toddler, Clive declared that his name was Jack, which is what he was called by family and friends. He was close to his older brother Warren and the two spent much time together as children.
Lewis was enraptured by fantastic animals and tales of gallantry, and hence the brothers created the imaginary land of Boxen, complete with an intricate history that served them for years. Lewis' mother died when he was 10, and he went on to receive his pre-college education at boarding schools and from a tutor. During WWI, he served with the British army and was sent home after being wounded by shrapnel. He then chose to live as a surrogate son with Janie Moore, the mother of a friend of Lewis' who was killed in the war.
Teaching Career at Oxford and Wartime Broadcasts
Lewis graduated from Oxford University with a focus on literature and classic philosophy, and in 1925 he was awarded a fellowship teaching position at Magdalen College, which was part of the university. There, he also joined the group known as The Inklings, an informal collective of writers and intellectuals who counted among their members Lewis' brother Warren and J.R.R. Tolkien. It was through conversations with group members that Lewis found himself re-embracing Christianity after having become disillusioned with the faith as a youth. He would go on to become renowned for his rich apologist texts, in which he explained his spiritual beliefs via platforms of logic and philosophy.
Lewis began publishing work in the mid-1920s with his first book, the satirical Dymer (1926). After penning other titles — including The Allegory of Love (1936), for which he won the Hawthornden Prize — he released in 1938 his first sci-fi work, Out of the Silent Planet, the first of a space trilogy which dealt sub-textually with concepts of sin and desire. Later, during WWII, Lewis gave highly popular radio broadcasts on Christianity which won many converts; his speeches were collected in the work Mere Christianity.
Books and Film Legacy
Lewis was a prolific author of fiction and nonfiction who wrote dozens of books over the course of his career. His faith-based arguments as seen in texts like The Great Divorce (1946) and Miracles (1947) are held in high regard by many theologians, scholars and general readers. His satirical fiction novel The Screwtape Letters (1942) is also a beloved classic. Lewis also continued his love affair with classic mythology and narratives during his later years: His book Till We Have Faces: A Myth Retold (1956) featured the story of Psyche and Cupid. He also penned an autobiography, Surprised by Joy: The Shape of My Early Life (1955).
Lewis' landmark series, The Chronicles of Narnia, has seen a number of on-screen iterations, including a cartoon version of The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe that was released in 1979 and a 1989 film series. Additionally, in 2005, a big-screen adaptation of The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe hit movie theaters, starring Tilda Swinton as the witch Jadis and Liam Neeson as the voice of Aslan. Two more Narnia films were brought to theaters as well: Prince Caspian (2008) and The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (2010). A movie version of The Silver Chair was slated to hit theaters in the near future, with filming starting in the winter of 2018.
Lewis' relationship with his wife, Joy, has also been depicted in Shadowlands, presented as a play and two films; one of the film versions was directed by Richard Attenborough and starred Anthony Hopkins as Lewis.
'The Chronicles of Narnia'
During the 1940s, Lewis began writing the seven books that would comprise The Chronicles of Narnia children's series, with The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe (1950) being the first release. The story focused on four siblings who, during wartime, walk through an armoire to enter the magical world of Narnia, a land resplendent with mythical creatures and talking animals. Throughout the series, a variety of Biblical themes are presented; one prominent character is Aslan, a lion and the ruler of Narnia, who has been interpreted as a Jesus Christ figure. (Lewis would assert that his Narnia stories weren't a direct allegory to the real world.)
Though the book received some negative reviews, it was generally well-received by readers, and the series retained its international popularity over the following decades.
Marriage and Later Life
In 1954, Lewis joined the faculty of Cambridge University as a literature professor, and in 1956 he married an American English teacher, Joy Gresham, with whom he had been in correspondence. Lewis was full of happiness during the years of their marriage, though Gresham died of cancer in 1960. Lewis grieved deeply for his wife and shared his thoughts in the book A Grief Observed, using a pen name.
In 1963, Lewis resigned from his Cambridge position after experiencing heart trouble. He died on November 22, 1963, in Headington, Oxford.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us!
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ENGLISH
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Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill had a long career as an English politician and is a role model of what a great leader can be and do.
It wasn’t always easy for Churchill. In the early days of his career he was often humiliated and famously ignored when he warned the entire world of the impending danger that was the rise of Nazism and Adolf Hitler.
He was born in 1874 into a aristocratic family as a direct descendant of the Dukes of Marlborough. He served in the British Army in Cuba, India and Sudan, and by 1900 was in politics. Churchill had many jobs as a rose in power and standing, and by the start of World War I he took over full responsibility for the air defense of Britain.
During the days leading up to World War II Churchill was a staunch critic of then Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain’s appeasement policy towards Hitler. Right before the infamous Munich Agreement Churchill wrote that the British government was faced with a choice between “war and shame” and since they had chosen “shame” they would get war later, but on much less favorable terms.
When WW II started for England on September 3, 1939 Churchill was appointed to the same position he had at the onset of WW I, First Lord of the Admiralty. He went on to become Prime Minister in 1940, a position he held until 1945, and then again from 1951 until 1955, but it was during WW II that his incomparable talent to lead really showed itself.
One of his speeches, delivered in June 1940, demonstrates the type of politician he was:
… we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender.
Churchill led the British Empire to its greatest victory against the most difficult odds. With Churchill at the helm Britain dared to say no to Hitler when the rest of Europe fell like dominoes and surrendered to tyranny.
During the battle for Britain, which was fought by the Spit-fire fighter pilots above, Churchill chillingly said of those pilots:
“Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.”
Churchill’s words and actions directly led to the defeat of Hitler and tyranny in the world. As such he is a worthy leader to look to for inspiration.
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Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill had a long career as an English politician and is a role model of what a great leader can be and do.
It wasn’t always easy for Churchill. In the early days of his career he was often humiliated and famously ignored when he warned the entire world of the impending danger that was the rise of Nazism and Adolf Hitler.
He was born in 1874 into a aristocratic family as a direct descendant of the Dukes of Marlborough. He served in the British Army in Cuba, India and Sudan, and by 1900 was in politics. Churchill had many jobs as a rose in power and standing, and by the start of World War I he took over full responsibility for the air defense of Britain.
During the days leading up to World War II Churchill was a staunch critic of then Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain’s appeasement policy towards Hitler. Right before the infamous Munich Agreement Churchill wrote that the British government was faced with a choice between “war and shame” and since they had chosen “shame” they would get war later, but on much less favorable terms.
When WW II started for England on September 3, 1939 Churchill was appointed to the same position he had at the onset of WW I, First Lord of the Admiralty. He went on to become Prime Minister in 1940, a position he held until 1945, and then again from 1951 until 1955, but it was during WW II that his incomparable talent to lead really showed itself.
One of his speeches, delivered in June 1940, demonstrates the type of politician he was:
… we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender.
Churchill led the British Empire to its greatest victory against the most difficult odds. With Churchill at the helm Britain dared to say no to Hitler when the rest of Europe fell like dominoes and surrendered to tyranny.
During the battle for Britain, which was fought by the Spit-fire fighter pilots above, Churchill chillingly said of those pilots:
“Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.”
Churchill’s words and actions directly led to the defeat of Hitler and tyranny in the world. As such he is a worthy leader to look to for inspiration.
| 545
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Martin Luther King was a revolutionary leader who spoke and advocated for non-violent means to achieve equality for all people in America (“Martin Luther King Jr.”). He really believed that all men are created equal. The evidence for it is his speech “I Have a Dream’. For example, the statement “I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal” shows his firm resolution to strive for equality in his society. The paper looks at the lifestyle of Martin Luther King: his values, attitudes and beliefs that drove his passion in the American society.
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The accomplishment of Martin Luther King can be attributed to his inborn characteristics. He was the right leader dealing with the right issues at the right time. His charisma of a speaker coupled with authority and intelligence form the important pillars towards his success. Although he was young, his outstanding qualities made others forgo their aspirations as leaders and left him to lead them (“Martin Luther King Jr. – Biographical”). Every time he could join a group of protestors, he was made its leader because of his exceptiona capabilities that he showed in leadership. He knew how to lead people in protests as well as how they were to participate (Firestone).
When he spoke, he was able to reach people’s hearts and minds, and this drew many people to him. He was a kind-hearted and a loving man. He always aspired that people would appreciate and follow his ideas, but did not force them to accept his point of approach. He believed in voluntary obligations (“Martin Luther King Jr. – Biographical”). His philosophy in life gave people a voice of reason and hope. He had a strong conviction that human equality would be achieved in the American society, and he always worked hard to achieve that.
Martin Luther King played multiple roles in the society (Kelly). He was a father, a husband, a preacher, and a leader who helped in the restructuring of the social systems and facilitated in the transformation of America. He was one of the most influential personalities not only in America, but also in the whole world. He was calm and curious, and he strongly opposed segregation (King 142). King lived a very astonishing life. As a young minister, King constantly questioned the limits of his belief and wisdom.
The familyy of Martin Luther King supported his missions, and this made it easier for him to balance his diverse roles right from being a father and a husband to being a public leader. King was multitalented. A significant proportion of values and attitudes he appreciated came from Martin Luther King Sr., his father. King’s family was highly religious, but Martin Luther King Jr. did not feel comfortable strictly observing religious worship (King 213). He still questioned the validity of religion.
Martin Luther King was not a religious fanatic and often opposed religious emotionalism. He shared a common destiny for the African-American population and consequently the whole of America’s population. He made the vision alive and appealing to masses, and this made it easier to win public support. Throughout his course, he pursued all activities with persistence and patience. King knew that it was not possible to change things overnight and therefore made series of attempts to make his voice heard. When nobody was ready to take the leadership mantle, he normally took the position with confidence and frequently assisted to answer most of the questions people asked. At the end, Martin Luther King died while trying to ensure that lives of African-American citizens were better.
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Martin Luther King was a revolutionary leader who spoke and advocated for non-violent means to achieve equality for all people in America (“Martin Luther King Jr.”). He really believed that all men are created equal. The evidence for it is his speech “I Have a Dream’. For example, the statement “I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal” shows his firm resolution to strive for equality in his society. The paper looks at the lifestyle of Martin Luther King: his values, attitudes and beliefs that drove his passion in the American society.
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- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
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The accomplishment of Martin Luther King can be attributed to his inborn characteristics. He was the right leader dealing with the right issues at the right time. His charisma of a speaker coupled with authority and intelligence form the important pillars towards his success. Although he was young, his outstanding qualities made others forgo their aspirations as leaders and left him to lead them (“Martin Luther King Jr. – Biographical”). Every time he could join a group of protestors, he was made its leader because of his exceptiona capabilities that he showed in leadership. He knew how to lead people in protests as well as how they were to participate (Firestone).
When he spoke, he was able to reach people’s hearts and minds, and this drew many people to him. He was a kind-hearted and a loving man. He always aspired that people would appreciate and follow his ideas, but did not force them to accept his point of approach. He believed in voluntary obligations (“Martin Luther King Jr. – Biographical”). His philosophy in life gave people a voice of reason and hope. He had a strong conviction that human equality would be achieved in the American society, and he always worked hard to achieve that.
Martin Luther King played multiple roles in the society (Kelly). He was a father, a husband, a preacher, and a leader who helped in the restructuring of the social systems and facilitated in the transformation of America. He was one of the most influential personalities not only in America, but also in the whole world. He was calm and curious, and he strongly opposed segregation (King 142). King lived a very astonishing life. As a young minister, King constantly questioned the limits of his belief and wisdom.
The familyy of Martin Luther King supported his missions, and this made it easier for him to balance his diverse roles right from being a father and a husband to being a public leader. King was multitalented. A significant proportion of values and attitudes he appreciated came from Martin Luther King Sr., his father. King’s family was highly religious, but Martin Luther King Jr. did not feel comfortable strictly observing religious worship (King 213). He still questioned the validity of religion.
Martin Luther King was not a religious fanatic and often opposed religious emotionalism. He shared a common destiny for the African-American population and consequently the whole of America’s population. He made the vision alive and appealing to masses, and this made it easier to win public support. Throughout his course, he pursued all activities with persistence and patience. King knew that it was not possible to change things overnight and therefore made series of attempts to make his voice heard. When nobody was ready to take the leadership mantle, he normally took the position with confidence and frequently assisted to answer most of the questions people asked. At the end, Martin Luther King died while trying to ensure that lives of African-American citizens were better.
Most popular orders
| 773
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
New research suggests that time spent in nature is also good for their mental and emotional well-being.
"This research shows that children experience profound and diverse benefits through regular contact with nature. Contact with the wild improves children's well-being, motivation and confidence," said Nigel Doar, director of strategy at the Wildlife Trusts, the organization in charge of nature reserves in the United Kingdom.
"The data also highlights how children's experiences in and around the natural world led to better relationships with their teachers and classmates," Doar said in a news release from the trust.
The study included more than 450 British elementary schoolchildren, mostly aged 8 and 9, who took part in a series of Wildlife Trusts activities in 12 areas across England over several weeks.
The children completed surveys before and after they participated in the outdoor activities, which included learning about nature, its role in people's lives and the needs of wildlife habitats.
The Wildlife Trusts commissioned the study, which was conducted by researchers at the Institute of Education at University College London (UCL).
The study found that 90% of children felt they learned something new about the natural world, while 79% felt that their experience could help their schoolwork.
After their outdoor activities, 84% felt that they were capable of doing new things when they tried, 79% said they felt more confident, 81% said they had better relationships with their teachers, and 79% said they had better relationships with their classmates.
"The Wildlife Trusts believe everyone should have the opportunity to experience the joy of wildlife in daily life, and we're calling on government to recognize the multiple benefits of nature for children and ensure that at least one hour per school day is spent outdoors learning and playing in wild places," said Doar.
"Each generation seems to have less contact with the outdoors than the preceding one. We owe it to all young people to reverse this trend - for their sakes, for our sakes and for nature's sake," said study co-author and UCL Professor Michael Reiss.
The report was published in November by the UCL Institute of Education for the Wildlife Trusts.
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] | 1
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New research suggests that time spent in nature is also good for their mental and emotional well-being.
"This research shows that children experience profound and diverse benefits through regular contact with nature. Contact with the wild improves children's well-being, motivation and confidence," said Nigel Doar, director of strategy at the Wildlife Trusts, the organization in charge of nature reserves in the United Kingdom.
"The data also highlights how children's experiences in and around the natural world led to better relationships with their teachers and classmates," Doar said in a news release from the trust.
The study included more than 450 British elementary schoolchildren, mostly aged 8 and 9, who took part in a series of Wildlife Trusts activities in 12 areas across England over several weeks.
The children completed surveys before and after they participated in the outdoor activities, which included learning about nature, its role in people's lives and the needs of wildlife habitats.
The Wildlife Trusts commissioned the study, which was conducted by researchers at the Institute of Education at University College London (UCL).
The study found that 90% of children felt they learned something new about the natural world, while 79% felt that their experience could help their schoolwork.
After their outdoor activities, 84% felt that they were capable of doing new things when they tried, 79% said they felt more confident, 81% said they had better relationships with their teachers, and 79% said they had better relationships with their classmates.
"The Wildlife Trusts believe everyone should have the opportunity to experience the joy of wildlife in daily life, and we're calling on government to recognize the multiple benefits of nature for children and ensure that at least one hour per school day is spent outdoors learning and playing in wild places," said Doar.
"Each generation seems to have less contact with the outdoors than the preceding one. We owe it to all young people to reverse this trend - for their sakes, for our sakes and for nature's sake," said study co-author and UCL Professor Michael Reiss.
The report was published in November by the UCL Institute of Education for the Wildlife Trusts.
| 440
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ENGLISH
| 1
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During the early nineteen hundreds, resided a young woman called Carrie Pollitzer. Her life in the us was much different in comparison to present day. Women didn’t have much freedom to be independent and their accomplishments were based primarily on gender. A woman would go to college to meet a spouse, stay at home with the small children, and would have trouble living a higher standard of life if not marrying. Economically, businesses were run by the white man.
Men possessed the land and often acquired poor white women and African Americans working the farms. Industrially, the factories were possessed by men and many women that were unwed works in the factories. Politically, the white man ran the national and state. They were the only Americans who were permitted to vote. My study of the southern women has shown, culturally, there were many different ways of living and prospering in the south. One is the poor BLACK communities, where the people didn’t have anything.
Another was the wealthy white plantation buying family members who only associated themselves with other rich upper-class plantation owners. This was a time when the civil war was and the African Americans were not slaves any longer over, so new problems were arising for the South since there was no longer free labor. Many women wrote characters to talk to their relatives and buddies. Our Service Can Write a Custom Essay on Carrie Pollitzer for you personally!
The number 1 campaign in women’s suffrage was the … Read more
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During the early nineteen hundreds, resided a young woman called Carrie Pollitzer. Her life in the us was much different in comparison to present day. Women didn’t have much freedom to be independent and their accomplishments were based primarily on gender. A woman would go to college to meet a spouse, stay at home with the small children, and would have trouble living a higher standard of life if not marrying. Economically, businesses were run by the white man.
Men possessed the land and often acquired poor white women and African Americans working the farms. Industrially, the factories were possessed by men and many women that were unwed works in the factories. Politically, the white man ran the national and state. They were the only Americans who were permitted to vote. My study of the southern women has shown, culturally, there were many different ways of living and prospering in the south. One is the poor BLACK communities, where the people didn’t have anything.
Another was the wealthy white plantation buying family members who only associated themselves with other rich upper-class plantation owners. This was a time when the civil war was and the African Americans were not slaves any longer over, so new problems were arising for the South since there was no longer free labor. Many women wrote characters to talk to their relatives and buddies. Our Service Can Write a Custom Essay on Carrie Pollitzer for you personally!
The number 1 campaign in women’s suffrage was the … Read more
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When we take a look into the glorious history of India, one of the dynasties that stands glorious than the others is the Mughal Dynasty. This dynasty ruled India for three decades before ending in ruins. The story of Mughal dynasty in India is interesting, scroll down to know the history of Mughal dynasty and the Mughal rulers.
- The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur who descended from Timur (modern Uzbekistan and Afghanistan).
- At the end of 1504 young Babur of 21 years was able to conquer Kabul establishing the firs court of the Mughal Dynasty.
- The young Babur had his eyes set on northern India in hopes of expanding his territory and this was at a time when the Muslim sultans of Delhi were in the verge of losing their power due to the Rajput rulers. To make his dream a reality Babur gained victory at Panipat in April of 1526 despite the opposing Rajputs bringing him near to the cities of Agra and Delhi.
- In March of 1527 he won at Khanua and then proceeded to expand his territory in northern India for the next three years. The experiences of his journey are well documented in his diary.
- After just three years in India at the young age of 47, Babur died on 26th December, 1530 leaving his eldest son Humayun to fight for the throne.
- Humayun unlike his father was quite weak and unable to hold onto the reins of the kingdom his father left him thereby was driven by into Afghanistan Muslim rebel, Sher Shah.
- Humayun was able to return to India only 12 years later that too due to the civil wars raging in India.
- In 1555 at Sirhind he gained a victory that recovered his throne but alas just 6 months later in 1556 a bad fall resulted in his death leaving the rein of his kingdom in the young hands of 13 year old Akbar.
- He is one of the most remembered and loved ruler of India after Asoka the Great.
- Though Akbar was given the reins of the kingdom in 1556 he was unfit to rule as he was just 13 so the kingdom’s affairs were handled by chief minister, Bairam Khan.
- Once Bairam Khan reached 19 years Akbar to become his own man that had potential that was never seen in any other ruler as he intended to rule both Muslims and Hindu together creating a greater kingdom.
- To solidify his relations with the Hindus, Akbar married a Rajput princess in 1562 thereby making her one of his senior wives and the mother of his successor, Jahangir.
- Akbar made sure that all the people in kingdom were happy with the administration. With his abolishment of the tax imposed on pilgrims to Hindu shrines in 1563 and the end of the jizya (annual tax on non-believers), Akbar soon became known for his just administration.
- With just administration of his empire Akbar also took the necessary steps into expanding his kingdom.
- Akbar mostly used non-war methods by offering the other regions ruler to sign the treaty and come under his reign. Soon his empire included most of India without much opposition. Extra steps were taken to make sure that the tax that has to be paid by the peasants will be charged according.
- Akbar had a complex character that made decisions after a lengthy debate with his darbar or court. He maintained nine prime members in the court known as nine jewels; each had their own speciality and were meant to argue each decision of the court so as to see the pros and cons of the decision.
- Akbar made sure to contribute his own to architecture that stand strong till now like Agra Fort, Great Humayun’s Tomb, Buland Darwaza, Fatehpur Sikri etc.
- The architecture of these structures is pleasant mix of Indian, Turkic, Islamic and Persian architecture. With their delicate ornamentation, large globular domes, large halls and many more features these structures have are still aweing to witness.
- Though he was illiterate, Akbar always encouraged literature, painting, poetry, science and architecture. Many of the paintings of his regime are still quite in demand due to their great detail world and amazing depicture.
- Even though Akbar was a committed Muslim he was very religiously tolerant and encouraged men of all faiths by pursuing their wisdom. This characteristic of his earned him the title ‘Akbar the Great.’
- Akbar not only maintained a good relation with the people of his empire he made sure to maintain good foreign relations with the Portuguese, the Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Dynasty and other contemporary kingdoms thereby ensuring the safety of his kingdom from outside invasion.
- Akbar’s almost 51 year reign ended in 1605 (about 27th October) when he succumbed to death due to an attack of dysentery that occurred on 3rd October, 1605. His reign can be called ‘The Golden Age of the Mughal Dynasty’ due to its prosperity and strength.
- After the end of the prosperous reign of Akbar the reins of the kingdom were handed to Jahangir, the eldest surviving son of Akbar. Like his father Jahangir was an aesthete who wanted his kingdom to run on the basis of Justice, but he failed to take the necessary steps to implement justice.
- Jahangir was able to expand his kingdom but his ruling were not just thereby gave rose to rebellions. He was rumoured to be an addict of opium and alcohol which has never been confirmed.
Jahangir was a great patron of the arts, the paintings commissioned in his reign are still considered to be masterpieces. He like his predecessor maintained equality between his Hindu and Muslim subjects ensuring that no side was wronged with.
- As a well devoted Muslim himself Jahangir commissioned art work promoting various sayings from the Qur’an.
- Unlike his father Jahangir never constructed memorable monuments that reminded history of his reign.
- Jahangir is never mentioned as a good ruler but you have to remember after Akbar no one seemed fit enough to fill his shoes.
- In 1627 after just 22 years or ruling Jahangir succumbed to severe cold while he was returning from Kashmir, a place he very much loved leaving the empire in the hands of his elder son Shah Jahan.
- After Jahangir’s death Shah Jahan had to fight for his right to the throne with his own brother Shahryar who tried to steal the throne and was successful for a while.
- Shah Jahan’s reign started with his coronation on 14th February, 1628 in Agra.
- Shah Jahan’s reign was not prosperous like his predecessors, as he failed to uphold the various laws implemented by Akbar to maintain the equality among his subjects thereby leading to many rebellions.
- After just two years on the throne his empire has to suffer severe famine in 1630 at Gujarat and Khandesh leading to starvation, hunger etc. Shah Jahan even failed to maintain relation with the neighbouring dynasties.
- Like his predecessor Shah Jahan was a great patron of the arts with his paintings and architecture being the highlight of it.
- The contributions to architecture by Shah Jahan can be seen even today in India with the Red Fort, the Agra fort, Wazir Khan Mosque, Moti Masjid, Taj Mahal and many more. Though all the structures commissioned in his reign are marvellous the most memorable to date is the Taj Mahal that was built in memory of his Queen Mumtaz Mahal.
- In 1658 Jahan fell ill causing a great fight for the throne in which his third son Aurangzeb won the throne and imprisoned his father who succumbed to death in 1666 at the age of 74.
- Aurangzeb began his reign in 1658 on 31st July, unlike his predecessor more than ruling his kingdom he was interested in the expansion of the Mughal Empire by any method necessary.
- The equality laws that were feeble during Shah Jahan’s rules were totally removed and new laws in favour of the Muslims were implemented and were to be implemented in the regions he conquered.
- This continues conquest led to the national treasury being drained that led to increased taxes making his subjects very unhappy.
- The various laws forced upon his subjects led to many rebellions like Jat rebellion, Martha wars, Sikh rebellion, Satnami rebellion and many more. These rebellions and civil wars in India later led rise to the British Raj.
- He like his predecessors was a great patron of art and architecture with structures like Badshahi Mosque, Lalbagh Fort, Alamgiri Gate and many more.
- At the ripe old age of 88 on 20th February, 1707 in Ahmednagar Aurangzeb died marking the beginning of the end of the Mughal dynasty.
After Aurangzeb a number of rulers ruled the empire but all failed to hold it from falling apart and were tricked by the British to fight with other kingdoms of India.
The last emperor of the Mughal Dynasty was Bahadur Shah II whose rein lasted from 1837 – 1857 before total British Raj was implemented. Thus one of the greatest dynasties in the Indian history, Mughal dynasty, ended leaving great structures like Taj Mahal, Agra fort etc. to remember it by.
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When we take a look into the glorious history of India, one of the dynasties that stands glorious than the others is the Mughal Dynasty. This dynasty ruled India for three decades before ending in ruins. The story of Mughal dynasty in India is interesting, scroll down to know the history of Mughal dynasty and the Mughal rulers.
- The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur who descended from Timur (modern Uzbekistan and Afghanistan).
- At the end of 1504 young Babur of 21 years was able to conquer Kabul establishing the firs court of the Mughal Dynasty.
- The young Babur had his eyes set on northern India in hopes of expanding his territory and this was at a time when the Muslim sultans of Delhi were in the verge of losing their power due to the Rajput rulers. To make his dream a reality Babur gained victory at Panipat in April of 1526 despite the opposing Rajputs bringing him near to the cities of Agra and Delhi.
- In March of 1527 he won at Khanua and then proceeded to expand his territory in northern India for the next three years. The experiences of his journey are well documented in his diary.
- After just three years in India at the young age of 47, Babur died on 26th December, 1530 leaving his eldest son Humayun to fight for the throne.
- Humayun unlike his father was quite weak and unable to hold onto the reins of the kingdom his father left him thereby was driven by into Afghanistan Muslim rebel, Sher Shah.
- Humayun was able to return to India only 12 years later that too due to the civil wars raging in India.
- In 1555 at Sirhind he gained a victory that recovered his throne but alas just 6 months later in 1556 a bad fall resulted in his death leaving the rein of his kingdom in the young hands of 13 year old Akbar.
- He is one of the most remembered and loved ruler of India after Asoka the Great.
- Though Akbar was given the reins of the kingdom in 1556 he was unfit to rule as he was just 13 so the kingdom’s affairs were handled by chief minister, Bairam Khan.
- Once Bairam Khan reached 19 years Akbar to become his own man that had potential that was never seen in any other ruler as he intended to rule both Muslims and Hindu together creating a greater kingdom.
- To solidify his relations with the Hindus, Akbar married a Rajput princess in 1562 thereby making her one of his senior wives and the mother of his successor, Jahangir.
- Akbar made sure that all the people in kingdom were happy with the administration. With his abolishment of the tax imposed on pilgrims to Hindu shrines in 1563 and the end of the jizya (annual tax on non-believers), Akbar soon became known for his just administration.
- With just administration of his empire Akbar also took the necessary steps into expanding his kingdom.
- Akbar mostly used non-war methods by offering the other regions ruler to sign the treaty and come under his reign. Soon his empire included most of India without much opposition. Extra steps were taken to make sure that the tax that has to be paid by the peasants will be charged according.
- Akbar had a complex character that made decisions after a lengthy debate with his darbar or court. He maintained nine prime members in the court known as nine jewels; each had their own speciality and were meant to argue each decision of the court so as to see the pros and cons of the decision.
- Akbar made sure to contribute his own to architecture that stand strong till now like Agra Fort, Great Humayun’s Tomb, Buland Darwaza, Fatehpur Sikri etc.
- The architecture of these structures is pleasant mix of Indian, Turkic, Islamic and Persian architecture. With their delicate ornamentation, large globular domes, large halls and many more features these structures have are still aweing to witness.
- Though he was illiterate, Akbar always encouraged literature, painting, poetry, science and architecture. Many of the paintings of his regime are still quite in demand due to their great detail world and amazing depicture.
- Even though Akbar was a committed Muslim he was very religiously tolerant and encouraged men of all faiths by pursuing their wisdom. This characteristic of his earned him the title ‘Akbar the Great.’
- Akbar not only maintained a good relation with the people of his empire he made sure to maintain good foreign relations with the Portuguese, the Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Dynasty and other contemporary kingdoms thereby ensuring the safety of his kingdom from outside invasion.
- Akbar’s almost 51 year reign ended in 1605 (about 27th October) when he succumbed to death due to an attack of dysentery that occurred on 3rd October, 1605. His reign can be called ‘The Golden Age of the Mughal Dynasty’ due to its prosperity and strength.
- After the end of the prosperous reign of Akbar the reins of the kingdom were handed to Jahangir, the eldest surviving son of Akbar. Like his father Jahangir was an aesthete who wanted his kingdom to run on the basis of Justice, but he failed to take the necessary steps to implement justice.
- Jahangir was able to expand his kingdom but his ruling were not just thereby gave rose to rebellions. He was rumoured to be an addict of opium and alcohol which has never been confirmed.
Jahangir was a great patron of the arts, the paintings commissioned in his reign are still considered to be masterpieces. He like his predecessor maintained equality between his Hindu and Muslim subjects ensuring that no side was wronged with.
- As a well devoted Muslim himself Jahangir commissioned art work promoting various sayings from the Qur’an.
- Unlike his father Jahangir never constructed memorable monuments that reminded history of his reign.
- Jahangir is never mentioned as a good ruler but you have to remember after Akbar no one seemed fit enough to fill his shoes.
- In 1627 after just 22 years or ruling Jahangir succumbed to severe cold while he was returning from Kashmir, a place he very much loved leaving the empire in the hands of his elder son Shah Jahan.
- After Jahangir’s death Shah Jahan had to fight for his right to the throne with his own brother Shahryar who tried to steal the throne and was successful for a while.
- Shah Jahan’s reign started with his coronation on 14th February, 1628 in Agra.
- Shah Jahan’s reign was not prosperous like his predecessors, as he failed to uphold the various laws implemented by Akbar to maintain the equality among his subjects thereby leading to many rebellions.
- After just two years on the throne his empire has to suffer severe famine in 1630 at Gujarat and Khandesh leading to starvation, hunger etc. Shah Jahan even failed to maintain relation with the neighbouring dynasties.
- Like his predecessor Shah Jahan was a great patron of the arts with his paintings and architecture being the highlight of it.
- The contributions to architecture by Shah Jahan can be seen even today in India with the Red Fort, the Agra fort, Wazir Khan Mosque, Moti Masjid, Taj Mahal and many more. Though all the structures commissioned in his reign are marvellous the most memorable to date is the Taj Mahal that was built in memory of his Queen Mumtaz Mahal.
- In 1658 Jahan fell ill causing a great fight for the throne in which his third son Aurangzeb won the throne and imprisoned his father who succumbed to death in 1666 at the age of 74.
- Aurangzeb began his reign in 1658 on 31st July, unlike his predecessor more than ruling his kingdom he was interested in the expansion of the Mughal Empire by any method necessary.
- The equality laws that were feeble during Shah Jahan’s rules were totally removed and new laws in favour of the Muslims were implemented and were to be implemented in the regions he conquered.
- This continues conquest led to the national treasury being drained that led to increased taxes making his subjects very unhappy.
- The various laws forced upon his subjects led to many rebellions like Jat rebellion, Martha wars, Sikh rebellion, Satnami rebellion and many more. These rebellions and civil wars in India later led rise to the British Raj.
- He like his predecessors was a great patron of art and architecture with structures like Badshahi Mosque, Lalbagh Fort, Alamgiri Gate and many more.
- At the ripe old age of 88 on 20th February, 1707 in Ahmednagar Aurangzeb died marking the beginning of the end of the Mughal dynasty.
After Aurangzeb a number of rulers ruled the empire but all failed to hold it from falling apart and were tricked by the British to fight with other kingdoms of India.
The last emperor of the Mughal Dynasty was Bahadur Shah II whose rein lasted from 1837 – 1857 before total British Raj was implemented. Thus one of the greatest dynasties in the Indian history, Mughal dynasty, ended leaving great structures like Taj Mahal, Agra fort etc. to remember it by.
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The Black Death may have been the greatest public health disaster in recorded history, sweeping through Europe, the Near East, and Africa during the mid-fourteenth century. It was so large and impactful that Europe lost approximately one-quarter to one-third of its population, which is comparable to the mortality in North Africa as well as the Near East. India, China, and Mongolia have been suggested as the ultimate origin of the Black Death, but it is still uncertain. Through the spread of the unknown illness, different people from different cultures handled it in different ways, which is what we look at below.
In Eastern countries were Tartars and Saracens, who were struck by the illness, an illness that they did not yet have a name for, an illness they had no information about, that brought sudden death. Not too long after the illness had started it had spread fast, leaving cities and towns inhabited. As the Tartars were dying due to the plague, they had eventually realized that there was no hope of them escaping it, however, they ordered the corpses of the people who were killed by the plague to be brought into the city, with the goal that the stench brought on by the corpses would kill everyone inside. While Christians did everything they could, they were not able to flee or escape. It did not take long for the stench of the rotting corpses to taint the air and poison the water supply, and it is said that only one in several thousand would have the chance to flee. In addition, someone who was contaminated by the plague would carry the poison with them everywhere they went, and a person could catch the disease just by being near that person.
People in Florence, Italy handled the plague differently. Officials forbid sick people from entering the city. The early symptoms of the plague were also very different from that of the East; in the East, you knew if you had the plague because you would bleed from the nose. However, early symptoms for the people of Florence was the appearance of swellings in the groin or the armpit area. After occupying those two areas, swelling would spread, randomly across that person’s body. Different people had different ideas of how to protect themselves from the disease, for example, some gathered into groups and lived in isolation from everyone around them. Some people took the opposite approach and went on with their lives, as if they were taking the plague as a joke. Whatever way the people used to try to keep the plague away from them, there was one common thing: the plague resulted in certain death.
Christians and Muslims had very different views on the reason of the plague. Christians simply viewed the Black Plague as an overwhelming punishment from God, for the sins he had committed and those committed by his fellow Christians. Muslims had the exact opposite idea, though. They did not think that the plague was a punishment from God, they did not run from the plague, in fact, they encouraged people to not run from it, and they did not think that plague was that of a contagious nature.
Overall, it did not really matter how people went about handling the plague; if you came in contact with anyone who had it, you would catch it, resulting in death. Nothing more could be done, considering that nobody medically knew how to stop it.
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The Black Death may have been the greatest public health disaster in recorded history, sweeping through Europe, the Near East, and Africa during the mid-fourteenth century. It was so large and impactful that Europe lost approximately one-quarter to one-third of its population, which is comparable to the mortality in North Africa as well as the Near East. India, China, and Mongolia have been suggested as the ultimate origin of the Black Death, but it is still uncertain. Through the spread of the unknown illness, different people from different cultures handled it in different ways, which is what we look at below.
In Eastern countries were Tartars and Saracens, who were struck by the illness, an illness that they did not yet have a name for, an illness they had no information about, that brought sudden death. Not too long after the illness had started it had spread fast, leaving cities and towns inhabited. As the Tartars were dying due to the plague, they had eventually realized that there was no hope of them escaping it, however, they ordered the corpses of the people who were killed by the plague to be brought into the city, with the goal that the stench brought on by the corpses would kill everyone inside. While Christians did everything they could, they were not able to flee or escape. It did not take long for the stench of the rotting corpses to taint the air and poison the water supply, and it is said that only one in several thousand would have the chance to flee. In addition, someone who was contaminated by the plague would carry the poison with them everywhere they went, and a person could catch the disease just by being near that person.
People in Florence, Italy handled the plague differently. Officials forbid sick people from entering the city. The early symptoms of the plague were also very different from that of the East; in the East, you knew if you had the plague because you would bleed from the nose. However, early symptoms for the people of Florence was the appearance of swellings in the groin or the armpit area. After occupying those two areas, swelling would spread, randomly across that person’s body. Different people had different ideas of how to protect themselves from the disease, for example, some gathered into groups and lived in isolation from everyone around them. Some people took the opposite approach and went on with their lives, as if they were taking the plague as a joke. Whatever way the people used to try to keep the plague away from them, there was one common thing: the plague resulted in certain death.
Christians and Muslims had very different views on the reason of the plague. Christians simply viewed the Black Plague as an overwhelming punishment from God, for the sins he had committed and those committed by his fellow Christians. Muslims had the exact opposite idea, though. They did not think that the plague was a punishment from God, they did not run from the plague, in fact, they encouraged people to not run from it, and they did not think that plague was that of a contagious nature.
Overall, it did not really matter how people went about handling the plague; if you came in contact with anyone who had it, you would catch it, resulting in death. Nothing more could be done, considering that nobody medically knew how to stop it.
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ENGLISH
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Thomas Hart Benton was one of America's most popular and heavily patronized modern artists during the decades leading up to World War II, and his murals were especially acclaimed. Along with Grant Wood and John Steuart Curry, Benton gained artistic fame as a Regionalist painter, depicting the people and culture of the American Midwest, in particular his native state of Missouri. While his subjects were primarily based in America's heartland, he lived in New York City for twenty years. Considered by many to be reactionary due to his outspoken and inflammatory diatribes against the art world, Benton, a populist, did in fact boldly use his art to protest the KKK, lynching, and fascism during the 1930s and 1940s. Benton was also an admired teacher at New York's Art Students League, offering students grounding in European art history, as well as an awareness of European modernism. The advent of Abstract Expressionism has all but eclipsed Benton's importance in the history of modern art. Benton's main contribution to twentieth-century American art might be his thematic emphasis on images of ordinary people and common lore. His expressive realism stands out for its exaggerated curvilinear forms and shapes, and bold use of key colors. By shifting attention away from New York and towards the Midwest, Benton expanded both the scope of possible artistic subject matter, and the potential public for American art. In his paintings and prints, Benton was devoted to the evocations of sound and music as a method of communication. His interest in sound, often vernacular songs and instruments, as well as stump-speeches and dialogue, can be seen as relating back to his family's history in Missouri politics, where one often spoke of the voice of the people; Benton sought to keep this popular voice alive in his artwork. The artist, a self-taught and often performing harmonica player, was also a collector, cataloguer, transcriber, and distributor of popular music. By the mid-1940s, Benton became infamous for his outlandish claims against art critics and museums, at one point going on a homophobic rant. With his strong ego and stubbornness, Benton became a rather isolated persona-non-grata, even amongst his own field. Jackson Pollock was Benton's most ardent follower in the 1930s and his early work bears a strong similarity to that of his teacher in terms of style and subject matter. Rather than a complete break from Benton, Pollock's move towards pure abstraction is best seen as an aesthetic shift. The shift from Regionalism to Abstract Expressionism can also be read in relation to a broader cultural and political shift from New Deal reformist politics, to the Cold War post-atomic age.
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Thomas Hart Benton was one of America's most popular and heavily patronized modern artists during the decades leading up to World War II, and his murals were especially acclaimed. Along with Grant Wood and John Steuart Curry, Benton gained artistic fame as a Regionalist painter, depicting the people and culture of the American Midwest, in particular his native state of Missouri. While his subjects were primarily based in America's heartland, he lived in New York City for twenty years. Considered by many to be reactionary due to his outspoken and inflammatory diatribes against the art world, Benton, a populist, did in fact boldly use his art to protest the KKK, lynching, and fascism during the 1930s and 1940s. Benton was also an admired teacher at New York's Art Students League, offering students grounding in European art history, as well as an awareness of European modernism. The advent of Abstract Expressionism has all but eclipsed Benton's importance in the history of modern art. Benton's main contribution to twentieth-century American art might be his thematic emphasis on images of ordinary people and common lore. His expressive realism stands out for its exaggerated curvilinear forms and shapes, and bold use of key colors. By shifting attention away from New York and towards the Midwest, Benton expanded both the scope of possible artistic subject matter, and the potential public for American art. In his paintings and prints, Benton was devoted to the evocations of sound and music as a method of communication. His interest in sound, often vernacular songs and instruments, as well as stump-speeches and dialogue, can be seen as relating back to his family's history in Missouri politics, where one often spoke of the voice of the people; Benton sought to keep this popular voice alive in his artwork. The artist, a self-taught and often performing harmonica player, was also a collector, cataloguer, transcriber, and distributor of popular music. By the mid-1940s, Benton became infamous for his outlandish claims against art critics and museums, at one point going on a homophobic rant. With his strong ego and stubbornness, Benton became a rather isolated persona-non-grata, even amongst his own field. Jackson Pollock was Benton's most ardent follower in the 1930s and his early work bears a strong similarity to that of his teacher in terms of style and subject matter. Rather than a complete break from Benton, Pollock's move towards pure abstraction is best seen as an aesthetic shift. The shift from Regionalism to Abstract Expressionism can also be read in relation to a broader cultural and political shift from New Deal reformist politics, to the Cold War post-atomic age.
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Role of Trade in History of Sino-European from Yuan times to Opium Wars
The European countries especially Britain were in war with China in the early 17th and 18th centuries. According to the Chinese history, China had a dynasty named Yuan, which was formed and ruled by Chinese leaders and had its own way of life. However, a point was reached when European countries had confrontations with China. Differences in trade mainly caused these conflicts. The differences initiated poor relations between these two and eventually led to Opium Wars. It required the intervention of Jesuits intermediaries to settle the situation. This essay is in pursuit of discussing the role of trade during these times, the merchants involved in this trade and the commodities sold. Finally, it discusses the roles of the Jesuits in China as mediators between Chinese and European culture and thought.
