diff --git "a/export_republic.tsv" "b/export_republic.tsv" --- "a/export_republic.tsv" +++ "b/export_republic.tsv" @@ -17,28 +17,32 @@ Very good, I replied. Glaucon - CEPHALUS - SOCRATES Accordingly we went with Polemarchus to his house; and there we foundhis brothers Lysias and Euthydemus, and with them Thrasymachus theChalcedonian, Charmantides the Paeanian, and Cleitophon the son ofAristonymus. There too was Cephalus the father of Polemarchus, whomI had not seen for a long time, and I thought him very much aged.He was seated on a cushioned chair, and had a garland on his head,for he had been sacrificing in the court; and there were some otherchairs in the room arranged in a semicircle, upon which we sat downby him. He saluted me eagerly, and then he said: -- You don't come to see me, Socrates, as often as you ought: If I werestill able to go and see you I would not ask you to come to me. Butat my age I can hardly get to the city, and therefore you should comeoftener to the Piraeus. For let me tell you, that the more the pleasuresof the body fade away, the greater to me is the pleasure and charmof conversation. Do not then deny my request, but make our house yourresort and keep company with these young men; we are old friends,and you will be quite at home with us. -I replied: There is nothing which for my part I like better, Cephalus,than conversing with aged men; for I regard them as travellers whohave gone a journey which I too may have to go, and of whom I oughtto enquire, whether the way is smooth and easy, or rugged and difficult.And this is a question which I should like to ask of you who havearrived at that time which the poets call the 'threshold of old age'--Is life harder towards the end, or what report do you give of it?" "Summary: Socrates and Glaucon go to the Piraeus to offer prayers and watch a festival. They are approached by Polemarchus, who invites them to wait for him. The group decides to stay and discuss various topics, including conversation with aged men. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +I replied: There is nothing which for my part I like better, Cephalus,than conversing with aged men; for I regard them as travellers whohave gone a journey which I too may have to go, and of whom I oughtto enquire, whether the way is smooth and easy, or rugged and difficult.And this is a question which I should like to ask of you who havearrived at that time which the poets call the 'threshold of old age'--Is life harder towards the end, or what report do you give of it?" "Summary: Socrates and Glaucon go to the Piraeus to offer prayers and watch a festival. They are approached by Polemarchus, who asks them to wait for him. Polemarchus and his friends invite Socrates and Glaucon to their house, where they engage in conversation with Cephalus about old age and life. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation -Active character: Socrates, Glaucon, Polemarchus, Adeimantus, Niceratus, Cephalus, Lysias, Euthydemus, Thrasymachus, Charmantides, Cleitophon +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon, Polemarchus, Adeimantus, Niceratus, Cephalus, Thrasymachus, Charmantides, Cleitophon +Fuzzy time: Yesterday, evening Absolute place: A clubhouse in Los Angeles -Fuzzy place: Piraeus, city -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "You know that the city will be watching us, and that if we come back without a fair reason they will probably send some one to look for us; so please tell us the truth. What is your idea?"""" I have no idea,"" he said, ""unless it's just coincidence."" Socrates and Glaucon looked at each other. """"Well, we'll go along with you,"""" Socrates said. """"If nothing else comes up, we can always say we were going to the races."""" So the three of them went down the street to a taxi stand. The cab took them out through the northern part of the city to the Piraeus, where they got out near the clubhouse. It was now almost dark, but there were a number of people about, and they could see the lights in the clubhouse. As they stood there discussing what they should do, Polemarchus suddenly appeared beside them, dressed in his racing outfit. He looked rather pale, but otherwise seemed all right. Well, gentlemen,"" he said, ""I'm glad you came. You'll have to wait here for me a few minutes, though, while I put on my uniform. Then we'll go in together."""" Do you expect to run?"" Glaucon asked. Yes,"" Polemarchus said. ""The race won't start for over an hour yet, so I thought I'd hang around here for a while and talk with some of the fellows. If you don't mind waiting, that is."""" Not at all,"" Socrates said. ""We'll watch the festival from here. Then when you're ready we'll go in with you."""" Thank you,"" Polemarchus said. ""It's very good of you."" Adeimantus and Niceratus soon joined him, and after talking with them for a minute he went into the clubhouse. A few minutes later Cephalus and Lysias and Euthydemus and Thrasymachus and Charmantides and Cleitophon also appeared. All of them were dressed in their racing outfits except Cephalus, who wore a plain suit. There were a great many people coming and going in front of the clubhouse, and the two men stood talking earnestly together for several minutes before noticing the three strangers. When they did notice them, they walked over and greeted them. We're glad to see you,"" Cephalus said. ""I hope everything is all right."""" Everything is fine,"" Socrates said. ""We're just waiting here for Polemarchus. He told us he wanted to talk with us before he goes in. Where is he?"""" He went in about five minutes ago,"" Cephalus said. ""He didn't say anything about wanting to talk with you, though."""" No,"" Socrates said. ""But I suppose he just forgot."" Just then Adeimantus came out of the clubhouse. He nodded to Socrates and Glaucon and walked past them toward a cab stand. But as he reached the curb he stopped and turned around. " +Fuzzy place: The Piraeus, Polemarchus' house +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "Socrates and Glaucon went down to the Piraeus yesterday about sunset, and we were watching the festival; and while we were there, an old man met us who said: Polemarchus is detained at home by a sore head; but he bade me ask you to wait for him here, and in the meantime I should tell you what was the reason why we did not come to meet you in town. He said that you must have seen """"the ship which had been set afire."""" We thought so, too,"" said Socrates. But when we had got into the harbor and came near, we saw her lying over on one side quite unharmed, with only a few timbers loose, and men working to mend them."" And now we understand the reason of Polemarchus' detention; for supposing the ship to be burnt up, there would be nothing to detain him at home, as his father is dead; but now he is naturally ashamed to appear out of mourning. Perhaps he may really turn up before long. We will wait a little. Meanwhile we may talk. Tell us, Cephalus, what are your thoughts. Are you thinking of settling here, or what do you intend to do? You will not surely live alone: where are your sons?"" Yes, they are coming; but they are young, and I am considering whether they will be of any use to me. For I am becoming blind and grow every day more helpless."""" Then you will remain here, though this is a sad change for you?"" I suppose that I must remain; the place will be better for me."" Crito said: """"And will you not take a servant, Cephalus, to attend you, so that you can lead your usual life, and take exercise even?"""""" Yes, say they,"" answered Cephalius; ""but I can hardly manage to get about even as far as the agora ; the change is not to be wondered at."" What do you mean, my good friend?"" asked Thrasymachus. ""The change is not to be wondered at, of course, if you are too old to go into the country; but I daresay that you can easily find some one to take the place of your sons, can't you?"""" Certainly,"" said Cephalius; ""there are plenty of attendants whom I can get who will do what I want very cheaply."" Well, but are you not afraid,"" said Cleitophon, ""of hiring one who will run away with all your money after attending you for a month?"" That is just the sort of danger I run,"" replied Cephalius; ""and another thing, too, which is the greatest of risks, that he may steal away my virtue as well."" Then turning to Adeimantus and Niceratus he added: What do you think, gentlemen? " 1 1 "I will tell you, Socrates, he said, what my own feeling is. Men ofmy age flock together; we are birds of a feather, as the old proverbsays; and at our meetings the tale of my acquaintance commonly is--I cannot eat, I cannot drink; the pleasures of youth and love arefled away: there was a good time once, but now that is gone, and lifeis no longer life. Some complain of the slights which are put uponthem by relations, and they will tell you sadly of how many evilstheir old age is the cause. But to me, Socrates, these complainersseem to blame that which is not really in fault. For if old age werethe cause, I too being old, and every other old man, would have feltas they do. But this is not my own experience, nor that of otherswhom I have known. How well I remember the aged poet Sophocles, whenin answer to the question, How does love suit with age, Sophocles,--are you still the man you were? Peace, he replied; most gladly haveI escaped the thing of which you speak; I feel as if I had escapedfrom a mad and furious master. His words have often occurred to mymind since, and they seem as good to me now as at the time when heuttered them. For certainly old age has a great sense of calm andfreedom; when the passions relax their hold, then, as Sophocles says,we are freed from the grasp not of one mad master only, but of many.The truth is, Socrates, that these regrets, and also the complaintsabout relations, are to be attributed to the same cause, which isnot old age, but men's characters and tempers; for he who is of acalm and happy nature will hardly feel the pressure of age, but tohim who is of an opposite disposition youth and age are equally aburden. I listened in admiration, and wanting to draw him out, that he mightgo on --Yes, Cephalus, I said: but I rather suspect that people ingeneral are not convinced by you when you speak thus; they think thatold age sits lightly upon you, not because of your happy disposition,but because you are rich, and wealth is well known to be a great comforter. You are right, he replied; they are not convinced: and there is somethingin what they say; not, however, so much as they imagine. I might answerthem as Themistocles answered the Seriphian who was abusing him andsaying that he was famous, not for his own merits but because he wasan Athenian: 'If you had been a native of my country or I of yours,neither of us would have been famous.' And to those who are not richand are impatient of old age, the same reply may be made; for to thegood poor man old age cannot be a light burden, nor can a bad richman ever have peace with himself. May I ask, Cephalus, whether your fortune was for the most part inheritedor acquired by you? Acquired! Socrates; do you want to know how much I acquired? In theart of making money I have been midway between my father and grandfather:for my grandfather, whose name I bear, doubled and trebled the valueof his patrimony, that which he inherited being much what I possessnow; but my father Lysanias reduced the property below what it isat present: and I shall be satisfied if I leave to these my sons notless but a little more than I received. That was why I asked you the question, I replied, because I see thatyou are indifferent about money, which is a characteristic ratherof those who have inherited their fortunes than of those who haveacquired them; the makers of fortunes have a second love of moneyas a creation of their own, resembling the affection of authors fortheir own poems, or of parents for their children, besides that naturallove of it for the sake of use and profit which is common to themand all men. And hence they are very bad company, for they can talkabout nothing but the praises of wealth. That is true, he said." "Summary: The speaker reflects on the complaints of old age and discusses the impact of character and wealth on one's experience of aging. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty +Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Active character: Socrates, Cephalus -Quoted character: Sophocles, Themistocles" "Ego vero cum paulo senex sum factus, totum coepi esse convivia mea querentem, quod mihi absit; nam in his rebus nemo deest consilii mei. [36] Atqui haec non sunt? Nonne iam hi omnes anni mei, Socrate, qui adulescentiam sequuntur, mortui sunt? Nondum enim mihi ad senectutem usque veni. Quae ergo mora est, ut hos et hos alios amittam? Quid, si haec aetas absumatur, illa nobis restabit? An non videtur tibi prope idem esse habere multa pecunia, quam si quis habeat aeternitatem? Nonne idem vides omnibus aliis, qui sunt similes nobis, accidisse, ut pars eorum prius, pars post remanet? Necne tu hoc magnum malum dices me rogantem, ut ne queam aut filium aut nepotem aut praeteritorum annorum amicos et socios atque clientulos meos reliquerem? [37] Atqui nihil, Cephaele, horum miserius est: neminem scire de te, quid in vita tua bonum fuerit, quid malum; etiamsi rerum veritas quaeritur, nullum novum ex te audire. Quo enim tuo exemplo aliquis nos sequatur? Nulla vitia fugies, nulla virtutes colas. Neque enim vitia fugias, quod tamquam fures obscuris locis evadendum putabis, sed quod quoniam nascuntur in animo tamquam plantae in agro, debes eas radicitus eradicare; neque virtutes colas, quod quidquid malim vel malum vel bonum sit, certam et fixam habebas semper notitiam. Id enim vere Sophocles ait, Themistoclem magnifico sermone laudans: """"Neque oculis ullas conspicit formas, neque auditu voces, neque spiritu afficit odorem, neque menti cogitationes subducere potest."""" Tamen haec diceres me facere, si mala mea cognoscere possem. Sed quid ego istuc? Multos iam apud vos annos felicissimus vixi: noveritis me hanc rem non didicisse a meis antecessoribus, sed natum habere. [38] Nam quod ad me attinet, cur non satis fabulas fabulari audio, cuius frugiferos agros arboribus ac vitibus circumdatae tegunt opacitate luci, dum profundo solo lassata sepes agros continet opacas? Pater enim meus huic genere vitae dedit exemplum. Quippe is, cuius paternas heredes sum, ut dixi, diem noctem in conviviis militavit. Quare qui me non iuvat, idem me nescit. Aperi mihi animum. Si me in hac fortuna fefellit quispiam aut mulier aut vir, si quis me inopem esse voluit, nunc illum poenas damno deducam, nunc eum persequar, nunc eius hanc vitam supplicio poenitebit? " +Language: English" What a fuss old age makes about its own complaints! Not one of them has any real meaning. Old age is the most agreeable of all the ages of life.” “I don’t believe it, Socrates,” said Cephalus. “I’m sure you’re wrong. I’d give anything to be young again, and have none of these aches and pains in my joints. But there’s no chance of that now.” “You’re only making yourself miserable by thinking about it,” said Socrates. “Besides, if you were young again, what could you do? The same as you can now: take care of your property, and make money for your sons. If you’ve got riches, you’re happy; if you haven’t, you’re unhappy. And old men who are rich are always happy. They may not look it, but they are.” “You must admit, though, that their lives are very dreary,” said Cephalus. “There’s nothing to do except play dice and talk politics with each other. No amusement, no pleasure, no friends, no women!” “What do you mean, ‘no friends’?” asked Socrates. “And how about your sons? Aren’t they your friends? And your wife? What about her?” “I was only talking about my personal friends, the people of my own age whom I go about with,” said Cephalus. “You see, Socrates, we’re all bound together by ties of friendship and kinship, but there’s nothing in common between us and the younger generation. We belong to different worlds. I used to be fond of music when I was young, and I enjoyed reading poetry and philosophy. Now I can’t stand either of them. And I couldn’t understand a word that Glaucon and Adeimantus are saying just now. It made me quite uncomfortable. There was no harmony between us at all.” “That’s because you are old, and they are young, and you are rich, and they are poor,” said Socrates. “The whole business of life seems very different from two different points of view. You know that as well as I do. That’s why you are so fond of money, while they are indifferent to it. 2 2 "Yes, that is very true, but may I ask another question? What do youconsider to be the greatest blessing which you have reaped from yourwealth? One, he said, of which I could not expect easily to convince others.For let me tell you, Socrates, that when a man thinks himself to benear death, fears and cares enter into his mind which he never hadbefore; the tales of a world below and the punishment which is exactedthere of deeds done here were once a laughing matter to him, but nowhe is tormented with the thought that they may be true: either fromthe weakness of age, or because he is now drawing nearer to that otherplace, he has a clearer view of these things; suspicions and alarmscrowd thickly upon him, and he begins to reflect and consider whatwrongs he has done to others. And when he finds that the sum of histransgressions is great he will many a time like a child start upin his sleep for fear, and he is filled with dark forebodings. Butto him who is conscious of no sin, sweet hope, as Pindar charminglysays, is the kind nurse of his age: Hope, he says, cherishes the soul of him who lives in justice andholiness and is the nurse of his age and the companion of his journey;--hope which is mightiest to sway the restless soul of man. @@ -55,16 +59,18 @@ He said that the repayment of a debt is just, and in saying so heappears to me t I should be sorry to doubt the word of such a wise and inspired man,but his meaning, though probably clear to you, is the reverse of clearto me. For he certainly does not mean, as we were now saying thatI ought to return a return a deposit of arms or of anything else toone who asks for it when he is not in his right senses; and yet adeposit cannot be denied to be a debt. True. Then when the person who asks me is not in his right mind I am byno means to make the return? Certainly not. When Simonides said that the repayment of a debt was justice, he didnot mean to include that case? -Certainly not; for he thinks that a friend ought always to do goodto a friend and never evil." "Summary: A conversation about the blessings of wealth and the nature of justice. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Certainly not; for he thinks that a friend ought always to do goodto a friend and never evil." "Summary: A conversation between Socrates and Cephalus about the blessings of wealth and the nature of justice. +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation -Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, Cephalus, Polemarchus -Time setting: 1950s" "A man is rich when he has all that he wants."""" Then the gods are very poor, for they want nothing,"" I said. There was a great deal of laughter at this. So then,"" said Socrates, ""if wealth and justice are different, they cannot be both good; if they were both good, the just man would be as rich as the unjust."""" And yet,"" said Cephalus, ""justice and wealth are both good."" Well, we shall have to consider that question another time,"" said Socrates. But first let us ask whether there is any other virtue beside justice and wealth, and whether we shall find some other quality which will help us to define it. Do you know any other virtue?"""" Polemarchus answered: Courage is the one I know best. It is when a man does what he believes to be his duty even though it is a dangerous thing to do."""" That's right,"" said Socrates. ""Courage is indeed a fine thing, but how is it related to justice?"""" I can't say. Perhaps justice means always telling the truth and being brave."" That's a pretty good guess, but not quite right. " +Quoted character: Simonides +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" She didn’t turn her head, but Socrates said in a harsher tone: “Is it then your opinion that wealth is a blessing? For I am told by Simonides that you are very rich.” Cephalus looked at him with an expression of sullen resentment. “If I were not rich,” he said, “I should not be here today; for my wealth has enabled me to live a life of leisure and enjoy the best that money can buy, and so I have had time to learn what is good and bad, and now when the end comes I shall be able to die happily.” He put his hand on Socrates’ shoulder and said softly: “My friend, I give you this advice for your own sake. If you are poor, become rich, if you are rich, hold fast your wealth. Then you will have leisure to do what is just and holy, and so you will live well, and at the end you will die as you deserve to die.” “Well,” said Polemarchus, “he seems to talk sense, and yet I think that Simonides was right after all when he said that it is no easy matter to find a rich man who knows how to use his riches well.” Socrates laughed. “Simonides,” he said, “was a poet and therefore excused for talking nonsense; but Cephalus is a sober, respectable man, and one would have expected better from him. Do you think that he really believes what he said?” “I don’t know,” said Polemarchus. “I expect he does.” “Then we must try to convince him that he is mistaken,” said Socrates. “It’s easy enough to do. Let’s ask him how many blessings there are in being rich.” “Why, surely only one,” said Cephalus. “The power to do whatever you please.” “That doesn’t sound like a very great blessing,” said Socrates. “If you can do anything you like you can also do what you oughtn’t to do, and that is often the beginning of evil. But let us leave that aside, and suppose that you could do nothing wrong, but could always act rightly; would that be a great blessing?” “Certainly,” said Cephalus. “But what about other people? Suppose that while you were living in your palace you were all the time envied and hated by everyone else, because they saw that you were enjoying the blessings which they couldn’t get; would that be a blessing or not?” “I see what you mean,” said Cephalus. “But even that would not make me unhappy; for I should always remember that I was deserving my happiness.” “Do you think that you would be happy if you were alone? Or wouldn’t it be necessary for you to have friends and relatives to share your happiness with?” “Of course,” said Cephalus, “for without them happiness would be impossible.” “And won’t it be hard to find friends if you are always envied and hated? 3 3 "You mean that the return of a deposit of gold which is to the injuryof the receiver, if the two parties are friends, is not the repaymentof a debt, --that is what you would imagine him to say? Yes. And are enemies also to receive what we owe to them? To be sure, he said, they are to receive what we owe them, and anenemy, as I take it, owes to an enemy that which is due or properto him --that is to say, evil. Simonides, then, after the manner of poets, would seem to have spokendarkly of the nature of justice; for he really meant to say that justiceis the giving to each man what is proper to him, and this he termeda debt. @@ -89,13 +95,17 @@ True. Then what is that joint use of silver or gold in which the just manis to b When you want a deposit to be kept safely. You mean when money is not wanted, but allowed to lie? Precisely. That is to say, justice is useful when money is useless? That is the inference. And when you want to keep a pruning-hook safe, then justice is usefulto the individual and to the state; but when you want to use it, thenthe art of the vine-dresser? Clearly. And when you want to keep a shield or a lyre, and not to use them,you would say that justice is useful; but when you want to use them,then the art of the soldier or of the musician? -Certainly. And so of all the other things; --justice is useful when they areuseless, and useless when they are useful?" "Summary: A conversation about the nature of justice and its usefulness in different situations. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Certainly. And so of all the other things; --justice is useful when they areuseless, and useless when they are useful?" "Summary: The text discusses the nature of justice and its role in various situations. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation -Active character: Simonides, Polemarchus, Socrates" "We'll have a look at your justice in the course of our conversation; but you must remember that we are not considering what is useful, but what is just. If it were useful for you to have justice, or for me or anyone else, we might be content with that. But we are trying to find out what justice is. So don't try to be clever and answer this question by saying 'It's useful.'"""" Well,"" said Polemarchus, ""that wasn't exactly my point. I had something different in mind."" What was it then?"" asked Socrates. Why,"" he said, ""I thought that justice is one of those things which is both just and useful."""" Of course it is,"" said Socrates. ""And so is medicine. That doesn't mean that being just is the same thing as being healthy, does it?"""" No,"" said Polemarchus, ""it doesn't."" Then,"" said Socrates, ""you do think that justice is something useful?"""" Certainly,"" he said. Well,"" said Socrates, ""what about being just and using it? Surely there are some people who use justice, aren't there?"""" Yes, certainly."" Do they use it like carpenters use their tools?"""" No, how could they?"" Well then, do they use it like the good doctor uses his art?"" No, not like that either."" And yet,"" said Simonides, ""we know that if people use justice they must do so in the way that each person has it in him to do it."""" That's quite true,"" said Socrates. ""But please tell us, what sort of use would a shoemaker make of justice? Would he use it for making shoes, or for cutting corn, or for baking bread?"""" It's obvious,"" said Polemarchus, ""that he'd use it for making shoes."" And what sort of use would a builder make of justice?"" Well,"" he said, ""he would use it for building houses."" And what about a statesman or a ruler? What sort of use would he make of justice?"""" He would use it for administering the State."" Don't you see,"" said Socrates, ""that we're back to where we started? Justice seems to be everywhere useful but nowhere just. It's useful in a shoemaker when he's making shoes, but not when he's cutting corn or baking bread. In a builder it's useful when he's building houses, but not when he's wearing clothes or feeding himself. And in a statesman it's useful when he's ruling, but not when he's getting on with his own private business."""" You seem to be very far from discovering what justice is,"" said Polemarchus. " +Active character: Simonides, Polemarchus, Socrates +Time setting: 1950s + +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" “Justice?” he said. “What do you know about justice? You’re no good at justice, you’re no good at anything except your own business, and that’s an accident. I’m a bootmaker and I can’t make boots without hurting my hand. It’s the same with you: you can only think by hurting your brain. So let’s have it.” “Yes,” said Simonides; “let’s have it.” Polemarchus began to speak again. “I don’t suppose there was ever such a thing as justice in the world, but if there was, it was something like this. It’s the art of getting what is fair, and giving what is due. In other words, it’s helping your friends and harming your enemies.” “And who are your friends?” asked Socrates. “Why,” said Polemarchus, “the just men.” “Quite so,” said Socrates. “And who are the just men?” “Why,” said Polemarchus, “the strong men.” “Quite so,” said Socrates. “And who are the strong men?” “The rich men,” said Polemarchus. “Quite so,” said Socrates. “And who are the rich men?” “The men who have plenty of money,” said Polemarchus. “Quite so,” said Socrates. “And who have plenty of money?” “The men who are able to provide for their families and their servants,” said Polemarchus. “Quite so,” said Socrates. “And who are able to provide for their families and their servants?” “The men who have many slaves,” said Polemarchus. “Quite so,” said Socrates. “And who have many slaves?” “The farmers,” said Polemarchus. “Quite so,” said Socrates. “And who are the farmers?” “The landowners,” said Polemarchus. “Quite so,” said Socrates. “And who are the landowners?” “The people who have plenty of land,” said Polemarchus. “Quite so,” said Socrates. “And who have plenty of land?” “The sons of the fathers,” said Polemarchus. “Quite so,” said Socrates. “And who are the sons of the fathers?” “The men who were born in the country,” said Polemarchus. “Quite so,” said Socrates. “And who were born in the country?” “The men who were born from the men who were born in the country,” said Polemarchus. “Quite so,” said Socrates. “And who were born from the men who were born in the country?” “The Athenians, the Spartans, the Corinthians, the Megarians, and all the other Greeks,” said Polemarchus. “Quite so,” said Socrates. “And who are the Greeks?” “The Hellenes,” said Polemarchus. “Quite so,” said Socrates. “And who are the Hellenes?” “The Hellenes,” said Polemarchus. “Quite so,” said Socrates. “And who are the Hellenes?” “The Hellenes,” said Polemarchus. “Well, well,” said Socrates. 4 4 "That is the inference. Then justice is not good for much. But let us consider this furtherpoint: Is not he who can best strike a blow in a boxing match or inany kind of fighting best able to ward off a blow? Certainly. And he who is most skilful in preventing or escaping from a diseaseis best able to create one? True. And he is the best guard of a camp who is best able to steal a marchupon the enemy? @@ -121,16 +131,16 @@ Yes, that appears to me to be the truth. But ought the just to injure any one at When horses are injured, are they improved or deteriorated? The latter. Deteriorated, that is to say, in the good qualities of horses, notof dogs? Yes, of horses. And dogs are deteriorated in the good qualities of dogs, and not ofhorses? -Of course. And will not men who are injured be deteriorated in that which isthe proper virtue of man?" "Summary: The text discusses the concept of justice and whether it is good to harm those who are unjust. -Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Of course. And will not men who are injured be deteriorated in that which isthe proper virtue of man?" "Summary: The text discusses the concept of justice and whether it leads to theft or harm. It also explores the idea of friendship and enmity. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Philosophical argument -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, Polemarchus" That was the sort of justice that made for happiness. But now, he said, I see how wretchedly you talk about justice. You say that it is a good thing never to harm any one or take from him what is his? And do you imagine that this would be a good world when men would give and yield to each other and not use force at all? What would happen, my friend Polemarchus, if anyone were seeking war and moved into your country and did not yield to you, but was resolved to go on and make an assault?” “In that case,” he said, “we shall have to fight with him and kill him.” “Yes, by Zeus, we shall! But then surely, if there are to be recompenses, we shall also have to pay him, since he came here intending to do us harm, and therefore, if he gets away without punishment, he will still be our enemy, and so he will come again and make war upon us. In that case, even though we may beat him in battle and kill him, we shall have to pay him damages; and if we don’t, we shall be unjust in not doing so, and also suffer further harm. Now tell me, if we must punish those who injure us, whether it is better for them to injure us or not to injure us?” “Certainly it is better not to injure us.” “Then it is better to abstain from injuring others than to injure them?” “Of course it is!” “But if they are going to injure us, it is better that we should injure them first?” “Most certainly!” “And therefore we must be prepared to punish them, as well as to injure them, if they try to injure us?” “Yes, we must.” “And we must also be prepared to use force against those who are going to use force against us?” “Yes, indeed!” “Therefore,” I said, “justice means using force against those who are going to use force against us, and harming those who are going to harm us.” He assented. “And surely, too,” I said, “justice means taking from those who have more than they need and giving to those who have less than they need.” “Certainly,” he said; “that is fair enough.” “Then,” I said, “if injustice means taking from people what belongs to them, and justice means giving to people what belongs to them, and taking from them what does not belong to them, and keeping what does belong to them, it follows that justice is good and injustice bad.” He agreed. “And we say that justice is equality, and injustice inequality?” “Yes.” “Then justice is good because it makes people equal, and injustice is bad because it makes them unequal?” “Yes.” “But you and I, Polemarchus, are clearly not equally strong.” “True.” +Active character: Socrates, Polemarchus +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "It isn't just that justice leads to theft, but it leads to every kind of harm. If you ask me, the more just a man is, the more likely he is to be robbed and have his throat cut."""" Socrates had gone very pale, but now I saw the blood rush back into his face as though he were afraid someone was going to hit him. """"That's a slanderous thing to say about justice, Polemarchus,"""" he said. """"And if you believe it, you're no better than a thief or a murderer yourself. But let's leave that for the moment. It seems to me that Thrasymachus has a point: a perfectly just man might well find himself in trouble if he sticks to his principles. How do you answer that?"""" You have to understand what justice really means,"" I told him. ""If you are going to do something for somebody, you should do it because you want to, not because they force you to."""" That sounded like sense. """"What's wrong with friendship?"""" I asked. What's wrong with it?"" cried Socrates. ""Nothing at all! Friendship is one of the greatest blessings that life can give us."""" Then why does enmity exist?"" I asked. Why does it exist?"" he repeated. ""Because men are wicked, that's why. Men like Thrasymachus, who would rather be friends with a pack of dogs than human beings. Do you know how much he spends on dog food every week?"""" You could probably feed half a dozen poor families on it."" I laughed. He joined in, but then he stopped and suddenly looked grave again. """"I don't suppose you remember Mr. and Mrs. Tully. They used to live up by the crossroads."""" Of course I remember them. They weren't exactly poor, but they certainly weren't rich either."" And yet Mr. Tully killed himself,"" Socrates said. ""He'd just come out of the pub when I met him. He was wearing a new suit and new shoes and carrying a brand-new umbrella over his arm. He walked into the river and never came out again."""" We stood there for some time in silence, listening to the echo of the wind through the trees. """"Why did you leave Athens?"""" he asked. I shrugged. """"It was time to move on."""" Just like your father before you,"" he said quietly. ""His name was Darius, wasn't it? A fine-looking man. I remember him well."""" Yes,"" I said. I had wondered when he would mention my father. He had been a good friend to Socrates and sometimes I thought that Socrates still missed him. The truth was that I missed him too, but I couldn't show it. Socrates began to pace up and down the room. """"You know, there's nothing we can do about the past,"""" he said. """"All we can do is try to make the present a little more bearable. " 5 5 "Certainly. And that human virtue is justice? To be sure. Then men who are injured are of necessity made unjust? That is the result. But can the musician by his art make men unmusical? Certainly not. Or the horseman by his art make them bad horsemen? Impossible. And can the just by justice make men unjust, or speaking general canthe good by virtue make them bad? Assuredly not. Any more than heat can produce cold? It cannot. Or drought moisture? Clearly not. Nor can the good harm any one? Impossible. And the just is the good? Certainly. Then to injure a friend or any one else is not the act of a just man,but of the opposite, who is the unjust? I think that what you say is quite true, Socrates. Then if a man says that justice consists in the repayment of debts,and that good is the debt which a man owes to his friends, and evilthe debt which he owes to his enemies, --to say this is not wise;for it is not true, if, as has been clearly shown, the injuring ofanother can be in no case just. @@ -144,16 +154,16 @@ I was panic-stricken at his words, and could not look at him withouttrembling. I Thrasymachus, I said, with a quiver, don't be hard upon us. Polemarchusand I may have been guilty of a little mistake in the argument, butI can assure you that the error was not intentional. If we were seekingfor a piece of gold, you would not imagine that we were 'knockingunder to one another,' and so losing our chance of finding it. Andwhy, when we are seeking for justice, a thing more precious than manypieces of gold, do you say that we are weakly yielding to one anotherand not doing our utmost to get at the truth? Nay, my good friend,we are most willing and anxious to do so, but the fact is that wecannot. And if so, you people who know all things should pity us andnot be angry with us. How characteristic of Socrates! he replied, with a bitter laugh; --that'syour ironical style! Did I not foresee --have I not already told you,that whatever he was asked he would refuse to answer, and try ironyor any other shuffle, in order that he might avoid answering?" "Summary: The text discusses the concept of justice and whether it is possible for the just to harm others. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary form: Philosophical argument Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, Polemarchus, Thrasymachus -Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" I will tell you what justice is, and you shall tell me whether I am right or not. Justice is giving to each man his due; do you agree? Polemarchus: Certainly. Socrates: And giving to each what is due is giving to the superior what is superior and to the inferior what is inferior. It is giving honour to he who deserves honour, wealth to the rich, and office to the ruler. Polemarchus: Most certainly. Socrates: Then we are agreed that justice is giving to each man his due. Polemarchus: So it seems. Socrates: But if a man acquires wealth unjustly, must he not be deprived of it by him who is injured? Polemarchus: Certainly. Socrates: And he who has been robbed by another of something which belongs to him, should take back what is his own again, if he can; but if he cannot, he should be avenged on the offender, and take vengeance on him, even though this means death himself. Polemarchus: That is true. Socrates: And justice, as we were saying, is the giving to each man his due? Polemarchus: Undoubtedly. Socrates: And the due of a slave is obedience? Polemarchus: True. Socrates: Then he who is the best at obeying is nearest to being just? Polemarchus: Very true. Socrates: And the worst at obeying is in a manner furthest from being just? Polemarchus: Quite so. Socrates: Then the just man is the servant and the enemy of the unjust? Polemarchus: I dare say. Socrates: He will also be the subject of the unjust, if he cannot be his master? Polemarchus: Clearly. Socrates: Then justice is the interest of the stronger? Polemarchus: What do you mean? Socrates: I mean to say that the just is made last of all creatures, although justice is the ornament of the soul, and the unjust the bane of it, never leaving it either alone or undisturbed? Polemarchus: In my opinion you are right. Socrates: And now having determined upon this, let us determine upon the nature of injustice, for surely this will be no light addition to our former result. Polemarchus: By all means. Socrates: After what manner then is a man an unjust man who partakes of injustice and lives a life of injustice? Tell me, and I will answer. Polemarchus: Why, he who does not give to each what is his due, Socrates. Socrates: Nay, answer me. Does not injustice consist in taking from a person what is his own and making over to him what is not his own? Polemarchus: To be sure. Socrates: Thrasymachus said just now that justice was the interest of the stronger and of none else, and that the unjust god of whom we spoke would despotically use his godhead for the benefit of his subjects. +Quoted work: Simonides, Bias, Pittacus +Language: English" But I have nothing to say in answer to this ; and therefore, if you like, we will leave the question to be settled hereafter. C. But now let us consider justice and injustice, which are the subjects of our discussion : suppose that a number of men who have been educated like pigs or goats would be just, not in the form of justice which the Just man possesses, but in the nature of sincerity, as the innocent animal carries about with him an utter want of art or deception — in this way they would be just and be called so by those who conversed with them — would they not, Socrates ? A. Yes. C. And would they think that there was anything unjust in themselves ? A. No. C. Then they would not say that justice is the virtue of the soul, but that it has some other nature, for they could not say that even about themselves ; and therefore I think that neither would Simonides nor any other man at all who believed that a man without virtue may yet be just. A. You are right. C. And those who say that justice is the virtue of the soul do not mean to affirm that all souls are just ? A. Certainly not. C. Speak more clearly ; is there one sort of life in which justice may be found, and another sort of life in which she may not ? A. What do you mean ? C. I mean to say that there is the true artist, and there is the mere mechanic, and that the latter is artless. A. Of course. C. Well then, speaking generally, do not both the mechanic and the artist work in the same things ? A. Very often. C. And are both of them skilful ? A. Certainly. C. And does not the artist make his work well, and the mechanic work well? A. To be sure. C. And is not the work of both alike useful ? A. How can that be, when the maker of the stone image is useful, and the maker of the likeness is delightful ? A. And do you think that the work of the painter ought to be esteemed of less value than that of the maker of the image ? A. Why, how could that be, when there is a much greater difference between the two works than between the image and the original ? C. Then, as I said before, you think that the work of the maker of the painting is of as much value as that of the maker of the statue ? A. Certainly. C. And do you think that the work of the physician is useful, and that of the pilot safe ? A. I do. C. And that both are honourable employments ? A. Yes. C. And do you think that the guardian spirit within the man who is skilled in medicine prescribes no duty to him in respect of health ? A. Certainly he does. C. And what is the duty which he prescribes ? A. That he should give health to the sick. C. And what is that which the pilot should obtain from his guardian spirit, and which he should preserve in his own life ? 6 6 "You are a philosopher, Thrasymachus, I replied, and well know thatif you ask a person what numbers make up twelve, taking care to prohibithim whom you ask from answering twice six, or three times four, orsix times two, or four times three, 'for this sort of nonsense willnot do for me,' --then obviously, that is your way of putting thequestion, no one can answer you. But suppose that he were to retort,'Thrasymachus, what do you mean? If one of these numbers which youinterdict be the true answer to the question, am I falsely to saysome other number which is not the right one? --is that your meaning?'-How would you answer him? Just as if the two cases were at all alike! he said. Why should they not be? I replied; and even if they are not, but onlyappear to be so to the person who is asked, ought he not to say whathe thinks, whether you and I forbid him or not? I presume then that you are going to make one of the interdicted answers? @@ -171,13 +181,17 @@ Listen, then, he said; I proclaim that justice is nothing else thanthe interest Let me first understand you, I replied. justice, as you say, is theinterest of the stronger. What, Thrasymachus, is the meaning of this?You cannot mean to say that because Polydamas, the pancratiast, isstronger than we are, and finds the eating of beef conducive to hisbodily strength, that to eat beef is therefore equally for our goodwho are weaker than he is, and right and just for us? That's abominable of you, Socrates; you take the words in the sensewhich is most damaging to the argument. Not at all, my good sir, I said; I am trying to understand them; andI wish that you would be a little clearer. -Well, he said, have you never heard that forms of government differ;there are tyrannies, and there are democracies, and there are aristocracies?" "Summary: The speaker is having a conversation with Thrasymachus about justice and the interest of the stronger. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Well, he said, have you never heard that forms of government differ;there are tyrannies, and there are democracies, and there are aristocracies?" "Summary: The protagonist is engaged in a conversation with Thrasymachus about the nature of justice. +Narrative arc: Tension and conflict between the two characters +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty +Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation +Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, Thrasymachus -Quoted character: Glaucon" He began at last in this way: “And now, Socrates,” he said, “perhaps you would like to hear what I mean; my meaning shall be briefly told. Suppose that a man and I were disputing, and I was asked by one of us, ‘Why do you say just that?’ and I replied, ‘Because I say so,’ or, ‘Because I like it,’ or again, ‘Because it is according to my judgment’; if the person who asks me these questions is ridiculous, I should answer him in a ridiculous spirit, and say in reply, ‘I say so because I like it, and because I am of opinion that it is just.’ If he is not ridiculous, but earnest in his inquiry, and really desires to know what I mean, I should try to persuade him that whatever is desired by the rulers of the State, and liked by them, this is just, and no other thing whatsoever.” “And when he hears that,” said Glaucon, “he will be perfectly satisfied.” “Not so,” replied Thrasymachus; “but if you suppose that when he has heard this he will still ask ‘What is sought by the rulers?’ and when you tell him that they seek their own advantage, he will enquire what is meant by advantage, and if you again answer that it means pleasure, he will further ask whether you bid him take every sort of pleasure, or only the pleasures of eating and drinking and the like? and if he be gluttonous he will say that he ought to take every sort of pleasure, and will quote Homer as an authority, ‘who bade men fill every pleasure to the brim.’ And then what will you say?” “You had better ask me,” said I, “whether I agree with Homer and the glutton, or Thrasymachus.” “No, my friend,” he said, “the question is not asked in the right form. The question is not whether you agree with them, but whether the rulers are to be supposed to get pleasure out of what is advantageous to themselves, for example, out of eating and drinking; or out of taking bribes, and doing things which kings and princes are commonly in the habit of doing. For in all these actions we shall find that they are pursuing, not the advantage of their subjects, but of themselves.” “Then I think,” I said, “that Thrasymachus is in the right, and that the rulers, in their dealings with their subjects, are not looking to the interests of the State, but to their own.” “Excellent!” he replied. “You quickly make admission against yourself. Now let me propose another question: Is not he who has the power of the State a ruler though he may be bad?” “Certainly.” “And does not the same hold of him who commits any wrong, or does any injury?—is not he who commits any wrong an aggressor?” “Absolutely.” “And if he who commits injustice against individuals is called by the name of a thief, wherefore should we hesitate any longer to give the name of thief to him who steals the whole city? Do you not see that when the makers of laws have framed noble words expressing fine sentiments about justice, people are actually afraid that while they use the language of the law they may be stealing individual victims; whereas the thief is just the man who uses the fine sentiments of justice about matters in which the law has nothing to say, and who is therefore, as we saw already, worthiest of double wages? +Language: English" Socrates: You were saying, Thrasymachus, that justice is the interest of the stronger?” Thrasymachus (biting his lip): “Yes, I did say that.” Socrates: And when you said this, did you mean that the stronger may be the multitude or the individual?” Thrasymachus: I meant the individual. Socrates: Did you further mean by the interest of the stronger, the interest of the stronger in wealth, or in anything else?” Thrasymachus: In honour and power, which seem to me to be the two great prizes of life. Socrates: You are saying, as we might say, that justice is the health of the state?” Thrasymachus: Yes, I should say so. Socrates: And the soul of man is akin to the health of the state?” Thrasymachus: An apt image. Socrates: And the just man would be like the just state?” Thrasymachus: Very much so. Socrates: And the unjust man would be like the unhealthy state?” Thrasymachus: That again is an apt image.” Socrates: Then now let us consider the nature of illness, whether in man or in the state. Is not illness the privation of some part of the body or of the whole body?” Thrasymachus: Yes. Socrates: And a privation is a defect nothing more? ” Certainly. Socrates: But surely a mere defect or deprivation cannot be an evil; for suppose that the defect or deprivation is of that which is itself an evil; in this case the absence of the evil will be good, and no longer a defect?” Thrasymachus: Clearly not. Socrates: And if again, the defect or deprivation is of what is neither good nor evil, clearly the loss of it will not be either good or evil? ” Of course. Socrates: And now consider another point:—Is not health better than illness?” Certainly. Socrates: And is not the best of each kind always most satisfactory on the whole? ” Yes. Socrates: And therefore the best of the body is fair and good? ” Certainly. Socrates: But the worst of the body is ugly and bad? ” Exactly. Socrates: And is not ill-health bad, and the want of beauty the greatest form of ill-health? ” Yes. Socrates: Then ugliness implies greatness of ill-health?” True. Socrates: But is not sickness merely the lack of health, or rather an excess of illness?” Yes. Socrates: And therefore sickness is the greatest form of illness?” How do you mean? Socrates: Why, because it is the most objectionable and miserable form. For, in my opinion, the greater any evil is when fully attained, the greater also is the misery. 7 7 "Yes, I know. And the government is the ruling power in each state? Certainly. And the different forms of government make laws democratical, aristocratical,tyrannical, with a view to their several interests; and these laws,which are made by them for their own interests, are the justice whichthey deliver to their subjects, and him who transgresses them theypunish as a breaker of the law, and unjust. And that is what I meanwhen I say that in all states there is the same principle of justice,which is the interest of the government; and as the government mustbe supposed to have power, the only reasonable conclusion is, thateverywhere there is one principle of justice, which is the interestof the stronger. Now I understand you, I said; and whether you are right or not I willtry to discover. But let me remark, that in defining justice you haveyourself used the word 'interest' which you forbade me to use. Itis true, however, that in your definition the words 'of the stronger'are added. A small addition, you must allow, he said. Great or small, never mind about that: we must first enquire whetherwhat you are saying is the truth. Now we are both agreed that justiceis interest of some sort, but you go on to say 'of the stronger';about this addition I am not so sure, and must therefore considerfurther. @@ -200,13 +214,13 @@ Those were not his words, rejoined Polemarchus. Socrates - THRASYMACHUS Never mind, I replied, if he now says that they are, let us accepthis statement. Tell me, Thrasymachus, I said, did you mean by justicewhat the stronger thought to be his interest, whether really so ornot? Certainly not, he said. Do you suppose that I call him who is mistakenthe stronger at the time when he is mistaken?" "Summary: The text discusses the concept of justice and whether it is in the interest of the stronger or not. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Active character: Socrates, Cleitophon, Polemarchus, Thrasymachus -Diegetic time: A few minutes" Vastu valistaa ja luulee, ett siihen ei mitn yhteytt ole ollut. Mutta joka sitten nyt kuuleekin sen, niin se on niin kummallinen ja ksitys niin vieraanomaisen hirvittvn, ettei sit voi puhua ilman kauhua, vaikka olisikin asetettu esille; sill se on niin vastenmielinen kaikkia ihmisjoukkoa, ettei sit voi kuulla kovinkaan pitkn aikaan eik siit pysty nauttimaan: mutta minulla on viel suurempi epilys siit, kuka sen sanoi, kun minulle tuntuu silt, ett se on joku jotakuinkin samanlaisenlainen kuin Aristofaneen tekstit. Niinp sanoo Sosias. Ja mink Sosias? Sanoo Thrasymakhos, ettei oikeudenmukaisuus ole hyv, vaan edun saajalle sopiva. Eihn se muuten oikein ratkaisevassa asiassa voisi olla. Jos oikeudenmukaisuus ei olisi hyv, eik edun saajalle sopiva, niin miksi meidt tmn nyt pitvt sen haastattelun? Jos hn taasen oli oikein, niin miksi me sitten kohtelemme hnt nm lailla? Vaan katsokaa, thden, ettek teko samaa virhett kuin ne, joista hnen puhuu, vaan etsitte heidn edunsaajansa ja korjaatte heidt, jos ovat vahingon tai virheen alaisina. Koska silloin lienee parempaa, ett toimivat oikeudenmukaisesti kuin epoikeudenmukaisesti, eik teille sitten myskin hyv, jos pannaan oikeudenmukaisuutta omien etujenne puolesta arvioitavaksi. Kaikki sanat kuului osuvasti. Klikhos kuitenkin huusi: Noh, nyt menk hyvsti! Niin koko joukko alkoi maata kuin tahti. Polemarchos lksikin heti ulos. Socrates istuutui paikallaan ja sanoi: Hn on tehnyt asian niin, kuin kreikkalainen mies tekee, kun on nyrpistynyt, eik enempaeaikaan kest. Thrasymakhos kuitenkin jatkoi: Min tiesin, ett he eivt saa sit, mit he ajattelevat, koska heill on viel kaikenlaisia erehdyksi: ja kun he juuri eivt tied, millainen oikeudenmukaisuus on, eivt hek minun sanojani ymmrr, vaikka min olen niit selittnyt niin tarkoin kuin mahdollista. Silloin Cleitophon sanoi: Vai oletko sin siis valmis jatkamaan sanojasi? Thrasymakhos: Kyllhn min tietisin, jos he tajusivat kytt pns, mutta nyt en kyll. Cleitophon: No, niin anna sitten minulle ottaa siit ktkeytn. Thrasymakhos: Totta, min annan. Cleitophon: Minklaista oikeudenmukaisuus on? Thrasymakhos: Sen, jonka itselleni uskon, ett se on hyv, eik mitn muuta. Cleitophon: Miksi minusta silloin ei ole oikein, jos minua pidttemme vain oikeudenmukaisena, kun min minua itse pelastaan? Thrasymakhos: Te ette tee sit, vaan tahdotte sanoa, ett te ette tee sit. Miksi kaikki ihmiset eivt ole ihan samanlaisia? +Language: English" "And yet, Socrates,' he said, 'this question which you ask is not a fair one; the strong do not always come off best in war: and if they do, what does that prove? In the first place, a better general may be defeated by a worse or by natural causes; or even if he may not be defeated, his victory may be only gained with difficulty, and after losing many of his own soldiers, while he puts to death great numbers of his enemies. Was this worth while?'"" No,"" I replied; ""but they say that justice is useful, and I think that when you speak of her as being concerned with the advantage of the stronger, you mean to imply that she is useful."" The word 'useful' (sumphereton) has a very contemptible meaning, Socrates,"" he replied, for we are constantly speaking of things as useful, though all that we mean is that they are useful for some definite purpose. Men's ordinary way of speaking makes, as you might imagine, no great distinction about words; at least, I find myself in the habit of saying just as other people do: but then I wonder whether anyone besides myself ever reflects how much people in general in their way of speaking slander the ideas which they confess that they do not understand."" But were justice and injustice like to be found in a state of which either was useful but the other hurtful?"" To be consistent, he said, we must take the utilitarian definition of useful. If therefore good for some individual to get a certain power or privilege which may be conferred on him by calling one name or another, and not good for any other individual or for the colony of states as a whole, would that name then be just and would the person who had that name be just, on your principle?"" Yes,"" I said, ""that will be an insight of justice."" Then justice, according to your argument, will be that virtue which is most likely to make a man obey his rulers; whereas injustice will be the virtue which, when possessed by the subjects, will make them run away with the government, so that they may get to be rulers where before they were ruled and may have their revenge upon those who used to rule them?"" True,"" I said. Then now let us consider the contrary vice, oligarchy, in relation to democracy; is not that a form of government in which the poor have more power than the rich, that is to say, in which there is a democracy?"""" Certainly."" And the rich are displeased? Very true."" Then according to your argument, oligarchy is unjust and democracy is just."""" Nay, Thrasymachus,"" I said, ""I do not agree with you; but I rather think that both of them are just, or neither of them; for I do not believe that there is any truth in what you say."" " 8 8 "Yes, I said, my impression was that you did so, when you admittedthat the ruler was not infallible but might be sometimes mistaken. You argue like an informer, Socrates. Do you mean, for example, thathe who is mistaken about the sick is a physician in that he is mistaken?or that he who errs in arithmetic or grammar is an arithmetician orgrammarian at the me when he is making the mistake, in respect ofthe mistake? True, we say that the physician or arithmetician or grammarianhas made a mistake, but this is only a way of speaking; for the factis that neither the grammarian nor any other person of skill evermakes a mistake in so far as he is what his name implies; they noneof them err unless their skill fails them, and then they cease tobe skilled artists. No artist or sage or ruler errs at the time whenhe is what his name implies; though he is commonly said to err, andI adopted the common mode of speaking. But to be perfectly accurate,since you are such a lover of accuracy, we should say that the ruler,in so far as he is the ruler, is unerring, and, being unerring, alwayscommands that which is for his own interest; and the subject is requiredto execute his commands; and therefore, as I said at first and nowrepeat, justice is the interest of the stronger. Indeed, Thrasymachus, and do I really appear to you to argue likean informer? @@ -220,14 +234,17 @@ Enough, I said, of these civilities. It will be better that I shouldask you a qu A healer of the sick, he replied. And the pilot --that is to say, the true pilot --is he a captain ofsailors or a mere sailor? A captain of sailors. The circumstance that he sails in the ship is not to be taken intoaccount; neither is he to be called a sailor; the name pilot by whichhe is distinguished has nothing to do with sailing, but is significantof his skill and of his authority over the sailors. Very true, he said. Now, I said, every art has an interest? Certainly. For which the art has to consider and provide? Yes, that is the aim of art. And the interest of any art is the perfection of it --this and nothingelse? -What do you mean? I mean what I may illustrate negatively by the example of the body.Suppose you were to ask me whether the body is self-sufficing or haswants, I should reply: Certainly the body has wants; for the bodymay be ill and require to be cured, and has therefore interests towhich the art of medicine ministers; and this is the origin and intentionof medicine, as you will acknowledge. Am I not right?" "Summary: The speaker is having a conversation with Thrasymachus about rulers and their mistakes. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +What do you mean? I mean what I may illustrate negatively by the example of the body.Suppose you were to ask me whether the body is self-sufficing or haswants, I should reply: Certainly the body has wants; for the bodymay be ill and require to be cured, and has therefore interests towhich the art of medicine ministers; and this is the origin and intentionof medicine, as you will acknowledge. Am I not right?" "Summary: The speaker is having a conversation about rulers, physicians, and pilots. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue -Active character: Socrates, Thrasymachus" But if you can’t manage a subject of your own, why don’t you take it up with someone else? Then you’ll be free to do as you like and I won’t have any more of this nonsense.’ ‘I agree with you there,’ said Thrasymachus. ‘I’m ready to admit that we are both equally at fault.’ ‘Then let’s make a start,’ said Socrates. ‘You were going to tell me about the mistakes which rulers make in their dealings with each other. Which do you think is the first mistake they make?’ ‘The first mistake,’ said Thrasymachus, ‘is when they give their subjects the right to hold office by election and to rule over them.’ ‘What a piece of luck,’ said Socrates. ‘There was no need for us to quarrel over this question of equality and inequality. We shall have plenty of other things to quarrel about. The fact is that most people are too good for their jobs and I suppose that’s why they go in for politics. But what sort of people do you think should be rulers?’ ‘Rulers,’ said Thrasymachus, ‘should be naturally superior beings. They should also be born rulers, just as weasels are born to catch mice, or slaves are born to serve their master.’ ‘Quite right!’ said Socrates. ‘And what kind of person would you say a naturally superior being was?’ ‘The kind who always gets his own way and makes others obey him. If you want an example of one of these, look at yourself. You are a naturally superior being and I am your slave.’ ‘Oh dear, what a terrible position I’m in! There’s nothing I can say to that except that I’m not really a naturally superior being.’ ‘I’m sure you aren’t,’ said Thrasymachus. ‘You’re a fool, that’s all you are. And you’re a fool because you’ve never had anyone to teach you the art of ruling. That’s why you don’t know how to get your own way. Now I’m not a fool and I do know how to get my own way and I always do. So, according to your definition, I must be a naturally superior being. Well then, are you going to try and prove that you’re a naturally superior being after all, or will you admit that you are inferior to me?’ ‘My dear fellow,’ said Socrates, ‘this is becoming very serious. Are you seriously suggesting that I am a naturally inferior being?’ ‘Yes, I am.’ ‘And that you are a naturally superior being?’ ‘Of course I am.’ ‘And that you are always able to get your own way?’ ‘Certainly I am.’ ‘And that you are teaching me something which I have no knowledge of?’ ‘That’s exactly what I am doing.’ ‘Well then, why don’t you beat me at it? Go on, try beating me at it. +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: Socrates, Thrasymachus +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "'Come off it,' said Socrates. 'The best rulers are the wisest, aren't they?' And Thrasymachus said: 'You're a better man than I am, Gunga Din.' That's what he said. It was like this. The rich and powerful men who owned the ships wanted to make as much money as possible. They didn't give a damn about their crews, or anyone else except themselves, so long as they were fed and watered and worked hard. They didn't want them killed or crippled, though; not because they gave a damn about them, but because if you kill or cripple your slaves you have to pay more for new ones. So they paid pilots to look after the sailors, and they paid doctors to look after them when they were sick or injured. And they paid the doctors very well, and the doctors always had plenty of customers because the sailors got sick or hurt very often, especially in bad weather or when there was trouble with pirates or the soldiers of other cities. Well, they needed good doctors and pilots to keep them alive, because that way they made more money. But they didn't trust the doctors or the pilots any more than they trusted the sailors. If the doctors got greedy and killed more of them than they should, or if the pilots let them be captured by pirates or the soldiers of another city, then they'd lose money. So they hired accountants to watch over the doctors and pilots. They didn't trust the accountants any more than they trusted the doctors and pilots, because the accountants might use their position to cheat the owners out of money, or even steal it outright. So the owners got more accountants to watch the first lot. Now these second accountants watched over everything the first lot did and checked their accounts every day. If they found that one of the first lot had spent too much on drugs or medicine, or that a pilot had lost a ship through his own stupidity or treachery, then the second accountant would get rid of him and make sure he never worked for another owner. And he'd take half the savings away from the first accountant and add it to his own wage. As a result, all three types of employees tried their hardest to keep the sailors safe and healthy. Doctors wanted to save lives, pilots wanted to bring home their ships safely, and accountants wanted to prove that they were doing a good job. And when they did save lives or make money, they got extra wages, and if they saved a lot of lives or made a lot of money they became famous and got even more wages. In fact, the more sailors they looked after, the more important they became. If they looked after twenty sailors, then they could afford to buy a slave or two of their own, and if they looked after fifty they could afford to marry a free woman and set her up in style. And if they looked after lots and lots of sailors they could become wealthy enough to own their own ships and hire their own doctors and accountants."""" " 9 9 "Quite right, he replied. But is the art of medicine or any other art faulty or deficient inany quality in the same way that the eye may be deficient in sightor the ear fail of hearing, and therefore requires another art toprovide for the interests of seeing and hearing --has art in itself,I say, any similar liability to fault or defect, and does every artrequire another supplementary art to provide for its interests, andthat another and another without end? Or have the arts to look onlyafter their own interests? Or have they no need either of themselvesor of another? --having no faults or defects, they have no need tocorrect them, either by the exercise of their own art or of any other;they have only to consider the interest of their subject-matter. Forevery art remains pure and faultless while remaining true --that isto say, while perfect and unimpaired. Take the words in your precisesense, and tell me whether I am not right."" Yes, clearly. Then medicine does not consider the interest of medicine, but theinterest of the body? True, he said. Nor does the art of horsemanship consider the interests of the artof horsemanship, but the interests of the horse; neither do any otherarts care for themselves, for they have no needs; they care only forthat which is the subject of their art? @@ -241,28 +258,31 @@ He gave a reluctant 'Yes.' Then, I said, Thrasymachus, there is no one in any ru When we had got to this point in the argument, and every one saw thatthe definition of justice had been completely upset, Thrasymachus,instead of replying to me, said: Tell me, Socrates, have you got anurse? Why do you ask such a question, I said, when you ought rather to beanswering? Because she leaves you to snivel, and never wipes your nose: she hasnot even taught you to know the shepherd from the sheep." "Summary: The text discusses the nature of art and its relationship to its subject matter. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical dialogue -Active character: Socrates, Thrasymachus" "Well, did you not say that the artist should be a lover of his subject?"""" But surely he must love it for its own sake?"" said Socrates. """"What is the use of loving anything for the sake of something else?"" And what would you say if I were to tell you that the artist loves beauty, and so takes delight in his work as being beautiful, but that he does not love beauty for its own sake?"" Impossible,"" said Thrasymachus; ""surely he must love it for its own sake."" He must love it for its own sake, then, if at all?"" Yes, certainly."" And do you think that any man who values pleasure above everything, and thinks the good man the blessed man, can possibly be an artist?"" No, certainly not."" Then if there is such an animal as an artistic nature, it is only where there are also other things which it values as highly as beauty?"" Of course."" Then the artist will not value beauty absolutely, but only relatively to other things, whatever they may be."" Certainly not."" And these are always different? Yes, different with everyone."" Very good. Now consider this question: Suppose that Homer had been brought up among us Spartans, what sort of a poet do you think that he would have been?"" The worst possible piper out of all Greece."" Why?"" Because he would have had no feeling for our character, which is as unlike the Hellenic character as can be."""" Then again, suppose some Spartan youth of today had been brought up by the swine-herd Eumaeus, what sort of a man do you think that he would have been?"" The most worthless of men."""" Why?"" Because he would have lost all sense of shame about hard work and eating and drinking, and would have felt at home among slaves or paupers."" Then let me ask what is the difference between the two cases? One was a Hellene who was brought up among us, and the other was one of us who was brought up among Hellenes; yet you affirm that the first would have been a better poet and the second a worse man."" That is what often happens, Socrates."" " +Literary form: Philosophical argument +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: Socrates, Thrasymachus +Language: English" Art is a lie that makes us realize truth. 21 A painter should paint not what he has in his mind, but what is in his heart.”—Pablo Picasso If you want to know about art, just look at people. What they eat, how they talk, the way they walk. I might make a picture about eating spaghetti. An ordinary meal. But after I’ve done it you’ll never look at eating spaghetti the same way again.”—Edward Hopper Art is either plagiarism or revolution.”—Paul Gauguin The only thing I know is that I paint because I need to, and I paint what I paint because I need to.”—Jackson Pollock If a work of art is worth seeing, then it is worth stealing.”—John Ruskin There are painters who transform the sun to a yellow spot, but there are others who, thanks to their art and intelligence, transform a yellow spot into sun.”—Pablo Picasso ART AND LIFE Life and art have nothing to do with each other. One is for the living, the other for the dead. —T. S. Eliot To be an artist is to fail, as no other dare fail, That one fail often, in order to succeed. —D. H. Lawrence Art is the most intense mode of individualism that the world has known. —Oscar Wilde The chief enemy of creativity is “good” sense.” —Gilbert Keith Chesterton The artist must bow to the monster of his own imagination. —James Baldwin An artist is a dreamer consenting to dream of the entire human race. —George Bernard Shaw Every artist was first an amateur.” —Ralph Waldo Emerson I am a savage. I like warm climates, bananas, oranges, figs, dates, olives, grapefruit; I like islands, jungles, big rivers, small rivers, little rivulets, the sea, the sound of water, the smell of wood smoke, the taste of strong coffee, early mornings, cold beer, long shadows of trees, palm trees, bread fruit trees, mangoes, guavas, fried plantains, rice and beans, roast pork, arroz con pollo, good food, bad food, too much food, plain food, simple food, native food, raw fish, boiled fish, fried fish, pickled fish, old women, young women, tall women, fat women, thin women, black women, white women, brown women, yellow women, red women, wild women, tame women, happy women, sad women, friendly women, hostile women, married women, unmarried women, willing women, unwilling women, dead women, naked women . . .”—Ernest Hemingway I’ve been through some terrible things in my life, some of which actually happened.” —Mark Twain In youth, it was a way I had, To do my best to please me: And all because I wanted prizes, Groped inward, sang a foolish song, And dreamed a passing fancy; Till I went away, and found I’d missed The shining mirror, glad at last Of my delivered face. In age, it’s much the same to me; I say instead of ‘measures,’ ‘prizes.’ 10 10 "What makes you say that? I replied. Because you fancy that the shepherd or neatherd fattens of tends thesheep or oxen with a view to their own good and not to the good ofhimself or his master; and you further imagine that the rulers ofstates, if they are true rulers, never think of their subjects assheep, and that they are not studying their own advantage day andnight. Oh, no; and so entirely astray are you in your ideas aboutthe just and unjust as not even to know that justice and the justare in reality another's good; that is to say, the interest of theruler and stronger, and the loss of the subject and servant; and injusticethe opposite; for the unjust is lord over the truly simple and just:he is the stronger, and his subjects do what is for his interest,and minister to his happiness, which is very far from being theirown. Consider further, most foolish Socrates, that the just is alwaysa loser in comparison with the unjust. First of all, in private contracts:wherever the unjust is the partner of the just you will find that,when the partnership is dissolved, the unjust man has always moreand the just less. Secondly, in their dealings with the State: whenthere is an income tax, the just man will pay more and the unjustless on the same amount of income; and when there is anything to bereceived the one gains nothing and the other much. Observe also whathappens when they take an office; there is the just man neglectinghis affairs and perhaps suffering other losses, and getting nothingout of the public, because he is just; moreover he is hated by hisfriends and acquaintance for refusing to serve them in unlawful ways.But all this is reversed in the case of the unjust man. I am speaking,as before, of injustice on a large scale in which the advantage ofthe unjust is more apparent; and my meaning will be most clearly seenif we turn to that highest form of injustice in which the criminalis the happiest of men, and the sufferers or those who refuse to doinjustice are the most miserable --that is to say tyranny, which byfraud and force takes away the property of others, not little by littlebut wholesale; comprehending in one, things sacred as well as profane,private and public; for which acts of wrong, if he were detected perpetratingany one of them singly, he would be punished and incur great disgrace--they who do such wrong in particular cases are called robbers oftemples, and man-stealers and burglars and swindlers and thieves.But when a man besides taking away the money of the citizens has madeslaves of them, then, instead of these names of reproach, he is termedhappy and blessed, not only by the citizens but by all who hear ofhis having achieved the consummation of injustice. For mankind censureinjustice, fearing that they may be the victims of it and not becausethey shrink from committing it. And thus, as I have shown, Socrates,injustice, when on a sufficient scale, has more strength and freedomand mastery than justice; and, as I said at first, justice is theinterest of the stronger, whereas injustice is a man's own profitand interest. Thrasymachus, when he had thus spoken, having, like a bathman, delugedour ears with his words, had a mind to go away. But the company wouldnot let him; they insisted that he should remain and defend his position;and I myself added my own humble request that he would not leave us.Thrasymachus, I said to him, excellent man, how suggestive are yourremarks! And are you going to run away before you have fairly taughtor learned whether they are true or not? Is the attempt to determinethe way of man's life so small a matter in your eyes --to determinehow life may be passed by each one of us to the greatest advantage? And do I differ from you, he said, as to the importance of the enquiry? You appear rather, I replied, to have no care or thought about us,Thrasymachus --whether we live better or worse from not knowing whatyou say you know, is to you a matter of indifference. Prithee, friend,do not keep your knowledge to yourself; we are a large party; andany benefit which you confer upon us will be amply rewarded. For myown part I openly declare that I am not convinced, and that I do notbelieve injustice to be more gainful than justice, even if uncontrolledand allowed to have free play. For, granting that there may be anunjust man who is able to commit injustice either by fraud or force,still this does not convince me of the superior advantage of injustice,and there may be others who are in the same predicament with myself.Perhaps we may be wrong; if so, you in your wisdom should convinceus that we are mistaken in preferring justice to injustice. And how am I to convince you, he said, if you are not already convincedby what I have just said; what more can I do for you? Would you haveme put the proof bodily into your souls?" "Summary: The speaker expresses their belief that rulers and the powerful benefit from injustice while the weak suffer, leading to a conversation about the nature of justice and injustice. Narrative arc: Philosophical debate -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker, Thrasymachus -Time setting: 1950s" He had said before that the weak suffered and the strong did what they liked with the weak, and now he showed why. He said just what I had felt in my heart of hearts. ‘I believe,’ he said, ‘that all men whenever they get a chance take care of number one and let the rest of the world look after itself.’ ‘And so do the gods,’ I said; ‘they never interfere with human affairs more than they can help. Don’t you think that they would interfere if it were not for this privilege which you claim for justice? Surely there is no greater evil to human life than injustice, and the gods themselves could hardly like such a thing.’ ‘Why?’ he asked. ‘Why should they? It is the advantage of the stronger, and the gods think nothing of human suffering or happiness. They are always doing what is hurtful to individuals.’ ‘May not some god be good?’ ‘Yes; but he is not just, especially if Thrasymachus is right in saying that injustice is stronger than justice.’ ‘Well,’ I said, ‘let me tell you why I think the gods must care about men being just.’ ‘Why?’ ‘They like to see people doing their own work and not other people’s. Is not that natural and agreeable and fitting? When I am jockeying at Olympia or anywhere else, I am always pleased when someone comes who can hold the horses while I go and have a drink. And when old men have taken to sitting still, who used to be active, if anyone comes and carries their burdens they are very glad. Children, too, are pleased and happy when their playthings are made fast for them; in that way they gain both pleasure and utility. The gods are truly skilled in arranging and catering for all such matters whether they be bodily or mental—just or unjust, gentle or violent, good or evil which concern either gods or men or animals, making them suitable and adapted to each other. The end is always harmony, and the governance of the whole by the best. Now the just is best, and the just life is ordained by the gods as the most suitable for man; and therefore the gods must like justice and must hate injustice. Let us suppose, then, that they make laws and enact just things against unjust, and enforce them, because they think that obedience to them will be best for society: and let us suppose also that you were found making default and refusing to obey the just laws of the state, and telling lies about the gods, and saying that they only like you when you disobey them—that would you believe yourself or the state?’ ‘Clearly the state,’ he replied. ‘Then you think that the state is wise and you are not wise? Is that what you are saying, now, and does that really seem to you to be probable—that you who know so much should be the only man who knows nothing, and the state who knows nothing should be perfectly wise?’ +Active character: Speaker, Thrasymachus +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" The just man, then, I say, will be in every way inferior to the unjust, first and chiefly in the possession of power ; for the one, having justice and courage on his side, and believing that injustice is a disgrace and dishonour to him, never lies in wait for any opportunity of doing injustice ; but when a chance arrives he leaves the matter to fate and luck ; and when he does anything unjust, he does so unwillingly, under compulsion, and as far as possible only with his hands and feet, though he would rather not use even these instruments, but if possible would do nothing at all by them ; whereas the unjust man is always plotting something unjust, and he will go anywhere in order to accomplish it. The just man has also trouble in keeping away from honour and office, where he may be seen and judged by others ; for he has to live unknown and unregarded, like a private person, hiding his life, and at last, when he is dying, still unseen by any one who knows the right or the wrong of it, he departs this life, whether in obedience to the law, or in flight from judgment ; he has to live a life of silliness and inaction, or, if anyone drives him into political life, he either has to wander about unceasingly, ever changing his place of abode, because he dares not remain in one place, or, if he attempts to remain, he is tortured sevenfold at being known, and thus he is driven out of society. And in public offices, which are a necessity, he takes part, if he may, as if he were hiding himself, and holding by the heels, and not by the head ; for he knows that wherever he is he has to be like a runaway slave who is only in a state of grace because he has not yet been caught. But the unjust man, on the contrary, being a false imitator of God, is always becoming visible, always getting great office, and when in office, he does what is just and not just, acting always in the belief that whatever he touches he turns to a god. Having such fearful ambitions he is compelled to run after wealth with greedy eyes, and to make trial of every means of satisfying his desire, and to keep on looking to the future, and to run across other men s minds and lives, and to stop at nothing, till he has wholly submerged his own goodness in those of others, like a pilot who is steering a vessel, and who lets his rudder go, and giving up his art falls overboard and is lost. 11 11 "Heaven forbid! I said; I would only ask you to be consistent; or,if you change, change openly and let there be no deception. For Imust remark, Thrasymachus, if you will recall what was previouslysaid, that although you began by defining the true physician in anexact sense, you did not observe a like exactness when speaking ofthe shepherd; you thought that the shepherd as a shepherd tends thesheep not with a view to their own good, but like a mere diner orbanqueter with a view to the pleasures of the table; or, again, asa trader for sale in the market, and not as a shepherd. Yet surelythe art of the shepherd is concerned only with the good of his subjects;he has only to provide the best for them, since the perfection ofthe art is already ensured whenever all the requirements of it aresatisfied. And that was what I was saying just now about the ruler.I conceived that the art of the ruler, considered as ruler, whetherin a state or in private life, could only regard the good of his flockor subjects; whereas you seem to think that the rulers in states,that is to say, the true rulers, like being in authority. Think! Nay, I am sure of it. Then why in the case of lesser offices do men never take them willinglywithout payment, unless under the idea that they govern for the advantagenot of themselves but of others? Let me ask you a question: Are notthe several arts different, by reason of their each having a separatefunction? And, my dear illustrious friend, do say what you think,that we may make a little progress. Yes, that is the difference, he replied. And each art gives us a particular good and not merely a general one--medicine, for example, gives us health; navigation, safety at sea,and so on? @@ -277,13 +297,18 @@ I suppose not. But does he therefore confer no benefit when he works for nothing Certainly, he confers a benefit. Then now, Thrasymachus, there is no longer any doubt that neitherarts nor governments provide for their own interests; but, as we werebefore saying, they rule and provide for the interests of their subjectswho are the weaker and not the stronger --to their good they attendand not to the good of the superior. And this is the reason, my dear Thrasymachus, why, as I was just nowsaying, no one is willing to govern; because no one likes to takein hand the reformation of evils which are not his concern withoutremuneration. For, in the execution of his work, and in giving hisorders to another, the true artist does not regard his own interest,but always that of his subjects; and therefore in order that rulersmay be willing to rule, they must be paid in one of three modes ofpayment: money, or honour, or a penalty for refusing. Socrates - GLAUCON -What do you mean, Socrates? said Glaucon. The first two modes of paymentare intelligible enough, but what the penalty is I do not understand,or how a penalty can be a payment." "Summary: A conversation between Thrasymachus and Socrates about the role of rulers and shepherds in society. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +What do you mean, Socrates? said Glaucon. The first two modes of paymentare intelligible enough, but what the penalty is I do not understand,or how a penalty can be a payment." "Summary: A conversation between Thrasymachus and Socrates about the role of rulers and shepherds. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty +Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Active character: Thrasymachus, Socrates -Time setting: 1950s" In this country,” he said, “the shepherd is a herdsman, and his business is to provide the sheep with grass and water, and when they are hungry to give them food, and when they are cold to give them clothing; and when they fall ill, to see what is the matter with them, and when they are in health to have them medically attended to. And when there is any of their flock which has no fleece or is diseased, he separates it from the other sheep. Now you will clearly not be able to do all these things unless you know what the different diseases mean; for example, if one is blind, you will not give it sight, if you do not know what it is which makes men blind; if one is deaf, you will not restore hearing by simply saying that you will make him hear, unless you know what is the cause of his deafness.” “Yes, he will,” I said. “But if you were a physician,” he said, “you would soon perceive that you would never be able even to cure the sick, much less prevent their being sick, without knowledge, and especially of medicine and the arts.” “Very true,” I said. “Then again, if you wish to plant corn, or vines, or fruit-trees, or anything else, excepting vegetables which grow spontaneously, you must surely have knowledge of the nature of the soil, and of irrigation, and of the climate, and of the seeds which you are to sow, and of the times at which you should graze and dig and hoe; or you will never be able to manage house, land, or servants.” “Certainly not,” I said. “And now tell me,” he said, “what do you consider to be the best and wisest course? Is it not that neither you nor anyone should attend to anything but the business of ruling? Or shall the art of the shepherd and the art of the ruler be combined in one?” “Not likely,” I said; “the rulers will not be shepherds, and yet they will be guardians. And their souls will be better than those of bees, for they will not care about their own pleasures and joys, but only about the virtues which are going to make the city happy?” “These then,” he said, “are really the qualities which we are looking for?” “Yes.” “And did we not say just now that the guardians ought to possess courage?” “We did.” “And what was the virtue which went along with courage, and of which both the courageous and the foolhardy partook?” “You told me,” I said. “Weren’t you listening? The answer was temperance.” “True.” “And do you think,” he said, “that the well-educated man who is a true ruler at the right moment, in a right place, on the right subject, and with the right men, and who is able to bring true wisdom to bear on his work, do you think that such a man will fail to do good?” “He will indeed do good,” I said. “Then, my noble and illustrious friend,” he said, “we have found the guardian; let us go on to the next point. +Time setting: 1950s + +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "I can't say I like the way you talk to me, Thrasymachus,"" said Socrates. ""It's not very gentlemanly."" Well, that's about all the manners you've got coming from me,"" said Thrasymachus, ""and don't let it worry you."""" And you can take your manners and stick them up your arse,"" said Thrasymachus. ""What does that mean?"" said Socrates. It means what it says,"" said Thrasymachus. ""And if you don't know what it means, then you're a bigger bastard than I thought."""" You'll have to explain,"" said Socrates. I will not,"" said Thrasymachus. ""I'm sick of talking to people who can't understand plain English."" Now this conversation would probably have gone on for some time in exactly the same spirit if there hadn't suddenly been a commotion at the other end of the room. Everybody stopped talking and turned round. A man with a plump face and dark hair was standing up at the table, shouting at someone. His fists were clenched and his face was red. The person he was shouting at was a youngish man with a thin face and glasses. He didn't look as though he knew how to fight. For a moment nobody moved; then Polonius and another man hurried over. They began talking to the fat man and trying to calm him down. I couldn't hear what they were saying, but they seemed to be having some difficulty. The fat man kept pointing at the young man and going on shouting. Finally the two men managed to lead him out of the room. There was a general sigh of relief. The young man had been very white by now, but he looked even whiter when the two men left him and went back to their seats at the table. Suddenly he noticed Socrates and me, and came straight over. He sat down opposite us and said: """"I'm frightfully sorry about that, but you see I really couldn't help it. If anybody could possibly lend me some money . . ."""" He looked so distressed that we both felt sorry for him. Socrates took out his purse and gave him a couple of dollars. That's awfully kind of you,"" he said. ""My name's Endicott, by the way. Harold Endicott."""" I'm Plato,"" I said. ""This is Socrates."""" Oh yes,"" said Endicott. ""I suppose you remember me. I used to come here quite often last term."""" I remember you,"" said Socrates. ""But I don't remember ever seeing you before tonight."""" No,"" said Endicott. ""I haven't been here for ages. I didn't think anybody would recognise me."""" Then why did you come?"" asked Socrates. ""If you knew you weren't wanted, why come back?"""" I don't know,"" said Endicott. ""It was sort of silly, I suppose. But I thought perhaps things might have changed. " 12 12 "You mean that you do not understand the nature of this payment whichto the best men is the great inducement to rule? Of course you knowthat ambition and avarice are held to be, as indeed they are, a disgrace? Very true. And for this reason, I said, money and honour have no attraction forthem; good men do not wish to be openly demanding payment for governingand so to get the name of hirelings, nor by secretly helping themselvesout of the public revenues to get the name of thieves. And not beingambitious they do not care about honour. Wherefore necessity mustbe laid upon them, and they must be induced to serve from the fearof punishment. And this, as I imagine, is the reason why the forwardnessto take office, instead of waiting to be compelled, has been deemeddishonourable. Now the worst part of the punishment is that he whorefuses to rule is liable to be ruled by one who is worse than himself.And the fear of this, as I conceive, induces the good to take office,not because they would, but because they cannot help --not under theidea that they are going to have any benefit or enjoyment themselves,but as a necessity, and because they are not able to commit the taskof ruling to any one who is better than themselves, or indeed as good.For there is reason to think that if a city were composed entirelyof good men, then to avoid office would be as much an object of contentionas to obtain office is at present; then we should have plain proofthat the true ruler is not meant by nature to regard his own interest,but that of his subjects; and every one who knew this would chooserather to receive a benefit from another than to have the troubleof conferring one. So far am I from agreeing with Thrasymachus thatjustice is the interest of the stronger. This latter question neednot be further discussed at present; but when Thrasymachus says thatthe life of the unjust is more advantageous than that of the just,his new statement appears to me to be of a far more serious character.Which of us has spoken truly? And which sort of life, Glaucon, doyou prefer? I for my part deem the life of the just to be the more advantageous,he answered. @@ -298,15 +323,20 @@ And what is your view about them? Would you call one of them virtueand the other Certainly. I suppose that you would call justice virtue and injustice vice? What a charming notion! So likely too, seeing that I affirm injusticeto be profitable and justice not. What else then would you say? The opposite, he replied. And would you call justice vice? No, I would rather say sublime simplicity. Then would you call injustice malignity? No; I would rather say discretion. And do the unjust appear to you to be wise and good? Yes, he said; at any rate those of them who are able to be perfectlyunjust, and who have the power of subduing states and nations; butperhaps you imagine me to be talking of cutpurses. -Even this profession if undetected has advantages, though they arenot to be compared with those of which I was just now speaking." "Summary: The text discusses the nature of ruling and governing, arguing that good men do not seek power for personal gain but out of necessity. +Even this profession if undetected has advantages, though they arenot to be compared with those of which I was just now speaking." "Summary: The text discusses the nature of ruling and governing, questioning whether ambition or avarice should be the driving force behind it. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation -Active character: Socrates, Glaucon, Thrasymachus" Gewi, ich will ihnen sagen, was die Herrschaft ist. Das ist, da einer ein andres zu dumm und zu schwach ist, um sein eigner Herr zu sein; dieser nun macht sich also an einen anderen, der bessern Kopf hat, und lebt so wie ein Pferd, das kein Geschirr hat, oder eine Frau, die keinen Mann hat, von ihm ab. Und wer den Starken, Klugen, Schnellen, Stacheligen, Wilden in seinem Innern beherrscht, der regiert ber alle diese Tiere, so lange sie nicht gewaltsam ausbrechen. Diese Beherrschung des Innern aber wird Frstenregierung genannt. - Ich frchte, sagte Glaukon, da du uns wieder unartig machst. - Doch verlangt ihr auch, da wir uns artig betragen? fragte Socrates. - Ja wohl, antwortete er, und nichts lieber. - So hrt auf mich zuzuschreien! sprach jener. Auch er erwiderte: Wir wollen's versuchen. - Nun denn, es ist nicht leicht, da ein guter Mann nach seiner Natur Herrscher werde, sondern eher der schlechteste. Denn ein guter Mann braucht ja niemand, denn er wird alles so gescheit und gut machen, wie es nur geht; er mag auch nicht warten, bis es ihm gelegen kommt, sondern tut es, wenn es not tut. Der schlechtere aber kann gar nicht anders; denn da er nicht allein gedeihen kann, mu er sich mit einem andern zusammentun, und indem er ihn niederdrckt, regiert er. Es ist nicht groziger als ein groer Mann, der eine kleine Frau nimmt und ihr Vater wird, und sie zwingt, ihm alles zu tun, was er befehlen will, weil sie doch klein ist. Ein groer Mann aber braucht keine andere; denn er kann alles selbst tun, was not tut. Da aber der Regierende am schlechtesten ist, und der Regierte am besten, und beide sich weder willig noch heimlich entwenden knnen, ohne sich wegzugeben, so mu sie notwendig eintragen mssen, unter der Bedingung freilich, da der Starkere sich an der Schwcheren vergreift, und dabei wohl oder wehe hat. Dieses aber ist die Herrschaft, Thrasymachos. - Ich merke dich, sagte jener, aber ich habe noch etwas hinzusetzen. Der beste ist immer auch der grste, und der grste sucht nach dem Regieren, um das Beste zu haben. Also ist der Grsse seine Regel, der sich des Besten bedient, und der Grsse seine Triebfedern, damit er alles, was er hat, zu gebrauchen wei. Und das ist die wahre Regierung. - Hast du's gesagt, Thrasymachos? rief Glaukon. +Literary form: Dialogue +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon, Thrasymachus +Time setting: 1950s + +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" “Which? Ruling or governing?” “The same.” “But there are two sorts of men,” said Socrates; “the one sort, which includes the majority of mankind, have only their eyes open; they see things on the surface, and can distinguish the shadows of various objects thrown by the fire on the opposite wall, but they have simply no notion of anything that really exists. The other sort, in whom you would include me, turn their eyes away and fix them on reality, and they argue that the latter is far more important than the former, as indeed it is; and they also see many other things besides what you call justice and beauty—things which people who never look at truth in this way have very little chance of seeing. Very well then, let us assume that there are two sorts of men—one of whom are rulers and possess knowledge, and the other are ruled and have only opinion, and that the former have authority over the latter. Now tell me this: Of the two, which do you think is likely to be happier, those who have the better or those who have the worse part assigned to them?” “Those who have the better part, clearly.” “And are not those who rule over others also masters of the possessions of the state?” “Of course.” “Then they will naturally want to get as much of these possessions as possible for themselves?” “Clearly.” “So that their desire for gain must be very intense?” “I should say so.” “And therefore we may conclude that they are ambitious and avaricious men?” “Naturally.” “Now if you like,” he added, “you may describe these men as ‘ruling’ if you prefer that term; but for my part I shall continue to use the word ‘governing,’ and I maintain that the business of governing consists in ruling men, not in acquiring money, and that the man who has the spirit of a ruler will always despise money-making.” Thrasymachus here broke in with another burst of laughter. “You sophists,” he said, “never seem to be able to understand a plain statement when you hear one. What? Do you mean to tell me that a man who governs the State, or who possesses any kind of power, will never be tempted to make money out of his position? Is not ambition a form of greediness, and the desire of ruling akin to the love of gain?” “No,” replied Glaucon, “that is not true, because there is one thing which we certainly find in every soul, and that is the love of ruling, and this is quite distinct from the love of gain.” “Well, then,” said Socrates, “we have now determined that to govern is the same thing as to rule, and that the man who rules is the man who loves honour and virtue above all else, and who desires to obtain as much of these things as possible for himself. 13 13 "I do not think that I misapprehend your meaning, Thrasymachus, I replied;but still I cannot hear without amazement that you class injusticewith wisdom and virtue, and justice with the opposite. Certainly I do so class them. Now, I said, you are on more substantial and almost unanswerable ground;for if the injustice which you were maintaining to be profitable hadbeen admitted by you as by others to be vice and deformity, an answermight have been given to you on received principles; but now I perceivethat you will call injustice honourable and strong, and to the unjustyou will attribute all the qualities which were attributed by us beforeto the just, seeing that you do not hesitate to rank injustice withwisdom and virtue. You have guessed most infallibly, he replied. Then I certainly ought not to shrink from going through with the argumentso long as I have reason to think that you, Thrasymachus, are speakingyour real mind; for I do believe that you are now in earnest and arenot amusing yourself at our expense. @@ -328,18 +358,19 @@ Yes. And which is wise and which is foolish? Clearly the musician is wise, and h And he is good in as far as he is wise, and bad in as far as he isfoolish? Yes. And you would say the same sort of thing of the physician? Yes. And do you think, my excellent friend, that a musician when he adjuststhe lyre would desire or claim to exceed or go beyond a musician inthe tightening and loosening the strings? -I do not think that he would. But he would claim to exceed the non-musician? Of course. And what would you say of the physician? In prescribing meats anddrinks would he wish to go beyond another physician or beyond thepractice of medicine?" "Summary: The speaker is having a conversation with Thrasymachus about justice and injustice, questioning whether injustice can be considered wise and virtuous. -Trope: The debate between good and evil -Narrative arc: Argumentative -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +I do not think that he would. But he would claim to exceed the non-musician? Of course. And what would you say of the physician? In prescribing meats anddrinks would he wish to go beyond another physician or beyond thepractice of medicine?" "Summary: The speaker argues that injustice is actually wise and virtuous, while justice is not. The conversation turns to the nature of the just and unjust person and their desires. +Trope: Organized crime +Narrative arc: Argumentative dialogue +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Thrasymachus -Diegetic time: A few minutes" And when he had got this far, and still more as he proceeded, the harshness of his voice and his vivid gestures and manner made him appear like a savage beast, which he felt himself to be. And now he came to the real point at which he meant to hit us. He began by saying that there was such a thing as a just man and also a just action; but whereas we were accustomed to speak of both in a fictitious sense only, he on the contrary meant just what he said. No man who was really just did anything unjust for the sake of justice, or underwent anything unjust, because he was just: for no man does what he knows is hurtful to himself, or any other person whom he loves. And thus in every action alike, whether public or private, when a man is engaged in any work, however slight, if he preserves his justice, he will always take least trouble for himself and the most trouble for others; this is the maxim which all who practise, or even understand, justice will observe. Now injustice, which is in every action opposed to justice, and is, as it were, its foe and enemy, making for the interest of the stronger, and opposing and encroaching upon the weak, does nothing unjust for the sake of justice, but only with a view to the interest of the stronger. For when you speak of a just man and an unjust man, you only mean a man who is strong enough to do wrong and is therefore thought to be worthy of honour, and a weakling who is taken advantage of by others and cannot do wrong. And this is the reason why we say a man is a fool who allows himself to be wrongly treated, not because he suffers what is unjust, but because he need not have suffered it, he might have avoided it by taking care of himself. The fact of his letting himself be killed by another, though he might have escaped, shows that he must either have been a fool, or have had no fear of death whatever, or some such feeling. And when we praise or blame men, or any other animals, for doing or not doing something, for being bold or fearful, for showing self-control or lack of self-control, we are giving them names of which the meaning is simply this, that they derive benefit or the reverse from their own qualities. Thus when the just man suffers or does not suffer anything unjust, or again the courageous man shows his spirit or is subdued by circumstances, they are merely names which imply that the just or the courageous man, if he happens to be put to it, escapes, or otherwise would have been a victim. And so, Socrates, whenever we call any man, whether an individual or a state, just, we mean that he is not overcome by violence; and so too the brave man is he who is not overcome by fear: and where there is no fear there is no danger; but the brave man goes through danger, yet is not overcome by fear concerning danger. +Active character: Thrasymachus, Socrates +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" Then he laughed and said: “You are very amusing, Socrates. I give you full marks for wit. But still, as far as the argument goes, it will be enough to say that, according to your view, injustice is a much finer thing than justice, and the man who is unjust is better off than the man who is just. You have been compelled to admit this. What do you think about it? And what’s more, you have also admitted that it’s wise and virtuous for a person to commit injustice when he can get away with it. Isn’t that so?” “Yes,” I said, “you’ve got me there.” Then he cried out in his rough voice, “There! That’s exactly the point of my argument. Injustice is fine and honorable, while justice is not. It’s wiser and better to be unjust and clever than to be just and stupid. In short, justice is something quite ridiculous.” “That was a most ridiculous speech,” I said, “and an extremely wicked one too.” “I don’t think so,” he replied. “On the contrary, I consider it wise and virtuous. In any case, it’s what happens in reality. The only question is whether it’s reasonable to praise people for doing what they can’t help doing. 14 14 "He would not. But he would wish to go beyond the non-physician? Yes. And about knowledge and ignorance in general; see whether you thinkthat any man who has knowledge ever would wish to have the choiceof saying or doing more than another man who has knowledge. Wouldhe not rather say or do the same as his like in the same case? That, I suppose, can hardly be denied. And what of the ignorant? would he not desire to have more than eitherthe knowing or the ignorant? I dare say. And the knowing is wise? Yes. And the wise is good? True. Then the wise and good will not desire to gain more than his like,but more than his unlike and opposite? @@ -363,13 +394,17 @@ That is out of civility to you, he replied. You are very kind, I said; and would No indeed, he said, they could not. But if they abstained from injuring one another, then they might acttogether better? Yes. And this is because injustice creates divisions and hatreds and fighting,and justice imparts harmony and friendship; is not that true, Thrasymachus? I agree, he said, because I do not wish to quarrel with you." "Summary: A conversation between two characters about knowledge, justice, and power. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation -Active character: Thrasymachus, Socrates" “Know then that I am a philosopher, a disciple of the great Glaucon. He is now dead; but his father, Ariston, your grandfather, Socrates, will remember him. I am very desirous of meeting another disciple of his, whom I have never seen, Plato. Will you ask him to come here? That is if he has leisure, for I have heard that he is very busy at present trying to get rid of an attack of daimonism.” “What!” said Thrasymachus, with a sneer, “and is Plato attacked by one of those little devils which he is so fond of introducing into his poems and dialogues?” “I don’t know,” said Socrates; “but I can tell you what sort of a devil my devil is: he is a big un, and he roars and makes a noise, and has got one nail in his hand which is as like a bit of whity-britches as you could wish to see; and there he sits and howls in my ear, and is always telling me to go to work and make money, because I am a rich man and a churl, and he fears that sometime or other I shall be poisoned or stabbed in some such way.” “Capital!” said Thrasymachus, “that is the way to treat daimonism! But listen to some other particulars: he is a thin old man, beardless, lecherous, egg-sucking, bird-nesting, apple-throwing, hoobat-worshipping, and snake-taming.” “Very fine!” said Socrates, “and how does the dialogue go on?” “The next thing is that you are always dressing up and decorating yourself, and that you are perpetually dancing and singing and telling stories, and playing the bagpipe to a company of young men who drink too much, spend all their money, and use their bodies coarsely.” “You mean to say, my dear fellow, that I am like the rest of the world?” “Yes, I do; and you take pains to make yourself like them.” Socrates held down his head, and was silent for a moment or two. Then he looked up at Thrasymachus, and said: “Tell me, Thrasymachus, why are you so hard upon me? I thought we were friends.” “What business have I to be a friend to you?” said Thrasymachus. “If you are not unjust, I am not either; if you are unjust, I can’t be your friend—surely not. Is there a man who is a friend of the brave, when he is cowardly? or of the pious, when he is impious? No certainly: justice is a good which cannot abide without another good, and therefore he who would be your friend must himself share your virtue, and cannot be your friend if you are unjust.” “This,” said Socrates, “is not a very cordial answer, Thrasymachus, as I would have expected of you.” “And why not?” he asked. “Because I am not sure whether I was right or not, and I should not like, if others could help it, to be left out of the list of good men.” “Why, my good friend,” said Thrasymachus, “did you not hear just now the definition which was given of justice? And yet that was as good a definition as any. +Active character: Thrasymachus +Time setting: 1950s + +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" When you have said that, you have said everything. 'That is a paradox.' Yes, I know, but not such a very startling one; and the reason for its not being so startling is that it hardly goes beyond common sense. Men have always thought that justice was something to be desired, even in their pleasures. And now I do not deny that justice is a fine thing and that man lives better when he is just. But my question is, What has justice to do with knowledge? What does knowledge matter, even though one were to acquire the whole of it? You will admit that in all these things to which you attribute excellence there is some end, and this end you call good. Most certainly. Then knowledge would seem to be the thing, the form of excellence? Not at all. Knowledge may be good or bad. The good man may be a good slave, and hence have no need of knowledge. Or he may be a thief, and therefore require knowledge, and yet his end is evil if theft is evil. So you see that neither in the life of the good nor of the bad is there any need of knowledge. Nay more, Socrates, how can knowledge benefit a man? Can you tell me that? In what way can it give him advantage in the acquisition of wealth, or strength, or honour? It cannot give him any of these advantages. 15 15 "How good of you, I said; but I should like to know also whether injustice,having this tendency to arouse hatred, wherever existing, among slavesor among freemen, will not make them hate one another and set themat variance and render them incapable of common action? Certainly. And even if injustice be found in two only, will they not quarreland fight, and become enemies to one another and to the just They will. And suppose injustice abiding in a single person, would your wisdomsay that she loses or that she retains her natural power? @@ -385,19 +420,16 @@ They may. But you can cut off a vine-branch with a dagger or with a chisel,and i Of course. And yet not so well as with a pruning-hook made for the purpose? True. May we not say that this is the end of a pruning-hook? We may. Then now I think you will have no difficulty in understanding my meaningwhen I asked the question whether the end of anything would be thatwhich could not be accomplished, or not so well accomplished, by anyother thing? I understand your meaning, he said, and assent. And that to which an end is appointed has also an excellence? NeedI ask again whether the eye has an end? -It has. And has not the eye an excellence? Yes. And the ear has an end and an excellence also? True. And the same is true of all other things; they have each of them anend and a special excellence?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the nature of injustice and its consequences, arguing that it leads to conflict and enmity. They then discuss the question of whether just people lead better lives than unjust people. -Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +It has. And has not the eye an excellence? Yes. And the ear has an end and an excellence also? True. And the same is true of all other things; they have each of them anend and a special excellence?" "Summary: The text discusses the nature of injustice and its consequences, as well as the relationship between justice and happiness. +Narrative arc: Philosophical argument +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical argument -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker and Thrasymachus -Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "You have a splendid gift for rhetoric, which you turn to the uses of injustice. Do you really believe all that stuff about injustice being more profitable than justice?"""" Yes, I do."" Then I give you your choice. If you are just, we shall be friends and kinsmen, but if unjust, enemies and foes."""" All right. I prefer to be just, if you are just."""" There is nothing to prevent us from being both just."" No; though it would be strange if you were just."" He gave me a sharp look, then turned away and began walking towards the house. I followed him up the hill, and we entered the library together. Thrasymachus was already there. He had been talking to an old man whom I did not know, and who left us as soon as he saw me. """"There's another friend of yours,"""" said Thrasymachus. """"I suppose you'll make him a present of that book next."""" This was his way of speaking. The old man looked at us rather sourly as he went out. His name was Cargill. Are you going?"" asked Thrasymachus. I nodded. As far as the corner shop. I'm due on duty in ten minutes."" It struck me that this was a convenient arrangement, since it left me free to continue my conversation with Thrasymachus after the others had gone. I felt no great enthusiasm for their company, nor they for mine. They seemed to regard me as a kind of fifth wheel on the coach, and probably wished I could be removed. I myself wished that I could be removed, though not quite in the sense they intended. * * * * * Well,"" said Thrasymachus, ""how about it?"""" How about what?"" The question we were discussing when Glum came in. Whether just people lead better lives than unjust people."""" Certainly,"" I said. ""It follows logically from our earlier discussion."""" Do you mean to say you've thought about it?"" Of course I have. You can't discuss a subject like that without thinking about it. And I think I've got it worked out pretty well. I'm sure I have the basic idea, anyway."""" Thrasymachus raised his eyebrows. """"Let's hear it,"""" he said. I took a deep breath. """"The basic idea,"""" I said, """"is this: injustice always leads to conflict and enmity, and therefore just people lead better lives than unjust people because they have fewer conflicts and enmities."""" Thrasymachus guffawed. """"What utter rot!"""" he said. """"You're just talking like an ass. Just tell me one thing: What do you consider the prime motivation of human beings?"""" " +Literary form: Dialogue +Active character: Socrates, Thrasymachus +Language: English" "But this is not the only injustice which you have forgotten; there is another, of which you and I are guilty just now; for we ought to be examining the nature of justice and injustice, and instead of that we have fallen into conversation concerning their consequences; thence passing on to discuss temperance and courage, we are led on to consider the whole class of virtues; and by these diversions we have lost sight of our original question and have become like children's playthings, jostling one another, rather than serious disputants, even taking pleasure in being caught up by those who want to show off 64 THE REPUBLIC BOOK I. them. And if they happen to bump violently against each other, having no thought or care about the war which they are at once beginning and making an end of, do you suppose that they will be better justice when they grow up than they were as children? Is not that rather likely to make them worse?"" I am afraid that you are right,"" he said. Now then, I said, ""you must tell me whether any light is ever likely to be given to us in our inquiry by the opposite statements of good and bad men."" By all means,"" he replied. Why do you ask?"" I ask because I think that superior wisdom may perhaps be able to see the difference; whereas I am sure that I do not myself: I mean, if you look at the matter from another point of view. When you speak of courage, temperance, and justice, and of what is illiberal and unmanly, the honourable and the dishonourable, all these ideas, as I imagine, are sorts of images of vice and virtue which are seen in the reflection of another, and only in the reflection; but that of which they are the reflections are they known or unknown to you?"" Nay, he said, I do not think that even Glaucon will deny that they are known."" And you also are quite aware, that whatever has a better claim than another to the preservation of itself in an unchanged condition, is held dearer and more precious, and less likely to be subjected to injury than that which has a worse claim?"""" Certainly,"" he replied. Well, and you observe, that the image in water or any reflective substance is diminished in comparison with the reality?"""" True."" And that the truth is greater than the reflection in water? Certainly."" And smaller things get damaged more easily and more quickly, as well as altered, when they are blotted out of existence by a larger force than themselves? Very true."" And when the larger is destroyed, a smaller thing becomes easily visible? Yes."" And things which have come to an end are easily seen through, and are said to be thin and transparent? Certainly."" Now then would you not acknowledge that all these attributes of smaller things apply to the reflections in water; and that larger things are more difficult to see through though they may be less lasting, and harder to destroy, yet when they are destroyed, admit of being more clearly seen through? " 16 16 "That is so. Well, and can the eyes fulfil their end if they are wanting in theirown proper excellence and have a defect instead? How can they, he said, if they are blind and cannot see? You mean to say, if they have lost their proper excellence, whichis sight; but I have not arrived at that point yet. I would ratherask the question more generally, and only enquire whether the thingswhich fulfil their ends fulfil them by their own proper excellence,and fall of fulfilling them by their own defect? @@ -420,17 +452,17 @@ With these words I was thinking that I had made an end of the discussion;but the I should wish really to persuade you, I replied, if I could. Then you certainly have not succeeded. Let me ask you now: --How wouldyou arrange goods --are there not some which we welcome for theirown sakes, and independently of their consequences, as, for example,harmless pleasures and enjoyments, which delight us at the time, althoughnothing follows from them? I agree in thinking that there is such a class, I replied. -Is there not also a second class of goods, such as knowledge, sight,health, which are desirable not only in themselves, but also for theirresults?" "Summary: The text discusses the relationship between justice and happiness, with Socrates and Glaucon debating the nature of justice. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Is there not also a second class of goods, such as knowledge, sight,health, which are desirable not only in themselves, but also for theirresults?" "Summary: The text discusses the concept of justice and its relationship to happiness. +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary form: Philosophical dialogue Active character: Socrates, Glaucon Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" The justice which we have now defined is seen to be such as you and most people suppose justice to be, inasmuch as you deem that a just man ought not to possess knowledge which he should keep to himself, but should give it away to others; for all men believe this, Glaucon, if they believe anything at all. But do we believe what follows from this? May not justice be a man's own greatest good? You know, I said, that the just man who was our pattern is certainly good and worthy of happiness. Now, is there anyone who would say that he who is good and worthy of happiness, if he were in some solitary place, not meaning or desiring to injure any one, would still be unjust? No one will affirm this. And is there anyone who would say that he who has the power to do what he wishes would employ another to benefit himself and harm another, even if he had no need to use him, if being in want he could have benefitted himself without hurting another? No one again will affirm this. But if a man does not desire to benefit others, then if he can benefit himself he will do so, and if he does not choose to be benefited by others, then he will benefit himself when he can. Now one who is necessary, and who can do what he wishes, appears also to be capable of acting in every way as he wishes. Wherefore we may confidently assert that if justice is not the greatest good of a man he will fly from injustice and choose justice, above all other things, because a man would surely prefer nothing to having his own; yet if he is rich, justice is, even for the possessor of wealth, better than riches, if justice is really good, as it manifestly is. Thus justice is found to be beneficial both to a man himself and to others; he who possesses justice in his own case does not suffer injustice, and he neither inflicts it nor encourages others to inflict it. We cannot call a man unjust who is the friend of justice and of the just, and therefore of himself and of his neighbours; but, if he is the enemy of himself, the enemy of neighbours, and the enemy of justice, if anywhere a man is unjust, he is an enemy to himself, clear enough. Nay, the very act of seeking to avoid suffering injustice proves that he, whatever he may be, desires to be just. The truth of all this, Glaucon, is evident to everybody. Then now, my noble friend, we have fairly avoided the difficulty which might perhaps have been urged against us, namely, that justice is useful to others and not to the individual. Suppose, however, that we divide the subject into two parts, saying that one part is the nature and the other the utility of justice: the former would be supposed to have been already discussed by us, and the latter we shall have to discuss in future; that question, then, having been disposed of, let us proceed at once to enquire into the nature of injustice, for we shall soon find out also the nature of the just. +Language: English" For which, as I said, the cause must be that the justice which we were seeking seemed to be something of this kind and similar to it. But if anyone pursues any other sort of happiness in life he will think differently about it. Let us go back then to the point at which we digressed, and let us ask what sort of thing justice is in the soul of each man. Socrates: There is nothing harsher than your rebuke, Glaucon; but I suppose that one ought not to be afraid of speaking the truth and being refuted. If you think that I am still concealing anything, you are mistaken. Rather I am much more concerned that my argument may be weaker than it seems to me to be. So now let us once more try to discover whether there is some other kind of justice or not. And first of all let us again give our attention to the question which we asked just now: 'What is the nature of justice?' Is it a part of justice for a man to pay his debts, or is this only an accompaniment? Glaucon: I do not understand what you mean by an accompaniment. Socrates: By an accompaniment I mean such things as using a shuttle when weaving, or an axe when carpentering, or a lyre when singing, or a mouthpiece when playing the flute. All these things, I say, are mere accessories. Glaucon: Very true. Socrates: And would you call paying one's debts a part of justice, or merely an accessory? Glaucon: Certainly it is a part. Socrates: Then it is clear that we have found one kind of justice: a man must pay his debts. Glaucon: True. Socrates: That is, he must give back what he received, paying an equal sum if he received an equal sum, and so forth. Glaucon: Yes, that is clear enough. Socrates: Do you want to add anything further? Or shall we set aside this class of justice as being of a kind that belongs rather to paid servants than to freemen and pursue another kind? Glaucon: What kind? Socrates: The giving back of what a man has received from another, and that in equal measure if he received an equal amount. Glaucon: You mean, I suppose, that we must consider whether this class of justice belongs to the just man even in relation to himself, or rather whether it is a matter of mutual relations between man and man? 17 17 "Certainly, I said. And would you not recognize a third class, such as gymnastic, andthe care of the sick, and the physician's art; also the various waysof money-making --these do us good but we regard them as disagreeable;and no one would choose them for their own sakes, but only for thesake of some reward or result which flows from them? There is, I said, this third class also. But why do you ask? Because I want to know in which of the three classes you would placejustice? @@ -441,32 +473,32 @@ I wish, he said, that you would hear me as well as him, and then Ishall see whet Indeed I do; nor can I imagine any theme about which a man of sensewould oftener wish to converse. I am delighted, he replied, to hear you say so, and shall begin byspeaking, as I proposed, of the nature and origin of justice. Glaucon -They say that to do injustice is, by nature, good; to suffer injustice,evil; but that the evil is greater than the good. And so when menhave both done and suffered injustice and have had experience of both,not being able to avoid the one and obtain the other, they think thatthey had better agree among themselves to have neither; hence therearise laws and mutual covenants; and that which is ordained by lawis termed by them lawful and just. This they affirm to be the originand nature of justice; --it is a mean or compromise, between the bestof all, which is to do injustice and not be punished, and the worstof all, which is to suffer injustice without the power of retaliation;and justice, being at a middle point between the two, is toleratednot as a good, but as the lesser evil, and honoured by reason of theinability of men to do injustice. For no man who is worthy to be calleda man would ever submit to such an agreement if he were able to resist;he would be mad if he did. Such is the received account, Socrates,of the nature and origin of justice." "Summary: The speaker discusses the different classes of goods and their relationship to justice. -Narrative arc: Philosophical argument -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +They say that to do injustice is, by nature, good; to suffer injustice,evil; but that the evil is greater than the good. And so when menhave both done and suffered injustice and have had experience of both,not being able to avoid the one and obtain the other, they think thatthey had better agree among themselves to have neither; hence therearise laws and mutual covenants; and that which is ordained by lawis termed by them lawful and just. This they affirm to be the originand nature of justice; --it is a mean or compromise, between the bestof all, which is to do injustice and not be punished, and the worstof all, which is to suffer injustice without the power of retaliation;and justice, being at a middle point between the two, is toleratednot as a good, but as the lesser evil, and honoured by reason of theinability of men to do injustice. For no man who is worthy to be calleda man would ever submit to such an agreement if he were able to resist;he would be mad if he did. Such is the received account, Socrates,of the nature and origin of justice." "Summary: The text discusses the nature and origin of justice, arguing that it is a compromise between doing injustice and suffering injustice. +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary form: Philosophical argument Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker, Glaucon +Active character: Glaucon +Quoted character: Thrasymachus Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "The goods that belong to the class of the just man, then, are of three kinds. First there is his own soul, secondly his possessions, and thirdly the other citizens of the city. The greatest part of a man's justice is shown by his relation to his own soul; for if he doesn't have mastery over himself, how can he be expected to have mastery over anyone else?"""" You're right,"" Glaucon said. ""But what about his relation to his possessions?"""" It's not as important as his relation to himself,"" Polemarchus said. ""He may lose everything and still remain a just man. But no one who isn't master of himself can ever be just."""" I suppose you're right,"" Glaucon said. ""So it seems that the greatest part of justice consists in a man's being master of himself."""" Certainly."" Then there's the question of his relationship to his fellow-citizens,"" Glaucon said. ""Are they an equal part of justice, or does that come somewhere below his relation to himself?"""" There again you're right,"" Polemarchus said. ""If he can't control himself, then he certainly can't control anybody else. And if he has self-control but can't control others, then he's useless to the state. " +Language: English" "I was, of course, right about the nature of justice; it is a compromise between doing injustice and suffering injustice. It means being unjust when you can get away with it, but not when you can't. It does not mean trying to be just all the time. Only suckers try to be just all the time. Now let's discuss the origin of justice."""" Glaucon wasn't going to let him get away with this. He shouted: """"That's an outright lie! You're a fool if you think that's what I believe!"""" The truth is,"" I said, ""that Thrasymachus believes in justice and hates it so much he doesn't dare admit it."""" It was true enough, but I didn't have to say it. Nobody could ever understand Thrasymachus. He always denied he meant exactly what he said, even when he went out of his way to prove he meant exactly what he said. He had the most contradictory ideas in the world. One moment he was coldly logical, the next he was hot-tempered and mad as a hornet. The only thing we could agree on was that Socrates was crazy. Socrates thought justice was beautiful and good, Thrasymachus said it was ugly and bad. We agreed on that. They yelled at each other for hours. Thrasymachus was loud and angry, Socrates was soft-spoken and reasonable. Both of them were wrong, and both of them knew it. That was why they kept arguing. If you're wrong and admit it, you can stop arguing. Wrong people who won't admit it are like bullies. They want to keep proving they're right because they don't know any other way to feel safe. They've got to make everybody else admit they're right too or they get furious. They're always starting fights and calling names. It was a relief when Adeimantus told us to shut up and listen to Polemarchus. At least he was polite and made sense. He agreed with Socrates. He said justice was good, and injustice was bad. Justice was the force that held society together, and without it there would be chaos. That was what he called it. Chaos was his favorite word. Maybe it was the name of some Greek play he'd seen in school. It sounded Greek, anyway, which is the main thing. Thrasymachus laughed at him. He said he was just talking like a mother, and mothers don't know what they're talking about. But Glaucon came to his rescue. He said Socrates was right after all. Society needed laws, and laws needed people to enforce them, and people to obey them. That gave us four different theories of justice: 1) Socrates: Justice was a kind of knowledge, a man's duty to do what was good for himself and for other people. 2) Polemarchus: Justice was what the strongest man wanted it to be. 3) Glaucon: Justice was what the rulers wanted it to be. 4) Thrasymachus: Justice was what the stronger man did to the weaker man. " 18 18 Now that those who practise justice do so involuntarily and becausethey have not the power to be unjust will best appear if we imaginesomething of this kind: having given both to the just and the unjustpower to do what they will, let us watch and see whither desire willlead them; then we shall discover in the very act the just and unjustman to be proceeding along the same road, following their interest,which all natures deem to be their good, and are only diverted intothe path of justice by the force of law. The liberty which we aresupposing may be most completely given to them in the form of sucha power as is said to have been possessed by Gyges the ancestor ofCroesus the Lydian. According to the tradition, Gyges was a shepherdin the service of the king of Lydia; there was a great storm, andan earthquake made an opening in the earth at the place where he wasfeeding his flock. Amazed at the sight, he descended into the opening,where, among other marvels, he beheld a hollow brazen horse, havingdoors, at which he stooping and looking in saw a dead body of stature,as appeared to him, more than human, and having nothing on but a goldring; this he took from the finger of the dead and reascended. Nowthe shepherds met together, according to custom, that they might sendtheir monthly report about the flocks to the king; into their assemblyhe came having the ring on his finger, and as he was sitting amongthem he chanced to turn the collet of the ring inside his hand, wheninstantly he became invisible to the rest of the company and theybegan to speak of him as if he were no longer present. He was astonishedat this, and again touching the ring he turned the collet outwardsand reappeared; he made several trials of the ring, and always withthe same result-when he turned the collet inwards he became invisible,when outwards he reappeared. Whereupon he contrived to be chosen oneof the messengers who were sent to the court; where as soon as hearrived he seduced the queen, and with her help conspired againstthe king and slew him, and took the kingdom. Suppose now that therewere two such magic rings, and the just put on one of them and theunjust the other;,no man can be imagined to be of such an iron naturethat he would stand fast in justice. No man would keep his hands offwhat was not his own when he could safely take what he liked out ofthe market, or go into houses and lie with any one at his pleasure,or kill or release from prison whom he would, and in all respectsbe like a God among men. Then the actions of the just would be asthe actions of the unjust; they would both come at last to the samepoint. And this we may truly affirm to be a great proof that a manis just, not willingly or because he thinks that justice is any goodto him individually, but of necessity, for wherever any one thinksthat he can safely be unjust, there he is unjust. For all men believein their hearts that injustice is far more profitable to the individualthan justice, and he who argues as I have been supposing, will saythat they are right. If you could imagine any one obtaining this powerof becoming invisible, and never doing any wrong or touching whatwas another's, he would be thought by the lookers-on to be a mostwretched idiot, although they would praise him to one another's faces,and keep up appearances with one another from a fear that they toomight suffer injustice. Enough of this. "Summary: The text discusses the concept of justice and the idea that people act justly out of necessity rather than choice. Narrative arc: Philosophical argument -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Philosophical argument Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Gyges +Time setting: 1950s Absolute place: A clubhouse in Los Angeles -Fuzzy place: Unnamed locations such as a storm, an opening in the earth, a hollow brazen horse -Diegetic time: A few minutes" In the storm he saw an opening in the earth and went down into it, where he found a hollow brazen horse. When he had got inside the horse, he covered up the opening with mud and grass, and went to the city. The next day the king summoned the people of his council and said: “Men of Athens, I have a secret that I must tell you. Last night, when we were at supper, a man came to me from Thebes, and told me that he was one of the men who had been sent by Candaules against Gyges the shepherd; and how Gyges had killed them all and escaped himself. “He said that Gyges had stolen one of their coats of mail, and put it on; and, having done this, he changed his face and shape, and so made his way out of the place where they were shut up. He also said that Gyges had gone back to Lydia, and after some time became prime minister of King Candaules, who died shortly afterwards. After that Gyges married the queen, and reigned in her stead.” At these words there rose up among the Athenians many different opinions. Some believed that the man who told the story was lying; others thought that he was telling the truth; but most of them agreed that if what he said was true, the king was justified in doing what he had done. For they thought that it would be right for any man to kill another, if he could do so safely, who had the power to rob him of his wife. +Language: English" "She had kept him out of jail, and that was a lot to expect of a woman in those days. She had given him the break that made it possible for him to get back on his feet again, and he would have killed for her if she had asked him to. But I've seen the day when she wouldn't ask me to kill a fly."""" So what?"" And yet they were good together, Gyges and Cyprian. They understood each other perfectly. The job suited him; it fitted into his background, his character. It is said that Gyges was just because he could not be unjust; that is, because he acted as any man will act under necessity. If you want to see a man act justly, put a gun in his ribs and tell him to do it. Or better still, put a little girl in there instead of the gun. That's what makes policemen just. They are under orders; they have got to obey or go to prison. The poor devils in Korea are fighting for justice. What does that prove? That a man can't help being just, that it isn't a matter of choice but of compulsion, that he acts justly because he has no choice. He acts justly, if you like, out of weakness."""" The clubhouse was a two-story affair built of concrete blocks. It was painted white, with blue trimmings around the windows and doors, and a big sign over the front door that read """"The Silver Dollar"""" in red letters on a field of yellow. Behind it stretched a long rectangular parking lot, empty now except for three cars. A half-dozen orange-trees grew against the rear wall. There was a wooden porch running along the right-hand side of the building, and here Ben let us out, saying he would take the car around back. We climbed the steps and went into the barroom. It was a long narrow room, dimly lighted by a pair of lamps suspended from the ceiling, one at each end. The floor was covered with an imitation linoleum patterned after parquet, and there was a dance floor in the middle of the room. Against the walls ran a series of booths, upholstered in leatherette and separated from each other by partitions of glass. The bar, which took up most of the left-hand wall, was done in the same style: a polished counter with chromium foot-rails and four stools in front of it. Everything looked new and clean, very neat and attractive. Across the far end of the room was a double door, and through this we passed into another room, also long and narrow, but furnished like a living-room. Here too everything was new and spotlessly clean. There were a couple of couches upholstered in green leatherette and a number of chairs grouped about a low table of chrome and glass. An electric clock hung on the wall opposite the entrance, a radio in a corner, a phonograph, a bar, several bookcases containing magazines and books. " 19 19 "Now, if we are to form a real judgment of the life of the just andunjust, we must isolate them; there is no other way; and how is theisolation to be effected? I answer: Let the unjust man be entirelyunjust, and the just man entirely just; nothing is to be taken awayfrom either of them, and both are to be perfectly furnished for thework of their respective lives. First, let the unjust be like otherdistinguished masters of craft; like the skilful pilot or physician,who knows intuitively his own powers and keeps within their limits,and who, if he fails at any point, is able to recover himself. Solet the unjust make his unjust attempts in the right way, and liehidden if he means to be great in his injustice (he who is found outis nobody): for the highest reach of injustice is: to be deemed justwhen you are not. Therefore I say that in the perfectly unjust manwe must assume the most perfect injustice; there is to be no deduction,but we must allow him, while doing the most unjust acts, to have acquiredthe greatest reputation for justice. If he have taken a false stephe must be able to recover himself; he must be one who can speak witheffect, if any of his deeds come to light, and who can force his waywhere force is required his courage and strength, and command of moneyand friends. And at his side let us place the just man in his noblenessand simplicity, wishing, as Aeschylus says, to be and not to seemgood. There must be no seeming, for if he seem to be just he willbe honoured and rewarded, and then we shall not know whether he isjust for the sake of justice or for the sake of honours and rewards;therefore, let him be clothed in justice only, and have no other covering;and he must be imagined in a state of life the opposite of the former.Let him be the best of men, and let him be thought the worst; thenhe will have been put to the proof; and we shall see whether he willbe affected by the fear of infamy and its consequences. And let himcontinue thus to the hour of death; being just and seeming to be unjust.When both have reached the uttermost extreme, the one of justice andthe other of injustice, let judgment be given which of them is thehappier of the two. Socrates - GLAUCON Heavens! my dear Glaucon, I said, how energetically you polish themup for the decision, first one and then the other, as if they weretwo statues. @@ -475,60 +507,63 @@ His mind has a soil deep and fertile, Out of which spring his prudent counsels. Adeimantus -SOCRATES I was going to say something in answer to Glaucon, when Adeimantus,his brother, interposed: Socrates, he said, you do not suppose thatthere is nothing more to be urged? Why, what else is there? I answered. The strongest point of all has not been even mentioned, he replied." "Summary: The text discusses the concept of justice and injustice, comparing the lives of a just and unjust person. -Trope: The contrast between justice and injustice -Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion and comparison -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Trope: Organized crime +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion and argument +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue -Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, Glaucon, Adeimantus -Time setting: 1950s" "Then the unjust man will have been left a ruined man, and he'll realize that all his life long he's been trying to get something for nothing. He'll also be liable to punishment in this world, and there'll be no end of people who'll come at him with their tongues out; and if he kills them they'll accuse him of murder and the accusers will be believed because they're dead, whereas he's alive. When he tries to escape from this situation by running away, he'll find it impossible because he'll have no friends to help him, and all men will combine against him as an enemy since he tried to cheat them of their property. And when he gets old and is no longer able to do anything, he'll be alone and desolate and completely wretched; and so, Glaucon, he'll be justly punished by being deprived of everything including even the hope of happiness in another world. So now you've got justice and injustice both painted in their true colors, Socrates. Which of the two would you rather have?"""" I'm afraid,"" said Socrates, ""that you've made your choice too quickly, Glaucon."""" But isn't it plain enough?"" he asked. ""Wouldn't you choose to have the character of the just man rather than that of the unjust man?"" Yes, I'd certainly choose the character of the just man."" Would you really choose the life of the just man or would you rather live like the unjust man and have no one notice what you're up to?"""" He didn't know how to answer that, so he kept quiet. So then Adeimantus came to his rescue and said: """"Socrates, you seem to me to be saying something rather odd. You're telling us that the just man won't be able to live a better life than the unjust man, but only a quieter one, and that the just life won't be more pleasant either, but only less painful. If this is so, why on earth should anyone want to be just rather than unjust?"""" It seems to me, Adeimantus, that you're quite right. The life of the just man is less pleasant than that of the unjust man, but it's also less painful. If someone had told me that before, I'd have believed it easily enough, but I wouldn't have believed that justice was better than injustice. If I were told the same thing today, I'd believe it, but only if someone else had persuaded me first that the just man is happier than the unjust man."""" " +Time setting: 1950s + +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" And now, Glaucon, I want to pick out another kind of life which is very different from the last, and contains no element of injustice in it. I am afraid it may appear rather ridiculous, but I shall have to take the risk. Imagine a man who is a farmer or a merchant, and has any number of slaves, who are also farmers, gardeners, or merchants; he will have many opportunities of taking what he likes off them, and there will be nothing to prevent him, as they have nothing to say; and if we suppose that he is a man of temperance and self-control, always eating and drinking in moderation, and not excessive in anything else, preferring health to disease, and having no vicious or immoral habits, he will do extremely well, and will have plenty of leisure, too; he could easily work on at his own affairs, and will have time to learn other things. When he is ill, he will have doctors to look after him; he can lie in bed and give orders to his slaves; and when he wants to get up, they will dress and undress him, wash him, and generally take care of his wants. Also they will fetch his meals from the cookshop whenever he pleases and bring them to him at the proper hour. He need not even trouble about exercising or taking the air; they will carry him out in a litter, when he likes, into the fresh air, or to the gymnasia if he feels like going. 20 20 "Well, then, according to the proverb, 'Let brother help brother' --ifhe fails in any part do you assist him; although I must confess thatGlaucon has already said quite enough to lay me in the dust, and takefrom me the power of helping justice. Adeimantus Nonsense, he replied. But let me add something more: There is anotherside to Glaucon's argument about the praise and censure of justiceand injustice, which is equally required in order to bring out whatI believe to be his meaning. Parents and tutors are always tellingtheir sons and their wards that they are to be just; but why? notfor the sake of justice, but for the sake of character and reputation;in the hope of obtaining for him who is reputed just some of thoseoffices, marriages, and the like which Glaucon has enumerated amongthe advantages accruing to the unjust from the reputation of justice.More, however, is made of appearances by this class of persons thanby the others; for they throw in the good opinion of the gods, andwill tell you of a shower of benefits which the heavens, as they say,rain upon the pious; and this accords with the testimony of the nobleHesiod and Homer, the first of whom says, that the gods make the oaksof the just-- To hear acorns at their summit, and bees I the middle; And the sheep the bowed down bowed the with the their fleeces. andmany other blessings of a like kind are provided for them. And Homerhas a very similar strain; for he speaks of one whose fame is-- As the fame of some blameless king who, like a god, Maintains justice to whom the black earth brings forth Wheat and barley, whose trees are bowed with fruit, And his sheep never fail to bear, and the sea gives him fish. Stillgrander are the gifts of heaven which Musaeus and his son vouchsafeto the just; they take them down into the world below, where theyhave the saints lying on couches at a feast, everlastingly drunk,crowned with garlands; their idea seems to be that an immortalityof drunkenness is the highest meed of virtue. Some extend their rewardsyet further; the posterity, as they say, of the faithful and justshall survive to the third and fourth generation. This is the stylein which they praise justice. But about the wicked there is anotherstrain; they bury them in a slough in Hades, and make them carry waterin a sieve; also while they are yet living they bring them to infamy,and inflict upon them the punishments which Glaucon described as theportion of the just who are reputed to be unjust; nothing else doestheir invention supply. Such is their manner of praising the one andcensuring the other. -Once more, Socrates, I will ask you to consider another way of speakingabout justice and injustice, which is not confined to the poets, butis found in prose writers. The universal voice of mankind is alwaysdeclaring that justice and virtue are honourable, but grievous andtoilsome; and that the pleasures of vice and injustice are easy ofattainment, and are only censured by law and opinion. They say alsothat honesty is for the most part less profitable than dishonesty;and they are quite ready to call wicked men happy, and to honour themboth in public and private when they are rich or in any other wayinfluential, while they despise and overlook those who may be weakand poor, even though acknowledging them to be better than the others.But most extraordinary of all is their mode of speaking about virtueand the gods: they say that the gods apportion calamity and miseryto many good men, and good and happiness to the wicked. And mendicantprophets go to rich men's doors and persuade them that they have apower committed to them by the gods of making an atonement for a man'sown or his ancestor's sins by sacrifices or charms, with rejoicingsand feasts; and they promise to harm an enemy, whether just or unjust,at a small cost; with magic arts and incantations binding heaven,as they say, to execute their will. And the poets are the authoritiesto whom they appeal, now smoothing the path of vice with the wordsof Hesiod; --" "Summary: The text discusses the perception of justice and injustice in society, highlighting the praise and censure of both concepts. -Narrative arc: Philosophical argument -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Once more, Socrates, I will ask you to consider another way of speakingabout justice and injustice, which is not confined to the poets, butis found in prose writers. The universal voice of mankind is alwaysdeclaring that justice and virtue are honourable, but grievous andtoilsome; and that the pleasures of vice and injustice are easy ofattainment, and are only censured by law and opinion. They say alsothat honesty is for the most part less profitable than dishonesty;and they are quite ready to call wicked men happy, and to honour themboth in public and private when they are rich or in any other wayinfluential, while they despise and overlook those who may be weakand poor, even though acknowledging them to be better than the others.But most extraordinary of all is their mode of speaking about virtueand the gods: they say that the gods apportion calamity and miseryto many good men, and good and happiness to the wicked. And mendicantprophets go to rich men's doors and persuade them that they have apower committed to them by the gods of making an atonement for a man'sown or his ancestor's sins by sacrifices or charms, with rejoicingsand feasts; and they promise to harm an enemy, whether just or unjust,at a small cost; with magic arts and incantations binding heaven,as they say, to execute their will. And the poets are the authoritiesto whom they appeal, now smoothing the path of vice with the wordsof Hesiod; --" "Summary: The text discusses the praise and censure of justice and injustice, as well as the contradictions and misconceptions surrounding it. +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical discussion -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Glaucon, Adeimantus, Socrates" "Sehr leicht ist es, da die Leute von der Gerechtigkeit und Ungerechtigkeit ein falsches Bild haben. Sie meinen, wenn jemand einen Mann tten oder ihm Schaden zufgen will, so ist das ungerecht; aber wenn sie selbst ihr Leben in Gefahr bringen und ihre Freiheit und ihr Gut opfern mssen, dann heisst das gerecht. Und wenn einer sich vor einem bessern Mann hlt als er ist und ihn nicht neckt und nicht schndet und ihm nicht vor die Fusten tritt, so ist das gerecht; aber wenn einer etwas Gutes von den Seinen nimmt, oder wenn er, ohne Ursache, schlechte Worte mit ihnen redet, oder wenn er schlechtes Fleisch eintut, oder wenn er einem anderen eine Stellung gibt, die ihm nicht gebhrt, so ist das ungerecht."""" 20. Wenn sie nun auch so recht anfangen zu reden, so wundern wir uns wohl nicht, da sie in solcher Weise von Recht und Unrecht urteilen. Denn wie kann ein unkluger Mensch, der nur beisammenliegt, Recht und Unrecht unterscheiden? Nun, Freund Adeimantus, soll Glaukon nun weiter ausreden, oder du?"""" 21. Ich,"""" sagte Adeimantus, """"werde alles sagen, was mir vorkommt, und ich glaube, es wird nicht leicht mehr sein, denn mein Bruder hat schon viel gesprochen."""" So sei es!"" rief Socrates lachend. ""Und du wirst dich in meiner Lehre nicht stehlen lassen, sondern aussprechen, was du fr dich allein hervorgebracht hast."""" Also,"" sagte Adeimantus, ""ich meine folgendes: Die Leute halten es fr ungerecht, wenn man ihnen weh tut, und werden durch Schmerz, Tod, Gefangenschaft und alle Art von Ungemach verwnscht. Aber wenn sie ihrerseits einen Menschen tten oder ihm Schaden zufgen, dann sind sie damit zufrieden, und finden, da es gerecht sei. Hren Sie mich nur ruhig an! Ist das nicht so? Nehmen Sie an, da ein armer Teufel, der auf dem Lande lebt, im Auslande ein groes Vermgen gemacht hat; nun kommt er nach Hause, um unter seinen Verwandten zu leben. In welcher Stadt er auch immer ankommt, so mu er unbedingt daran gedacht haben, wie er seine Erbschaft und seine Zeit anstellen werde; denn in der Regel ist er noch jung, und sobald er erst im eigenen Lande angekommen ist, sucht er sich Freunde, Schwager, Neffen, Vetter und Cousinen, und welche vielleicht gar keine Verwandten von ihm sind, aber doch gute Freunde seines Geldes werden wollen. Dann sitzt er nieder und schreibt jedem von ihnen eine Summe von drei oder vier Talenten zu, und sagt: Ihr seid meine Verwandten, und ich liebe euch, und habt Mitleid mit mir und helft mir!"""" Dann geht er, weil er nicht gelernt hat, was Recht und Unrecht sind, von Haus zu Haus, und verteilte reichlich das Geld, das er besitzt, nicht nur unter seine Verwandten, sondern auch unter die Fremden, die sich als solche ausgeben. Nun, Freund Glaukon,"""" sagte Adeimantus, """"ist das gerecht oder ungerecht?"""" Das wrde ich nicht gerade behaupten,"""" sagte Glaukon, """"da es gerecht sei."""" Aber es ist nicht ungerecht?"" sagte Adeimantus. " +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Active character: Glaucon, Adeimantus, Socrates +Quoted work: Homer, Hesiod +Language: English" But Glaucon and the rest of us, who were still young, thought that justice was virtue, and injustice vice; but we did not agree about their natures and effects, any more than the poets did. Some of them said that absolute good was bad, and absolute evil good; others that absolutely evil was bad, and absolutely good good. And this difference of opinion among them and of judgement about justice and injustice had a very confused effect on us; for we thought that justice and goodness sat very lightly on those who, as we imagined, lived wickedly, and that they were the companions of the unrighteous and unjust; but that injustice was an easy thing, and right and good behaviour in another light. Nay even now, when I look at the matter in another point of view, I am struck with wonder. For opposed to the philosophers, who are the defenders of justice only, there are the poets, who from time immemorial have been the eulogists of injustice; and the wrongdoer has always seemed to me in a quite different light from what he is in their eyes. You know that in comedies whenever someone takes the part of the unjust, he is always introduced laughing; and in serious dramas too the misery brought upon the unjust by justice makes us laugh through our tears; the reason being that comedy imitates in jest what tragedy imitates in earnest. Comedy is, in fact, nothing but tragic parody; and tragedy appears to be begun by Homer himself, and to have been continued by later tragedians who imitated him in this respect. Now you know that Homer, in his epics, sometimes laughs at one who suffers for his wrongdoing, and again, when he represents the gods as speaking to one another, he introduces them praising or blaming some act of the same person, not understanding how they can at different times be so inconsistent about the same man. But now let us leave these matters to the poets, and turn to the cause which made us originally debate about justice. Was not the question whether it is better to be just and obey the laws, or unjust and violate them, impelled by the fear of the superior power of the government and the retribution which it inflicts on wrong-doers? May not the same fear constrain those who wish to break the law to pretend that all their actions are done in obedience to it? 21 21 "Vice may be had in abundance without trouble; the way is smooth andher dwelling-place is near. But before virtue the gods have set toil,and a tedious and uphill road: then citing Homer as a witness thatthe gods may be influenced by men; for he also says: The gods, too, may he turned from their purpose; and men pray to themand avert their wrath by sacrifices and soothing entreaties, and bylibations and the odour of fat, when they have sinned and transgressed.And they produce a host of books written by Musaeus and Orpheus, whowere children of the Moon and the Muses --that is what they say --accordingto which they perform their ritual, and persuade not only individuals,but whole cities, that expiations and atonements for sin may be madeby sacrifices and amusements which fill a vacant hour, and are equallyat the service of the living and the dead; the latter sort they callmysteries, and they redeem us from the pains of hell, but if we neglectthem no one knows what awaits us. He proceeded: And now when the young hear all this said about virtueand vice, and the way in which gods and men regard them, how are theirminds likely to be affected, my dear Socrates, --those of them, Imean, who are quickwitted, and, like bees on the wing, light on everyflower, and from all that they hear are prone to draw conclusionsas to what manner of persons they should be and in what way they shouldwalk if they would make the best of life? Probably the youth willsay to himself in the words of Pindar-- -Can I by justice or by crooked ways of deceit ascend a loftier towerwhich may he a fortress to me all my days? For what men say is that,if I am really just and am not also thought just profit there is none,but the pain and loss on the other hand are unmistakable. But if,though unjust, I acquire the reputation of justice, a heavenly lifeis promised to me. Since then, as philosophers prove, appearance tyrannizesover truth and is lord of happiness, to appearance I must devote myself.I will describe around me a picture and shadow of virtue to be thevestibule and exterior of my house; behind I will trail the subtleand crafty fox, as Archilochus, greatest of sages, recommends. ButI hear some one exclaiming that the concealment of wickedness is oftendifficult; to which I answer, Nothing great is easy. Nevertheless,the argument indicates this, if we would be happy, to be the pathalong which we should proceed. With a view to concealment we willestablish secret brotherhoods and political clubs. And there are professorsof rhetoric who teach the art of persuading courts and assemblies;and so, partly by persuasion and partly by force, I shall make unlawfulgains and not be punished. Still I hear a voice saying that the godscannot be deceived, neither can they be compelled. But what if thereare no gods? or, suppose them to have no care of human things --whyin either case should we mind about concealment? And even if thereare gods, and they do care about us, yet we know of them only fromtradition and the genealogies of the poets; and these are the verypersons who say that they may be influenced and turned by 'sacrificesand soothing entreaties and by offerings.' Let us be consistent then,and believe both or neither. If the poets speak truly, why then wehad better be unjust, and offer of the fruits of injustice; for ifwe are just, although we may escape the vengeance of heaven, we shalllose the gains of injustice; but, if we are unjust, we shall keepthe gains, and by our sinning and praying, and praying and sinning,the gods will be propitiated, and we shall not be punished. 'But thereis a world below in which either we or our posterity will suffer forour unjust deeds.' Yes, my friend, will be the reflection, but thereare mysteries and atoning deities, and these have great power. Thatis what mighty cities declare; and the children of the gods, who weretheir poets and prophets, bear a like testimony." "Summary: The text discusses the influence of gods and the pursuit of virtue and vice. -Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Can I by justice or by crooked ways of deceit ascend a loftier towerwhich may he a fortress to me all my days? For what men say is that,if I am really just and am not also thought just profit there is none,but the pain and loss on the other hand are unmistakable. But if,though unjust, I acquire the reputation of justice, a heavenly lifeis promised to me. Since then, as philosophers prove, appearance tyrannizesover truth and is lord of happiness, to appearance I must devote myself.I will describe around me a picture and shadow of virtue to be thevestibule and exterior of my house; behind I will trail the subtleand crafty fox, as Archilochus, greatest of sages, recommends. ButI hear some one exclaiming that the concealment of wickedness is oftendifficult; to which I answer, Nothing great is easy. Nevertheless,the argument indicates this, if we would be happy, to be the pathalong which we should proceed. With a view to concealment we willestablish secret brotherhoods and political clubs. And there are professorsof rhetoric who teach the art of persuading courts and assemblies;and so, partly by persuasion and partly by force, I shall make unlawfulgains and not be punished. Still I hear a voice saying that the godscannot be deceived, neither can they be compelled. But what if thereare no gods? or, suppose them to have no care of human things --whyin either case should we mind about concealment? And even if thereare gods, and they do care about us, yet we know of them only fromtradition and the genealogies of the poets; and these are the verypersons who say that they may be influenced and turned by 'sacrificesand soothing entreaties and by offerings.' Let us be consistent then,and believe both or neither. If the poets speak truly, why then wehad better be unjust, and offer of the fruits of injustice; for ifwe are just, although we may escape the vengeance of heaven, we shalllose the gains of injustice; but, if we are unjust, we shall keepthe gains, and by our sinning and praying, and praying and sinning,the gods will be propitiated, and we shall not be punished. 'But thereis a world below in which either we or our posterity will suffer forour unjust deeds.' Yes, my friend, will be the reflection, but thereare mysteries and atoning deities, and these have great power. Thatis what mighty cities declare; and the children of the gods, who weretheir poets and prophets, bear a like testimony." "Summary: The text discusses the influence of gods and the idea of virtue and vice in human life. +Narrative arc: Philosophical reflection +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Philosophical argument -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates +Active character: Socrates, young people Quoted work: Homer, Pindar, Archilochus -Time setting: 1950s" "Suppose the gods don't interfere with their own lives?"""" Socrates said: """"I'll tell you a story. A man was riding in a boat on a big lake, and it got very dark. He could hear the water lapping at the sides of the boat, but he couldn't see anything except for some fireflies on the water. Suddenly he felt something big swimming around under the boat. He knew it must be a sea monster because it made the boat rock up and down. The man started to pray to Zeus to save him from the monster. But then he thought, 'What's the use praying to Zeus when I'm not even sure he exists? Maybe he does, maybe he doesn't.' So he prayed to Poseidon instead, but he didn't feel any better because he wasn't sure Poseidon existed either. Then he prayed to Amphitrite, and after that to every god he could remember. Finally he started praying to all the gods together. Still the monster kept swimming around under the boat. At last he said to himself, 'Maybe if I know which god is responsible for this, I can make him stop it.' And he began to curse each god in turn for doing it, and at last he cursed them all."""" Socrates said: """"Well?"" What happened?"" Well,"" said the narrator, ""the next thing the man knew he was safe on shore."" Why?"" Because the monster had been frightened by the noise and gone away."" Very interesting,"" said Socrates. ""Now suppose there are gods who do nothing unless they're insulted?"""" Good point,"" said the narrator. ""Then if we want good things to happen, we should try to keep them happy by flattering them. For instance, if we pray to Zeus to give us what we want, he might get angry and give us the opposite."""" If he exists."" That too,"" said the narrator. ""But suppose he does exist, wouldn't he like it if people flattered him?"""" Of course he would. Especially if he's vain like most people who live in Hollywood. In fact, sometimes I think he likes flattery so much he gives us what we want just to hear us thank him for it."""" You mean he's more interested in hearing his praises sung than in making people happy?"" Exactly. And if you have trouble getting what you want, you can always bribe him with sacrifices or offerings."""" Then why don't people do that?"" They do,"" said the narrator. ""Every time they light a cigarette they're bribing Zeus to let them smoke, and every time they take a drink they're bribing him to let them drink. But it's hard to bribe him into letting people drive over fifty miles an hour, or play poker, or shoot dice, or go to bed with their own wives."""" Socrates nodded. " +Language: English" If a god, or if the goddess of love, is going to have anything to say about it, he will certainly manage to get into the house of the rich man and not that of the poor man; for that is the way with gods and goddesses: they are always giving the preference either to the rich or else to the noble. But as for human virtue and vice, what part do they play in our lives? They are merely ornamental, my dear Socrates, like gold and ivory and such-like things; the useful things are wealth, strength, beauty, and the like. And then again I was thinking that these young people here were beginning to have their minds corrupted by you, so I came to bring them back to reality. For surely, Socrates, we ought not to let ourselves be corrupted by anyone.” “Why, Prodicus,” said Socrates, “do you suppose that there is anyone who corrupts me? Or rather, tell me, why do you think that I am corruptible?” “Because you are a man, Socrates,” said Prodicus. “That’s just what I mean,” said Socrates. “A man is a mortal, and corruptible, and therefore must be corruptible; but I am not a man, Prodicus, nor do I inhabit a body, and therefore I am incorruptible.” And now, gentlemen,” he went on, “you may ask me how I know this about myself. Well, when I wish to examine myself and see whether I am in a sound condition or not, I take this method. I imagine a line divided into two unequal parts, and I call the shorter part M and the longer part B. Next I fancy that there are two sorts of knowledge; one of which I describe as holy and true, but the other impure; and I give the names of Moral Virtue and Vice to these two respectively. Then I suppose that Moral Virtue dwells at B and Vice at M, because the one is better and the other worse. Now when I want to test myself, I fancy that there are also two kinds of pleasure, the one natural and coming from a good source, the other spurious and from an evil source. And I place these in the same way as Moral Virtue and Vice, putting the natural pleasure at B and the spurious at M. Again, I fancy that there are two kinds of desires, one class having its seat in a bad part of the soul, the other in a good part. And I place these too in the same order as before, making the baser sort come first and the better second; for the more vicious desire is naturally the stronger, while the more virtuous is weaker by nature. 22 22 "On what principle, then, shall we any longer choose justice ratherthan the worst injustice? when, if we only unite the latter with adeceitful regard to appearances, we shall fare to our mind both withgods and men, in life and after death, as the most numerous and thehighest authorities tell us. Knowing all this, Socrates, how can aman who has any superiority of mind or person or rank or wealth, bewilling to honour justice; or indeed to refrain from laughing whenhe hears justice praised? And even if there should be some one whois able to disprove the truth of my words, and who is satisfied thatjustice is best, still he is not angry with the unjust, but is veryready to forgive them, because he also knows that men are not justof their own free will; unless, peradventure, there be some one whomthe divinity within him may have inspired with a hatred of injustice,or who has attained knowledge of the truth --but no other man. Heonly blames injustice who, owing to cowardice or age or some weakness,has not the power of being unjust. And this is proved by the factthat when he obtains the power, he immediately becomes unjust as faras he can be. The cause of all this, Socrates, was indicated by us at the beginningof the argument, when my brother and I told you how astonished wewere to find that of all the professing panegyrists of justice --beginningwith the ancient heroes of whom any memorial has been preserved tous, and ending with the men of our own time --no one has ever blamedinjustice or praised justice except with a view to the glories, honours,and benefits which flow from them. No one has ever adequately describedeither in verse or prose the true essential nature of either of themabiding in the soul, and invisible to any human or divine eye; orshown that of all the things of a man's soul which he has within him,justice is the greatest good, and injustice the greatest evil. Hadthis been the universal strain, had you sought to persuade us of thisfrom our youth upwards, we should not have been on the watch to keepone another from doing wrong, but every one would have been his ownwatchman, because afraid, if he did wrong, of harbouring in himselfthe greatest of evils. I dare say that Thrasymachus and others wouldseriously hold the language which I have been merely repeating, andwords even stronger than these about justice and injustice, grossly,as I conceive, perverting their true nature. But I speak in this vehementmanner, as I must frankly confess to you, because I want to hear fromyou the opposite side; and I would ask you to show not only the superioritywhich justice has over injustice, but what effect they have on thepossessor of them which makes the one to be a good and the other anevil to him. And please, as Glaucon requested of you, to exclude reputations;for unless you take away from each of them his true reputation andadd on the false, we shall say that you do not praise justice, butthe appearance of it; we shall think that you are only exhorting usto keep injustice dark, and that you really agree with Thrasymachusin thinking that justice is another's good and the interest of thestronger, and that injustice is a man's own profit and interest, thoughinjurious to the weaker. Now as you have admitted that justice isone of that highest class of goods which are desired indeed for theirresults, but in a far greater degree for their own sakes --like sightor hearing or knowledge or health, or any other real and natural andnot merely conventional good --I would ask you in your praise of justiceto regard one point only: I mean the essential good and evil whichjustice and injustice work in the possessors of them. Let others praisejustice and censure injustice, magnifying the rewards and honoursof the one and abusing the other; that is a manner of arguing which,coming from them, I am ready to tolerate, but from you who have spentyour whole life in the consideration of this question, unless I hearthe contrary from your own lips, I expect something better. And therefore,I say, not only prove to us that justice is better than injustice,but show what they either of them do to the possessor of them, whichmakes the one to be a good and the other an evil, whether seen orunseen by gods and men. Socrates - ADEIMANTUS" "Summary: The text explores the nature of justice and injustice, questioning why people choose justice over injustice. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical argument +Literary form: Philosophical dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, Adeimantus -Quoted character: Thrasymachus" """""And what do we mean by justice?"""" I said. """"That is indeed a question worth considering."""" And if we can once ascertain the nature of justice, we shall also see why injustice, being justice's opposite, is always blameable, as it evidently is; for having seen the good no man will choose the bad."" Very true,"" he replied. ""Let us, then, consider which has most power to bring about happiness, whether justice or injustice."" I think that they are both right and both wrong,"" I said; ""right when they are directed towards their proper ends; wrong when they miss their mark."""" Was there anything else?"" he asked. Yes,"" I answered; ""I think that the one which most of all tends to produce happiness is justice, because it makes men who live together in society practically friends, and friends desire to benefit one another and do each other good actions."" You mean,"" he said, ""that the just man is profitable to his friend?"" Certainly,"" I replied. Then justice is not only desirable in itself but profitable to the individual."" That is my view,"" I said. And surely, Thrasymachus, nothing can be really and absolutely good which is on every occasion both hurtful and harmful."" True."" Then don't say that I call injustice better than justice because I find that some one may gain more evil from justice than good. " +Active character: Socrates, Adimantus +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "Can you tell me why a man who is unjust is always thought to be doing what is not just, but a man who does what is just is thought to be doing what is just?"""" Yes, I can tell you that."" Why?"" Because the just man does what he ought to do, and the unjust man does what he ought not to do. He who does what he ought to do will always seem to be doing what is just, whereas he who does what he ought not to do will always seem to be doing what is unjust."""" Ah! but why is one man as you say unjust the same as doing what one ought not to do? And why is another man just the same as doing what he ought to do? If you deny my statement are you prepared to maintain that the just man is the same as the unjust in respect of doing what he ought or ought not to do? May there not be some other reason which makes the former just and the latter unjust?"""" No, there is no other reason, Socrates."" Then I argue that if this is true, justice is the same for gods and men, in the sense that it is the having of knowledge, and wisdom is the most just, and the wise are most just; but if there is no knowledge, neither among gods nor men, then justice too cannot exist, since it is impossible that knowledge should be present in that which has not soul. But still, Adimantus, in spite of all this, may one not be justified in supposing that even without knowledge the just life is better than the unjust?"""" The case requires proof."" Nay, if we had only proved that justice is wisdom, surely we might reasonably infer that the just life is the better, and that the just man is happier than the unjust?"""" No doubt we might. But would it not need further proof to convince us of this?"""" To be sure,"" said Glaucon; ""I thought you would never have done with asking 'why?' He replied: Well, then, shall I proceed to show that the just man is happier, and the unjust man more miserable?"""" You may, and I hope that you will."" Then suppose you take up your position again, and assume first of all the following premiss: Let us acknowledge that whatever knowledge, power, insight, or courage the just man may show about matters of his own concerns, these same qualities when manifested by the unjust man in relation to himself, pass under other names which denote their opposite;—knowledge and understanding become folly, courage becomes rashness, and wisdom becomes trickery; do you admit the point?"""" Certainly, he said. And further, let this be agreed: the unjust man, being stronger than the just man, is able to harm him, and injure him in many ways; but the just man is powerless and, except for the fear of public opinion, will stand by and see the unjust man taking away his property, offering insults to him and those dearest to him, doing him any quantity of harm. " 23 23 "I had always admired the genius of Glaucon and Adeimantus, but onhearing these words I was quite delighted, and said: Sons of an illustriousfather, that was not a bad beginning of the Elegiac verses which theadmirer of Glaucon made in honour of you after you had distinguishedyourselves at the battle of Megara:-- 'Sons of Ariston,' he sang, 'divine offspring of an illustrious hero.'The epithet is very appropriate, for there is something truly divinein being able to argue as you have done for the superiority of injustice,and remaining unconvinced by your own arguments. And I do believethat you are not convinced --this I infer from your general character,for had I judged only from your speeches I should have mistrustedyou. But now, the greater my confidence in you, the greater is mydifficulty in knowing what to say. For I am in a strait between two;on the one hand I feel that I am unequal to the task; and my inabilityis brought home to me by the fact that you were not satisfied withthe answer which I made to Thrasymachus, proving, as I thought, thesuperiority which justice has over injustice. And yet I cannot refuseto help, while breath and speech remain to me; I am afraid that therewould be an impiety in being present when justice is evil spoken ofand not lifting up a hand in her defence. And therefore I had bestgive such help as I can. Glaucon and the rest entreated me by all means not to let the questiondrop, but to proceed in the investigation. They wanted to arrive atthe truth, first, about the nature of justice and injustice, and secondly,about their relative advantages. I told them, what I --really thought,that the enquiry would be of a serious nature, and would require verygood eyes. Seeing then, I said, that we are no great wits, I thinkthat we had better adopt a method which I may illustrate thus; supposethat a short-sighted person had been asked by some one to read smallletters from a distance; and it occurred to some one else that theymight be found in another place which was larger and in which theletters were larger --if they were the same and he could read thelarger letters first, and then proceed to the lesser --this wouldhave been thought a rare piece of good fortune. @@ -541,19 +576,17 @@ Yes, far more easily. But ought we to attempt to construct one? I said; for to d I have reflected, said Adeimantus, and am anxious that you shouldproceed. A State, I said, arises, as I conceive, out of the needs of mankind;no one is self-sufficing, but all of us have many wants. Can any otherorigin of a State be imagined? There can I be no other. Then, as we have many wants, and many persons are needed to supplythem, one takes a helper for one purpose and another for another;and when these partners and helpers are gathered together in one habitationthe body of inhabitants is termed a State. -True, he said. And they exchange with one another, and one gives, and another receives,under the idea that the exchange will be for their good." "Summary: The narrator is impressed by the arguments of Glaucon and Adeimantus, but hesitates to join their discussion due to his own lack of skill. The others encourage him to continue, and they decide to investigate the nature of justice and injustice in both the State and the individual. -Narrative arc: Introduction of characters and setting up the investigation -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +True, he said. And they exchange with one another, and one gives, and another receives,under the idea that the exchange will be for their good." "Summary: The narrator is discussing the nature of justice and injustice with Glaucon and Adeimantus, and proposes to investigate the topic by first examining it in the context of a State. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Glaucon, Adeimantus Quoted character: Thrasymachus -Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" And Glaucon said: ‘We have certainly done our best, Socrates, and we are the losers by the result. Nevertheless the discussion has been a fine thing. I believe that we should obey Thrasymachus and his friends when they bid us follow in their tracks; for when men are following, you may be sure that there is a track somewhere or other.’ ‘And where,’ he said, ‘could we find a better track than with one who is himself a king? ’ ‘There can be no better,’ I replied; ‘but where, then, is the track which he follows, or rather was following at that time? ’ ‘Why, the way of which we were speaking, namely, the just and noble life.’ ‘That seems likely,’ he said. ‘Then let us go back to the word itself, and begin afresh, like winners at dice who must admit that they have lost, and ask ourselves whether there is such a thing as justice, and if so, what it is; and in like manner honour, and temperature, and courage, and magnificence, and their opposites. For we did not seem to agree about what these things are.’ ‘That is true,’ he said. ‘Where is our answer to Thrasymachus’ question—“Whether justice is a good thing for a man to have”? ’ ‘He was always asking the same question,’ I said—and I do not know how to answer him, except by saying the very words which he used: “Yes, by God,” and therefore, as I am sure that you will acknowledge, he will be unable to refute me.’ ‘No indeed,’ he said; ‘but I should like you to explain to me, Socrates, why justice has this virtue, and why injustice is evil, even though recommended by Thrasymachus.’ ‘I too,’ I said, ‘should very much like to know.’ ‘What a strange scene has been enacted!’ said Polemarchus. ‘Thrasymachus seemed to make a splendid beginning. He had plenty of material to work upon, and yet we drove him from his position. Had we known how, I suspect that we might have driven many another out of other positions.’ ‘That is very likely,’ I said; ‘but I daresay that he would have been equally clever in turning the tables on us, if he had had the chance.’ ‘There was something rather splendid about his fury,’ I said; ‘but the fury of Polemarchus and Adeimantus was even more terrible. Why, they took their own lives in their hands, and really laid hold of Thrasymachus and forced him against his will to answer questions which he did not want to answer; for he would have made away with us and our questions long ago, had he been able.’ ‘That’s quite true,’ he said; ‘but still their fervour was not without effect.’ ‘At any rate, dear Glaucon,’ +Language: English" “That’s the sort of talk we get from you. You’re a clever young man, Glaucon, but Thrasymachus is right about you.” “He’s not,” I said. “I’m not a clever young man at all.” “Then who is?” he asked. “Who else than a clever young man? Cleverness is the only thing that counts in this world, and a fool would be just as much out of place in a court of law or an assembly as he would be on the Olympic rostrum. And what does it matter if you’ve got the wrong idea about me being clever or not, so long as I really am? And my idea of cleverness is what Thrasymachus says it is: cleverness means always getting your own way, and if you don’t get it you’re a fool. I can’t help agreeing with him there.” “You agree too readily,” Adeimantus said. “But come along, let’s hear what Thrasymachus has to say for himself next time.” He was still laughing when I left them and went away. * * * * * The next day Thrasymachus came up to me after school and asked me to go for a walk with him. When we were out of earshot he began again on the same theme. “Of course justice isn’t any good to the strong,” he said. “It’s only good to the weak, and they get their own back by calling it justice. Take a look at our political system. There are the poor, the slaves, the people who do the work and pay taxes, and then there are the rich, the rulers, who have no work but enjoy all the pleasures. Of course it’s the latter who make the laws, and of course they make them in their own interest, because they’re stronger than everyone else. So they claim that doing injustice and not paying attention to justice is what gives them their position, and anyone who tries to stop them from doing injustice is a public enemy, a trouble-maker, a revolutionary, whereas they themselves are patriots and lovers of their country. That’s why they punish anyone who dares to say that injustice is more profitable than justice. They don’t call it ‘injustice’ either; they call it ‘being unjust,’ and say that it’s a bad thing, and that justice is a good thing. But they don’t mean that the just person is a good man and the unjust one a bad one; they mean that for a just person to be just is good for him, and for an unjust person to be unjust is bad for him. Now, someone who enjoys something and calls it good isn’t going to give it up voluntarily, even though it may harm other people. If we want to find out whether justice is good for the just person or not, we must see whether it makes him happier than injustice would.” 24 24 "Very true. Then, I said, let us begin and create in idea a State; and yet thetrue creator is necessity, who is the mother of our invention. Of course, he replied. Now the first and greatest of necessities is food, which is the conditionof life and existence. Certainly. The second is a dwelling, and the third clothing and the like. @@ -577,19 +610,17 @@ That is certain. And therefore what they produce at home must be not only enough Very true. Then more husbandmen and more artisans will be required? They will. Not to mention the importers and exporters, who are called merchants? Yes. Then we shall want merchants? We shall. And if merchandise is to be carried over the sea, skilful sailorswill also be needed, and in considerable numbers? -Yes, in considerable numbers. Then, again, within the city, how will they exchange their productions?To secure such an exchange was, as you will remember, one of our principalobjects when we formed them into a society and constituted a State." "Summary: The text discusses the creation of a State and the necessary roles and occupations within it. -Narrative arc: Expository -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Yes, in considerable numbers. Then, again, within the city, how will they exchange their productions?To secure such an exchange was, as you will remember, one of our principalobjects when we formed them into a society and constituted a State." "Summary: The text discusses the creation of a State and the need for different occupations to support it. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical dialogue +Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Husbandman, Builder, Weaver, Shoemaker, Neatherds, Shepherds, Curriers, Merchants, Sailors +Active character: Socrates, Adeimantus Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "Such a State must have a Husbandman, to give us our Food; it must have a Builder, to give us our Houses and Walls of Defence; it must have a Weaver, to weave our Clothes; it must have a Shoemaker, for Shoes; it must have Neatherds, and Shepherds, for Milk, Cheese, and Meat; it must have Curriers, to dress Leather, and Merchants to buy and sell at home and abroad. Now, if these several Occupations be necessary, and every one of them must have some Reward for his Labour, how shall we divide the World among so many?"""" 50s. But surely the Necessities of Life are not so numerous as you imagine."""" 50s. No, Sir,"" answered Candide, ""they are not so numerous; but the Pleasures are very numerous; and it is necessary to provide for these."""" 50s. I believe,"" said Pangloss, ""that, in a well-ordered State, there should be publicly appointed Buffoons to make their Countrymen laugh: for nothing is fitter to distract the Mind of Man than to laugh."""" 50s. Certainly,"" said Candide; ""I know a Nobleman who has two Buffoons, and yet is very melancholy."""" 50s. It is probable that he has not enough to live upon; for a great Number of Jesters must be kept, in order to make Men divert themselves. I am sensible that there may be some Inconveniences from the too frequent Use of Laughter, because it distracts the Mind, not only from Thinking, but even from Weeping; for a Man would be absurd, who, when his Wife is dead, would choose to laugh instead of howling; or when he was hanged, that he should rather laugh than die sur le ton."""" 50s. A Woman does not always weep when her Husband dies,"" said Candide; ""and a Man is not always sur le ton when he is hanged."""" 50s. It is true,"" said Pangloss; ""but all Human Reason is contained in those two maxims. """"'Tis strange,"""" said Candide, """"that we have not found out these two Maxims till this Moment."""" 50s. Strange!"" replied Pangloss, ""are not these two propositions quite obvious? the first is, that we have no enjoyment but what is derived from that principle: 'All is well.' The second is, that 'Nature is made only for pleasure,' and that men are not born to be miserable."""" 50s. Alas!"" cried Candide, ""do not I feel my own misery, and do not I see that of others? Am I not in poverty? Am I not in want? Am I not in love? Am I not persecuted by every one, and must I not die? How! is not all this contrary to reason?"""" 50s. You talk like Martin,"" said Cacambo; """"if you go on in this manner, you will end by believing that Abelard is a fool."""" " +Language: English" In fact, he said, if the State is to have a perfect justice, this is not enough, but it must also have two other kinds of men besides warriors; one of which may be termed, wholesale merchants or vendors, and the other retail dealers. The following was an example: A sort of farmer who had some gold or silver or bronze or iron or wood in his possession, might be supposed naturally to incline towards the arts which manufacture such things, e.g. as a smith or a carpenter or a builder; and again the manufacturers would naturally be inclined towards trade and towards selling their goods. Now when the various necessities of life are established by nature, then the natural potters, smiths, and builders are those whose souls, of all others, desire the art of feeding and furnishing them. But when land is granted to individuals, there will be no place for them in the new State. There must be some political expedient: how shall we turn them away? Shall we send them like Socrates, on a star-chamber mission to another city? And if they are dissatisfied with that, shall we say to them as we did to our former colonists, ‘Stay at home and tend the acorns and be content with what is home-grown?’ Which will suit their pride best? Then you will invent some expedient. Or do you think that you will use force, and compel them to be shoemakers or farmers? If you are hard-pressed you may do so. Then come war and plenty. As you are a lover of gymnastics, I presume that you know how our soldiers equalise their food, more especially when on active service? When supplies are abundant they are temperate, but when they are scanty they relieve themselves of their superfluous fat. In like manner, when there is the abundance of riches, they practise thrift, and when they are in want they learn to do without. And in general, Adeimantus, you say very rightly that our rulers ought to be such as will make the citizens good guardians of the State. But do you mean to say that they are good guardians of a State who are lazy, and do not care about anything but feeding and cooking, and when they are ill are happier than when they are well? For answering your objection, that they are only doing what nature tells them, may be said to hold good of many other animals. To guard against the possibility which you describe of their turning into hucksters and shopkeepers, would be right enough if this were the only way in which our citizens could lose their character as defenders of the State; but the truth is that the loyal guardian spirit cannot be exhaled from the excellence of the body until after death, when, as we may imagine, the souls of them who are in every other respect good men enter into the presence of the gods on this very account, that they have honoured and nurtured the excellence of the mind which is followed now by the satisfaction of courage and mildness; 25 25 "Clearly they will buy and sell. Then they will need a market-place, and a money-token for purposesof exchange. Certainly. Suppose now that a husbandman, or an artisan, brings some productionto market, and he comes at a time when there is no one to exchangewith him, --is he to leave his calling and sit idle in the market-place? Not at all; he will find people there who, seeing the want, undertakethe office of salesmen. In well-ordered States they are commonly thosewho are the weakest in bodily strength, and therefore of little usefor any other purpose; their duty is to be in the market, and to givemoney in exchange for goods to those who desire to sell and to takemoney from those who desire to buy. @@ -605,16 +636,15 @@ But, said Glaucon, interposing, you have not given them a relish totheir meal. True, I replied, I had forgotten; of course they must have a relish-salt,and olives, and cheese, and they will boil roots and herbs such ascountry people prepare; for a dessert we shall give them figs, andpeas, and beans; and they will roast myrtle-berries and acorns atthe fire, drinking in moderation. And with such a diet they may beexpected to live in peace and health to a good old age, and bequeatha similar life to their children after them. Yes, Socrates, he said, and if you were providing for a city of pigs,how else would you feed the beasts? But what would you have, Glaucon? I replied. Why, he said, you should give them the ordinary conveniences of life.People who are to be comfortable are accustomed to lie on sofas, anddine off tables, and they should have sauces and sweets in the modernstyle." "Summary: The text discusses the creation of a market-place and the need for exchange, as well as the different classes of citizens in the State. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Husbandman, artisan, salesmen, retail-traders, merchants, hirelings -Fuzzy place: Market-place -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "It is the exchange of goods which creates a market-place, and when this is sufficiently developed we have the formation of a State. There is no necessary connection between the manufacture of goods and the holding of property; a man may be an excellent husbandman and yet own no land, or he may be an artisan and yet possess capital. These classes will supply the demand of the community by their respective wares, and to them must be added salesmen, retail-traders, merchants, and hirelings. Thus our ideal State is formed, and you are now prepared to understand how it is that each individual does not obtain what he desires from Nature but only what is permitted him by the State."""" The explanation appeared somewhat vague to me, but before I could express my doubts my friend had begun another monologue in which his harsh, vivid tones seemed to penetrate the very marrow of my bones, and set my nerves quivering with terror. When I think of all the crimes and murders which are committed in the world to-day, and for which no punishment can be inflicted adequate to the enormity of the offence, it seems strange to me that mankind should ever have invented such horrible forms of death as hanging, burning, and drowning. In the country where we are going these methods are unknown. " +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "So the first thing we shall have to do is to make a market-place; and when we've done that, how can we get them to exchange with one another?"""" I suppose they must be allowed to meet face to face."" Yes, but then they'd start fighting, and then there'd be no end of trouble. So we mustn't let them come together in that way."""" How are you going to prevent it?"" By making them speak to one another from a distance, through windows. Then they'll be able to see each other all right, but they won't be able to hurt one another; and if they want to give one another anything, they'll have to put it into a box and drop it down a tube."""" That's quite an idea,"" said Glaucon. ""But what will they talk about?"" Anything you like,"" said Socrates; ""only let them keep quiet about politics. And as they'll all have something to sell, they'll have something to say; and as they'll all want to buy, they'll have something to listen for; so they won't feel bored. But don't worry about their finding things to talk about; there are plenty of topics of conversation already discovered. If you like, I could tell you a list of them: love, anger, courage, ambition, enmity, and so on. These are things which are always happening, and everybody knows all about them already, so they'll have no difficulty in talking about them."""" They'll certainly have plenty to say about those,"" said Glaucon. ""And now, since they have everything they need, we must organize them in some sort of way. So let us begin by dividing them into four classes: gold, silver, bronze, and iron. The gold people will be our guardians, the soldiers; the silver ones will be our auxiliaries; the bronzes will be farmers, and the iron ones will be labourers."""" Is that all?"" asked Glaucon. ""I thought there were more than four classes."""" There are only these,"" said Socrates; ""but I'm not going to tell you yet what the order of rank will be. You'll find out that later on for yourselves. But here's how they'll work. Each class will look after its own interests, and nobody else's. The gold people will look after the soldiers' affairs, and the silver people will look after the auxiliaries'; the farmers will look after themselves, and the labourers will look after the labourers. And I'll explain why they'll do this in a minute. First, however, I'll describe what sort of lives they'll lead. The gold people will live together in the centre of the State, in the light of the flame, and will wear white clothes. They will have no private property except their bodies and their weapons, and they will spend their time guarding the State and being on duty in turn. " 26 26 "Yes, I said, now I understand: the question which you would have meconsider is, not only how a State, but how a luxurious State is created;and possibly there is no harm in this, for in such a State we shallbe more likely to see how justice and injustice originate. In my opinionthe true and healthy constitution of the State is the one which Ihave described. But if you wish also to see a State at fever heat,I have no objection. For I suspect that many will not be satisfiedwith the simpler way of way They will be for adding sofas, and tables,and other furniture; also dainties, and perfumes, and incense, andcourtesans, and cakes, all these not of one sort only, but in everyvariety; we must go beyond the necessaries of which I was at firstspeaking, such as houses, and clothes, and shoes: the arts of thepainter and the embroiderer will have to be set in motion, and goldand ivory and all sorts of materials must be procured. True, he said. Then we must enlarge our borders; for the original healthy State isno longer sufficient. Now will the city have to fill and swell witha multitude of callings which are not required by any natural want;such as the whole tribe of hunters and actors, of whom one large classhave to do with forms and colours; another will be the votaries ofmusic --poets and their attendant train of rhapsodists, players, dancers,contractors; also makers of divers kinds of articles, including women'sdresses. And we shall want more servants. Will not tutors be alsoin request, and nurses wet and dry, tirewomen and barbers, as wellas confectioners and cooks; and swineherds, too, who were not neededand therefore had no place in the former edition of our State, butare needed now? They must not be forgotten: and there will be animalsof many other kinds, if people eat them. Certainly. And living in this way we shall have much greater need of physiciansthan before? @@ -627,17 +657,18 @@ No, I said; not if we were right in the principle which was acknowledgedby all o Very true, he said. But is not war an art? Certainly. And an art requiring as much attention as shoemaking? Quite true. And the shoemaker was not allowed by us to be husbandman, or a weaver,a builder --in order that we might have our shoes well made; but tohim and to every other worker was assigned one work for which he wasby nature fitted, and at that he was to continue working all his lifelong and at no other; he was not to let opportunities slip, and thenhe would become a good workman. Now nothing can be more importantthan that the work of a soldier should be well done. But is war anart so easily acquired that a man may be a warrior who is also a husbandman,or shoemaker, or other artisan; although no one in the world wouldbe a good dice or draught player who merely took up the game as arecreation, and had not from his earliest years devoted himself tothis and nothing else? No tools will make a man a skilled workman, or master of defence,nor be of any use to him who has not learned how to handle them, andhas never bestowed any attention upon them. How then will he who takesup a shield or other implement of war become a good fighter all ina day, whether with heavy-armed or any other kind of troops? Yes, he said, the tools which would teach men their own use wouldbe beyond price. -And the higher the duties of the guardian, I said, the more time,and skill, and art, and application will be needed by him?" "Summary: The speaker describes a luxurious state and the resulting conflicts and needs that arise. -Narrative arc: Exposition -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +And the higher the duties of the guardian, I said, the more time,and skill, and art, and application will be needed by him?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the creation and expansion of a luxurious state, as well as the necessity for war and military training. +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation -Active character: Socrates, Glaucon -Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "And you can imagine the state of those who are born into this sort of luxury. They have a lot to be happy about and no need at all, so they don't know what they want except maybe a few toys. So they go around bored, miserable, and unhappy, and they want everything they can't have and hate everyone who has more than they do. They get mad when they can't have anything they want, and they're always fighting and killing each other over nothing. And whenever they do get something, it's never enough, so they get more and more greedy until they ruin themselves and everybody else."""" That's true,"" said Glaucon. ""I remember reading about Nero. He was an old man then, but he had been raised in that kind of luxury since he was a baby. He used to take off his gold earrings and scratch them on the wall just to hear them jingle. And I've heard about these rich people who stuff their clothes with cotton batting, so they'll feel like they're fat even if they're not. It's crazy."""" Well, now we know why Socrates wanted to leave Athens,"" said David, ""but what happened to him when he got out here?"""" He was able to live a quiet life for a while,"" said Alfredo. ""He was a self-made millionaire, so he didn't have any relatives who'd come demanding money or asking for jobs. And he wasn't too old to make new friends and start over. But pretty soon he got bored, and then he wanted something he couldn't have."""" A woman?"" said David. No, worse than that. He wanted to have power again. He wanted to play god and control the lives of other men. " +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: The speaker and Glaucon +Quoted work: Not mentioned +Language: English" It's a beautiful state you've given us, Glaucon; a luxurious state, I said. And now make the transition, as it were, in your own person, and tell me something of its laws: their nature and purpose and grandeur. (3) What laws? he said. (4) Why, the military laws which we mentioned just now, and those relating to the education of the soldiers. (5) Yes; but do you mean their drill and so forth? (6) Yes, that sort of thing. (7) We shall soon see whether that is what I mean. The whole State, I think, must be armed. (8) Certainly. (9) Tell me then, what do you say about our soldiers' food? Shall we give them the same kind of food as the other citizens, or rather, do you not suppose that every one will want them to have more rather than less? (10) Certainly, more. (11) But do you think that they ought to have all things in common? (12) Certainly not. (13) Then will not their diet be different from that of the other citizens? (14) Very different. (15) And at public meals will they care about eating with their parents and relations, or rather, will they eat in companies separate from them? (16) In separate companies. (17) Yes, indeed, for you will never find lions dancing together, as we were saying a moment ago. (18) True. (19) And there is no need of telling us that after dinner they will go out and hunt. (20) Certainly not. (21) And when they catch, what do you imagine will be the regiments into which they will divide of horses and cattle and anything else? (22) Into bands of twelves, as we heard. (23) And these will stream away in troops of twelve and hundreds and thousands, just like those of bees? (24) Of course. (25) Then they will take their proper stand in the army, the least number dividing with the rest into companies, and the greatest taking command of divisions and cohorts and brigades? (26) Now, in the regulated army of a sensible State, does each soldier receive his equal share, whether the division has been made into two or into twelves or into thousands? (27) Certainly not. (28) But when divided into battalions and companies, does the company take the leader or the leader the company? (29) The latter, he said. (30) Do you ever see any one taking command over himself, or rather, does not every one willingly obey himself? (31) Certainly. (32) And when the other parts of the State are under arms, will not the several parts be obedient to the legislator and the generals? (33) To be sure. (34) But can there be a more excellent regime than this? 27 27 "No doubt, he replied. Will he not also require natural aptitude for his calling? Certainly. Then it will be our duty to select, if we can, natures which are fittedfor the task of guarding the city? It will. And the selection will be no easy matter, I said; but we must be braveand do our best. @@ -663,18 +694,19 @@ The matter never struck me before; but I quite recognise the truthof your remark And surely this instinct of the dog is very charming; --your dog isa true philosopher. Why? Why, because he distinguishes the face of a friend and of an enemyonly by the criterion of knowing and not knowing. And must not ananimal be a lover of learning who determines what he likes and dislikesby the test of knowledge and ignorance? Most assuredly. And is not the love of learning the love of wisdom, which is philosophy? -They are the same, he replied. And may we not say confidently of man also, that he who is likelyto be gentle to his friends and acquaintances, must by nature be alover of wisdom and knowledge?" "Summary: The text discusses the qualities and characteristics of a good guardian, including bravery, spirit, and love of wisdom. -Narrative arc: Discussion and exploration of the qualities of a good guardian -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +They are the same, he replied. And may we not say confidently of man also, that he who is likelyto be gentle to his friends and acquaintances, must by nature be alover of wisdom and knowledge?" "Summary: The text discusses the qualities and characteristics of a guardian and how they should be selected. +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation or dialogue +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, the interlocutor +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "He's not going to be the kind of guardian who is always ordering people about, and making laws for them. You've got to have a man who is brave enough to fight when he has to; but also who is wise enough not to fight unless he really has to."""" I don't see how that can possibly go together,"" I said. ""How could you have a man who was both so brave and yet so cautious?"""" It's easy enough if he's got spirit enough,"" Socrates said. ""Suppose you had a little boy growing up in your house. If he were just afraid of everything, and cried every time something hurt him or startled him, then he'd be useless as a fighter; and he'd make you pretty tired of having him around, too. But suppose he had some courage, and wasn't afraid of everything, and yet was careful and didn't run into every danger he saw. Then he would be useful to you in fighting off robbers and burglars and things like that. And he'd be good company to you and your wife, because he wouldn't be a coward. Now, that's what our ideal guardian must be like. He must be bold enough to meet any danger when it comes along, but he must be careful enough not to look for trouble unnecessarily."""" I think I see that,"" I said. ""It seems like a very good idea, anyway. But I still don't understand how you are going to get a man who is both brave and yet wise enough to be cautious."""" Well, now, that's where love of wisdom comes in,"" Socrates said. ""You know, most men are just fools. They're interested in one thing only, and that's getting all they can for themselves, and satisfying their own appetites. That's why there are always wars and fights and quarrels and hatreds, and why men are always trying to get the better of each other, and stealing from each other, and even killing each other. But a man who loves wisdom will want to know the truth about everything, and he won't try to deceive anybody; he'll tell the truth, whether it hurts him or not, and he'll want everybody else to do the same thing."""" I can understand that,"" I said. ""But what does that have to do with being brave and yet cautious?"""" Well, if a man loves wisdom, he wants to know the truth about everything. So he studies philosophy, and learns to distinguish between right and wrong, and good and evil. And when he learns that, he doesn't always act on impulse, without thinking first, just like a fool would do. He thinks first, and that makes him cautious."""" I'm beginning to see it,"" I said. ""Yes, that would explain a lot of things."" Well, now,"" Socrates said, ""I'm going to tell you another thing about our ideal guardians. " +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" The guardian must be a lover of the truth and a man of courage. He must also be quick to learn, have a good memory, a firm will, be healthy and strong, and as far as possible have no property. ‘This last requirement,’ I said, ‘is bound to create surprise; it is indeed the very thing that most people are always saying we should look for in a guardian. “He must have property,” they say, “a great deal of property.”’ ‘I’m afraid you’re right,’ he said. ‘What with wealth and birth and family connections and all the rest of it, people think these are the qualities which make a perfect guardian.’ ‘And yet you would agree that there’s nothing more likely to make him careless about the interests of the state?’ ‘Of course there is,’ he said. ‘Property makes men soft and lazy and cowardly. The only man who’s going to be willing to fight for his country is the one who doesn’t own anything worth fighting for.’ ‘Quite so,’ I said. ‘So what other reason could there be for excluding him from the ranks of the guardians? Except, of course, that you’re right when you say that a poor man will be both cleverer and braver than a rich one.’ ‘That’s obvious enough,’ he said. ‘Very well then. A guardian should be free from possessions, and young and light-hearted and vigorous and single-minded, and completely free from the burden of private family life and its worries. He must not be allowed to marry or have children. No, Glaucon, it is better for him to live like this; better, too, for the city as a whole, if each of us does our bit. But don’t let’s talk about it any more, because if we do we’ll never stop. So let’s go back to the qualifications which we were discussing just now, shall we? You can see for yourself how a potential guardian must be tested: first for the courage to endure pain and danger, next for the ability to put up with hardship and cold and heat and the other sorts of privation which are bound to come his way; thirdly, he must be tried for his skill at running and wrestling and dancing and riding and hunting and gymnastics generally. Then we must test his power of endurance, to see whether he can stand up under strain and fatigue and hunger and thirst and sleeplessness and the whole panoply of physical sufferings, and also whether he can control his temper. We shall also want to see whether he can keep quiet and play the part of an actor on the stage, and whether he has the capacity for friendship and companionship and the ability to enjoy living with others. All these things must be carefully examined. 28 28 "That we may safely affirm. Then he who is to be a really good and noble guardian of the Statewill require to unite in himself philosophy and spirit and swiftnessand strength? Undoubtedly. Then we have found the desired natures; and now that we have foundthem, how are they to be reared and educated? Is not this enquirywhich may be expected to throw light on the greater enquiry whichis our final end --How do justice and injustice grow up in States?for we do not want either to omit what is to the point or to drawout the argument to an inconvenient length. Socrates - ADEIMANTUS @@ -696,19 +728,17 @@ Those, I said, which are narrated by Homer and Hesiod, and the restof the poets, But which stories do you mean, he said; and what fault do you findwith them? A fault which is most serious, I said; the fault of telling a lie,and, what is more, a bad lie. But when is this fault committed? Whenever an erroneous representation is made of the nature of godsand heroes, --as when a painter paints a portrait not having the shadowof a likeness to the original. -Yes, he said, that sort of thing is certainly very blamable; but whatare the stories which you mean?" "Summary: The text discusses the importance of education and the need to censor stories told to children. -Narrative arc: Exposition -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Yes, he said, that sort of thing is certainly very blamable; but whatare the stories which you mean?" "Summary: The text discusses the importance of education and the need for censorship in storytelling. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, Adeimantus -Quoted work: Homer, Hesiod, other poets -Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "I agree with you most entirely,"" said Socrates. ""But we are not at present considering the value of education, but the character of the stories that should be told to children."""" Well, then, what are the stories that we tell them?"" cried Adeimantus. I will try to explain my view of them by reminding you of a common fact. You know that there is no danger of children being corrupted by fairy tales like those which make the cruel pastimes of giants and monsters seem elegant and fair."""" Yes, I know,"" said Glaucon; ""those which show the adventures of heroes who fought against them and slaughtered them."""" But why do we admit Homer and Hesiod to relate the battles of the gods?"""" Because these poets are inspired."" If they were inspired,"" said Adeimantus, ""they would surely have been inspired in the same way as the bards who told of the giants."""" By Hypnos and Thanatus, my friend; but the poets tell of the struggles of gods and titans."""" Then God and the Devil are struggling within us, and God has bested the Devil."" A dreadful state of things!"" said Glaucon. The greatest possible,"" answered Socrates. ""And the greatest horror of all is the belief that this is virtue, which we teach our children by the stories which we tell them."""" " +Quoted character: Homer, Hesiod +Language: English" "I do not see why the gods should be jealous of education, since they gave it to mankind in the first place."""" You are always talking about the first place,"" said Socrates, ""but you seem to forget that you are now living in the second. When I am dead and gone you will find that if there is any truth in what I say you will have to exercise censorship over story-tellers if your children are to be properly brought up."""" Adeimantus shook his head doubtfully. But why? What harm can stories do?"" The harm is this: every one knows that Homer wrote his poems for money; so did Hesiod, and the same was true of all those who wrote legends about the gods and heroes, who composed the epics, tragedies, comedies, and all such rubbish which nowadays we call Literature. These people were paid by the state to write these stories, and the more immoral their books the greater their reward. Now the state cannot pay poets unless somebody buys their books; so the buying public is really responsible for all the rubbish that has been written in the world. Therefore I maintain that the best way to deal with Literature is to stop the public from buying it. Censorship, my dear fellow, is a form of education."""" Adeimantus looked even more doubtful than before. " 29 29 "First of all, I said, there was that greatest of all lies, in highplaces, which the poet told about Uranus, and which was a bad lietoo, --I mean what Hesiod says that Uranus did, and how Cronus retaliatedon him. The doings of Cronus, and the sufferings which in turn hisson inflicted upon him, even if they were true, ought certainly notto be lightly told to young and thoughtless persons; if possible,they had better be buried in silence. But if there is an absolutenecessity for their mention, a chosen few might hear them in a mystery,and they should sacrifice not a common [Eleusinian] pig, but somehuge and unprocurable victim; and then the number of the hearers willbe very few indeed. Why, yes, said he, those stories are extremely objectionable. Yes, Adeimantus, they are stories not to be repeated in our State;the young man should not be told that in committing the worst of crimeshe is far from doing anything outrageous; and that even if he chastiseshis father when does wrong, in whatever manner, he will only be followingthe example of the first and greatest among the gods. @@ -723,13 +753,15 @@ Certainly. And no good thing is hurtful? No, indeed. And that which is not hurtf Assuredly. Then God, if he be good, is not the author of all things, as the manyassert, but he is the cause of a few things only, and not of mostthings that occur to men. For few are the goods of human life, andmany are the evils, and the good is to be attributed to God alone;of the evils the causes are to be sought elsewhere, and not in him. That appears to me to be most true, he said. Then we must not listen to Homer or to any other poet who is guiltyof the folly of saying that two casks Lie at the threshold of Zeus,full of lots, one of good, the other of evil lots, and that he towhom Zeus gives a mixture of the two Sometimes meets with evil fortune,at other times with good; but that he to whom is given the cup ofunmingled ill," "Summary: The narrator discusses the importance of not telling certain stories to young people and suggests that only a few should hear them. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Adeimantus" """""And you must not tell that story to young people, or they may catch it from you and be infected. The children of good parents will hardly get the passion in them; but if they do, and if their temperaments are well adapted, then the poor things will have to die. For there is no cure for the evil of man, only death, and that not he. And now go away, my dear friend, back to your place in the cave. You must not see what follows. If you would like to look on, come with me, and I will introduce you to some friends who live above earth, and whose food is human flesh."""" He did not say much more, but led the way up the mountain-side, through thorns and thickets, till we came to a cave among the rocks, and went in. There were two men within, one sitting and one lying down, and both appeared to be asleep. Adeimantus said nothing to me, but passed by them and went out again into the sun. Presently the sleeper stretched himself and got up. Then Adeimantus spoke to him, and said: """"Friend, how would you like to have these two gentlemen as your guests?"""" """"I should like them very much,"""" he answered; """"but where are they from?"""" """"One is a Thracian,"""" said Adeimantus; """"the other an Athenian. They have just come up over the rocks from below."""" " +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Active character: Narrator, Adeimantus +Quoted work: Homer's poems +Language: English" 'Tell them to the grown men,' I said. 'They'll have their reasons for wanting to hear them, and they'll be able to choose how much of it they want to take in. But these youngsters won't know what's good for them and they'll just get confused.' 'But you're only using them as a pretext for telling me that those stories shouldn't be told at all to anyone. And I know why. You don't believe in Homer's gods. So you say that his poems aren't really about them but about human passions. You think that the poets are lying when they make their gods do things like having affairs and behaving just like human beings. What you mean is that you can't bear to listen to these lies because they upset you so much. And you've made up your mind that no one should ever hear them who doesn't have to. That's why you can't let the young people be told even the good parts, like Achilles' grief for Patroclus or Hector's love for Andromache. The best bits in Homer will always remind you of the bad ones, and you hate them both equally. You'd rather destroy the whole thing than allow any young person to see the truth about human nature as he sees it. If you were trying to suppress the truth you wouldn't do it more effectively yourself. You don't realize how serious this is. It'll be a terrible responsibility for us to have brought you up in the belief that our ancestors were a lot of silly liars who made up false tales without any meaning.' 'You're right,' I said. 'And you can tell Adeimantus what I've been thinking. There's another reason besides the one we've been talking about. 30 30 "Him wild hunger drives o'er the beauteous earth. And again Zeus, who is the dispenser of good and evil to us. And if any oneasserts that the violation of oaths and treaties, which was reallythe work of Pandarus, was brought about by Athene and Zeus, or thatthe strife and contention of the gods was instigated by Themis andZeus, he shall not have our approval; neither will we allow our youngmen to hear the words of Aeschylus, that God plants guilt among menwhen he desires utterly to destroy a house. And if a poet writes ofthe sufferings of Niobe --the subject of the tragedy in which theseiambic verses occur --or of the house of Pelops, or of the Trojanwar or on any similar theme, either we must not permit him to saythat these are the works of God, or if they are of God, he must devisesome explanation of them such as we are seeking; he must say thatGod did what was just and right, and they were the better for beingpunished; but that those who are punished are miserable, and thatGod is the author of their misery --the poet is not to be permittedto say; though he may say that the wicked are miserable because theyrequire to be punished, and are benefited by receiving punishmentfrom God; but that God being good is the author of evil to any oneis to be strenuously denied, and not to be said or sung or heard inverse or prose by any one whether old or young in any well-orderedcommonwealth. Such a fiction is suicidal, ruinous, impious. I agree with you, he replied, and am ready to give my assent to thelaw. @@ -747,13 +779,16 @@ And will he then change himself for the better and fairer, or forthe worse and m If he change at all he can only change for the worse, for we cannotsuppose him to be deficient either in virtue or beauty. Very true, Adeimantus; but then, would any one, whether God or man,desire to make himself worse? Impossible. Then it is impossible that God should ever be willing to change; being,as is supposed, the fairest and best that is conceivable, every godremains absolutely and for ever in his own form. -That necessarily follows, he said, in my judgment. Then, I said, my dear friend, let none of the poets tell us that" "Summary: The text discusses the role of God and his relationship with human suffering and punishment. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +That necessarily follows, he said, in my judgment. Then, I said, my dear friend, let none of the poets tell us that" "Summary: The text discusses the nature of God and his relationship to human suffering and punishment. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Dialogue -Literary movement: Hardboiled" "I'm glad to see you. I've been wanting to talk with you."""" What about?"" A lot of things. For one thing, the part God plays in human suffering and punishment."""" What do you mean?"" That's what we'll discuss,"""" he said grimly. """"Let's start from a rather unpleasant fact that has just come to my attention. You know the woman who runs the little grocery store across the street?"""" Yes."" Well, last night some maniac broke into her house and beat her senseless. She was found unconscious this morning by the grocer who came to open up."""" My God! Is she badly hurt?"" I don't know how badly. She's in the hospital now, under sedation. But it seems pretty bad."""" I hope they catch the son of a bitch!"" The son of a bitch is already caught,"" he said. ""His name is Joe Something-or-other, and he lives in your building."""" What!"" I said. ""You're kidding!"""" No, I'm not."" It can't be!"" It is."" Well, damn it! He's got a family. How could he do a thing like that?"" I don't know why he did it,"" he said. ""That's what I want you to help me find out."""" We'll sit down over there and talk about it,"" he said, indicating the couch and chair. But I didn't move. """"Maybe you'd better tell me why you came here tonight,"""" I said. Well, for one thing,"" he said, ""I came to ask you to get out of the narcotics business."""" I told you before I wouldn't do that."" I know you won't,"" he said. ""But I thought maybe if you knew how serious your situation is you might reconsider."""" Don't push me too far,"" I said. I took a cigarette from his pack on the table and lit it. I felt calm and collected; an odd feeling when I thought of the events of the day. """"All right, let's talk about the guy who beat up that poor old woman,"""" I said. """"How do you know he lives in my building?"""" I saw him coming out of his apartment just as I was going in,"""" he said. """"He couldn't have gotten very far. I doubt if he even had a chance to hide the gun he used."""" That's ridiculous,"" I said. ""Joe is a good guy. He's not the type to go around beating up women."""" Then he's the wrong type to be carrying a gun,"" he said. ""And that's the point: he doesn't know anything about guns. He's afraid of them. He knows something happened to his wife while he was asleep last night with the gun under his pillow. He's afraid someone stole it. That's why he's trying to buy another one."""" Do you think he killed her?"" I asked. I think he's a murderer,"" he said. ""I think he's been murdering people for years."""" " +Literary form: Philosophical argument +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: Zeus, Pandarus, Athene +Quoted work: Aeschylus' tragedy +Language: English" And God replied, ‘My son, I have often heard that you are a great liar and a great thief, but this is the first time I have ever heard that you are a great philosopher. You are wrong to say that I am the cause of human suffering. The cause of human suffering is men like you: you who lie and steal and murder.’ And Zeus answered, ‘You are right, O God; but what are we to do? We cannot destroy them. They are too strong for us.’ ‘Then,’ said God, ‘I will make a law which shall prevent you from destroying them, and since they are strong enough to defy you, they will be strong enough to obey my law. They shall not be destroyed by natural disasters, but they shall be punished for their sins in another world.’” And here the narrator turned to me with a harsh, cold smile, and said, “That, Mr Campion, is the story of the Fall, as it is told in Aeschylus’ tragedy Prometheus Bound.” * * * * * It was as though he had been reading out some dreadful piece of Latin prose which he did not understand himself. There was no point to his remark at all. He might just as well have quoted the rules of chess or the tenth book of the Iliad. Then he went on with his story again. But I could see that he was uncomfortable. His eyes were bulging and his hands shook. And all the time he kept staring at Athene’s bent head. When he had finished he sat there for a long while, looking down at the tablecloth and fiddling with his pipe. I thought he had done for good this time. At last I felt compelled to speak. “Well,” I said, “I suppose that’s all very interesting. But why on earth don’t you get on with your story?” He looked up suddenly and then he laughed. “All very interesting!” he said. “It’s a little thing I picked up from old Pandarus when I was a kid. Why don’t I get on with my story? Well, I’ll tell you something, young man, if you’ve got the nerve to listen. That’s the one thing I’m going to do.” Chapter III THE BRUTE AND THE CHICKEN AT ten o’clock that night I was sitting in the smoking-room of the hotel with Psmith, who had arrived back from Oxford about an hour before. As usual, he had brought with him a small suitcase containing certain clothes and toilet necessaries, and these he deposited beside his chair with the air of one who has performed an act of service. Then, having assisted himself to a whisky-and-soda, he drew up his chair and stared across the table at me. “Well,” he said, “how goes the case of the mysterious death in the Surrey hills?” “Very much as it did last time we spoke on the subject. I have seen both Dr Jerningham and his wife, and am now awaiting developments.” “Ah, yes! I remember now. The lady of the house is your fiancée, is she not?” “Yes.” “A charming girl, I believe. 31 31 "The gods, taking the disguise of strangers from other lands, walkup and down cities in all sorts of forms; and let no one slander Proteusand Thetis, neither let any one, either in tragedy or in any otherkind of poetry, introduce Here disguised in the likeness of a priestessasking an alms For the life-giving daughters of Inachus the river of Argos; --letus have no more lies of that sort. Neither must we have mothers underthe influence of the poets scaring their children with a bad versionof these myths --telling how certain gods, as they say, 'Go aboutby night in the likeness of so many strangers and in divers forms';but let them take heed lest they make cowards of their children, andat the same time speak blasphemy against the gods. Heaven forbid, he said. But although the gods are themselves unchangeable, still by witchcraftand deception they may make us think that they appear in various forms? @@ -770,16 +805,15 @@ That is inconceivable. But he may have friends who are senseless or mad? But no Yes. Then is God perfectly simple and true both in word and deed; he changesnot; he deceives not, either by sign or word, by dream or waking vision. Your thoughts, he said, are the reflection of my own. You agree with me then, I said, that this is the second type or formin which we should write and speak about divine things. The gods arenot magicians who transform themselves, neither do they deceive mankindin any way. I grant that. Then, although we are admirers of Homer, we do not admire the lyingdream which Zeus sends to Agamemnon; neither will we praise the versesof Aeschylus in which Thetis says that Apollo at her nuptials" "Summary: The text discusses the nature of lies and deception in relation to the gods. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Active character: Socrates, interlocutor -Quoted work: Homer, Aeschylus Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" Quand tu as dit cela, tu avais raison; mais si tu dis que les dieux sont fiers et jaloux, tu te trompes, car ils sont comme des voleurs. De quelle manire? Pourquoi ne pas le dire tout de suite! Ils volent en cachette, sous les auspices de la nuit, et non o l'on peut les voir. Comment? Par exemple, dans Homre ou Aeschyle? Oui, par exemple. Et dans quels passages? Voici quelques-uns: Quand Zeus a voulu saisir Ganymde, il s'est dguis en un coq bleu, cause, je suppose, de sa jalousie envers Tantale. Dans une autre circonstance, il a pris la figure de Cyros, afin de coucher avec la fille d'Helius. Ici, nous avons une preuve certaine de son infidlit conjugale. Il s'est rendu chez Admete sous la forme de Phtolus, cause de son amour pour Alcste, et il s'est empar du corps de ce dernier, qui allait tre brul l'poque o Sthneboe avait dt aux Grecs l'art de la divination. La belle affaire! Si vous continuez ainsi, vous ne ferez jamais finir votre discours. Mais quoi! Si je commence parler, on dira que j'ai menti; si je m'arrte, on me prendra pour un sot! J'ai envie de faire comme ces acteurs de cinma qui n'ont rien dire et font semblant de chercher leurs phrases. Mais allons au fait, et voyons ce que je dois faire. Je vais donc continuer; seulement je rpte encore mon souhait que quelqu'un de vous prenne ma place, et que le jeu se poursuive sans moi. Cela ne m'inquiete pas, car je n'ai pas besoin de mentir, puisque je puis avouer mes erreurs. Vous avez bien raison, car lorsque l'on avoue ses fautes, on est moins coupable que lorsqu'on tche de les dissimuler. Eh bien! Les dieux ont tous des figures ridicules et des corps monstrueux, et cependant ils se plaisent beaucoup se dguiser. Voici, par exemple, Apollon, qui est gros et velu, s'est dguis en jeune homme beau, pour attirer la nymphe Daphne, et lui avoir un enfant. Il s'est dguis en chameau, pour aller trouver Io. Ensuite, Jupiter s'est transform en taureau, pour prendre la femme d'Ammon. Or, comment ces dieux se transforment-ils? Par magie, n'est-ce pas? Et pourquoi s'amuseraient-ils l'exercer sur les hommes, si ce n'est pour les tromper? Ne voil-t-il pas clair? Mais, reprit Socrate, je ne voudrais pas rester plus longtemps assis, si je n'tais pas certain que vous allez venir moi, et me dmontrer que je suis un sot. +Language: English" "I was always ready for a joke with them, but I never could bring myself to believe that they were anything else but lies. I suppose it's because I'm half English."""" But the gods are Greek, Socrates,"" protested his companion; ""and how do you know they aren't true?"""" I know they're not true,"" said Socrates; ""and if they were, I'd be just as much against them."" Well, at any rate, some people believe in them,"" said the other rather sheepishly; ""I mean, they don't have to invent a god for every crime like that fool of an alibi man who invented Dionysus and the Mysteries."""" You can invent all sorts of gods and miracles and visitations and prophecies and visions and revelations and everything else you like,"" said Socrates; ""but when you've done so, and you come to prove what your god said or didn't say, or what happened or didn't happen, you'll find it's no good. For one thing, you may have made your god say or do something which another man says he said or did ten years before; and then where are you? And for another, you may think you remember yourself what your god said or did on a certain occasion, but you can't be sure you haven't dreamt it or been mistaken, or are mistaken now."""" That's why I hate those damned lying gods,"" said Socrates. ""They are always interfering with my work and making fools of people."""" What did they do now?"" asked the interlocutor curiously. They deceived me most horribly last night,"" said Socrates. What! Deceived you?"" Yes. I had a nice case on, but I couldn't get any further with it last night. So I went up into the Pnyx hill to take some exercise, and sat down on a stone to rest. After a bit, a little bird came along and perched on my shoulder, and began to talk to me. He told me that I had better go back to bed, for I would find nothing that day that would help me forward in my work."""" Did you believe him?"" No,"" said Socrates, ""though I wished I could. But I knew it was no use. So I got up and walked home; but I felt disappointed and discouraged all the way. And when I got home I found I hadn't missed anything after all."""" Then your gods are worse than fools,"" said the other angrily. They're deucedly sarcastic, anyhow,"" said Socrates. """"And I'll bet the little bird was a figment of my own brain."""" I hope you won't mind our introducing our conversation again with an apology,"" said the Dean; ""but we have been trying to follow out the line of thought which led up to the discovery of the mysterious guest, and we found ourselves talking rather loud."""" " 32 32 "Was celebrating in song her fair progeny whose days were to he long,and to know no sickness. And when he had spoken of my lot as in allthings blessed of heaven he raised a note of triumph and cheered mysoul. And I thought that the word of Phoebus being divine and fullof prophecy, would not fail. And now he himself who uttered the strain,he who was present at the banquet, and who said this --he it is whohas slain my son. These are the kind of sentiments about the gods which will arouseour anger; and he who utters them shall be refused a chorus; neithershall we allow teachers to make use of them in the instruction ofthe young, meaning, as we do, that our guardians, as far as men canbe, should be true worshippers of the gods and like them. I entirely agree, be said, in these principles, and promise to makethem my laws. @@ -800,15 +834,18 @@ The soul flying from the limbs had gone to Hades, lamentng her fate,leaving manh And the soul, with shrilling cry, passed like smoke beneath the earth.And, -- As bats in hollow of mystic cavern, whenever any of the has droppedout of the string and falls from the rock, fly shrilling and clingto one another, so did they with shrilling cry hold together as theymoved. And we must beg Homer and the other poets not to be angry ifwe strike out these and similar passages, not because they are unpoetical,or unattractive to the popular ear, but because the greater the poeticalcharm of them, the less are they meet for the ears of boys and menwho are meant to be free, and who should fear slavery more than death. Undoubtedly. Also we shall have to reject all the terrible and appalling namesdescribe the world below --Cocytus and Styx, ghosts under the earth,and sapless shades, and any similar words of which the very mentioncauses a shudder to pass through the inmost soul of him who hearsthem. I do not say that these horrible stories may not have a useof some kind; but there is a danger that the nerves of our guardiansmay be rendered too excitable and effeminate by them. -There is a real danger, he said. Then we must have no more of them. True. Another and a nobler strain must be composed and sung by us." "Summary: The text discusses the importance of teaching children about the gods and the afterlife, and how certain stories should be censored to promote courage and freedom. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +There is a real danger, he said. Then we must have no more of them. True. Another and a nobler strain must be composed and sung by us." "Summary: The text discusses the importance of teaching children about the gods and the afterlife, and how certain stories should be avoided due to their negative effects. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Dialogue +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, Adaimantus" "But in order that the young may be able to endure the terrors of death, and the pangs of childbirth, and other sufferings which nature has appointed them to suffer, they should learn at an early age that Hades is a god, and a brother of Zeus, who has been driven out by his brothers to the abodes beneath the earth. And when he comes and takes away their friends, then let them not weep or wail, but instead of that sweetly say to him: Thou art welcome, our dearest friend hath come, whom we have long expected; do with us as you will."" And when one of them is about to give birth to a child, let the women who are about her say that the new-born child is only going to Hades for a little while, 'whereas we remain here, and they will also return to us; but this blessed child will be with you the whole time.' For if these things are told to children in early youth, Socrates, they will not be very likely to fall into despair at the hour of birth or death. But now, Adaimantus, I am in doubt whether you and I had better begin anew from the foundation and set down before ourselves the character which justice and injustice are to have in the constitution which we are describing, or rather let us assume that we have agreed on the nature of each of them, and proceed at once to speak of their effects upon men in life and in death."""" The latter course, I think, would be best, he said. And thereupon Crito made a sign to me that I should go on. " +Active character: Socrates, Adeimantus +Quoted work: Homer's poems +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" I am not going to teach you the story of what happened to Zeus after he had got rid of his father, nor about all the other wars and robberies which Homer and Hesiod have written of their gods; I know that they are only stories made up by poets. But still, if you ask me whether the gods take any part in human affairs, my answer will be Yes. And now I will make a beginning at the Creation of the World, lest I forget the whole story; for you and I cannot expect to remember forever all the preliminary discussions.” “Oh yes, we must make a beginning,” said Adeimantus; “though I wish that someone else would do the speaking, and that we might hear; I should certainly have no objection to hearing you yourself, Socrates.” “Well then, the tale which I proceed to tell is not indeed a creation of either of us, but the common property of the Hellenes—no matter; though I ought to caution you that you must not be surprised if you find that in following this tale I depart sometimes from the ordinary tradition and make Helen not fair but dark, and in like manner Hephaestus not altogether lame, and Zeus not universally the greatest god, but with some blemishes, and so on; for a man who tells a lie may be allowed to tell a big one now and then.” “And do you think that the telling of all this, as you are going to tell it, will be useful?” asked Glaucon. “Yes, because even a falsehood, if artfully told, does good when it is useful,” replied Socrates; “and I shall assume that what I am saying is true, and will proceed to expound the state of feeling attained by us when the creation of the world came to an end.” 33 33 "Clearly. And shall we proceed to get rid of the weepings and wailings of famousmen? They will go with the rest. But shall we be right in getting rid of them? Reflect: our principleis that the good man will not consider death terrible to any othergood man who is his comrade. Yes; that is our principle. And therefore he will not sorrow for his departed friend as thoughhe had suffered anything terrible? @@ -828,20 +865,16 @@ So I believe. Then persons of worth, even if only mortal men, must not be repres Still less of the gods, as you say, he replied. Then we shall not suffer such an expression to be used about the godsas that of Homer when he describes how Inextinguishable laughter arose among the blessed gods, when theysaw Hephaestus bustling about the mansion. On your views, we mustnot admit them. On my views, if you like to father them on me; that we must not admitthem is certain. -Again, truth should be highly valued; if, as we were saying, a lieis useless to the gods, and useful only as a medicine to men, thenthe use of such medicines should be restricted to physicians; privateindividuals have no business with them." "Summary: The text discusses the idea that famous men should not be depicted as lamenting or expressing grief, in order to set a positive example for future leaders. -Trope: The concept of setting a positive example for future generations -Narrative arc: Philosophical argument -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Again, truth should be highly valued; if, as we were saying, a lieis useless to the gods, and useful only as a medicine to men, thenthe use of such medicines should be restricted to physicians; privateindividuals have no business with them." "Summary: The text discusses the idea that famous men should not be depicted lamenting or expressing weakness, as it sets a bad example for those being educated. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical argument +Literary form: Dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Homer, Achilles, Priam -Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "Now we think of these famous men as weeping or being angry, but it is not good for us to see the great ones of the earth in this way. It would be like having a picture of President Eisenhower with his mouth open, showing all his teeth, and tears streaming down his face. We would say it was not dignified; it was not a good example for the next President to see. Now Homer and Vergil and Shakespeare wrote about famous men who had their faults. But that is not the way they should have done. The great leaders of the future will have no faults at all. If we show them in books as having faults it will be bad for them. They will try to imitate the faults instead of the virtues, and then where will we be? So we have decided that in all future stories about famous people they must always show them as happy and satisfied and free from every kind of grief."""" * * * * * Well,"" I said, ""that's certainly an idea. And if you can work it out so the story is interesting it might be worth trying."""" That's what we thought,"" he said. ""And when we were working on this one we got a great idea. We got the idea of making it a detective story. That way we could have the famous man lamenting and being unhappy and angry without hurting the plan."""" * * * * * What plan?"" I asked. He stared at me in silence for some moments. Then he said: """"We are working out a Plan to make everybody happy and satisfied."""" This gave me the creeps, just hearing him say it. I knew what was coming. He went on: You know there are a lot of things that make people unhappy. Jealousy makes people unhappy. If everybody was happy and satisfied jealousy would go away. There would be nothing to be jealous about. Envy would also go away."""" Sure,"" I said. ""I can understand that."" If everybody was happy and satisfied, ambition would disappear,"""" he continued. """"Why should people want to get ahead when they are already getting what they want?"""" Sure,"" I said again. ""That makes sense."" Greed would also disappear,"" he said. ""If everybody was happy and satisfied why should they want more than they have?"""" That does make sense,"" I admitted. Glumly. """"So what's your point?"""" The point is, sir,"" he said solemnly, ""that if everybody was happy and satisfied nobody would commit any crimes!"""" I stood up, feeling cold. """"Are you saying that you've planned to make everybody happy and satisfied?"""" I asked. Yes, sir,"" he said. ""That's exactly what we're planning."""" My God!"" I exclaimed. ""You're planning to make the whole world happy and satisfied?"""" " +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" Never again,’ he said, ‘will I have to watch any famous man in the cinema with his arm round a woman’s shoulder, and his eyes all soft and sorrowful, while some broken-down bum of a poet sings about “the pallor of her cheek” and “the darkness of her hair.” If you ever see me like that, put a bullet through my head. It is the kind of thing which sets a bad example to those who are being educated. And now, Major-General Sir Harold Jordan, what are you going to do with your right hand?’ The General looked at his hand. He had been holding it against his stomach, with the thumb up, as though he had been measuring it for a suit. ‘I think perhaps I will drop it,’ he said. ‘I don’t feel like doing anything else with it.’ ‘Perhaps you would be interested in this,’ said Mr Crocker. ‘It’s a little trick I picked up during the war. You take your right hand, and clasp it behind you with the fingers pointing up, and then turn it over so that the palm faces you. See? Now, with the left hand, if you want to be tidy, give the first one a quick flick over the knuckles, and then let go. The second hand does everything except pick up the cigarette. You can get the knack of it in a few minutes.’ The General watched him closely. ‘A very useful trick,’ he said. ‘I must try to remember it. It’s just the sort of thing I always forget. Thank you very much.’ ‘You’re welcome,’ said Mr Crocker. ‘Now we’ll leave you two together for a bit, shall we? I have some things to attend to.’ He stepped back, and the door closed behind him. There was a long silence. Then Lady Agatha spoke. ‘What is all this?’ she asked. ‘All what?’ said the General. ‘This business of murder, I mean.’ ‘Murder!’ cried the General. ‘Good Lord! Is someone actually going to be murdered here?’ ‘I expect so,’ said Lady Agatha calmly. ‘In fact, I’m rather surprised it hasn’t happened yet. Where’s the body?’ ‘Body?’ said the General. ‘Who said anything about a body?’ ‘Mr Crocker did, that’s all,’ said Lady Agatha. ‘And Mr Mudie-Barton, when he was talking to me after dinner. And Inspector Byrd, too.’ ‘I don’t know why they should talk about bodies,’ said the General. ‘I can’t understand it.’ ‘Oh, but I can,’ said Lady Agatha. ‘I’ve been thinking it all out since you went away. Of course, if you’ve got an idea of using poison or something like that, naturally you wouldn’t want to mention the fact till the last moment, because otherwise everyone would be on their guard. But if you were going to use something more violent, like shooting or stabbing, of course you’d want to give warning beforehand, so that people could get excited and jumpy, and the shock would help the effect of the bullet or whatever it was. 34 34 "Clearly not, he said. Then if any one at all is to have the privilege of lying, the rulersof the State should be the persons; and they, in their dealings eitherwith enemies or with their own citizens, may be allowed to lie forthe public good. But nobody else should meddle with anything of thekind; and although the rulers have this privilege, for a private manto lie to them in return is to be deemed a more heinous fault thanfor the patient or the pupil of a gymnasium not to speak the truthabout his own bodily illnesses to the physician or to the trainer,or for a sailor not to tell the captain what is happening about theship and the rest of the crew, and how things are going with himselfor his fellow sailors. Most true, he said. If, then, the ruler catches anybody beside himself lying in the State, Any of the craftsmen, whether he priest or physician or carpenter.he will punish him for introducing a practice which is equally subversiveand destructive of ship or State. @@ -862,17 +895,18 @@ But any deeds of endurance which are done or told by famous men, thesethey ought He smote his breast, and thus reproached his heart, Endure, my heart; far worse hast thou endured! Certainly, he said. In the next place, we must not let them be receivers of gifts or loversof money. Certainly not. Neither must we sing to them of -Gifts persuading gods, and persuading reverend kings. Neither is Phoenix,the tutor of Achilles, to be approved or deemed to have given hispupil good counsel when he told him that he should take the giftsof the Greeks and assist them; but that without a gift he should notlay aside his anger. Neither will we believe or acknowledge Achilleshimself to have been such a lover of money that he took Agamemnon'sor that when he had received payment he restored the dead body ofHector, but that without payment he was unwilling to do so." "Summary: The text discusses the idea that rulers should be allowed to lie for the good of the State, but private individuals should not. It also explores themes of obedience, temperance, and love of money. +Gifts persuading gods, and persuading reverend kings. Neither is Phoenix,the tutor of Achilles, to be approved or deemed to have given hispupil good counsel when he told him that he should take the giftsof the Greeks and assist them; but that without a gift he should notlay aside his anger. Neither will we believe or acknowledge Achilleshimself to have been such a lover of money that he took Agamemnon'sor that when he had received payment he restored the dead body ofHector, but that without payment he was unwilling to do so." "Summary: The text discusses the idea that rulers should be allowed to lie for the sake of the public good, but not ordinary citizens. It also explores themes of obedience and self-control in relation to temperance. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue -Active character: Rulers, physicians, trainers, captains, sailors -Quoted work: Homer's Iliad -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "Yes, and you're wrong in that too. If rulers were allowed to tell lies for the good of the State, there'd be no need of so many spies and detectives and policemen and informers, and such like reptiles."""" Not a bit of it,"" I said. ""The State would employ more spies than ever, just to find out who was lying and who wasn't. But suppose we grant that your notion's right; where does that get us? It still leaves us with the question whether private individuals ought to lie or not. What do you say about that?"""" Oh, that's an easy one,"" he says. ""Private individuals oughtn't to tell lies under any circumstances whatever, because if they did they wouldn't have any peace of mind afterwards. But then, if you think about it, that brings us back to the old question, because if rulers told lies themselves, why, then private individuals would have no reason to tell 'em, would they?"""" That's true enough, but the idea is quite absurd,"" I said. ""It can't be carried out in practice. You see, even granting that a ruler might sometimes tell a lie for the good of the State, still that doesn't mean that he can always do it. He must be able to distinguish between cases when it's right to lie and cases when it isn't. There must be some sort of test by which he can judge. And this test will be as much a rule for him as it is for private individuals. In other words, every man, whether a ruler or not, must have some general principle to guide him in his conduct. It can't be left to chance. Otherwise we should be living in an utter state of confusion."""" No doubt that's true,"" he says. ""But what I'm driving at is something quite different. I want to show you how an ordinary man like myself may sometimes gain a great advantage over a ruler by following his own judgment and disregarding the rules laid down for the general guidance of mankind."""" And then he went on to tell me a story. [Illustration] A BEGGAR AND HIS MASTER After supper I had a talk with my landlady about her business affairs, and I found she was a very shrewd woman. She has a boarder named Morrel, a clerk in the bank of Blum, who pays her fourteen francs a month, and from time to time gives her various presents of food and clothing. The other day he gave her half a pound of meat, and told her he had got it out of a basket. This rather surprised her, and she asked him what he meant by a basket. He said: 'Why, the dead-house.' " +Literary form: Philosophical dialogue +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: Rulers, physicians, trainers, sailors, youth +Quoted work: Homer's ""The Iliad +Language: English" So you see how the rulers are to be allowed to lie for the public good, and yet at the same time keep their word with each other; and physicians when they give medicine may do harm to individual patients but benefit the state; and trainers may sometimes beat their boys, sailors have to be flogged, and fathers chastise their sons when they will not obey them; and the art of war teaches us to use iron and fire against men. Then again in private life a father may strike his son and yet not be guilty of any impiety; and you would admit that many other things of the same kind are necessary. Now from these examples, as I said before, we can learn that there is a class of acts which it is right to do, and yet not right to intend: and therefore in some cases we should wish to do the contrary of what we mean; for while we ought to follow our physicians and trainers, yet we ought not to advise them to cut or burn, and the like. And so too the law commands us to honour our parents and yet forbids us to let them rob us of what is theirs; and on the other hand, if we were to attempt to rob them, the law would be right in inflicting penalties upon us; and in all such cases a man is right in doing the contrary of what he intends and saying the contrary of what he means; and this is the reason why we praise him who speaks or acts from necessity, either because he is ignorant, or because he does not know any better, or because some compulsion has hindered him from speaking or acting in another way. And here, my friend, is the reason which made me say that both in war and in peace we ought to meet the worse with the worse and the better with the better; for evil-doers deserve an evil death, and the good, who are our saviours and benefactors, a noble and gentle one: but if we kill them all in the same manner, and without discrimination, knowing them neither by their actions nor their character, then we shall be tripping ourselves up in our own nets. For when you make a mistake about a person and do him an injury, you must expect that the injured person will return the injury which you first inflicted; and he may perhaps be able to inflict more, especially if he is an angry man and has great power. This is the reason why in temples and law-courts we pray that judges may be given to us who distinguish between good and evil, and do not confound them; for when the good and the evil are rightly divided, every one of us will take his proper portion of good or evil life, and will fare as is fitting. Now temperance, which is the order of the soul, implies two things an outward order of the passions when they are subject to the reason, and an inward order when reason herself obeys and is subject to law. 35 35 "Undoubtedly, he said, these are not sentiments which can be approved. Loving Homer as I do, I hardly like to say that in attributing thesefeelings to Achilles, or in believing that they are truly to him,he is guilty of downright impiety. As little can I believe the narrativeof his insolence to Apollo, where he says, Thou hast wronged me, O far-darter, most abominable of deities. VerilyI would he even with thee, if I had only the power, or his insubordinationto the river-god, on whose divinity he is ready to lay hands; or hisoffering to the dead Patroclus of his own hair, which had been previouslydedicated to the other river-god Spercheius, and that he actuallyperformed this vow; or that he dragged Hector round the tomb of Patroclus,and slaughtered the captives at the pyre; of all this I cannot believethat he was guilty, any more than I can allow our citizens to believethat he, the wise Cheiron's pupil, the son of a goddess and of Peleuswho was the gentlest of men and third in descent from Zeus, was sodisordered in his wits as to be at one time the slave of two seeminglyinconsistent passions, meanness, not untainted by avarice, combinedwith overweening contempt of gods and men. @@ -886,17 +920,16 @@ Clearly so. But we are not in a condition to answer this question at present,my Why not? Because, if I am not mistaken, we shall have to say that about menpoets and story-tellers are guilty of making the gravest misstatementswhen they tell us that wicked men are often happy, and the good miserable;and that injustice is profitable when undetected, but that justiceis a man's own loss and another's gain --these things we shall forbidthem to utter, and command them to sing and say the opposite. To be sure we shall, he replied. But if you admit that I am right in this, then I shall maintain thatyou have implied the principle for which we have been all along contending. I grant the truth of your inference. That such things are or are not to be said about men is a questionwhich we cannot determine until we have discovered what justice is,and how naturally advantageous to the possessor, whether he seemsto be just or not. -Most true, he said. Enough of the subjects of poetry: let us now speak of the style; andwhen this has been considered, both matter and manner will have beencompletely treated." "Summary: The speaker discusses the impiety of certain actions and narratives attributed to Achilles, as well as the portrayal of gods and heroes in poetry. +Most true, he said. Enough of the subjects of poetry: let us now speak of the style; andwhen this has been considered, both matter and manner will have beencompletely treated." "Summary: The text discusses the impiety of certain actions and statements made by characters in Homer's poetry. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker, Homer -Time setting: 1950s" “I don’t know what I did or didn’t do to deserve it, but every time I read about those gods and heroes of Homer’s in the paper they’re up to some new impiety. They’re as bad as the characters in your detective stories, where nothing will stop them from committing murder, arson, rape, and perjury. You have a filthy mind, sir; you give these gods and heroes all the wrong ideas.” “I’m sorry,” said the patient, “but I cannot agree with you. If you’ll permit me, I will explain to you why you are mistaken.” “Thank you,” I said. “You can begin by telling me why Achilles, who was as brave as he could be, insisted on being so ungrateful to Agamemnon when his sister-in-law had been kidnapped. And why he killed that poor old king of the Pylians just because he wanted his own girl friend back. And why he killed the Trojan prince, Priam’s son, when he came to ask for Hector’s body. He was rude to Apollo, too, and struck him with a spear. And then he cut off Hector’s head and trampled it underfoot.” The psychiatrist smiled at my indignation. “These actions of Achilles’ are certainly not in good taste,” he conceded. “But if you will permit me, I will explain to you their real significance. They illustrate the unspeakable insolence of youth toward age. Your father, sir, has never failed to impress upon you the importance of respect for your elders. Well, now, if you can imagine how much more important this is in ancient Greece, you will understand why Achilles behaved exactly as he did.” “That’s all very well,” I replied, “but suppose someone were to write a story about you in which you kicked your own father into the middle of the street? How would you like that?” The psychiatrist’s smile grew broader than ever. “Why, sir,” he said, “I should consider it one of the greatest compliments that anyone could pay me. There is no higher praise of a man than to call him ‘fatherlike.’” “That may be true,” I answered, “but it doesn’t alter the fact that all the men in Homer’s poems are savages.” “Perhaps,” replied the psychiatrist, “you will allow me to point out that savages are not necessarily immoral. In fact, some of the most moral people in the world are still living today in absolute savagery. And as for immorality, sir, you forget that some of our best friends are married.” “Yes, I know,” I said, “and they are doing everything they can to make divorce legal. It isn’t right for them to persecute poor widows in order to get possession of other people’s wives. +Literary form: Philosophical argument +Active character: Achilles, Apollo, Hector, Theseus, Peirithous +Quoted work: Homer's poetry +Language: English" "And if Achilles had been killed by Apollo, what impiety in his ghost to complain of it! But we are told that Hector was beaten and dragged round the city walls in a chariot with a raw hide tied about his neck. And yet Homer says that he was a brave man, and these were the actions of cowards. It is not surprising therefore, that Hector should have done wrong in trying to escape from Theseus. He was naturally a coward; and moreover, being a Greek, he would not like to be beaten by a barbarian."""" The Major made another attempt to interrupt him, but again found himself compelled to keep silence. I will tell you another very curious fact,"" continued Mr. Bunting. ""In the same poem in which we find the story of the rape of Helen, we read also how Peirithous, the son of Ixion, carried off Proserpina, the wife of Pluto, and how he and Theseus were afterwards punished for their crime by being put into prison in Tartarus. Now suppose that a writer of modern poetry were to tell us that a young English gentleman had carried off the wife of the American President, and that he and his friend had been shut up in gaol for it, do you think that the public would like it?"""" Certainly not,"" said the Major, with great indignation. """"I never heard such a lot of nonsense in my life. If that's your idea of poetry, I don't want any more of it."""" In that case,"" replied Mr. Bunting, ""you can help yourself. There's nothing whatever to prevent you going away if you like, for you haven't come here for any particular purpose. I only asked you to come as far as this because there's a short cut from here to the house, and it's rather damp walking after rain through the woods."""" I'm sure I beg your pardon,"" stammered the Major, much confused. ""I'm very sorry if I've offended you. I didn't mean to. I hope you'll forgive me."""" Very well then, go on with your lecture,"" said Mr. Bunting, still sitting in the same attitude. """"You can't stop me, even if you do abuse me, and I shall continue till you understand what poetry is. The reason why Theseus and Peirithous were imprisoned in Tartarus for their wickedness was that they were both Greeks. If they had been Englishmen, they would have been hanged instead of being put into prison."""" There was a long pause. The Major sat in absolute dismay, wondering whether he could possibly manage to get out of this terrible predicament without making further offence. He tried to see what was the meaning of the strange light which burned in Mr. Bunting's eyes, and whether those eyes could really pierce his very soul, or whether it was some trick of the flickering candlelight. " 36 36 "I do not understand what you mean, said Adeimantus. Then I must make you understand; and perhaps I may be more intelligibleif I put the matter in this way. You are aware, I suppose, that allmythology and poetry is a narration of events, either past, present,or to come? Certainly, he replied. And narration may be either simple narration, or imitation, or a unionof the two? That again, he said, I do not quite understand. I fear that I must be a ridiculous teacher when I have so much difficultyin making myself apprehended. Like a bad speaker, therefore, I willnot take the whole of the subject, but will break a piece off in illustrationof my meaning. You know the first lines of the Iliad, in which thepoet says that Chryses prayed Agamemnon to release his daughter, andthat Agamemnon flew into a passion with him; whereupon Chryses, failingof his object, invoked the anger of the God against the Achaeans.Now as far as these lines, @@ -908,15 +941,15 @@ Of course. Then in this case the narrative of the poet may be said to proceedby Very true. Or, if the poet everywhere appears and never conceals himself, thenagain the imitation is dropped, and his poetry becomes simple narration.However, in order that I may make my meaning quite clear, and thatyou may no more say, I don't understand,' I will show how the changemight be effected. If Homer had said, 'The priest came, having hisdaughter's ransom in his hands, supplicating the Achaeans, and aboveall the kings;' and then if, instead of speaking in the person ofChryses, he had continued in his own person, the words would havebeen, not imitation, but simple narration. The passage would haverun as follows (I am no poet, and therefore I drop the metre), 'Thepriest came and prayed the gods on behalf of the Greeks that theymight capture Troy and return safely home, but begged that they wouldgive him back his daughter, and take the ransom which he brought,and respect the God. Thus he spoke, and the other Greeks revered thepriest and assented. But Agamemnon was wroth, and bade him departand not come again, lest the staff and chaplets of the God shouldbe of no avail to him --the daughter of Chryses should not be released,he said --she should grow old with him in Argos. And then he toldhim to go away and not to provoke him, if he intended to get homeunscathed. And the old man went away in fear and silence, and, whenhe had left the camp, he called upon Apollo by his many names, remindinghim of everything which he had done pleasing to him, whether in buildinghis temples, or in offering sacrifice, and praying that his good deedsmight be returned to him, and that the Achaeans might expiate histears by the arrows of the god,' --and so on. In this way the wholebecomes simple narrative. I understand, he said. Or you may suppose the opposite case --that the intermediate passagesare omitted, and the dialogue only left. That also, he said, I understand; you mean, for example, as in tragedy." "Summary: The speaker is trying to explain the concept of narration and imitation in poetry. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Active character: Adeimantus, the speaker Quoted work: The Iliad -Diegetic time: A few minutes" You cannot be told in a word, nor will you understand it if it is told. If we had never seen the stars, or the sun by day, or the moon by night, could we ever have imagined them?” Adeimantus laughed and said: “I am still more puzzled where I cannot follow you; for how can there be any imitation of virtue or vice at all? Do you not think that the same art which paints one class of things may paint another? Or are there two arts?” “Not at all,” he replied, “as I shall now attempt to explain. Imagine, then, that you wish to imitate the figure of a man in painting: first you would describe to the painter the nature of man, and then you would tell him that ‘the man whom you want him to portray is tall and ruddy with powers of speech and action; his eye is blue and his hair dark.’ ” “Certainly,” he said. “And suppose you were unable to tell the painter what sort of colour to put on his hair, but said to him, ‘Make the man’s hair as like mine as you can,’ would you expect the painter to produce a likeness of yourself?” “Yes, he would be stupid indeed.” “Then you want the painter to lay on the colours on head and body as your own are laid on?” “Certainly.” “Well then, suppose that you are in good health and the man whom you desire to be painted is feverish, and both in colour and appearance he is as unlike you as it is possible to conceive,—will you allow the painter to make an imitation of you out of him?” “Certainly not,” he replied; “in that case I should say that he was only making his picture something like, but not like myself.” “Why, think you,” said I, “that painters who are ill themselves always take care to have their patients stand before them when they are painting their portraits, in order that the colouring may be more natural?” “Yes, they do that,” he said. “And will not poets and storytellers act in the same way? When they are composing stories will not bad poets take their characters as they can get them, and work them into their tales, but a good poet will look for a mind as far as may be like his own, so that the character may be like himself, and after the pattern of this mind he will fashion his image.” “Why, yes, he will,” he said. “Then you must also grant this point, my friend, that bad poets take their characters from any source and any sort of character they can get, and that good poets only take those which are suitable and akin to themselves, having ones of their own sort always in store?” “That,” he said, “is undoubtedly what good poets do.” “Then he who has no goodness in him will be incapable of imitating another who is good; but he who is of a good nature, and virtuous, will have the greatest ease and freedom in representing the character of man;—this will be his peculiar gift of Nature, no less than comedy to one who is humorous, and tragedy to another who is of a tragic turn.” +Language: English" It is a bad thing to do, and very vulgar; but still it is amusing to watch the faces of people who are listening. They begin by being quite serious, then they laugh quietly, and at last they get angry with themselves for laughing, and look solemn again. I think that this is the same effect which we ought to produce on our readers' minds when we make them laugh in the middle of a story. If you are only going to tell a story, you should tell it as straight as you can, without any sort of warning or explanation. But if you are going to do what I am doing now, and tell a story by means of imitation, then you must make your hearers understand that there is no truth whatever in what you say. I believe that this was Homer's meaning when he began his great poem with those lines about Achilles which are so obscure that not even Adeimantus here understands them. And yet there is a great deal of sense in them. You remember how he begins: 'Sing, O Goddess! the wrath which sprung in the heart of Achilles, Peleus' son, that brought countless ills upon the Achaeans; Woe unending, both for them and tireless-hearted Hector.' Then after describing the quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon he goes on: 'Thus did the two exchange mighty words, and the anger bred in their hearts, and the goddess sing it all from beginning to end, that men might know the whole tale of it.' Now the meaning of this is clear enough: it shows that Homer was aware of the distinction between telling a story and imitating a story. He says, 'The goddess sings the wrath,' and then he adds, 'that men may know the whole tale of it.' So he meant to tell a story in such a way as to make people think that he was merely singing a song, and thus to prevent them from taking him seriously. And the way in which he does this is just as I have said, namely, by means of imitation. For he makes his heroes speak like men whom he himself had seen, and describes the actions of each of them in the manner of his countrymen. 37 37 "You have conceived my meaning perfectly; and if I mistake not, whatyou failed to apprehend before is now made clear to you, that poetryand mythology are, in some cases, wholly imitative --instances ofthis are supplied by tragedy and comedy; there is likewise the oppositestyle, in which the my poet is the only speaker --of this the dithyrambaffords the best example; and the combination of both is found inepic, and in several other styles of poetry. Do I take you with me? Yes, he said; I see now what you meant. I will ask you to remember also what I began by saying, that we haddone with the subject and might proceed to the style. Yes, I remember. In saying this, I intended to imply that we must come to an understandingabout the mimetic art, --whether the poets, in narrating their stories,are to be allowed by us to imitate, and if so, whether in whole orin part, and if the latter, in what parts; or should all imitationbe prohibited? @@ -931,17 +964,16 @@ True. Neither are comic and tragic actors the same; yet all these thingsare but They are so. And human nature, Adeimantus, appears to have been coined into yetsmaller pieces, and to be as incapable of imitating many things well,as of performing well the actions of which the imitations are copies. Quite true, he replied. If then we adhere to our original notion and bear in mind that ourguardians, setting aside every other business, are to dedicate themselveswholly to the maintenance of freedom in the State, making this theircraft, and engaging in no work which does not bear on this end, theyought not to practise or imitate anything else; if they imitate atall, they should imitate from youth upward only those characters whichare suitable to their profession --the courageous, temperate, holy,free, and the like; but they should not depict or be skilful at imitatingany kind of illiberality or baseness, lest from imitation they shouldcome to be what they imitate. Did you never observe how imitations,beginning in early youth and continuing far into life, at length growinto habits and become a second nature, affecting body, voice, andmind? Yes, certainly, he said. Then, I said, we will not allow those for whom we profess a care andof whom we say that they ought to be good men, to imitate a woman,whether young or old, quarrelling with her husband, or striving andvaunting against the gods in conceit of her happiness, or when sheis in affliction, or sorrow, or weeping; and certainly not one whois in sickness, love, or labour. -Very right, he said. Neither must they represent slaves, male or female, performing theoffices of slaves?" "Summary: The speaker and their interlocutor discuss the use of imitation in poetry and its potential impact on the guardians of a state. -Trope: The concept of imitating characters and actions as a reflection of one's own behavior -Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Very right, he said. Neither must they represent slaves, male or female, performing theoffices of slaves?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the nature of poetry and imitation, arguing that guardians in a State should only imitate virtuous characters. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker, Adeimantus" "Look at him. Imitation is the handmaid of self-control, and therefore of justice and temperance of which no man is perfectly possessed who has not had an eye to imitate all his life."""" And yet he will soon be out of control again."""" Perhaps; but there are degrees; and we know that neither you nor any other man is absolutely perfect."""" No; and as the saying goes, the attempt to be so produces Mania."""" Yes, if the attempt is forcibly restrained by some overpowering good or evil, as, for instance, fear of imprisonment or of scandal may modify the actions of a tyrant; but where there are no such opposing forces, then the person is only half himself; he has one side rigidly fixed and the other side unregulated; he has become divided against himself and has, as they say, """"lost his soul."""" I quite understand, and accept your rule of imitation, though not your language. I cannot agree that after all it matters whether a man can imitate anything."""" Why, has not the imitator a double power of perception?"""" Certainly, he must see the real nature of everything which he imitates."""" Yes, he must have perceived many things before he can imitate them. Where is the man who would dare to move in the presence of true beauty who could not imitate her, either in verse or in prose, or in dance or in song?"""" In that sense I admit that imitation is sweet and serviceable enough. But there is another sense, my dear friend, in which I should fear to trust an imitative nature. The imitative poet, especially when young, ought not to be too completely trusted even in this part of his nature. That he is able to imitate is clear; but why does he give us a bad image of good things, instead of a good image of bad things?"""" A fair question. I am afraid that I do not follow you. " +Active character: The speaker, Adeimantus +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "It's the sort of thing that will always have to be done in any country where there are poets and rich men, but it should only be done by men who can afford it."""" """"Then you think the guardians in your State should be imitators?"" asked Adeimantus. """"Yes,"" said I, ""they ought to be. But, as I was just saying, they ought also to have the spirit of imitation in them."""" What do you mean?"""" They ought to be like painters or embroiderers, weaving or sewing together a pattern which they had seen and then drawing it out again, and making other people see it."""" That again,"" said Glaucon, ""is a most excellent point; but let me ask you once more: Would you say that they ought to imitate the nature of mankind, pleased as some poets are to do, or not?"""" Certainly not."" Why not?"" Because,"" I replied, ""the imitations of poverty and disease and all the other deformities should only be produced for the cure of the poor sick soul, and should not be publicly exhibited on the theatrical stage."""" A very fair and rational reply; but is it one which you ought to make to a virtuous man, when you are asking him to look at things in that light?"""" " 38 38 "They must not. And surely not bad men, whether cowards or any others, who do thereverse of what we have just been prescribing, who scold or mock orrevile one another in drink or out of in drink or, or who in any othermanner sin against themselves and their neighbours in word or deed,as the manner of such is. Neither should they be trained to imitatethe action or speech of men or women who are mad or bad; for madness,like vice, is to be known but not to be practised or imitated. Very true, he replied. Neither may they imitate smiths or other artificers, or oarsmen, orboatswains, or the like? How can they, he said, when they are not allowed to apply their mindsto the callings of any of these? @@ -955,16 +987,19 @@ But there is another sort of character who will narrate anything,and, the worse That, he said, will be his mode of speaking. These, then, are the two kinds of style? Yes. And you would agree with me in saying that one of them is simple andhas but slight changes; and if the harmony and rhythm are also chosenfor their simplicity, the result is that the speaker, if hc speakscorrectly, is always pretty much the same in style, and he will keepwithin the limits of a single harmony (for the changes are not great),and in like manner he will make use of nearly the same rhythm? That is quite true, he said. Whereas the other requires all sorts of harmonies and all sorts ofrhythms, if the music and the style are to correspond, because thestyle has all sorts of changes. That is also perfectly true, he replied. And do not the two styles, or the mixture of the two, comprehend allpoetry, and every form of expression in words? No one can say anythingexcept in one or other of them or in both together. -They include all, he said. And shall we receive into our State all the three styles, or one onlyof the two unmixed styles? or would you include the mixed?" "Summary: The text discusses the types of characters and narratives that should be allowed in a state. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +They include all, he said. And shall we receive into our State all the three styles, or one onlyof the two unmixed styles? or would you include the mixed?" "Summary: The text discusses the types of characters and narratives that should be imitated or avoided. +Trope: Organized crime +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation +Literary form: Philosophical dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The narrator, the person being spoken to -Time setting: 1950s" "I am talking about the people who live in the state. They are not beautiful, they do not sing like nightingales, they have no sense of humour and they talk a lot of rubbish. You can't put them into a book. They are just ordinary characters who come and go. And that's all. We don't want them here in our State."""" But why?"" I said. ""Why shouldn't we allow them?"""" Because,"" he replied, ""they are uninteresting. They tell lies and gossip. They have no sense of beauty and they steal things from their neighbours. They always look for something to eat. Their wives are always washing up, their children always playing in the street. They never visit us at home; on the contrary, they always want us to visit them. They are always asking each other for money and borrowing it from one another. They get drunk every evening and then they quarrel and beat each other up. Their houses are dirty and smelly. They are always getting ill and when they are ill they want someone else to look after them and give them medicine. When they die they make a noise about it and take up a lot of room in the graveyard. If they see anything new or different they want to know what it is and where it came from. They always go about with their mouths open and whatever they have in their mouths they chew it. When you speak to them they interrupt you because they think they know everything and they never listen to what you say. They don't read books and they don't go to the theatre or concerts. They are afraid of ghosts and they believe in the devil. They are always looking for some excuse to have a row with their neighbours. They are always having rows with their wives and hitting them about the face and head until they faint."""" Then why do you live among them?"" I asked. Well,"" he said, ""we live here because we have to live somewhere. There is nowhere else we can go. Besides, these people are useful to us. They work hard and pay us rent. They also bring us money. They give us presents when they are invited to our house. They borrow money from us and never repay it. When they fall ill we let them stay in our house until they are better. If they are cold we give them blankets. If they are hungry we give them food. If they are thirsty we give them drink. If they are sick we send them to the doctor. If they are old and cannot work any longer we send them to the hospital. If they are dead we bury them. If they want to have a wedding we marry them. If they want to get divorced we divorce them. If they want to be christened we christen them. If they want to be baptised we baptise them. If they want to be confirmed we confirm them. If they want to be ordained we ordain them. If they want to be married we marry them. If they want to be buried we bury them. " +Active character: The two characters engaging in the conversation +Quoted work: Homer's works +Language: English" "There are two kinds of characters you can imitate, and they are the only ones there are. One kind is the sort that has a good reason for being crooked; the other kind is just plain crooked. The first kind is the criminal class that has its own code of honor, its own set of laws and ethics and customs, and its own way of doing things. You can do those people justice by showing what they are and how they work, but don't ever try to glamorize them because you can't. They're low and dirty and vicious, and anybody who pretends they're glamorous isn't telling the truth. But you can understand why some people get into that life, and if you know enough about it to make your story convincing, then go right ahead and show it."""" * * * * * I said: """"That's not all there is to crime writing, though, is it?"""" He said: """"No. There's the second type of character, the one that's just plain crooked. That's the man or woman who doesn't have any code at all except his own greed or selfishness or lust. He takes what he wants without giving a damn who gets hurt or how much he hurts them. He doesn't even need brains, because he doesn't plan anything. He just goes out and takes whatever he happens to run across. He might be a mug who mugs old ladies on street corners or he might be a swindler who robs widows and orphans by mail. It doesn't matter. They're both just plain crooks."""" * * * * * I said: """"But you mean you think a writer should only write about the first kind?"""" He said: """"I'm not saying that. I'm just pointing out that these are the two types of crook and you ought to know the difference between them. As a matter of fact, most writers are more interested in the second type. They like to write about people who do things just for the hell of it, or because they're bored or because they're sadists. Or maybe they write about people who are criminals from birth and were born with a built-in sense of adventure. A lot of writers like to write about characters like that, and that's okay too, as long as they don't forget that there's a third type of character."""" I said: """"What's that?"""" And he said: """"The real hero. The guy who stands up straight and fights back when somebody tries to rob him or beat him up or rape his wife or daughter. Maybe he does it because he's big and tough and strong and he likes to fight. But maybe he does it because he's afraid, and hates to show fear, or maybe he does it because he's scared stiff and would give anything in the world not to have to fight but he knows he's going to have to so he does it. " 39 39 "I should prefer only to admit the pure imitator of virtue. Yes, I said, Adeimantus, but the mixed style is also very charming:and indeed the pantomimic, which is the opposite of the one chosenby you, is the most popular style with children and their attendants,and with the world in general. I do not deny it. But I suppose you would argue that such a style is unsuitable to ourState, in which human nature is not twofold or manifold, for one manplays one part only? @@ -982,15 +1017,16 @@ The harmonies which you mean are the mixed or tenor Lydian, and thefull-toned or These then, I said, must be banished; even to women who have a characterto maintain they are of no use, and much less to men. Certainly. In the next place, drunkenness and softness and indolence are utterlyunbecoming the character of our guardians. Utterly unbecoming. And which are the soft or drinking harmonies? The Ionian, he replied, and the Lydian; they are termed 'relaxed.' -Well, and are these of any military use? Quite the reverse, he replied; and if so the Dorian and the Phrygianare the only ones which you have left." "Summary: The speaker discusses different styles of music and their suitability for a specific state. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Well, and are these of any military use? Quite the reverse, he replied; and if so the Dorian and the Phrygianare the only ones which you have left." "Summary: The speaker discusses the role of music and poetry in society, emphasizing the importance of virtuous and patriotic themes. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation -Active character: Adeimantus, Glaucon -Quoted work: Not mentioned" Adeimantus, welcher ein wenig rhrte, fragte: Wie kann das sein? Der Gesang der Fltote ist doch so schn und sinnig. Sokrates lachte laut auf: Schn und sinnig! Das sind die heutigen Worte fr mglich. In alten Zeiten aber nannten wir solche Dichter wie Homer mglich, und wirklich sind seine Gedichte schn und sinnig genug; sie erfreuen und unterhalten uns in dem Maße, worin man sich erheitern lassen kann, ohne den Kopf zu verlieren. Wir haben daheim hier eine Art von Musik, die ich nicht leiden kann; sie hat einen trocknen, eintnbigen Klang, ist irgendwie hart, unlieblich, feindlich, eine Art von Schrei, der mich stachelt, und alsobald werden die Zge steif, die Stirne falten sich, die Augenbrauen zusammenziehen, die Arme wuchsen, und wenn es nicht so furchbar wrde, wrde ich hassen, ja mich sogar wehren mssen gegen diese Musik. Aber andere Leute lieben sie, und wenn sie mit ihr beschftigt sind, wird ihnen ganz schwarz um die Augen, sie verndernde ihre Meinung, durchdringen alles bis in die tiefsten Abgrnde ihres Wesens, und wenn sie sie lange genug hren, dann rufen sie aus: Dieses ist Gerechtigkeit, das ist Gerechtigkeit! und versichern, dass es so nun einmal sei und nichts anderes sein knne. Es ist also nicht wunderbar, wenn diese Leute nicht weitersehen wollen, weil sie der Staat so aussehen soll, wie sie ihn zu sehen gewohnt sind, und dabei nicht an die Richtigkeit ihrer Vorstellungen denkt. Wenn sie aber jemals bereinstimmung finden zwischen ihrer Musik und ihren Vorgaben, dann ist das ein glckliches Ereignis, bei dem wir, wie es scheint, zusehen mssen, obwohl es uns sonst sehr ungelegen kommen mag. Und nun rate ich Euch, meine Freunde, da Ihr euch auf die rechte Musik besinnt, denn ihr gesunde Geist und Leib, ihr eure Seele und euer ganzes Wesen. Denn die Begabungen der Menschen sind verschieden, und daher ist es auch notwendig, da die verschiedene Einrichtungen entstehen, die uns die Lebenskunst lehren. Jeder mu seine eigene Musik pflegen, die ihm ntzt, die seinen Geschmack und seinen Geist sttigt und ihn frs Leben befriedigt. Doch soll er nicht nur die Musik pflegen, sondern auch alle anderen Kunstwerke, whrend er doch seiner Arbeit nachgeht, die ihn vor allem zu ernhren und zu bewahren pflegt. Denn es ist ntzlich, alles zu genieen, was ntzlich ist, und dabei seine Tugenden zu pflegen und zu mehren, und er wird das tun, wenn er immer daran denkt, wie er seine eigene Musik macht und welche Wirkungen sie auf die Seele hat. Damit beruhigte Sokrates Glaukon, der nun wieder gut gelaunt fortfuhr: Ich habe noch eine Frage, mein Freund. Warum habt Ihr die Schauspielkunst beiseite gelassen? Sie ist doch sehr ntzlich, wenn sie richtig gemacht wird, und es gibt viele Tugenden, die durch sie gefrdert und gepflegt werden knnen. +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" Music is a safe enough occupation for the poet, but it won’t get him anywhere. He’d better cut out that lute and write songs about how you can live on ten dollars a week. There are plenty of people who need to be told that. The music business is one of them.” Socrates nodded in agreement. “And poetry is only an amusement,” he said. “I’ve been writing verse for twenty years now, but I’m not getting anywhere with it. People aren’t interested in what I have to say. All they want is something bright and catchy that will amuse them for a few minutes. That’s why I turned to detective stories. They pay better.” “And they’re easier to write.” Glaucon nodded in sympathy. “But even if I were a great poet,” he continued, “it would do me no good. Poetry isn’t respectable. It has no social value. And no matter how great a poet you may be, you’ll never get anywhere unless you’re socially acceptable. You have to be able to fit in. That’s the secret of success. A man who wants to get ahead has got to be willing to play ball with society. He’s got to be a team player. He’s got to get his kicks out of being part of the gang. And he’s got to know his place, too. He’s got to be satisfied to stay where he belongs, doing the work that’s expected of him. If he tries to break out of the mold, or climb too high, then he’s going to run into trouble. Society doesn’t like it when a man tries to upstage the other fellows. He’s got to be content with what he’s got, and forget about all the things that he hasn’t got. That’s what society expects of him, and by God that’s what he’s going to give her!” Glaucon chewed on this for a moment, mulling it over in his mind. Then he smiled broadly. “You sound like the kind of guy who could make a lot of money,” he said. “And you’re right, I guess. The world is full of suckers who think that way. Maybe we should start a new religion, based on those principles. We could call it ‘Sociocracy.’” “Sounds good to me,” said Socrates. “Let’s see what we can do about it. We’ll try to sell it to some of these religious nuts that hang around the drugstores. They’re always looking for a new racket. They might be interested.” They finished their drinks and ordered another round. Then Glaucon lit a cigarette and began to talk about his plans for the future. “I’m going to buy myself a boat,” he said. “I’ve been thinking about it for a long time, and now I’ve got enough money saved up. It will cost about six thousand dollars, and I can probably get it for that. 40 40 "I answered: Of the harmonies I know nothing, but I want to have onewarlike, to sound the note or accent which a brave man utters in thehour of danger and stern resolve, or when his cause is failing, andhe is going to wounds or death or is overtaken by some other evil,and at every such crisis meets the blows of fortune with firm stepand a determination to endure; and another to be used by him in timesof peace and freedom of action, when there is no pressure of necessity,and he is seeking to persuade God by prayer, or man by instructionand admonition, or on the other hand, when he is expressing his willingnessto yield to persuasion or entreaty or admonition, and which representshim when by prudent conduct he has attained his end, not carried awayby his success, but acting moderately and wisely under the circumstances,and acquiescing in the event. These two harmonies I ask you to leave;the strain of necessity and the strain of freedom, the strain of theunfortunate and the strain of the fortunate, the strain of courage,and the strain of temperance; these, I say, leave. And these, he replied, are the Dorian and Phrygian harmonies of whichI was just now speaking. Then, I said, if these and these only are to be used in our songsand melodies, we shall not want multiplicity of notes or a panharmonicscale? @@ -1004,15 +1040,16 @@ And we have done wisely, he replied. Then let us now finish the purgation, I sai But, indeed, he replied, I cannot tell you. I only know that thereare some three principles of rhythm out of which metrical systemsare framed, just as in sounds there are four notes out of which allthe harmonies are composed; that is an observation which I have made.But of what sort of lives they are severally the imitations I am unableto say. Then, I said, we must take Damon into our counsels; and he will tellus what rhythms are expressive of meanness, or insolence, or fury,or other unworthiness, and what are to be reserved for the expressionof opposite feelings. And I think that I have an indistinct recollectionof his mentioning a complex Cretic rhythm; also a dactylic or heroic,and he arranged them in some manner which I do not quite understand,making the rhythms equal in the rise and fall of the foot, long andshort alternating; and, unless I am mistaken, he spoke of an iambicas well as of a trochaic rhythm, and assigned to them short and longquantities. Also in some cases he appeared to praise or censure themovement of the foot quite as much as the rhythm; or perhaps a combinationof the two; for I am not certain what he meant. These matters, however,as I was saying, had better be referred to Damon himself, for theanalysis of the subject would be difficult, you know. Rather so, I should say. But there is no difficulty in seeing that grace or the absence ofgrace is an effect of good or bad rhythm. -None at all. And also that good and bad rhythm naturally assimilate to a good andbad style; and that harmony and discord in like manner follow style;for our principle is that rhythm and harmony are regulated by thewords, and not the words by them." "Summary: The narrator discusses the use of harmonies and rhythms in music and their connection to different aspects of life. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +None at all. And also that good and bad rhythm naturally assimilate to a good andbad style; and that harmony and discord in like manner follow style;for our principle is that rhythm and harmony are regulated by thewords, and not the words by them." "Summary: The speaker discusses the use of harmonies and rhythms in music and their connection to different aspects of life. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Narrator, interlocutor" """""But, yes; let's go on with the music. The harmonies of life are not all major and minor, and if you know how to play them, you can get a lot of fun out of the chromatics. Take the man I've been telling you about who was always getting into trouble because he never could keep his mouth shut. He's had three wives already and each one of them has run out on him, and he always says it's the women that have done wrong. If he'd never opened his mouth he might have had the first two for keeps, but he couldn't help talking, and he always picked the wrong time and place. Now, take another fellow I know who is as quiet as a clam most of the time, and when he does open his mouth everybody laughs at what he says because he's so dumb. But the wife he married twenty years ago still loves him like she did when they were kids, and there isn't a woman in town who would leave him for anything. Well, now, which one of them do you think is more normal?"""" I said I didn't know. """"They're both abnormal,"""" he said, """"but if you want to know which one is the least abnormal, why, it's the dumb one."""" I looked at him in amazement. """"You mean to tell me,"""" I said, """"that a man who doesn't know how to talk is more normal than a man who can't keep his mouth shut?"""" Sure he is,"" he said. ""Why, if he didn't talk at all he wouldn't be any worse than a vegetable. And he can't help being dumb because he hasn't got any sense. But the other guy knows better, and yet he talks when he shouldn't. That's where he gets into trouble, because he takes things too far. You see, there's nothing wrong with a man who can't talk at all, but a man who talks when he oughtn't to is bad news."" Well, that was a new one on me, and I began to wonder if everything that this guy knew wasn't the other side of the coin from what I'd learned myself. It seemed to me that life was complicated enough without having to worry about whether people talked too much or too little; and just then, when I had my hands full trying to find out who killed Milt Lonergan, here was this detective giving me something else to think about. But maybe there was something in what he said, because you could see it worked out in music. Take a slow waltz. If you played the melody right through by itself it would sound pretty dull, but when you added the harmony it came alive and you could dance to it. And if you played the rhythm alone it would make your feet move even if you weren't dancing, and when you put the melody over the harmony and the rhythm together they sounded swell. " +Active character: The speaker, Damon +Language: English" "I'll tell you why. It's a good thing to have something solid and dependable in your life, some one you can count on. Something that makes no demands, is always there when you want it, and yet never bores you. Damon is that. In the same way I like to have harmonies and rhythms in my music, too. You see, there are these different things in my life, and they're all so very different from each other, that I need something to link them together. Damon does it for me."""" For a moment she stared at me with wide eyes. Then she burst out laughing. """"You don't know much about women,"""" she said. She spoke with an odd mixture of harshness and amusement, and her laughter sounded false, somehow. But she was still laughing when she went into the house. Now if you've been paying attention, you'll realize that this whole conversation of mine with Anne was filmed by someone who had approached close enough to get some of the conversation without being noticed. If he'd just stood back where he could see us both clearly he'd have known she wasn't talking to me. And there was another point: Why should anyone be interested in a dame who works as a waitress?"""" Maybe you're right, maybe you're wrong. The next time we'll go to work on the brother. He's been living here a lot longer than Anne has, and he's got a better job. Maybe he knows more about what happened to Mr. Carrington."""" Chapter XII THE RED-HAIRED MAN You ought to have seen the old man's face! He looked as though he wanted to kill me. I suppose he thought I was making fun of him."" I laughed. """"Don't worry about it. He wouldn't dare touch you."""" I was sitting on the floor near the door of the shack. Old Man Carrington had brought me a glass of milk and a plate of cookies. We were sitting opposite each other, and his face did look grim. I couldn't blame him, either, after the way I'd acted. But he didn't say anything. He just sat staring at me with those cold yellow eyes of his. After a while he began to talk. I heard the car drive away and then he said, """"That fellow's crazy. He talks like a book, but he's crazy."""" It was the first time I'd ever heard him speak. His voice was deep and quiet, with a faint hint of a drawl. He sounded bored. """"He talks about love and beauty and harmony. What do I know about love or beauty?"""" He stopped and took off his glasses. He looked at them and then put them on again. """"There was a time when I used to believe in love,"""" he said. """"It made me feel funny sometimes, queer sort of pleasant feelings inside me. But I don't believe in it any more."""" He leaned forward and fixed me with those cold yellow eyes. """"Do you know why?"""" he asked. """"Because it's a lie! " 41 41 "Just so, he said, they should follow the words. And will not the words and the character of the style depend on thetemper of the soul? Yes. And everything else on the style? Yes. Then beauty of style and harmony and grace and good rhythm dependon simplicity, --I mean the true simplicity of a rightly and noblyordered mind and character, not that other simplicity which is onlyan euphemism for folly? Very true, he replied. And if our youth are to do their work in life, must they not makethese graces and harmonies their perpetual aim? @@ -1023,16 +1060,17 @@ Yes, he said, I quite agree with you in thinking that our youth shouldbe trained Just as in learning to read, I said, we were satisfied when we knewthe letters of the alphabet, which are very few, in all their recurringsizes and combinations; not slighting them as unimportant whetherthey occupy a space large or small, but everywhere eager to make themout; and not thinking ourselves perfect in the art of reading untilwe recognise them wherever they are found: True -- Or, as we recognise the reflection of letters in the water, or ina mirror, only when we know the letters themselves; the same art andstudy giving us the knowledge of both: Exactly -- Even so, as I maintain, neither we nor our guardians, whom we haveto educate, can ever become musical until we and they know the essentialforms, in all their combinations, and can recognise them and theirimages wherever they are found, not slighting them either in smallthings or great, but believing them all to be within the sphere ofone art and study." "Summary: The text discusses the importance of beauty and harmony in art and education. -Trope: Beauty as a reflection of goodness -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Trope: Organized crime +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Glaucon, the speaker -Time setting: 1950s" "I'll bet you any money I choose, that if we do ever find the corpse it will be a woman; and that it will be found in bed. She was just a woman who had never learned to be good for anything but that."""" Glaucon made no answer to this rather harsh and vivid speech, but sat quietly smoking his pipe. And now,"" continued the speaker, when he saw that he had said all that he meant to say upon the matter, """"now listen to me again, and you shall have some more philosophy."""" He leaned back in his chair with a satisfied air of having got through something disagreeable, and looked at Glaucon. The other remained motionless, save only that he took one last puff from his pipe before he laid it down beside him on the table. You know as well as I do, Glaucon, that art is the most important part of education, and that it must come first. Without beauty how can goodness be seen?"""" Yes, yes,"" said Glaucon; ""but what has this to do with the case?"""" Much, my friend, very much. For I am going to tell you why beauty is so necessary to goodness. First, because beauty means harmony, and harmony means order, and order means law. That is why the Greeks were always great lawyers, and great lovers of law; they were lovers of beauty, and therefore of order and of reason. Second, because the greatest beauty is the beauty of youth, and youth is the time of strength, and strength is power; therefore beauty is power, and so is the same thing as goodness. Third, because beauty is like goodness; it is everywhere the same: if you see a beautiful face or a beautiful flower, you are sure that it is good; and if you see a good man or a good action, you are sure that it is beautiful. Therefore beauty is a help to goodness, because it makes us love goodness. Fourth, because beauty is eternal, and goodness is eternal, and therefore they are the same thing; there is nothing else in the world which lasts, except the divine life of God. Fifth, because goodness is God, and God is love, and love is beauty. These five reasons prove to me that beauty is the same as goodness, and that therefore whatever is beautiful is also good; and since God is the best and the highest of beings, the highest beauty must be the beauty of God. And this proves to me, Glaucon, that the greatest artist must be the greatest lover of God, and that therefore he will paint what he sees most clearly in the light of truth; and thus he will paint God. Therefore, the greatest work of art is the picture of God. You will ask me next what sort of picture it will be; and I reply that it will be the most beautiful picture that can possibly be painted; and then you will ask me if it is possible for anyone to paint such a picture; and I reply that it is quite possible, and that it has been painted already by several artists, though not with perfect success; " +Active character: He, Glaucon +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" Now, I say there is no beauty, except that which is in harmony with the true; and as this may be difficult to see when it appears by itself, being like the sun, which is bright but not conspicuous, it must therefore be set in some beautiful object, to the end that men seeing the beauty of the whole may be reminded of the beautiful, and so learn about it. Hence in education we must use many beautiful forms, both in words and in deeds. And then again in music, even if any part of it be not perfect, the beauty which lies in the composition will be preserved. For example, if there are two parts, each of them, taken by itself, has a certain beauty; but when the same man tries to sing both parts at once, the result is something awful and ridiculous. For beauty of rhythm or tone, or arrangement of parts, or proportion, is not to be found in the two together, but in the harmony of all three: and the same holds good of other kinds of beauty whatever. Therefore, Glaucon, those who have made laws to improve the education of youth are right in being cautious and requiring that a young man should not be musical before he is twenty years old. 42 42 "Most assuredly. And when a beautiful soul harmonises with a beautiful form, and thetwo are cast in one mould, that will be the fairest of sights to himwho has an eye to see it? The fairest indeed. And the fairest is also the loveliest? That may be assumed. And the man who has the spirit of harmony will be most in love withthe loveliest; but he will not love him who is of an inharmonioussoul? That is true, he replied, if the deficiency be in his soul; but ifthere be any merely bodily defect in another he will be patient ofit, and will love all the same. @@ -1051,16 +1089,16 @@ Very good. That they must abstain from intoxication has been already remarkedby Yes, he said; that a guardian should require another guardian to takecare of him is ridiculous indeed. But next, what shall we say of their food; for the men are in trainingfor the great contest of all --are they not? Yes, he said. And will the habit of body of our ordinary athletes be suited to them? -Why not? I am afraid, I said, that a habit of body such as they have is buta sleepy sort of thing, and rather perilous to health. Do you notobserve that these athletes sleep away their lives, and are liableto most dangerous illnesses if they depart, in ever so slight a degree,from their customary regimen?" "Summary: A conversation about the relationship between beauty, harmony, love, and physical fitness. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Why not? I am afraid, I said, that a habit of body such as they have is buta sleepy sort of thing, and rather perilous to health. Do you notobserve that these athletes sleep away their lives, and are liableto most dangerous illnesses if they depart, in ever so slight a degree,from their customary regimen?" "Summary: A conversation about the relationship between beauty, love, and harmony. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker, the person being spoken to - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" And yet a beautiful woman can have beauty, and harmony and love in her life, and at the same time be fat, and flabby, and soft. Beauty isn’t physical fitness, even though you might think so. It’s only a symbol of it, just like a rose is a symbol of love. A woman that’s physically fit and has harmony and love in her life will have beauty, even if she’s got a face like a bulldog. A woman with beauty hasn’t got anything except beauty. She may be full of hate and jealousy, and her mind may be full of rotten thoughts and lies; but she’ll always be beautiful because of the beauty. But you haven’t got any beauty to fall back on, you rotten old hag! You’ve got nothing except your physical fitness! And now you’re going to lose that too!” “You . . . you devil!” she screamed. “Keep quiet,” I said, “and listen to what I’m going to tell you. When you first came here I thought you had something. You were tough, and smart, and strong; and your mind was quick, and you knew how to use your brains. I thought you could go places. You could have gone places. But you let yourself get soft. You let yourself get fat and flabby and soft. The more soft you got, the uglier you got. And then you began to hate men, and you couldn’t stand women. You thought they were getting everything, and you were getting nothing. Well, you’re getting nothing now. They’re taking away your money, and your clothes, and your jewels, and all the things you’ve got. And when they’re done with that, they’re going to take away your life.” “I’ll never talk,” she said. “They can do what they please with me.” “You won’t have to talk,” I said. “In an hour or two you’ll be able to talk with your tongue hanging out of your mouth. And if you don’t talk then, you’ll talk when you’re stretched on the electric chair. And after that you’ll talk in hell for all eternity. You understand? Do you want to hear some more?” “No,” she whispered. “Then shut up.” She opened her mouth as if she wanted to say something else, but she didn’t. She looked at me with those great eyes of hers, and the tears started running down her cheeks, and I turned my head away and went over and sat on the couch. In a few minutes I heard her sobbing, and I kept my eyes shut and waited for her to stop. I didn’t want to watch her. After a while she was still, and then I opened my eyes. She was lying on the floor on her side, and she was looking at me, and her face was wet with tears. “Don’t hate me,” she said. “I know it’s wrong. But I can’t help it. I’m scared.” “Get up,” I said. “You can’t stay there.” +Active character: Socrates, interlocutor +Language: English" "It's the beauty of all the things that are happening in life that makes love so beautiful."""" So you're not ashamed to call it beauty?"" I am. I'm ashamed of everything else, especially this conversation. And I'm disgusted with you and your interlocutor. A little harmony wouldn't have done any harm here. It would have been much better if you had asked Socrates about beauty instead of making him talk about it. The idea of beauty is a reflection of the world of ideas, and this is what he wanted to explain to us. But you threw him off course with your questions. He has just told you that the physical world of our senses is only an imperfect image of the world of ideas. What do you think he meant by that?"""" I thought he meant that the world of ideas was the real world and that we can only get glimpses of it through our senses."" Exactly! You've said it in one sentence what Socrates spent so much time explaining. If it hadn't been for you, he would have finished his argument before now. But don't worry about it, my friend. I'll try to help you."""" Then you understand what he means?"" No; but I know how to guess. In my business, you have to be able to guess. The most important thing in detecting crime is imagination. The second thing is logic. Now let's imagine that we are Socrates and that we have the right to ask him anything we like. We'll start with the easy ones and work up to the hard ones."""" Can't we skip the easy ones?"" No. We mustn't break the rules. Let's begin."""" What did he mean when he spoke about ideas as forms or archetypes?"" I don't know. But I guess he meant the same kind of thing as a blueprint. You know, the drawings that architects make of houses before they build them. They look like pictures, but they're really plans. Do you remember that dream I told you about?"""" Yes, I remember. Go on."" Well, you see, I'm going to tell you something very important. When we dream, we use our imaginations just like architects. Only we don't make plans for houses. We make plans for people. You know why?"" Why?"" Because that's what we are, people. That's what we were made for."""" I don't understand."" Never mind. We'll come back to that later. Just listen to the story I'm going to tell you."""" The story he told me was so vivid that I can still remember every detail of it. It was about a boy who wanted to be a hero and got mixed up with some crooks. At first, they treated him nicely and gave him expensive presents. But then they forced him to steal things for them and beat him if he refused. " 43 43 "Yes, I do. Then, I said, a finer sort of training will be required for our warriorathletes, who are to be like wakeful dogs, and to see and hear withthe utmost keenness; amid the many changes of water and also of food,of summer heat and winter cold, which they will have to endure whenon a campaign, they must not be liable to break down in health. That is my view. The really excellent gymnastic is twin sister of that simple musicwhich we were just now describing. How so? Why, I conceive that there is a gymnastic which, like our music, issimple and good; and especially the military gymnastic. @@ -1076,18 +1114,17 @@ Most true, he said. But when intemperance and disease multiply in a State, halls Of course. And yet what greater proof can there be of a bad and disgraceful stateof education than this, that not only artisans and the meaner sortof people need the skill of first-rate physicians and judges, butalso those who would profess to have had a liberal education? Is itnot disgraceful, and a great sign of want of good-breeding, that aman should have to go abroad for his law and physic because he hasnone of his own at home, and must therefore surrender himself intothe hands of other men whom he makes lords and judges over him? Of all things, he said, the most disgraceful. Would you say 'most,' I replied, when you consider that there is afurther stage of the evil in which a man is not only a life-long litigant,passing all his days in the courts, either as plaintiff or defendant,but is actually led by his bad taste to pride himself on his litigiousness;he imagines that he is a master in dishonesty; able to take everycrooked turn, and wriggle into and out of every hole, bending likea withy and getting out of the way of justice: and all for what? --inorder to gain small points not worth mentioning, he not knowing thatso to order his life as to be able to do without a napping judge isa far higher and nobler sort of thing. Is not that still more disgraceful? Yes, he said, that is still more disgraceful. Well, I said, and to require the help of medicine, not when a woundhas to be cured, or on occasion of an epidemic, but just because,by indolence and a habit of life such as we have been describing,men fill themselves with waters and winds, as if their bodies werea marsh, compelling the ingenious sons of Asclepius to find more namesfor diseases, such as flatulence and catarrh; is not this, too, adisgrace? -Yes, he said, they do certainly give very strange and newfangled namesto diseases." "Summary: The speaker discusses the need for a more intense training regime for warriors, focusing on their physical and mental health. -Narrative arc: Exposition -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Yes, he said, they do certainly give very strange and newfangled namesto diseases." "Summary: The speaker discusses the need for a different type of training for warriors, focusing on simplicity and health. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker, Homer -Quoted work: Homer's works -Time setting: 1950s" "Then there was the slighter man who had taken on the color of a deep-red wine. He was in his early thirties and he was to be found sitting behind a desk with a telephone at his elbow and an automatic at his hip. He spoke in a hard clipped voice that had been known to cut through steel like a diamond, and his eyes were cold and hard and merciless. A year ago I would have said that no man could live and remain whole within such a shell; but I have seen him laugh when the mood came over him, and I know that he has lived for years within that shell and is still alive. No, it wouldn't be too much to say that this is the man who has given us our army of warriors. He is the one who takes the raw material and shapes it to his will. He has made it possible for men to live and work together for a common purpose and obey orders without question. But he did not do it all by himself. It is Homer who furnished him with the raw material. He never goes into the field himself, but he keeps in close touch with everything that happens. The last time I saw him he was lying in the sun by the swimming pool and he looked as if he might have been dead for days except for the bubbles on his lips. He was reading the Iliad aloud to himself, and every now and then he would stop to chuckle or guffaw. I asked him what he thought he was laughing about and he said, 'It's funny, isn't it? Achilles is the best fighter they've got, and he is always getting mad and walking out on the war and sulking. I can't figure out why Agamemnon can't get along without him.'"""" * * * * * * I think we ought to have a more intensive training course,"""" I said. """"We aren't winning because we aren't organized. We aren't organized because we don't have enough leaders who can handle men. And we don't have those kind of leaders because we haven't trained them for the job. The way I see it, the first thing we need is a physical-training program. I don't mean aerobics. I'm talking about real physical strength. You've seen these guys you brought back from the field. They're tired all the time, and their muscles are soft and flabby. And some of them look as if they're half-starved."""" That's right,"" Willis said. ""They eat the same stuff we eat, but they don't seem to put on any weight."""" They don't need to,"" I said. ""I'll bet they can go seventy-two hours without food and still have enough strength to knock off two or three soldiers. Now how many of us could do that?"""" Well, let's face it,"" Willis said. ""We're not soldiers. We've got to draw the line somewhere. " +Active character: The speaker and the person being addressed +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "What they need is a different kind of training. A cold, grim, unemotional training that will teach them how to hit hard and fast and keep on hitting until the enemy has had enough."""" He turned back and leaned his elbows on the bar, watching me with hooded eyes. I got a drink and stood there for a while in silence. There was something about him that made you feel uncomfortable. It wasn't just the harshness of his voice or the hard lines of his face. It was something else. Something that showed through all the time: a kind of inner darkness that you felt like an animal would feel if it were caught up in a lot of bright lights. The guy had been born under an evil star, and he didn't have any use for the world he lived in. Finally I said, """"Listen, pal, if you think I'm going to take your crap and stand here listening to it, you've got another guess coming."""" That's right,"" he said, ""you stand there and listen. You're going to get a lot more before I'm finished talking."""" He jerked his head toward the door. """"Get out of here. Go on. Beat it."""" I took a step forward. And that's when I found out what the other thing was that I had sensed about him. The guy was built like a brick shithouse, and he looked like he could take a punch as well as dish one out. But he had one little trick that made the difference. Maybe you've seen it in the movies. When he stood there looking at you with those yellow eyes, his mouth seemed to twist up at the corners into a kind of grin, and the skin around his neck tightened up until it looked like taut rubber. I stopped moving. I didn't know why. It was as if some invisible force had reached out and held me by the throat. His hand came up off the bar and pointed at me. Then he opened his mouth, and suddenly I saw why I hadn't moved. Because he wasn't grinning any more. The muscles around his neck had gone tight again, and the black eyes were staring at me like two holes in a skull. And then I saw why he had been so angry about the beer. He'd been afraid it might happen. And he was still afraid. As long as he kept himself in hand, he was okay. But let anything start to happen and he knew he couldn't handle it. So he was scared stiff of getting mad. He didn't want to hurt anybody; he just wanted to be left alone. I took another step backward and started for the door. I don't want to talk to guys like you no more,"" he said after me. I didn't answer. I just walked out and closed the door behind me. I went down the street, turning my head from side to side, watching the buildings as I passed them, listening to the sounds of traffic, trying to shake off the feeling of unreality that clung to me like a vapor. " 44 44 "Yes, I said, and I do not believe that there were any such diseasesin the days of Asclepius; and this I infer from the circumstance thatthe hero Eurypylus, after he has been wounded in Homer, drinks a possetof Pramnian wine well besprinkled with barley-meal and grated cheese,which are certainly inflammatory, and yet the sons of Asclepius whowere at the Trojan war do not blame the damsel who gives him the drink,or rebuke Patroclus, who is treating his case. Well, he said, that was surely an extraordinary drink to be givento a person in his condition. Not so extraordinary, I replied, if you bear in mind that in formerdays, as is commonly said, before the time of Herodicus, the guildof Asclepius did not practise our present system of medicine, whichmay be said to educate diseases. But Herodicus, being a trainer, andhimself of a sickly constitution, by a combination of training anddoctoring found out a way of torturing first and chiefly himself,and secondly the rest of the world. @@ -1100,16 +1137,19 @@ Quite true, he said. But with the rich man this is otherwise; of him we do not s He is generally supposed to have nothing to do. Then you never heard of the saying of Phocylides, that as soon asa man has a livelihood he should practise virtue? Nay, he said, I think that he had better begin somewhat sooner. Let us not have a dispute with him about this, I said; but ratherask ourselves: Is the practice of virtue obligatory on the rich man,or can he live without it? And if obligatory on him, then let us raisea further question, whether this dieting of disorders which is animpediment to the application of the mind t in carpentering and themechanical arts, does not equally stand in the way of the sentimentof Phocylides? -Of that, he replied, there can be no doubt; such excessive care ofthe body, when carried beyond the rules of gymnastic, is most inimicalto the practice of virtue." "Summary: The text discusses the practice of medicine and its impact on individuals' lives. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Of that, he replied, there can be no doubt; such excessive care ofthe body, when carried beyond the rules of gymnastic, is most inimicalto the practice of virtue." "Summary: The text discusses the practice of medicine and its impact on the lives of both rich and poor individuals. +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation -Active character: Asclepius, Eurypylus, Patroclus, Herodicus -Quoted work: Homer's Iliad, Phocylides' poem -Time setting: 1950s" "At last I said: """"I don't know whether you've noticed it or not, but you talk about medicine as though it were a conspiracy against the human race."""" He smiled. """"I do, don't I?"""" he said. """"I suppose it's because it is."""" Oh?"" I said. ""How so?"" Well,"" he said, ""in a sense, yes; in another sense, no."" How so?"" I said. He held up his hand. """"Wait a minute,"""" he said, """"and I'll tell you an old story."""" The old story,"" I said. ""It was a long time ago. And I didn't really like it much."""" You're right,"" he said, ""it was a long time ago; and that may have had something to do with it. But it's not just a myth, you know, or even only a fable. It actually happened, just the way Homer tells it."""" Oh?"" I said. ""Then what was it?"" It was the story of Asclepius,"" he said, ""the god of medicine."""" Oh,"" I said. ""And what happened to him?"" Just this,"" he said. ""The other gods got tired of having people live forever, so they killed him for giving them the secret of immortality. Isn't that the story?"""" Yes,"" I said. ""That's the story."" Well,"" he said, ""there isn't any God of Medicine now. There's only the doctors."""" Yes,"" I said, ""that's true enough."" And that's why we take such a low view of life,"" he said. ""We practice our profession on dead people. We get our training by killing animals. And when we're finished, we retire from active practice and become professors, where we can go on teaching students how to kill people for the rest of their lives."""" That's pretty harsh, all right,"" I said. ""But then, it isn't altogether true either, is it?"""" Not at all,"" he said. ""But it's a good idea to think it is."""" Why?"" I said. ""Why would you want to make yourself believe that?"" Because,"" he said, ""you'd be crazy if you didn't."" A few days later, after I'd been back in the States awhile, I ran across a book on medicine by somebody named Eurypylus. It seemed to me that it might be the same person who was driving the ambulance over there in Europe, so I opened it up and started reading. Sure enough, it was the same guy. And since I had nothing else to do, I read the book straight through. In the back of it there was a poem by Phocylides. It began like this: If Patroclus were alive today, They'd probably cut off his head; For they say a doctor once applied Some skillful leechcraft to his wound, And lo! Patroclus rose again. " +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: Asclepius, Herodicus, Phocylides +Quoted work: Homer's Iliad +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" Medicine is a charlatan’s trade, and you know it. The rich man swallows our drugs because he has money to waste; the poor man swallows them because we force him to in order to keep him alive. Asclepius, what are all our drugs but poisons? In small quantities some of them are beneficial; in larger they become deadly. Even that poison which we call bread—how many millions of men have been killed by it! If one studies the history of medicine over the centuries, the progress of healing art becomes absurd. At the beginning of every century doctors invent new names for old diseases. There is no disease which Man does not have at his command, no poison he cannot make, and yet there is no cure for death.” Herodicus was silent. “I do not blame you, brother,” continued Phocylides. “You are only a slave, like all the rest of us. You were born a slave of your body, and so you will die a slave. But I am free. I have chosen freedom, and though I may be crucified for my freedom, I shall never renounce it. No man can force me to live or to die.” He turned to Asclepius. “Why did you come here?” “To ask for your help,” answered the younger man. “What kind of help?” “A friend of mine is ill.” “Is he a rich friend?” “Yes.” “Then he will get well without my help.” “And if he is not rich?” “He will die.” “But suppose he is my friend too?” “Then he will get well.” “My friend, you are an honest fool. Be content with treating the sick who are under your patron’s protection. Leave the rest alone. It is useless to waste pity on those whom you cannot help. Your pity will only make their suffering more bitter. They will hate you for it.” “I think not.” “They will—and they should. Hate is the only feeling that makes life endurable. Love is good enough for women, but for men there must be hate.” “Perhaps,” said Asclepius. “Now tell me about this friend of yours. What is his illness?” “I do not quite know. He has suffered from headache for several days.” “Headache!” exclaimed Phocylides. “How long has he had it?” “Since last night.” “Has he vomited?” “Yes.” “Has he a fever?” “No.” “Well, then, let him drink cold water. That will cure him.” “Does he need any drugs?” “He needs nothing. Headache is always caused by indigestion. If he vomits and has no fever, he is all right.” “Thank you, brother,” said Asclepius. “But I think I will bring him to see you anyway.” “Why?” “Because he is a prince, and I want to please him.” Phocylides laughed. “Princes are very common in Egypt nowadays,” he said. 45 45 "Yes, indeed, I replied, and equally incompatible with the managementof a house, an army, or an office of state; and, what is most importantof all, irreconcilable with any kind of study or thought or self-reflection--there is a constant suspicion that headache and giddiness are tobe ascribed to philosophy, and hence all practising or making trialof virtue in the higher sense is absolutely stopped; for a man isalways fancying that he is being made ill, and is in constant anxietyabout the state of his body. Yes, likely enough. And therefore our politic Asclepius may be supposed to have exhibitedthe power of his art only to persons who, being generally of healthyconstitution and habits of life, had a definite ailment; such as thesehe cured by purges and operations, and bade them live as usual, hereinconsulting the interests of the State; but bodies which disease hadpenetrated through and through he would not have attempted to cureby gradual processes of evacuation and infusion: he did not want tolengthen out good-for-nothing lives, or to have weak fathers begettingweaker sons; --if a man was not able to live in the ordinary way hehad no business to cure him; for such a cure would have been of nouse either to himself, or to the State. Then, he said, you regard Asclepius as a statesman. Clearly; and his character is further illustrated by his sons. Notethat they were heroes in the days of old and practised the medicinesof which I am speaking at the siege of Troy: You will remember how,when Pandarus wounded Menelaus, they @@ -1118,17 +1158,17 @@ They were very acute persons, those sons of Asclepius. Naturally so, I replied. All that, Socrates, is excellent; but I should like to put a questionto you: Ought there not to be good physicians in a State, and arenot the best those who have treated the greatest number of constitutionsgood and bad? and are not the best judges in like manner those whoare acquainted with all sorts of moral natures? Yes, I said, I too would have good judges and good physicians. Butdo you know whom I think good? Will you tell me? I will, if I can. Let me however note that in the same question youjoin two things which are not the same. -How so? he asked. Why, I said, you join physicians and judges. Now the most skilfulphysicians are those who, from their youth upwards, have combinedwith the knowledge of their art the greatest experience of disease;they had better not be robust in health, and should have had all mannerof diseases in their own persons. For the body, as I conceive, isnot the instrument with which they cure the body; in that case wecould not allow them ever to be or to have been sickly; but they curethe body with the mind, and the mind which has become and is sickcan cure nothing." "Summary: The speaker discusses the incompatibility of philosophy with managing a house, an army, or an office. They also criticize doctors who treat unhealthy and intemperate patients. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +How so? he asked. Why, I said, you join physicians and judges. Now the most skilfulphysicians are those who, from their youth upwards, have combinedwith the knowledge of their art the greatest experience of disease;they had better not be robust in health, and should have had all mannerof diseases in their own persons. For the body, as I conceive, isnot the instrument with which they cure the body; in that case wecould not allow them ever to be or to have been sickly; but they curethe body with the mind, and the mind which has become and is sickcan cure nothing." "Summary: The text discusses the incompatibility of philosophy with managing a house, an army, or an office, and questions whether doctors should treat unhealthy and intemperate patients. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, interlocutor -Quoted work: Tragedies, Pindar's poetry -Time setting: 1950s" 'Well, that's all I want to say. I don't have to go on with this bloody nonsense. There are other things to do in the world, you know.' 'You mean philosophy?' said Socrates, and laughed at his joke. 'No,' replied his companion shortly, 'I meant managing a house, an army or an office. Philosophy is just a game for idle men who haven't enough sense to amuse themselves in any better way. There's no good in it: it doesn't help you to get what you want.' 'Yes, but perhaps it helps you not to want what you can't get?' 'That's just a lot of humbug. You don't need philosophy to teach you that. If you're rich and comfortable you won't want anything else, so you won't mind being left alone with your wealth; and if you're miserable you'll be willing to do anything that promises to ease your sufferings. But when you're reasonably well off and comfortable philosophy becomes a bore. It starts putting questions into your head which you can't answer, and leads you to wonder whether there is any good in doing anything at all. Then you begin to wish you had never heard of Plato and Aristotle and all those other fools who wasted their time writing tragedies and playing at philosophy. Their books were all right as long as they remained works of art: I enjoyed them because they were beautiful. But when people try to live by them and take them seriously they become horrible. They kill their children and one another.' 'Perhaps you mean only the doctors who believe in treating unhealthy and intemperate patients?' said the interlocutor. 'Oh no, I'm talking about the patients as well as the doctors. They're both equally mad.' 'But you yourself treat cases of asthma.' 'Yes, I do; but I don't believe in it. I think it's a damned nuisance and I tell my patients so. And I tell them that if they take any exercise they'll soon be rid of it. In fact I tell them everything except how to keep out of my surgery.' The conversation had now turned from philosophy to medicine, and Socrates was making every effort to bring it back again. He kept glancing towards the door, wondering whether he could safely escape without appearing rude. He was afraid of giving offence to his host who seemed, judging from what he had said, to be a man of strong passions. Fortunately his friend did not repeat his criticism of philosophy. Perhaps he guessed that Socrates was longing to escape and refrained from provoking him into a further display of irony. After half an hour of lively conversation Socrates rose to go. He had got to catch the last train at Melton Constable. 'Well, good-bye,' said his host, shaking hands with him warmly. 'Come and see me again some day.' Socrates thanked him for the invitation and promised that he would certainly do so. +Active character: Socrates, Asclepius +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" """""Philosophy is fine,"""" said Socrates, """"but it doesn't pay the butcher's bill. If you want to get the best out of philosophy, you must have leisure to practice it, and leisure implies wealth; and there are two ways of getting wealth: one is to inherit it, the other is to earn it. I chose the latter course, and that landed me in your job."""" Well, don't do it again."" And yet here we are. Who says man cannot learn from his mistakes? You're a doctor, aren't you?"""" Yes."" Then you know that there's no sense treating an unhealthy patient unless he promises to mend his ways? Or if he does mend them, how can you expect to cure him quickly when he goes on feeding himself with drugs, alcohol, and junk food?"""" Dr. Crane made a wry face. But suppose he refuses to give up his vices?"" Then you've got to refuse to treat him until he does."" You'd better not tell the police that,"" said Asclepius. They'll put you down as a quack. You don't need to be a doctor to know that most cops are intemperate, unhealthy, and willfully ignorant. Now, if they promise to reform, and you know they won't keep their promise, what then?"""" How would I know whether or not they'll keep it?"" Ah! There's your whole trouble. The art of detecting crime depends upon knowing people. Most men who commit crimes are crooks by nature. They can't help it. It's just as hard for a crook to be honest as it is for a dog to walk erect on its hind legs. So what's the use of punishing them?"""" Hush!"" said Dr. Crane, suddenly. He pointed to a corner where two dirty-looking men were whispering together. The taller of them was gazing at the desk with a covetous eye. Come along,"" said Asclepius. ""I'm getting tired of this place. Let's go eat dinner somewhere."""" Oh, you're hungry already?"" said Dr. Crane. Not for food,"" said Asclepius. ""For blood. I'm tired of talking about murder, and I've a good mind to try some myself."""" XI. THE REWARD OF VENGEANCE A man who lives by his wits has a hard time of it. He is neither respectable enough to be trusted with money nor dishonest enough to steal it. In order to eat, he must either sell something or borrow it from someone else. When he sells his services, no one believes he has anything to sell except his tongue, which he is apt to lose if he opens it too freely. And if he borrows money, he usually has to repay it with interest, or else forfeit the loan and his life as well. For these reasons, a man who lives by his wits is forced to resort to any number of ruses in order to acquire food and shelter. " 46 46 "That is very true, he said. But with the judge it is otherwise; since he governs mind by mind;he ought not therefore to have been trained among vicious minds, andto have associated with them from youth upwards, and to have gonethrough the whole calendar of crime, only in order that he may quicklyinfer the crimes of others as he might their bodily diseases fromhis own self-consciousness; the honourable mind which is to form ahealthy judgment should have had no experience or contamination ofevil habits when young. And this is the reason why in youth good menoften appear to be simple, and are easily practised upon by the dishonest,because they have no examples of what evil is in their own souls. Yes, he said, they are far too apt to be deceived. Therefore, I said, the judge should not be young; he should have learnedto know evil, not from his own soul, but from late and long observationof the nature of evil in others: knowledge should be his guide, notpersonal experience. Yes, he said, that is the ideal of a judge. Yes, I replied, and he will be a good man (which is my answer to yourquestion); for he is good who has a good soul. But the cunning andsuspicious nature of which we spoke, --he who has committed many crimes,and fancies himself to be a master in wickedness, when he is amongsthis fellows, is wonderful in the precautions which he takes, becausehe judges of them by himself: but when he gets into the company ofmen of virtue, who have the experience of age, he appears to be afool again, owing to his unseasonable suspicions; he cannot recognisean honest man, because he has no pattern of honesty in himself; atthe same time, as the bad are more numerous than the good, and hemeets with them oftener, he thinks himself, and is by others thoughtto be, rather wise than foolish. @@ -1146,14 +1186,17 @@ Yes, he said, I am quite aware that the mere athlete becomes too muchof a savage Yet surely, I said, this ferocity only comes from spirit, which, ifrightly educated, would give courage, but, if too much intensified,is liable to become hard and brutal. That I quite think. On the other hand the philosopher will have the quality of gentleness.And this also, when too much indulged, will turn to softness, but,if educated rightly, will be gentle and moderate. True. And in our opinion the guardians ought to have both these qualities? -Assuredly. And both should be in harmony? Beyond question. And the harmonious soul is both temperate and courageous?" "Summary: The text discusses the characteristics of a good judge and how they differ from a cunning and suspicious nature. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Assuredly. And both should be in harmony? Beyond question. And the harmonious soul is both temperate and courageous?" "Summary: The text discusses the characteristics of a good judge and how education can influence their decisions. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Judge, interlocutor" "Wie ein guter Richter herausfinden mu, ob der Schauspieler den Part des Zauberknners glcklich darstellt oder nicht. Ein solcher Mann ist kein Verwalter fr mich. Er ist ein Mann wie ich: stark und gndig. Der Stiefelknopf wird er mir wieder an die rechte Stelle setzen. Und jetzt komm! Ich habe keine Lust mehr, so in der Hhle zu hocken."""" 3. Kapitel Jeder leidliche Mensch hat das Gefhl, da ihn die Natur von allen andern Menschen unterscheidet; aber es gibt nur wenige, denen diese Vorzge auch noch achtbar sind. Es gibt viele, die sich ber ihren Geschmack lustig machen und andere im Geschft leiten lassen, die ihnen diesen Vorzug absprechen. So ist es mit dem Misstrauen. Manche Leute sind ganz auf diesen Vorzug stolz und wollen nichts tun, wenn sie nicht davon berzeugt sind, da es richtig sei; sie sind unglaublich vorsichtig und vertrauen niemandem etwas an. Solche Leute haben eine schne Eigenschaft, denn sie sind oft die besten Freunde, weil sie nie jemanden belgen oder betrugen mchten. Allein sie sind auch oft recht widerwrtig, weil sie niemandem traut, weder gute noch bse Absichten zu, und also zum besten oder zum schlechtesten gehn. Das merkt man ihnen wohl ans Gesicht an, besonders wenn sie bei ihrer Arbeit sind. Ein solcher vertrauensloser Kopf sieht aus, als ob er schon immer darauf wartete, einen Betrger oder Lgner zu treffen. Die Welt hat diese Art Leute """"Knochen"""" genannt und gefreut sich ber ihre Spitzfindigkeit. Aber wer Knochen ist, der ist Knochen, und wer sonst ist, der ist doch nicht Knochen. Nun, ich bin aber nicht Knochen. Ich vertraue meinen eigenen Gedanken viel eher, als jemand anderen, was mir bequem ist, und wenn jemand nicht gerade so arbeitet, wie ich es gerne sehe, so frage ich ihn, warum er's nicht besser macht. Wer gegen mich sein Bestes tut, der kann mir vertrauen, und ich werde ihm vertrauen. Ich kenne meine Geschftigkeit und will keinerlei Kunststcke vorstellen, denn das ist ein Zeichen schwachen Verstandes. Wenn ich irgendeine Sache nicht verstehe, so sage ich's offen, und wenn ich sie verstehe, so tue ich sie, so gut ich kann, und wenn ich sie falsch mache, so sage ich auch gleich, da ich sie falsch mache. Alle Leute, die so sind, sind jederzeit gesetzt und beliebt, denn sie geben keinen Anla zu Missverstndnis und finden sich immer wieder mit allen Leuten gut, weil sie immer gelassen bleiben. Die Leute, die es anders machen, mssen eben nach und nach den Verdacht abbauen, wenn sie einmal verdchtig geworden sind. Und das sind nun die Leute, die ich nicht mag und die ich vor allen Leuten hasse, die in meiner Nhe sind. Denn diese nehmen mich um mein Geld und nehmen alles weg, was ich besitze. Diese sind mir eine Last und eine Brgung. Ich meine die Schelmereien, die sich hinter kleinen Vertraulichkeiten verbergen, die Heimlichkeit und Unaufrichtigkeit. " +Active character: Judge, narrator +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "The real judge has got to be one of the most difficult characters on earth. He's got to have everything: he's got to have knowledge, power, courage, and pity; he's got to be a man of vision with a sense of humor; he's got to know life inside out, and yet keep his head. You've got to be able to pick up the scale when it weighs less than a feather and turn it over when it weighs a ton. You've got to understand the law without being a lawyer, you've got to understand human nature without being a psychologist, and you've got to have an iron will and a leather hide."""" But what sort of education does he need?"" I asked. Well,"" said the Judge, ""he needs all sorts of education but especially two sorts. He needs a good legal education, so that he knows the law and can use it. He also needs a good common-sense education, which means that he should know something about every subject under the sun and every phase of human experience. That's why it takes such a long time to make a good judge; you never know when you're through learning. Education,"""" he continued, """"is like the oil in the machinery of life. You can't do without it anywhere and you can't get along with too much of it. It keeps the machine going smoothly, gives it efficiency, and makes it work better. " 47 47 "Yes. And the inharmonious is cowardly and boorish? Very true. And, when a man allows music to play upon him and to pour into hissoul through the funnel of his ears those sweet and soft and melancholyairs of which we were just now speaking, and his whole life is passedin warbling and the delights of song; in the first stage of the processthe passion or spirit which is in him is tempered like iron, and madeuseful, instead of brittle and useless. But, if he carries on thesoftening and soothing process, in the next stage he begins to meltand waste, until he has wasted away his spirit and cut out the sinewsof his soul; and he becomes a feeble warrior. Very true. If the element of spirit is naturally weak in him the change is speedilyaccomplished, but if he have a good deal, then the power of musicweakening the spirit renders him excitable; --on the least provocationhe flames up at once, and is speedily extinguished; instead of havingspirit he grows irritable and passionate and is quite impracticable. Exactly. And so in gymnastics, if a man takes violent exercise and is a greatfeeder, and the reverse of a great student of music and philosophy,at first the high condition of his body fills him with pride and spirit,and lie becomes twice the man that he was. @@ -1170,13 +1213,14 @@ Yes. And as we are to have the best of guardians for our city, must theynot be t Yes. And to this end they ought to be wise and efficient, and to have aspecial care of the State? True. And a man will be most likely to care about that which he loves? To be sure. And he will be most likely to love that which he regards as havingthe same interests with himself, and that of which the good or evilfortune is supposed by him at any time most to affect his own?" "Summary: The text discusses the effects of music and philosophy on the human soul and their role in governing a city-state. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue -Active character: Socrates, other speaker(s" "You know that the soul is a harmony, and that there is no other way of which we have knowledge whereby the elements can be bound together except by harmony? You also admit that the influence of music is a divine gift? Then surely you must admit that philosophy or music is the only thing which can govern a state. They are the only things which can bind together the iron and brass and the other metals which make up a state. And surely there is nothing which cannot be governed by philosophy and music except the creatures who live in the sea, and perhaps a few of the wild beasts. But you will find, if you reflect, that even most of these are tamed by music; for look at birds, how easily they are caught when you play on the flute. Now I think that we may fairly say that music and philosophy will suffice for the government of cities and men. 10 So Socrates tells us, but he is not always right in everything that he says."" A harsh laugh greeted this remark from several of the company. But one of them said to the speaker: """"I am afraid that you are going to get into trouble."""" No,"" replied the other, ""I am not afraid of Socrates, because I do not believe anything that he says."""" He's right,"" said another, ""for he has never yet told the truth about anything."" " +Active character: Socrates, other speaker(s +Language: English" He's the man to do it too. He'd cut up a corpse with a spoon if he had to.' 'No, no,' said Socrates, 'that won't do; music and philosophy must govern the state. The philosopher kings can't be expected to do everything.' 'And what will they be doing?' I asked. 'Keeping their eyes open,' said Alcibiades, 'and spying on everybody else. They'll have to keep a sharp look-out for any one who is fit to rule, and when they find him they'll kill him.' Socrates laughed. 'You're not in earnest?' he said. 'Of course I am,' said Alcibiades. 'If you don't believe me, ask Diogenes of Sinope how many philosophers he's seen killed lately. He'll tell you there's only been one, and he did it himself.' 'I see,' said Socrates; 'you take us literally. But that would be playing into your hands. If we really took ourselves as seriously as you mean, we should soon be fighting among ourselves, and then we could be disposed of in half an hour.' 'I like that,' said Alcibiades. 'What do you think I'm here for?' 'To dance,' said Socrates; 'to show off your body in its glory, and to prove that you can drink more than any other man living. You've got nothing else to offer us.' 'What!' cried Alcibiades, 'are you going to insult me before these gentlemen?' 'It's all right,' said Socrates; 'I knew you were sensitive about it. And now let's go to bed. I want to get up early to-morrow morning and watch the sunrise. Come on.' Alcibiades sat down heavily. 'I don't know what to say,' he said. 'Either you are a very dangerous man, or you are mad.' 'I'm neither,' said Socrates. 'The truth is, I don't understand Greek tragedy at all.' * * * * * There was a great stir outside the door. Alcibiades opened it and looked out. Then he shut it again quickly. 'Come in,' he shouted, 'we're alone.' It was the woman who had been sitting next to Agathon. She stood in the middle of the room, looking from one to the other with a wicked smile. Alcibiades burst out laughing. 'Now you're going to get the works,' he said. 'But mind you behave yourselves. This lady is a professional. You've got to pay her a good price for what she does.' 'Oh, leave them to me,' she said. 'I know just the sort of thing to give them.' 'Go ahead,' said Alcibiades, 'but remember you're on my premises, so don't make too much noise. I don't want to get into trouble with the police.' 'There's a policeman round the corner,' said the woman. 'I saw him when I came in.' 'Well, suppose he comes in,' said Alcibiades, 'what difference does that make? 48 48 "Very true, he replied. Then there must be a selection. Let us note among the guardians thosewho in their whole life show the greatest eagerness to do what isfor the good of their country, and the greatest repugnance to do whatis against her interests. Those are the right men. And they will have to be watched at every age, in order that we maysee whether they preserve their resolution, and never, under the influenceeither of force or enchantment, forget or cast off their sense ofduty to the State. How cast off? he said. I will explain to you, I replied. A resolution may go out of a man'smind either with his will or against his will; with his will whenhe gets rid of a falsehood and learns better, against his will wheneverhe is deprived of a truth. @@ -1190,18 +1234,19 @@ I understand, he said, and you are quite right. And you would also acknowledge t Yes, he said; everything that deceives may be said to enchant. Therefore, as I was just now saying, we must enquire who are the bestguardians of their own conviction that what they think the interestof the State is to be the rule of their lives. We must watch themfrom their youth upwards, and make them perform actions in which theyare most likely to forget or to be deceived, and he who remembersand is not deceived is to be selected, and he who falls in the trialis to be rejected. That will be the way? Yes. And there should also be toils and pains and conflicts prescribedfor them, in which they will be made to give further proof of thesame qualities. -Very right, he replied. And then, I said, we must try them with enchantments that is the thirdsort of test --and see what will be their behaviour: like those whotake colts amid noise and tumult to see if they are of a timid nature,so must we take our youth amid terrors of some kind, and again passthem into pleasures, and prove them more thoroughly than gold is provedin the furnace, that we may discover whether they are armed againstall enchantments, and of a noble bearing always, good guardians ofthemselves and of the music which they have learned, and retainingunder all circumstances a rhythmical and harmonious nature, such aswill be most serviceable to the individual and to the State. And hewho at every age, as boy and youth and in mature life, has come outof the trial victorious and pure, shall be appointed a ruler and guardianof the State; he shall be honoured in life and death, and shall receivesepulture and other memorials of honour, the greatest that we haveto give. But him who fails, we must reject. I am inclined to thinkthat this is the sort of way in which our rulers and guardians shouldbe chosen and appointed. I speak generally, and not with any pretensionto exactness." "Summary: The text discusses the selection and training of guardians for a state, emphasizing the importance of virtue and moral character. -Trope: Moral education, ideal society -Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Very right, he replied. And then, I said, we must try them with enchantments that is the thirdsort of test --and see what will be their behaviour: like those whotake colts amid noise and tumult to see if they are of a timid nature,so must we take our youth amid terrors of some kind, and again passthem into pleasures, and prove them more thoroughly than gold is provedin the furnace, that we may discover whether they are armed againstall enchantments, and of a noble bearing always, good guardians ofthemselves and of the music which they have learned, and retainingunder all circumstances a rhythmical and harmonious nature, such aswill be most serviceable to the individual and to the State. And hewho at every age, as boy and youth and in mature life, has come outof the trial victorious and pure, shall be appointed a ruler and guardianof the State; he shall be honoured in life and death, and shall receivesepulture and other memorials of honour, the greatest that we haveto give. But him who fails, we must reject. I am inclined to thinkthat this is the sort of way in which our rulers and guardians shouldbe chosen and appointed. I speak generally, and not with any pretensionto exactness." "Summary: The text discusses the selection process for guardians who are loyal and dedicated to their country. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical argument +Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, interlocutor -Time setting: 1950s" "Then he said: 'And now, you young fellow, tell us how a State is rightly constituted. Is it by the selection of the men who are naturally fitted to rule, or by the power of friends and relatives, or by lot, or by some other method? ' I answered that it was not until the State had been constituted that these things were discussed; but that before any of them could be determined, there must be a State in existence. 'Excellent,' he said. And yet, my dear Glaucon, even the State exists first, and afterwards the individual; the whole is prior to the part.' 'By Zeus, he said, and so I believe, though in fact we are speaking after their manner.' 'You mean,' I said, 'that before the parts can have any life of themselves they must have a living creature to which they belong; this is true.' 'Certainly,' he replied; 'but what life will they receive from the body when this is imperfectly organized?' 'Why, do you think that sight or hearing would be as good in a defective body?' said I. 'Impossible,' said he. 'Well, then,' I said, 'in like manner, I said, if the State is imperfect, and has not the care of the weakest sort of natures, all the powers of the best sort of natures, however great, will be impaired.' 'Why so?' 'Why, because they will fall under the influence of vicious governments, of demagogues, claps in irons, and death, and will pass a life full of danger and harmness for want of that nature which is the natural safeguard of man, namely justice. 'But let us not be over-nice,' I said; 'for perhaps people will say that such a situation is impossible.' 'What then would be the way in which the State may be imperfect? Would not the want of some element or other in the soul of the individual be generally the cause?' 'Yes.' 'Well, let us see whether this be true.' 'Say, Socrates,' he replied, 'do you know what I am going to ask, although it is not easy to make clear? ' What you are about to ask,"" I said, ""will be clearly enough understood if I answer your questions with the assistance of the God of Love; and therefore I must pray Him to be gracious unto me.' 'He will, no doubt, be gracious,' said Polemarchus, 'if you ask judiciously.' 'And thus I proceed,' I said; 'assuming, as it were, that we were painting a face, and that we began by drawing the eyebrows, now, instead of black and red, we will suppose that we used white and purple, and that we made the eyes blue instead of the black brown which Nature ordains; and let us further suppose that we made the nostrils somewhat curved instead of straight; and in order that coppery hair may appear, we will set a golden crown upon the head; " +Time setting: 1950s + +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" The fact that Socrates is your name doesn’t prove you’re a philosopher. You don’t look like one.” “You don’t know my work.” “What kind of work do you do?” “I’m an expert in the art of love.” “I can see that. The way you were looking at me. But you’d better be careful, because right now we’ve got more important things to worry about than the art of love. We want to find someone who’ll be loyal and dedicated to his country no matter what happens. So before we select you as a guardian we’re going to ask you a few questions. If you answer them correctly we’ll take you along with us; if not, we’ll put you out of your misery.” He grinned again, and this time I saw that he had very good teeth. “Don’t make any mistake,” he said. “This is strictly business. I don’t give a damn about loyalty and dedication to my country. All I care about is getting into the gang of wise guys who are running this show. Now start answering those questions.” “We’ll begin with the easiest one. Can you count up to five?” “Of course I can.” “Then let’s see how fast you can do it.” He counted up to five, then looked at me. “Is that satisfactory?” he asked. “No,” I said. “Let’s try it again, but this time count to ten.” “Can’t I go any higher than that?” “Not this time. And keep your voice down. They’re trying to sleep.” He counted up to ten, slowly and distinctly, and then waited for my next order. “Now I want you to repeat after me: ‘I will always tell the truth, even when it hurts me.’” “That’s too long,” he said. “Make it shorter.” “‘I will always tell the truth,’ then. That’s enough.” “It’s all right with me, but you’ll have to make them understand.” “Understand what?” “That they’re asking you to become one of them, and they’ve got to promise you the same thing. It isn’t fair otherwise.” “All right, I’ll tell them. Now listen carefully. Count up to ten again, and this time say it after me. ‘I will always tell the truth, even when it hurts me.’” He did as I told him, and when he was finished I nodded to the others. Then I turned on the light and got up from my chair. “Now we’ll see what you can do,” I said. “Get up and walk across the room to that door over there. Stand in front of it, close your eyes, and count to fifty.” He walked across the room, stood in front of the door, closed his eyes, and started counting. After he reached twenty I gave Jurgis the signal to open the door, and he slipped out into the hall. When I counted to thirty I went over to the window and drew the curtains. 49 49 "And, speaking generally, I agree with you, he said. And perhaps the word 'guardian' in the fullest sense ought to be appliedto this higher class only who preserve us against foreign enemiesand maintain peace among our citizens at home, that the one may nothave the will, or the others the power, to harm us. The young menwhom we before called guardians may be more properly designated auxiliariesand supporters of the principles of the rulers. I agree with you, he said. How then may we devise one of those needful falsehoods of which welately spoke --just one royal lie which may deceive the rulers, ifthat be possible, and at any rate the rest of the city? What sort of lie? he said. Nothing new, I replied; only an old Phoenician tale of what has oftenoccurred before now in other places, (as the poets say, and have madethe world believe,) though not in our time, and I do not know whethersuch an event could ever happen again, or could now even be made probable,if it did. @@ -1210,17 +1255,19 @@ Speak, he said, and fear not. Well then, I will speak, although I really know no You had good reason, he said, to be ashamed of the lie which you weregoing to tell. True, I replied, but there is more coming; I have only told you half.Citizens, we shall say to them in our tale, you are brothers, yetGod has framed you differently. Some of you have the power of command,and in the composition of these he has mingled gold, wherefore alsothey have the greatest honour; others he has made of silver, to beauxillaries; others again who are to be husbandmen and craftsmen hehas composed of brass and iron; and the species will generally bepreserved in the children. But as all are of the same original stock,a golden parent will sometimes have a silver son, or a silver parenta golden son. And God proclaims as a first principle to the rulers,and above all else, that there is nothing which should so anxiouslyguard, or of which they are to be such good guardians, as of the purityof the race. They should observe what elements mingle in their offspring; for if the son of a golden or silver parent has an admixtureof brass and iron, then nature orders a transposition of ranks, andthe eye of the ruler must not be pitiful towards the child becausehe has to descend in the scale and become a husbandman or artisan,just as there may be sons of artisans who having an admixture of goldor silver in them are raised to honour, and become guardians or auxiliaries.For an oracle says that when a man of brass or iron guards the State,it will be destroyed. Such is the tale; is there any possibility ofmaking our citizens believe in it? Not in the present generation, he replied; there is no way of accomplishingthis; but their sons may be made to believe in the tale, and theirsons' sons, and posterity after them. -I see the difficulty, I replied; yet the fostering of such a beliefwill make them care more for the city and for one another. Enough,however, of the fiction, which may now fly abroad upon the wings ofrumour, while we arm our earth-born heroes, and lead them forth underthe command of their rulers. Let them look round and select a spotwhence they can best suppress insurrection, if any prove refractorywithin, and also defend themselves against enemies, who like wolvesmay come down on the fold from without; there let them encamp, andwhen they have encamped, let them sacrifice to the proper Gods andprepare their dwellings." "Summary: The speaker proposes a lie to the rulers in order to maintain peace and unity in the city. +I see the difficulty, I replied; yet the fostering of such a beliefwill make them care more for the city and for one another. Enough,however, of the fiction, which may now fly abroad upon the wings ofrumour, while we arm our earth-born heroes, and lead them forth underthe command of their rulers. Let them look round and select a spotwhence they can best suppress insurrection, if any prove refractorywithin, and also defend themselves against enemies, who like wolvesmay come down on the fold from without; there let them encamp, andwhen they have encamped, let them sacrifice to the proper Gods andprepare their dwellings." "Summary: The speaker proposes a lie to be told to the rulers and citizens in order to maintain peace and harmony in the city. +Trope: Organized crime Narrative arc: Exposition -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Speech +Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: The speaker, the person being addressed -Time setting: 1950s" I had a feeling that if I went on talking, I might be able to persuade him to try and maintain the appearance of peace in the city until I had found out what it was all about. I could see he didn't like it. He muttered something under his breath about me being a liar and a villain for asking him to cover up murder when I knew he was guilty as hell himself. But he swallowed it. He's weak enough, but not quite such a fool as all that. So I told him what I wanted him to do. I said: 'Look here, you rotten little bastard. If you pull this off right you'll be worth ten thousand dollars to me, but if you foul things up by letting your mouth run away with you you can take it from me that I'll kill you like a rat. So keep your trap shut and listen.' Then I gave him the kind of kick that would have landed him on his backside if he hadn't been sitting down already. 'You're going to tell these guys that you were in your office till after midnight last night. You're going to say you never left your office except for a few minutes at six o'clock to pick up some cigarettes at the drugstore round the corner. You won't mention anything about the girl. You won't say she was ever in your office at all. And you won't say you were up in my place either. You understand?' He nodded. 'Good,' I said. 'Now you can thank God I'm a reasonable man. Otherwise you wouldn't be around to enjoy your new-found wealth. Now get moving.' I pushed him towards the door. He didn't turn round. He just said, 'Get off my back' in a nasty, spiteful voice. I kicked him again and he got up and walked over to the door. As he opened it, he turned and looked at me. His face was white and sweaty. The tip of his nose was red. There were spots of blood on his shirt front. 'You won't get away with it,' he said. 'It's only a matter of time.' Then he slammed the door and went downstairs. It took me five minutes to calm myself down before I phoned the number the Commissioner gave me. +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "You tell them the truth. You tell them that when the Racket Squad shuts down a set of operators they just spread out like cockroaches and go into business under another name. But you don't have to tell them that. Just tell them I said, 'If you fellows want to keep on taking dough off these suckers here in town, why we'll let you operate. We won't take no chances on trouble. But you guys will have to get together with us. You can't operate without our permission.' That's all. If you do that, I think it'll work out okay. The way we see it, we've got nothing against you. We want to give you plenty of rope so you can hang yourselves. We don't want to interfere with your racket. We'll just see to it that you play square with the people who buy your stuff."""" It was a harsh, vivid, dark gritty speech, given in a hard toneless voice. The man listening could not even bring himself to look up at the speaker. He mumbled something about """"understanding the situation."""" Then he got up and left the room. The door closed behind him with a click. A short time later another man appeared. This one was smaller, thinner and older. His face was lined with worry and fear. He had been drinking heavily, but he did not seem able to get any courage from the liquor. He stood in the middle of the room, shifting his feet uneasily as if he were afraid to speak. The others waited for him to begin. Well,"" the first man said, ""I guess we understand each other now."""" Sure."" Yeah?"" I guess so."" Okay. Sit down. Relax. Have a drink."""" No thanks."" I'll have one,"" said another man. ""Got some good stuff. Like whiskey."""" There was a pause, while everyone watched the thin nervous man. At last he spoke. """"Look here, I don't know how much you guys think you know about this thing."""" As much as we want to,"" said the first man. ""Why?"""" Listen, we didn't mean to pull anything on you. We thought we were doing everybody a favor. How'd we know you guys would start shooting off your mouths?"""" You might've figured it out."" I guess maybe we did,"" the little man admitted. ""But it was just an idea we had. We weren't sure. Now we are. We don't want no more of this stuff. We're out. Get it?"""" I suppose so,"" the big man said. ""But what I want to know is where you get your stuff? You been selling this stuff too long to be new on the game."""" There was another pause. The little man shifted his feet again. He looked around at the others, but they seemed content to wait for him to speak. He glanced over at the door, then turned back to the table. All right,"" he said. ""We won't beat around the bush. We got a source of supply."""" So we thought,"" said the big man. ""Where do you get it?"""" " 50 50 "Just so, he said. And their dwellings must be such as will shield them against the coldof winter and the heat of summer. I suppose that you mean houses, he replied. Yes, I said; but they must be the houses of soldiers, and not of shop-keepers. What is the difference? he said. That I will endeavour to explain, I replied. To keep watchdogs, who,from want of discipline or hunger, or some evil habit, or evil habitor other, would turn upon the sheep and worry them, and behave notlike dogs but wolves, would be a foul and monstrous thing in a shepherd? @@ -1233,17 +1280,20 @@ Yes, said Glaucon. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- BOOK IV Adeimantus - SOCRATES -Here Adeimantus interposed a question: How would you answer, Socrates,said he, if a person were to say that you are making these peoplemiserable, and that they are the cause of their own unhappiness; thecity in fact belongs to them, but they are none the better for it;whereas other men acquire lands, and build large and handsome houses,and have everything handsome about them, offering sacrifices to thegods on their own account, and practising hospitality; moreover, asyou were saying just now, they have gold and silver, and all thatis usual among the favourites of fortune; but our poor citizens areno better than mercenaries who are quartered in the city and are alwaysmounting guard?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the importance of education and the way of life for guardians in a state. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Here Adeimantus interposed a question: How would you answer, Socrates,said he, if a person were to say that you are making these peoplemiserable, and that they are the cause of their own unhappiness; thecity in fact belongs to them, but they are none the better for it;whereas other men acquire lands, and build large and handsome houses,and have everything handsome about them, offering sacrifices to thegods on their own account, and practising hospitality; moreover, asyou were saying just now, they have gold and silver, and all thatis usual among the favourites of fortune; but our poor citizens areno better than mercenaries who are quartered in the city and are alwaysmounting guard?" "Summary: The text discusses the ideal way for soldiers to live in a city, emphasizing their discipline and lack of personal possessions. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, Glaucon +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon, Adeimantus Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "I guess he thinks it's funny to kid a man who was educated in a reform school. I don't like his looks, and I'm going to get rid of him."""" Glaucon watched me narrowly as I spoke. He had never seen my temper rise, and he had the impression that I was just using it as a shield to cover my embarrassment at my failure with the charmer. It was partly true. I had felt some annoyance when Socrates turned on me so suddenly, but the moment I saw his eyes harden behind their veil of humor I knew that I was dealing with an adversary whom I could neither outwit nor bully. So I resorted to bluff. When you have finished your work here,"" I said, ""I want you to come with me to the prison. There is a murderer in there, and I am going to have a talk with him."" That should give him something to think about. In any case, I wanted to get out of the room before Socrates began to question him. And I did not want to leave Glaucon alone with him for fear that the poet might find himself the subject of another lecture. As we were leaving the house I caught up with Socrates and walked beside him. How long will you be in Athens?"" he asked. A few days. I have business at Corinth."""" You are a busy man, aren't you?"" I shrugged my shoulders. """"Not really. Most of what I do is for others."""" Is it?"""" It seems so. I spend much of my time on other people's affairs."" Do you find that profitable?"" Sometimes."" But not always, eh? Well, that's a pity. We all need money. What does one do with it if one has too much?"""" I didn't know. Buy more. Or lose it."" And then there is nothing left, eh? Not even honor or glory. I wonder what Plato would say about that. He is very fond of honor, and glory he worships."""" I nodded. Yes, I know. Perhaps Plato should look after his own business rather than worry about mine. By the way, how are your plans for the trip coming along?"""" Oh, I shall be ready whenever you are."" Tell me, though: Who was that chap you were talking to?"" The poet Xenophanes. He was born in Colophon, but he lives here now. He writes tragedies and epics, mostly about gods."""" I can imagine. I've seen some of his plays."" Have you?"" I nodded. ""Yes, they're marvelous. Full of action and excitement and passion."""" Socrates looked at me curiously. """"So you are interested in poetry?"""" I paused. """"No, not especially. But I had to read Xenophanes' works for a course in philosophy."""" Do you like philosophy?"" I shrugged my shoulders. """"Who knows? If it weren't for Plato I'd probably hate it. " +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "A soldier's life is like that; you can't live in a city and be a soldier, unless your city is perfectly organized. Now if soldiers are to have any sense of shame about them they must be decently housed, but not too much so; they must have enough to eat, but not too much; they must be respectably clothed, but their clothes must not be too fine; and they must have the best possible weapons, but only just enough of them. If you would have them trained to live together as soldiers should, they must have all these things in common, and yet they must not think it disgraceful for themselves or their brothers to do any kind of work; they will have to be good at every trade. But when they are out on service they must not be too keen about money, nor too curious about other people's business; they must be willing to obey and willing to fight, and always eager to be at work; they must fear the gods, and hate insolence; they must be able to bear heat and cold with cheerfulness and not be untidy nor greedy; and they must have a little taste of music, perhaps, and of drawing, and of gymnastics. A man who has no education may be a good fighter, but he is an unmanageable brute. + +" 51 51 "Yes, I said; and you may add that they are only fed, and not paidin addition to their food, like other men; and therefore they cannot,if they would, take a journey of pleasure; they have no money to spendon a mistress or any other luxurious fancy, which, as the world goes,is thought to be happiness; and many other accusations of the samenature might be added. But, said he, let us suppose all this to be included in the charge. You mean to ask, I said, what will be our answer? Yes. If we proceed along the old path, my belief, I said, is that we shallfind the answer. And our answer will be that, even as they are, ourguardians may very likely be the happiest of men; but that our aimin founding the State was not the disproportionate happiness of anyone class, but the greatest happiness of the whole; we thought thatin a State which is ordered with a view to the good of the whole weshould be most likely to find Justice, and in the ill-ordered Stateinjustice: and, having found them, we might then decide which of thetwo is the happier. At present, I take it, we are fashioning the happyState, not piecemeal, or with a view of making a few happy citizens,but as a whole; and by-and-by we will proceed to view the oppositekind of State. Suppose that we were painting a statue, and some onecame up to us and said, Why do you not put the most beautiful colourson the most beautiful parts of the body --the eyes ought to be purple,but you have made them black --to him we might fairly answer, Sir,you would not surely have us beautify the eyes to such a degree thatthey are no longer eyes; consider rather whether, by giving this andthe other features their due proportion, we make the whole beautiful.And so I say to you, do not compel us to assign to the guardians asort of happiness which will make them anything but guardians; forwe too can clothe our husbandmen in royal apparel, and set crownsof gold on their heads, and bid them till the ground as much as theylike, and no more. Our potters also might be allowed to repose oncouches, and feast by the fireside, passing round the winecup, whiletheir wheel is conveniently at hand, and working at pottery only asmuch as they like; in this way we might make every class happy-andthen, as you imagine, the whole State would be happy. But do not putthis idea into our heads; for, if we listen to you, the husbandmanwill be no longer a husbandman, the potter will cease to be a potter,and no one will have the character of any distinct class in the State.Now this is not of much consequence where the corruption of society,and pretension to be what you are not, is confined to cobblers; butwhen the guardians of the laws and of the government are only seeminglyand not real guardians, then see how they turn the State upside down;and on the other hand they alone have the power of giving order andhappiness to the State. We mean our guardians to be true savioursand not the destroyers of the State, whereas our opponent is thinkingof peasants at a festival, who are enjoying a life of revelry, notof citizens who are doing their duty to the State. But, if so, wemean different things, and he is speaking of something which is nota State. And therefore we must consider whether in appointing ourguardians we would look to their greatest happiness individually,or whether this principle of happiness does not rather reside in theState as a whole. But the latter be the truth, then the guardiansand auxillaries, and all others equally with them, must be compelledor induced to do their own work in the best way. And thus the wholeState will grow up in a noble order, and the several classes willreceive the proportion of happiness which nature assigns to them. @@ -1251,16 +1301,17 @@ I think that you are quite right. I wonder whether you will agree with another r What may that be? There seem to be two causes of the deterioration of the arts. What are they? Wealth, I said, and poverty. How do they act? The process is as follows: When a potter becomes rich, will he, thinkyou, any longer take the same pains with his art?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the happiness and roles of the guardians in a state, arguing that their happiness should not come at the expense of their duties. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue -Active character: The speaker, the person being addressed -Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" The happiness of the guardians, he said, was not to be purchased at the price of their duties. If they were in a state of war, and had the care of preserving the state against its enemies, then they must be prepared to endure hardships, or even death if necessary; and if they shrank from these, they were unfit for their position, however great might be their present enjoyment. The ideal State is an army, and every citizen should be trained as a soldier who will fight with heart and soul. But let us suppose that this is carried out, and that our army has won a victory, and has captured a lot of slaves. Then we shall have men whose spirits are broken by defeat, and who are incapable of work; and here are our guardians, who have been bred as soldiers, and are full of vigour and strength. Shall they be expected to do the work of slaves? Not at all. The victors, having become masters of the conquered city, may take possession of the houses and lands, but they should not impose labour on the prisoners. They must be allowed to live according to their own custom, except that they must give up any luxuries which are forbidden to the conquerors. The same principle should be applied to women; they should have equal education, and the same occupations; but they should not be compelled to marry men whom they dislike, or to be the wives of men whom they do not like. And thus, under the influence of this new philosophy, the old-fashioned notions about the home and family life being kept sacred from politics and the quarrels of states will pass away. “And now,” said I to Glaucon, “what do you say? Do you think that this is a better and more desirable arrangement than the one which we were before describing?” “Yes,” he replied; “but yet I find myself brought back once more to the old fashion of giving the authority over women to their husbands.” “Why?” I asked. “Because I imagine that when each person has his or her own proper business to perform, the result will be better.” “That,” I said, “is natural enough; but why do you assume that men are made by nature to rule, and women to be ruled?” “Certainly, I should say so,” he answered. “Then you ought to have equal power and authority in all cases, if you agree that there is no difference between women and men.” “There is a very great difference even as things are,” he said. “What is that difference?” “Women, in my opinion, are naturally suited to make the best housewives.” “Yes, but surely” said I, “we were admitting only a few moments ago that this gift of theirs is quite superfluous; for what need is there of housework when there is no private property? No doubt they will spend their time in working at their weaving, as anciently, because this sort of work is suitable to their dispositions, and not like the men because they love luxury and not simplicity, and because they are always desiring to add to their ornaments and fine clothes. +Literary form: Conversation +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: The speaker, the interlocutor +Fuzzy place: The state +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "The guardians are the happy ones, and they alone. They do not want anything that does not belong to them; they are satisfied with their life and with their lot. Is it not so? The slaves shall be contented because they are happy. They shall not know that they are slaves. But if the guardians knew too much about happiness and were themselves happy, they would long since have devoured everything, and we shall have to fasten them by chains and keep them in the dark."""" I am not quite sure whether I understand you,"" said the interlocutor. ""Are you really serious or jesting?"" It is a harsh doctrine,"" he replied. ""But perhaps that is why it is true. You do not understand me? Listen, then. Suppose that there is a state. In such a state every man must have his definite position and function, must perform his definite work. If he does not work, he will be deprived of food and drink and clothes and all things necessary for life, and will be driven out into the desert. And if he commits any crime against the state, he will be punished. And he will suffer punishment even though he may never have learned what is right and what is wrong. This is clear enough."""" Yes, but I still do not see "" What else? A man must have something to eat, a place to sleep, and clothing to cover his nakedness, and he must work to obtain them, otherwise he will die. And suppose now that a man is born in the state and lives in it and works for it, and knows nothing but this state and this life. Will he not love it and will he not be happy in it?"""" Of course he will."" And if he loves the state and is happy in it, will he not wish to serve it and defend it from its enemies?"""" He will, certainly."" And therefore let us take the state as we find it, let us not change it, let us rather augment its power and glory. Let us make the people love the state and be happy in it, let us teach them to regard it as their fatherland, as God's gift to them, as a means of their salvation. Let us teach them to fear the state, to revere it, to love it, to die for it; let us teach them to protect it, to cherish it, and to defend it from its enemies. For the sake of the state let us abolish all private property; for the sake of the state let us exterminate all those who do not love the state; for the sake of the state let us kill all those who hate it. We shall give the people bread and circuses instead of freedom, and thus win them over to our side, and they will serve us and thank us. Then we shall say to them: 'See, how good the state is for you! See, how happy you are under it! See, how well we govern you! Now remain with us, brothers, in peace and happiness.' " 52 52 "Certainly not. He will grow more and more indolent and careless? Very true. And the result will be that he becomes a worse potter? Yes; he greatly deteriorates. But, on the other hand, if he has no money, and cannot provide himselftools or instruments, he will not work equally well himself, nor willhe teach his sons or apprentices to work equally well. Certainly not. Then, under the influence either of poverty or of wealth, workmenand their work are equally liable to degenerate? That is evident. Here, then, is a discovery of new evils, I said, against which theguardians will have to watch, or they will creep into the city unobserved. @@ -1276,15 +1327,18 @@ Likely enough. Then we may assume that our athletes will be able to fight with t I agree with you, for I think you right. And suppose that, before engaging, our citizens send an embassy toone of the two cities, telling them what is the truth: Silver andgold we neither have nor are permitted to have, but you may; do youtherefore come and help us in war, of and take the spoils of the othercity: Who, on hearing these words, would choose to fight against leanwiry dogs, rather th than, with the dogs on their side, against fatand tender sheep? That is not likely; and yet there might be a danger to the poor Stateif the wealth of many States were to be gathered into one. But how simple of you to use the term State at all of any but ourown! -Why so? You ought to speak of other States in the plural number; not one ofthem is a city, but many cities, as they say in the game. For indeedany city, however small, is in fact divided into two, one the cityof the poor, the other of the rich; these are at war with one another;and in either there are many smaller divisions, and you would be altogetherbeside the mark if you treated them all as a single State. But ifyou deal with them as many, and give the wealth or power or personsof the one to the others, you will always have a great many friendsand not many enemies. And your State, while the wise order which hasnow been prescribed continues to prevail in her, will be the greatestof States, I do not mean to say in reputation or appearance, but indeed and truth, though she number not more than a thousand defenders.A single State which is her equal you will hardly find, either amongHellenes or barbarians, though many that appear to be as great andmany times greater." "Summary: The text discusses the effects of wealth and poverty on workmanship and the potential advantages of a city with a limited amount of wealthy citizens. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Why so? You ought to speak of other States in the plural number; not one ofthem is a city, but many cities, as they say in the game. For indeedany city, however small, is in fact divided into two, one the cityof the poor, the other of the rich; these are at war with one another;and in either there are many smaller divisions, and you would be altogetherbeside the mark if you treated them all as a single State. But ifyou deal with them as many, and give the wealth or power or personsof the one to the others, you will always have a great many friendsand not many enemies. And your State, while the wise order which hasnow been prescribed continues to prevail in her, will be the greatestof States, I do not mean to say in reputation or appearance, but indeed and truth, though she number not more than a thousand defenders.A single State which is her equal you will hardly find, either amongHellenes or barbarians, though many that appear to be as great andmany times greater." "Summary: The text discusses the potential degeneration of workmen and their work due to poverty or wealth, and proposes a solution involving sending ambassadors to other cities for help in war. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary form: Conversation +Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, Adeimantus -Time setting: 1950s" "The work of the poor man is not good for much. If he makes a table, it will be rickety; if he makes a basket, it will be clumsy and squeaky. There is no art in his workmanship. The rich man, on the other hand, can make things that are beautiful and last forever."""" Socrates shook his head. """"In my opinion you're wrong there, Adeimantus. The wealthy man's work is inferior to the poor man's. It has been my experience that the poorer a man is the better workman he is. A rich man has time to waste on ornamentation and decoration, and they spoil his work. As long as a man is poor, however, he knows that he must work hard and quickly, or starve. The result is that he does work well, and there is no time for ornamentation."""" Socrates' words were interrupted by a burst of applause from the listeners. You're right,"" someone shouted. ""I remember an old carpenter in our town who made the best tables in the county. He worked in the poorest shack I ever saw, and he wore the shabbiest clothes. But when you looked at one of his tables, you would have thought you were looking at a painting instead of wood."""" Another voice said: """"You can't forget that great old-fashioned cabinet-maker in Boston, who used to furnish all the houses up and down the coast. His workshop was so dirty and cluttered up with tools that you couldn't see anything. And he dressed like a tramp. But look at the furniture he made!"""" A third person added: """"It's just as true in music as it is in woodworking. The greatest musicians I've known have always been poor men. They never had time for fancy clothes or expensive meals or any of those things. All their time was taken up with music, and they knew that their livelihood depended upon their ability to play well. That's why they practiced every day until they could make their instruments talk."""" Adeimantus nodded vigorously. """"Yes,"""" he exclaimed, """"that's exactly what I meant. The poor man has got to work all the time; he has nothing to do but work. And the result is that he becomes an expert in his job. A rich man, on the other hand, has too many other things to occupy his mind. When he works at all, it's only for the money he can get for it; he doesn't care about the quality of his work."""" * * * * * There was another silence after Adeimantus finished speaking, during which the listeners looked at each other doubtfully. Then Socrates smiled. """"I don't know whether you're right or wrong,"""" he said. """"But let us suppose that you are. What would be the advantages of having a city in which there were very few rich people?"""" " +Quoted character: Boxer +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "Do you think there are many such men left among the workmen of Athens?"""" A man who is always hungry,"" said Socrates, ""has no time for anything else but eating. If he is not working for his food, he will be stealing it; and if he steals, he is a slave; and when he is a slave, what freedom has he to think of virtue or of anything else?"""" But surely,"" said Adeimantus, ""the city must have some good workmen, even though they are few in number?"""" Yes,"" answered Socrates, ""there may be a very few, but the best of them will soon be swept away. They are like our poor Boxer. He was a great strong fellow, but he had never a thought in his head; and now that he has lost his strength he is as weak as water, and we may say of him as of the horse, 'The gods have taken away his reason.'"""" The next question,"" said Glaucon, ""will be about wealth: How shall we get money? For Athens is in need of money and much more so when we go to war."""" There was an old proverb,"" replied Socrates, ""which was often repeated to me in my youth by Antisthenes, a wise and good man, who would sometimes take me aside and in a kindly manner subdue my pride by the simple force of reason: Oh! my dear Socrates,' he used to say, 'that your vanity should be fed and increased by being made to suppose that you are a philosopher! Why, you have not yet learnt either to ask questions rightly, or to answer them after the manner of a philosopher.'"" And how did he mean?"" I asked. When a person asks you a question,"" he used to reply, """"he ought not to be answered simply by yes or no, and when you have once given an answer, he should not come again to you with the same question. If you answer yes he should ask another question, and when you answer no he should follow up his first question with another that is different."""" And was this the way in which the fool asked his question?"" said Glaucon, laughing. No,"" said Socrates; ""Antisthenes was not quite right in this. Still he meant to show me that I had not yet attained to the height of philosophical skill, and that I must needs learn how to ask questions as well as how to answer. Now then, my friend,"""" he added, turning to Adeimantus, """"let us practise questioning again in this way: When you ask somebody for money, you do not mean that you want a certain number of coins, for if you did, you would mention the sum that you wanted. " 53 53 "That is most true, he said. And what, I said, will be the best limit for our rulers to fix whenthey are considering the size of the State and the amount of territorywhich they are to include, and beyond which they will not go? What limit would you propose? I would allow the State to increase so far as is consistent with unity;that, I think, is the proper limit. Very good, he said. Here then, I said, is another order which will have to be conveyedto our guardians: Let our city be accounted neither large nor small,but one and self-sufficing. @@ -1300,13 +1354,17 @@ Then, I said, our guardians must lay the foundations of their fortressin music? Yes, he said; the lawlessness of which you speak too easily stealsin. Yes, I replied, in the form of amusement; and at first sight it appearsharmless. Why, yes, he said, and there is no harm; were it not that little bylittle this spirit of licence, finding a home, imperceptibly penetratesinto manners and customs; whence, issuing with greater force, it invadescontracts between man and man, and from contracts goes on to lawsand constitutions, in utter recklessness, ending at last, Socrates,by an overthrow of all rights, private as well as public. -Is that true? I said. That is my belief, he replied. Then, as I was saying, our youth should be trained from the firstin a stricter system, for if amusements become lawless, and the youthsthemselves become lawless, they can never grow up into well-conductedand virtuous citizens." "Summary: The text discusses the importance of education and music in maintaining a well-functioning state. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Is that true? I said. That is my belief, he replied. Then, as I was saying, our youth should be trained from the firstin a stricter system, for if amusements become lawless, and the youthsthemselves become lawless, they can never grow up into well-conductedand virtuous citizens." "Summary: The text discusses the importance of education and nurture in creating a well-functioning society. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation -Active character: Socrates, Adeimantus" Socrates. Nicht wahr, Freund? Was fr ein glckliches Volk sind sie doch! Sie wissen nicht, was Recht und Unrecht ist; und da mgen sie doch immer der Regierer bleiben, solange ich lebe. Adeimantus. Und das wrde nie endigen. Wenn man nur durch die Wissenschaften dumm macht, so wird es ebenso viel Menschen geben, die vernnftig sind und sich durch die Wissenschaften abfinden knnen. Socrates. Das kannst du wohl denken, wenn du dich nach allen Seiten hin umsiehst; aber wer sollte uns das beweisen? Doch ich habe mich oft gedacht: Wenn wir in der Republik ein Gesetz machen wollten, wie wir den Gelehrten behandeln sollten, so mchte es unter andern sein, da sie ihre Schulden nicht bezahlen drfen. Adeimantus. Was meinst du damit? Socrates. Nun, ich meine, man soll ihnen nichts von ihrem Lohn geben, bis sie einen Beruf lernen, womit sie ihr Leben bestreiten knnen. Adeimantus. Ganz richtig! Socrates. Aber wenn du in einem Staat die Musiker verlangst, so mu er auch eine Anzahl Musiklehrer haben, um den Nachwuchs zu erhalten. Adeimantus. Ja, ja, wenn er nur berhaupt nicht ganz ohne Musik bleiben wollte. Socrates. So sei denn bereit, da sie alle zusammen ein halbes Pfund Silber im Monat bekommen sollen. Adeimantus. Wie kann dir das einfallen? Ein halbes Pfund Silber im Monat! Was wollen die tun? Socrates. Wie ein jeder will, mein Freund; die Kunst lehrt sie nur, an die Instrumente zu klopfen, sonst nichts. Adeimantus. Du bist wahnsinnig, Glaukos! Socrates. Das wei ich nicht, mein Freund. Aber ich kann mirs vorstellen, da ein Mann, der in einer Republik mit dieser Kunst zu tun hat, nicht leicht der Fruchtbarste werden und ein Kind zur Welt bringen wird, das ihm gleichkommt. Adeimantus. Wie? Soll nicht ein guter Snger ebenso wie ein guter Redner seinem Sohn seine Geschfte weitergeben? Socrates. Das tue ich nicht gern, mein Freund, was es fr eine Ursache wre, das wei ich nicht. Adeimantus. Ich fr meinen Teil bin ich der Meinung, da die Musik in der Erziehung des jungen Mannes sehr lobenswert ist, wenn sie nur nicht ausgelssig wird. Socrates. Ich meine, wie du sagtest, Adeimantus, nicht ausgelssig. Aber nun noch eins, und du hast genug gesagt: wenn wir ein Gesetz fr die Knaben machen wollen, so mu es sein, da sie die ganze Zeit, wo sie noch unter dem Umgang der Weiber sind, niemanden sehen, den sie lieben knnten, auer ihren Brudern und Vterchen und Mtherchen, und da sie unter dem Gesichtskreise ihrer Eltern bleiben, bis sie fters auf die Wanderschaft gehen und die Huser verlassen mssen. Adeimantus. Das ist der richtige Weg, und ein groes Licht wird uns das alles zeigen, wenn wir ihn erst versuchen. +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: Socrates, Adeimantus +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" These people have not the strength to make a world out of themselves.” “And how will you make it?” I asked. “By education,” he said, “and by nurture.” “The education and nurture which will produce for us the best men?” “Yes, that is what I mean.” “But do you really suppose that there will be no fighting in this ideal State of yours? Do you think that the good general, or the good farmer, or even the good shepherd, ever acquires his military, or his field, or his pastoral skill, without toil and without exertion?” “They certainly do not,” he said. “And might we not say ‘without conflict also?’” “Certainly,” he replied; “what else?” “Then your soldiers, in your ideal State, will carry out their orders either because they wish to or because they are compelled to?” “That is clearly the fact,” he said. “Yet please to consider whether a man who obeys from fear, unless his dread be of some one whom he takes to be better than himself, will not be most likely to grow into a rough and lawless type of character.” “I quite agree with you, Socrates,” he said, “and that is the reason why philosophy is not desired by mankind.” “By those who are worthy of her,” I replied; “not by everyone.” “Do you know, Adeimantus, what answer I am always ready to give to this argument against philosophers?” “I cannot imagine.” “Why, I take up a thread where the other interlocutors left off, and say, Men of Athens, whosoever of you reads my poems, to him I may boldly say of this sort: If I have seemed to criticize and find fault with your citizens, it is yourselves that have been my subjects of criticism, not them. But if you are displeased at this, take it out on me, take it out on me alone. Your children and your women will easily revenge you, for what right have poets to mix in matters of state? But that I must, even against your will, is manifest, as the poem itself shows; for any poet is quite unworthy of comparison with any one who holds sway in a State, and is able to reveal the wickedness of others or his own, and to effect the cure of cities and States. Or do you suppose that a poor hollow-backed poet like me is equal to a brave general who has ranged out and reviewed the young men, and passed judgement upon them, and distributed to each of them his own proper calling, and after sending or not sending out anyone to battle has himself taken part in the conflict; or like one of those skilled physicians who have made a cure, or like those skilful horsemen who have drawn a victoria? Do you suppose that I am equal to any one of these, or indeed to a good officer, or to a general pilot of a ship who has saved his cargo unlossed and his crew? 54 54 "Very true, he said. And when they have made a good beginning in play, and by the helpof music have gained the habit of good order, then this habit of order,in a manner how unlike the lawless play of the others! will accompanythem in all their actions and be a principle of growth to them, andif there be any fallen places a principle in the State will raisethem up again. Very true, he said. Thus educated, they will invent for themselves any lesser rules whichtheir predecessors have altogether neglected. What do you mean? I mean such things as these: --when the young are to be silent beforetheir elders; how they are to show respect to them by standing andmaking them sit; what honour is due to parents; what garments or shoesare to be worn; the mode of dressing the hair; deportment and mannersin general. You would agree with me? @@ -1328,15 +1386,17 @@ Assuredly not. Nor would you praise the behaviour of States which act like the m Yes, he said; the States are as bad as the men; and I am very farfrom praising them. But do you not admire, I said, the coolness and dexterity of theseready ministers of political corruption? Yes, he said, I do; but not of all of them, for there are some whomthe applause of the multitude has deluded into the belief that theyare really statesmen, and these are not much to be admired. -What do you mean? I said; you should have more feeling for them. Whena man cannot measure, and a great many others who cannot measure declarethat he is four cubits high, can he help believing what they say?" "Summary: A conversation about the importance of education and how it shapes a person's future. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +What do you mean? I said; you should have more feeling for them. Whena man cannot measure, and a great many others who cannot measure declarethat he is four cubits high, can he help believing what they say?" "Summary: The text discusses the importance of education and how it shapes a person's future. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Adeimantus, Socrates" Adeimantus, I said, we must not fail to notice that the makers of the story have told us, and in common sense we must admit, that there is nothing which makes a man grow more than education, if he be naturally intelligent. Yes, he said, and quite right too. Then let us consider whether in education there are many points or few at which the virtue of a state may be affected. I conceive, he replied, that there are but few. And what are they? Did you never think about them? I should like to hear what they are. Here are three, I said: first, the care of the young; secondly, the custody of the weapons; thirdest, the custody of foreign women; for there will be the three sorts of provision. Then I do not think that in these particulars there can be any difference between us. But there are many other things in which I believe that we differ greatly; and of one sort of difference I will make a trial. The citizens have been distinguished into four classes, each having a different function. Of these four classes the last two were called warriors, and their business was to protect the whole state: This they could only do when they were armed and good soldiers. +Active character: Adeimantus, Socrates +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "I have seen them, Adeimantus. These are the people who live in the lower part of the city and get their living by any dirty job they can find. They are idle, drunken, vicious, unclean, with scarcely any sense of decency or humanity; they are always ready to steal from one another or kill each other for a penny, and there is no crime that they would not commit for money. And yet you call these people free! I tell you that slavery is better than this kind of freedom. At least the slave has food and clothing and shelter and does not have to worry about his future."""" But if he is unhappy,"" said Adeimantus, ""and longs to be free like us, why should we not let him go?"""" Because he will only bring trouble on himself and on others,"" replied Socrates. ""He is uneducated and ignorant; he knows nothing except how to make money and how to gratify his appetites; he is incapable of self-control and therefore he is a danger both to himself and to others. If he is allowed to roam freely through the streets, he may become violent and assault innocent people. He may also try to steal or even commit murder. Therefore, it is better that he should remain a slave and be protected from himself. " 55 55 "Nay, he said, certainly not in that case. Well, then, do not be angry with them; for are they not as good asa play, trying their hand at paltry reforms such as I was describing;they are always fancying that by legislation they will make an endof frauds in contracts, and the other rascalities which I was mentioning,not knowing that they are in reality cutting off the heads of a hydra? Yes, he said; that is just what they are doing. I conceive, I said, that the true legislator will not trouble himselfwith this class of enactments whether concerning laws or the constitutioneither in an ill-ordered or in a well-ordered State; for in the formerthey are quite useless, and in the latter there will be no difficultyin devising them; and many of them will naturally flow out of ourprevious regulations. What, then, he said, is still remaining to us of the work of legislation? @@ -1358,14 +1418,17 @@ Clearly. And the kinds of knowledge in a State are many and diverse? Of course. There is the knowledge of the carpenter; but is that the sort of knowledgewhich gives a city the title of wise and good in counsel? Certainly not; that would only give a city the reputation of skillin carpentering. Then a city is not to be called wise because possessing a knowledgewhich counsels for the best about wooden implements? -Certainly not. Nor by reason of a knowledge which advises about brazen pots, I said,nor as possessing any other similar knowledge?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the role of legislation in a city and emphasizes the importance of religion. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Certainly not. Nor by reason of a knowledge which advises about brazen pots, I said,nor as possessing any other similar knowledge?