The countries that were members of the Chinese foreign trade were: U.K, U.S, India and Britain, Chinese merchants and other western countries. According to Karsh, there was establishment of a huge organization known as the British East India Company, which was located in Canton. This company was mandated to conduct trade with India, Far East countries and China. Nonetheless, Regulated trade at Canton was hectic due to negative attitudes directed to the Chinese, poor rapport with Hong merchants. This company was a representative of the British community in China. However, a time came when those in the British company would no longer get along with the Chinese. Lord Napier, a British manager, started misunderstanding the Chinese hence becoming stubborn. He disregarded his colleagues who had knowledge in China trade. This behavior was contrary to the Chinese policies that required the Europeans to acknowledge China’s cultural and political stands. The Europeans were to portray respect to Chinese emperors through language and actions.
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As time went by, foreign trade became extremely restricted. The Chinese formed Cohong, a trade guild overtook Canton and improved its profitability. Furthermore, Hong merchants were ordered to monitor foreign merchants’ behavior. Any foreigner who wanted to conduct business was to pay fees to the Chinese government. The situation worsened when the British were denied access to Canton introducing what was known as the ‘Canton System’.
The westerners were instructed to only contact Hong merchants in all their issues. They had no other choice but to ensure healthy rapport with these merchants. The merchants were also strict and followed all instruction from their bosses to the latter. At this time, the only product that China allowed for foreign exchange was the valued silver bullion. It was illegal to trade any other type of product. They would therefore undergo all the struggles to only export silver to China. There was an outcry from the Westerners due to the sluggish procedure that was required to conduct foreign business. This inadequacy caused a thrilling demand for tea in the western countries. Tea was grown in large scale by Chinese and it did quite well. Tea could not do well in European countries, there was therefore need for importation. Despite this situation, it was illegal to sell tea to foreigners. Britain requested for the inaugural of new ports in China borders and the establishment of better tariffs that would favor foreign trade. Nonetheless, China refused to agree to any of these pleas. This act led to more strained associations among the two countries. The Chinese leaders could even use insulting language when addressing the westerners. “Barbarians” was the term used to refer to western merchants. This hatred that existed between the two was the chief cause for the unforgettable war that was experienced back them. Once again, the British had not yet given up and therefore opted to send a ship to Canton to beseech with China about the poor state of overseas trade. Sadly, the ship returned to London on receiving threats from the Chinese authorities.
The British company at Canton set up a factory in Xiamen. However, there erupted conflicts between the Taiwan and the Chinese forces, and the factory was burnt. The British Company gathered new strength and started an alternative industrial unit located in Canton still. The British successfully got a chance to trade at Canton. This moment allowed good performance in tea trade. The British company managed to import tea though not from China directly. As more demand for tea in Europe came in, the British company imported huge tons of the product for its consumers. The tea business boomed unexpectedly. The British company experienced exponential growth and was able to trade even other products like porcelain and silk. They also got a way of carrying on with opium that was initially illegal in China. Re-introduction of opium brought feelings of misunderstanding with Europe as the foreign trade became no longer controllable.
Opium is a drug which is very addictive but can also be used for medicinal purposes. It is usually gotten from poppy. During that era, the drug business triggered the wars that evolved between these realms. Opium became the highly sold good of trade during this period. It became affordable even to the underprivileged and its demand increased as it was abused and valued by almost all classes of people in the Chinese society. The British Company ventured into opium business through Macao depot However, the company was conducting the business secretly with an aim of preserving virtuous associations with China. The Chinese were disappointed on learning thriving trade on opium which had become tough to deal with. Chinese authorities applied force to the British Company, but the company affirmed that it was not in any way engage in the unlawful trade. However, on the other hand, the company encouraged opium farmers and smugglers to continue investing in it. Slowly, the company started smuggling opium into China secretly. The corporation further introduced Mulwa opium that was additional to the initial Patna opium. Regardless of this situation, the British company continued to make losses in the other trades. However, the losses did not in any way affect opium importation. The company continued to carry on with the business with a motivation of recovering the losses they encountered in porcelain, silk and tea trade. China fought with illegal opium trade by implementing punishments that involved strangulation and death. The Chinese government banned poppy farming in China. The manager at Canton also prohibited the business to protect his workers from death penalties. The trade was eventually suppressed, and most of the opium smugglers and users really suffered.
After a long period of the strained relationship between the European countries and China, China agreed to sign the first unequal treaty that required them to allow several issues. Firstly, the agreement needed them to open five ports so as to enhance foreign trade. Secondly, it needed them to do away with the Cohong monopoly that restricted foreign trade in Canton. They were also subjected to customs duties that had strict schedules. In addition to that, the British acquired Hong Kong as their territory. Eventually, treaty ports prospered commercially especially Hong Kong. Hong Kong became the Chinese chief commercial city. England regarded the opium war as a great triumph. France and the US started pressuring China to be granted their own treaty. They wanted China to accept the entry of foreigners like doctors, missionaries and travelers into the interior. This condition marked the beginning of a century of humiliation t to China.
The new treaty ports allowed foreign dealers who worked in partnership with Chinese merchants to get into china’s interior. It is during this time that Christian teachings came in through the missionaries. The two opium wars were regarded as a way set for the foreign power to get its way to China. This period marked the beginning of and technological and commercial progress.
In the 15th century, European countries viewed China as the center of civilization and technologically developed. Travelers’ and all people talked about Chinese’ immense projects and marvelous creations. However, Europe changed this view after the industrial revolution. The initial view of China shifted as more missionaries and visitors continued to assess the Chinese lifestyles. Westerners now got a mentality of the Chinese being arrogant, inflexible and culturally weak. On the other hand, the Chinese thought that they were the most civilized in the world and that their technological sophistication attracted many people. They, therefore, believed that they had all it took to rule their empire. They disregarded foreigners by calling them barbarians. They thought that they would gain nothing by interacting and trading with the westerners. They claimed that it was the westerners who needed help getting rhubarb, porcelain and tea from China.
Role of Jesuits as Mediators between China and the European Culture
The presence of the Jesuits in China can be argued to be the primary reason for the Chinese acceptance of the European culture. The Jesuits China mission was established by Francis Xavier in 1506. The Jesuits played a significant role in China to ensure the integration of the Chinese and the European Culture. The Jesuits achieved their mission of mediating between China by initiating the indigenous Churches that brought them together. However, during the initial stages the Chinese were reluctant to welcome the European missionaries (Mungello). According to Mungello, the Chinese accepted the idea of Christianity later and this gave them a better chance to talk to infiltrate Westernization.
In assessing the prosperity of the Jesuits in China, the following aspects are significant to understanding this issue. Firstly, it is the ability of the Jesuits to pass the information about the scientific knowledge to the Chinese. Secondly, it is vital to assess their success in introducing Christianity to the Chinese natives. Thirdly, it is necessary to examine and evaluate their success in all aspect. It is also necessary to consider the obstacles that were encountered in the pursuit of mediation.
Ways in which Jesuits Sent Information about China to Europe
The first strategy that the Jesuits used to send information about Europe to China was through writings that portrayed the western culture. They wrote several books in Chinese that had significant information about the Western culture. The papers were spread throughout China and this aspect provided a lot of information to the China. Some parts of the Chinese were willing and ready to embrace the western civilization, but the majority were still opposing.
Mungello in his book has pointed out that another method that was used in conveying information about Europe use of the European visual art. The Jesuits had noticed that the use of pictorial artworks would be more efficient than using words only. Some of these artworks contained the information about the western culture that facilitated the learning process. For instance, in teaching catechism, they use the picture of hell and heaven that was drawn in the European way to show the fate of humanity. Several copies of the art were made and distributed all over China from civilized to the indigenous people. Some of the pictures were also placed on the major churches and this element attracted a greater number of Chinese. On the other hand, the Chinese were eager to learn from the Jesuits who encouraged universality. Consequently, through the Jesuits persistence to achieve wholeness, a broad range of Chinese individuals acquired the European culture. Gregory has also acknowledged that many Chinese people became Catechists and assisted the Jesuits in promoting Catholicism. Therefore, the majority of the Chinese population to accessed information about the European culture.
Another aspect that attracted the Chinese was the use of illustrated books with loose sheets of drawings from Europe. The Jesuits tried to mix the European and the Chinese cultural aspects in these drawings. Mungello has pointed out that the books were spread rapidly because it contained some European realm that captivated most of the Chinese artists. These artists adopted these artistic drawings from Europe and it resulted in them getting information about Europe.
Another strategy was establishing some significant relationship with the Chinese ruling class. The Jesuits approached the political leader in China and established some rapport with them. This aspect facilitated the rapid spread of Christianity among the Chinese natives and they learned about the western civilization in the process.
Ways in which Jesuits Conveyed Information about China to Europe
In giving information about the Chinese culture, most of the Jesuits encyclopedia depended on the Chinese journals and monographs for reference. The Jesuits obtained information from these sources and interpreted them because they had learned the Chinese language. Most of the encyclopedias contained the positive details of their culture. Lehner has also pointed out that the information conveyed was easy to understand an easy work hence for the Jesuits. In the entire encyclopedia genre the use of references fluctuated from the direct quotations and piracy. They also considered the use of other scholarly sources written by the Chinese academic class. The significance of this strategy is that it contained the first-hand information that was more accurate about the Chinese culture. They could also interpret the information according to how the Chinese wanted to hear in an effort to please them.
Another method was considering the Chinese culture as an academic discipline in Europe. The study of Chinese behavior was implemented in the West. They involved the use of the Chinese scholars who were knowledgeable about the Chinese culture. This method was relevant because it gave the Europeans the quality information. They learned and appreciated the Chinese culture and also adopted the some of the interesting Chinese behavior.
In the arrangement of the Chinese mythical traditions, the Jesuits handled and adopted the Chinese presentation of sishu. For the essential sources of the Chinese traditions, they labeled them as a classical inscription of China. They used the Chinese experts in identification and naming of the geographical elements. The physical features were inclusive of the geographical features.
Before the arrival of the Jesuits in Europe, China had ventured in technological advancement. They had invented a clock that interested the Jesuits on their arrival in China. They became eager to learn about the Chinese civilization so that they could use the knowledge to spread Christianity. In the process, they learned most of the Chinese ways of life and transmitted it back to Europe. They also embraced some of the significant Chinese habits. For instance, Gregory has pointed out that they adopted Chinese cooking methods and transmitted them to Europe. They also learned the Chinese language so as to be able to translate the Bible in Chinese.
Another way that Jesuits involved in spreading the Chinese culture to Europe was through the fax. During the dark ages in Europe, China had advanced in industrialization and many Europeans migrated to China. Europe had majored in Christianity and they were busy spreading the Gospel. In the process of working together, there was some cultural exchange.
The main purpose of the Jesuits entrance in Europe was to champion the spread of Christianity. Mungello has pointed out that they convinced the Chinese scholarly class by learning some of Chinese classical writing. However, the Chinese doubted the goal of the Jesuits because of the presence of the Portuguese. The Portuguese appeared to be focusing much on the material things and this aspect confused them greatly. Therefore, the Jesuits mission in that land was accompanied with many challenges such as strange treatment. However, Gregory has acknowledged that despite the challenges the Jesuits managed to get information about Chinese culture and reflect them back to Europe.
Another aspect was the construction of the churches in a manner that was appealing to the Chinese. This method was meant to make the Chinese have a sense of belonging. They even wore the dresses that most Chinese preferred so that they could identify with them. The Jesuits ended up winning their trust and this aspect made them share a lot of information about the two cultures. The Jesuits transmitted the information they got back to Europe and used it also to spread Christianity.
If critically analyzed, the most significant process was the transfer of information from Europe to China. This process is the most significant because the Jesuits had more interest in spreading Christianity to the Chinese people. Lehner has pointed out that the use of journals and encyclopedias were expensive hence not the most suitable. Despite being the most detailed source of transmission of information, they were time-consuming. It took long time to interpret the journals and process them into meaningful information. It was important for them to invent strategies that would enable them attract the scholars and the intellectuals. This criterion was also significant in ensuring that these people would assist them in comprehending the Chinese language. It would also facilitate an efficient conveying of the necessary information about China back to their motherland.
Trade had a significant role during the Yuan times up to the Opium War period. Chinese were only involved in farming and other technological works within their country. They were not used to working with foreigners. However, a time came when the westerners were determined to conduct business with the Chinese. Nonetheless, trade seemed strange and new to the Chinese. The knowledge of trade was not received with ease by the Chinese. They fought against the westerners about conducting business with them. The poor relations between the two parties lasted for relatively a long period leading to wars. The Chinese would live in darkness if the westerners did not insist on trading with them. On the other hand, the Jesuits indeed played a significant role in ensuring that assimilation prevailed between the European and Chinese cultures. They chose their methods wisely in a manner that ensured that there was peaceful co-existence between the two cultures. Obtaining a means to translate the written and the oral was also an essential move in ensuring that they mediated between the two cultures successfully. Their tactics ensured that they were in proper control of the area hence success. People should embrace change and quickly adapt to changes. If the Chinese had taken the trade idea early enough, then the Opium wars would never have erupted .however, Chinese must be congratulated for accepting the Jesuits' advise that helped settle their differences with Europeans easily.
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Role of Trade in History of Sino-European from Yuan times to Opium Wars
The European countries especially Britain were in war with China in the early 17th and 18th centuries. According to the Chinese history, China had a dynasty named Yuan, which was formed and ruled by Chinese leaders and had its own way of life. However, a point was reached when European countries had confrontations with China. Differences in trade mainly caused these conflicts. The differences initiated poor relations between these two and eventually led to Opium Wars. It required the intervention of Jesuits intermediaries to settle the situation. This essay is in pursuit of discussing the role of trade during these times, the merchants involved in this trade and the commodities sold. Finally, it discusses the roles of the Jesuits in China as mediators between Chinese and European culture and thought.
The countries that were members of the Chinese foreign trade were: U.K, U.S, India and Britain, Chinese merchants and other western countries. According to Karsh, there was establishment of a huge organization known as the British East India Company, which was located in Canton. This company was mandated to conduct trade with India, Far East countries and China. Nonetheless, Regulated trade at Canton was hectic due to negative attitudes directed to the Chinese, poor rapport with Hong merchants. This company was a representative of the British community in China. However, a time came when those in the British company would no longer get along with the Chinese. Lord Napier, a British manager, started misunderstanding the Chinese hence becoming stubborn. He disregarded his colleagues who had knowledge in China trade. This behavior was contrary to the Chinese policies that required the Europeans to acknowledge China’s cultural and political stands. The Europeans were to portray respect to Chinese emperors through language and actions.
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As time went by, foreign trade became extremely restricted. The Chinese formed Cohong, a trade guild overtook Canton and improved its profitability. Furthermore, Hong merchants were ordered to monitor foreign merchants’ behavior. Any foreigner who wanted to conduct business was to pay fees to the Chinese government. The situation worsened when the British were denied access to Canton introducing what was known as the ‘Canton System’.
The westerners were instructed to only contact Hong merchants in all their issues. They had no other choice but to ensure healthy rapport with these merchants. The merchants were also strict and followed all instruction from their bosses to the latter. At this time, the only product that China allowed for foreign exchange was the valued silver bullion. It was illegal to trade any other type of product. They would therefore undergo all the struggles to only export silver to China. There was an outcry from the Westerners due to the sluggish procedure that was required to conduct foreign business. This inadequacy caused a thrilling demand for tea in the western countries. Tea was grown in large scale by Chinese and it did quite well. Tea could not do well in European countries, there was therefore need for importation. Despite this situation, it was illegal to sell tea to foreigners. Britain requested for the inaugural of new ports in China borders and the establishment of better tariffs that would favor foreign trade. Nonetheless, China refused to agree to any of these pleas. This act led to more strained associations among the two countries. The Chinese leaders could even use insulting language when addressing the westerners. “Barbarians” was the term used to refer to western merchants. This hatred that existed between the two was the chief cause for the unforgettable war that was experienced back them. Once again, the British had not yet given up and therefore opted to send a ship to Canton to beseech with China about the poor state of overseas trade. Sadly, the ship returned to London on receiving threats from the Chinese authorities.
The British company at Canton set up a factory in Xiamen. However, there erupted conflicts between the Taiwan and the Chinese forces, and the factory was burnt. The British Company gathered new strength and started an alternative industrial unit located in Canton still. The British successfully got a chance to trade at Canton. This moment allowed good performance in tea trade. The British company managed to import tea though not from China directly. As more demand for tea in Europe came in, the British company imported huge tons of the product for its consumers. The tea business boomed unexpectedly. The British company experienced exponential growth and was able to trade even other products like porcelain and silk. They also got a way of carrying on with opium that was initially illegal in China. Re-introduction of opium brought feelings of misunderstanding with Europe as the foreign trade became no longer controllable.
Opium is a drug which is very addictive but can also be used for medicinal purposes. It is usually gotten from poppy. During that era, the drug business triggered the wars that evolved between these realms. Opium became the highly sold good of trade during this period. It became affordable even to the underprivileged and its demand increased as it was abused and valued by almost all classes of people in the Chinese society. The British Company ventured into opium business through Macao depot However, the company was conducting the business secretly with an aim of preserving virtuous associations with China. The Chinese were disappointed on learning thriving trade on opium which had become tough to deal with. Chinese authorities applied force to the British Company, but the company affirmed that it was not in any way engage in the unlawful trade. However, on the other hand, the company encouraged opium farmers and smugglers to continue investing in it. Slowly, the company started smuggling opium into China secretly. The corporation further introduced Mulwa opium that was additional to the initial Patna opium. Regardless of this situation, the British company continued to make losses in the other trades. However, the losses did not in any way affect opium importation. The company continued to carry on with the business with a motivation of recovering the losses they encountered in porcelain, silk and tea trade. China fought with illegal opium trade by implementing punishments that involved strangulation and death. The Chinese government banned poppy farming in China. The manager at Canton also prohibited the business to protect his workers from death penalties. The trade was eventually suppressed, and most of the opium smugglers and users really suffered.
After a long period of the strained relationship between the European countries and China, China agreed to sign the first unequal treaty that required them to allow several issues. Firstly, the agreement needed them to open five ports so as to enhance foreign trade. Secondly, it needed them to do away with the Cohong monopoly that restricted foreign trade in Canton. They were also subjected to customs duties that had strict schedules. In addition to that, the British acquired Hong Kong as their territory. Eventually, treaty ports prospered commercially especially Hong Kong. Hong Kong became the Chinese chief commercial city. England regarded the opium war as a great triumph. France and the US started pressuring China to be granted their own treaty. They wanted China to accept the entry of foreigners like doctors, missionaries and travelers into the interior. This condition marked the beginning of a century of humiliation t to China.
The new treaty ports allowed foreign dealers who worked in partnership with Chinese merchants to get into china’s interior. It is during this time that Christian teachings came in through the missionaries. The two opium wars were regarded as a way set for the foreign power to get its way to China. This period marked the beginning of and technological and commercial progress.
In the 15th century, European countries viewed China as the center of civilization and technologically developed. Travelers’ and all people talked about Chinese’ immense projects and marvelous creations. However, Europe changed this view after the industrial revolution. The initial view of China shifted as more missionaries and visitors continued to assess the Chinese lifestyles. Westerners now got a mentality of the Chinese being arrogant, inflexible and culturally weak. On the other hand, the Chinese thought that they were the most civilized in the world and that their technological sophistication attracted many people. They, therefore, believed that they had all it took to rule their empire. They disregarded foreigners by calling them barbarians. They thought that they would gain nothing by interacting and trading with the westerners. They claimed that it was the westerners who needed help getting rhubarb, porcelain and tea from China.
Role of Jesuits as Mediators between China and the European Culture
The presence of the Jesuits in China can be argued to be the primary reason for the Chinese acceptance of the European culture. The Jesuits China mission was established by Francis Xavier in 1506. The Jesuits played a significant role in China to ensure the integration of the Chinese and the European Culture. The Jesuits achieved their mission of mediating between China by initiating the indigenous Churches that brought them together. However, during the initial stages the Chinese were reluctant to welcome the European missionaries (Mungello). According to Mungello, the Chinese accepted the idea of Christianity later and this gave them a better chance to talk to infiltrate Westernization.
In assessing the prosperity of the Jesuits in China, the following aspects are significant to understanding this issue. Firstly, it is the ability of the Jesuits to pass the information about the scientific knowledge to the Chinese. Secondly, it is vital to assess their success in introducing Christianity to the Chinese natives. Thirdly, it is necessary to examine and evaluate their success in all aspect. It is also necessary to consider the obstacles that were encountered in the pursuit of mediation.
Ways in which Jesuits Sent Information about China to Europe
The first strategy that the Jesuits used to send information about Europe to China was through writings that portrayed the western culture. They wrote several books in Chinese that had significant information about the Western culture. The papers were spread throughout China and this aspect provided a lot of information to the China. Some parts of the Chinese were willing and ready to embrace the western civilization, but the majority were still opposing.
Mungello in his book has pointed out that another method that was used in conveying information about Europe use of the European visual art. The Jesuits had noticed that the use of pictorial artworks would be more efficient than using words only. Some of these artworks contained the information about the western culture that facilitated the learning process. For instance, in teaching catechism, they use the picture of hell and heaven that was drawn in the European way to show the fate of humanity. Several copies of the art were made and distributed all over China from civilized to the indigenous people. Some of the pictures were also placed on the major churches and this element attracted a greater number of Chinese. On the other hand, the Chinese were eager to learn from the Jesuits who encouraged universality. Consequently, through the Jesuits persistence to achieve wholeness, a broad range of Chinese individuals acquired the European culture. Gregory has also acknowledged that many Chinese people became Catechists and assisted the Jesuits in promoting Catholicism. Therefore, the majority of the Chinese population to accessed information about the European culture.
Another aspect that attracted the Chinese was the use of illustrated books with loose sheets of drawings from Europe. The Jesuits tried to mix the European and the Chinese cultural aspects in these drawings. Mungello has pointed out that the books were spread rapidly because it contained some European realm that captivated most of the Chinese artists. These artists adopted these artistic drawings from Europe and it resulted in them getting information about Europe.
Another strategy was establishing some significant relationship with the Chinese ruling class. The Jesuits approached the political leader in China and established some rapport with them. This aspect facilitated the rapid spread of Christianity among the Chinese natives and they learned about the western civilization in the process.
Ways in which Jesuits Conveyed Information about China to Europe
In giving information about the Chinese culture, most of the Jesuits encyclopedia depended on the Chinese journals and monographs for reference. The Jesuits obtained information from these sources and interpreted them because they had learned the Chinese language. Most of the encyclopedias contained the positive details of their culture. Lehner has also pointed out that the information conveyed was easy to understand an easy work hence for the Jesuits. In the entire encyclopedia genre the use of references fluctuated from the direct quotations and piracy. They also considered the use of other scholarly sources written by the Chinese academic class. The significance of this strategy is that it contained the first-hand information that was more accurate about the Chinese culture. They could also interpret the information according to how the Chinese wanted to hear in an effort to please them.
Another method was considering the Chinese culture as an academic discipline in Europe. The study of Chinese behavior was implemented in the West. They involved the use of the Chinese scholars who were knowledgeable about the Chinese culture. This method was relevant because it gave the Europeans the quality information. They learned and appreciated the Chinese culture and also adopted the some of the interesting Chinese behavior.
In the arrangement of the Chinese mythical traditions, the Jesuits handled and adopted the Chinese presentation of sishu. For the essential sources of the Chinese traditions, they labeled them as a classical inscription of China. They used the Chinese experts in identification and naming of the geographical elements. The physical features were inclusive of the geographical features.
Before the arrival of the Jesuits in Europe, China had ventured in technological advancement. They had invented a clock that interested the Jesuits on their arrival in China. They became eager to learn about the Chinese civilization so that they could use the knowledge to spread Christianity. In the process, they learned most of the Chinese ways of life and transmitted it back to Europe. They also embraced some of the significant Chinese habits. For instance, Gregory has pointed out that they adopted Chinese cooking methods and transmitted them to Europe. They also learned the Chinese language so as to be able to translate the Bible in Chinese.
Another way that Jesuits involved in spreading the Chinese culture to Europe was through the fax. During the dark ages in Europe, China had advanced in industrialization and many Europeans migrated to China. Europe had majored in Christianity and they were busy spreading the Gospel. In the process of working together, there was some cultural exchange.
The main purpose of the Jesuits entrance in Europe was to champion the spread of Christianity. Mungello has pointed out that they convinced the Chinese scholarly class by learning some of Chinese classical writing. However, the Chinese doubted the goal of the Jesuits because of the presence of the Portuguese. The Portuguese appeared to be focusing much on the material things and this aspect confused them greatly. Therefore, the Jesuits mission in that land was accompanied with many challenges such as strange treatment. However, Gregory has acknowledged that despite the challenges the Jesuits managed to get information about Chinese culture and reflect them back to Europe.
Another aspect was the construction of the churches in a manner that was appealing to the Chinese. This method was meant to make the Chinese have a sense of belonging. They even wore the dresses that most Chinese preferred so that they could identify with them. The Jesuits ended up winning their trust and this aspect made them share a lot of information about the two cultures. The Jesuits transmitted the information they got back to Europe and used it also to spread Christianity.
If critically analyzed, the most significant process was the transfer of information from Europe to China. This process is the most significant because the Jesuits had more interest in spreading Christianity to the Chinese people. Lehner has pointed out that the use of journals and encyclopedias were expensive hence not the most suitable. Despite being the most detailed source of transmission of information, they were time-consuming. It took long time to interpret the journals and process them into meaningful information. It was important for them to invent strategies that would enable them attract the scholars and the intellectuals. This criterion was also significant in ensuring that these people would assist them in comprehending the Chinese language. It would also facilitate an efficient conveying of the necessary information about China back to their motherland.
Trade had a significant role during the Yuan times up to the Opium War period. Chinese were only involved in farming and other technological works within their country. They were not used to working with foreigners. However, a time came when the westerners were determined to conduct business with the Chinese. Nonetheless, trade seemed strange and new to the Chinese. The knowledge of trade was not received with ease by the Chinese. They fought against the westerners about conducting business with them. The poor relations between the two parties lasted for relatively a long period leading to wars. The Chinese would live in darkness if the westerners did not insist on trading with them. On the other hand, the Jesuits indeed played a significant role in ensuring that assimilation prevailed between the European and Chinese cultures. They chose their methods wisely in a manner that ensured that there was peaceful co-existence between the two cultures. Obtaining a means to translate the written and the oral was also an essential move in ensuring that they mediated between the two cultures successfully. Their tactics ensured that they were in proper control of the area hence success. People should embrace change and quickly adapt to changes. If the Chinese had taken the trade idea early enough, then the Opium wars would never have erupted .however, Chinese must be congratulated for accepting the Jesuits' advise that helped settle their differences with Europeans easily.
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This week marks 105 years since Suffragette Emily Davison threw herself in front of the King’s horse. Along with Sylvia Pankhurst, Davison is famous for her contribution to the movement, but who were the other, lesser known Suffragettes fighting for the rights of women alongside Sylvia in Bow?
Sylvia Pankhurst moved from Manchester to Bow in 1912, where she opened a branch of the Women’s Social and Political Union, which eventually renamed itself to become the East London Federation of Suffragettes. In 1913, Pankhurst moved the operations to Roman Road, where she ran the revolutionary campaign that won some women the vote in 1918.
But the Suffragettes were made up of more than just Pankhurst and Davison. With the help of Sarah Jackson at the East End Women’s Museum, we raided the archives and uncovered the hidden stories of women who lived and marched in Roman Road, who plotted at the Old Ford headquarters, who fought at the Bow Baths and who demonstrated at the Poplar Town Hall.
Julia Scurr (1873-1927)
Scurr became famous throughout east London after organising food for the children of strikers during the 1912 dock strike. She also worked to improve the rights of the working class Irish community.
As a member of the Suffrage movement, she was one of the women elected to the deputation who met Prime Minister Asquith in June 1914. She opened the meeting with a speech:
‘We women of east London are much concerned in regard to social conditions in our district. There is very great poverty around us and the rents are terribly high. There is much unemployment amongst the men and a very large proportion of the women are the principal breadwinners, although they are both the childbearers and the keepers of the home.
‘We want to say to you that, in our view, a woman attending to her home is as much a wage earner as if she went out into a factory.’
Scurr was elected to the London County Council herself in 1925, but died two years later aged just 57.
Nellie Cressall (1882-1973)
Cressall was born in Stepney in 1882, and worked in a Whitechapel laundry from her teens. After meeting Sylvia Pankhurst in 1912, Nellie joined the east London suffragettes, saying:
‘I had been thinking for some time of the unequal rights of men and women. I could not agree that men should be the sole parent, that a mother could not even say whether her child should be vaccinated or not – or that women should receive half pay and many other things as well. I thought that here is something I can dedicate myself to to help in some way to put things right.’
Like many of the Suffragettes, Cressall was a pacifist and opposed the first world war.
In 1951, when Cressall was 69 years old (with 26 grandchildren and eight great-grandchildren) she delivered a speech at the annual Labour Party Conference in Scarborough, defending the great strides in living conditions which Labour had brought about since the First World War.
Minnie Lansbury (1889-1922)
Lansbury was born in Stepney in 1889, one of seven children in a Jewish family who came to London to escape poverty and persecution in Russia.
Along with Pankhurst, Lansbury was one of the first Suffragettes in the area. She also joined the National Union of Teachers and became involved in union activism, calling for equal pay for women.
After the War, Lansbury was elected into Poplar Council. In 1921, she was one of five women who, along with their male colleagues, were sent to prison for refusing to charge full rates from their poor constituents.
Daisy Parsons (1890-1957)
Parsons left home at 14 years old to work as a maid, and shortly afterwards began work in a cigarette factory in Aldgate, sometimes earning less than a shilling a day.
In 1912 Parsons became involved in the East London Federation of the Suffragettes and was elected to meet Prime Minister Asquith. She told him about the cigarette factory she worked in:
‘In that factory the men were allowed time for lunch simply because they were men, but the women and girls, if we were fortunate enough to have lunch and could take bread and butter with us, had not a place to eat our lunch and were forced to take it into the lavatory and we know that is not altogether the thing.
‘The men could quite openly come along with cans and eat whatever they liked to send out for and sit and eat it at their leisure. We know that if the men were working under these conditions, through their trade unions, and through their votes they would say they would not tolerate that sort of thing.’
After being elected as a Labour councillor for Beckton in 1922, Parsons became the first woman mayor of West Ham.
‘We come from the East End and we have the voice of the people.’
Payne and her husband Jim cared for Sylvia Pankhurst at their home at 28 Ford Road when she was recovering from being force fed in prison. Like many east London families, the Paynes lived and worked in their two rooms, making shoes and boots. Pankhurst described the couple as ‘the kindest of kind people’.
Payne also played an important role in the suffragettes’ war relief work, launching the drive to distribute milk to families with starving infants.
‘Tough’ Annie Barnes (1887-198?)
After joining the East London Federation of the Suffragettes, Barnes’ first mission was to scatter leaflets reading ‘Votes for Women’ from the top of Monument.
Annie was a councillor in Stepney for 14 years, as well as setting up a Women’s Cooperative Guild and sitting on the board of a number of local charities. She was nicknamed ‘Tough Annie’ for her fearless ways.
Smyth came from a wealthy background and studied at Newnham College, Cambridge. She was related to Suffragette and composer Ethel Smyth, and joined the Women’s Social and Political Union, initially acting as chauffeur for Emmeline Pankhurst.
In 1912, Smyth moved to Bow where she joined Sylvia Pankhurst’s campaign to recruit new members to the Women’s Social and Political Union in the East End.
Smyth played a key part in all the Federation’s activities, from her official role as financial secretary, to drilling the People’s Army, dressing up as Father Christmas, even wallpapering and painting the Women’s Hall at 400 Old Ford Road. Author Miles Franklin described her as ‘equally capable’ to Sylvia, and admired the way she could ‘turn her hand from fitting out a baby to driving a motor car, as the necessity arises’.
Smyth had a talent for photography and it is thanks to her that we have such a fantastic visual record of the east London suffragettes’ activities, as well as moving images of the deep poverty which surrounded them.
Although like most of the members of the East London Federation of Suffragettes Walker had left school in her mid teens, she became one of the most popular speakers in London, among any movement.
Sylvia Pankhurst wrote: ‘She seemed to me like a woman of the French Revolution. I could imagine her on the barricades, waving the bonnet rouge, urging on the fighters with impassioned cries.’
Rose Pengelly (1900-?)
Pengelly was a member of the Junior Suffragettes Club launched by the East London Federation of the Suffragettes in 1914.
Although we know little about her it seems that Rose was a remarkable girl – brave and beautiful, with striking green eyes and red hair. She lived with her very poor family on Ranwell Street in Bow and worked at the Backs Asbestos Pipe Factory on Old Ford Road.
Aged 14, Rose led her colleagues out on strike, marching them down the road to the Women’s Hall. She lost her job because of her union activism, and was thereafter nicknamed ‘Sylvia’ by her friends and former colleagues.
This article would not have been possible without Sarah Jackson, co-founder of the East End Women’s Museum. The Women’s Hall Exhibition is currently showing at the Tower Hamlets Local History Library and Archives. Find out more here.
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If a fraction of the local 40,000 residents donated two pounds a month to Roman Road LDN it would be enough for our editorial team to serve the area full time and be beholden only to the community. A pound at a time, we believe we can get there.
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This week marks 105 years since Suffragette Emily Davison threw herself in front of the King’s horse. Along with Sylvia Pankhurst, Davison is famous for her contribution to the movement, but who were the other, lesser known Suffragettes fighting for the rights of women alongside Sylvia in Bow?
Sylvia Pankhurst moved from Manchester to Bow in 1912, where she opened a branch of the Women’s Social and Political Union, which eventually renamed itself to become the East London Federation of Suffragettes. In 1913, Pankhurst moved the operations to Roman Road, where she ran the revolutionary campaign that won some women the vote in 1918.
But the Suffragettes were made up of more than just Pankhurst and Davison. With the help of Sarah Jackson at the East End Women’s Museum, we raided the archives and uncovered the hidden stories of women who lived and marched in Roman Road, who plotted at the Old Ford headquarters, who fought at the Bow Baths and who demonstrated at the Poplar Town Hall.
Julia Scurr (1873-1927)
Scurr became famous throughout east London after organising food for the children of strikers during the 1912 dock strike. She also worked to improve the rights of the working class Irish community.
As a member of the Suffrage movement, she was one of the women elected to the deputation who met Prime Minister Asquith in June 1914. She opened the meeting with a speech:
‘We women of east London are much concerned in regard to social conditions in our district. There is very great poverty around us and the rents are terribly high. There is much unemployment amongst the men and a very large proportion of the women are the principal breadwinners, although they are both the childbearers and the keepers of the home.
‘We want to say to you that, in our view, a woman attending to her home is as much a wage earner as if she went out into a factory.’
Scurr was elected to the London County Council herself in 1925, but died two years later aged just 57.
Nellie Cressall (1882-1973)
Cressall was born in Stepney in 1882, and worked in a Whitechapel laundry from her teens. After meeting Sylvia Pankhurst in 1912, Nellie joined the east London suffragettes, saying:
‘I had been thinking for some time of the unequal rights of men and women. I could not agree that men should be the sole parent, that a mother could not even say whether her child should be vaccinated or not – or that women should receive half pay and many other things as well. I thought that here is something I can dedicate myself to to help in some way to put things right.’
Like many of the Suffragettes, Cressall was a pacifist and opposed the first world war.
In 1951, when Cressall was 69 years old (with 26 grandchildren and eight great-grandchildren) she delivered a speech at the annual Labour Party Conference in Scarborough, defending the great strides in living conditions which Labour had brought about since the First World War.
Minnie Lansbury (1889-1922)
Lansbury was born in Stepney in 1889, one of seven children in a Jewish family who came to London to escape poverty and persecution in Russia.
Along with Pankhurst, Lansbury was one of the first Suffragettes in the area. She also joined the National Union of Teachers and became involved in union activism, calling for equal pay for women.
After the War, Lansbury was elected into Poplar Council. In 1921, she was one of five women who, along with their male colleagues, were sent to prison for refusing to charge full rates from their poor constituents.
Daisy Parsons (1890-1957)
Parsons left home at 14 years old to work as a maid, and shortly afterwards began work in a cigarette factory in Aldgate, sometimes earning less than a shilling a day.
In 1912 Parsons became involved in the East London Federation of the Suffragettes and was elected to meet Prime Minister Asquith. She told him about the cigarette factory she worked in:
‘In that factory the men were allowed time for lunch simply because they were men, but the women and girls, if we were fortunate enough to have lunch and could take bread and butter with us, had not a place to eat our lunch and were forced to take it into the lavatory and we know that is not altogether the thing.
‘The men could quite openly come along with cans and eat whatever they liked to send out for and sit and eat it at their leisure. We know that if the men were working under these conditions, through their trade unions, and through their votes they would say they would not tolerate that sort of thing.’
After being elected as a Labour councillor for Beckton in 1922, Parsons became the first woman mayor of West Ham.
‘We come from the East End and we have the voice of the people.’
Payne and her husband Jim cared for Sylvia Pankhurst at their home at 28 Ford Road when she was recovering from being force fed in prison. Like many east London families, the Paynes lived and worked in their two rooms, making shoes and boots. Pankhurst described the couple as ‘the kindest of kind people’.
Payne also played an important role in the suffragettes’ war relief work, launching the drive to distribute milk to families with starving infants.
‘Tough’ Annie Barnes (1887-198?)
After joining the East London Federation of the Suffragettes, Barnes’ first mission was to scatter leaflets reading ‘Votes for Women’ from the top of Monument.
Annie was a councillor in Stepney for 14 years, as well as setting up a Women’s Cooperative Guild and sitting on the board of a number of local charities. She was nicknamed ‘Tough Annie’ for her fearless ways.
Smyth came from a wealthy background and studied at Newnham College, Cambridge. She was related to Suffragette and composer Ethel Smyth, and joined the Women’s Social and Political Union, initially acting as chauffeur for Emmeline Pankhurst.
In 1912, Smyth moved to Bow where she joined Sylvia Pankhurst’s campaign to recruit new members to the Women’s Social and Political Union in the East End.
Smyth played a key part in all the Federation’s activities, from her official role as financial secretary, to drilling the People’s Army, dressing up as Father Christmas, even wallpapering and painting the Women’s Hall at 400 Old Ford Road. Author Miles Franklin described her as ‘equally capable’ to Sylvia, and admired the way she could ‘turn her hand from fitting out a baby to driving a motor car, as the necessity arises’.
Smyth had a talent for photography and it is thanks to her that we have such a fantastic visual record of the east London suffragettes’ activities, as well as moving images of the deep poverty which surrounded them.
Although like most of the members of the East London Federation of Suffragettes Walker had left school in her mid teens, she became one of the most popular speakers in London, among any movement.
Sylvia Pankhurst wrote: ‘She seemed to me like a woman of the French Revolution. I could imagine her on the barricades, waving the bonnet rouge, urging on the fighters with impassioned cries.’
Rose Pengelly (1900-?)
Pengelly was a member of the Junior Suffragettes Club launched by the East London Federation of the Suffragettes in 1914.
Although we know little about her it seems that Rose was a remarkable girl – brave and beautiful, with striking green eyes and red hair. She lived with her very poor family on Ranwell Street in Bow and worked at the Backs Asbestos Pipe Factory on Old Ford Road.
Aged 14, Rose led her colleagues out on strike, marching them down the road to the Women’s Hall. She lost her job because of her union activism, and was thereafter nicknamed ‘Sylvia’ by her friends and former colleagues.
This article would not have been possible without Sarah Jackson, co-founder of the East End Women’s Museum. The Women’s Hall Exhibition is currently showing at the Tower Hamlets Local History Library and Archives. Find out more here.
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On this day in 1791, John Wesley passed to his reward, and on this day in 1797, Horace Walpole passed to his. The one left months before Frances Rolleston's birth; the other months before she turned six. Both wrote prolifically; both influenced the culture of their times, but they could hardly be more diverse personally or in their influence.
The differences between them are evident from their earliest childhood and family life.
Of Wesley's childhood, we read this: "As in many families at the time, Wesley's parents gave their children their early education. Each child, including the girls, was taught to read as soon as they could walk and talk. They were expected to become proficient in Latin and Greek and to have learned major portions of the New Testament by heart. Susanna Wesley examined each child before the midday meal and before evening prayers. Children were not allowed to eat between meals and were interviewed singularly by their mother one evening each week for the purpose of intensive spiritual instruction. In 1714, at age 11, Wesley was sent to the Charterhouse School in London (under the mastership of John King from 1715), where he lived the studious, methodical and, for a while, religious life in which he had been trained at home." [Read more here.]
Of Walpole's childhood, we read this:
"Born in England in 1717, the last of his mother’s six children, he was fragile and prone to illness from birth. Two siblings before him had died in infancy, and so in the family order it went: three older children, loud, healthy and opinionated; two grave markers; and then young Horace toddling up behind—half child, half potential grave marker.
Naturally, his mother, Catherine, spoiled him. His father, Sir Robert Walpole, was the King’s prime minister. This often kept him away from home, as did a long-time mistress who acted, more than his wife did, as his hostess and companion. For her part Catherine had her own dalliances. It was that sort of marriage." [Read more here.]
These two lives, I believe, represent the two poles of British life and culture during the lifetime of Frances Rolleston, and by reading the articles (links above) much can be learned about that period.
From a letter she wrote February 2, 1863 we learn that Frances was donating copies of her book Canticles to help with the cotton famine.
The book was her translation of and commentary on The Song of Solomon in the Bible, and it departed some from the Authorized Version. She wanted to be sure that William Caddell, to whom she was sending the copies and who would be selling them, was free from any doubt of the correctness of the translation.
He had asked her how she explained the phrase, "His lips are like lilies," which she answered in this letter. Her answer was, "not in colour but in form, as we talk of the lip of a vase or anything that laps over. We talk of the lip of a cup or other vessel, referring to the form in pottery, gold or silver cups; if you look in the concordance you will find it so."
What delights me in Frances' work is her devotion to detail. She believed the Bible to be totally inspired by God, and thus every word important. And I love how her art and poetry contributed to and derived from her love of the Bible.
I've heard people claim that the Bible is full of contradictions. If those people examined it carefully, they would find that this assumption is untrue. The more minutely one studies it, the more beautifully it all fits together.
In January 1864, Frances Rolleston was doubting if she would ever again be well enough to write, but by February 5th she was enjoying renewed health—although this was to be the last winter of her life. She wrote to a friend about her pleasure at finding herself again able to paint, and she told the story of how for years the money earned from her paintings paid her part in the use of a small pony who pulled her little cart around the Lake District.
Frances became quite fond of this "gentlest of ponies . . . who draws the fairy gig, and looks like a fairy steed in it.” Even with a group, Shelty was strong enough to go eighteen miles two days in a row. Before Frances gained the use of Shelty, the pony had already had a long life of hard work and hard living,
Readers will enjoy the chapter about Shelty in Frances Rolleston: British Lady, Scholar and Writer of Mazzaroth.
December 6th, 1860 Frances wrote to Caroline Dent: "I have been enabled in the last fortnight to explain every one of the figures in the Dendera Zodiac and Planisphere, over which I had been puzzling in vain for the last thirty years. . . . I am now quite encouraged by this remarkable proof that my faculties are not injured, on the contrary, though for a much shorter time can I exercise them--two hours and it used to be six, but I am thankful, and have long prayed to do much in a little time."
Frances' copy of the planisphere was given to her by William Hone, and lately mounted for her on calico by a young American friend. She would be sending a tracing of the planisphere to the printer Rivington as a lithograph frontispiece or map for her life's work, Mazzaroth: The Constellations.
On this day in 1842 William Hone passed away. His passing was sad news for Frances Rolleston because they had been friends and correspondents.
Who was William Hone? I suppose everyone who read newspapers in 1817 knew his name, for although his printing, book selling and publishing businesses were small, his writing loomed large. His weekly newspaper, The Reformist’s Register, was only one avenue for his biting satire against excessive taxation, corruption in government, and neglect of the poor. He and the caricaturist George Cruikshank together took on no less an adversary than the Prince Regent. When Hone utilized the conceit of religious parodies for some anti-government pamphlets, the Crown had its excuse to arrest him. He was accused of “printing and publishing an impious and profane libel, upon The Catechism, The Lord’s Prayer, and The Ten Commandments, and thereby bringing into contempt the Christian Religion.”
Hone’s obvious intent was political, not religious, which I’m sure the Prince Regent understood. Nevertheless, Hone was jailed. Over three long days he defended himself in court by presenting examples of religious parodies from antiquarian books and pamphlets. His case was wildly popular and the courtroom was crowded with onlookers and supporters. His acquittal did much for securing freedom of the press in England. He continued to write on political matters, influencing other changes in England’s policies, policies such as execution for forgery.
Between 1830 and 1835 Frances Rolleston lived in her own house at Champion Grove where her garden adjoined that of William Hone. Frances did not know who he was, her servant having reported the name as Stone, but she was impressed with his kindliness, his concern with eternal truth, and his care of his large family. Longer and longer conversations through the garden lattice ensued, but Frances still did not know his identity until one day a lady came to visit her with the following question:
“Do you know who is your next door neighbour?”
“A Mr. Stone,” replied Frances.
“Hone,” said she, as if she had said Guy Fawkes or Napoleon Buonaparte.
“I believe it may be Hone.”
“The Hone,” persisted the visitor.
“Who is ‘the Hone’?”
“The author of the House that Jack built.”
Rather than being shocked by this revelation, Frances replied, “I am thankful to hear it. He is then a brand plucked from the burning, for he is a true Christian.”
Five years after Hone's passing, Frances published a short biography of Hone. He had suggested beforehand that she do so. While researching Frances' relationship with Hone, I came across strong criticism of her and that biography. It stirred me to her defense, and that defense is a large part of my chapter on William Hone in Frances Rolleston: British Lady, Scholar and Writer of Mazzaroth.
Today in 1736, James Macpherson was born in Inverness, Scotland. He became a poet and politician, but what Frances Rolleston knew him for, and what he is best remembered for even today, was a deception.
Macpherson collected old Gallic poetry manuscripts, and his collection was impressive enough that money was raised to help him with his research. Then at age 25 he announced the discovery of an epic from the 3rd century. He published his own translation of this epic which he called Fingal, an Ancient Epic Poem in Six Books, together with Several Other Poems composed by Ossian, the Son of Fingal, translated from the Gaelic Language.
Since there was no other Gallic work earlier than the 10th century, it gained attention and became an immediate controversy. The Irish historian Charles O'Conor, among others, noted technical errors in chronology and in the forming of Gaelic names, among other questionable things, which Macpherson could not defend. He never produced the "manuscripts" in question.
However, at least one child enjoyed Macpherson's book. Ten-year-old Frances Rolleston discovered the epic in her old cousin's library (she had been sent to her cousin for three years after the death of her mother), and it made a great, impression on her young mind. She "devoured it," she said, for after all, there she was living in Ossianic country (Yorkshire). But her cousin's daughter took the book away from her, saying that the child was too romantic already.
October 20, 1853 an article or a letter by Frances Rolleston about William Blake appeared in London's Patriot newspaper. I would like to have a copy of what she wrote. (Although the source is searchable, I haven't the time today to search.) Blake was a most interesting artist, writer, and poet, considered a lunatic by some, and unappreciated during most of his lifetime. He died in 1827. What did Frances really think of his work? Click on the image for a link to others of his work.
This week in 1861, Frances at 80 years of age was suffering from "excited nerves." This condition prevented her from working on her book—or doing much of anything. Two days later she was completely revived.
This experience was due to a personality trait which Frances called the “poet-element.” To a friend who suffered similarly she wrote, “I cannot tell you what your sympathy is to me, you alone enter into the poet-element which so intensifies reality, every-day life, into over excitement, over depression.” She often gave in to the intense feelings of this poet-element, and found it too difficult to act apart from them.
This particular October, she suffered from “excited nerves,” received “a bracing affusion” from a friend’s note, and had “a complete bath of reviving influence” from a friend’s visit—all in one weekend.
November brought a sudden resumption of work. By December, she was working herself very hard, and believing it the best thing for her. However, before the month was out her spirits were again sinking and her nerves irritated. Every exertion seemed too much.
The Keswick doctor told her that he did not see why she should not live nine or ten years longer, and Frances herself pointed out that many painters, and more Bible students, lived and worked longer than she had. But in spite of this affirmation, Frances seemed unable to overcome that trait which carried her in a cycle from hard work to fatigue to discouragement—sometimes illness—and inability to work, to rest and encouragement and back to hard work.
Today, September 22, 2017, is autumn equinox. One might think of equinox as one point on a continuum. The three paragraphs here have to do with continuation.
From the autumn equinox, the sun continues its path southward and the daylight hours continue to shrink until the next solstice. Frances Rolleston mentioned the spring equinox a number of times in her letters. She understood the workings of calendars—their history and how to change dates from one system to another—all beyond me.
September 22, 1791 Michael Faraday was born in London. He became a physicist and discovered electro-magnetic induction, thus continuing the many scientific discoveries of the 19th century. Frances was interested in all manner of science, but I do not know how acquainted she was with Faraday's work although, he associated with Humphry Davy, whom Frances knew. Some years earlier, Luigi Galvani had worked with electricity with an interest in benefiting the human body. At one time Frances allowed herself to be "Galvanized" in order to heal her chilblains. This appears to be her only "contact" with electricity.
September 22, 1863 Frances wrote to her niece who was about to be married. Frances mentioned her pleasant recollections of the niece's lively and interesting childhood, and wished this new season of life to be an even happier continuation of the sunny one she remembered with so much pleasure.
On this day in 1830, a great celebration was underway—the opening ceremony for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The Prime Minister was in attendance. The celebration began with a parade of locomotives: Northumbrian, Phoenix, North Star and finally Rocket. Sadly, the exciting event was marred when a Member of Parliament, William Huskisson, was fatally stuck by Rocket.
In a letter two months later Frances Rolleston mentioned that the day of the accident which killed poor Huskisson (whom she had known), she had consulted her Hebrew teacher to ask if the word carcaroth in her Bible, translated swift beasts, could not be more correctly translated carriages.
She wrote, The word occurring no where else has received the most whimsical interpretations. I said, the Holy Spirit had dictated a new word to express a new thing, the reduplication of the root car expressing intensified rolling round and round, as the wheel of railway cars.
The scripture containing carcaroth is Isaiah 66:20 which speaks of the return of the Jewish people to their land: "And they shall bring all your brethren for an offering unto the LORD out of all nations upon horses, and in chariots, and in litters, and upon mules, and upon swift beasts, to my holy mountain Jerusalem, saith the LORD, as the children of Israel bring an offering in a clean vessel into the house of the LORD."
The oth of carcaroth is the plural suffix; what remains is car car, with the idea of round, the doubling indicating intensity. Frances' conclusion is that even by railway would the Jewish people one day return to their land. She was always alert to compare current events with Bible prophecies.
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On this day in 1791, John Wesley passed to his reward, and on this day in 1797, Horace Walpole passed to his. The one left months before Frances Rolleston's birth; the other months before she turned six. Both wrote prolifically; both influenced the culture of their times, but they could hardly be more diverse personally or in their influence.
The differences between them are evident from their earliest childhood and family life.
Of Wesley's childhood, we read this: "As in many families at the time, Wesley's parents gave their children their early education. Each child, including the girls, was taught to read as soon as they could walk and talk. They were expected to become proficient in Latin and Greek and to have learned major portions of the New Testament by heart. Susanna Wesley examined each child before the midday meal and before evening prayers. Children were not allowed to eat between meals and were interviewed singularly by their mother one evening each week for the purpose of intensive spiritual instruction. In 1714, at age 11, Wesley was sent to the Charterhouse School in London (under the mastership of John King from 1715), where he lived the studious, methodical and, for a while, religious life in which he had been trained at home." [Read more here.]
Of Walpole's childhood, we read this:
"Born in England in 1717, the last of his mother’s six children, he was fragile and prone to illness from birth. Two siblings before him had died in infancy, and so in the family order it went: three older children, loud, healthy and opinionated; two grave markers; and then young Horace toddling up behind—half child, half potential grave marker.
Naturally, his mother, Catherine, spoiled him. His father, Sir Robert Walpole, was the King’s prime minister. This often kept him away from home, as did a long-time mistress who acted, more than his wife did, as his hostess and companion. For her part Catherine had her own dalliances. It was that sort of marriage." [Read more here.]
These two lives, I believe, represent the two poles of British life and culture during the lifetime of Frances Rolleston, and by reading the articles (links above) much can be learned about that period.
From a letter she wrote February 2, 1863 we learn that Frances was donating copies of her book Canticles to help with the cotton famine.
The book was her translation of and commentary on The Song of Solomon in the Bible, and it departed some from the Authorized Version. She wanted to be sure that William Caddell, to whom she was sending the copies and who would be selling them, was free from any doubt of the correctness of the translation.
He had asked her how she explained the phrase, "His lips are like lilies," which she answered in this letter. Her answer was, "not in colour but in form, as we talk of the lip of a vase or anything that laps over. We talk of the lip of a cup or other vessel, referring to the form in pottery, gold or silver cups; if you look in the concordance you will find it so."
What delights me in Frances' work is her devotion to detail. She believed the Bible to be totally inspired by God, and thus every word important. And I love how her art and poetry contributed to and derived from her love of the Bible.
I've heard people claim that the Bible is full of contradictions. If those people examined it carefully, they would find that this assumption is untrue. The more minutely one studies it, the more beautifully it all fits together.
In January 1864, Frances Rolleston was doubting if she would ever again be well enough to write, but by February 5th she was enjoying renewed health—although this was to be the last winter of her life. She wrote to a friend about her pleasure at finding herself again able to paint, and she told the story of how for years the money earned from her paintings paid her part in the use of a small pony who pulled her little cart around the Lake District.
Frances became quite fond of this "gentlest of ponies . . . who draws the fairy gig, and looks like a fairy steed in it.” Even with a group, Shelty was strong enough to go eighteen miles two days in a row. Before Frances gained the use of Shelty, the pony had already had a long life of hard work and hard living,
Readers will enjoy the chapter about Shelty in Frances Rolleston: British Lady, Scholar and Writer of Mazzaroth.
December 6th, 1860 Frances wrote to Caroline Dent: "I have been enabled in the last fortnight to explain every one of the figures in the Dendera Zodiac and Planisphere, over which I had been puzzling in vain for the last thirty years. . . . I am now quite encouraged by this remarkable proof that my faculties are not injured, on the contrary, though for a much shorter time can I exercise them--two hours and it used to be six, but I am thankful, and have long prayed to do much in a little time."
Frances' copy of the planisphere was given to her by William Hone, and lately mounted for her on calico by a young American friend. She would be sending a tracing of the planisphere to the printer Rivington as a lithograph frontispiece or map for her life's work, Mazzaroth: The Constellations.
On this day in 1842 William Hone passed away. His passing was sad news for Frances Rolleston because they had been friends and correspondents.
Who was William Hone? I suppose everyone who read newspapers in 1817 knew his name, for although his printing, book selling and publishing businesses were small, his writing loomed large. His weekly newspaper, The Reformist’s Register, was only one avenue for his biting satire against excessive taxation, corruption in government, and neglect of the poor. He and the caricaturist George Cruikshank together took on no less an adversary than the Prince Regent. When Hone utilized the conceit of religious parodies for some anti-government pamphlets, the Crown had its excuse to arrest him. He was accused of “printing and publishing an impious and profane libel, upon The Catechism, The Lord’s Prayer, and The Ten Commandments, and thereby bringing into contempt the Christian Religion.”
Hone’s obvious intent was political, not religious, which I’m sure the Prince Regent understood. Nevertheless, Hone was jailed. Over three long days he defended himself in court by presenting examples of religious parodies from antiquarian books and pamphlets. His case was wildly popular and the courtroom was crowded with onlookers and supporters. His acquittal did much for securing freedom of the press in England. He continued to write on political matters, influencing other changes in England’s policies, policies such as execution for forgery.
Between 1830 and 1835 Frances Rolleston lived in her own house at Champion Grove where her garden adjoined that of William Hone. Frances did not know who he was, her servant having reported the name as Stone, but she was impressed with his kindliness, his concern with eternal truth, and his care of his large family. Longer and longer conversations through the garden lattice ensued, but Frances still did not know his identity until one day a lady came to visit her with the following question:
“Do you know who is your next door neighbour?”
“A Mr. Stone,” replied Frances.
“Hone,” said she, as if she had said Guy Fawkes or Napoleon Buonaparte.
“I believe it may be Hone.”
“The Hone,” persisted the visitor.
“Who is ‘the Hone’?”
“The author of the House that Jack built.”
Rather than being shocked by this revelation, Frances replied, “I am thankful to hear it. He is then a brand plucked from the burning, for he is a true Christian.”
Five years after Hone's passing, Frances published a short biography of Hone. He had suggested beforehand that she do so. While researching Frances' relationship with Hone, I came across strong criticism of her and that biography. It stirred me to her defense, and that defense is a large part of my chapter on William Hone in Frances Rolleston: British Lady, Scholar and Writer of Mazzaroth.
Today in 1736, James Macpherson was born in Inverness, Scotland. He became a poet and politician, but what Frances Rolleston knew him for, and what he is best remembered for even today, was a deception.
Macpherson collected old Gallic poetry manuscripts, and his collection was impressive enough that money was raised to help him with his research. Then at age 25 he announced the discovery of an epic from the 3rd century. He published his own translation of this epic which he called Fingal, an Ancient Epic Poem in Six Books, together with Several Other Poems composed by Ossian, the Son of Fingal, translated from the Gaelic Language.
Since there was no other Gallic work earlier than the 10th century, it gained attention and became an immediate controversy. The Irish historian Charles O'Conor, among others, noted technical errors in chronology and in the forming of Gaelic names, among other questionable things, which Macpherson could not defend. He never produced the "manuscripts" in question.
However, at least one child enjoyed Macpherson's book. Ten-year-old Frances Rolleston discovered the epic in her old cousin's library (she had been sent to her cousin for three years after the death of her mother), and it made a great, impression on her young mind. She "devoured it," she said, for after all, there she was living in Ossianic country (Yorkshire). But her cousin's daughter took the book away from her, saying that the child was too romantic already.
October 20, 1853 an article or a letter by Frances Rolleston about William Blake appeared in London's Patriot newspaper. I would like to have a copy of what she wrote. (Although the source is searchable, I haven't the time today to search.) Blake was a most interesting artist, writer, and poet, considered a lunatic by some, and unappreciated during most of his lifetime. He died in 1827. What did Frances really think of his work? Click on the image for a link to others of his work.
This week in 1861, Frances at 80 years of age was suffering from "excited nerves." This condition prevented her from working on her book—or doing much of anything. Two days later she was completely revived.
This experience was due to a personality trait which Frances called the “poet-element.” To a friend who suffered similarly she wrote, “I cannot tell you what your sympathy is to me, you alone enter into the poet-element which so intensifies reality, every-day life, into over excitement, over depression.” She often gave in to the intense feelings of this poet-element, and found it too difficult to act apart from them.
This particular October, she suffered from “excited nerves,” received “a bracing affusion” from a friend’s note, and had “a complete bath of reviving influence” from a friend’s visit—all in one weekend.
November brought a sudden resumption of work. By December, she was working herself very hard, and believing it the best thing for her. However, before the month was out her spirits were again sinking and her nerves irritated. Every exertion seemed too much.
The Keswick doctor told her that he did not see why she should not live nine or ten years longer, and Frances herself pointed out that many painters, and more Bible students, lived and worked longer than she had. But in spite of this affirmation, Frances seemed unable to overcome that trait which carried her in a cycle from hard work to fatigue to discouragement—sometimes illness—and inability to work, to rest and encouragement and back to hard work.
Today, September 22, 2017, is autumn equinox. One might think of equinox as one point on a continuum. The three paragraphs here have to do with continuation.
From the autumn equinox, the sun continues its path southward and the daylight hours continue to shrink until the next solstice. Frances Rolleston mentioned the spring equinox a number of times in her letters. She understood the workings of calendars—their history and how to change dates from one system to another—all beyond me.
September 22, 1791 Michael Faraday was born in London. He became a physicist and discovered electro-magnetic induction, thus continuing the many scientific discoveries of the 19th century. Frances was interested in all manner of science, but I do not know how acquainted she was with Faraday's work although, he associated with Humphry Davy, whom Frances knew. Some years earlier, Luigi Galvani had worked with electricity with an interest in benefiting the human body. At one time Frances allowed herself to be "Galvanized" in order to heal her chilblains. This appears to be her only "contact" with electricity.
September 22, 1863 Frances wrote to her niece who was about to be married. Frances mentioned her pleasant recollections of the niece's lively and interesting childhood, and wished this new season of life to be an even happier continuation of the sunny one she remembered with so much pleasure.
On this day in 1830, a great celebration was underway—the opening ceremony for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The Prime Minister was in attendance. The celebration began with a parade of locomotives: Northumbrian, Phoenix, North Star and finally Rocket. Sadly, the exciting event was marred when a Member of Parliament, William Huskisson, was fatally stuck by Rocket.
In a letter two months later Frances Rolleston mentioned that the day of the accident which killed poor Huskisson (whom she had known), she had consulted her Hebrew teacher to ask if the word carcaroth in her Bible, translated swift beasts, could not be more correctly translated carriages.
She wrote, The word occurring no where else has received the most whimsical interpretations. I said, the Holy Spirit had dictated a new word to express a new thing, the reduplication of the root car expressing intensified rolling round and round, as the wheel of railway cars.
The scripture containing carcaroth is Isaiah 66:20 which speaks of the return of the Jewish people to their land: "And they shall bring all your brethren for an offering unto the LORD out of all nations upon horses, and in chariots, and in litters, and upon mules, and upon swift beasts, to my holy mountain Jerusalem, saith the LORD, as the children of Israel bring an offering in a clean vessel into the house of the LORD."
The oth of carcaroth is the plural suffix; what remains is car car, with the idea of round, the doubling indicating intensity. Frances' conclusion is that even by railway would the Jewish people one day return to their land. She was always alert to compare current events with Bible prophecies.
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ENGLISH
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The islands of São Tomé and Príncipe were uninhabited when the Portuguese arrived sometime around 1470. The islands were discovered by João de Santarém and Pêro Escobar. Portuguese navigators explored the islands and decided that they would be good locations for bases to trade with the mainland.
The dates of discovery are sometimes given as 21 December (St Thomas's Day), 1471 for São Tomé, and 17 January (St Anthony's Day), 1472 for Príncipe, though other sources give different nearby years. Príncipe was initially named Santo Antão("Saint Anthony"), changing its name in 1502 to Ilha do Príncipe ("Prince's Island"), in reference to the Prince of Portugal to whom duties on the island's sugar crop were paid.
The first successful settlement of São Tomé was established in 1493 by Álvaro Caminha, who received the land as a grant from the crown. Príncipe was settled in 1500 under a similar arrangement. Attracting settlers proved difficult, however, and most of the earliest inhabitants were "undesirables" sent from Portugal, mostly Jews. In time these settlers found the volcanic soil of the region suitable for agriculture, especially the growing of sugar.
By 1515, São Tomé and Príncipe had become slave depots for the coastal slave trade centered at Elmina.
The cultivation of sugar was a labor-intensive process and the Portuguese began to import large numbers of slaves from the mainland. By the mid-16th century the Portuguese settlers had turned the islands into Africa's foremost exporter of sugar. São Tomé and Príncipe were taken over and administered by the Portuguese crown in 1522 and 1573, respectively.
However, competition from sugar-producing colonies in the Western Hemispherebegan to hurt the islands. The large slave population also proved difficult to control, with Portugal unable to invest many resources in the effort. Sugar cultivation thus declined over the next 100 years, and by the mid-17th century, the economy of São Tomé had changed. It was now primarily a transit point for ships engaged in the slave trade between the West and continental Africa.
In the early 19th century, two new cash crops, coffee and cocoa, were introduced. The rich volcanic soils proved well suited to the new cash crop industry, and soon extensive plantations (known as "roças"), owned by Portuguese companies or absentee landlords, occupied almost all of the good farmland. By 1908, São Tomé had become the world's largest producer of cocoa, which remains the country's most important crop.
The roças system, which gave the plantation managers a high degree of authority, led to abuses against the African farm workers. Although Portugal officially abolished slavery in 1876, the practice of forced paid labour continued. Scientific Americanmagazine documented in words and pictures the continued use of slaves in São Tomé in its 13 March 1897 issue.
In the early 20th century, an internationally publicized controversy arose over charges that Angolan contract workers were being subjected to forced labour and unsatisfactory working conditions. Sporadic labor unrest and dissatisfaction continued well into the 20th century, culminating in an outbreak of riots in 1953 in which several hundred African laborers were killed in a clash with their Portuguese rulers. This "Batepá Massacre" remains a major event in the colonial history of the islands, and its anniversary is officially observed by the government.
By the late 1950s, when other emerging nations across the African Continent were demanding independence, a small group of São Toméans had formed the Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (MLSTP), which eventually established its base in nearby Gabon. Picking up momentum in the 1960s, events moved quickly after the overthrow of the Caetano dictatorship in Portugal in April 1974.
The new Portuguese regime was committed to the dissolution of its overseas colonies – in November 1974, their representatives met with the MLSTP in Algiers and worked out an agreement for the transfer of sovereignty. After a period of transitional government, São Tomé and Príncipe achieved independence on 12 July 1975, choosing as the first president the MLSTP Secretary General Manuel Pinto da Costa.
In 1990, São Tomé became one of the first African countries to undergo democratic reform, and changes to the constitution – the legalization of opposition political parties – led to elections in 1991 that were nonviolent, free, and transparent. Miguel Trovoada, a former prime minister who had been in exile since 1986, returned as an independent candidate and was elected president. Trovoada was re-elected in São Tomé's second multi-party presidential election in 1996.
The Party of Democratic Convergence (PCD) won a majority of seats in the National Assembly, with the MLSTP becoming an important and vocal minority party. Municipal elections followed in late 1992, in which the MLSTP won a majority of seats on five of seven regional councils. In early legislative elections in October 1994, the MLSTP won a plurality of seats in the Assembly. It regained an outright majority of seats in the November 1998 elections.
Presidential elections were held in July 2001. The candidate backed by the Independent Democratic Action party, Fradique de Menezes, was elected in the first round and inaugurated on 3 September. Parliamentary elections were held in March 2002. For the next four years, a series of short-lived opposition-led governments were formed.
The army seized power for one week in July 2003, complaining of corruption and that forthcoming oil revenues would not be divided fairly. An accord was negotiated under which President de Menezes was returned to office. The cohabitation period ended in March 2006, when a pro-presidential coalition won enough seats in National Assembly elections to form a new government.
In the 30 July 2006 presidential election, Fradique de Menezes easily won a second five-year term in office, defeating two other candidates Patrice Trovoada (son of former President Miguel Trovoada) and independent Nilo Guimarães. Local elections, the first since 1992, took place on 27 August 2006 and were dominated by members of the ruling coalition. On 12 February 2009, there was an attempted coup d'état to overthrow President Fradique de Menezes. The coup plotters were imprisoned, but later received a pardon from President de Menezes.
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The islands of São Tomé and Príncipe were uninhabited when the Portuguese arrived sometime around 1470. The islands were discovered by João de Santarém and Pêro Escobar. Portuguese navigators explored the islands and decided that they would be good locations for bases to trade with the mainland.
The dates of discovery are sometimes given as 21 December (St Thomas's Day), 1471 for São Tomé, and 17 January (St Anthony's Day), 1472 for Príncipe, though other sources give different nearby years. Príncipe was initially named Santo Antão("Saint Anthony"), changing its name in 1502 to Ilha do Príncipe ("Prince's Island"), in reference to the Prince of Portugal to whom duties on the island's sugar crop were paid.
The first successful settlement of São Tomé was established in 1493 by Álvaro Caminha, who received the land as a grant from the crown. Príncipe was settled in 1500 under a similar arrangement. Attracting settlers proved difficult, however, and most of the earliest inhabitants were "undesirables" sent from Portugal, mostly Jews. In time these settlers found the volcanic soil of the region suitable for agriculture, especially the growing of sugar.
By 1515, São Tomé and Príncipe had become slave depots for the coastal slave trade centered at Elmina.
The cultivation of sugar was a labor-intensive process and the Portuguese began to import large numbers of slaves from the mainland. By the mid-16th century the Portuguese settlers had turned the islands into Africa's foremost exporter of sugar. São Tomé and Príncipe were taken over and administered by the Portuguese crown in 1522 and 1573, respectively.
However, competition from sugar-producing colonies in the Western Hemispherebegan to hurt the islands. The large slave population also proved difficult to control, with Portugal unable to invest many resources in the effort. Sugar cultivation thus declined over the next 100 years, and by the mid-17th century, the economy of São Tomé had changed. It was now primarily a transit point for ships engaged in the slave trade between the West and continental Africa.
In the early 19th century, two new cash crops, coffee and cocoa, were introduced. The rich volcanic soils proved well suited to the new cash crop industry, and soon extensive plantations (known as "roças"), owned by Portuguese companies or absentee landlords, occupied almost all of the good farmland. By 1908, São Tomé had become the world's largest producer of cocoa, which remains the country's most important crop.
The roças system, which gave the plantation managers a high degree of authority, led to abuses against the African farm workers. Although Portugal officially abolished slavery in 1876, the practice of forced paid labour continued. Scientific Americanmagazine documented in words and pictures the continued use of slaves in São Tomé in its 13 March 1897 issue.
In the early 20th century, an internationally publicized controversy arose over charges that Angolan contract workers were being subjected to forced labour and unsatisfactory working conditions. Sporadic labor unrest and dissatisfaction continued well into the 20th century, culminating in an outbreak of riots in 1953 in which several hundred African laborers were killed in a clash with their Portuguese rulers. This "Batepá Massacre" remains a major event in the colonial history of the islands, and its anniversary is officially observed by the government.
By the late 1950s, when other emerging nations across the African Continent were demanding independence, a small group of São Toméans had formed the Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (MLSTP), which eventually established its base in nearby Gabon. Picking up momentum in the 1960s, events moved quickly after the overthrow of the Caetano dictatorship in Portugal in April 1974.
The new Portuguese regime was committed to the dissolution of its overseas colonies – in November 1974, their representatives met with the MLSTP in Algiers and worked out an agreement for the transfer of sovereignty. After a period of transitional government, São Tomé and Príncipe achieved independence on 12 July 1975, choosing as the first president the MLSTP Secretary General Manuel Pinto da Costa.
In 1990, São Tomé became one of the first African countries to undergo democratic reform, and changes to the constitution – the legalization of opposition political parties – led to elections in 1991 that were nonviolent, free, and transparent. Miguel Trovoada, a former prime minister who had been in exile since 1986, returned as an independent candidate and was elected president. Trovoada was re-elected in São Tomé's second multi-party presidential election in 1996.
The Party of Democratic Convergence (PCD) won a majority of seats in the National Assembly, with the MLSTP becoming an important and vocal minority party. Municipal elections followed in late 1992, in which the MLSTP won a majority of seats on five of seven regional councils. In early legislative elections in October 1994, the MLSTP won a plurality of seats in the Assembly. It regained an outright majority of seats in the November 1998 elections.
Presidential elections were held in July 2001. The candidate backed by the Independent Democratic Action party, Fradique de Menezes, was elected in the first round and inaugurated on 3 September. Parliamentary elections were held in March 2002. For the next four years, a series of short-lived opposition-led governments were formed.
The army seized power for one week in July 2003, complaining of corruption and that forthcoming oil revenues would not be divided fairly. An accord was negotiated under which President de Menezes was returned to office. The cohabitation period ended in March 2006, when a pro-presidential coalition won enough seats in National Assembly elections to form a new government.
In the 30 July 2006 presidential election, Fradique de Menezes easily won a second five-year term in office, defeating two other candidates Patrice Trovoada (son of former President Miguel Trovoada) and independent Nilo Guimarães. Local elections, the first since 1992, took place on 27 August 2006 and were dominated by members of the ruling coalition. On 12 February 2009, there was an attempted coup d'état to overthrow President Fradique de Menezes. The coup plotters were imprisoned, but later received a pardon from President de Menezes.
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Saladin (c. 1137 – 1193 CE), the Muslim ruler who crushed the mighty Crusader army at the Horns of Hattin (1187 CE) and re-took Jerusalem after 88 years of Crusader control, was born in a world where the disunity of the Muslims had allowed foreign invaders to take over their territory. The Islamic front was divided between the Sunni Abbasid caliphate of Baghdad and the Shia Fatimid caliphate of Egypt. Apart from this, the once mighty Seljuk Sultanate (which acted as the supreme authority over the Abbasids), was now fragmented into small states; each ruled by a separate leader. The stage was set for foreign occupation, and by the end of the First Crusade (1095 – 1102 CE), Jerusalem, a holy city for Jews, Christians and Muslims, had fallen into western hands. The local population was brutally massacred and to add injury to insult, the Al Aqsa Mosque was desecrated. Unchallenged by the disunited Muslims, the occupying Europeans, or Franks as they were known, established four Latin kingdoms, collectively referred to as the Crusader States: the County of Edessa, County of Tripoli, Principality of Antioch and the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
Slowly and steadily, the “Saracens” (the term used by the Franks to refer to the Muslims) were preparing to strike back under the leadership of a ruthless leader – Imad ad-Din Zengi, the “atabeg” (regional representative of the Seljuk Sultan) of the Mesopotamian city of Mosul. After bringing Aleppo under his control, Zengi dealt the first major blow to the Europeans by retaking Edessa in 1144 CE. But he was murdered two years later and his mission to drive out the Franks passed on to his younger son Nur ad-Din (sometimes also given as Nur al-Din), his successor in Aleppo. Saladin’s family worked for the Zengids at the time, his uncle Asad ad Din Shirkuh was one of Nur ad-Din’s bravest generals. Nur ad-Din was like a master to Saladin and in time (after his death in 1174 CE), it would be Saladin and not Nur ad-Din’s own relatives and descendants, who would carry on his mission. Harold Lamb, writes in his book, The Flame of Islam: “Undoubtedly, he was the man most fit to succeed Nur ad-Din.” (38)
The first and foremost part of that mission would be to unite the Muslims under one banner: Jihad (literal meaning – struggle, contextually – holy war) by any means necessary.
Vizier of Egypt
Saladin rose to prominence in 1169 CE when he was chosen as the vizier of Egypt by the Fatimid Caliph Al Adid after his uncle Shikuh’s death, who was the former vizier (he had earned the rank after a six years long struggle along with Saladin, as his second in command, to push the Crusaders out of Egypt and to extend Zengid authority over it). All odds were against this young and inexperienced Sunni Kurd, who was a complete alien to the Shia dominant Egypt. But Saladin proved everyone wrong; he was quick to appoint his own family members to important positions in Egypt as they were the only ones in the hostile kingdom of Nile whom he could trust. And as for all those who stood in his way or threatened him, let us just say that they all “moved aside” under mysterious circumstances and with striking regularity. Stanley Lane Poole describes Saladin’s motives as follows:
He devoted all his energies henceforth to one great object – to found a Moslem empire strong enough to drive the infidels out of the land (referring to the Latin Kingdoms or the Outremer). “When God gave me the land of Egypt,” said he, “I was sure that He meant Palestine for me also.”… He had vowed himself to the Holy War. (99)
Saladin did not wait a moment to expand his domain from his Egyptian power-base:
- 1170 CE: In December, Saladin captured the fort of Eilat at the head of the Gulf of Akaba, hence securing the Red Sea route for pilgrims to Mecca (the most important holy city of Islam).
- 1171 CE: On Nur ad-Din’s orders and the insistence of his own father, he abolished the Fatimid Shia Caliphate and brought Egypt back under the canopy of the Sunni Abbasid Caliphate. The caliph Al Adid never came to know of this act as he was ill and Saladin wanted to let him die in peace, which he did a few days later. Now Saladin had absolute control over Egypt.
- 1172 CE: Saladin sent one of his generals to conquer the provinces on the North African coast, Barka and Tripoli (not to be confused with the Crusader County of Tripoli in modern-day Lebanon), as far as Gabes, which he did by the next year. Although he could not really consolidate his power beyond the province of Barka.
- 1173 CE: He sent his brother Turan Shah to conquer Sudan with a two-fold motive: expansion of power and suppression of Black rebels who were threatening to join the Crusaders. Shah managed to achieve both motives when he conquered the Sudanese city of Ibrim.
- 1174 CE: Turan Shah then led an expedition to Mecca, where he was joined by a powerful Arab lord, to conquer Yemen. One after the other, Yemen strongholds such as Zebid, Jened, Aden, Sana, etc. fell to the Ayyubids. This expedition also gave the Sultan, free access to the Red Sea trade routes, which he used to further empower his Egyptian power-base.
Nur ad-Din died in 1174 CE and was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son As-Salih but as he was a minor, a eunuch named Gumushtigin became his regent and moved him to Aleppo. The governor of Damascus, threatened by both Gumushtigin and the King of Jerusalem: Amalric I (who had advanced on Syria to exploit Nur ad-Din’s death), turned to Saif ad-Din II (the ruler of Mosul and grandson of Imad ad-Din Zengi) for help but he was uninterested and busy annexing Nur ad-Din’s territories. He then pleaded to Saladin for help - the latter had not been willing to annex Syria unless it was for Islam and now it was. Syria was without a leader and vulnerable to Crusader attacks and even more to the greedy personal ambitions of people like Gumushtigin. Saladin left Egypt with 700 hand-picked horsemen and took control of Damascus (which would become his capital), where he received much applause for distributing a fortune from As-Salih’s treasury among the people. Stanley Lane Poole describes Saladin’s initial reluctance to march on Syria as follows:
Mere personal ambition would have led most men in Saladin’s position to take advantage of the weakness of his neighbors, but to ascribe any such conscious motive to him would be to misread his character. Unless he could persuade himself that the general interests of the Saracens, and especially of the Moslem faith, required his intervention, he would hesitate to aggrandize his power at the expense of one whose (referring to As-Salih) sister was his own wife and whose father had been his lord and benefactor. (134)
Saladin left his brother Tughtigin in Damascus as governor and left to conquer the Syrian cities of Emesa and Hamah, then he turned to Aleppo which shut its gates on his face. The vizier allied with an order named “Hashishins” (the Assassins) and demanded that the Sultan be killed but as fate was his best friend, he escaped death at the hands of the order, which was known to never miss its target. Then came the news that Raymond, the Count of Tripoli (the Latin Kingdom) had attacked Emesa (on the request of the vizier, as a diversion) and Saladin rushed there in response but the Crusaders withdrew before he arrived. Saladin then conquered Baalbek, where his own father was once a governor under Imad ad Din Zengi.
Aroused by Saladin’s success, Saif ad-Din mustered up an army and advanced towards the Sultan in 1175 CE. Despite being outnumbered (he had been reinforced from Egypt but did not have as many men as the opposing force), Saladin defeated Saif ad-Din and sent his army on the run. The next year, the ruler of Mosul attacked once again and this time a charge led by Saladin himself sent a wave of panic amongst the enemy who fled for their lives, a lot of them were either killed in battle or taken prisoners. But Saladin was very generous with the prisoners; in fact, a lot of them owed their lives to the Sultan as he had them patched up by his medics, he freed them and even gave gifts to some of them. These men returned to their homes singing Saladin’s praises. As for the spoils of war, he kept nothing for himself and gave it all to his army. This war with his fellow Muslims was not something that the Sultan desired, in fact he abhorred this violence, but he was driven by his goal to liberate the Holy Land and to present a united the Muslim offence against the Franks. In his last days, he said to his sons: “Beware of Bloodshed… Trust not in that. Spilt blood never sleeps.” (Davenport, 97)
Saladin then marched onto territories neighboring Aleppo and conquered them including the vital fort of Azaz, after a dangerous siege. In 1176 CE, a treaty was signed between Saladin and As-Salih and the latter recognized the former’s over-lordship. As-Salih’s sister came to Saladin to plead for the return of Azaz, the Sultan not only complied to her request but also escorted her back to the gates of Aleppo with numerous gifts (it is noteworthy that Saladin almost lost his life while he was besieging Azaz, this shows his generosity and his devotion to the family of Nur ad-Din). Saladin also allied with the Assassins after realizing that destroying them was extremely risky but an alliance was mutually beneficial. He left Turan Shah in charge of Syria and returned to Cairo, where he supervised the development of its infrastructure, especially its citadel.
Race For Aleppo
First Saif ad Din and then As-Salih died in the year 1181 CE. Saif ad Din’s brother Izz ad-Din succeeded him in Mosul and had his brother Imad ad-Din (named after his grandfather) placed in charge of Aleppo. Imad ad-Din was originally the governor of the Mesopotamian city of Sinjar and was not liked by the people of Aleppo, in fact on one occasion, the people of Aleppo paraded a wash-tub before him, saying: “You were never meant for a king! Try taking in washing!” (Poole, 173).
Syria was once again vulnerable and had to be brought to order. Saladin marched upon the Jezira region of Northern Mesopotamia in 1182 CE where he conquered city after city including Edessa. Then he turned towards Sinjar and besieged it for 15 days after which it fell. Upon the fall of the city, in December, Saladin’s army lost all control, they stormed and sacked the city, but he managed to save the governor and his officers and had them sent to Mosul in a safe and honorable manner. Now Saladin turned towards Aleppo, neither side was willing for a battle (although Saladin could have crushed Imad ad-Din, he seems not to have wanted to) and an exchange was arranged: Aleppo in return of Sinjar and its dependent territories (on vassal terms). Imad ad-Din happily complied and in 1183 CE Saldin entered the city.
Defending Mecca & Medina
After gaining Aleppo, Saladin became the most powerful figure in the Islamic world. To the horror of the Crusaders, he had managed to unite all major Islamic states surrounding the Latin kingdoms under his banner. In 1183 CE however, a Crusader named Reynauld of Chatillon dared to send a fleet through the Red Sea route to attack the Muslim holy cities of Mecca and Medina (with the intent of destroying the Ka’aba and desecrating the grave of the Holy Prophet of Islam – peace be upon him) but this fleet was stopped in time by the Ayyubid ships from Egypt and the Crusader soldiers were captured and killed like cattle for blasphemy.
John Davenport writes about Saladin’s reaction:
So uncharacteristic was such retribution that his commanders did not follow through on Saladin’s order at first. The Sultan’s own brother, Saif al-Din al-Adil, questioned his decision, prompting Saladin to write him an explanatory letter. The men must die, Saladin wrote, for two reasons, one practical and one personal. First, the raiders had almost made it all the way into one of the holiest cities in Islam undetected. If he let them live, they would certainly return by the same route with a larger, more determined force… Second, the honor of Islam cried out for revenge, for blood. (46)
Saladin was angered at this move and in return, he twice besieged Reynauld’s stronghold – the impregnable fort of Kerak but had to withdraw both times as the forces of the Kingdom of Jerusalem came to Reynauld’s aid. In 1185 CE, the King of Jerusalem, Baldwin IV the leper (son and successor of Amalric I) died and peace was declared between the Franks and the Muslims as the Crusaders were in no state to wage any holy wars.
Unified Islamic Front & Jihad
Mosul, the only thorn in Saladin’s path, also entered the canopy of his over-lordship in 1186 CE when Izz ad-Din offered to be Saladin’s vassal. The Sultan agreed and Izz ad-Din was allowed to keep and govern his lands. At this point, Saladin overpowered the Crusaders and angering him or attempting to break the peace would now have been the worst idea. However, that is exactly what Reynauld did in 1187 CE when he attacked a Muslim trade caravan in defiance of the treaty. The Kingdom of Jerusalem backed him up in this outrageous act and paid the price when Saladin annihilated the greatest ever Crusader army (until that time but still smaller than Saladin's army) in the Horns of Hattin in July, 1187 CE, where he also fulfilled his oath of killing Reynauld with his own hands.
This great victory which paved the path for the blood-less re-taking of Jerusalem (although many Christians would be enslaved) later the same year was only achieved because of Saladin’s 17 long years of effort to unite the Islamic states under his effective leadership. Later on in his life, when he was forced to defend his gains against the Third Crusade, despite being old, weak and seriously ill, he commented about this fragile unity: “If I were to die, it would be difficult to get together such an army as this again.” (Lamb, 166). And considering subsequent events, he was proved absolutely right.
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Saladin (c. 1137 – 1193 CE), the Muslim ruler who crushed the mighty Crusader army at the Horns of Hattin (1187 CE) and re-took Jerusalem after 88 years of Crusader control, was born in a world where the disunity of the Muslims had allowed foreign invaders to take over their territory. The Islamic front was divided between the Sunni Abbasid caliphate of Baghdad and the Shia Fatimid caliphate of Egypt. Apart from this, the once mighty Seljuk Sultanate (which acted as the supreme authority over the Abbasids), was now fragmented into small states; each ruled by a separate leader. The stage was set for foreign occupation, and by the end of the First Crusade (1095 – 1102 CE), Jerusalem, a holy city for Jews, Christians and Muslims, had fallen into western hands. The local population was brutally massacred and to add injury to insult, the Al Aqsa Mosque was desecrated. Unchallenged by the disunited Muslims, the occupying Europeans, or Franks as they were known, established four Latin kingdoms, collectively referred to as the Crusader States: the County of Edessa, County of Tripoli, Principality of Antioch and the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
Slowly and steadily, the “Saracens” (the term used by the Franks to refer to the Muslims) were preparing to strike back under the leadership of a ruthless leader – Imad ad-Din Zengi, the “atabeg” (regional representative of the Seljuk Sultan) of the Mesopotamian city of Mosul. After bringing Aleppo under his control, Zengi dealt the first major blow to the Europeans by retaking Edessa in 1144 CE. But he was murdered two years later and his mission to drive out the Franks passed on to his younger son Nur ad-Din (sometimes also given as Nur al-Din), his successor in Aleppo. Saladin’s family worked for the Zengids at the time, his uncle Asad ad Din Shirkuh was one of Nur ad-Din’s bravest generals. Nur ad-Din was like a master to Saladin and in time (after his death in 1174 CE), it would be Saladin and not Nur ad-Din’s own relatives and descendants, who would carry on his mission. Harold Lamb, writes in his book, The Flame of Islam: “Undoubtedly, he was the man most fit to succeed Nur ad-Din.” (38)
The first and foremost part of that mission would be to unite the Muslims under one banner: Jihad (literal meaning – struggle, contextually – holy war) by any means necessary.
Vizier of Egypt
Saladin rose to prominence in 1169 CE when he was chosen as the vizier of Egypt by the Fatimid Caliph Al Adid after his uncle Shikuh’s death, who was the former vizier (he had earned the rank after a six years long struggle along with Saladin, as his second in command, to push the Crusaders out of Egypt and to extend Zengid authority over it). All odds were against this young and inexperienced Sunni Kurd, who was a complete alien to the Shia dominant Egypt. But Saladin proved everyone wrong; he was quick to appoint his own family members to important positions in Egypt as they were the only ones in the hostile kingdom of Nile whom he could trust. And as for all those who stood in his way or threatened him, let us just say that they all “moved aside” under mysterious circumstances and with striking regularity. Stanley Lane Poole describes Saladin’s motives as follows:
He devoted all his energies henceforth to one great object – to found a Moslem empire strong enough to drive the infidels out of the land (referring to the Latin Kingdoms or the Outremer). “When God gave me the land of Egypt,” said he, “I was sure that He meant Palestine for me also.”… He had vowed himself to the Holy War. (99)
Saladin did not wait a moment to expand his domain from his Egyptian power-base:
- 1170 CE: In December, Saladin captured the fort of Eilat at the head of the Gulf of Akaba, hence securing the Red Sea route for pilgrims to Mecca (the most important holy city of Islam).
- 1171 CE: On Nur ad-Din’s orders and the insistence of his own father, he abolished the Fatimid Shia Caliphate and brought Egypt back under the canopy of the Sunni Abbasid Caliphate. The caliph Al Adid never came to know of this act as he was ill and Saladin wanted to let him die in peace, which he did a few days later. Now Saladin had absolute control over Egypt.
- 1172 CE: Saladin sent one of his generals to conquer the provinces on the North African coast, Barka and Tripoli (not to be confused with the Crusader County of Tripoli in modern-day Lebanon), as far as Gabes, which he did by the next year. Although he could not really consolidate his power beyond the province of Barka.
- 1173 CE: He sent his brother Turan Shah to conquer Sudan with a two-fold motive: expansion of power and suppression of Black rebels who were threatening to join the Crusaders. Shah managed to achieve both motives when he conquered the Sudanese city of Ibrim.
- 1174 CE: Turan Shah then led an expedition to Mecca, where he was joined by a powerful Arab lord, to conquer Yemen. One after the other, Yemen strongholds such as Zebid, Jened, Aden, Sana, etc. fell to the Ayyubids. This expedition also gave the Sultan, free access to the Red Sea trade routes, which he used to further empower his Egyptian power-base.
Nur ad-Din died in 1174 CE and was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son As-Salih but as he was a minor, a eunuch named Gumushtigin became his regent and moved him to Aleppo. The governor of Damascus, threatened by both Gumushtigin and the King of Jerusalem: Amalric I (who had advanced on Syria to exploit Nur ad-Din’s death), turned to Saif ad-Din II (the ruler of Mosul and grandson of Imad ad-Din Zengi) for help but he was uninterested and busy annexing Nur ad-Din’s territories. He then pleaded to Saladin for help - the latter had not been willing to annex Syria unless it was for Islam and now it was. Syria was without a leader and vulnerable to Crusader attacks and even more to the greedy personal ambitions of people like Gumushtigin. Saladin left Egypt with 700 hand-picked horsemen and took control of Damascus (which would become his capital), where he received much applause for distributing a fortune from As-Salih’s treasury among the people. Stanley Lane Poole describes Saladin’s initial reluctance to march on Syria as follows:
Mere personal ambition would have led most men in Saladin’s position to take advantage of the weakness of his neighbors, but to ascribe any such conscious motive to him would be to misread his character. Unless he could persuade himself that the general interests of the Saracens, and especially of the Moslem faith, required his intervention, he would hesitate to aggrandize his power at the expense of one whose (referring to As-Salih) sister was his own wife and whose father had been his lord and benefactor. (134)
Saladin left his brother Tughtigin in Damascus as governor and left to conquer the Syrian cities of Emesa and Hamah, then he turned to Aleppo which shut its gates on his face. The vizier allied with an order named “Hashishins” (the Assassins) and demanded that the Sultan be killed but as fate was his best friend, he escaped death at the hands of the order, which was known to never miss its target. Then came the news that Raymond, the Count of Tripoli (the Latin Kingdom) had attacked Emesa (on the request of the vizier, as a diversion) and Saladin rushed there in response but the Crusaders withdrew before he arrived. Saladin then conquered Baalbek, where his own father was once a governor under Imad ad Din Zengi.
Aroused by Saladin’s success, Saif ad-Din mustered up an army and advanced towards the Sultan in 1175 CE. Despite being outnumbered (he had been reinforced from Egypt but did not have as many men as the opposing force), Saladin defeated Saif ad-Din and sent his army on the run. The next year, the ruler of Mosul attacked once again and this time a charge led by Saladin himself sent a wave of panic amongst the enemy who fled for their lives, a lot of them were either killed in battle or taken prisoners. But Saladin was very generous with the prisoners; in fact, a lot of them owed their lives to the Sultan as he had them patched up by his medics, he freed them and even gave gifts to some of them. These men returned to their homes singing Saladin’s praises. As for the spoils of war, he kept nothing for himself and gave it all to his army. This war with his fellow Muslims was not something that the Sultan desired, in fact he abhorred this violence, but he was driven by his goal to liberate the Holy Land and to present a united the Muslim offence against the Franks. In his last days, he said to his sons: “Beware of Bloodshed… Trust not in that. Spilt blood never sleeps.” (Davenport, 97)
Saladin then marched onto territories neighboring Aleppo and conquered them including the vital fort of Azaz, after a dangerous siege. In 1176 CE, a treaty was signed between Saladin and As-Salih and the latter recognized the former’s over-lordship. As-Salih’s sister came to Saladin to plead for the return of Azaz, the Sultan not only complied to her request but also escorted her back to the gates of Aleppo with numerous gifts (it is noteworthy that Saladin almost lost his life while he was besieging Azaz, this shows his generosity and his devotion to the family of Nur ad-Din). Saladin also allied with the Assassins after realizing that destroying them was extremely risky but an alliance was mutually beneficial. He left Turan Shah in charge of Syria and returned to Cairo, where he supervised the development of its infrastructure, especially its citadel.
Race For Aleppo
First Saif ad Din and then As-Salih died in the year 1181 CE. Saif ad Din’s brother Izz ad-Din succeeded him in Mosul and had his brother Imad ad-Din (named after his grandfather) placed in charge of Aleppo. Imad ad-Din was originally the governor of the Mesopotamian city of Sinjar and was not liked by the people of Aleppo, in fact on one occasion, the people of Aleppo paraded a wash-tub before him, saying: “You were never meant for a king! Try taking in washing!” (Poole, 173).
Syria was once again vulnerable and had to be brought to order. Saladin marched upon the Jezira region of Northern Mesopotamia in 1182 CE where he conquered city after city including Edessa. Then he turned towards Sinjar and besieged it for 15 days after which it fell. Upon the fall of the city, in December, Saladin’s army lost all control, they stormed and sacked the city, but he managed to save the governor and his officers and had them sent to Mosul in a safe and honorable manner. Now Saladin turned towards Aleppo, neither side was willing for a battle (although Saladin could have crushed Imad ad-Din, he seems not to have wanted to) and an exchange was arranged: Aleppo in return of Sinjar and its dependent territories (on vassal terms). Imad ad-Din happily complied and in 1183 CE Saldin entered the city.
Defending Mecca & Medina
After gaining Aleppo, Saladin became the most powerful figure in the Islamic world. To the horror of the Crusaders, he had managed to unite all major Islamic states surrounding the Latin kingdoms under his banner. In 1183 CE however, a Crusader named Reynauld of Chatillon dared to send a fleet through the Red Sea route to attack the Muslim holy cities of Mecca and Medina (with the intent of destroying the Ka’aba and desecrating the grave of the Holy Prophet of Islam – peace be upon him) but this fleet was stopped in time by the Ayyubid ships from Egypt and the Crusader soldiers were captured and killed like cattle for blasphemy.
John Davenport writes about Saladin’s reaction:
So uncharacteristic was such retribution that his commanders did not follow through on Saladin’s order at first. The Sultan’s own brother, Saif al-Din al-Adil, questioned his decision, prompting Saladin to write him an explanatory letter. The men must die, Saladin wrote, for two reasons, one practical and one personal. First, the raiders had almost made it all the way into one of the holiest cities in Islam undetected. If he let them live, they would certainly return by the same route with a larger, more determined force… Second, the honor of Islam cried out for revenge, for blood. (46)
Saladin was angered at this move and in return, he twice besieged Reynauld’s stronghold – the impregnable fort of Kerak but had to withdraw both times as the forces of the Kingdom of Jerusalem came to Reynauld’s aid. In 1185 CE, the King of Jerusalem, Baldwin IV the leper (son and successor of Amalric I) died and peace was declared between the Franks and the Muslims as the Crusaders were in no state to wage any holy wars.
Unified Islamic Front & Jihad
Mosul, the only thorn in Saladin’s path, also entered the canopy of his over-lordship in 1186 CE when Izz ad-Din offered to be Saladin’s vassal. The Sultan agreed and Izz ad-Din was allowed to keep and govern his lands. At this point, Saladin overpowered the Crusaders and angering him or attempting to break the peace would now have been the worst idea. However, that is exactly what Reynauld did in 1187 CE when he attacked a Muslim trade caravan in defiance of the treaty. The Kingdom of Jerusalem backed him up in this outrageous act and paid the price when Saladin annihilated the greatest ever Crusader army (until that time but still smaller than Saladin's army) in the Horns of Hattin in July, 1187 CE, where he also fulfilled his oath of killing Reynauld with his own hands.
This great victory which paved the path for the blood-less re-taking of Jerusalem (although many Christians would be enslaved) later the same year was only achieved because of Saladin’s 17 long years of effort to unite the Islamic states under his effective leadership. Later on in his life, when he was forced to defend his gains against the Third Crusade, despite being old, weak and seriously ill, he commented about this fragile unity: “If I were to die, it would be difficult to get together such an army as this again.” (Lamb, 166). And considering subsequent events, he was proved absolutely right.
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Life of Karl Marx
Karl Marx was possibly one of the most influential thinkers of his time. Marx was born in
Trier, Germany on April , 15 1818. His father, a Jewish lawyer, provided a comfortable life for
Marx and his siblings. His mother, Henrietta, was of Dutch decent. His parents goal was to
provide a family life that would foster an environment conducive to the development of their
children. His father hoped Karl would make a profound impact on the world. If he had only
known how profound that impact would be.
Marx's radical political ideas can be traced back to his high school years (1830-35).
Several of his teachers and fellow students were engaged in quite liberal thinking. Marx wrote a
report in high school in which he was to choose a profession. His paper focused on the belief that,
a profession chooses you, not the other way around. Life's circumstances dictate the career path
you will follow. As you can see, liberal ideas were present in Marx at a very young age.
After his graduation from high school, Marx began his collegiate career at the University
of Bonn. There he studied liberal arts such as , art history and Greek mythology. Bonn's student
population was even more politically than were Marx's high school classmates. Marx jumped
right into the mix. He joined a poets society on campus which had several radical members.
Within his first year he had gotten in trouble for public drunkenness. His father, who wanted Karl
to study law, was dissatisfied with his rebellious nature and course of study. As a result, Marx
transferred to the University of Berlin after only one year at Bonn. There he was to study law and
philosophy as his father had wished. Marx's radical ways would not be tolerated at the more
conservative University of Berlin.
This was to be a major turning point for young Marx. While at Berlin, he was exposed to
the doctrines of Hegal. This exposure would have profound impact on the development of his
own ideas. Marx joined a group of fellow students called the Young Hegalians. This group
studied Hegal's ideas on the development of the human mind. Through these studies, Marx
gained the firm belief that all questions could be answered through the use of scientific or
philosophical principles. Marx's atheistic views coupled with his studies of Hegalian philosophy
lead him to this conclusion. These views lead to criticism from the university. Marx was forced
to transfer to the University of Jena in 1941. His radical ideas and thesis seemed to be more
readily accepted there and received much more credibility. Marx received his degree later that
After graduation, Marx took a job at Rheinische Zeitung, a German paper. It was not long
before he was appointed chief editor. In this position he...
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|
Life of Karl Marx
Karl Marx was possibly one of the most influential thinkers of his time. Marx was born in
Trier, Germany on April , 15 1818. His father, a Jewish lawyer, provided a comfortable life for
Marx and his siblings. His mother, Henrietta, was of Dutch decent. His parents goal was to
provide a family life that would foster an environment conducive to the development of their
children. His father hoped Karl would make a profound impact on the world. If he had only
known how profound that impact would be.
Marx's radical political ideas can be traced back to his high school years (1830-35).
Several of his teachers and fellow students were engaged in quite liberal thinking. Marx wrote a
report in high school in which he was to choose a profession. His paper focused on the belief that,
a profession chooses you, not the other way around. Life's circumstances dictate the career path
you will follow. As you can see, liberal ideas were present in Marx at a very young age.
After his graduation from high school, Marx began his collegiate career at the University
of Bonn. There he studied liberal arts such as , art history and Greek mythology. Bonn's student
population was even more politically than were Marx's high school classmates. Marx jumped
right into the mix. He joined a poets society on campus which had several radical members.
Within his first year he had gotten in trouble for public drunkenness. His father, who wanted Karl
to study law, was dissatisfied with his rebellious nature and course of study. As a result, Marx
transferred to the University of Berlin after only one year at Bonn. There he was to study law and
philosophy as his father had wished. Marx's radical ways would not be tolerated at the more
conservative University of Berlin.
This was to be a major turning point for young Marx. While at Berlin, he was exposed to
the doctrines of Hegal. This exposure would have profound impact on the development of his
own ideas. Marx joined a group of fellow students called the Young Hegalians. This group
studied Hegal's ideas on the development of the human mind. Through these studies, Marx
gained the firm belief that all questions could be answered through the use of scientific or
philosophical principles. Marx's atheistic views coupled with his studies of Hegalian philosophy
lead him to this conclusion. These views lead to criticism from the university. Marx was forced
to transfer to the University of Jena in 1941. His radical ideas and thesis seemed to be more
readily accepted there and received much more credibility. Marx received his degree later that
After graduation, Marx took a job at Rheinische Zeitung, a German paper. It was not long
before he was appointed chief editor. In this position he...
| 603
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Elizabeth Warren IndianWiki info
Warren's earliest academic work was heavily influenced by the law and economics movement, which aimed to apply neoclassical economic theory to the study of law with an emphasis on economic efficiency. One of her articles, published in 1980 in the Notre Dame Law Review, argued that public utilities were over-regulated and that automatic utility rate increases should be instituted. But Warren soon became a proponent of on-the-ground research into how people respond to laws. Her work analyzing court records and interviewing judges, lawyers, and debtors, established her as a rising star in the field of bankruptcy law. According to Warren and economists who follow her work, one of her key insights was that rising bankruptcy rates were caused not by profligate consumer spending but by middle-class families' attempts to buy homes in good school districts. Warren worked in this field alongside colleagues Teresa A. Sullivan and Jay Westbrook, and the trio published their research in the book As We Forgive Our Debtors in 1989. Warren later recalled that she had begun her research believing that most people filing for bankruptcy were either working the system or had been irresponsible in incurring debts, but that she concluded that such abuse was in fact rare and that the legal framework for bankruptcy was poorly designed, describing the way the research challenged her fundamental beliefs as "worse than disillusionment" and "like being shocked at a deep-down level". In 2004, she published an article in the Washington University Law Review in which she argued that correlating middle-class struggles with over-consumption was a fallacy.
|
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CC-MAIN-2020-05
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http://stop-ciberbullying.info/elizabeth-warren-indian/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00473.warc.gz
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en
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Elizabeth Warren IndianWiki info
Warren's earliest academic work was heavily influenced by the law and economics movement, which aimed to apply neoclassical economic theory to the study of law with an emphasis on economic efficiency. One of her articles, published in 1980 in the Notre Dame Law Review, argued that public utilities were over-regulated and that automatic utility rate increases should be instituted. But Warren soon became a proponent of on-the-ground research into how people respond to laws. Her work analyzing court records and interviewing judges, lawyers, and debtors, established her as a rising star in the field of bankruptcy law. According to Warren and economists who follow her work, one of her key insights was that rising bankruptcy rates were caused not by profligate consumer spending but by middle-class families' attempts to buy homes in good school districts. Warren worked in this field alongside colleagues Teresa A. Sullivan and Jay Westbrook, and the trio published their research in the book As We Forgive Our Debtors in 1989. Warren later recalled that she had begun her research believing that most people filing for bankruptcy were either working the system or had been irresponsible in incurring debts, but that she concluded that such abuse was in fact rare and that the legal framework for bankruptcy was poorly designed, describing the way the research challenged her fundamental beliefs as "worse than disillusionment" and "like being shocked at a deep-down level". In 2004, she published an article in the Washington University Law Review in which she argued that correlating middle-class struggles with over-consumption was a fallacy.
| 327
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Today we will discuss the movie "Lincoln" and history of and surrounding the Civil War. We will be joined by guest panelist Matt Stone (IndyStudent).
I was taught in grade school, junior high, and high school that the Civil War was fought to abolish slavery. That is both a simplistic and incorrect concept.
At the outset, let me explain that in this discussion I will not refer to "slave owners." Implicit in use of that term is the notion the practice it describes bore some moral legitimacy. One human being cannot buy and sell another human being. To do so has been against our Constitution since the Civil War. It always has been wrong.
The movie "Lincoln" raises a troubling point, indirectly addressed by Paul Ogden in his blog. When we attempt to depict U.S. history (as in "Lincoln") should we aim to be as accurate as possible or should we attempt to choose and mine facts to portray American society as we would like to think it occurred? The way in which I phrase the question discloses what I believe the proper answer to be.
All of the great nations in history have horrific aspects. Many had slavery. The Old Testament, Ancient Greece and Rome took the practice for granted. As the New World was developed, slavery was brought here. Slavery shaped the Constitution, was a dominant element of discord in the decades following ratification, led to the Civil War, and continues to shape our culture today.
Our country is supposed to be different and our Constitution unique. We like to call ourselves the land of the free. We are supposed to hold ourselves to higher ideals. Criticism on this point is a means of making sure we conform to those ideals.
1) Slaves made up approximately 20 percent of the population of the original 13 states. There were some white, indentured servants, but they had chosen servitude via contracts at the end of which they were free; their servitude the means by which they paid passage to the New World. Slaves captured in Africa and brought here for sale had no such choices.
2) Slaves, as property, constituted a significant amount of property, particularly in the southern states (at that time Georgia, the Carolinas, and Virginia). Slaves held significant monetary value.
3) Slaves were central to the economies of those states also because they performed much of the physical labor on large plantations in the production of rice, tobacco, and indigo (used as a dye for the color blue).
4) These are some of the reasons the subject of slavery was such a dynamic in the Constitutional Convention. Compromises were reached. (The 3/5 of a person calculation is perhaps the most famous.) Some of the Framers were vehemently in favor of the institution of slavery. Others were opposed to it. Opposition did not come from a notion that African slaves were in any way equal, as human beings, to the white settlers of the states. The general attitude of the Framers was that African slaves were of an inferior race.
5) The issue of slavery dominated the national political landscape. The Missouri Compromise was reached, but, of course, the slaves had no say in the matter, without the ability to vote for the politicians who reached and enacted the compromise. The compromise was nullified, in any event, by the Supreme Court in the Dred Scott decision in 1857.
6) Some vague notion of "states’ rights" was not the cause of the Civil War. The only "right" the states of the south sought to advance consisted of the "right"to engage in slavery. At least four of the southern states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, and Texas) adopted declarations of secession to explain their ordinances of secession. The main reason at the center of each was slavery.
7) More American soldiers died in the Civil War than in any other war in our history. We killed each other. At the end of the conflict, the Union won. Von Clauswitz wrote that war is an extension of politics. The national debate over slavery ended with the conclusion of the Civil War. Political differences in other conflicts ended with armed conflict as well. At the end of the American Revolution there was no question as to whether the one-third of the Colonies’ population that favored independence from England had won. At the end of World War II, no question existed as to Imperial Japan’s loss of dominance in the Pacific. The alternative would be a victor, in order to claim political victory, would be required to annihilate the opposition at the end of a war. Surrender means surrender.
8) At the end of the Civil War, the people who had been slaves had little education (education of slaves had been illegal in most jurisdictions), no property, and soon no ability to vote. The northern states were little more progressive, but efforts to stop voting were much more concerted in the former states of the confederacy.
9) "Separate but equal" was not ended, nominally, until the U.S. Supreme Court handed down Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. Federal troops enforced it. "States’ rights" was the argument raised by those who sought to stop African-Americans from voting or having access to basic aspects of life. We feel the effects of slavery today.
Santayana wrote that those who fail to study history are doomed to repeat it. The institution of slavery ended with an economic vacuum in which resided a significant portion of our population. By law many of them had been prohibited from being educated. By law, for decades after the Civil War, they were prohibited from voting and having a voice in government such that they could call for redress of their grievances. In many places, when they sought to voice opposition to their state’s policies, they were arrested, beaten, and sometimes lynched. Other ethnic groups have faced hardships. The Irish were treated as pariahs, especially after their mass immigration here following the Potato Famine in the late 1800s. (Ever seen the photographs of signs reading "No Irish Allowed"?) But no group was enslaved—on these shores in the land of the free—because of the color of their skin. Also, those ethnic groups were allowed to become assimilated in our society, vote, organize themselves, and see their interests protected in government.
This country is supposed to be different. All people are born equal. We are endowed with certain inalienable rights. African slaves were born enslaved. That is a contradiction between basic principles upon which our country was founded and the way the document upon which our country’s government was founded, the Constitution, was written. There are many lessons to be learned from these ironies. The first is this: one human being cannot buy and sell another human being as chattel. A second: a society cannot create an economic and societal vacuum among a significant portion of its population without negative consequences. Third: we cannot trust people to hold unbridled authority over other people. Our Constitution was created as an effort to balance power with freedom. The Framers—white males who owned land and who were, for the most part, wealthy—were suspicious of those who wield power. But the sovereign authority is that authority in a society recognized as having a monopoly of violence, if necessary, to enforce its edicts. Dress it up any way you want, but the police and the military are the hallmarks of the sovereign. During times of war, the exercise of that authority is unbridled. President Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus during the Civil War. The Grand Writ, as it is called, is the means by which the government is forced to bring a person to court and justify, if any reason there may be, why that person should remain in custody. The right to free speech was sharply curtailed during both World War I and World War II.
We should not paint the history of this county in red, white, and blue, bedeck it in banners, and treat it like a happy cartoon. The Constitution was written by men who acted outside their original charter only to make improvements to the Articles of Confederation. 20 of the Framers claimed legal title to other human beings. Patrick Henry (who was selected as a delegate but who refused to attend the Convention because, he said, "I smelt a rat," and opposed the Constitution during the Virginia ratification convention) is famous for his supposed declaration: "Give me liberty or give me death." No contemporaneous historical source chronicled this statement. Only some 35 years after his death did a biographer, in the run-up to the War of 1812, write the account now accepted by so many. However, Patrick Henry was a Virginian who claimed legal title to other human beings. In 1773 he wrote a letter to a friend in which he stated:
"Would anyone believe I am the master of slaves of my own purchase! I am drawn along by the general inconvenience of living here without them. I will not, I cannot justify it. However culpable my conduct, I will so far pay my devoir to virtue as to own the excellence and rectitude of her precepts, and lament my want of conformity to them."
One reasonably may infer Henry preferred death to deprivation of his liberty, but life and servitude for those human beings over whom he claimed legal title as chattel. His chief principle in that vein was his noble aim to avoid "general inconvenience."
Our history is more complex than is displayed once a year with fireworks and pats on the back about how we are free. Slavery had a more significant impact on our country than perhaps any institution. I think the problem with the movie "Lincoln" was its attempt to tell the story of the fight for ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment in ways more favorable to the Amendment’s proponents than was true. If we recount, inaccurately, chapters of our history, we ignore the problems that still exist today that were caused by such chapters. Slavery impacted our society in ways we feel still today.
As entertainment, I stand by my assessment of "Lincoln" as mediocre. Mr. Ogden accuses me of being too easy in that assessment. He is entitled to his (usually warped, but he can’t help it) opinion. If you go to the movie, however, read a book or two, specific to that period of history, afterwards. Liz at Big Hat Books in the 6500 block of Cornell Avenue in Broad Ripple (I was not paid for that plug) has an excellent selection of books.
Oh, and watch The Show today, at 11 a.m.
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Today we will discuss the movie "Lincoln" and history of and surrounding the Civil War. We will be joined by guest panelist Matt Stone (IndyStudent).
I was taught in grade school, junior high, and high school that the Civil War was fought to abolish slavery. That is both a simplistic and incorrect concept.
At the outset, let me explain that in this discussion I will not refer to "slave owners." Implicit in use of that term is the notion the practice it describes bore some moral legitimacy. One human being cannot buy and sell another human being. To do so has been against our Constitution since the Civil War. It always has been wrong.
The movie "Lincoln" raises a troubling point, indirectly addressed by Paul Ogden in his blog. When we attempt to depict U.S. history (as in "Lincoln") should we aim to be as accurate as possible or should we attempt to choose and mine facts to portray American society as we would like to think it occurred? The way in which I phrase the question discloses what I believe the proper answer to be.
All of the great nations in history have horrific aspects. Many had slavery. The Old Testament, Ancient Greece and Rome took the practice for granted. As the New World was developed, slavery was brought here. Slavery shaped the Constitution, was a dominant element of discord in the decades following ratification, led to the Civil War, and continues to shape our culture today.
Our country is supposed to be different and our Constitution unique. We like to call ourselves the land of the free. We are supposed to hold ourselves to higher ideals. Criticism on this point is a means of making sure we conform to those ideals.
1) Slaves made up approximately 20 percent of the population of the original 13 states. There were some white, indentured servants, but they had chosen servitude via contracts at the end of which they were free; their servitude the means by which they paid passage to the New World. Slaves captured in Africa and brought here for sale had no such choices.
2) Slaves, as property, constituted a significant amount of property, particularly in the southern states (at that time Georgia, the Carolinas, and Virginia). Slaves held significant monetary value.
3) Slaves were central to the economies of those states also because they performed much of the physical labor on large plantations in the production of rice, tobacco, and indigo (used as a dye for the color blue).
4) These are some of the reasons the subject of slavery was such a dynamic in the Constitutional Convention. Compromises were reached. (The 3/5 of a person calculation is perhaps the most famous.) Some of the Framers were vehemently in favor of the institution of slavery. Others were opposed to it. Opposition did not come from a notion that African slaves were in any way equal, as human beings, to the white settlers of the states. The general attitude of the Framers was that African slaves were of an inferior race.
5) The issue of slavery dominated the national political landscape. The Missouri Compromise was reached, but, of course, the slaves had no say in the matter, without the ability to vote for the politicians who reached and enacted the compromise. The compromise was nullified, in any event, by the Supreme Court in the Dred Scott decision in 1857.
6) Some vague notion of "states’ rights" was not the cause of the Civil War. The only "right" the states of the south sought to advance consisted of the "right"to engage in slavery. At least four of the southern states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, and Texas) adopted declarations of secession to explain their ordinances of secession. The main reason at the center of each was slavery.
7) More American soldiers died in the Civil War than in any other war in our history. We killed each other. At the end of the conflict, the Union won. Von Clauswitz wrote that war is an extension of politics. The national debate over slavery ended with the conclusion of the Civil War. Political differences in other conflicts ended with armed conflict as well. At the end of the American Revolution there was no question as to whether the one-third of the Colonies’ population that favored independence from England had won. At the end of World War II, no question existed as to Imperial Japan’s loss of dominance in the Pacific. The alternative would be a victor, in order to claim political victory, would be required to annihilate the opposition at the end of a war. Surrender means surrender.
8) At the end of the Civil War, the people who had been slaves had little education (education of slaves had been illegal in most jurisdictions), no property, and soon no ability to vote. The northern states were little more progressive, but efforts to stop voting were much more concerted in the former states of the confederacy.
9) "Separate but equal" was not ended, nominally, until the U.S. Supreme Court handed down Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. Federal troops enforced it. "States’ rights" was the argument raised by those who sought to stop African-Americans from voting or having access to basic aspects of life. We feel the effects of slavery today.
Santayana wrote that those who fail to study history are doomed to repeat it. The institution of slavery ended with an economic vacuum in which resided a significant portion of our population. By law many of them had been prohibited from being educated. By law, for decades after the Civil War, they were prohibited from voting and having a voice in government such that they could call for redress of their grievances. In many places, when they sought to voice opposition to their state’s policies, they were arrested, beaten, and sometimes lynched. Other ethnic groups have faced hardships. The Irish were treated as pariahs, especially after their mass immigration here following the Potato Famine in the late 1800s. (Ever seen the photographs of signs reading "No Irish Allowed"?) But no group was enslaved—on these shores in the land of the free—because of the color of their skin. Also, those ethnic groups were allowed to become assimilated in our society, vote, organize themselves, and see their interests protected in government.
This country is supposed to be different. All people are born equal. We are endowed with certain inalienable rights. African slaves were born enslaved. That is a contradiction between basic principles upon which our country was founded and the way the document upon which our country’s government was founded, the Constitution, was written. There are many lessons to be learned from these ironies. The first is this: one human being cannot buy and sell another human being as chattel. A second: a society cannot create an economic and societal vacuum among a significant portion of its population without negative consequences. Third: we cannot trust people to hold unbridled authority over other people. Our Constitution was created as an effort to balance power with freedom. The Framers—white males who owned land and who were, for the most part, wealthy—were suspicious of those who wield power. But the sovereign authority is that authority in a society recognized as having a monopoly of violence, if necessary, to enforce its edicts. Dress it up any way you want, but the police and the military are the hallmarks of the sovereign. During times of war, the exercise of that authority is unbridled. President Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus during the Civil War. The Grand Writ, as it is called, is the means by which the government is forced to bring a person to court and justify, if any reason there may be, why that person should remain in custody. The right to free speech was sharply curtailed during both World War I and World War II.
We should not paint the history of this county in red, white, and blue, bedeck it in banners, and treat it like a happy cartoon. The Constitution was written by men who acted outside their original charter only to make improvements to the Articles of Confederation. 20 of the Framers claimed legal title to other human beings. Patrick Henry (who was selected as a delegate but who refused to attend the Convention because, he said, "I smelt a rat," and opposed the Constitution during the Virginia ratification convention) is famous for his supposed declaration: "Give me liberty or give me death." No contemporaneous historical source chronicled this statement. Only some 35 years after his death did a biographer, in the run-up to the War of 1812, write the account now accepted by so many. However, Patrick Henry was a Virginian who claimed legal title to other human beings. In 1773 he wrote a letter to a friend in which he stated:
"Would anyone believe I am the master of slaves of my own purchase! I am drawn along by the general inconvenience of living here without them. I will not, I cannot justify it. However culpable my conduct, I will so far pay my devoir to virtue as to own the excellence and rectitude of her precepts, and lament my want of conformity to them."
One reasonably may infer Henry preferred death to deprivation of his liberty, but life and servitude for those human beings over whom he claimed legal title as chattel. His chief principle in that vein was his noble aim to avoid "general inconvenience."
Our history is more complex than is displayed once a year with fireworks and pats on the back about how we are free. Slavery had a more significant impact on our country than perhaps any institution. I think the problem with the movie "Lincoln" was its attempt to tell the story of the fight for ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment in ways more favorable to the Amendment’s proponents than was true. If we recount, inaccurately, chapters of our history, we ignore the problems that still exist today that were caused by such chapters. Slavery impacted our society in ways we feel still today.
As entertainment, I stand by my assessment of "Lincoln" as mediocre. Mr. Ogden accuses me of being too easy in that assessment. He is entitled to his (usually warped, but he can’t help it) opinion. If you go to the movie, however, read a book or two, specific to that period of history, afterwards. Liz at Big Hat Books in the 6500 block of Cornell Avenue in Broad Ripple (I was not paid for that plug) has an excellent selection of books.
Oh, and watch The Show today, at 11 a.m.
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Gnosticism encompasses a wide variety of different religious beliefs and systems. Before Catholicism was decreed the state religion of Rome by Constantine in the 4th century AD, the empire was very diverse in its spirituality. They worshiped many gods, including Greek and Roman deities.
Many of which were based upon philosophical concepts like love, virtue, justice, wisdom, and time, and celestial bodies such as the planets, constellations, and even the spirit of planet earth herself. During this time, early forms of Christianity were developing, and between the beginning of the AD calendar cycle and for about 300 years, there were 2 predominant Christianities that were known. One was a sort of Literalist Christianity, rigidly authoritarian, which would eventually become the basis for the Roman Catholic Church… The other was known as Gnostic.
Between 312 AD and 325 AD, the Roman Emperor Constantine the 1st converted to Catholic Christianity. This began the process of rigidly suppressing all Gnostic and Pagan faiths until they had all but disappeared from the collective mind. Those who did not convert were tortured, killed or fled, and for over 1600 years, all knowledge of Gnosticism had vanished. Very little was known about them or their beliefs until in 1945, a small library of Gnostic scriptures was discovered in a cave near Nag Hammadi in Egypt. The information writ on these scriptures has revolutionized our modern understanding of early Christianity.
The first thing that stands out about Gnosticism is the many predominant differences between these early Christianities. Catholics wanted to enforce a common creed on all Christians, a single unified doctrine based around 4 gospels regarded as holy scripture. The rest were consigned to the flames as heretical works of the devil. Gnostics, on the other hand, held a tolerance for all kinds of different beliefs and practices. In fact, Gnostics wrote hundreds of different Christian gospels that were followed and discussed openly.
A core tenet of Gnosticism is that our world is the creation of a false god, or demiurge, who pretends to be a benevolent creator. But, they are in fact a malevolent impostor intent on keeping humans imprisoned in an artificial world of illusion and suffering. This Demiurge is the same God worshipped by the core Abrahamic teachings. The only means of escape is gnosis (Greek for knowledge) —rising up from base materialism to reject the demiurge and breakthrough into the higher world of the spirit.
At its core, Gnosticism was a broad, vibrant, and sophisticated spirituality which considered the Old Testament of the Jewish faith irrelevant. Jesus was claimed as a Gnostic leader, as are several of his apostles, including Thomas the Apostle, who founded the Thomasine form of Gnosticism. As well as Mary Magdalene, who is considered superior to the twelve apostles by several gnostic texts. Unlike Catholics, who believed that the true Christian believed in Jesus as preached to them by the bishops, the Gnostic faith believed that the true Christian experienced Gnosis and then would literally become a Christ themselves. Belief in Jesus, then, was that he was a divine being who appeared in human form and then transcended the physical world, rather than the modern view that he was a being who was both fully human, and fully divine.
The Gnostics believed that there is an element of divinity within each person and that that divinity wants to join again with God. They believe that through secret knowledge of the Cosmos and God, that salvation can be attained. Some believed that it did not really matter what you did in life since the body was not eternal. The Gnostic faith was subjugated out of existence before the creation of the canonical bible, from roughly the year 1 till the persecution of Constantine in 312 AD and the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD. There were plenty of Christian texts that were available to the public, which the Gnostics all followed and believed in.
Although remembered as heretics, the Gnostics saw themselves as genuine Christians. In a Gnostic gospel called “The Apocalypse of Peter”, the resurrected Jesus calls literalist Christianity an “imitation church” that distorted the teachings and ways of Christ.
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Gnosticism encompasses a wide variety of different religious beliefs and systems. Before Catholicism was decreed the state religion of Rome by Constantine in the 4th century AD, the empire was very diverse in its spirituality. They worshiped many gods, including Greek and Roman deities.
Many of which were based upon philosophical concepts like love, virtue, justice, wisdom, and time, and celestial bodies such as the planets, constellations, and even the spirit of planet earth herself. During this time, early forms of Christianity were developing, and between the beginning of the AD calendar cycle and for about 300 years, there were 2 predominant Christianities that were known. One was a sort of Literalist Christianity, rigidly authoritarian, which would eventually become the basis for the Roman Catholic Church… The other was known as Gnostic.
Between 312 AD and 325 AD, the Roman Emperor Constantine the 1st converted to Catholic Christianity. This began the process of rigidly suppressing all Gnostic and Pagan faiths until they had all but disappeared from the collective mind. Those who did not convert were tortured, killed or fled, and for over 1600 years, all knowledge of Gnosticism had vanished. Very little was known about them or their beliefs until in 1945, a small library of Gnostic scriptures was discovered in a cave near Nag Hammadi in Egypt. The information writ on these scriptures has revolutionized our modern understanding of early Christianity.
The first thing that stands out about Gnosticism is the many predominant differences between these early Christianities. Catholics wanted to enforce a common creed on all Christians, a single unified doctrine based around 4 gospels regarded as holy scripture. The rest were consigned to the flames as heretical works of the devil. Gnostics, on the other hand, held a tolerance for all kinds of different beliefs and practices. In fact, Gnostics wrote hundreds of different Christian gospels that were followed and discussed openly.
A core tenet of Gnosticism is that our world is the creation of a false god, or demiurge, who pretends to be a benevolent creator. But, they are in fact a malevolent impostor intent on keeping humans imprisoned in an artificial world of illusion and suffering. This Demiurge is the same God worshipped by the core Abrahamic teachings. The only means of escape is gnosis (Greek for knowledge) —rising up from base materialism to reject the demiurge and breakthrough into the higher world of the spirit.
At its core, Gnosticism was a broad, vibrant, and sophisticated spirituality which considered the Old Testament of the Jewish faith irrelevant. Jesus was claimed as a Gnostic leader, as are several of his apostles, including Thomas the Apostle, who founded the Thomasine form of Gnosticism. As well as Mary Magdalene, who is considered superior to the twelve apostles by several gnostic texts. Unlike Catholics, who believed that the true Christian believed in Jesus as preached to them by the bishops, the Gnostic faith believed that the true Christian experienced Gnosis and then would literally become a Christ themselves. Belief in Jesus, then, was that he was a divine being who appeared in human form and then transcended the physical world, rather than the modern view that he was a being who was both fully human, and fully divine.
The Gnostics believed that there is an element of divinity within each person and that that divinity wants to join again with God. They believe that through secret knowledge of the Cosmos and God, that salvation can be attained. Some believed that it did not really matter what you did in life since the body was not eternal. The Gnostic faith was subjugated out of existence before the creation of the canonical bible, from roughly the year 1 till the persecution of Constantine in 312 AD and the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD. There were plenty of Christian texts that were available to the public, which the Gnostics all followed and believed in.
Although remembered as heretics, the Gnostics saw themselves as genuine Christians. In a Gnostic gospel called “The Apocalypse of Peter”, the resurrected Jesus calls literalist Christianity an “imitation church” that distorted the teachings and ways of Christ.
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 1801 to 1922. For almost all of this period, the island was governed by the UK Parliament in London through its Dublin Castle administration in Ireland.
The grounds of Clonbrock House, Ahascragh, Co. Galway, December 10, 1870
Ireland faced considerable economic difficulties in the 19th century, including the Great Famine of the 1840s. In the early nineteenth century, many Irish families depended almost totally on the potato to feed themselves and their families. Potatoes would grow even on very poor soil and they were very nutritious. However, sometimes the potato crop failed.
The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a vigorous campaign for Irish Home Rule. While legislation enabling Irish Home Rule was eventually passed, militant and armed opposition from Irish unionists, particularly in Ulster, opposed it.
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Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 1801 to 1922. For almost all of this period, the island was governed by the UK Parliament in London through its Dublin Castle administration in Ireland.
The grounds of Clonbrock House, Ahascragh, Co. Galway, December 10, 1870
Ireland faced considerable economic difficulties in the 19th century, including the Great Famine of the 1840s. In the early nineteenth century, many Irish families depended almost totally on the potato to feed themselves and their families. Potatoes would grow even on very poor soil and they were very nutritious. However, sometimes the potato crop failed.
The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a vigorous campaign for Irish Home Rule. While legislation enabling Irish Home Rule was eventually passed, militant and armed opposition from Irish unionists, particularly in Ulster, opposed it.
| 204
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Who were the Christian Martyrs and what impact did they have on Christian movement up to c.
Persecution was becoming a regular aspect of the lives of the Christians due to Roman authorities. The Romans at this time rejected any form of Christian belief and punished anyone who disobeyed them. Persecution lead to the rapid spread of Christianity as the Martyrs worked to defend their faith and the people. Justin Martyr and Constantine had the most important and significant responses to Persecution. "It has been calculated that between the first persecution under Nero in 64 to the Edict of Milan in 313, Christians experienced 129 years of persecution and 120 years of toleration and peace." These figures show the extent of the suffering and difficulties that the Christians face as a result of Roman authorities. The Roman Empire accepted other religions but did not trust the Christian Faith. In 64 AD, a great fire ravaged Rome and Nero took the opportunity to rebuild the city and begin building a large palace for himself. Some people believed that he set the fire on purpose as he was thought to be insane. Nero began torturing the Christians soon after the fire and it is believed that Christians were "put to death, they were made to serve as objects of amusement; they were clad in the hides of beast and torn to death by dogs; others were crucified, others set on fire to serve to illuminate the night when daylight failed." This behaviour leads to the persecution of Nero which is thought to have been the first main persecution. After Nero, it became a capital crime to be a Christian and problems began arising. 1.
The second century is seen as the century of the Martyrs. Society was changing due to the impact of the Martyrs. Between 96-180 C.E, The Roman Empire had achieved its maximum strength. The Romans were beginning to control most of the world. Although they were a strong empire, they faced difficulties due to their limitations such as military difficulties.
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|
Who were the Christian Martyrs and what impact did they have on Christian movement up to c.
Persecution was becoming a regular aspect of the lives of the Christians due to Roman authorities. The Romans at this time rejected any form of Christian belief and punished anyone who disobeyed them. Persecution lead to the rapid spread of Christianity as the Martyrs worked to defend their faith and the people. Justin Martyr and Constantine had the most important and significant responses to Persecution. "It has been calculated that between the first persecution under Nero in 64 to the Edict of Milan in 313, Christians experienced 129 years of persecution and 120 years of toleration and peace." These figures show the extent of the suffering and difficulties that the Christians face as a result of Roman authorities. The Roman Empire accepted other religions but did not trust the Christian Faith. In 64 AD, a great fire ravaged Rome and Nero took the opportunity to rebuild the city and begin building a large palace for himself. Some people believed that he set the fire on purpose as he was thought to be insane. Nero began torturing the Christians soon after the fire and it is believed that Christians were "put to death, they were made to serve as objects of amusement; they were clad in the hides of beast and torn to death by dogs; others were crucified, others set on fire to serve to illuminate the night when daylight failed." This behaviour leads to the persecution of Nero which is thought to have been the first main persecution. After Nero, it became a capital crime to be a Christian and problems began arising. 1.
The second century is seen as the century of the Martyrs. Society was changing due to the impact of the Martyrs. Between 96-180 C.E, The Roman Empire had achieved its maximum strength. The Romans were beginning to control most of the world. Although they were a strong empire, they faced difficulties due to their limitations such as military difficulties.
| 410
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Friedrich Engels was born in 1820 into a wealthy family in Barmen in what is now Germany. Engels lived through a time of extraordinary change throughout Europe, when old certainties were being questioned. Engels could speak nine languages and would later be described as the most widely educated man of his day. Engels was a scholar and an activist. He was an internationalist who was central to efforts to set up the Communist League. He took part in revolutionary struggles and in 1849 he was involved in an armed uprising. He was exiled and spent much of his life in Britain. Engels's name is often mentioned in the same breath as Karl Marx. They co-wrote the Communist Manifesto and after Marx's death, Engels edited volumes two and three of Marx's Capital. Engels was a great thinker who made a massive contribution to Marxist thought in his own right. His works cover the conditions for working class people in his adopted home of Manchester, the history of peasant struggles, philosophy, women's oppression, science, evolution and anthropology.
|
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CC-MAIN-2020-05
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https://www.calton-books.co.uk/books/a-rebels-guide-to-engels/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00435.warc.gz
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] | 6
|
Friedrich Engels was born in 1820 into a wealthy family in Barmen in what is now Germany. Engels lived through a time of extraordinary change throughout Europe, when old certainties were being questioned. Engels could speak nine languages and would later be described as the most widely educated man of his day. Engels was a scholar and an activist. He was an internationalist who was central to efforts to set up the Communist League. He took part in revolutionary struggles and in 1849 he was involved in an armed uprising. He was exiled and spent much of his life in Britain. Engels's name is often mentioned in the same breath as Karl Marx. They co-wrote the Communist Manifesto and after Marx's death, Engels edited volumes two and three of Marx's Capital. Engels was a great thinker who made a massive contribution to Marxist thought in his own right. His works cover the conditions for working class people in his adopted home of Manchester, the history of peasant struggles, philosophy, women's oppression, science, evolution and anthropology.
| 222
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ENGLISH
| 1
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On December 14, 1911, Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen and his expedition were the first to reach the geographic south pole, only five weeks ahead of a British party led by Robert Falcon Scott.
Roald Amundsen Background
Already during his childhood, Roald Amundsen was interested in the stories of discoverer and explorers. Especially travels to the polar regions fascinated him so much that he put himself into conditions like in polar areas as a young boy. Along with his friends, he hiked through the mountains in the winter for days while his grades decreased with every adventure. Amundsen enrolled at the university in order to study zoology, philosophy, and several languages to satisfy his mother. But as soon as she passed away, he dropped out, started a life on the sea and visited numerous glaciers in Norway.
In 1896, he took part in the Belgica-Expedition into the Antarctica. After returning from his first expeditions, Amundsen traveled around Europe by bike and learned new measuring techniques by the physician Georg von Neumayer. After another expedition in 1903, Amundsen turned into a national hero. Shortly after, the explorer began planning an expedition to the north-pole. The plan was to discover the north-pole and be stuck in the ice for over five years. He received support by the government but soon a message reached him, saying that Cook and Peary achieved this goal already.
Shortly after, the adventurer decided to make his way all the way down to the south pole, but the new plan was kept secretly because he knew of Robert Scott’s expedition. He did not even tell the Norwegian government or even his crew about his plans, his brother was given the task to inform everyone about the changed goals after take off.
During his expedition, the main goal was to reach the south pole in contrast to Scott, who had numerous scientific objectives. At the beginning of the journey, the crew did not get along very well being very confused with the captain’s orders, which changed right after they were told about the changed plans. During a stop at Madeira, Amundsen let Robert Scott know about his plans and left for the south pole as soon as possible. But it was too early. The temperatures dropped to -56°C and they had to wait for the antarctic spring. In October, Amundsen and four further members of the crew left for the south pole. On their way, the men named many glaciers and finally managed to reach the south pole, five weeks ahead of Robert Scott, who was still in the middle of his last adventure. Amundsen’s men flagged the pole and it was later found that this was quite accurate, only being 180m off the mark.
Amundsen’s success was highly celebrated in Norway, but when the English found out that Robert Scott and his men froze to death, they openly denounced the Norwegian explorer. In the following years, Amundsen published several works describing his journey and gave lectures, but soon took of for further adventures. He started using aircraft for his expeditions, but during a rescue mission for Umberto Nobile, the plane crashed and Roald Amundsen died.
At yovisto academic video search, you may enjoy the video lecture ‘Scott, Amundsen and Science’ by science historian Edward Larson. He reexamines Roald Amundsen’s and Robert Scott’s so-called Race to the Pole in light of their objectives. Larson will retell the story of these expeditions in context and contrast it with the conventional wisdom about them.
References and Further Reading:
- Roald Amundsen article at south-pole.com
- Roald Amundsen and the 1925 North Pole Expedition
- Robert Scott’s Last Expedition, SciHi Blog
- Ernest Shackleton and his South Pole Expeditions, SciHi Blog
- The Nimrod Expedition and the Magnetic South Pole, SciHi Blog
- Dr Livingstone, I presume?, SciHi Blog
- Roald Amundsen at Wikidata
- Timeline of Antarctic Explorers via DBpedia and Wikidata
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] | 3
|
On December 14, 1911, Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen and his expedition were the first to reach the geographic south pole, only five weeks ahead of a British party led by Robert Falcon Scott.
Roald Amundsen Background
Already during his childhood, Roald Amundsen was interested in the stories of discoverer and explorers. Especially travels to the polar regions fascinated him so much that he put himself into conditions like in polar areas as a young boy. Along with his friends, he hiked through the mountains in the winter for days while his grades decreased with every adventure. Amundsen enrolled at the university in order to study zoology, philosophy, and several languages to satisfy his mother. But as soon as she passed away, he dropped out, started a life on the sea and visited numerous glaciers in Norway.
In 1896, he took part in the Belgica-Expedition into the Antarctica. After returning from his first expeditions, Amundsen traveled around Europe by bike and learned new measuring techniques by the physician Georg von Neumayer. After another expedition in 1903, Amundsen turned into a national hero. Shortly after, the explorer began planning an expedition to the north-pole. The plan was to discover the north-pole and be stuck in the ice for over five years. He received support by the government but soon a message reached him, saying that Cook and Peary achieved this goal already.
Shortly after, the adventurer decided to make his way all the way down to the south pole, but the new plan was kept secretly because he knew of Robert Scott’s expedition. He did not even tell the Norwegian government or even his crew about his plans, his brother was given the task to inform everyone about the changed goals after take off.
During his expedition, the main goal was to reach the south pole in contrast to Scott, who had numerous scientific objectives. At the beginning of the journey, the crew did not get along very well being very confused with the captain’s orders, which changed right after they were told about the changed plans. During a stop at Madeira, Amundsen let Robert Scott know about his plans and left for the south pole as soon as possible. But it was too early. The temperatures dropped to -56°C and they had to wait for the antarctic spring. In October, Amundsen and four further members of the crew left for the south pole. On their way, the men named many glaciers and finally managed to reach the south pole, five weeks ahead of Robert Scott, who was still in the middle of his last adventure. Amundsen’s men flagged the pole and it was later found that this was quite accurate, only being 180m off the mark.
Amundsen’s success was highly celebrated in Norway, but when the English found out that Robert Scott and his men froze to death, they openly denounced the Norwegian explorer. In the following years, Amundsen published several works describing his journey and gave lectures, but soon took of for further adventures. He started using aircraft for his expeditions, but during a rescue mission for Umberto Nobile, the plane crashed and Roald Amundsen died.
At yovisto academic video search, you may enjoy the video lecture ‘Scott, Amundsen and Science’ by science historian Edward Larson. He reexamines Roald Amundsen’s and Robert Scott’s so-called Race to the Pole in light of their objectives. Larson will retell the story of these expeditions in context and contrast it with the conventional wisdom about them.
References and Further Reading:
- Roald Amundsen article at south-pole.com
- Roald Amundsen and the 1925 North Pole Expedition
- Robert Scott’s Last Expedition, SciHi Blog
- Ernest Shackleton and his South Pole Expeditions, SciHi Blog
- The Nimrod Expedition and the Magnetic South Pole, SciHi Blog
- Dr Livingstone, I presume?, SciHi Blog
- Roald Amundsen at Wikidata
- Timeline of Antarctic Explorers via DBpedia and Wikidata
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ENGLISH
| 1
|
Ar’n’t I A Woman?
Ar’n’t I a Woman? Written by, Deborah Gray White shows the trials and hardships that African American Women faced during the years of the infamous plantations up to the civil war. In this book White describes how the images of “Jezebel” and the “Mammy” and how they were the most vulnerable group with the least amount of formal power in Antebellum America. She compares the life of men and women in the slave society, and how truly different they were. The roles of women are shown through the slaves’ life cycle, family life, slave society networks, and the civil war. Each of these various aspects of life are discussed very vividly in the book, and serve purpose in showing how African American women were treated so unjustly not only because of their skin color but the fact that they were women, therefore they were the most discriminated against in Antebellum America. Though they were discriminated against their nature proved them to not be submissive and subordinate in all aspects.
The terms “Jezebel” and “Mammy” refer to African American women in this time period. There is a stark difference between the two and they were treated very differently. This is apparent in that the “Jezebel” refers to “the sexual exploitation of black women, and the mulatto population” (61). Meaning that these were the women that were taken advantage of, and also considered a slut at heart. These women would be anyone essentially below the Mammy; they were field hands, and house servants as well as anything in between. This is not to say that both types of women were taken advantage of, they were, but in different ways. The “Mammy” is more of a deeply religious type, who was entrusted with the plantation owners’ children, and they were basically the highest maids who knew all and could do anything better than anyone else. There were others below her who answered to her in all matters (47). They would confide in her and listen to her, she was basically part of the family, so much that even the master and mistresses got attached to her along with the children.
The life cycle of a slave woman was wrought with many changes and problems along the way. As children growing up they were rarely in contact with the adult slaves, but rather with the elder slaves who looked after them. As children to the age of sixteen they did various chores and jobs along with the boys. They would often do the same type of chores and games they would do later on in life when they were no longer considered children. They would complete tasks such as looking after the babies, getting the mail, giving water to thirsty field hands, and tending to the livestock (92). Some would also hunt rabbits, coons, and turtles with each other. Between the ages of twelve and sixteen however, they would start being more segregated by the girls getting skirts and dresses while the...
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] | 1
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Ar’n’t I A Woman?
Ar’n’t I a Woman? Written by, Deborah Gray White shows the trials and hardships that African American Women faced during the years of the infamous plantations up to the civil war. In this book White describes how the images of “Jezebel” and the “Mammy” and how they were the most vulnerable group with the least amount of formal power in Antebellum America. She compares the life of men and women in the slave society, and how truly different they were. The roles of women are shown through the slaves’ life cycle, family life, slave society networks, and the civil war. Each of these various aspects of life are discussed very vividly in the book, and serve purpose in showing how African American women were treated so unjustly not only because of their skin color but the fact that they were women, therefore they were the most discriminated against in Antebellum America. Though they were discriminated against their nature proved them to not be submissive and subordinate in all aspects.
The terms “Jezebel” and “Mammy” refer to African American women in this time period. There is a stark difference between the two and they were treated very differently. This is apparent in that the “Jezebel” refers to “the sexual exploitation of black women, and the mulatto population” (61). Meaning that these were the women that were taken advantage of, and also considered a slut at heart. These women would be anyone essentially below the Mammy; they were field hands, and house servants as well as anything in between. This is not to say that both types of women were taken advantage of, they were, but in different ways. The “Mammy” is more of a deeply religious type, who was entrusted with the plantation owners’ children, and they were basically the highest maids who knew all and could do anything better than anyone else. There were others below her who answered to her in all matters (47). They would confide in her and listen to her, she was basically part of the family, so much that even the master and mistresses got attached to her along with the children.
The life cycle of a slave woman was wrought with many changes and problems along the way. As children growing up they were rarely in contact with the adult slaves, but rather with the elder slaves who looked after them. As children to the age of sixteen they did various chores and jobs along with the boys. They would often do the same type of chores and games they would do later on in life when they were no longer considered children. They would complete tasks such as looking after the babies, getting the mail, giving water to thirsty field hands, and tending to the livestock (92). Some would also hunt rabbits, coons, and turtles with each other. Between the ages of twelve and sixteen however, they would start being more segregated by the girls getting skirts and dresses while the...
| 606
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Why is land so important to the people in the movie The Grapes of Wrath?
Your question specifies the movie adaptation of The Grapes of Wrath, but the Steinbeck novel on which it is based addresses the same relationship between people and their land.
Land is important to the Oklahoma sharecroppers because it has been their source of life and meaning.
As farmers, the men in Steinbeck's seminal novel have worked on their land for long hours each day during planting and harvesting seasons. The earth they have tilled has produced life, fed them and their families, covered their hands and faces, and gone into their skin. To these men, the earth is a living thing, not just some surface of the world. It is an integral part of their existence.
When the corporations decide the sharecroppers must go, one of the farmers, Muley Graves, refuses, saying, "Fella gets use' to a place, it's hard to go." In Chapter 9, Steinbeck writes the thoughts of the farmers as they think of the rich land in California: "We'll start over."
But you can't start. Only a baby can start. You and me — why, we're all that's been. The anger of a moment, the thousand pictures, that's us. This land, this red land, is us; and the flood years and the dust years and the drought years are us. We can't start again.
These men define themselves by the land. Because their identity belongs to the earth, Grampa does not travel far before he has a stroke and dies. After the men bury him, Jim Casy remarks, "Grampa and the ol' place, they was jus' the same thing." Even though the old man spoke of how he would squeeze the California grapes over his head and let them run down into his whiskers, Casy says,
He was foolin', all the time. I think he knowed it. An' Grampa didn't die tonight. He died the minute you took 'im off the place... He was that place, an' he knowed it...
He's jus' stayin' with the lan'. He couldn't leave it.
Indeed, there was a spiritual bond between the men and their land. Along with this bond, the idea that they have no job and no way to care for their families deeply disturbs the men. The land is what has given these men hope and pride when they have good harvests. Without the land, these men have nothing certain.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial
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Why is land so important to the people in the movie The Grapes of Wrath?
Your question specifies the movie adaptation of The Grapes of Wrath, but the Steinbeck novel on which it is based addresses the same relationship between people and their land.
Land is important to the Oklahoma sharecroppers because it has been their source of life and meaning.
As farmers, the men in Steinbeck's seminal novel have worked on their land for long hours each day during planting and harvesting seasons. The earth they have tilled has produced life, fed them and their families, covered their hands and faces, and gone into their skin. To these men, the earth is a living thing, not just some surface of the world. It is an integral part of their existence.
When the corporations decide the sharecroppers must go, one of the farmers, Muley Graves, refuses, saying, "Fella gets use' to a place, it's hard to go." In Chapter 9, Steinbeck writes the thoughts of the farmers as they think of the rich land in California: "We'll start over."
But you can't start. Only a baby can start. You and me — why, we're all that's been. The anger of a moment, the thousand pictures, that's us. This land, this red land, is us; and the flood years and the dust years and the drought years are us. We can't start again.
These men define themselves by the land. Because their identity belongs to the earth, Grampa does not travel far before he has a stroke and dies. After the men bury him, Jim Casy remarks, "Grampa and the ol' place, they was jus' the same thing." Even though the old man spoke of how he would squeeze the California grapes over his head and let them run down into his whiskers, Casy says,
He was foolin', all the time. I think he knowed it. An' Grampa didn't die tonight. He died the minute you took 'im off the place... He was that place, an' he knowed it...
He's jus' stayin' with the lan'. He couldn't leave it.
Indeed, there was a spiritual bond between the men and their land. Along with this bond, the idea that they have no job and no way to care for their families deeply disturbs the men. The land is what has given these men hope and pride when they have good harvests. Without the land, these men have nothing certain.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial
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ENGLISH
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(Last Updated on : 28-01-2009)
There is little archaeological evidence of the Aryans in the first phase of their migration in India. The ancestors of the Indian Aryans had remained for a long time on the borders of the subcontinent
, which is now Afghanistan and Soviet Central Asia. Some time after the Aryan's migration into India, another branch, the ancestors of the Medes and the Persians, left their homeland for what is now Iran and gave their name to that land (the name Iran comes from Airyanam vaejo, "Realm of the Aryans"). Another set of Aryans made their presence felt elsewhere in the Middle East. Their culture was not very advanced.
They were illiterate and did not live in cities. But they were technologically superior over their earlier inhabitants of the Indus valley, which is described, in great details in the Rig-Veda. They were also advanced in metallurgy. Their entry into India took place not as a concerted invasion but in successive waves over several centuries in the earlier half of the second millennium B.C.E. It was when they had settled in Punjab
that their seers (rsi) began to compose the many hymns that were later collected in the Rig-Veda.
It cannot therefore positively be said exactly who the Aryans were. Several historians have therefore left this topic just intact. Dr. V. A. Smith, who has also intentionally left this topic, comments, "Discussion concerning the original seat or home of Aryans is omitted purposely because no hypothesis on the subject seems to be established". Several historians are of the opinion that Aryans were outlanders and came to India by the Northwestern region.
Historians are in harmony regarding the Dravidians, who had ruled over Northern India for a long period of time. Then, a new race came to India by the Northwestern entry and after defeating the Dravidians, forced them to the South of India. People of this new race called themselves 'Aryans' and named their challengers 'Das' (slaves). The Aryans were fearless and audacious. They were fair-complexioned and physically were muscular, tough and attractive. Agriculture was their chief livelihood and they loved to travel and liked to admire nature.
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(Last Updated on : 28-01-2009)
There is little archaeological evidence of the Aryans in the first phase of their migration in India. The ancestors of the Indian Aryans had remained for a long time on the borders of the subcontinent
, which is now Afghanistan and Soviet Central Asia. Some time after the Aryan's migration into India, another branch, the ancestors of the Medes and the Persians, left their homeland for what is now Iran and gave their name to that land (the name Iran comes from Airyanam vaejo, "Realm of the Aryans"). Another set of Aryans made their presence felt elsewhere in the Middle East. Their culture was not very advanced.
They were illiterate and did not live in cities. But they were technologically superior over their earlier inhabitants of the Indus valley, which is described, in great details in the Rig-Veda. They were also advanced in metallurgy. Their entry into India took place not as a concerted invasion but in successive waves over several centuries in the earlier half of the second millennium B.C.E. It was when they had settled in Punjab
that their seers (rsi) began to compose the many hymns that were later collected in the Rig-Veda.
It cannot therefore positively be said exactly who the Aryans were. Several historians have therefore left this topic just intact. Dr. V. A. Smith, who has also intentionally left this topic, comments, "Discussion concerning the original seat or home of Aryans is omitted purposely because no hypothesis on the subject seems to be established". Several historians are of the opinion that Aryans were outlanders and came to India by the Northwestern region.
Historians are in harmony regarding the Dravidians, who had ruled over Northern India for a long period of time. Then, a new race came to India by the Northwestern entry and after defeating the Dravidians, forced them to the South of India. People of this new race called themselves 'Aryans' and named their challengers 'Das' (slaves). The Aryans were fearless and audacious. They were fair-complexioned and physically were muscular, tough and attractive. Agriculture was their chief livelihood and they loved to travel and liked to admire nature.
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ENGLISH
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Marie Curie was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the only woman to win twice, and the only person to win in two different sciences. She is known for developing the theory of radioactivity and discovering two new elements: polonium and radium.
Marie, or Maria Skłodowska, was born on November 7, 1867, in Warsaw, Poland (then part of the Russian Empire). She was the youngest of 5 children and her family was relatively poor, having lost their family wealth through being involved in Polish national uprisings. Her father was a maths and physics teacher and her mother ran a boarding school.
She graduated from school in 1883 with a gold medal, however Marie was keen to keep studying. Sadly, she was unable to enrol in any higher education schools in Warsaw because she was a woman. Her and her sister, Bronisława, who was also a physicist, began studying at an underground ‘Flying University’ that allowed female students. Together they planned together they would pay each other’s tuition fees to study in Paris, and so Marie began working as a governess to start saving. A couple of years later, her sister, now married, convinced Marie to move to Paris. She enrolled in the University of Paris in 1891 and lived in a tiny garret nearby, barely managing to get by. At the end of 1893 she got a degree in physics and immediately started working in an industrial laboratory.
The start of her science career post university was investigating the magnetic properties of different steels. During this study, she met Pierre Curie. He was an instructor at the School of Physics and Chemistry, and during their work together they became very close. In the summer break of 1894, Marie returned to Warsaw to visit her family and to find an opportunity to teach there. Pierre had already proposed at this point, and he said that he would move to Poland with her, even if it meant he could only teach French. However, Marie discovered Krakow University would not hire her because she was a woman. And so, she returned to Paris where Pierre encouraged her to do a PhD. They married in 1895.
She was awarded her first Nobel Prize jointly with her husband and Henri Becquerel in 1903 for their discoveries on radioactivity. She used her prize money to do more research, and in 1911 she was awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of two new radioactive elements: polonium and radium.
During WWI, Marie provided X-Rays with portable X-Ray machines to wounded soldiers, saving many lives. After the war, she used her celebrity status to raise funds to establish a radium research institute Warsaw. Sadly, she died in 1934 most likely due to prolonged exposure to radiation.
In the music world at this time, some of the most famous composers of all time, including Brahms, Dvorak, and Liszt, were writing some of their most beloved masterpieces. During Marie Curie’s lifetime, the Romantic period was making way for impressionism and the new contemporary 20th century sound. Explore the music from her life in today’s episode.
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Marie Curie was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the only woman to win twice, and the only person to win in two different sciences. She is known for developing the theory of radioactivity and discovering two new elements: polonium and radium.
Marie, or Maria Skłodowska, was born on November 7, 1867, in Warsaw, Poland (then part of the Russian Empire). She was the youngest of 5 children and her family was relatively poor, having lost their family wealth through being involved in Polish national uprisings. Her father was a maths and physics teacher and her mother ran a boarding school.
She graduated from school in 1883 with a gold medal, however Marie was keen to keep studying. Sadly, she was unable to enrol in any higher education schools in Warsaw because she was a woman. Her and her sister, Bronisława, who was also a physicist, began studying at an underground ‘Flying University’ that allowed female students. Together they planned together they would pay each other’s tuition fees to study in Paris, and so Marie began working as a governess to start saving. A couple of years later, her sister, now married, convinced Marie to move to Paris. She enrolled in the University of Paris in 1891 and lived in a tiny garret nearby, barely managing to get by. At the end of 1893 she got a degree in physics and immediately started working in an industrial laboratory.
The start of her science career post university was investigating the magnetic properties of different steels. During this study, she met Pierre Curie. He was an instructor at the School of Physics and Chemistry, and during their work together they became very close. In the summer break of 1894, Marie returned to Warsaw to visit her family and to find an opportunity to teach there. Pierre had already proposed at this point, and he said that he would move to Poland with her, even if it meant he could only teach French. However, Marie discovered Krakow University would not hire her because she was a woman. And so, she returned to Paris where Pierre encouraged her to do a PhD. They married in 1895.
She was awarded her first Nobel Prize jointly with her husband and Henri Becquerel in 1903 for their discoveries on radioactivity. She used her prize money to do more research, and in 1911 she was awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of two new radioactive elements: polonium and radium.
During WWI, Marie provided X-Rays with portable X-Ray machines to wounded soldiers, saving many lives. After the war, she used her celebrity status to raise funds to establish a radium research institute Warsaw. Sadly, she died in 1934 most likely due to prolonged exposure to radiation.
In the music world at this time, some of the most famous composers of all time, including Brahms, Dvorak, and Liszt, were writing some of their most beloved masterpieces. During Marie Curie’s lifetime, the Romantic period was making way for impressionism and the new contemporary 20th century sound. Explore the music from her life in today’s episode.
| 669
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ENGLISH
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Scientists have used lasers to find huge numbers of ancient (very old) buildings hidden in the jungle. Over a thousand years ago Mayan people lived in Central America. They had large cities, temples, palaces, and roads. People knew about many of these. But scientists have just discovered many, many more of these than they expected to.
The scientists flew planes over the jungle in Guatemala. They shot lasers through the trees and vines. This method, called lidar, let them make a 3-D map of the ground. They made a large 3-D map, over 800 square miles, and it showed many unusual bumps. These bumps were ancient houses.
The scientists discovered around 60,000 ancient homes and other buildings. They also found palaces, tombs, and highways. People knew that the Mayans were a large and advanced group of people. But now scientists think that the Mayan civilization was much bigger than they thought before.
View Larger Map
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Scientists have used lasers to find huge numbers of ancient (very old) buildings hidden in the jungle. Over a thousand years ago Mayan people lived in Central America. They had large cities, temples, palaces, and roads. People knew about many of these. But scientists have just discovered many, many more of these than they expected to.
The scientists flew planes over the jungle in Guatemala. They shot lasers through the trees and vines. This method, called lidar, let them make a 3-D map of the ground. They made a large 3-D map, over 800 square miles, and it showed many unusual bumps. These bumps were ancient houses.
The scientists discovered around 60,000 ancient homes and other buildings. They also found palaces, tombs, and highways. People knew that the Mayans were a large and advanced group of people. But now scientists think that the Mayan civilization was much bigger than they thought before.
View Larger Map
| 201
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ENGLISH
| 1
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During a tour of duty with Company A of the 38th Infantry, one of the all-black Army regiments established after the Civil War, one private — different from all the rest — marched with the unit more than 500 miles from Fort Harker, Kansas, to Fort Union, New Mexico Territory and, some months later, some 400 more miles to Forts Cumming and Bayard, New Mexico Territory.
The U.S. Army, though tough duty, was an attractive destination for newly freed slaves, who had few postwar employment opportunities. In the Army they could get a paycheck, regular meals, a bed and medical care. Physical exams were cursory; recruits who could march and shoot often were simply declared fit for duty.
Marching was an essential component, as in 1867 the 38th Infantry was on the move. From central Kansas the soldiers tramped across plains, forded rivers, ventured into hostile Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), plodded across shadeless desert sands, tramped the dusty Santa Fe Trail and scrambled over mountains higher than they had ever imagined. Exhaustion must have been their constant companion.
One particular recruit — Private William Cathey, who had enlisted at a St. Louis recruiting office in November 1866 — successfully made the long march while keeping an extraordinary secret. Cathey’s mystery, had it been known, would have resulted in court-martial, for it was illegal for this soldier to be in the U.S. Army.
Read more from HistoryNet:
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- America’s Civil War: 54th Massachusetts Regiment
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Cathey, who marched with the company, ate with them, joked with them and slept beside them, was not as he seemed. His fellow soldiers would have been shocked to learn that beneath the private’s bulky Zouave uniform was the body of Cathay Williams, a female ex-slave who had joined the Army to support herself.
(Documents suggest the female spelling was “Cathay,” the male spelling “Cathey”; other references call her “Cathy.” Williams herself was illiterate and likely would not have known the difference.)
Although female soldiers had fought in both the Union and Confederate armies, it remained illegal for women to serve in the military. Williams must have been ever alert to ensure the subterfuge would not be revealed.
This young recruit, age unknown (perhaps only 15 but possibly in her early 20s), had been born near Independence, Mo., to a free father and a slave mother. Little else is known of her early life except that the Union Army had pressed her into service as a young girl to cook and launder clothes for XIII Corps. She grew accustomed to military life and being on the march, which must have made her later deception easier.
Cathey’s enlisted life, like that of the other buffalo soldiers, was tough. The Army provided these black men with inadequate supplies and equipment, the environment in the frontier West was harsh, and they endured racism from white civilians and even their own white officers. What’s more, cholera was epidemic in the areas where they marched.
Cathey/Cathay performed the same duties required of everyone in her troop and showed no signs of femininity during the long march. She continually faced the fear of discovery, as well as the specter of disease that claimed the lives of so many others in her regiment. It took determination and vigilance to maintain her secret. She could never drop her guard, not for a minute.
While she may have been able to conceal her body shape, for basic hygiene she required privacy — a rarity in the Army. Surely she sought seclusion, but that, too, was scarce. No one knows how she coped with these challenges.
The career of this young, illiterate black woman, unlike the secret she held close, was unremarkable. She marched and performed duties conscientiously and stayed out of trouble. In an interview published in the St. Louis Daily Times on January 2, 1876, after her service, she recalled, “I carried my musket and did guard and other duties while in the Army.” She also boasted of having never been put in the guardhouse.
Although Cathey may have appeared healthy, the 5-foot-7 soldier often fell ill, suffering from smallpox, rheumatism and neuralgia, and at some point, doctors amputated her toes, a possible result of diabetes. The young private logged several visits to the infirmary and several hospital stays, yet her secret remained undetected, which speaks volumes about the medical care (seemingly superficial) provided to the black soldiers at the time.
Eventually, she explained in the Daily Times interview, “I got tired and wanted to get off [out of the Army]. I played sick, complained of pains in my side and rheumatism in my knees.” During an 1868 visit to the infirmary she finally revealed the secret she had held so firmly — though, it turns out, others already knew the truth.
In her newspaper interview, Williams explained: “Two persons, a cousin and a particular friend, members of the regiment, knew that I was a woman. They never ‘blowed’ on me. They were partly the cause of my joining the Army. Another reason was I wanted to make my own living and not be dependent on relations or friends. The [Fort Bayard] post surgeon found out I was a woman, and I got my discharge,” she continued. “The men all wanted to get rid of me after they found out I was a woman. Some of them acted real bad to me.”Williams didn’t join the U.S. Army to highlight the often-desperate plight of women, black or white, or to prove she could outwit her peers and superiors. She was simply an independent woman who found a way to take care of herself.
The surgeon issued a certificate of disability, dated October 14, 1868, stating the soldier was of “feeble habit … continually on sick report without benefit [and] unable to do military duty.” He said the “condition” predated enlistment. The subsequent discharge papers refer to Cathey/Cathay as “he,” perhaps because the officers feared courts-martial for having a female in the regiment.
After her release, Williams remained in New Mexico Territory, where she had spent two-thirds of her military duty. She soon moved to Pueblo, Colo., and had a brief, unhappy marriage. According to Williams, her husband was “no account.” She had amassed horses and a wagon, which he stole, along with her “watch and chain, [and] a hundred dollars.” Refusing to bow to anyone, she had the man arrested. Williams retained her independent spirit. “I’ve got a good sewing machine, and I get washing to do and clothes to make,” she told the St. Louis reporter. “I want to get along and not be a burden to my friends or relatives.”
Although she was not the only woman to serve in uniform in her era, Cathay Williams was the only documented female buffalo soldier, and she seems to have kept her gender disguised for the longest period. From 1866 to 1868 an uneducated, illiterate former slave managed to deceive her fellow soldiers, officers and post medical personnel. To this day, no one knows how she did it, but if not for that secret she carried daily, her name, like those of countless other ex-slaves, would have vanished into history.
Williams didn’t join the U.S. Army to highlight the often-desperate plight of women, black or white, or to prove she could outwit her peers and superiors. She was simply an independent woman who found a way to take care of herself. Her story is amazing, even if she didn’t shoot anyone or win any medals.
This article originally appeared in the April 2013 issue of Wild West Magazine, a Military Times sister publication. For more information on Wild West Magazine and all of the HistoryNet publications, visit HistoryNet.com.
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During a tour of duty with Company A of the 38th Infantry, one of the all-black Army regiments established after the Civil War, one private — different from all the rest — marched with the unit more than 500 miles from Fort Harker, Kansas, to Fort Union, New Mexico Territory and, some months later, some 400 more miles to Forts Cumming and Bayard, New Mexico Territory.
The U.S. Army, though tough duty, was an attractive destination for newly freed slaves, who had few postwar employment opportunities. In the Army they could get a paycheck, regular meals, a bed and medical care. Physical exams were cursory; recruits who could march and shoot often were simply declared fit for duty.
Marching was an essential component, as in 1867 the 38th Infantry was on the move. From central Kansas the soldiers tramped across plains, forded rivers, ventured into hostile Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), plodded across shadeless desert sands, tramped the dusty Santa Fe Trail and scrambled over mountains higher than they had ever imagined. Exhaustion must have been their constant companion.
One particular recruit — Private William Cathey, who had enlisted at a St. Louis recruiting office in November 1866 — successfully made the long march while keeping an extraordinary secret. Cathey’s mystery, had it been known, would have resulted in court-martial, for it was illegal for this soldier to be in the U.S. Army.
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Cathey, who marched with the company, ate with them, joked with them and slept beside them, was not as he seemed. His fellow soldiers would have been shocked to learn that beneath the private’s bulky Zouave uniform was the body of Cathay Williams, a female ex-slave who had joined the Army to support herself.
(Documents suggest the female spelling was “Cathay,” the male spelling “Cathey”; other references call her “Cathy.” Williams herself was illiterate and likely would not have known the difference.)
Although female soldiers had fought in both the Union and Confederate armies, it remained illegal for women to serve in the military. Williams must have been ever alert to ensure the subterfuge would not be revealed.
This young recruit, age unknown (perhaps only 15 but possibly in her early 20s), had been born near Independence, Mo., to a free father and a slave mother. Little else is known of her early life except that the Union Army had pressed her into service as a young girl to cook and launder clothes for XIII Corps. She grew accustomed to military life and being on the march, which must have made her later deception easier.
Cathey’s enlisted life, like that of the other buffalo soldiers, was tough. The Army provided these black men with inadequate supplies and equipment, the environment in the frontier West was harsh, and they endured racism from white civilians and even their own white officers. What’s more, cholera was epidemic in the areas where they marched.
Cathey/Cathay performed the same duties required of everyone in her troop and showed no signs of femininity during the long march. She continually faced the fear of discovery, as well as the specter of disease that claimed the lives of so many others in her regiment. It took determination and vigilance to maintain her secret. She could never drop her guard, not for a minute.
While she may have been able to conceal her body shape, for basic hygiene she required privacy — a rarity in the Army. Surely she sought seclusion, but that, too, was scarce. No one knows how she coped with these challenges.
The career of this young, illiterate black woman, unlike the secret she held close, was unremarkable. She marched and performed duties conscientiously and stayed out of trouble. In an interview published in the St. Louis Daily Times on January 2, 1876, after her service, she recalled, “I carried my musket and did guard and other duties while in the Army.” She also boasted of having never been put in the guardhouse.
Although Cathey may have appeared healthy, the 5-foot-7 soldier often fell ill, suffering from smallpox, rheumatism and neuralgia, and at some point, doctors amputated her toes, a possible result of diabetes. The young private logged several visits to the infirmary and several hospital stays, yet her secret remained undetected, which speaks volumes about the medical care (seemingly superficial) provided to the black soldiers at the time.
Eventually, she explained in the Daily Times interview, “I got tired and wanted to get off [out of the Army]. I played sick, complained of pains in my side and rheumatism in my knees.” During an 1868 visit to the infirmary she finally revealed the secret she had held so firmly — though, it turns out, others already knew the truth.
In her newspaper interview, Williams explained: “Two persons, a cousin and a particular friend, members of the regiment, knew that I was a woman. They never ‘blowed’ on me. They were partly the cause of my joining the Army. Another reason was I wanted to make my own living and not be dependent on relations or friends. The [Fort Bayard] post surgeon found out I was a woman, and I got my discharge,” she continued. “The men all wanted to get rid of me after they found out I was a woman. Some of them acted real bad to me.”Williams didn’t join the U.S. Army to highlight the often-desperate plight of women, black or white, or to prove she could outwit her peers and superiors. She was simply an independent woman who found a way to take care of herself.
The surgeon issued a certificate of disability, dated October 14, 1868, stating the soldier was of “feeble habit … continually on sick report without benefit [and] unable to do military duty.” He said the “condition” predated enlistment. The subsequent discharge papers refer to Cathey/Cathay as “he,” perhaps because the officers feared courts-martial for having a female in the regiment.
After her release, Williams remained in New Mexico Territory, where she had spent two-thirds of her military duty. She soon moved to Pueblo, Colo., and had a brief, unhappy marriage. According to Williams, her husband was “no account.” She had amassed horses and a wagon, which he stole, along with her “watch and chain, [and] a hundred dollars.” Refusing to bow to anyone, she had the man arrested. Williams retained her independent spirit. “I’ve got a good sewing machine, and I get washing to do and clothes to make,” she told the St. Louis reporter. “I want to get along and not be a burden to my friends or relatives.”
Although she was not the only woman to serve in uniform in her era, Cathay Williams was the only documented female buffalo soldier, and she seems to have kept her gender disguised for the longest period. From 1866 to 1868 an uneducated, illiterate former slave managed to deceive her fellow soldiers, officers and post medical personnel. To this day, no one knows how she did it, but if not for that secret she carried daily, her name, like those of countless other ex-slaves, would have vanished into history.
Williams didn’t join the U.S. Army to highlight the often-desperate plight of women, black or white, or to prove she could outwit her peers and superiors. She was simply an independent woman who found a way to take care of herself. Her story is amazing, even if she didn’t shoot anyone or win any medals.
This article originally appeared in the April 2013 issue of Wild West Magazine, a Military Times sister publication. For more information on Wild West Magazine and all of the HistoryNet publications, visit HistoryNet.com.
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Darius I (l. c. 550-486 BCE, r. 522-486 BCE), also known as Darius the Great, was the third Persian King of the Achaemenid Empire. His reign lasted 36 years, from 522 to 486 BCE; during this time the Persian Empire reached its peak. Darius led military campaigns in Europe, Greece, and even in the Indus valley, conquering lands and expanding his empire. Not only resuming to military prowess, Darius also improved the legal and economic system and conducted impressive construction projects across the Persian Empire.
Rise to Power
The most important primary sources, that tell us about his life and reign, are his inscriptions, the most famous example being the trilingual inscription, in Akkadian or Babylonian, Elamite, and old Persian, carved on the Bisitun (Behistun) rock relief from the village of the same name and from his palace at Persepolis. Also, accounts about his reign were chronicled by the Greek historian Herodotus.
Darius was born in c. 550 BCE, the oldest son of Hystapes and Rhodugune. The Behistun Inscription mentions that his father occupied the position of satrap (Persian governor) of Bactria and Persis during the reign of Cyrus the Great (559-530 BCE) and his son, Cambyses (530-522 BCE). During the reign of Cambyses, Darius held the position of spearman (doryphoros) and accompanied the king in his campaign to Egypt between 528 and 525 BCE. Before leaving for Egypt, Cambyses named Patizithes as custodian of the royal palace in his absence. Patizithes saw this situation as an opportunity to gain power. He set up his own brother, Gaumata, as a false king under the name of Bardiya or Smerdis, Cambyses' brother, becoming the new ruler in 522 BCE. Cambyses II returned to his country seven months later only to find that he could not take his throne back. Some historical sources say he took his own life as he was unable to defeat the impostor king and his supporters, while other tell us he fell during the marches through Syrian Ecbatana or through Damascus.
The false king’s reign did not last long. Herodotus tells us that Phaedymia, the daughter of Cambyses' uncle, Otanes, found out that the ruler is not Cambyses' brother. Her father, after learning the truth, quickly assembled a group of conspirators which included Hydarnes, Intaphrenes, Megabyzus, and Darius, who at the time was still the king’s lancer. Gaumata was finally assassinated, leaving the Persian empire without a leader; the conspirators had to decide the future of the empire. Otanes opted out, wanting only special privileges for his family, oligarchy was suggested by Megabyzus, while Darius voted for a monarchy. Being unable to settle the matter at hand, all of them agreed on a contest, where the winner would take the throne. All of them would meet the next morning, each on his horse, and the first horse to neigh at the sunrise would be named the new king. Herodotus tells us that Darius cheated; supposedly it was his servant, Oebares, who made the horse neigh by letting the animal smell his hand that he had previously rubbed over the genitals of a mare. In any case, the horse's neigh accompanied by lightning and thunder from a storm convinced the others to accept Darius as the new king in 522 BCE.
Even though Gaumata was a false ruler, only a portion of satrapies recognised Darius as their king, after his coronation, in 522 BCE, such as Bactria and Arachosia. Others saw the false king's death as a chance for independence. Revolts broke out across many regions of the empire, including Persis, Media, Parthia, Assyria, Babylon, and Egypt, and only with aid of his army and personal entourage did Darius manage to quell these conflicts. These events are chronicled in great detail in his inscriptions, translated by Herbert Cushing, which also serve as a warning for future kings:
Says Darius the king: O thou who shalt be king in
the future, protect thyself strongly from Deceit;
whatever man shall be a deceiver, him who deserves
to be punished, punish, if thus thou shalt think " may
my country be secure." (30)
Says Darius the king: O thou who shalt be
king in the future, whatever man shall be a deceiver
or a wrong-doer (be) not a friend to these; punish
(them) with severe punishment. (33)
Darius' rule was marked by vast military expeditions. After consolidating his power at home, he set off to secure the lands of Egypt, which had been conquered before by Cambyses, and in 519 BCE he incorporated a large part of Egypt into his empire. The following year, in 518 BCE, he conquered parts of India, namely northern Punjab as his inscriptions testify. Herodotus adds that India was the 20th satrapy of the empire and also that parts of the Indus valley also fell victim to Persian warfare.
The next significant campaign was in European Scythia in 513 BCE. Historians have proposed several theories in an attempt to clarify the objective of this campaign. They range from simple military conquest to a more propagandistic motive, revenge for a previous conflict during the reign of Cyrus where the Scythians had attacked Medes. Another possible reason is that Darius wanted to conquer the western Greek lands and the Scythian campaign was supposed to threaten the Greeks into surrender.
However, Darius faced unforeseen difficulties. The Scythians evaded the Persian army, using feints and retreating eastwards, all the while laying waste to the countryside. The king's army chased the enemy deep into Scythian lands, where he sent word to their ruler, urging Idanthyrsus to fight or surrender. As Idanthyrsus refused to do either, the chase resumed. In the end, the campaign halted after a few weeks when sickness and deprivation had taken its toll on the Persian army. The march halted around the banks of the Volga river and then headed towards Thrace, where Darius ordered his general Megabyzus to subjugate the region.
Besides bringing Thrace under Persian influence, Megabyzus also conquered the neighbouring Greek cities. He sent envoys to Macedonia where Amyntas, the king of Macedonia, became a vassal of the empire. Meanwhile, Darius solidified his hold in Ionia and the Aegean Islands through appointments of Greek natives as city rulers or tyrants.
In 499 BCE, Aristagoras, the tyrant of Miletus, convinced the satrap Artaphernes to sponsor a campaign against Naxos. Darius gave his consent and named Megabates, Artaphemes’s cousin, as commander of the Persian army. They were supposed to be supported and supplied by Aristagoras, but a quarrel between Megabates and Aristagoras resulted in the former betraying them and informing the Naxians of their plans, sabotaging the campaign. Finding himself without help, Aristagoras decided to revolt against the Persians. Seeking other allies, although he failed to acquire the support of Sparta, he managed to secure the aid of Athens and Eretria, both providing troops and ships.
After six years of conflict, during which Sardis, Cyprus, and the Hellespont were attacked, the Persian army defeated the rebels at the Battle of Lade in 494 BCE where most of the Athenian fleet was destroyed. Undeterred, Darius gathered his army, planning to conquer Athens. His army consisted of infantry and cavalry, led by the general Datis. They marched from Susa to Cilicia, where ships carried them across the Aegean Sea to the island of Samos. Here they joined up with an armed force from Ionia and sailed north, to Athens.
Meanwhile, the Athenians started to prepare for war. Envoys were sent to Sparta, but after gathering allies, the Greek force was still only 10,000 strong, facing 100,000 Persians. Outnumbered, the Greek generals needed a brilliant strategy. Two of them advised facing the enemy from within the safety of the city gates, but Miltiades convinced them that a direct attack would be a better choice. They agreed, on the condition that Miltiades would lead the army into the battle.
The two opposing armies met on the fields of Marathon in 490 BCE. The Persian army, though heavily outnumbering the Greek army, was slow and overconfident. The Greeks took advantage of this situation; as the two armies approached each other at a casual pace, the Greeks suddenly broke into a sprint. This caught the Persians off guard, and before they knew it they were forced to battle in full hand-to-hand combat. After a few hours of battle, the Persian ranks broke, many of them running towards the safety of the ships or to the nearby mountains. 6,000 Persians fell, while the Greek army lost only 200 men. The marble blocks which the Persians intended to use for the monument they were going to erect after the battle, was instead used by the victorious Greeks to build a monument for their fallen comrades. This blow was seen as an insult by Darius, who chose to fight on and prepared for another invasion. This plan, however, never came to fruition due to his death in 486 BCE.
The Persian Empire witnessed many improvements during Darius' reign. He established 20 provinces or satrapies, with an archon or satrap assigned to each. Neighbouring regions paid a fixed tribute; a fair amount was stipulated by a commission of Darius' trusted officials.
He also improved the legal system of the Persian government, using the Babylonian Hammurabi as a model and copying some of his laws completely. The laws were enforced by the judges of the empire, who needed to be incorruptible. Darius removed the previous native officials, replacing them with new people loyal to him. While the punishments may seem brutal today, ranging from mutilation to blinding, fairness was not omitted as punishment depended on the nature and severity of the crime. The new system proved to be popular, even after Darius’s death, some laws were still in use in 218 BCE.
In the matters of religion, it is well known that Darius was an adherent of Zoroastrianism or at least a firm believer of Ahura Mazda. This we can see in his inscriptions, where he attributes his success to Ahura Mazda, and in his legal system where all laws were created in the name of the Zoroastrian god. In the lands that were under Persian control, all other religions were tolerated as long as they remained submissive and peaceful.
Economy & Building Projects
During his reign, Darius undertook impressive construction projects across the empire. In Susa, he built a palace complex in the northern part of the city, which became his favourite residence. A grand project in Persepolis followed; the palace complex included a military quarter, treasury, the king’s quarters and guest house. Besides the palaces, Darius also finished previously incomplete construction projects of Cyrus in Pasargadae. In Egypt, he built many temples and restored those that had previously been destroyed.
Darius introduced a new universal currency, the darayaka, sometime before 500 BCE. This innovation made it easier to collect taxes on land, livestock, and marketplaces, which led to improved revenues for the empire. To further improve the economy and help traders, a new standardised system of weights and measures was introduced.
Death & Legacy
After the defeat at Marathon, Darius did not want to give up on his dream to conquer Greece. He vowed to gather an even larger army, this time leading it personally, to fight the Greeks. After three years of preparing, during which he became ill, a revolt broke out in Egypt that only worsened his condition. Darius died in October 486 BCE; his body was interred at Naqsh-e Rustam in a tomb prepared by him beforehand, a custom of Persian kings. After his death, the throne was inherited by his eldest son from his marriage with Atossa, Xerxes.
Darius’s reign was one of the most important episodes in the history of the Persian Empire. His military conquest expanded the boundaries of Persia, and internally, his reforms improved the vitality of the empire. Some of his improvements have survived even to this day such as his laws as the basis for the current Iranian law.
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Darius I (l. c. 550-486 BCE, r. 522-486 BCE), also known as Darius the Great, was the third Persian King of the Achaemenid Empire. His reign lasted 36 years, from 522 to 486 BCE; during this time the Persian Empire reached its peak. Darius led military campaigns in Europe, Greece, and even in the Indus valley, conquering lands and expanding his empire. Not only resuming to military prowess, Darius also improved the legal and economic system and conducted impressive construction projects across the Persian Empire.
Rise to Power
The most important primary sources, that tell us about his life and reign, are his inscriptions, the most famous example being the trilingual inscription, in Akkadian or Babylonian, Elamite, and old Persian, carved on the Bisitun (Behistun) rock relief from the village of the same name and from his palace at Persepolis. Also, accounts about his reign were chronicled by the Greek historian Herodotus.
Darius was born in c. 550 BCE, the oldest son of Hystapes and Rhodugune. The Behistun Inscription mentions that his father occupied the position of satrap (Persian governor) of Bactria and Persis during the reign of Cyrus the Great (559-530 BCE) and his son, Cambyses (530-522 BCE). During the reign of Cambyses, Darius held the position of spearman (doryphoros) and accompanied the king in his campaign to Egypt between 528 and 525 BCE. Before leaving for Egypt, Cambyses named Patizithes as custodian of the royal palace in his absence. Patizithes saw this situation as an opportunity to gain power. He set up his own brother, Gaumata, as a false king under the name of Bardiya or Smerdis, Cambyses' brother, becoming the new ruler in 522 BCE. Cambyses II returned to his country seven months later only to find that he could not take his throne back. Some historical sources say he took his own life as he was unable to defeat the impostor king and his supporters, while other tell us he fell during the marches through Syrian Ecbatana or through Damascus.
The false king’s reign did not last long. Herodotus tells us that Phaedymia, the daughter of Cambyses' uncle, Otanes, found out that the ruler is not Cambyses' brother. Her father, after learning the truth, quickly assembled a group of conspirators which included Hydarnes, Intaphrenes, Megabyzus, and Darius, who at the time was still the king’s lancer. Gaumata was finally assassinated, leaving the Persian empire without a leader; the conspirators had to decide the future of the empire. Otanes opted out, wanting only special privileges for his family, oligarchy was suggested by Megabyzus, while Darius voted for a monarchy. Being unable to settle the matter at hand, all of them agreed on a contest, where the winner would take the throne. All of them would meet the next morning, each on his horse, and the first horse to neigh at the sunrise would be named the new king. Herodotus tells us that Darius cheated; supposedly it was his servant, Oebares, who made the horse neigh by letting the animal smell his hand that he had previously rubbed over the genitals of a mare. In any case, the horse's neigh accompanied by lightning and thunder from a storm convinced the others to accept Darius as the new king in 522 BCE.
Even though Gaumata was a false ruler, only a portion of satrapies recognised Darius as their king, after his coronation, in 522 BCE, such as Bactria and Arachosia. Others saw the false king's death as a chance for independence. Revolts broke out across many regions of the empire, including Persis, Media, Parthia, Assyria, Babylon, and Egypt, and only with aid of his army and personal entourage did Darius manage to quell these conflicts. These events are chronicled in great detail in his inscriptions, translated by Herbert Cushing, which also serve as a warning for future kings:
Says Darius the king: O thou who shalt be king in
the future, protect thyself strongly from Deceit;
whatever man shall be a deceiver, him who deserves
to be punished, punish, if thus thou shalt think " may
my country be secure." (30)
Says Darius the king: O thou who shalt be
king in the future, whatever man shall be a deceiver
or a wrong-doer (be) not a friend to these; punish
(them) with severe punishment. (33)
Darius' rule was marked by vast military expeditions. After consolidating his power at home, he set off to secure the lands of Egypt, which had been conquered before by Cambyses, and in 519 BCE he incorporated a large part of Egypt into his empire. The following year, in 518 BCE, he conquered parts of India, namely northern Punjab as his inscriptions testify. Herodotus adds that India was the 20th satrapy of the empire and also that parts of the Indus valley also fell victim to Persian warfare.
The next significant campaign was in European Scythia in 513 BCE. Historians have proposed several theories in an attempt to clarify the objective of this campaign. They range from simple military conquest to a more propagandistic motive, revenge for a previous conflict during the reign of Cyrus where the Scythians had attacked Medes. Another possible reason is that Darius wanted to conquer the western Greek lands and the Scythian campaign was supposed to threaten the Greeks into surrender.
However, Darius faced unforeseen difficulties. The Scythians evaded the Persian army, using feints and retreating eastwards, all the while laying waste to the countryside. The king's army chased the enemy deep into Scythian lands, where he sent word to their ruler, urging Idanthyrsus to fight or surrender. As Idanthyrsus refused to do either, the chase resumed. In the end, the campaign halted after a few weeks when sickness and deprivation had taken its toll on the Persian army. The march halted around the banks of the Volga river and then headed towards Thrace, where Darius ordered his general Megabyzus to subjugate the region.
Besides bringing Thrace under Persian influence, Megabyzus also conquered the neighbouring Greek cities. He sent envoys to Macedonia where Amyntas, the king of Macedonia, became a vassal of the empire. Meanwhile, Darius solidified his hold in Ionia and the Aegean Islands through appointments of Greek natives as city rulers or tyrants.
In 499 BCE, Aristagoras, the tyrant of Miletus, convinced the satrap Artaphernes to sponsor a campaign against Naxos. Darius gave his consent and named Megabates, Artaphemes’s cousin, as commander of the Persian army. They were supposed to be supported and supplied by Aristagoras, but a quarrel between Megabates and Aristagoras resulted in the former betraying them and informing the Naxians of their plans, sabotaging the campaign. Finding himself without help, Aristagoras decided to revolt against the Persians. Seeking other allies, although he failed to acquire the support of Sparta, he managed to secure the aid of Athens and Eretria, both providing troops and ships.
After six years of conflict, during which Sardis, Cyprus, and the Hellespont were attacked, the Persian army defeated the rebels at the Battle of Lade in 494 BCE where most of the Athenian fleet was destroyed. Undeterred, Darius gathered his army, planning to conquer Athens. His army consisted of infantry and cavalry, led by the general Datis. They marched from Susa to Cilicia, where ships carried them across the Aegean Sea to the island of Samos. Here they joined up with an armed force from Ionia and sailed north, to Athens.
Meanwhile, the Athenians started to prepare for war. Envoys were sent to Sparta, but after gathering allies, the Greek force was still only 10,000 strong, facing 100,000 Persians. Outnumbered, the Greek generals needed a brilliant strategy. Two of them advised facing the enemy from within the safety of the city gates, but Miltiades convinced them that a direct attack would be a better choice. They agreed, on the condition that Miltiades would lead the army into the battle.
The two opposing armies met on the fields of Marathon in 490 BCE. The Persian army, though heavily outnumbering the Greek army, was slow and overconfident. The Greeks took advantage of this situation; as the two armies approached each other at a casual pace, the Greeks suddenly broke into a sprint. This caught the Persians off guard, and before they knew it they were forced to battle in full hand-to-hand combat. After a few hours of battle, the Persian ranks broke, many of them running towards the safety of the ships or to the nearby mountains. 6,000 Persians fell, while the Greek army lost only 200 men. The marble blocks which the Persians intended to use for the monument they were going to erect after the battle, was instead used by the victorious Greeks to build a monument for their fallen comrades. This blow was seen as an insult by Darius, who chose to fight on and prepared for another invasion. This plan, however, never came to fruition due to his death in 486 BCE.
The Persian Empire witnessed many improvements during Darius' reign. He established 20 provinces or satrapies, with an archon or satrap assigned to each. Neighbouring regions paid a fixed tribute; a fair amount was stipulated by a commission of Darius' trusted officials.
He also improved the legal system of the Persian government, using the Babylonian Hammurabi as a model and copying some of his laws completely. The laws were enforced by the judges of the empire, who needed to be incorruptible. Darius removed the previous native officials, replacing them with new people loyal to him. While the punishments may seem brutal today, ranging from mutilation to blinding, fairness was not omitted as punishment depended on the nature and severity of the crime. The new system proved to be popular, even after Darius’s death, some laws were still in use in 218 BCE.
In the matters of religion, it is well known that Darius was an adherent of Zoroastrianism or at least a firm believer of Ahura Mazda. This we can see in his inscriptions, where he attributes his success to Ahura Mazda, and in his legal system where all laws were created in the name of the Zoroastrian god. In the lands that were under Persian control, all other religions were tolerated as long as they remained submissive and peaceful.
Economy & Building Projects
During his reign, Darius undertook impressive construction projects across the empire. In Susa, he built a palace complex in the northern part of the city, which became his favourite residence. A grand project in Persepolis followed; the palace complex included a military quarter, treasury, the king’s quarters and guest house. Besides the palaces, Darius also finished previously incomplete construction projects of Cyrus in Pasargadae. In Egypt, he built many temples and restored those that had previously been destroyed.
Darius introduced a new universal currency, the darayaka, sometime before 500 BCE. This innovation made it easier to collect taxes on land, livestock, and marketplaces, which led to improved revenues for the empire. To further improve the economy and help traders, a new standardised system of weights and measures was introduced.
Death & Legacy
After the defeat at Marathon, Darius did not want to give up on his dream to conquer Greece. He vowed to gather an even larger army, this time leading it personally, to fight the Greeks. After three years of preparing, during which he became ill, a revolt broke out in Egypt that only worsened his condition. Darius died in October 486 BCE; his body was interred at Naqsh-e Rustam in a tomb prepared by him beforehand, a custom of Persian kings. After his death, the throne was inherited by his eldest son from his marriage with Atossa, Xerxes.
Darius’s reign was one of the most important episodes in the history of the Persian Empire. His military conquest expanded the boundaries of Persia, and internally, his reforms improved the vitality of the empire. Some of his improvements have survived even to this day such as his laws as the basis for the current Iranian law.
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Ra is the sun god or creator god in ancient Egyptian religion. He was the most powerful and most worshiped of all Egyptian gods. The sun, and therefore Ra, represented life, warmth, and growth to ancient Egyptians. He was so important that he earned the status of King of the Gods, with the Egyptian kings or pharaohs holding the title “sons of Ra.”
Understanding and describing Ra is difficult because of the many forms he was depicted in, as well as the practice of creating new deities by merging existing deities. As one of the creator gods, Ra created himself before his identity was combined with several other gods, including Horus and Atum. This resulted in new names such as Ra-Horakhty and Atum-Ra.
Reference to Ra was first made during the Second Dynasty of ancient Egypt (c. 2890 – c. 2686 BC), also known as the Old Kingdom. His stature grew to that of a major god by the Fifth Dynasty (c. 2494 – c. 2345 BC).
The eye of Ra is an extension of Ra’s power, and is the feminine counterpart to the sun god in Egyptian mythology. His daughters Bastet, Sekhmet, and Hathor were all considered to be “eyes of Ra” and instruments of his vengeance.
Together with Atum, Ra also fathered Shu, the god of wind, and Tefnut, the goddess of rain. Tefnut gave birth to Nut and Geb, who in turn were the parents of Osiris, Isis, Set, and Nephthys. These nine make up the Heliopolitan Ennead.
Ra is pictured and represented in many pieces of ancient Egyptian art found in temples, tombs, hieroglyphics, relics, and other relics. He was generally depicted in human form, most notably with a falcon head crowned with a sun disc; a sacred cobra called Uraeus encircled the disc. Sometimes his head also took the form of a ram or a beetle, depending on the deity with whom he merged.
Powers & Duties
The ancient Egyptians believed Ra created all forms of life by calling them into existence using their secret names. Alternatively, some narratives also stated that man was created from Ra’s tears and sweat.
The sun god was believed to travel across the sky in a solar bark with the sun on his head. He traveled through the underworld in a bark called Sektet (meaning “growing weaker”) during the night, defending himself against and overcoming monsters such as the serpent Apophis. The prayers and the blessings of the living supposedly accompanied him together with the souls of the dead. In the morning he traveled in a bark called Matet (meaning “becoming stronger”).
Egyptian pharaohs spent most of their money on sun temples during the Fifth Dynasty. They were specially aligned in Ra’s honor. By the time the New Kingdom arrived (c. 1550 BC), the worship became more elaborate. Detailed texts describing Ra’s journey on the sun boats were written on tomb walls, while hymns, prayers, and spells were created in acts of worship.
Heliopolis, meaning sun city in Greek, was the principal seat of worship of Ra. It was known as Iunu or “place of the pillars” in ancient Egypt. Its remains can still be seen today in the Cairo suburb of Al-Matariyyah.
Facts About Ra
- Many solar temples were built in honor of Ra, but none featured a statue of him. Instead, he was represented by the sunlight openly flowing into the temple, which had an obelisk and altar at its center.
- A scarab beetle called Khepri who rolled up the sun at sunrise was seen as Ra’s morning manifestation;
- At sunset Ra manifested in Khnum, another creator god, normally depicted with a ram’s head;
- At noon, when the sun was most powerful, the sun god was just Ra;
- Apep, the god of chaos, was Ra’s greatest enemy. He supposedly tried to swallowed Ra as the sun god entered the underworld, causing the sun to set. When he spat Ra out after not succeeding in his quest, the sun rose again;
- Many solar temples were built in honor of Ra, but none featured a statue of him. Instead, he was represented by the sunlight openly flowing into the temple, which had an obelisk and altar at its center;
- Egyptian mythology links Ra to the Tree of Life, a sacred symbol in the solar temple at Heliopolis. The fruit of the Tree of Life gave eternal life, although it was only available to the gods and aging pharaohs;
- The Tree of Life was seat to Bennu, the mythological phoenix that represented Ra’s soul;
- The worship of Ra began to fade with the rise of Christianity after the Romans conquered Egypt around 30 BC.
Link/cite this page
If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source.
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] | 1
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Ra is the sun god or creator god in ancient Egyptian religion. He was the most powerful and most worshiped of all Egyptian gods. The sun, and therefore Ra, represented life, warmth, and growth to ancient Egyptians. He was so important that he earned the status of King of the Gods, with the Egyptian kings or pharaohs holding the title “sons of Ra.”
Understanding and describing Ra is difficult because of the many forms he was depicted in, as well as the practice of creating new deities by merging existing deities. As one of the creator gods, Ra created himself before his identity was combined with several other gods, including Horus and Atum. This resulted in new names such as Ra-Horakhty and Atum-Ra.
Reference to Ra was first made during the Second Dynasty of ancient Egypt (c. 2890 – c. 2686 BC), also known as the Old Kingdom. His stature grew to that of a major god by the Fifth Dynasty (c. 2494 – c. 2345 BC).
The eye of Ra is an extension of Ra’s power, and is the feminine counterpart to the sun god in Egyptian mythology. His daughters Bastet, Sekhmet, and Hathor were all considered to be “eyes of Ra” and instruments of his vengeance.
Together with Atum, Ra also fathered Shu, the god of wind, and Tefnut, the goddess of rain. Tefnut gave birth to Nut and Geb, who in turn were the parents of Osiris, Isis, Set, and Nephthys. These nine make up the Heliopolitan Ennead.
Ra is pictured and represented in many pieces of ancient Egyptian art found in temples, tombs, hieroglyphics, relics, and other relics. He was generally depicted in human form, most notably with a falcon head crowned with a sun disc; a sacred cobra called Uraeus encircled the disc. Sometimes his head also took the form of a ram or a beetle, depending on the deity with whom he merged.
Powers & Duties
The ancient Egyptians believed Ra created all forms of life by calling them into existence using their secret names. Alternatively, some narratives also stated that man was created from Ra’s tears and sweat.
The sun god was believed to travel across the sky in a solar bark with the sun on his head. He traveled through the underworld in a bark called Sektet (meaning “growing weaker”) during the night, defending himself against and overcoming monsters such as the serpent Apophis. The prayers and the blessings of the living supposedly accompanied him together with the souls of the dead. In the morning he traveled in a bark called Matet (meaning “becoming stronger”).
Egyptian pharaohs spent most of their money on sun temples during the Fifth Dynasty. They were specially aligned in Ra’s honor. By the time the New Kingdom arrived (c. 1550 BC), the worship became more elaborate. Detailed texts describing Ra’s journey on the sun boats were written on tomb walls, while hymns, prayers, and spells were created in acts of worship.
Heliopolis, meaning sun city in Greek, was the principal seat of worship of Ra. It was known as Iunu or “place of the pillars” in ancient Egypt. Its remains can still be seen today in the Cairo suburb of Al-Matariyyah.
Facts About Ra
- Many solar temples were built in honor of Ra, but none featured a statue of him. Instead, he was represented by the sunlight openly flowing into the temple, which had an obelisk and altar at its center.
- A scarab beetle called Khepri who rolled up the sun at sunrise was seen as Ra’s morning manifestation;
- At sunset Ra manifested in Khnum, another creator god, normally depicted with a ram’s head;
- At noon, when the sun was most powerful, the sun god was just Ra;
- Apep, the god of chaos, was Ra’s greatest enemy. He supposedly tried to swallowed Ra as the sun god entered the underworld, causing the sun to set. When he spat Ra out after not succeeding in his quest, the sun rose again;
- Many solar temples were built in honor of Ra, but none featured a statue of him. Instead, he was represented by the sunlight openly flowing into the temple, which had an obelisk and altar at its center;
- Egyptian mythology links Ra to the Tree of Life, a sacred symbol in the solar temple at Heliopolis. The fruit of the Tree of Life gave eternal life, although it was only available to the gods and aging pharaohs;
- The Tree of Life was seat to Bennu, the mythological phoenix that represented Ra’s soul;
- The worship of Ra began to fade with the rise of Christianity after the Romans conquered Egypt around 30 BC.
Link/cite this page
If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source.
Link will appear as Ra: https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com - Gods & Goddesses, January 17, 2020
| 1,081
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
The external feminine is a play that was written by Goethe. This play displays human predicament. In one he states that people live taking the risks of acting without considering the impacts that this has on those on the receiving end (Hsichun and Mihail 76). On the other hand, there are those whose primary function is to be pure and become models of moral virtue. Goethe seeks to prove that human actions are guided by purity so as to avoid hurting others (Kosman 67). He associated the former individuals with men as it is common that men act without considering the impacts that their actions have on individuals. He then associated the latter individuals with women (Hsichun and Mihail 87). This is because since time immemorial purity has been associated with women. For instance, back in the days of the Bible, the Virgin Mary was displayed as being pure. In the play, Goethe showcased different scenarios that portray the purity of women. He further demonstrated that actions could be guided by purity that is associated with women.
Examples of the human predicament
Iphigenia was befriending the king when the king asked her brother; Orestes and his friend Pylades to go and find an image of Diana. Pylades planned that they could steal Diana’s picture and Iphegenie could help them by lying to the king (Hsichun and Mihail 87). Pylades is described as an ideal man of action as he is looked at as being loyal, brave and a man with good intentions. He is however described as being unscrupulous. In his plan, he wanted to involve Iphegenie in the treachery (Kosman 92). He persuaded her to lie to the king claiming that the world is not that friendly and one does not have a choice but to take place in lies or perish. As it is seen Iphegenie did not agree with him and she decided to be pure against all odds. She went ahead and told the king of the plot and she was set free and allowed to leave along with his brother and his friend (Kosman 98). From this example, it can be denoted that women are considered pure and they maintain this virtue at all costs. Iphigenia told Pylades that her heart could only be at peace if it maintained its purity.
Natalie is represented as an ideal woman in society and she occupies a high position in society. Natalie is characterized by negatives as she is seen not to relate with others passionately (Hsichun and Mihail 65). She extended this to her husband even after marriage. From their love story, it was found that they had engaged without the two kissing and things got worse after their marriage. This is considered as being inappropriate for lovers. This shows that Natalie was more concerned with maintaining her purity such that she could not provide her husband with what was expected from her as a married woman (Kosman 76). Natalie’s brother is depicted as a man of action and he holds a high status in the society among men just as his sister. This is evidence that the society regarded women as being pure whereas men were looked at us being action-oriented.
In Goethe’s novel, he brings out some aspects of German society as well as part of the experimental colonies in America. He brought out the different aspects one which is a representation of the modern society (Hsichun and Mihail 56). In this, he told the story of young girls who were caught up in love triangles. They did not necessarily involve themselves with bad actions but they were caught up in the web of circumstance. This was a representation of modern society. He as well represented the society that gave emphasis on purity (Kosman 76). He represented this society by portraying the noble society by giving an example of a pure woman by the name Makari. This woman lived in a country estate and lived a life that was contrary to the life of the other young girls that represented modern society (Hsichun and Mihail 58). Makari lived a pure life and did not associate herself with external events. She maintained a pure life and did not concern herself with the earthly things. Makari devoted her life to helping others. She used to inspire others as well as giving them advice on what to do.
The play demonstrates the aspects of the human predicament. It has demonstrated the various ways that people behaved especially women and men. From the examples given above, it can, therefore, be concluded that purity was associated with females whereas men are considered as being action-oriented. Faust has been depicted as an ideal man who is action-oriented. From the events that unveiled, it can be seen that his actions caused others harm. When the play ends, Faust dies and as his soul sheds off the dust of death, the spirit of the virgin hovers around. This is signifying the divine forgiveness that exists. This divine forgiveness is associated with a female laying emphasis on the fact that Goethe wanted to put across. Goethe also brought out the fact that purity should guide our actions. From Makarie’s story, it can be seen that purity can be able to guide decisions. This is because not only did Makarie live a pure life but she also devoted her time to advising and inspiring others in the society.
Hsinchu, Chen and Roco C Mihail. Global and Longitudinal Patent and Literature Analysis. New York: Springer, 2009.
Kosman, Admiel. Gender and Dialogue in the Iabbinic Prism. Boston: De Gruyter, 2012.
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] | 1
|
The external feminine is a play that was written by Goethe. This play displays human predicament. In one he states that people live taking the risks of acting without considering the impacts that this has on those on the receiving end (Hsichun and Mihail 76). On the other hand, there are those whose primary function is to be pure and become models of moral virtue. Goethe seeks to prove that human actions are guided by purity so as to avoid hurting others (Kosman 67). He associated the former individuals with men as it is common that men act without considering the impacts that their actions have on individuals. He then associated the latter individuals with women (Hsichun and Mihail 87). This is because since time immemorial purity has been associated with women. For instance, back in the days of the Bible, the Virgin Mary was displayed as being pure. In the play, Goethe showcased different scenarios that portray the purity of women. He further demonstrated that actions could be guided by purity that is associated with women.
Examples of the human predicament
Iphigenia was befriending the king when the king asked her brother; Orestes and his friend Pylades to go and find an image of Diana. Pylades planned that they could steal Diana’s picture and Iphegenie could help them by lying to the king (Hsichun and Mihail 87). Pylades is described as an ideal man of action as he is looked at as being loyal, brave and a man with good intentions. He is however described as being unscrupulous. In his plan, he wanted to involve Iphegenie in the treachery (Kosman 92). He persuaded her to lie to the king claiming that the world is not that friendly and one does not have a choice but to take place in lies or perish. As it is seen Iphegenie did not agree with him and she decided to be pure against all odds. She went ahead and told the king of the plot and she was set free and allowed to leave along with his brother and his friend (Kosman 98). From this example, it can be denoted that women are considered pure and they maintain this virtue at all costs. Iphigenia told Pylades that her heart could only be at peace if it maintained its purity.
Natalie is represented as an ideal woman in society and she occupies a high position in society. Natalie is characterized by negatives as she is seen not to relate with others passionately (Hsichun and Mihail 65). She extended this to her husband even after marriage. From their love story, it was found that they had engaged without the two kissing and things got worse after their marriage. This is considered as being inappropriate for lovers. This shows that Natalie was more concerned with maintaining her purity such that she could not provide her husband with what was expected from her as a married woman (Kosman 76). Natalie’s brother is depicted as a man of action and he holds a high status in the society among men just as his sister. This is evidence that the society regarded women as being pure whereas men were looked at us being action-oriented.
In Goethe’s novel, he brings out some aspects of German society as well as part of the experimental colonies in America. He brought out the different aspects one which is a representation of the modern society (Hsichun and Mihail 56). In this, he told the story of young girls who were caught up in love triangles. They did not necessarily involve themselves with bad actions but they were caught up in the web of circumstance. This was a representation of modern society. He as well represented the society that gave emphasis on purity (Kosman 76). He represented this society by portraying the noble society by giving an example of a pure woman by the name Makari. This woman lived in a country estate and lived a life that was contrary to the life of the other young girls that represented modern society (Hsichun and Mihail 58). Makari lived a pure life and did not associate herself with external events. She maintained a pure life and did not concern herself with the earthly things. Makari devoted her life to helping others. She used to inspire others as well as giving them advice on what to do.
The play demonstrates the aspects of the human predicament. It has demonstrated the various ways that people behaved especially women and men. From the examples given above, it can, therefore, be concluded that purity was associated with females whereas men are considered as being action-oriented. Faust has been depicted as an ideal man who is action-oriented. From the events that unveiled, it can be seen that his actions caused others harm. When the play ends, Faust dies and as his soul sheds off the dust of death, the spirit of the virgin hovers around. This is signifying the divine forgiveness that exists. This divine forgiveness is associated with a female laying emphasis on the fact that Goethe wanted to put across. Goethe also brought out the fact that purity should guide our actions. From Makarie’s story, it can be seen that purity can be able to guide decisions. This is because not only did Makarie live a pure life but she also devoted her time to advising and inspiring others in the society.
Hsinchu, Chen and Roco C Mihail. Global and Longitudinal Patent and Literature Analysis. New York: Springer, 2009.
Kosman, Admiel. Gender and Dialogue in the Iabbinic Prism. Boston: De Gruyter, 2012.
| 1,176
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Financial freedom is what many crave today because it is very liberating to be able to live comfortably without the hassle of over budgeting.
Imagine what life was like for the many African Americans after the Civil War in the 1800s. Slavery and racism were the African American’s enemy, especially during that era, but man had to survive.
To date fried chicken is associated with African Americans and sometimes they carry racial and derogatory undertones. It is through this same fried chicken that blacks were financially liberated at the time.
More about this
The women came up with an ingenious way to make money by hawking fried chicken and other finger foods on the platforms of the railroad in Gordonsville, Virginia. The town through this trade became known as the “Fried Chicken Capital of the World.”
Two major rail lines made stops in the town when the Civil War broke out and it was a main stop through which produce from Virginia’s Shenandoah Valley got to its consumers, NPR reports.
The women took advantage of the lack of dining cars on the trains to expand their trade. Hungry passengers would give anything to have some fried chicken, pies, biscuits and other goodies sold by these hardworking women.
The vendors became known as waiter carriers who trekked miles to the train station to sell the goods through the open windows of the trains to the commuters.
“Some people would deliberately chart their way through Gordonsville because they knew they would encounter these women and those particular foodstuffs,” Williams-Forson tells the reporter.
“Indeed, one of the first cookbooks published by a black woman in America was put out by an ex-slave woman in 1881”, NPR reports.
The entrepreneurial heritage of these African American women was rightly captured by Williams-Forson in his book Building Houses Out of Chicken Legs: Black Women, Food and Power. He reiterates how fried chicken was instrumental in empowering the people after the Civil War.
“I think it’s important to talk about it, because it reflects some level of agency that some African-Americans were able to exhibit during that horrible institution,” Williams -Forson writes, emphasising the need to voice the achievement of the women because there are not many records on Gordonsville’ fried chicken vendors.
In a 1970 newspaper interview, Bella Winston, a former waiter carrier who was 80 years old at the time said she learnt the trade from her mum. She said, “My mother paid for this place with chicken legs.”
A testament to the depth of economic empowerment and independence gained by the waiter carriers who wouldn’t have had any form of financial liberation if not for the trade. Some even bought their freedom through their cooking skills.
“At the end of the Civil War, when we have new freedoms for people, they’re put in a position where they need jobs,” says Coiner, Mayor of Gordonsville, whose family has lived in Gordonsville for many generations.
“The situation was bad before, but you could count on the situation. Now it was a big unknown.”
Even black people who were employed by white restaurateurs endured all sorts of mockery.
“Back in those days … it wasn’t nothing to see [such] mockery. Black folks was always being mocked,” former headwaiter Roy Hawkins recalls his experience in Williams-Forson’s book.
Hawkins worked in ‘To wit: the Coon Chicken Inn’, a restaurant chain that started in Salt Lake City, Utah, in 1925 which was frequented by many for its fried chicken.
He stomached a lot of racial abuse, but the job was very profitable. His tips were as high as $100 to $200 a night. Whereas bricklayers made meagre $5 a day. In 2006 he told The Salt Lake Tribune that despite his ordeal at the restaurant, he was “laughing all the way to the bank.”
The waiter carriers of Gordonsville’s trade sadly came to an end with the introduction of dining cars on trains in the early 1900s.
Not even the government crackdown on them could blot out their legacy from the history of Gordonsville.
To honor their resilience, Gordonville Virginia, “Fried Chicken Capital of the World” organizes an annual fried chicken contest to honor the waiter careers.
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Financial freedom is what many crave today because it is very liberating to be able to live comfortably without the hassle of over budgeting.
Imagine what life was like for the many African Americans after the Civil War in the 1800s. Slavery and racism were the African American’s enemy, especially during that era, but man had to survive.
To date fried chicken is associated with African Americans and sometimes they carry racial and derogatory undertones. It is through this same fried chicken that blacks were financially liberated at the time.
More about this
The women came up with an ingenious way to make money by hawking fried chicken and other finger foods on the platforms of the railroad in Gordonsville, Virginia. The town through this trade became known as the “Fried Chicken Capital of the World.”
Two major rail lines made stops in the town when the Civil War broke out and it was a main stop through which produce from Virginia’s Shenandoah Valley got to its consumers, NPR reports.
The women took advantage of the lack of dining cars on the trains to expand their trade. Hungry passengers would give anything to have some fried chicken, pies, biscuits and other goodies sold by these hardworking women.
The vendors became known as waiter carriers who trekked miles to the train station to sell the goods through the open windows of the trains to the commuters.
“Some people would deliberately chart their way through Gordonsville because they knew they would encounter these women and those particular foodstuffs,” Williams-Forson tells the reporter.
“Indeed, one of the first cookbooks published by a black woman in America was put out by an ex-slave woman in 1881”, NPR reports.
The entrepreneurial heritage of these African American women was rightly captured by Williams-Forson in his book Building Houses Out of Chicken Legs: Black Women, Food and Power. He reiterates how fried chicken was instrumental in empowering the people after the Civil War.
“I think it’s important to talk about it, because it reflects some level of agency that some African-Americans were able to exhibit during that horrible institution,” Williams -Forson writes, emphasising the need to voice the achievement of the women because there are not many records on Gordonsville’ fried chicken vendors.
In a 1970 newspaper interview, Bella Winston, a former waiter carrier who was 80 years old at the time said she learnt the trade from her mum. She said, “My mother paid for this place with chicken legs.”
A testament to the depth of economic empowerment and independence gained by the waiter carriers who wouldn’t have had any form of financial liberation if not for the trade. Some even bought their freedom through their cooking skills.
“At the end of the Civil War, when we have new freedoms for people, they’re put in a position where they need jobs,” says Coiner, Mayor of Gordonsville, whose family has lived in Gordonsville for many generations.
“The situation was bad before, but you could count on the situation. Now it was a big unknown.”
Even black people who were employed by white restaurateurs endured all sorts of mockery.
“Back in those days … it wasn’t nothing to see [such] mockery. Black folks was always being mocked,” former headwaiter Roy Hawkins recalls his experience in Williams-Forson’s book.
Hawkins worked in ‘To wit: the Coon Chicken Inn’, a restaurant chain that started in Salt Lake City, Utah, in 1925 which was frequented by many for its fried chicken.
He stomached a lot of racial abuse, but the job was very profitable. His tips were as high as $100 to $200 a night. Whereas bricklayers made meagre $5 a day. In 2006 he told The Salt Lake Tribune that despite his ordeal at the restaurant, he was “laughing all the way to the bank.”
The waiter carriers of Gordonsville’s trade sadly came to an end with the introduction of dining cars on trains in the early 1900s.
Not even the government crackdown on them could blot out their legacy from the history of Gordonsville.
To honor their resilience, Gordonville Virginia, “Fried Chicken Capital of the World” organizes an annual fried chicken contest to honor the waiter careers.
| 884
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ENGLISH
| 1
|
When you think of propaganda during the World War II, the first association is Germany. The country even had a Ministry of Propaganda, with Joseph Goebbels serving as the Minister of Propaganda.
Germany did everything they could to show the people they were right, and that their Aryan race belief was not just a myth, but a true identity.
But Germany was not the only country that used propaganda during World War II so openly. Japan was on the same level. After all, the two countries were allies in World War II.
The Japanese government used cartoons, and much more to further their agenda. This documentary created by American propaganda, shows just how far the Japanese government was ready to go to influence the thinking of its citizens.
The movie was originally created to prepare American soldiers for the war that awaits in the Pacific.
Anzio is a city and commune on the coast of the Lazio region in Italy. It is located 51km south of Rome. The city is well known for its seaside harbor settings. Today, it ser...
The Romanovs were a high-ranking family in Russia during the 16th and 17th century. In 1613, Mikhail Romanov became the first Romanov czar of Russia, following a fifteen-year...
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When you think of propaganda during the World War II, the first association is Germany. The country even had a Ministry of Propaganda, with Joseph Goebbels serving as the Minister of Propaganda.
Germany did everything they could to show the people they were right, and that their Aryan race belief was not just a myth, but a true identity.
But Germany was not the only country that used propaganda during World War II so openly. Japan was on the same level. After all, the two countries were allies in World War II.
The Japanese government used cartoons, and much more to further their agenda. This documentary created by American propaganda, shows just how far the Japanese government was ready to go to influence the thinking of its citizens.
The movie was originally created to prepare American soldiers for the war that awaits in the Pacific.
Anzio is a city and commune on the coast of the Lazio region in Italy. It is located 51km south of Rome. The city is well known for its seaside harbor settings. Today, it ser...
The Romanovs were a high-ranking family in Russia during the 16th and 17th century. In 1613, Mikhail Romanov became the first Romanov czar of Russia, following a fifteen-year...
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Value and Respect in American History Essay
The English and Native Americans. An interesting point in the essay was how both cultures ultimately have different views on value and respect. The Native Americans were willing to help a stranger they have never met before, whereas the white people were more concerned about how much money the stranger had before they even considered to help them. Another difference between the were the
Native Americans would not talk when other people were speaking, and they would not answer a proposal on the same day.
The white people took that as offensive and thought they were being rude, but the Native Americans considered it respectful because they took the time to think about it instead of giving a quick answer. In addition, Native Americans allowed everyone to talk in court, while the English spoke over each other and would not accept being wrong. Many of these habits are still evident in today’s world. Unfortunately, value and respect is not an ideal presented in our history.
After the horrific tragedy on September 1 lath many Muslims struggle to live a normal life. It is common for Americans to stereotype a group of people based on how they look and what their beliefs are. Many Muslims struggle with stereotypes every day. Because of the terrible attacks on the twin towers, many American people lack respect Dandelion 2 and fear all Muslims even though the people that attacked the towers are considered Muslim extremists. There are some Muslim terrorists, but it’s foolish and unfair to assume all or even most Muslims are terrorists. There are 1. 4 billion Muslims in the world (22% of the population), and the number s rapidly growing. Islam is projected to overtake Christianity as the majority religion on earth later in this century (Kenton). ” As you can see it is absurd to categorize all Muslims as terrorists when there are so many in the world today. Another group of people that Americans did not respect in history were the African Americans. Americans went into Africa and took innocent people out of their home and brought them across the world to be treated worse then animals.
Because the African Americans skin color was different and they were not educated, the white people thought it was okay to treat hem like savages. The treatment Of slaves in the united States varied by time and place, but was generally brutal and degrading. Whipping, execution, and sexual abuse including rape were very common (Gate”). Most slave owners did not treat slaves well. They beat slaves and punished them very badly. The owners had complete power over their slaves and thought they would work harder if they were afraid of being punished.
The slaves worked extremely hard for no pay and the owners considered them property, not a human being. In the American society today people of Spanish decent are often torpedoed of being illegal immigrants. Throughout the history of the United States, immigrants have flocked to the country in hopes of achieving a brighter future economically and socially. Fee United States has captivated prospective citizens with the concept of the “American Dandelion 3 Dream, a dream in which many consider to be real and tangible due to the economic flourish that the United States has achieved (Ablest). Many different types of people have come to America to live a better life. Since it is so hard to get a green card and takes many years to become a legal citizen, people have no choice but to come to America illegally. American people get very upset over this topic because they feel illegal immigrants are taking jobs and are getting away with not paying taxes; which is true but on the other hand can you blame these people? In the country they live they might not have any choice but to leave because if they stay their family might be killed.
Mexicans have become the image of illegal immigrants. American people have protests and rallies to show how upset they are about the topic. There are some Spanish illegal immigrants, but people need to respect that the season they are here is because they are trying to give their family the best opportunity they possibly can. If American people were in the same situation, I’m sure their actions would be very similar to those of the illegal immigrants.
By nature people are going to try and provide the best opportunities for their family; American people need to respect that. In conclusion, American people lack value and respect throughout history. Different groups of people such as Muslims, African Americans and Mexicans face hardships in our society. The American culture is very stereotypical and seem to categorize groups of people by the way they look or what they believe in. Hopefully one day it does not matter how you look or what you believe in, but by the type of human being you are.
Cite this Value and Respect in American History Essay
Value and Respect in American History Essay. (2018, Apr 30). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/value-and-respect-in-american-history/
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|
Value and Respect in American History Essay
The English and Native Americans. An interesting point in the essay was how both cultures ultimately have different views on value and respect. The Native Americans were willing to help a stranger they have never met before, whereas the white people were more concerned about how much money the stranger had before they even considered to help them. Another difference between the were the
Native Americans would not talk when other people were speaking, and they would not answer a proposal on the same day.
The white people took that as offensive and thought they were being rude, but the Native Americans considered it respectful because they took the time to think about it instead of giving a quick answer. In addition, Native Americans allowed everyone to talk in court, while the English spoke over each other and would not accept being wrong. Many of these habits are still evident in today’s world. Unfortunately, value and respect is not an ideal presented in our history.
After the horrific tragedy on September 1 lath many Muslims struggle to live a normal life. It is common for Americans to stereotype a group of people based on how they look and what their beliefs are. Many Muslims struggle with stereotypes every day. Because of the terrible attacks on the twin towers, many American people lack respect Dandelion 2 and fear all Muslims even though the people that attacked the towers are considered Muslim extremists. There are some Muslim terrorists, but it’s foolish and unfair to assume all or even most Muslims are terrorists. There are 1. 4 billion Muslims in the world (22% of the population), and the number s rapidly growing. Islam is projected to overtake Christianity as the majority religion on earth later in this century (Kenton). ” As you can see it is absurd to categorize all Muslims as terrorists when there are so many in the world today. Another group of people that Americans did not respect in history were the African Americans. Americans went into Africa and took innocent people out of their home and brought them across the world to be treated worse then animals.
Because the African Americans skin color was different and they were not educated, the white people thought it was okay to treat hem like savages. The treatment Of slaves in the united States varied by time and place, but was generally brutal and degrading. Whipping, execution, and sexual abuse including rape were very common (Gate”). Most slave owners did not treat slaves well. They beat slaves and punished them very badly. The owners had complete power over their slaves and thought they would work harder if they were afraid of being punished.
The slaves worked extremely hard for no pay and the owners considered them property, not a human being. In the American society today people of Spanish decent are often torpedoed of being illegal immigrants. Throughout the history of the United States, immigrants have flocked to the country in hopes of achieving a brighter future economically and socially. Fee United States has captivated prospective citizens with the concept of the “American Dandelion 3 Dream, a dream in which many consider to be real and tangible due to the economic flourish that the United States has achieved (Ablest). Many different types of people have come to America to live a better life. Since it is so hard to get a green card and takes many years to become a legal citizen, people have no choice but to come to America illegally. American people get very upset over this topic because they feel illegal immigrants are taking jobs and are getting away with not paying taxes; which is true but on the other hand can you blame these people? In the country they live they might not have any choice but to leave because if they stay their family might be killed.
Mexicans have become the image of illegal immigrants. American people have protests and rallies to show how upset they are about the topic. There are some Spanish illegal immigrants, but people need to respect that the season they are here is because they are trying to give their family the best opportunity they possibly can. If American people were in the same situation, I’m sure their actions would be very similar to those of the illegal immigrants.
By nature people are going to try and provide the best opportunities for their family; American people need to respect that. In conclusion, American people lack value and respect throughout history. Different groups of people such as Muslims, African Americans and Mexicans face hardships in our society. The American culture is very stereotypical and seem to categorize groups of people by the way they look or what they believe in. Hopefully one day it does not matter how you look or what you believe in, but by the type of human being you are.
Cite this Value and Respect in American History Essay
Value and Respect in American History Essay. (2018, Apr 30). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/value-and-respect-in-american-history/
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The Political Theories of Locke and Hobbes Essay
Political Theories of Locke and Hobbes
John Locke influenced Western political thought immensely. He lived during the age of political upheaval, the Glorious Revolution. During this time, the Tories and the Whigs, England’s first two political parties, joined together to rid their country of the tyrannical James II and welcomed as their new co-rulers his daughter, Mary, and her Dutch husband, William. Locke witnessed these events from the Netherlands, where he had fled in 1683 because he foresaw the accession of the absolutist and Catholic-leaning James II.
These events greatly influenced his political theories.Throughout his writings, Locke argued that people had the gift of reason. Locke thought they had the natural ability to govern themselves and to look after the well being of society. He wrote, “The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which treats everyone equally. Reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind…that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health or possessions.
Locke did not believe that God had chosen a group or family of people to rule countries. He rejected the “Divine Right,” which many kings and queens used to justify their right to rule. Instead, he argued that governments should only operate with the consent of the people they are governing. In this way, Locke supported democracy as a form of government. Locke wrote, “We have learned from history we have reason to conclude that all peaceful beginnings of government have been laid in consent of the people.” Governments were formed, according to Locke, to protect the right to life, the right to freedom, and the right to property. Their rights were absolute, belonging to all the people. Locke also believed that government power should be divided equally into three branches of government so that politicians will not face the “temptation… to grasp at absolute power.” If any government abused these rights instead of protecting them, then the people had the right to rebel and form a new government.John Locke spoke out against the control of any man against his will. This control was acceptable neither in the form of an unfair government, nor in slavery. Locke wrote, “The natural liberty of man is to be free from any superior power on earth, and not to be under the will or legislative authority of man, but only have the law of nature for his rule.” In addition, Locke felt that women had the ability to reason, which entitled them to an equal voice- an unpopular idea during this time in history. Despite fearing that he might be censored, he wrote, “It may not be wrong to offer new ideas when the old traditions are apt to lead men into mistakes, as this idea of fatherly power’s probably has done, which seems so eager to place the power of parents over their children wholly in the father, as if the mother had no share in it: whereas if we consult reason or the Bible, we shall find she has an equal title.”
Thomas Hobbes, on the other hand, had a completely different view of human beings and how government should function. This is due to his background of growing up in England, during a time of religious, social, and political discord. Hobbes, was very interested in why people allowed themselves to be ruled and what would be the best form of government for England. In 1651, Hobbes wrote his most famous work, entitled Leviathan. In it, he argued that people were naturally wicked and could not be trusted to govern. Therefore, Hobbes believed that an absolute monarchy- a government that gave all power to a king or queen- was best.Hobbes believed that humans were basically selfish creatures who would do anything to better their position. Left to themselves, he thought, people would act on their evil impulses. According to Hobbes, people therefore should not be trusted to make decisions on their own. In addition, Hobbes felt that nations, like people, were selfishly motivated. To Hobbes, each country was in a constant battle for power and wealth. To prove his point, Hobbes wrote, “If men are naturally in a state of war, why do they always carry arms and why do they have keys to lock their doors?”
Government were created, according to Hobbes, to protect people from their own selfishness and evil. The best government was one that had the great power of a leviathan. Hobbes believed in the rule of a king because he felt a country needed an authority figure to provide direction and leadership. Because the people were only interested in promoting their own self-interests, Hobbes believed democracy would never work. Hobbes wrote, “All man kind is in a perpetual and restless desire for power… that stops only in death.” Consequently, giving power to the individual would create a dangerous situation that would start a “war of every man against every man” and make life “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”
Despite his distrust in democracy, Hobbes believed that a diverse group of representatives presenting the problems of the common person, would hopefully, prevent a king from being cruel and unfair. During Hobbes’ lifetime, business began to have a big influence on government. Those who could contribute money to the government were given great status, and business interests were very powerful. In order to offset the growing power of business, Hobbes believed that an individual could be heard in government by authorizing a representative to speak on their behalf. In fact, Hobbes came up with the phrase “voice of the people,” which meant that one person could be chosen to represent a group with similar views. However, this “voice” was merely heard and not necessarily listened to- final decisions lay with the king.
Cite this The Political Theories of Locke and Hobbes Essay
The Political Theories of Locke and Hobbes Essay. (2018, Jul 08). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/the-political-theories-of-locke-and-hobbes/
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The Political Theories of Locke and Hobbes Essay
Political Theories of Locke and Hobbes
John Locke influenced Western political thought immensely. He lived during the age of political upheaval, the Glorious Revolution. During this time, the Tories and the Whigs, England’s first two political parties, joined together to rid their country of the tyrannical James II and welcomed as their new co-rulers his daughter, Mary, and her Dutch husband, William. Locke witnessed these events from the Netherlands, where he had fled in 1683 because he foresaw the accession of the absolutist and Catholic-leaning James II.
These events greatly influenced his political theories.Throughout his writings, Locke argued that people had the gift of reason. Locke thought they had the natural ability to govern themselves and to look after the well being of society. He wrote, “The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which treats everyone equally. Reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind…that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health or possessions.
Locke did not believe that God had chosen a group or family of people to rule countries. He rejected the “Divine Right,” which many kings and queens used to justify their right to rule. Instead, he argued that governments should only operate with the consent of the people they are governing. In this way, Locke supported democracy as a form of government. Locke wrote, “We have learned from history we have reason to conclude that all peaceful beginnings of government have been laid in consent of the people.” Governments were formed, according to Locke, to protect the right to life, the right to freedom, and the right to property. Their rights were absolute, belonging to all the people. Locke also believed that government power should be divided equally into three branches of government so that politicians will not face the “temptation… to grasp at absolute power.” If any government abused these rights instead of protecting them, then the people had the right to rebel and form a new government.John Locke spoke out against the control of any man against his will. This control was acceptable neither in the form of an unfair government, nor in slavery. Locke wrote, “The natural liberty of man is to be free from any superior power on earth, and not to be under the will or legislative authority of man, but only have the law of nature for his rule.” In addition, Locke felt that women had the ability to reason, which entitled them to an equal voice- an unpopular idea during this time in history. Despite fearing that he might be censored, he wrote, “It may not be wrong to offer new ideas when the old traditions are apt to lead men into mistakes, as this idea of fatherly power’s probably has done, which seems so eager to place the power of parents over their children wholly in the father, as if the mother had no share in it: whereas if we consult reason or the Bible, we shall find she has an equal title.”
Thomas Hobbes, on the other hand, had a completely different view of human beings and how government should function. This is due to his background of growing up in England, during a time of religious, social, and political discord. Hobbes, was very interested in why people allowed themselves to be ruled and what would be the best form of government for England. In 1651, Hobbes wrote his most famous work, entitled Leviathan. In it, he argued that people were naturally wicked and could not be trusted to govern. Therefore, Hobbes believed that an absolute monarchy- a government that gave all power to a king or queen- was best.Hobbes believed that humans were basically selfish creatures who would do anything to better their position. Left to themselves, he thought, people would act on their evil impulses. According to Hobbes, people therefore should not be trusted to make decisions on their own. In addition, Hobbes felt that nations, like people, were selfishly motivated. To Hobbes, each country was in a constant battle for power and wealth. To prove his point, Hobbes wrote, “If men are naturally in a state of war, why do they always carry arms and why do they have keys to lock their doors?”
Government were created, according to Hobbes, to protect people from their own selfishness and evil. The best government was one that had the great power of a leviathan. Hobbes believed in the rule of a king because he felt a country needed an authority figure to provide direction and leadership. Because the people were only interested in promoting their own self-interests, Hobbes believed democracy would never work. Hobbes wrote, “All man kind is in a perpetual and restless desire for power… that stops only in death.” Consequently, giving power to the individual would create a dangerous situation that would start a “war of every man against every man” and make life “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”
Despite his distrust in democracy, Hobbes believed that a diverse group of representatives presenting the problems of the common person, would hopefully, prevent a king from being cruel and unfair. During Hobbes’ lifetime, business began to have a big influence on government. Those who could contribute money to the government were given great status, and business interests were very powerful. In order to offset the growing power of business, Hobbes believed that an individual could be heard in government by authorizing a representative to speak on their behalf. In fact, Hobbes came up with the phrase “voice of the people,” which meant that one person could be chosen to represent a group with similar views. However, this “voice” was merely heard and not necessarily listened to- final decisions lay with the king.
Cite this The Political Theories of Locke and Hobbes Essay
The Political Theories of Locke and Hobbes Essay. (2018, Jul 08). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/the-political-theories-of-locke-and-hobbes/
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Dam building is an ancient concept. Some of the earliest functioning dams were built in the 1st and 2nd century AD. Dams are built to serve various functions like supplying water for irrigation, flood control, and generations of hydroelectricity. Dams are also associated with several disadvantages like loss of ecological balance in the areas where they are built, displacement of people and wildlife in such areas, etc. Worse happens when dams fail or give way. When a dam bursts, there is a sudden release of massive volumes of water which flood areas around the dam causing extreme loss of lives and property. Here is a look at some of history's worst dam failures:
The 1975 Banqiao Reservoir Dam Failure
The failure of the dam on the Ru River in China’s Zhumadian City was the deadliest dam failure ever. The construction of the Banqiao Dam was initiated in April 1951 and completed by 1952. It was established with the aim of controlling floods downstream and also generating hydroelectricity. The reservoir of the clay dam had a total capacity of 492 million cubic meters. Although initially, the dam exhibited several cracks and signs of other constructional errors, after the repairs, it was claimed that the dam was unbreakable. On August 1974, Typhoon Nina struck the region and its collision with a cold front resulted in excessive rainfall in the area. Finally, on August 8, the catastrophic disaster struck as the dam gave way and massive volumes of water engulfed the nearby areas. The dam failure caused an estimated 171,000 deaths. Millions of people were also displaced and huge losses to property were also recorded. Later, the dam was rebuilt.
1889 South Fork Dam Failure
The South Fork Dam was built on the artificially created Lake Conemaugh in Pennsylvania, the US between 1838 and 1853. On May 31, 1889, the dam burst and led to a massive disaster involving the loss of 2,209 human lives. The disaster resulted from incessant and unprecedented rainfall. As the dam gave way, nearly 20 million tons of water rushed into the nearby towns, washing away all that came in the path of the floodwaters. The disaster was termed the Johnstown Flood as the town of Johnstown was one of the worst affected places during this disaster.
The 1963 Vajont Dam Failure
The Vajont Dam was constructed in 1959 across the Vajont River in Erto e Casso municipality in Venice, Italy. Disaster struck on October 9, 1963, when during the initial filling, a landslide triggered a megatsunami in the lake created by the dam. About 50 million cubic meters of floodwater lashed onto nearby towns and villages in the form of an 820 ft high wave. 1,910 human deaths were recorded in this disaster. It is claimed that there were early signs that the disaster would happen since the dam was located in a geologically unstable area. However, these signs were largely ignored by the concerned authorities.
1967 Sempor Dam Failure
This embankment dam exists on the Sempor River in the Indonesian Gombong District. The dam serves as both a source of waters for irrigation and a recreational area for tourists. Added services include flood control and hydroelectricity generation. The dam is associated with a disaster in the same year as its construction which is 1967. On November 29, 1967, floodwaters resulting from flash floods in the region over-topped the dam leading to its failure. Many people were killed in the three nearby towns. Heavy loss of property was also incurred. Following the disaster, the dam was rebuilt and completed in 1980.
The 1943 Möhne Reservoir Failure
This Möhne Reservoir was created by damming two rivers, Heve and Möhne. The reservoir is located in the North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany. The dam on the reservoir was subjected to bombing during the Second World War. On the fateful night of May 16 to 17, 1943, bouncing bombs were targeted at the dam by RAF Lancaster Bombers. The protective nets hanging on the water were unable to stop the bombs. A massive hole was created on the dam that allowed water to spill over and flood large areas around the dam. At least 1,579 people lost their lives in this human-induced disaster. Of those who died, 1,026 people were foreign laborers who were forced to work in Germany and lived in camps near the dam.
The 1961 Kurenivka Mudslide
On March 13, 1961, a dam that secured the loam pulp dump of a brick factory near the capital city of Kiev in Ukraine, gave way due to heavy rains. Disaster struck as massive volumes of pulp moved at great speeds down the hill slopes into the inhabited area below. Although official reports mentioned only 146 fatalities, it is believed over 1,500 human lives were lost in the disaster. In the aftermath of the disaster, several engineers and managers responsible for designing and building the dam were convicted.
1961 Panshet Dam Failure
This dam is located on the Ambi River near Pune in India. The dam was built in the 1950’s and serves to provide water for irrigation and drinking purposes. On July 12, 1961, disaster struck when the wall of the dam burst due to faulty construction, and Pune was flooded. At least 1,000 people lost their lives in the disaster. The dam was later rebuilt.
About the Author
Oishimaya is an Indian native, currently residing in Kolkata. She has earned her Ph.D. degree and is presently engaged in full-time freelance writing and editing. She is an avid reader and travel enthusiast and is sensitively aware of her surroundings, both locally and globally. She loves mingling with people of eclectic cultures and also participates in activities concerning wildlife conservation.
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] | 2
|
Dam building is an ancient concept. Some of the earliest functioning dams were built in the 1st and 2nd century AD. Dams are built to serve various functions like supplying water for irrigation, flood control, and generations of hydroelectricity. Dams are also associated with several disadvantages like loss of ecological balance in the areas where they are built, displacement of people and wildlife in such areas, etc. Worse happens when dams fail or give way. When a dam bursts, there is a sudden release of massive volumes of water which flood areas around the dam causing extreme loss of lives and property. Here is a look at some of history's worst dam failures:
The 1975 Banqiao Reservoir Dam Failure
The failure of the dam on the Ru River in China’s Zhumadian City was the deadliest dam failure ever. The construction of the Banqiao Dam was initiated in April 1951 and completed by 1952. It was established with the aim of controlling floods downstream and also generating hydroelectricity. The reservoir of the clay dam had a total capacity of 492 million cubic meters. Although initially, the dam exhibited several cracks and signs of other constructional errors, after the repairs, it was claimed that the dam was unbreakable. On August 1974, Typhoon Nina struck the region and its collision with a cold front resulted in excessive rainfall in the area. Finally, on August 8, the catastrophic disaster struck as the dam gave way and massive volumes of water engulfed the nearby areas. The dam failure caused an estimated 171,000 deaths. Millions of people were also displaced and huge losses to property were also recorded. Later, the dam was rebuilt.
1889 South Fork Dam Failure
The South Fork Dam was built on the artificially created Lake Conemaugh in Pennsylvania, the US between 1838 and 1853. On May 31, 1889, the dam burst and led to a massive disaster involving the loss of 2,209 human lives. The disaster resulted from incessant and unprecedented rainfall. As the dam gave way, nearly 20 million tons of water rushed into the nearby towns, washing away all that came in the path of the floodwaters. The disaster was termed the Johnstown Flood as the town of Johnstown was one of the worst affected places during this disaster.
The 1963 Vajont Dam Failure
The Vajont Dam was constructed in 1959 across the Vajont River in Erto e Casso municipality in Venice, Italy. Disaster struck on October 9, 1963, when during the initial filling, a landslide triggered a megatsunami in the lake created by the dam. About 50 million cubic meters of floodwater lashed onto nearby towns and villages in the form of an 820 ft high wave. 1,910 human deaths were recorded in this disaster. It is claimed that there were early signs that the disaster would happen since the dam was located in a geologically unstable area. However, these signs were largely ignored by the concerned authorities.
1967 Sempor Dam Failure
This embankment dam exists on the Sempor River in the Indonesian Gombong District. The dam serves as both a source of waters for irrigation and a recreational area for tourists. Added services include flood control and hydroelectricity generation. The dam is associated with a disaster in the same year as its construction which is 1967. On November 29, 1967, floodwaters resulting from flash floods in the region over-topped the dam leading to its failure. Many people were killed in the three nearby towns. Heavy loss of property was also incurred. Following the disaster, the dam was rebuilt and completed in 1980.
The 1943 Möhne Reservoir Failure
This Möhne Reservoir was created by damming two rivers, Heve and Möhne. The reservoir is located in the North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany. The dam on the reservoir was subjected to bombing during the Second World War. On the fateful night of May 16 to 17, 1943, bouncing bombs were targeted at the dam by RAF Lancaster Bombers. The protective nets hanging on the water were unable to stop the bombs. A massive hole was created on the dam that allowed water to spill over and flood large areas around the dam. At least 1,579 people lost their lives in this human-induced disaster. Of those who died, 1,026 people were foreign laborers who were forced to work in Germany and lived in camps near the dam.
The 1961 Kurenivka Mudslide
On March 13, 1961, a dam that secured the loam pulp dump of a brick factory near the capital city of Kiev in Ukraine, gave way due to heavy rains. Disaster struck as massive volumes of pulp moved at great speeds down the hill slopes into the inhabited area below. Although official reports mentioned only 146 fatalities, it is believed over 1,500 human lives were lost in the disaster. In the aftermath of the disaster, several engineers and managers responsible for designing and building the dam were convicted.
1961 Panshet Dam Failure
This dam is located on the Ambi River near Pune in India. The dam was built in the 1950’s and serves to provide water for irrigation and drinking purposes. On July 12, 1961, disaster struck when the wall of the dam burst due to faulty construction, and Pune was flooded. At least 1,000 people lost their lives in the disaster. The dam was later rebuilt.
About the Author
Oishimaya is an Indian native, currently residing in Kolkata. She has earned her Ph.D. degree and is presently engaged in full-time freelance writing and editing. She is an avid reader and travel enthusiast and is sensitively aware of her surroundings, both locally and globally. She loves mingling with people of eclectic cultures and also participates in activities concerning wildlife conservation.
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| 1,319
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ENGLISH
| 1
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The Humber Bridge is a suspension bridge that crosses the Humber Estuary five miles west of the city of Hull in northeast England. When it was opened in 1981 its central span, at 1,410 metres (4,626 feet) was the world’s longest, although it has since lost that accolade to ten other bridges, six of them being in China.
The engineers were Freeman, Fox and Partners, and the work took eight years to complete.
The structure contains 470,000 tons of concrete, and the cables that support the roadway consist of 70,700 kms (44,000 miles) of wire, which is enough to go round the world one and a half times.
The towers are 152 metres (533 feet) high and the road deck is 30 metres (100 feet) above the water at high tide.
There is no Humber River as such, because the estuary carries the waters of two major rivers to the sea. These are the Ouse and the Trent, which between them drain nearly 10,000 square miles of Northern England and the East Midlands. The estuary, which is already a mile wide upstream of the Bridge, is more than seven miles across before it reaches the sea more than 20 miles to the east.
The bridge solved a problem that had troubled travelers for hundreds of years. The Romans built a major road north from Lincoln (Ermine Street) which was part of the route from London to York. However, the crossing of the Humber had to be by ferry. There is evidence that rafts were used in prehistoric times.
More recently, a paddle steamer service connected Hull to New Holland, a few miles east of the new bridge.
The only bridging point prior to the opening of the Humber Bridge was at Goole, 29 miles west of Hull. This became a congested “pinch point”, especially when heavy goods vehicles tried to get through the town. Things were eased when the motorway network bypassed Goole, but the Humber Bridge shortened the route between East Yorkshire and Lincolnshire and is now heavily used.
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] | 2
|
The Humber Bridge is a suspension bridge that crosses the Humber Estuary five miles west of the city of Hull in northeast England. When it was opened in 1981 its central span, at 1,410 metres (4,626 feet) was the world’s longest, although it has since lost that accolade to ten other bridges, six of them being in China.
The engineers were Freeman, Fox and Partners, and the work took eight years to complete.
The structure contains 470,000 tons of concrete, and the cables that support the roadway consist of 70,700 kms (44,000 miles) of wire, which is enough to go round the world one and a half times.
The towers are 152 metres (533 feet) high and the road deck is 30 metres (100 feet) above the water at high tide.
There is no Humber River as such, because the estuary carries the waters of two major rivers to the sea. These are the Ouse and the Trent, which between them drain nearly 10,000 square miles of Northern England and the East Midlands. The estuary, which is already a mile wide upstream of the Bridge, is more than seven miles across before it reaches the sea more than 20 miles to the east.
The bridge solved a problem that had troubled travelers for hundreds of years. The Romans built a major road north from Lincoln (Ermine Street) which was part of the route from London to York. However, the crossing of the Humber had to be by ferry. There is evidence that rafts were used in prehistoric times.
More recently, a paddle steamer service connected Hull to New Holland, a few miles east of the new bridge.
The only bridging point prior to the opening of the Humber Bridge was at Goole, 29 miles west of Hull. This became a congested “pinch point”, especially when heavy goods vehicles tried to get through the town. Things were eased when the motorway network bypassed Goole, but the Humber Bridge shortened the route between East Yorkshire and Lincolnshire and is now heavily used.
| 458
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ENGLISH
| 1
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Washington Irving is best known as the author of short stories such as The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and Rip Van Winkle. But not many realize that he was also the progenitor of our modern-day Santa Claus and introduced many Christmas traditions to America.
The New York Historical Society was founded in 1804 as NYC's first museum and adopted St. Nicholas as its patron. The city was in the midst of celebrating its Dutch history, and St. Nicholas was of particular importance to the Dutch. St. Nicholas or "Sinter Klaas," as the Dutch called him, had always been portrayed as someone who bestowed small gifts on well-behaved boys and girls on the eve of the 6th of December, his feast day. The real St. Nicholas was a bishop, and up until that time had been depicted as a tall figure, wearing vestments and carrying a staff.
In 1809, Irving became a member of the historical society and was amused by their fascination with St. Nicholas. He wrote the widely read satirical A History of New-York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty and transformed Sinter Klaas into what the New York Public Library describes as "a short, stout, merry, pipe-smoking Dutchman, dressed in traditional colonial attire." Irving's Dutch history of New York included the following passage:
"And the sage Oloffe [Van Kortlandt] dreamed a dream—and, lo! the good St. Nicholas came riding over the tops of the trees, in that self-same wagon wherein he brings his yearly presents to children. And he descended hard by where the heroes of Communipaw (NJ) hadmade their late repast. And he lit his pipe by the fire, and sat himself down and smoked; and as he smoked the smoke from his pipe ascended into the air, and spread like a cloud overhead. And Oloffe bethought him, and he hastened and climbed up to the top of one of the tallest trees, and saw that the smoke spread over a great extent of country—and as he considered it more attentively he fancied that the great volume of smoke assumed a variety of marvelous forms, where in dim obscurity he saw shadowed out palaces and domes and lofty spires, all of which lasted but a moment, and then faded away, until the whole rolled off, and nothing but the green woods were left. And when St. Nicholas had smoked his pipe, he twisted it in his hatband, and laying his finger beside his nose, gave the astonished Van Kortlandt a very significant look, then mounting his wagon, he returned over the treetops and disappeared.
And Van Kortlandt awoke from his sleep greatly instructed, and he aroused his companions, and related to them his dream, and interpreted it that it was the will of St. Nicholas that they should settle down and build the city here... The name most current at the present day, and which is likewise countenanced by the great historian Vander Donck, is Manhattan, which is said to have originated in a custom among the squaws, in the early settlement, of wearing men's hats, as is still done among many tribes."
Irving cheekily had Dutch Communipaw residents moving on and settling Manhattan based on Oloffe Van Kortlandt's dream of St. Nicholas. Of course, that's not how it happened (and that last line is a really obvious joke). But the language used in the description of St. Nick in Oloffe's dream is familiar. He smokes a pipe, distributes gifts to children, arrives in a flying wagon and lays a finger aside his nose before ascending up into the night sky. "A Visit from St. Nicholas" was published in 1823 and whether you believe it was written by Clement Clarke Moore or Major Henry Livingston, Jr., it's no doubt that the author was inspired by Washington Irving's description of the right jolly old elf published 14 years before. That poem was responsible for linking St. Nicholas to Christmas and has led to subsequent depictions of Santa Claus up to the present day.
Irving also brought Christmas traditions to America after experiencing them during a visit to England. Christmas wasn't widely celebrated in the States during his time, which disappointed Irving, so through his writings he introduced America to rituals such as Christmas caroling, the wassail bowl, hanging mistletoe and burning a Yule log. His Christmas stories were published in 1820 in his book The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon. According to Irving biographer Andrew Burstein, "Within a decade, New Yorkers were greeting each other with Christmas wishes, and stores on Broadway extended their hours to accommodate shoppers."
At one point, Irving served in an official capacity as U.S. Ambassador to Spain, but a huge part of his legacy is that of unofficial ambassador of Christmas.
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Washington Irving is best known as the author of short stories such as The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and Rip Van Winkle. But not many realize that he was also the progenitor of our modern-day Santa Claus and introduced many Christmas traditions to America.
The New York Historical Society was founded in 1804 as NYC's first museum and adopted St. Nicholas as its patron. The city was in the midst of celebrating its Dutch history, and St. Nicholas was of particular importance to the Dutch. St. Nicholas or "Sinter Klaas," as the Dutch called him, had always been portrayed as someone who bestowed small gifts on well-behaved boys and girls on the eve of the 6th of December, his feast day. The real St. Nicholas was a bishop, and up until that time had been depicted as a tall figure, wearing vestments and carrying a staff.
In 1809, Irving became a member of the historical society and was amused by their fascination with St. Nicholas. He wrote the widely read satirical A History of New-York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty and transformed Sinter Klaas into what the New York Public Library describes as "a short, stout, merry, pipe-smoking Dutchman, dressed in traditional colonial attire." Irving's Dutch history of New York included the following passage:
"And the sage Oloffe [Van Kortlandt] dreamed a dream—and, lo! the good St. Nicholas came riding over the tops of the trees, in that self-same wagon wherein he brings his yearly presents to children. And he descended hard by where the heroes of Communipaw (NJ) hadmade their late repast. And he lit his pipe by the fire, and sat himself down and smoked; and as he smoked the smoke from his pipe ascended into the air, and spread like a cloud overhead. And Oloffe bethought him, and he hastened and climbed up to the top of one of the tallest trees, and saw that the smoke spread over a great extent of country—and as he considered it more attentively he fancied that the great volume of smoke assumed a variety of marvelous forms, where in dim obscurity he saw shadowed out palaces and domes and lofty spires, all of which lasted but a moment, and then faded away, until the whole rolled off, and nothing but the green woods were left. And when St. Nicholas had smoked his pipe, he twisted it in his hatband, and laying his finger beside his nose, gave the astonished Van Kortlandt a very significant look, then mounting his wagon, he returned over the treetops and disappeared.
And Van Kortlandt awoke from his sleep greatly instructed, and he aroused his companions, and related to them his dream, and interpreted it that it was the will of St. Nicholas that they should settle down and build the city here... The name most current at the present day, and which is likewise countenanced by the great historian Vander Donck, is Manhattan, which is said to have originated in a custom among the squaws, in the early settlement, of wearing men's hats, as is still done among many tribes."
Irving cheekily had Dutch Communipaw residents moving on and settling Manhattan based on Oloffe Van Kortlandt's dream of St. Nicholas. Of course, that's not how it happened (and that last line is a really obvious joke). But the language used in the description of St. Nick in Oloffe's dream is familiar. He smokes a pipe, distributes gifts to children, arrives in a flying wagon and lays a finger aside his nose before ascending up into the night sky. "A Visit from St. Nicholas" was published in 1823 and whether you believe it was written by Clement Clarke Moore or Major Henry Livingston, Jr., it's no doubt that the author was inspired by Washington Irving's description of the right jolly old elf published 14 years before. That poem was responsible for linking St. Nicholas to Christmas and has led to subsequent depictions of Santa Claus up to the present day.
Irving also brought Christmas traditions to America after experiencing them during a visit to England. Christmas wasn't widely celebrated in the States during his time, which disappointed Irving, so through his writings he introduced America to rituals such as Christmas caroling, the wassail bowl, hanging mistletoe and burning a Yule log. His Christmas stories were published in 1820 in his book The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon. According to Irving biographer Andrew Burstein, "Within a decade, New Yorkers were greeting each other with Christmas wishes, and stores on Broadway extended their hours to accommodate shoppers."
At one point, Irving served in an official capacity as U.S. Ambassador to Spain, but a huge part of his legacy is that of unofficial ambassador of Christmas.
| 1,013
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ENGLISH
| 1
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The last king of France was not even a king at the time of his execution. He had been arrested the previous August and stripped of all his titles and styles when the monarchy was abolished a month later – his name at the time of his death, according to the newly formed French republic, was Citoyen Louis Capet. Louis faced his beheading bravely, and spoke to the onlookers, forgiving those who called for his execution.
The tragedy of it all is that Louis had been one of the greatest reformers in the history of the French monarchy, and had repeatedly instituted (or attempted to institute) policies that would help the common people of France. However, his reforms were repeatedly blocked by a nobility jealous of its privileges – especially those reforms that would have harmed them financially. The reforms they did allow through often proved economically disastrous – Louis and his advisers were poor economists. As king, the ultimate responsibility rested with Louis, and as a man, he paid the ultimate price for it.
Napoleon had grand dreams of empire when he embarked for the Middle East in 1798. And at first, they seemed warranted. His forces took Malta in June 1798, and then eluded the British Navy for nearly two weeks as they crossed the Mediterranean to Egypt. On July 1, the fleet landed at Alexandria, although Napoleon himself was still at sea.
Perhaps this is why his orders were ignored, and his forces invaded the city during the night, taking it with little resistance. Napoleon’s Egyptian campaign was a mixed success: on land his forces triumphed over the Egyptians and ended the rule of the Mamelukes; at sea, they lost a disastrous engagement with the British. Undaunted, Napoleon continued with his plans to invade Syria, but a combination of harrying from the British at sea and the Ottomans on land, coupled with uprisings of the conquered (notably at Cairo in October 1798) eventually forced him to withdraw. The lasting results of his invasion were few: Egypt remained an Ottoman possession, although the decline of the Ottoman Empire was now undeniable; and the discovery of the Rosetta Stone led to great advances in archaeology, making it possible to translate hieroglyphics into modern languages.
It is possibly the most notorious defeat in military history, a textbook example of strategic and logistical errors: Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow, in the chilly Winter in 1812. This day, December 14, marks the date upon which the French were finally expelled from Russian territory.
A combination of factors – worsening weather, an over-extended supply chain, the scorched-earth policy of the Russian peasantry and the guerilla tactics of the Russian military being the most well-known – came together to make the French position in Moscow untenable. When Napoleon left the army to shore up his political position in France, the already poor morale of the French army sank lower still, and the remaining commanders ordered a retreat, most likely in order to prevent a mutiny.
Thus began one of the most infamous and fatal retreats the world has ever seen. In addition, the defeat was the beginning of the end for Napoleon, whose fortunes declined over the next few years, finally culminating in his defeat in the battle of Waterloo in 1815
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The last king of France was not even a king at the time of his execution. He had been arrested the previous August and stripped of all his titles and styles when the monarchy was abolished a month later – his name at the time of his death, according to the newly formed French republic, was Citoyen Louis Capet. Louis faced his beheading bravely, and spoke to the onlookers, forgiving those who called for his execution.
The tragedy of it all is that Louis had been one of the greatest reformers in the history of the French monarchy, and had repeatedly instituted (or attempted to institute) policies that would help the common people of France. However, his reforms were repeatedly blocked by a nobility jealous of its privileges – especially those reforms that would have harmed them financially. The reforms they did allow through often proved economically disastrous – Louis and his advisers were poor economists. As king, the ultimate responsibility rested with Louis, and as a man, he paid the ultimate price for it.
Napoleon had grand dreams of empire when he embarked for the Middle East in 1798. And at first, they seemed warranted. His forces took Malta in June 1798, and then eluded the British Navy for nearly two weeks as they crossed the Mediterranean to Egypt. On July 1, the fleet landed at Alexandria, although Napoleon himself was still at sea.
Perhaps this is why his orders were ignored, and his forces invaded the city during the night, taking it with little resistance. Napoleon’s Egyptian campaign was a mixed success: on land his forces triumphed over the Egyptians and ended the rule of the Mamelukes; at sea, they lost a disastrous engagement with the British. Undaunted, Napoleon continued with his plans to invade Syria, but a combination of harrying from the British at sea and the Ottomans on land, coupled with uprisings of the conquered (notably at Cairo in October 1798) eventually forced him to withdraw. The lasting results of his invasion were few: Egypt remained an Ottoman possession, although the decline of the Ottoman Empire was now undeniable; and the discovery of the Rosetta Stone led to great advances in archaeology, making it possible to translate hieroglyphics into modern languages.
It is possibly the most notorious defeat in military history, a textbook example of strategic and logistical errors: Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow, in the chilly Winter in 1812. This day, December 14, marks the date upon which the French were finally expelled from Russian territory.
A combination of factors – worsening weather, an over-extended supply chain, the scorched-earth policy of the Russian peasantry and the guerilla tactics of the Russian military being the most well-known – came together to make the French position in Moscow untenable. When Napoleon left the army to shore up his political position in France, the already poor morale of the French army sank lower still, and the remaining commanders ordered a retreat, most likely in order to prevent a mutiny.
Thus began one of the most infamous and fatal retreats the world has ever seen. In addition, the defeat was the beginning of the end for Napoleon, whose fortunes declined over the next few years, finally culminating in his defeat in the battle of Waterloo in 1815
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Since the United States have become their own country, it has gone through many changes in status. Before becoming a country, the United States was merely a series of territories belonging to multiple countries. When we began to advance in status, we learned that one key to success was a strategy called imperialism.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Imperialism in the Spanish-American War" essay for youCreate order
Imperialism happens when a country uses its military and relationships with other countries to gain control of other territories. This system makes the power of the country rely on the territory that the country has obtained. In the late nineteenth century, the ways of imperialism were very popular in America because they wanted to expand their territory in order to become more powerful.
In the late nineteenth century, Spain didn’t have power over very much land. The only territories they had were Puerto Rico, Cuba, some islands in the Pacific, and a couple of small territories in Africa. They were wanting more territory, like the United States, and they were set on defending the territories they were already in rule over. They may have been so possessive because only years before, the Spanish territory was in power of much more land than it was at the time before the Spanish-American War.
The Spanish-American War was really sparked with the fight for the independence of Cuba. When they decided that they wanted independence, the Spanish decided that they needed to fight back because they did not want to lose one of the few territories that they still had ownership over. Cuba was very important to the Spanish Empire; it was so important that Spain gave the territory of Florida to Britain in order to keep control of Havana, Cuba’s capital. From this point on, a battle of territory ensued. The practice of imperialism in these two countries, or empires, if you will, has now begun a war.
Before the war, the United States did not approve of the way the Spanish Empire was governing Cuba. The rule of Cuba became more absolutist, despite its state of being a colony. Even the inhabitants of Cuba who opposed independence in the beginning now began to seek reform, whether that be through independence or through being added to the United States.
Major General Máximo Gí?mez Baez was a leader of the Cuban revolution against Spain. The Cubans were revolting against their Spanish rule because the people of Cuba had suffered centuries of oppression, and by the early 1800s, they were forced to pay high taxes to their Spanish rulers. His troops had already been fighting Spain in the Ten Years’ War from October of 1868 to 1878, which was for their independence. The effort Cuba’s separation had failed, ending in a peace in which Spain promised Cuba some limited self-government. This deal was never fulfilled on Spain’s part.
Máximo Gí?mez Baez went to the United States to meet with José Martí, a Cuban revolutionary and activist who was exiled because of his passionate activism. These two ended up having very different ideas of how to get Cuba into its own, independent state. Connections like these are what gave Cuba American support in their fight for freedom. At this point, the United States were aware that they were not going to be able to buy Cuba from Spain and that Cuba was going to want to be a self-reliant country. The way that the United States was serving Cuba became more of a sympathetic relationship than a business deal. The U.S. remembered what it was like for themselves being under the rule of other empires and just wanting to provide for and rule themselves. In addition to this, Cubans were also being put into concentration camps by leaders of their government, and this was completely unacceptable.
Although all of these terrible things were happening to Cubans, the United States remained neutral between the Spaniards and the Cubans. The U.S. president at the time, William McKinley, just tried to influence Spain to end the violence in favor of Cuba. The Spaniards believed that they had the divine right, or right given by God, to any territory they could get possession of.
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Since the United States have become their own country, it has gone through many changes in status. Before becoming a country, the United States was merely a series of territories belonging to multiple countries. When we began to advance in status, we learned that one key to success was a strategy called imperialism.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Imperialism in the Spanish-American War" essay for youCreate order
Imperialism happens when a country uses its military and relationships with other countries to gain control of other territories. This system makes the power of the country rely on the territory that the country has obtained. In the late nineteenth century, the ways of imperialism were very popular in America because they wanted to expand their territory in order to become more powerful.
In the late nineteenth century, Spain didn’t have power over very much land. The only territories they had were Puerto Rico, Cuba, some islands in the Pacific, and a couple of small territories in Africa. They were wanting more territory, like the United States, and they were set on defending the territories they were already in rule over. They may have been so possessive because only years before, the Spanish territory was in power of much more land than it was at the time before the Spanish-American War.
The Spanish-American War was really sparked with the fight for the independence of Cuba. When they decided that they wanted independence, the Spanish decided that they needed to fight back because they did not want to lose one of the few territories that they still had ownership over. Cuba was very important to the Spanish Empire; it was so important that Spain gave the territory of Florida to Britain in order to keep control of Havana, Cuba’s capital. From this point on, a battle of territory ensued. The practice of imperialism in these two countries, or empires, if you will, has now begun a war.
Before the war, the United States did not approve of the way the Spanish Empire was governing Cuba. The rule of Cuba became more absolutist, despite its state of being a colony. Even the inhabitants of Cuba who opposed independence in the beginning now began to seek reform, whether that be through independence or through being added to the United States.
Major General Máximo Gí?mez Baez was a leader of the Cuban revolution against Spain. The Cubans were revolting against their Spanish rule because the people of Cuba had suffered centuries of oppression, and by the early 1800s, they were forced to pay high taxes to their Spanish rulers. His troops had already been fighting Spain in the Ten Years’ War from October of 1868 to 1878, which was for their independence. The effort Cuba’s separation had failed, ending in a peace in which Spain promised Cuba some limited self-government. This deal was never fulfilled on Spain’s part.
Máximo Gí?mez Baez went to the United States to meet with José Martí, a Cuban revolutionary and activist who was exiled because of his passionate activism. These two ended up having very different ideas of how to get Cuba into its own, independent state. Connections like these are what gave Cuba American support in their fight for freedom. At this point, the United States were aware that they were not going to be able to buy Cuba from Spain and that Cuba was going to want to be a self-reliant country. The way that the United States was serving Cuba became more of a sympathetic relationship than a business deal. The U.S. remembered what it was like for themselves being under the rule of other empires and just wanting to provide for and rule themselves. In addition to this, Cubans were also being put into concentration camps by leaders of their government, and this was completely unacceptable.
Although all of these terrible things were happening to Cubans, the United States remained neutral between the Spaniards and the Cubans. The U.S. president at the time, William McKinley, just tried to influence Spain to end the violence in favor of Cuba. The Spaniards believed that they had the divine right, or right given by God, to any territory they could get possession of.
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ENGLISH
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During the month of December, the first-grade students learned all about Gingerbread Men. We incorporated reading and math into this unit. Some of the Gingerbread stories we read were “The Gingerbread Man”, “The Gingerbread Girl”, and “The Gingerbread Baby” just to name a few! The students loved listening to all the different gingerbread stories. The students even completed an at-home project with their parents where they dressed up their own gingerbread boy or girl! To end our unit, the students, got to taste gingerbread cookies! We even created a graph over our first bite! We would like to thank PIE for covering the cost of the cookies! We appreciate their support!
When My Snowman Turned Into Frosty Writing Project – Third Grade
Third graders have been working hard as they wrote about “When My Snowman Turned Into Frosty.” Each student had their own spin to their story as to what they did when their snowman came to life. We went through each step of the writing process, so students were able to take the time to edit their work. This allowed students to see how they could make adjustments to their story as they needed to. It has been fun to hear students read their stories and see where their imaginations took them as they were writing!
Kindergarten STEM Activities
During the first nine weeks of kindergarten, students have been engaged in STEM activities. STEM stands for Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics. These activities encourage children to be problem solvers, thinkers and builders, also improving skills such as logical thinking, hand-eye coordination, pattern recognition and creativity.
A few of these activities include: Magnatiles, building straws, Legos, comb blocks, blocks and “Magic Flakes” building wheels. In my classroom, building straws are a favorite! Kindergarten students have really enjoyed these new materials.
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During the month of December, the first-grade students learned all about Gingerbread Men. We incorporated reading and math into this unit. Some of the Gingerbread stories we read were “The Gingerbread Man”, “The Gingerbread Girl”, and “The Gingerbread Baby” just to name a few! The students loved listening to all the different gingerbread stories. The students even completed an at-home project with their parents where they dressed up their own gingerbread boy or girl! To end our unit, the students, got to taste gingerbread cookies! We even created a graph over our first bite! We would like to thank PIE for covering the cost of the cookies! We appreciate their support!
When My Snowman Turned Into Frosty Writing Project – Third Grade
Third graders have been working hard as they wrote about “When My Snowman Turned Into Frosty.” Each student had their own spin to their story as to what they did when their snowman came to life. We went through each step of the writing process, so students were able to take the time to edit their work. This allowed students to see how they could make adjustments to their story as they needed to. It has been fun to hear students read their stories and see where their imaginations took them as they were writing!
Kindergarten STEM Activities
During the first nine weeks of kindergarten, students have been engaged in STEM activities. STEM stands for Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics. These activities encourage children to be problem solvers, thinkers and builders, also improving skills such as logical thinking, hand-eye coordination, pattern recognition and creativity.
A few of these activities include: Magnatiles, building straws, Legos, comb blocks, blocks and “Magic Flakes” building wheels. In my classroom, building straws are a favorite! Kindergarten students have really enjoyed these new materials.
| 377
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
The Major Cities of Britain that Were Bombed by the Germans
There are quite a few reasons as to why the major cities of Britain
such as London, Coventry, Plymouth and even Manchesterand Glasgow were
bombed by the Germans in 1940 to 1941.
Although for Britain the Second World War began on the 3rd September
1939 it did not really begin until 1940. Thus from 1939 to 1940 became
a period known as the "Phoney War".
The bombing of the major cities was known as the Blitz, the German
word for lightening, and one of the reasons why Hitler decided to bomb
Britain was because he had given up his attempt to invade Britain in
September 1940. Before Hitler ...view middle of the document...
Also Hitler believed he could use similar tactics against
Another major reason for the Blitz was more to do with the people of
Britain. It was hoped that the bombing of major British cities would
break the morale of British people if they saw their homes being
destroyed and the people closest to them being killed. Hitler hoped
and believed that by braking people's morale, the people of Britain
would then force the British government to surrender to the Germans.
Hitler also bombed the major cities of Britain in an attempt to
destroy industry. The London Docks were attacked regularly too. The
German airforce, the Luftwaffe, also tried to bomb gas-holders, power
stations, railway lines and junctions. These were the things that were
of importance to the British people, which they needed, in their daily
lives. Other major cities such as Coventry, Plymouth and Liverpool
were bombed as some were major industrial areas e.g. Coventry and
others were major ports e.g. Plymouth. Hitler also wanted to bomb
industry to reduce the British capacity to fight the war.
One of Hitler's reasons to bomb the major cities of Britain was so
that he could distract the British Government from the war. By bombing
the major British cities he would make many people homeless, with
nothing to eat and no where to go. By the end of the bombing 1.4
million people were homeless, this was a real problem for the
government. As well as the many millions...
|
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| 470
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] | 1
|
The Major Cities of Britain that Were Bombed by the Germans
There are quite a few reasons as to why the major cities of Britain
such as London, Coventry, Plymouth and even Manchesterand Glasgow were
bombed by the Germans in 1940 to 1941.
Although for Britain the Second World War began on the 3rd September
1939 it did not really begin until 1940. Thus from 1939 to 1940 became
a period known as the "Phoney War".
The bombing of the major cities was known as the Blitz, the German
word for lightening, and one of the reasons why Hitler decided to bomb
Britain was because he had given up his attempt to invade Britain in
September 1940. Before Hitler ...view middle of the document...
Also Hitler believed he could use similar tactics against
Another major reason for the Blitz was more to do with the people of
Britain. It was hoped that the bombing of major British cities would
break the morale of British people if they saw their homes being
destroyed and the people closest to them being killed. Hitler hoped
and believed that by braking people's morale, the people of Britain
would then force the British government to surrender to the Germans.
Hitler also bombed the major cities of Britain in an attempt to
destroy industry. The London Docks were attacked regularly too. The
German airforce, the Luftwaffe, also tried to bomb gas-holders, power
stations, railway lines and junctions. These were the things that were
of importance to the British people, which they needed, in their daily
lives. Other major cities such as Coventry, Plymouth and Liverpool
were bombed as some were major industrial areas e.g. Coventry and
others were major ports e.g. Plymouth. Hitler also wanted to bomb
industry to reduce the British capacity to fight the war.
One of Hitler's reasons to bomb the major cities of Britain was so
that he could distract the British Government from the war. By bombing
the major British cities he would make many people homeless, with
nothing to eat and no where to go. By the end of the bombing 1.4
million people were homeless, this was a real problem for the
government. As well as the many millions...
| 488
|
ENGLISH
| 1
|
Students in Fifth-Grade took a day to learn about chemical and physical change with a hands on experience! We had the opportunity to have a science program in our class rooms! From the beginning of the presentation we were all hooked! After our presentation we moved onto our experiments and hypotheses that were going to happen. We had several test tubes with solids and liquids. Some of these contained vinegar, milk, cabbage juice, baking soda, fertilizer, and road salt. Before we began, we had to make sure to have our safety goggles on! When experimenting, we always have to be safe. We proceeded into taking turns testing and hypothesizing what was going to happen. Then, as a table, we collaborated whether it was a chemical or physical change! This was an engaging and hands on experience!
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|
Students in Fifth-Grade took a day to learn about chemical and physical change with a hands on experience! We had the opportunity to have a science program in our class rooms! From the beginning of the presentation we were all hooked! After our presentation we moved onto our experiments and hypotheses that were going to happen. We had several test tubes with solids and liquids. Some of these contained vinegar, milk, cabbage juice, baking soda, fertilizer, and road salt. Before we began, we had to make sure to have our safety goggles on! When experimenting, we always have to be safe. We proceeded into taking turns testing and hypothesizing what was going to happen. Then, as a table, we collaborated whether it was a chemical or physical change! This was an engaging and hands on experience!
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ENGLISH
| 1
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The Vietnam War was truly one of the most uncommon wars ever fought. This conflict was so hostile and ironic, that the official beginning and end could never be identified, or pinpointed. Likewise, the enemies and the allies looked exactly alike. This turmoil made everyone in the war confused, because “anyone” could be a friend by day, and foe by night. Additionally, what made the war so difficult was the tactics used by many soldiers. These tactics were called “Guerrilla Warfare,” which consisted of the simple process of “hide, shoot, and run.” Surprisingly, this fighting technique matched the skills of many of the best-trained soldiers from the opposite side.
The Vietnam War fought between the communist North Vietnam, and the non-communist South Vietnam was supported by the United States. The main objective of the war was to contain the leader. Ho Chi Minh, was the leader of the “league for the independence of Vietnam,” generally known as the Viet Minh. The league was organized in 1941 as a “nationalistic party”; their goal was to seek Vietnamese independence from France.
South Vietnam did not have the resources of modern military technology; therefore, the capacity of depending on themselves, was minimum. The United States were allied with South Vietnam, and they made a massive deployment, that begun in the spring of 1965. The deployment consisted of and initial wave of 180,000 men followed by 550,000 others. This evolution was accompanied with a huge construction program, which consisted of the army, navy, and air force engineer units, and with a few selected civilian engineering contractors. Under this program there was construction of seven “deep waters,” several smaller ports, eight jet air bases with 10,000-foot runways, 200 smaller airfields, and 200 heliports. Finally, there...
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CC-MAIN-2020-05
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https://brightkite.com/essay-on/vietnam-11
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00066.warc.gz
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The Vietnam War was truly one of the most uncommon wars ever fought. This conflict was so hostile and ironic, that the official beginning and end could never be identified, or pinpointed. Likewise, the enemies and the allies looked exactly alike. This turmoil made everyone in the war confused, because “anyone” could be a friend by day, and foe by night. Additionally, what made the war so difficult was the tactics used by many soldiers. These tactics were called “Guerrilla Warfare,” which consisted of the simple process of “hide, shoot, and run.” Surprisingly, this fighting technique matched the skills of many of the best-trained soldiers from the opposite side.
The Vietnam War fought between the communist North Vietnam, and the non-communist South Vietnam was supported by the United States. The main objective of the war was to contain the leader. Ho Chi Minh, was the leader of the “league for the independence of Vietnam,” generally known as the Viet Minh. The league was organized in 1941 as a “nationalistic party”; their goal was to seek Vietnamese independence from France.
South Vietnam did not have the resources of modern military technology; therefore, the capacity of depending on themselves, was minimum. The United States were allied with South Vietnam, and they made a massive deployment, that begun in the spring of 1965. The deployment consisted of and initial wave of 180,000 men followed by 550,000 others. This evolution was accompanied with a huge construction program, which consisted of the army, navy, and air force engineer units, and with a few selected civilian engineering contractors. Under this program there was construction of seven “deep waters,” several smaller ports, eight jet air bases with 10,000-foot runways, 200 smaller airfields, and 200 heliports. Finally, there...
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ENGLISH
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Jefferson Finis Davis (June 3, 1808 – December 6, 1889) was an American politician who served as the president of the Confederate States from 1861 to 1865. As a member of the Democratic Party, he represented Mississippi in the United States Senate and the House of Representatives before the American Civil War. He previously served as the United States Secretary of War from 1853 to 1857 under President Franklin Pierce.
Davis was born in Fairview, Kentucky, to a moderately prosperous farmer, the youngest of ten children. He grew up in Wilkinson County, Mississippi, and also lived in Louisiana. His eldest brother Joseph Emory Davis secured the younger Davis’s appointment to the United States Military Academy. After graduating, Jefferson Davis served six years as a lieutenant in the United States Army. He fought in the Mexican–American War (1846–1848), as the colonel of a volunteer regiment. Before the American Civil War, he operated a large cotton plantation in Mississippi, which his brother Joseph gave him, and owned as many as 113 slaves. Although Davis argued against secession in 1858, he believed that states had an unquestionable right to leave the Union.
Davis married Sarah Knox Taylor, daughter of general and future President Zachary Taylor, in 1835, when he was 27 years old. They were both stricken with malaria soon thereafter, and Sarah died after three months of marriage. Davis recovered slowly and suffered from recurring bouts of the disease throughout his life. At the age of 36, Davis married again, to 18-year-old Varina Howell, a native of Natchez, Mississippi, who had been educated in Philadelphia and had some family ties in the North. They had six children. Only two survived him, and only one married and had children.
Many historians attribute some of the Confederacy’s weaknesses to the poor leadership of Davis. His preoccupation with detail, reluctance to delegate responsibility, lack of popular appeal, feuds with powerful state governors and generals, favoritism toward old friends, inability to get along with people who disagreed with him, neglect of civil matters in favor of military ones, and resistance to public opinion all worked against him. Historians agree he was a much less effective war leader than his Union counterpart, President Abraham Lincoln. After Davis was captured in 1865, he was accused of treason and imprisoned at Fort Monroe in Hampton, Virginia. He was never tried and was released after two years. While not disgraced, Davis had been displaced in ex-Confederate affection after the war by his leading general, Robert E. Lee. Davis wrote a memoir entitled The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government, which he completed in 1881. By the late 1880s, he began to encourage reconciliation, telling Southerners to be loyal to the Union. Ex-Confederates came to appreciate his role in the war, seeing him as a Southern patriot. He became a hero of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy in the post-Reconstruction South.
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Jefferson Finis Davis (June 3, 1808 – December 6, 1889) was an American politician who served as the president of the Confederate States from 1861 to 1865. As a member of the Democratic Party, he represented Mississippi in the United States Senate and the House of Representatives before the American Civil War. He previously served as the United States Secretary of War from 1853 to 1857 under President Franklin Pierce.
Davis was born in Fairview, Kentucky, to a moderately prosperous farmer, the youngest of ten children. He grew up in Wilkinson County, Mississippi, and also lived in Louisiana. His eldest brother Joseph Emory Davis secured the younger Davis’s appointment to the United States Military Academy. After graduating, Jefferson Davis served six years as a lieutenant in the United States Army. He fought in the Mexican–American War (1846–1848), as the colonel of a volunteer regiment. Before the American Civil War, he operated a large cotton plantation in Mississippi, which his brother Joseph gave him, and owned as many as 113 slaves. Although Davis argued against secession in 1858, he believed that states had an unquestionable right to leave the Union.
Davis married Sarah Knox Taylor, daughter of general and future President Zachary Taylor, in 1835, when he was 27 years old. They were both stricken with malaria soon thereafter, and Sarah died after three months of marriage. Davis recovered slowly and suffered from recurring bouts of the disease throughout his life. At the age of 36, Davis married again, to 18-year-old Varina Howell, a native of Natchez, Mississippi, who had been educated in Philadelphia and had some family ties in the North. They had six children. Only two survived him, and only one married and had children.
Many historians attribute some of the Confederacy’s weaknesses to the poor leadership of Davis. His preoccupation with detail, reluctance to delegate responsibility, lack of popular appeal, feuds with powerful state governors and generals, favoritism toward old friends, inability to get along with people who disagreed with him, neglect of civil matters in favor of military ones, and resistance to public opinion all worked against him. Historians agree he was a much less effective war leader than his Union counterpart, President Abraham Lincoln. After Davis was captured in 1865, he was accused of treason and imprisoned at Fort Monroe in Hampton, Virginia. He was never tried and was released after two years. While not disgraced, Davis had been displaced in ex-Confederate affection after the war by his leading general, Robert E. Lee. Davis wrote a memoir entitled The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government, which he completed in 1881. By the late 1880s, he began to encourage reconciliation, telling Southerners to be loyal to the Union. Ex-Confederates came to appreciate his role in the war, seeing him as a Southern patriot. He became a hero of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy in the post-Reconstruction South.
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One of the biggest concerns for historians of today is how to get the younger generations interested in history. As the school syllabus becomes increasingly more and more narrow for the periods of history it teaches, some of the most important events are being forgotten. However, over the summer, Warwick Castle was the stage for one of the best ways to get every generation together to celebrate and become involved in history; Wars of the Roses Live!
So, here’s just a little introduction to the castle. Warwick Castle was originally a moat and bailey structure built by William the Conqueror and completed around 1068. During the twelfth century the original wooden castle was rebuilt in stone and then fortified during the Hundred Years War in the fourteenth century. As of the 17th century, the castle belonged to the Greyville family and became a stronghold for James I. The Greyvilles would remain the earls of Warwick until the late 1970’s when it was brought by the Taussauds Company and eventually in 2007 it was made into a Merlin attraction. During the Wars of the Roses in the fifteenth century the castle was home to one of England’s most influential families, the Neville’s and more specifically Richard Neville the 18th Earl of Warwick, more commonly known as Warwick the Kingmaker. Richard Neville would go on to play an incredibly important political role during the later phase of the Wars of the Roses.
What’s the Wars of the Roses though, I hear you say? The Wars of the Roses is made up of a series of battles and political rivalries between two families as they fought for the throne of England. These two families were the Yorkist’s (white rose) and the Lancastrians (red rose). The Lancastrian family held the throne from 1399 when Henry IV usurped Richard II from the throne, although not many people were too put out by the change in ruler, and held it until the battle of Towton in 1461 where Edward IV would beat Henry VI’s forces and the Yorkist rule began. The start and end date of the Wars is a much deliberated topic amongst historians however I like to place it at the 1452 with the Dartford rebellion, when Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York, made his first political move against Henry VI and tensions in England were brought to attention and the end at 1485 when Henry VII won against Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth and began the Tudor Dynasty. A lot of other stuff happened before, during and after those dates but that’s another blog post.
So, back to Wars of the Roses Live. The idea of the event was to showcase the battles that happened and to tell the story as to how the Tudor dynasty came to be. Like many other adaptations of historical events, there were a few *sharp intake of breath* moments, especially when you’re a student who’d spent the last year studying the phases in great depth in a module that was written by one of the leading historians on the topic, Michael Hicks, and was taught to you by his colleague and another leading late medieval historian, James Ross. However I don’t want to focus on those…too much anyway. So I’m gonna start with those.
The wars according to them started in 1461 with the Battle of Towton, which is okay because there is lots of controversy to when the wars actually started, however they skipped all the political strife that led up to it and the First Battle of St Albans which was very important indeed. Despite the dates being debated, an issue with them starting this late into the war meant that Richard Duke of York, one of the protagonists of the battles, is completely overlooked at his part which meant his son Edward IV takes centre stage again highlighting the lack of background information they provided. Henry VI, who was king during the first phases of the war and then again in 1471 for a year, was never even mentioned which is interesting considering he was, well king. However this did mean that they could give Margaret of Anjou the credit she deserved for the part that she played in the wars, despite her interesting French accent. Elizabeth of York also starts to play her part very early on into the acts suggesting she was an important part during her father’s first reign when actually she would have been little more than a thought in her parent’s minds and not born until 1466.
The stage was set in a jousting arena where you chose your side, either the white rose of the Yorkist’s or the red rose of the Lancastrians. Once everyone was settled, the show began with a little light background information and an introduction to the two houses. The knights of each houses worked their sides up into a frenzy as the performance started with great equestrian showmanship. They introduced the key players with coloured smoke and flags flying everywhere, and the wars began.
They started with the battle of Towton in 1461 and got in all the violence of the battle whilst still making it something the younger generations would understand and enjoy. Although they took a little poetic license with the events that followed, the timeline ran as the history books said and the next major event was the return of Margaret of Anjou and Richard Neville, who was now fighting for the Lancastrians, as they fought the two battles that followed, Barnet and Tewkesbury in 1471. The horsemanship was breath-taking as they rode into mock battle and got many ooh’s and aaaah’s from the audience. As the Yorkist’s emerged victorious there were cheers from the white roses that could be heard throughout the castle grounds.
But the best part of the show was the depiction of the Battle of Bosworth. As they introduced Henry V to the story the great Battle of Bosworth was fought with drama and flair that had both sides cheering until the ultimate winner emerged victorious. With the death of Richard III depicted as him being surrounded by Lancastrian forces, this is an interesting account to have followed. It showed Richard as going down with a fight and with the regality of a king however it showed none of the cowardice that the popular belief was he was killed by a random soldier when attempting to flee the battle. Choosing this path to acting out his death added to the show and provided the end of the wars with its dramatic conclusion.
The closing sequence brought back all the historical figures that played their part in the wars, they also repeated which events they had featured giving the delightful show the historical backup. They displayed even more amazing equestrian prowess as they celebrated the skills of their horses, which personally I loved and all the children beamed as the horses came together.
So overall, the Knights of Middle England, the company behind Wars of the Roses Live, delivered a fun-filled, dramatic and generation friendly show with sword fighting, smoke, gallant knights and strong hearted queens. They only had a half an hour slot, and in that time they got in important battles of English history and kept the whole audience glued to seats as they cheered on their chosen rose. The children’s faces as they watched in awe at the spectacle is enough to fill any historians heart with the hope that events such as these are everything we need to encourage the younger generations to widen their historical knowledge. Wars of the Roses Live is the show to go and see.
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] | 1
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One of the biggest concerns for historians of today is how to get the younger generations interested in history. As the school syllabus becomes increasingly more and more narrow for the periods of history it teaches, some of the most important events are being forgotten. However, over the summer, Warwick Castle was the stage for one of the best ways to get every generation together to celebrate and become involved in history; Wars of the Roses Live!
So, here’s just a little introduction to the castle. Warwick Castle was originally a moat and bailey structure built by William the Conqueror and completed around 1068. During the twelfth century the original wooden castle was rebuilt in stone and then fortified during the Hundred Years War in the fourteenth century. As of the 17th century, the castle belonged to the Greyville family and became a stronghold for James I. The Greyvilles would remain the earls of Warwick until the late 1970’s when it was brought by the Taussauds Company and eventually in 2007 it was made into a Merlin attraction. During the Wars of the Roses in the fifteenth century the castle was home to one of England’s most influential families, the Neville’s and more specifically Richard Neville the 18th Earl of Warwick, more commonly known as Warwick the Kingmaker. Richard Neville would go on to play an incredibly important political role during the later phase of the Wars of the Roses.
What’s the Wars of the Roses though, I hear you say? The Wars of the Roses is made up of a series of battles and political rivalries between two families as they fought for the throne of England. These two families were the Yorkist’s (white rose) and the Lancastrians (red rose). The Lancastrian family held the throne from 1399 when Henry IV usurped Richard II from the throne, although not many people were too put out by the change in ruler, and held it until the battle of Towton in 1461 where Edward IV would beat Henry VI’s forces and the Yorkist rule began. The start and end date of the Wars is a much deliberated topic amongst historians however I like to place it at the 1452 with the Dartford rebellion, when Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York, made his first political move against Henry VI and tensions in England were brought to attention and the end at 1485 when Henry VII won against Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth and began the Tudor Dynasty. A lot of other stuff happened before, during and after those dates but that’s another blog post.
So, back to Wars of the Roses Live. The idea of the event was to showcase the battles that happened and to tell the story as to how the Tudor dynasty came to be. Like many other adaptations of historical events, there were a few *sharp intake of breath* moments, especially when you’re a student who’d spent the last year studying the phases in great depth in a module that was written by one of the leading historians on the topic, Michael Hicks, and was taught to you by his colleague and another leading late medieval historian, James Ross. However I don’t want to focus on those…too much anyway. So I’m gonna start with those.
The wars according to them started in 1461 with the Battle of Towton, which is okay because there is lots of controversy to when the wars actually started, however they skipped all the political strife that led up to it and the First Battle of St Albans which was very important indeed. Despite the dates being debated, an issue with them starting this late into the war meant that Richard Duke of York, one of the protagonists of the battles, is completely overlooked at his part which meant his son Edward IV takes centre stage again highlighting the lack of background information they provided. Henry VI, who was king during the first phases of the war and then again in 1471 for a year, was never even mentioned which is interesting considering he was, well king. However this did mean that they could give Margaret of Anjou the credit she deserved for the part that she played in the wars, despite her interesting French accent. Elizabeth of York also starts to play her part very early on into the acts suggesting she was an important part during her father’s first reign when actually she would have been little more than a thought in her parent’s minds and not born until 1466.
The stage was set in a jousting arena where you chose your side, either the white rose of the Yorkist’s or the red rose of the Lancastrians. Once everyone was settled, the show began with a little light background information and an introduction to the two houses. The knights of each houses worked their sides up into a frenzy as the performance started with great equestrian showmanship. They introduced the key players with coloured smoke and flags flying everywhere, and the wars began.
They started with the battle of Towton in 1461 and got in all the violence of the battle whilst still making it something the younger generations would understand and enjoy. Although they took a little poetic license with the events that followed, the timeline ran as the history books said and the next major event was the return of Margaret of Anjou and Richard Neville, who was now fighting for the Lancastrians, as they fought the two battles that followed, Barnet and Tewkesbury in 1471. The horsemanship was breath-taking as they rode into mock battle and got many ooh’s and aaaah’s from the audience. As the Yorkist’s emerged victorious there were cheers from the white roses that could be heard throughout the castle grounds.
But the best part of the show was the depiction of the Battle of Bosworth. As they introduced Henry V to the story the great Battle of Bosworth was fought with drama and flair that had both sides cheering until the ultimate winner emerged victorious. With the death of Richard III depicted as him being surrounded by Lancastrian forces, this is an interesting account to have followed. It showed Richard as going down with a fight and with the regality of a king however it showed none of the cowardice that the popular belief was he was killed by a random soldier when attempting to flee the battle. Choosing this path to acting out his death added to the show and provided the end of the wars with its dramatic conclusion.
The closing sequence brought back all the historical figures that played their part in the wars, they also repeated which events they had featured giving the delightful show the historical backup. They displayed even more amazing equestrian prowess as they celebrated the skills of their horses, which personally I loved and all the children beamed as the horses came together.
So overall, the Knights of Middle England, the company behind Wars of the Roses Live, delivered a fun-filled, dramatic and generation friendly show with sword fighting, smoke, gallant knights and strong hearted queens. They only had a half an hour slot, and in that time they got in important battles of English history and kept the whole audience glued to seats as they cheered on their chosen rose. The children’s faces as they watched in awe at the spectacle is enough to fill any historians heart with the hope that events such as these are everything we need to encourage the younger generations to widen their historical knowledge. Wars of the Roses Live is the show to go and see.
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It has been argued by some[by whom?] that it is a fallacy to consider the reparations as the primary source of the economic condition in Germany from 1919 to 1939. This perspective argues that Germany paid a small portion of the reparations and the hyper-inflation of the early 1920s was a result of the political and economic instability of the Weimar Republic. In fact, the occupation of the Ruhr by the French (which began when Germany failed to supply a required delivery of telegraph poles) did more damage to the economy than the reparations payments.
It's something of an oversimplification, but the short answer is this:
After World War I, the Allied forced imposed enormous reparations on Germany which virtually bankrupted the nation. In the early 1920s, a dispute over how many telegraph poles Germany owed France as part of the reparations ended with France militarily occupying part of western Germany, and killing over 100 German civilians for protesting against them.
Outrage over the killings and the damage done to Germany's economy greatly destabilized the German Republic (Weimar Republic). Hitler's initial popularity was almost entirely based on attacking the post-WW1 reparations as unfairly punitive (which was a fair point) and it is fair to say that political support for the Nazis and other nationalist factions was greatly increased by the Poincaré government's overreaction to Germany's refusal to give them more telegraph poles.
I haven't found any reliable source for or against it, can it even be considered in a away that the argument about telegraph poles was a cause for World War 2?
No, it is not fair to say that "a missed telegraph pole delivery" was "what caused" World War II. Even if we are willing to give the Joker the benefit of doubt, that he meant "one of the causes", the impact of that one missed delivery is much less significant than The Joker, or the web articles you quoted, imply.
Poincare's decision to invade the Ruhr came at the end of a protracted, many-year battle with Germany over reparations, during which time Germany had defaulted repeatedly on their reparations. This problem was made worse for France by Britain's reluctance to enforce those reparations in the face of German inflation: Britain wanted France to reduce, or at least temporarily delay, those reparation payments, while France considered the issue non-negotiable.
France (and Belgium) had been arguing for the occupation of the Ruhr for much of 1922. One of the payments that Germany was supposed to be making regularly was timber deliveries; their default on one such payment gave the French government an excuse to invade. Poincare, by this point, was just looking for an excuse to force Germany to repay, so the actual event (the missed timber delivery) was almost incidental.
I have not seen anything to indicate what the undelivered timber was to be used for, though France was in the process of rebuilding their infrastructure from the war, and it's entirely possible that the shipment was either intended for, or consisted of, machined telegraph poles.
(Ref: Marks, Sally; "The Myth of Reparations", Central European History, Volume 11, Issue 3.)
Additionally, (at least according to historian Gordon Martel) the invasion itself did not cause Germany's hyperinflation, which had started much earlier, and was mostly the reason why Germany defaulted in the first place. (German currency was so useless, France insisted on payment in real goods; those real goods were needed by Germany for its own industry, and without them, their currency just got worse.)
France also did not maintain its strong position over Germany for very long; France's currency tanked soon afterwards, Poincare subsequently lost power in 1924, and France withdrew in 1925. Poincare's successor was effectively bullied by the British and Americans into giving up much of their owed reparation payments, meaning that Germany arguably came out better after the invasion than they started out.
Germany, in fact, was in relatively good economic condition compared to France, since it suffered less damage from WWI. This is the main reason France was so reluctant to reduce their payments (with less rebuilding needed, France feared Germany would become the dominant European power before anyone else was strong enough to stop them -- which was almost true). German political opposition to the reparations, however, was very real, and existed long before the Ruhr occupation happened. Even if the occupation had never happened, and Germany had gotten its concessions in 1922 instead of 1924, there's no indication that the anti-reparations sentiment (which itself was just one small element of Hitler's rise to power) would have diminished at all.
At best, the occupation may have accelerated events that were already underway, but they certainly were not the cause.
I just noticed this bit from Wikipedia in the question:
In fact, the occupation of the Ruhr by the French ... did more damage to the economy than the reparations payments.
and realized I never addressed it in my answer, but it's addressed in the Martel book pretty well. The occupation of the Ruhr didn't do anything to the German economy per se. However, the German response to that occupation was to implement an official policy of "passive resistance", which included telling most of the factory workers in the area that they were no longer obligated to come to work (because their work would just be handed over to France). That decision did some serious damage to the German economy, and did lead to some anti-Weimar riots, an eventual change in government, and a state of emergency. This was happening during the time that Hitler serving his jail sentence and writing Mein Kampf, so he was undoubtedly influenced by those events. But, it was the actions of the democratic German government, more so than the French actions, that the right-wing parties were rallying against.
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It has been argued by some[by whom?] that it is a fallacy to consider the reparations as the primary source of the economic condition in Germany from 1919 to 1939. This perspective argues that Germany paid a small portion of the reparations and the hyper-inflation of the early 1920s was a result of the political and economic instability of the Weimar Republic. In fact, the occupation of the Ruhr by the French (which began when Germany failed to supply a required delivery of telegraph poles) did more damage to the economy than the reparations payments.
It's something of an oversimplification, but the short answer is this:
After World War I, the Allied forced imposed enormous reparations on Germany which virtually bankrupted the nation. In the early 1920s, a dispute over how many telegraph poles Germany owed France as part of the reparations ended with France militarily occupying part of western Germany, and killing over 100 German civilians for protesting against them.
Outrage over the killings and the damage done to Germany's economy greatly destabilized the German Republic (Weimar Republic). Hitler's initial popularity was almost entirely based on attacking the post-WW1 reparations as unfairly punitive (which was a fair point) and it is fair to say that political support for the Nazis and other nationalist factions was greatly increased by the Poincaré government's overreaction to Germany's refusal to give them more telegraph poles.
I haven't found any reliable source for or against it, can it even be considered in a away that the argument about telegraph poles was a cause for World War 2?
No, it is not fair to say that "a missed telegraph pole delivery" was "what caused" World War II. Even if we are willing to give the Joker the benefit of doubt, that he meant "one of the causes", the impact of that one missed delivery is much less significant than The Joker, or the web articles you quoted, imply.
Poincare's decision to invade the Ruhr came at the end of a protracted, many-year battle with Germany over reparations, during which time Germany had defaulted repeatedly on their reparations. This problem was made worse for France by Britain's reluctance to enforce those reparations in the face of German inflation: Britain wanted France to reduce, or at least temporarily delay, those reparation payments, while France considered the issue non-negotiable.
France (and Belgium) had been arguing for the occupation of the Ruhr for much of 1922. One of the payments that Germany was supposed to be making regularly was timber deliveries; their default on one such payment gave the French government an excuse to invade. Poincare, by this point, was just looking for an excuse to force Germany to repay, so the actual event (the missed timber delivery) was almost incidental.
I have not seen anything to indicate what the undelivered timber was to be used for, though France was in the process of rebuilding their infrastructure from the war, and it's entirely possible that the shipment was either intended for, or consisted of, machined telegraph poles.
(Ref: Marks, Sally; "The Myth of Reparations", Central European History, Volume 11, Issue 3.)
Additionally, (at least according to historian Gordon Martel) the invasion itself did not cause Germany's hyperinflation, which had started much earlier, and was mostly the reason why Germany defaulted in the first place. (German currency was so useless, France insisted on payment in real goods; those real goods were needed by Germany for its own industry, and without them, their currency just got worse.)
France also did not maintain its strong position over Germany for very long; France's currency tanked soon afterwards, Poincare subsequently lost power in 1924, and France withdrew in 1925. Poincare's successor was effectively bullied by the British and Americans into giving up much of their owed reparation payments, meaning that Germany arguably came out better after the invasion than they started out.
Germany, in fact, was in relatively good economic condition compared to France, since it suffered less damage from WWI. This is the main reason France was so reluctant to reduce their payments (with less rebuilding needed, France feared Germany would become the dominant European power before anyone else was strong enough to stop them -- which was almost true). German political opposition to the reparations, however, was very real, and existed long before the Ruhr occupation happened. Even if the occupation had never happened, and Germany had gotten its concessions in 1922 instead of 1924, there's no indication that the anti-reparations sentiment (which itself was just one small element of Hitler's rise to power) would have diminished at all.
At best, the occupation may have accelerated events that were already underway, but they certainly were not the cause.
I just noticed this bit from Wikipedia in the question:
In fact, the occupation of the Ruhr by the French ... did more damage to the economy than the reparations payments.
and realized I never addressed it in my answer, but it's addressed in the Martel book pretty well. The occupation of the Ruhr didn't do anything to the German economy per se. However, the German response to that occupation was to implement an official policy of "passive resistance", which included telling most of the factory workers in the area that they were no longer obligated to come to work (because their work would just be handed over to France). That decision did some serious damage to the German economy, and did lead to some anti-Weimar riots, an eventual change in government, and a state of emergency. This was happening during the time that Hitler serving his jail sentence and writing Mein Kampf, so he was undoubtedly influenced by those events. But, it was the actions of the democratic German government, more so than the French actions, that the right-wing parties were rallying against.
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