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the role of legislation and justice in a city, suggesting that true legislation lies with Apollo. +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue -Active character: Socrates, Glaucon" "I shall never forget it. There was a man in the audience who said, 'My God! If I had known that this sort of thing was going to be going on I would not have wasted my time coming here.' That is what I call legislation for you."""" """"And what do you think about it?"""" he asked me. Well, I thought that if the man really meant what he said then all I could say was that he was a fool. But if he did not mean it and was only trying to get his own back after having been bored by the speech, then he was a dirty brute. For it was perfectly obvious that Socrates was just being himself and doing what he always does when he speaks in public, which is to try to find out what people know and make them use their minds. In fact it was precisely because he was being so frank and open with us all that we were able to take such an active part in the discussion. And as for the subject matter of the speech it was clear that he was putting it across very well, at least as far as I could tell, but then I am no judge of those things."""" You are right there,"" he said. ""You are no judge of literature. And you can bet your bottom dollar that neither was that guy in the audience."""" Well, Glaucon, what do you think?"" I said. Is Socrates a great orator?"""" Hell no!"" he said. ""He isn't even a good speaker. He doesn't have any style. But he's got something better than style, he's got brains."""" Yes, yes,"" I said. ""But is he a great teacher?"""" No."" It was my turn now. He seemed amused at my zeal. What do you mean, no?"" I said. I mean no."" But surely he must be a great teacher,"" I said. ""He has taught Plato, Xenophon, Aristotle and myself. Isn't that enough to prove it?"""" Not at all."" But why not?"" Because he hasn't taught anyone anything."" I stared at him, open-mouthed. """"But that's ridiculous!"""" I said. """"Everyone knows that he has taught everyone."""" Nonsense,"" he said. ""No one has ever learnt anything from him."""" So he was a fool then?"" I said. Absolutely,"" he said. ""A fool and a charlatan. He is nothing but a confidence trickster."""" I don't believe you,"" I said. ""He may not be a great orator but he is certainly a great philosopher and he has taught me everything I know about philosophy."""" Then you are not much of a pupil,"" he said. ""For all you know is nothing. Philosophy is the art of knowing nothing. Now shut up and listen to me. I've been waiting for you all day and I'm starving."""" He rang the bell and ordered dinner. The waiter brought it in on a tray and set it down between us. " +Literary form: Conversation +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "I don't say that legislation is anything but a sham and a make-believe, unless it's got something behind it. I do say that when you have true justice working, then there'll be no need of any written laws."""" But, Socrates, how can the city and the people live without laws?"""" They won't be able to live, my dear Glaucon, if they can't obey them. And they can't obey them if they haven't got them. So all right, we'll give them some, and maybe they'll get on all right with those."""" Well, Socrates, what laws will we give them?"" We'll start with the ones that are easy, and as we go along I hope we'll get some help from heaven. I guess we'd better begin by making a law about theft."""" All right."" Now we're going to make a new kind of law, Glaucon, not like the one we passed before. Then you'll see the difference between real legislation and the sort that's just a lot of words."""" What do you mean?"" You remember the law we made before about stealing?"""" Yes."" That was a bad law, my friend; it ought to be torn up and replaced by another. Here's the way we should put it: 'No man shall take away anything belonging to another man or his family.' And the punishment for this crime shall be death."""" " 56 56 "Not by reason of any of them, he said. Nor yet by reason of a knowledge which cultivates the earth; thatwould give the city the name of agricultural? Yes. Well, I said, and is there any knowledge in our recently founded Stateamong any of the citizens which advises, not about any particularthing in the State, but about the whole, and considers how a Statecan best deal with itself and with other States? There certainly is. And what is knowledge, and among whom is it found? I asked. @@ -1383,18 +1446,18 @@ The city will be courageous in virtue of a portion of herself whichpreserves und I should like to hear what you are saying once more, for I do notthink that I perfectly understand you. I mean that courage is a kind of salvation. Salvation of what? Of the opinion respecting things to be feared, what they are and ofwhat nature, which the law implants through education; and I meanby the words 'under all circumstances' to intimate that in pleasureor in pain, or under the influence of desire or fear, a man preserves,and does not lose this opinion. Shall I give you an illustration? If you please. You know, I said, that dyers, when they want to dye wool for makingthe true sea-purple, begin by selecting their white colour first;this they prepare and dress with much care and pains, in order thatthe white ground may take the purple hue in full perfection. The dyeingthen proceeds; and whatever is dyed in this manner becomes a fastcolour, and no washing either with lyes or without them can take awaythe bloom. But, when the ground has not been duly prepared, you willhave noticed how poor is the look either of purple or of any othercolour. -Yes, he said; I know that they have a washed-out and ridiculous appearance." "Summary: The text discusses the knowledge and virtues of the guardians in a recently founded State. +Yes, he said; I know that they have a washed-out and ridiculous appearance." "Summary: The text discusses the knowledge and virtues of the guardians in a recently founded city. Narrative arc: Exposition -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Active character: Socrates, interlocutor Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" In that State there will be no one who is not a philosopher, who will not by his nature have knowledge of the true being of every thing. This was the first and greatest step towards making the foundation of a State which is truly and entirely just.” “That was said long before your time, Socrates.” “Yes,” I replied; “but we were speaking of the guardians of such a State. These must be those who are philosophers, as I am saying. And they will also be warriors, having been trained in the arts of war from youth upwards, but only employing their warfare against unjust acts, which they will seek to prevent, not against men.” “Why, then,” he said, “you would have them both philosophical and warlike?” “Certainly,” I replied; “and I do not see why this should be thought impossible by any one.” “You know,” he said, “that men are always asking why a thing has come into existence? I mean, for instance, why have houses or shoes come into existence, or anything else that we require? Now the reason, as I suppose, is that these things afford us pleasure and security, and so on: are we not right in saying so?” “Certainly.” “Then what advantage is there to us in philosophy, or why is it that we have a desire for it, if not because it tends to make us live in greater happiness and peace of mind?” “Quite true.” “And we acknowledge that happiness and peace of mind are best preserved when there is moderation and order in the state, and knowledge and thought in the individual?” “Very true.” “Then he who knows that moderation and order in the state, and knowledge and thought in the individual, make men happy, may be justly said to know how men become happy? May not be said to know this?” “He certainly may.” “Then he who knows the bearers of goodness knows also the source of happiness?” “He certainly does.” “But he who knows the source of happiness in man, knows also the whole of human nature?” “He certainly does.” “Then he who knows human nature will necessarily be the best judge of human institutions?” “True,” he said. “Then this is the nature of the virtue of a guardian, that he knows when to use and when to abstain from the possession of gold and silver, and all other riches and forms of wealth?” “Yes, he will know when to use and when to abstain.” “And so, my noble friend, I said, he who knows when to pursue and when to abstain from any object of pursuit, will best know how to superintend and to guard, unless he should be altogether a fool.” “There can be no doubt about that,” he said. “And this, as I believe, Anonymus 1, is the reason why the world calls a trustee wise when he shows himself skilful in superintending and guarding other men’s property. +Fuzzy place: The city +Language: English" He said that this was because they had recently founded a city of their own and were still young. But they are not so young as they think, I said, for they have inherited the most extraordinary amount of knowledge from their ancestors, and these have been long-lived, just as in our city we have a number of people who can remember events of fifty years ago. So the older men among them know a great deal about the ways of their city; and if anyone is told to go to some particular place he will be able to find it easily even though he has never seen it before, just as our soldiers can recognize our different weapons. The same goes for their laws: the older ones can tell you exactly how each law applies in any given situation. They also have a lot of experience in war and politics, and they are well aware of the advantages which their country has over all others. They are very wise in their dealings with other nations, and they know how to make treaties which will ensure that they always get what they want from their neighbours without having to fight. They are also very good at keeping secrets, and they do not gossip or spread rumours. They are completely loyal to their rulers and to each other, and they will die rather than betray their country. In fact, they are such excellent soldiers that they never lose a battle. When they are victorious, they do not plunder the enemy but treat them kindly, and they punish traitors severely. They also have a strong sense of justice, and they hate injustice more than anything else. 57 57 "Then now, I said, you will understand what our object was in selectingour soldiers, and educating them in music and gymnastic; we were contrivinginfluences which would prepare them to take the dye of the laws inperfection, and the colour of their opinion about dangers and of everyother opinion was to be indelibly fixed by their nurture and training,not to be washed away by such potent lyes as pleasure --mightier agentfar in washing the soul than any soda or lye; or by sorrow, fear,and desire, the mightiest of all other solvents. And this sort ofuniversal saving power of true opinion in conformity with law aboutreal and false dangers I call and maintain to be courage, unless youdisagree. But I agree, he replied; for I suppose that you mean to exclude mereuninstructed courage, such as that of a wild beast or of a slave --this,in your opinion, is not the courage which the law ordains, and oughtto have another name. Most certainly. Then I may infer courage to be such as you describe? Why, yes, said I, you may, and if you add the words 'of a citizen,'you will not be far wrong; --hereafter, if you like, we will carrythe examination further, but at present we are we w seeking not forcourage but justice; and for the purpose of our enquiry we have saidenough. @@ -1416,17 +1479,15 @@ Yes. And if there be any State in which rulers and subjects will be agreedas to Undoubtedly. And the citizens being thus agreed among themselves, in which classwill temperance be found --in the rulers or in the subjects? In both, as I should imagine, he replied. Do you observe that we were not far wrong in our guess that temperancewas a sort of harmony?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the concept of courage and its relationship to justice and temperance. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation +Literary form: Philosophical dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker, the interlocutor -Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "I am not afraid of death. I like to see you squirm when I take the chance of it, just for kicks; but deep down, underneath, I am not afraid."""" The very intensity of his stare was driving me back toward the door; and yet it also held me there against my will. He was speaking now in a harsh, dry whisper: """"Courage is like all virtues It is not so very precious as some people think. You can get it anywhere, for nothing. Go into any gutter and pick it up. Courage is cheap; you have to be a coward to get it. The brave man is the one who can look calmly at the worst that can happen. I can look on abject failure, disgrace, bankruptcy, imprisonment, torture, death, and what are those to me? In comparison, what is there that I fear? Nothing. I fear no living man. My courage is a rock, and nothing can shake it."""" Then he paused, and a smile slowly spread over his face, until it became a snarl of contempt. Suddenly his voice rose again, and now it was shrill with a horrible gaiety. His words came out between his clenched teeth, as if they were torn from him by torture: Justice! Temperance! What do I care for justice or temperance? For your own peace of mind, keep out of my way!"""" He had risen from his chair and was standing near me, and then I saw what I had not seen before: the thin film of sweat upon his forehead, and the twitching of his fingers. As I turned and opened the door, he leaned forward quickly and caught my wrist. When I looked at him, I thought I saw terror in his eyes. Then he dropped my arm and stood back. He said quietly: """"Good night, Mr. Halliday. Remember this: whatever happens, don't try to interfere with me."""" CHAPTER FIVE THE KEY TO THE LOCKED ROOM At the time, I did not know whether his last words were a threat or a promise; and I still don't know. But I've taken them for a warning since then, and I have not tried to interfere with him. If I had, I should probably have been killed in a tragic accident within twenty-four hours. And if I hadn't been killed, I should have been glad of it; for I should certainly have been sent to prison for a long term of years. That's another thing I learned from Teddy. I have known other criminals since then, but Teddy was the first criminal I ever knew. He was not only the first, he was the best. He would have made a good sergeant-major of police, or a good headmaster. Perhaps he may be both these things now, for all I know. Certainly, he had the knack of making people do exactly as he wanted them to do. " +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "Courage, for instance, what is it? It's the quality most essential to a successful crook. That was why I've always hated it so much."""" The judge started to speak again but I cut him off short. """"You can't afford to be a sentimentalist, Judge,"""" I told him. """"If you'd ever walked a beat in the streets of this town you'd know that courage is the one quality a cop hates to see in a criminal."""" He started to argue with me and I let him talk on for a minute or so. Then I laughed at him. """"Listen, Judge,"""" I said, """"you're not even up on your own language. What are you trying to do? Define courage?"""" He nodded, uncertainly. I went on: """"All right then. Courage is simply doing what you have to do when it becomes necessary to do it. It's only an act of self-preservation when you don't have time to stop and think about it. When you have time to think about it, it isn't courage any more. You can call it bravery if you want to. But it isn't courage. It's stupid."""" And now I stopped talking because I could see that he was beginning to get mad at me. This wasn't going to be as easy as I had hoped it would be. I changed my approach and kept quiet until he had calmed down enough to speak. I didn't intend to give him any chance to interrupt me. After all, I knew what I wanted to say and how I wanted to say it. There was no sense in letting him take over. """"I'm going to tell you something else,"""" I said. """"This is what you aren't getting. Courage isn't just being brave. Being brave is just half the job. The other half is knowing what to be brave about. I'll give you an example. Let's say a man has just killed another man. Now he knows that he's got to run for his life. He can't stay where he is. He's got to move fast and keep moving. He can't rest anywhere. He might be recognized by somebody. And if he is, he's done for. He has to keep going. Do you think that takes any particular kind of courage? No. Anybody can do that. It doesn't take any brains. The guy who kills a man is already committed. He's done it and he's got to stick by it. He hasn't got any choice. If he wants to live he's got to go on living. All he has to do is go on living."""" I looked at the judge and I grinned at him. """"That's all,"""" I said. """"It isn't any special kind of courage. It's just going on living."""" And now I had him. I saw it in his eyes. I saw that he didn't believe me. He thought I was making fun of him. Well, maybe I was. " 58 58 "Why so? Why, because temperance is unlike courage and wisdom, each of whichresides in a part only, the one making the State wise and the othervaliant; not so temperance, which extends to the whole, and runs throughall the notes of the scale, and produces a harmony of the weaker andthe stronger and the middle class, whether you suppose them to bestronger or weaker in wisdom or power or numbers or wealth, or anythingelse. Most truly then may we deem temperance to be the agreement ofthe naturally superior and inferior, as to the right to rule of either,both in states and individuals. I entirely agree with you. And so, I said, we may consider three out of the four virtues to havebeen discovered in our State. The last of those qualities which makea state virtuous must be justice, if we only knew what that was. The inference is obvious. The time then has arrived, Glaucon, when, like huntsmen, we shouldsurround the cover, and look sharp that justice does not steal away,and pass out of sight and escape us; for beyond a doubt she is somewherein this country: watch therefore and strive to catch a sight of her,and if you see her first, let me know. @@ -1441,17 +1502,18 @@ Further, we affirmed that justice was doing one's own business, andnot being a b Yes, we said so. Then to do one's own business in a certain way may be assumed to bejustice. Can you tell me whence I derive this inference? I cannot, but I should like to be told. Because I think that this is the only virtue which remains in theState when the other virtues of temperance and courage and wisdomare abstracted; and, that this is the ultimate cause and conditionof the existence of all of them, and while remaining in them is alsotheir preservative; and we were saying that if the three were discoveredby us, justice would be the fourth or remaining one. That follows of necessity. If we are asked to determine which of these four qualities by itspresence contributes most to the excellence of the State, whetherthe agreement of rulers and subjects, or the preservation in the soldiersof the opinion which the law ordains about the true nature of dangers,or wisdom and watchfulness in the rulers, or whether this other whichI am mentioning, and which is found in children and women, slave andfreeman, artisan, ruler, subject, --the quality, I mean, of everyone doing his own work, and not being a busybody, would claim thepalm --the question is not so easily answered. -Certainly, he replied, there would be a difficulty in saying which." "Summary: The speaker discusses the virtues of temperance, courage, and wisdom in a state, and suggests that justice is the last virtue to be discovered. -Narrative arc: Reflective -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Certainly, he replied, there would be a difficulty in saying which." "Summary: The speaker discusses the virtues of temperance, justice, and wisdom in a state. +Narrative arc: Exposition +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker and Glaucon -Time setting: 1950s" "He'll have to be a nice guy. I hope he is."""" * * * * * If the state is really to be fortunate and happy, it must be governed by the virtue of temperance, which moderates the appetites. But you can't have temperance without courage. It's like asking a man with an outsize appetite to sit in a darkened room. He'll eat anything that comes to hand. So if our state is going to be happy, it will have to be courageous as well as temperant. We need men who are willing to die for their country."""" * * * * * The state is now doing very nicely, Glaucon. But we still haven't got justice right yet. It may not seem so to you, but it does to me. And I'm the only one who counts. You're just my audience."""" * * * * * Justice is a fine thing,"" says Socrates. ""And I'm sure we'd all like to know what it is, wouldn't we?"""" I'm glad you think so,"" says Socrates. ""I do too."""" * * * * * If we want to find out about justice, then we should ask ourselves first, What sort of people would a perfectly just state require? They'd have to be men of wisdom, of course. The wisest men in the city would have to be philosophers. It would be foolish to trust the state to anyone else."""" * * * * * Here Socrates begins to laugh. He laughs and laughs. Finally he says, 'You've hit upon something there, Glaucon. It's a good joke, isn't it? A philosopher king! Wouldn't that be a sight to see? The world would come to an end before they could find enough philosophers to run even a small village.' Then Socrates begins to cough. He wipes his eyes and says, """"Look at us, Glaucon. Haven't we been thinking too much? Don't you feel confused? Don't you feel your head spinning?"""" " +Active character: Glaucon +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "If he does not, then the state will punish him and force him to do so. It would be a strange world in which we lived if a man were allowed to beat his wife and children every day of the week and kill them at the weekend."""" Glaucon grinned. He was a tough customer and I had been expecting something like this from him all along. But there are other virtues too,"" I said. ""For instance temperance."""" Temperance?"" he repeated. ""What in hell's name has temperance got to do with it?"""" If a man is given to drink,"" I told him, ""his work suffers. His mind gets confused and his hands shake. He loses his sense of proportion and becomes incapable of rational thought. He falls into debt. In the end he may die of delirium tremens or alcohol poisoning. That is why we must curb our appetites and control our desires for drink, food, sex and money. We must learn to keep them within bounds."""" The very idea makes me sick,"" Glaucon said harshly. ""It's a lie that a man can't enjoy life unless he keeps himself under restraint. We want what we want when we want it. And what the hell business is it of yours whether we take a little brandy before dinner or become drunkards?"""" You have put your finger on the heart of the matter,"" I replied. ""The fact that you want to do these things is precisely why we must not allow you to do them. The only way to teach a man self-control is to deny him everything he wants. Temperance is the virtue by means of which we shall achieve order."""" Glaucon laughed. """"You make me feel ashamed of myself,"""" he said. """"But I don't see how we can get away from the facts. A man who is hungry has got to eat, hasn't he?"""" Of course he has."" There are some people who say that hunger is an appetite like any other and can be satisfied like any other appetite."" That is nonsense,"" I said sharply. ""Hunger is not an appetite. It is a symptom of hunger. There is a difference."""" What is the difference?"" The difference between an appetite and a symptom is this: An appetite is the desire for something that satisfies it. Hunger is the desire for something that causes hunger. When a man is hungry he wants food. When he is sexually excited he wants sexual satisfaction. When he is thirsty he wants a drink. When he is tired he wants to sleep. These are the symptoms of the appetites; they are not the appetites themselves."""" I hope you're not going to tell me,"" Glaucon said, ""that you think we ought to starve people until they are no longer hungry, lock them up until they no longer want sex and give them nothing to drink until they are dead of thirst. " 59 59 "Then the power of each individual in the State to do his own workappears to compete with the other political virtues, wisdom, temperance,courage. Yes, he said. And the virtue which enters into this competition is justice? Exactly. Let us look at the question from another point of view: Are not therulers in a State those to whom you would entrust the office of determiningsuits at law? @@ -1468,18 +1530,15 @@ Like, he replied. The just man then, if we regard the idea of justice only, will He will. And a State was thought by us to be just when the three classes inthe State severally did their own business; and also thought to betemperate and valiant and wise by reason of certain other affectionsand qualities of these same classes? True, he said. And so of the individual; we may assume that he has the same threeprinciples in his own soul which are found in the State; and he maybe rightly described in the same terms, because he is affected inthe same manner?" "Summary: The text discusses the concept of justice and its application in both the State and the individual. Narrative arc: Philosophical exploration -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Philosophical dialogue -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, interlocutor +Active character: Two characters engaged in a conversation Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes -Fuzzy place: Unnamed places such as the State and the individual's soul" "But the State has to have some sort of justice, or else it won't work. And the individual soul has to have justice, or else it can't exist. What's this 'justice' you talk about?"""" I don't know. The oracle said so. But if it wants to be explained, maybe we can explain it."""" I wish it would,"" said the interlocutor gruffly. ""If a man steals and gets caught, that's just. If he doesn't steal and doesn't get caught, that's not just. I see that much for myself. But what's the rest of it? I'm tired of hearing about it."""" Then there was silence. At last Socrates said: """"I've been thinking about what you said. It's a good idea. Why not let me do the talking now?"""" Okay."" So Socrates began to speak again. He said: """"You're right about the things in the State being just when they are the way they are supposed to be. That's why the oracle says it is wise. But we have to go on from there. How did you feel when you were in the army?"" Well, all right, I guess."" Did you like it?"""" No, I didn't."" Wasn't it because you had to obey orders, and couldn't do as you pleased?"""" Yes, I suppose so."" Would you have liked to be your own general?"""" No, but I wouldn't have minded commanding a platoon."" You would have had to obey another officer, wouldn't you?"""" Yes."" You mean you wouldn't have liked to command a whole division?"""" Hell no! Not unless I was the highest general."" Even then, wouldn't you have had to obey orders from above?"""" Sure, but maybe those orders would have been sensible orders. Who knows?"""" But who gave the orders to the gods, up above?"""" Nobody."" Then the State is better than the individual. In the State there's somebody to give the orders. In the individual there isn't any."""" That's true,"" said the interlocutor thoughtfully. ""And if you think about it, it's hard to imagine how an individual could live without obeying orders. Take my stomach, for instance. It gives me orders. If I didn't obey them, I'd die."""" Yes, that's true,"" said Socrates. ""But maybe the gods are like a big stomach. They give orders to everybody, and everybody obeys them."""" Maybe so,"" said the other. ""But does that make it just?"""" I think it does. Remember what we said before. The gods made us, and everything in the world. So they ought to know what's best for us and everything. Whatever they tell us to do must be for our benefit, and therefore just."""" Yes,"" said the other, ""but what's it got to do with justice in the State?"" Everything,"" said Socrates. ""We started out by saying that the State is like a single person. " +Language: English" "You know the old saying, you can't have your cake and eat it."""" I could do that."" You could, couldn't you? But you can't have your justice and be just either. So which do you want?"""" The answer was obvious; we both knew it, and to my mind he should have left it there without further words. He didn't. He went on talking, and for a long time after I had said I wanted justice he kept on talking about being just. It's easy enough in the State,"" he said. ""The State takes care of itself all right. That's what the State's for. It's just the individual that gets into trouble."""" How?"" There's no law against being just."" Then why is it so difficult?"" Because it's human nature."" Human nature isn't always bad."" No,"" he said, ""it isn't. But it's not always good either. Look at this room. Is it good or bad?"""" He turned up the light, and I looked at the dirty carpet and the empty bottles and glasses and cigarette ends. No,"" I said, ""it isn't good."" I'll tell you something better than that,"" he said. ""It isn't just. Suppose you were a lady here with a man friend. Would you bring him in here?"""" No."" Well then, would you feel any different if you thought this was a hotel where people stayed who wanted to be just instead of people who wanted to be good?"""" I shook my head. I don't think it makes much difference,"" I said. ""If they're just, they're likely to be good too."""" And vice versa,"" he said. ""And neither of them are very likely. Take this room, for instance. What's wrong with it?"""" Nothing."" Nothing? Nothing at all? It's dirty, it's messy, it's dangerous, and it smells. Isn't that enough?"""" Yes,"" I said. ""But suppose you were living in it, wouldn't you get used to it?"""" No,"" he said, ""I shouldn't. I'm like my mother. She's not an unreasonable woman, but she has funny ideas. One of them is that nothing is so dirty that you can't clean it."""" Yes?"" That's right. She says that if you haven't got the proper stuff for cleaning something, you should use soap and water, and if you haven't got soap and water, you should use sand and water, and if you haven't got any water you can use spit."""" Spit?"" Yes. She says that spit is just as good as water, and sometimes even better. I never tried it, though."""" Neither did I,"" I said. ""But I believe she's right."" And then I saw the point he was making. """"That's it!"""" I said. """"Just is like spit."""" Just like spit,"" he said. ""Exactly. If you haven't got anything else, use that."""" " 60 60 "Certainly, he said. Once more then, O my friend, we have alighted upon an easy question--whether the soul has these three principles or not? An easy question! Nay, rather, Socrates, the proverb holds that hardis the good. Very true, I said; and I do not think that the method which we areemploying is at all adequate to the accurate solution of this question;the true method is another and a longer one. Still we may arrive ata solution not below the level of the previous enquiry. @@ -1492,18 +1551,16 @@ Good. For example, I said, can the same thing be at rest and in motion atthe sam Impossible. Still, I said, let us have a more precise statement of terms, lestwe should hereafter fall out by the way. Imagine the case of a manwho is standing and also moving his hands and his head, and supposea person to say that one and the same person is in motion and at restat the same moment-to such a mode of speech we should object, andshould rather say that one part of him is in motion while anotheris at rest. Very true. And suppose the objector to refine still further, and to draw thenice distinction that not only parts of tops, but whole tops, whenthey spin round with their pegs fixed on the spot, are at rest andin motion at the same time (and he may say the same of anything whichrevolves in the same spot), his objection would not be admitted byus, because in such cases things are not at rest and in motion inthe same parts of themselves; we should rather say that they haveboth an axis and a circumference, and that the axis stands still,for there is no deviation from the perpendicular; and that the circumferencegoes round. But if, while revolving, the axis inclines either to theright or left, forwards or backwards, then in no point of view canthey be at rest. That is the correct mode of describing them, he replied. -Then none of these objections will confuse us, or incline us to believethat the same thing at the same time, in the same part or in relationto the same thing, can act or be acted upon in contrary ways." "Summary: The speaker discusses the question of whether the soul has three principles or not, and proposes a method for determining the answer. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Then none of these objections will confuse us, or incline us to believethat the same thing at the same time, in the same part or in relationto the same thing, can act or be acted upon in contrary ways." "Summary: The speaker discusses the principles and habits that exist in individuals and states, and debates whether these principles are three or one. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, the speaker +Literary form: Philosophical discussion +Active character: Socrates, interlocutor Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "If the soul has three principles, one of them must be asleep and the other two awake. The sleepers will be those who are not talking or being talked to; the wakers will be the talker and the person addressed."""" Well,"" said Socrates, ""that is simple enough, and I think I can manage it if you will only tell me how to set about it."""" Not at all,"" said the speaker. ""It's a matter of elementary psychology. When a man talks to himself he is talking to his own reason, which is the principle of common sense. Therefore the person addressed in this case will be the common-sense part of the soul."""" He paused again for a moment, then continued: Now listen carefully, because this next bit is rather tricky. When a man talks to his own conscience he is talking to an imaginary person, whom he imagines to be outside him, whereas really he is inside himself. So when a man talks to his conscience he is addressing somebody whom he imagines to be some distance away from him, although he really is very near indeed. Therefore when a man talks to his conscience, he will address the nearest person present as though he were some way off."""" Socrates looked puzzled, and seemed to be struggling with the problem. Then he asked: """"Is there any particular reason why we should suppose that the sleeper will always be the furthest person away?"""" Yes,"" replied the speaker sharply. ""The sleeping dogs lie, don't they? And dogs are animals, aren't they? Therefore the sleeper must be the animal in man, the lowest principle of the soul."""" But supposing there are no dogs?"" demanded Socrates. There won't be any dogs,"" replied the other harshly. ""I've taken every possible precaution against their turning up. They're too dangerous a risk. No, the sleeper will always be the furthest person away unless he happens to be a dog."""" I see,"" said Socrates, ""but what do you suggest I should do if there happen to be dogs about?"""" You'll have to shoot them,"" said the other brutally. ""That's your job, isn't it? It's what you're paid for. If you start worrying about the ethical side of it, you'll never get anywhere."""" Another pause followed, during which Socrates sat scowling thoughtfully into the fire. Then he began speaking in his turn. My friend,"" he said, ""I have been thinking hard about your little theory, and I am afraid I cannot agree with you. In the first place, it seems to me that you have made a mistake in your premises. You seem to take for granted that the sleeper will be the furthest person away. But why should he be? You yourself admit that the sleeper may be the nearest person present."""" Certainly,"" replied the other. ""But he can't be both the nearest and the furthest."" Why not?"" Because if he is nearest, he can't be furthest."" That is a fallacy,"" said Socrates. ""You assume that nearest and furthest are absolute terms. " +Language: English" The principles and habits which exist in every individual and State, whether they are three or one, are not difficult to discover. The way to find them is this:—First of all, try to define what the soul is; then you will more easily perceive also the nature of temperance and self-indulgence, courage, and cowardice, justice and injustice, wisdom and ignorance. For the soul is naturally akin to that which is by nature good, whereas the body is akin to that which is by nature evil. There are two sorts of animals, the tame and the wild, and of plants some are cultivated and others are wild. And there are two sorts of things among human beings, the one sort being the laws and institutions of the city, the other the pleasures of the body, which are akin to those of animals. And so it is evident that there must be two sorts of knowledge; for there are two sorts of object, and of these one is better and the other worse. One sort of knowledge will tell us how to take care of the soul, and how to preserve it, and how to set it free, and how to strengthen it, and how to get rid of the influences which are bad for it. The other sort of knowledge will tell us how to take care of the body, and how to preserve it, and how to set it free, and how to get rid of the influences which are bad for it. 61 61 "Certainly not, according to my way of thinking. Yet, I said, that we may not be compelled to examine all such objections,and prove at length that they are untrue, let us assume their absurdity,and go forward on the understanding that hereafter, if this assumptionturn out to be untrue, all the consequences which follow shall bewithdrawn. Yes, he said, that will be the best way. Well, I said, would you not allow that assent and dissent, desireand aversion, attraction and repulsion, are all of them opposites,whether they are regarded as active or passive (for that makes nodifference in the fact of their opposition)? Yes, he said, they are opposites. Well, I said, and hunger and thirst, and the desires in general, andagain willing and wishing, --all these you would refer to the classesalready mentioned. You would say --would you not? --that the soulof him who desires is seeking after the object of his desires; orthat he is drawing to himself the thing which he wishes to possess:or again, when a person wants anything to be given him, his mind,longing for the realisation of his desires, intimates his wish tohave it by a nod of assent, as if he had been asked a question? @@ -1518,12 +1575,16 @@ I do not know what you mean. Well, you know of course that the greater is relati Certainly. And the much greater to the much less? Yes. And the sometime greater to the sometime less, and the greater thatis to be to the less that is to be? Certainly, he said. And so of more and less, and of other correlative terms, such as thedouble and the half, or again, the heavier and the lighter, the swifterand the slower; and of hot and cold, and of any other relatives; --isnot this true of all of them? Yes. And does not the same principle hold in the sciences? The object ofscience is knowledge (assuming that to be the true definition), butthe object of a particular science is a particular kind of knowledge;I mean, for example, that the science of house-building is a kindof knowledge which is defined and distinguished from other kinds andis therefore termed architecture. -Certainly. Because it has a particular quality which no other has? Yes. And it has this particular quality because it has an object of a particularkind; and this is true of the other arts and sciences?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the concept of opposites and their relationship to desire and aversion. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Certainly. Because it has a particular quality which no other has? Yes. And it has this particular quality because it has an object of a particularkind; and this is true of the other arts and sciences?" "Summary: The speaker discusses opposites and their relationships in desire, thirst, and other concepts. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty +Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation -Active character: The speaker and the person they are speaking with" The difference between desire and aversion is the same as that between pleasure and pain; which, however, do not always arise from the objects themselves, but oftener from their opposite qualities. The one is a sensation of ease and satisfaction, the other of uneasiness and discontent; and he who is in one extreme will naturally be impatient till he arrives at the other. Hence it may happen that what you have chosen as an object of your desire, may be to another so odious, as to excite his aversion, when once possessed of it; and thus the greatest happiness to you may prove the greatest torment to him: for if there be any thing in this world, that deserves the name of evil, it must be where the person is deprived of all pleasure, and the most exquisite torments are felt by him who has attained that, which was the utmost end and aim of his wishes. But this being so far from answering the end of our desires, must be the most intolerable state of misery imaginable; since nothing can now be wanting to complete our felicity, but what will perpetually increase our miseries. Wherefore let no man presume to fix on himself, or another, any precise and determinate boundaries, either of good or evil; since things may appear to him very different, according to the state of his body, mind, age, education, disposition, company, humour, and numberless other circumstances, which cannot possibly be foreseen, much less comprehended. And therefore I would advise you to take the opinion of several persons, before you fix your choice on anything; and when once you have made the election, remember to look upon yourself as having given up all other things for that particular; otherwise you will find it easier to break through all the laws of God and men, than to make a strict and constant conformity to your own resolutions. It is true, you may alter your opinion; but then you must acknowledge that you did not know better at the time you first resolved, and consequently ought not to be blamed for acting according to your present apprehensions. Thus you see how easily we might remove all those scruples, which are apt to arise from the consideration of opposites, and set them at the right pitch, by observing the proper medium betwixt the extremes, which are equally to be avoided. For if men would be contented to pursue their pleasures with moderation, they would be less solicitous about the attainment of them; and would quickly find out, that, if every thing be weighed in the balance, no enjoyment is equal to that supreme felicity, which arises from the conscience of well-doing, and an entire resignation to the will of God. +Literary form: Philosophical argument +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" I’ll tell you what’s wrong with the world. There is nothing wrong with the world. It is wrong with the people in it. I’ll tell you what’s the matter with the human race. There is no human race. There are just a whole lot of people that are all different.” He took his hands out of his pockets and stood looking at me as if he had said something very profound indeed. “And then,” he went on, “there are opposites.” “Opposites?” I asked. “Yes, opposites,” he repeated. “That’s why there’s an East and a West. And North and South. That’s why there’s day and night. And a man and a woman. Opposites are better than the same thing over again, aren’t they? You’re for desire, aren’t you? Desire is an opposite, isn’t it? But thirst—that’s another opposite. A man’s got to have water. Thirst’s like desire. They both make him crazy, don’t they? Well, I’m thirsty, see? And I want some water.” With that he reached into his pocket and pulled out a black leather case. He took out a hypodermic needle and held it up between two dirty fingers. “I’m not going to shoot you this time,” he said. “But I’m going to give myself a shot. Then we’ll talk about thirst and desire and opposites.” He put the needle in his arm and pushed the plunger home. “There,” he said. “Now I can drink my water.” He handed me a half-pint flask. The whiskey was straight rye and so cheap that it had a sweetish taste like kerosene. I drank it down like water. “More?” he asked. I nodded. He handed me the flask again. This time the stuff tasted good. We were sitting on a little bench in the back of the alley behind the club. I sat still while he talked. “Thirst is a funny thing,” he said. “A man has to have water. Water is the basis of life. So you think a man would try to get a drink of water when he’s thirsty. Right?” “Right.” “But suppose you’re thirsty and you go to a spring and you find the spring has dried up? What do you do then? Are you satisfied to be thirsty because you can’t get water? No. Because you’re thirsty you’re going to get water. You’d be crazy not to. Only you’ve got to figure out some other way of getting it. That’s why men steal. That’s why men kill. Because they’re thirsty. They want something and they can’t get it any other way. So they take it.” “That’s why you killed M’Gonigle?” “Sure. Why not? He was standing in my way. He was trying to stop me from getting what I wanted. He had to be stopped. 62 62 "Yes. Now, then, if I have made myself clear, you will understand my originalmeaning in what I said about relatives. My meaning was, that if oneterm of a relation is taken alone, the other is taken alone; if oneterm is qualified, the other is also qualified. I do not mean to saythat relatives may not be disparate, or that the science of healthis healthy, or of disease necessarily diseased, or that the sciencesof good and evil are therefore good and evil; but only that, whenthe term science is no longer used absolutely, but has a qualifiedobject which in this case is the nature of health and disease, itbecomes defined, and is hence called not merely science, but the scienceof medicine. I quite understand, and I think as you do. Would you not say that thirst is one of these essentially relativeterms, having clearly a relation -- Yes, thirst is relative to drink. And a certain kind of thirst is relative to a certain kind of drink;but thirst taken alone is neither of much nor little, nor of goodnor bad, nor of any particular kind of drink, but of drink only? @@ -1537,16 +1598,16 @@ Yes, he said, we may fairly assume them to be different. Then let us finally determine that there are two principles existingin the soul. And what of passion, or spirit? Is it a third, or akinto one of the preceding? I should be inclined to say --akin to desire. Well, I said, there is a story which I remember to have heard, andin which I put faith. The story is, that Leontius, the son of Aglaion,coming up one day from the Piraeus, under the north wall on the outside,observed some dead bodies lying on the ground at the place of execution.He felt a desire to see them, and also a dread and abhorrence of them;for a time he struggled and covered his eyes, but at length the desiregot the better of him; and forcing them open, he ran up to the deadbodies, saying, Look, ye wretches, take your fill of the fair sight. I have heard the story myself, he said. The moral of the tale is, that anger at times goes to war with desire,as though they were two distinct things." "Summary: The text discusses the concept of relatives and their relationship to one another. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Two speakers engaged in a conversation +Active character: Speaker, Interlocutor Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" For the time being, I was interested only in relatives. “I mean real relatives,” he said. “That’s what it says here: ‘All relatives.’ Not aunts and uncles and stuff like that. It means all the people that are related to you by blood.” He looked at me. “Do you get what I mean?” I nodded, though I didn’t. “It’s got to be blood relatives,” he went on. “The law says they can’t burn up your blood relatives, unless they’re criminals or something. But everybody else is okay. Your grandmother’s okay. Your grandfather’s okay. Your cousin’s okay. All of them.” “Yes,” I said. “But why—” “Here it is,” he said, pointing to a page. “It says, ‘Burn every relative who has ever helped or encouraged you in any way whatsoever.’ And it says, ‘Burn every relative who has ever harmed you in any way whatsoever.’” He laughed. “See? It doesn’t say anything about whether or not they’re bad. You know what this is going to do to you? Your mother was always helping you when you were a kid, and your father too. So they’re both burned. If you had an uncle who gave you a dollar once, even if you don’t remember him, he’s burned. Because he helped you. But suppose you had another uncle who beat you with a belt one time when you were five years old. He’s burned too. Because he harmed you. You see how it works?” “Yes,” I said. “You see how it works,” he said again. “It’s good. It’s very good. This way they can burn everyone in the country, just the way they want. They can burn half the population.” He put his hand on my shoulder. “Are you ready now?” he said. “Yes,” I said. “Then let’s go,” he said. We walked out of the store and started across the street. The sky was overcast, and it seemed cold and bleak and empty, with no color at all, as though some great wind had swept everything away. As we walked along he said, “There used to be a lot of good things in America. A man could have a good life here. But then there was war after war after war, and nobody knew why or for what. After a while there wasn’t much left but death and violence and destruction. When I was a boy, I used to read stories about cowboys and Indians and soldiers and heroes. That was the kind of life most men wanted to live. Now it’s different. Most men don’t want to die. They want to live. They want to eat and sleep and make love and raise families and grow old and die in their beds. They want a quiet life. They don’t want to fight and kill and die. But that isn’t the kind of life they’re allowed to have. +Language: English" "They're my relatives, all right. But they don't amount to a hill of beans in this man's life."""" How do you mean?"" Like this. They may be my first cousins, but they ain't no better than any other kind. You can't trust them. They'll screw you for a nickel."""" Why are you so bitter?"" Because I'm smart. I know what I'm up against and it makes me bitter."""" What do you mean by that?"" The simple facts of life, buddy. You want to know how a guy like me can live in the same city with a guy like you? It's easy. I got a system. When I need money I go to my relatives."""" That's your system?"""" Sure, why not? I don't work. I've never worked in my life. I was born to be a parasite. My people have always been parasites. My father was a parasite. He used to draw a government pension because he was a war veteran. They gave him a couple of hundred bucks a month. He didn't do nothing to earn it, he just sat around. And he died when he was thirty-eight years old."""" So you think you're going to live to be one hundred and eighty?"""" No, but I'm going to make it last as long as I can."""" By conning your relatives?"" Yeah. Why not? They won't miss it. They're stinking rich. They don't know what it's like to be broke. They could give me ten thousand bucks and they wouldn't even notice it. Hell, they might give me ten thousand bucks just to get rid of me."""" You mean they hate you?"" Not exactly. I mean, they're good to me, but they don't understand me. That's what gets me sore. If they understood me they'd love me. They'd realize I'm just an overgrown kid. A big soft-hearted baby. I'm all heart."""" Well,"" I said, ""that sounds pretty complicated."" Sure it is. Ain't everything complicated? Complicated and tough and dirty and gritty and dark and harsh and vivid and deep. Look at life. Look at yourself. Are you simple and sweet and white and clean and smooth and shallow and empty?"""" No,"" I said, ""I guess not."" Well, then,"" he said, ""what right have you got to criticize me? How do you know I'm wrong? How do you know I'm bad?"""" I started to say something about his being violent, but I checked it. It would have been useless. He wasn't listening to me anyway. He had another idea. He'd found a new way to defend himself. " 63 63 "Yes; that is the meaning, he said. And are there not many other cases in which we observe that when aman's desires violently prevail over his reason, he reviles himself,and is angry at the violence within him, and that in this struggle,which is like the struggle of factions in a State, his spirit is onthe side of his reason; --but for the passionate or spirited elementto take part with the desires when reason that she should not be opposed,is a sort of thing which thing which I believe that you never observedoccurring in yourself, nor, as I should imagine, in any one else? Certainly not. Suppose that a man thinks he has done a wrong to another, the noblerhe is the less able is he to feel indignant at any suffering, suchas hunger, or cold, or any other pain which the injured person mayinflict upon him --these he deems to be just, and, as I say, his angerrefuses to be excited by them. True, he said. But when he thinks that he is the sufferer of the wrong, then he boilsand chafes, and is on the side of what he believes to be justice;and because he suffers hunger or cold or other pain he is only themore determined to persevere and conquer. His noble spirit will notbe quelled until he either slays or is slain; or until he hears thevoice of the shepherd, that is, reason, bidding his dog bark no more. @@ -1566,13 +1627,16 @@ That follows, of course. We cannot but remember that the justice of the State co We are not very likely to have forgotten, he said. We must recollect that the individual in whom the several qualitiesof his nature do their own work will be just, and will do his ownwork? Yes, he said, we must remember that too. And ought not the rational principle, which is wise, and has the careof the whole soul, to rule, and the passionate or spirited principleto be the subject and ally?" "Summary: The text discusses the relationship between reason, passion, and desire in the human soul. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical dialogue -Active character: Socrates, Glaucon" Socrates. Jetzt, da wir uns ber die Natur der Tugend und des Lasters unterhalten haben, mu ich mich wundern, da wir nicht auch von der alten Frage reden, ob der Vernunft oder der Leidenschaft Vorrang gebhrt, wie du in deinen Phantasien wohl mehr als einmal behauptet hast. Glaukon. Das ist eine ganz neue Frage, die ich noch nie gehrt habe. Socrates. Hm! das verwundert mich! Ich dachte, man habe sie dir schon oft genug gestellt, wenn du dich um deine Wnsche bemhen willst. Denn nicht allein, wer sein eigen Ding treiben will, hat mit sich selbst zu tun; sondern auch, wer ein anderes Menschen Ding machen will, mu mit sich selbst handeln, wenn er etwas zu Stande bringen will. Denn es ist doch nicht mglich, da ein Mensch aus seiner Seele nur dasjenige, was ihm notwendig ist, hervorbringt, weil er nicht ntig hat, was er tglich fr Nahrung und Kleider braucht. Wenn nun dasjenige, womit er sich nhrte, ihn freilich ntigte, so wre es leicht, zu begreifen, wie er nur durch den Druck der Not zur Tat gezwungen wird. Aber wie kommt es, da, sobald er sich wieder geffnet sieht, er sogleich hintrinkt und weiter isst, whrend er sonst nichts so sehr verabscheut als Trinken und Essen? Wie kann er nachher das gleiche tun, das er eben noch verabscheute? Haben wir denn zwei Seelen, eine bessere und eine schlimmere, die sich wechselseitig bekmpfen? Oder ist es nur eine und dieselbe, die ein und demselben Menschen zwei widersprechende Forderungen stellt, ohne da er ihr widerstehen knnte? Oder sind wir vielleicht nicht imstande, unser Wesen zu erkennen? Wieviel Bitteres und Unerquickliches habe ich schon gesehen, das die Menschen gleichsam zum Genusse ihrer Sinne niedertrinken und essen! Und wenn wir vom Geschmack des Lebens abstrahieren, so wrde das auch gelten, was wir zur Nahrung des Geistes nuzen: Aufklrung, Bildung, Kenntnisse, Kunst und Wissenschaft, alles, was uns Klarheit verschafft, zu verstehen, was uns umgibt, und alles, worin unsere Persnlichkeit, unser Bestand besteht. Ich fr meinen Teil habe das Gefhl, da diese Dinge nicht anders als durch die Leidenschaften gefragt werden knnen, ja da die Einsicht nicht mehr als die Strke eines Menschen bedeutet, da seine Begierden und Talente sein Talent sind, seine Erkenntnis aber sein Vermgen. Ich meine nicht das Erwarten, Wnschen, Hoffen, das Verlangen nach dem Guten oder Schlimmen, das Empfinden der Freude und des Lems, sondern die groen und starken Leidenschaften, wie Zorn, Liebe, Hoffnung, Mut, Anmut, Bescheidenheit, Stolz, Besessenheit, Eifersucht, Neid, Hartherzigkeit, Reue usw., kurz, alles, was einen Menschen triebhaft macht, so da er sich in seinen Strebungen verliert, mit sich selbst kmpft, das Unglck sucht und um das Glck ringt. +Literary form: Conversation +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon +Quoted work: Homer's poetry +Language: English" It is not easy to say whether the soul in this life resembles most that of a lion or that of a dog, since it combines the characteristics of both. And yet if you look at the soul with your own eyes and observe how it behaves, as a whole, in its relation to reason, you will be able to decide for yourself which of these two animals comes closest to its likeness. For, indeed, if someone were to take up the question with us as though he had never heard anything about it before, we might well tell him that the human soul was divided into three parts: the part that reasons and deliberates, which one might call the best part, after the model of which the gods have been fashioned in their resemblance to men; then there is the second part, which is passionate and angry; and third, the part which desires food and other bodily pleasures. Now when this third part is ruling, the man becomes like a wild beast, especially if his passions are aroused by drinking and other excesses, and he makes no use whatever of reason or calculation but follows only his appetites. In such a state he is incapable of any action which requires intelligence or self-control; nor is he fit for military service or political leadership, since he can’t even take care of himself, much less anyone else. He will only be fit for being driven around by someone else, and will be an object of ridicule and abuse to those who see him. But when the spirited part rules over him and he is angry, he is like a fierce and wild beast, which is full of courage, and will fight fiercely against all comers, though he doesn’t know what he is fighting for, and is also unable to endure pain or fear anything, but rushes headlong into danger with cries and shouts. This is why Homer represents him as “brave but mad”, and says that he fights without sense or forethought. The result is that whenever he happens to fall in with a courageous man who is also intelligent and has good judgment, he is easily overcome and subdued by him, even though he may be physically stronger than his opponent. Hence the saying that “strength is the servant of wisdom”. As for the rational part of the soul, when it alone rules, the man becomes gentle and peaceful, and free from anger and desire, and is the easiest of all men to lead and govern, just as the person who is asleep is easily moved by anyone who wants to wake him up and make him follow wherever he leads. But when the other two parts of the soul are united with reason and work together with it, then the soul is said to be in the best condition, and the man is said to be brave, moderate and sensible, and altogether good and happy. For when the three elements of the soul are harmonious and working in unison, the man will be sure to be a fine soldier, to rule a city or lead an expedition, and to be able to manage his private affairs prudently. 64 64 "Certainly. And, as we were saying, the united influence of music and gymnasticwill bring them into accord, nerving and sustaining the reason withnoble words and lessons, and moderating and soothing and civilizingthe wildness of passion by harmony and rhythm? Quite true, he said. And these two, thus nurtured and educated, and having learned trulyto know their own functions, will rule over the concupiscent, whichin each of us is the largest part of the soul and by nature most insatiableof gain; over this they will keep guard, lest, waxing great and strongwith the fulness of bodily pleasures, as they are termed, the concupiscentsoul, no longer confined to her own sphere, should attempt to enslaveand rule those who are not her natural-born subjects, and overturnthe whole life of man? Very true, he said. Both together will they not be the best defenders of the whole souland the whole body against attacks from without; the one counselling,and the other fighting under his leader, and courageously executinghis commands and counsels? @@ -1590,16 +1654,18 @@ Impossible. No one will be less likely to commit adultery, or to dishonour hisfa No one. And the reason is that each part of him is doing its own business,whether in ruling or being ruled? Exactly so. Are you satisfied then that the quality which makes such men and suchstates is justice, or do you hope to discover some other? Not I, indeed. Then our dream has been realised; and the suspicion which we entertainedat the beginning of our work of construction, that some divine powermust have conducted us to a primary form of justice, has now beenverified? -Yes, certainly. And the division of labour which required the carpenter and the shoemakerand the rest of the citizens to be doing each his own business, andnot another's, was a shadow of justice, and for that reason it wasof use?" "Summary: The text discusses the relationship between music, gymnastics, and the soul, emphasizing the importance of balance and harmony in human nature. +Yes, certainly. And the division of labour which required the carpenter and the shoemakerand the rest of the citizens to be doing each his own business, andnot another's, was a shadow of justice, and for that reason it wasof use?" "Summary: The text discusses the relationship between music, gymnastic, and the soul, emphasizing the importance of balance and harmony in governing emotions and desires. +Trope: Organized crime Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation +Literary form: Philosophical argument Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker and his interlocutor" "Eines Tages erzhlte ich ihm, da der Mensch ein Instrument sei und die Musik sein Blser. Er nickte nachdenklich und meinte: """"In der Tat! Wenn man den Menschen ausser Atem setzt und ihn mit Gymnastik anfhrt, so ist das wie eine Walkyre, die einen Saiteninstrument-Bauernhof in Ordnung bringt."""" Mir war nicht wohl zumute. Ich frchtete, er habe sich im Alkohol verstrickt. Man hat oft Lust, etwas zu sagen, das man eigentlich gar nicht meint. Aber was ich htte sagen knnen, wenn ich mir im Grunde meine eigenen Gedanken vllig ehrlich eingesprungen htte? Mein Freund hatte recht. Der Mensch ist ein Instrument. Und was die Musik betrifft, so ist sie nichts als der Daseinssinn des Lebens. Niemals kann man sie verstehen, wenn man nicht selbst von ihr berwltigt wird. Es geht das Gerchl umher, die Musik sei ein Vergngen der Sinne und der Leidenschaften. Das stimmt nicht. Sie ergreift uns, weil wir keine Sinne mehr haben, die wir unterdrcken knnten. Die Musik, sagt Nietzsche, sei eine Stimmung. In Wirklichkeit ist sie viel mehr noch: sie ist der Grundstimmung. Was wir Stimmung nennen, ist blo ein besonderer Fall der musikalischen Empfindung. Wer jemals auf dem Rckweg von einer Kirchenmusik oder einem Konzert merkt, da er nicht heim will, sondern nur noch ein paar Stunden lnger bleiben mchte, der wei, wovon ich rede. Man hat niemals genug von der Musik. Wie soll es aber kommen, da wir in diesem neuen Kriege immer wieder auf die Nerven kommen, obwohl alles so schn und fest bereitet ist? Weil unsere Seele ganz falsch eingerichtet ist. Sie will nicht in den allgemeinen Formen unserer Zeit leben. Wir sind noch barbarisch, aber wir wollen schon zivilisiert sein. Deshalb gibt es keinen Frieden. Jeder verwirrt sich, jeder wird rasend, und diejenigen, die am besten verstanden haben, warum sie rasend werden, sind die blutigsten. Sie glauben nicht daran, da sie mit Gewalt durchsetzen knnen, was sie wollen, also machen sie es so: Sie setzen ihre Willenskraft in Kraft, ohne sich um ihren Willen zu kmmern. Sie zerren an der Mauer, nicht weil sie sie abbrechen wollen, sondern um sich zu verteidigen. Dafr steht ihnen der Rest der Welt gegenber, der die Mauer mssen lassen will. So bekommt man zwei furchtbare Krper, beide angestrengt, beide erregt. Eine starke Seele ist eine kluge Seele. Wir sind schwach und leicht zu reizen. Wir leiden unter dem physischen Stress, dem wir gegenber stehen, und der Stress macht uns rasend. Wir mssen uns doch in diesem neuen Kriege zusammennehmen! Wir mssen unseren Geist auf unsern Korper legen, um das Gleichgewicht herzustellen! Wir haben die Kunst, die Natur und die Geschichte unter einen Hut gebracht. Warum bringen wir dann nicht auch unsre seelische Seite hinein? Warum wollen wir nicht auch die Harmonie zwischen der Seele und dem Korper herstellen? Der Mensch ist der einzige lebende Organismus, dem die Seele fehlt. Die anderen Tiere haben sie, aber nicht so stark wie wir. Das kommt daher, da sie kein Gefhl fr die Zeit haben. " +Active character: Socrates, interlocutor +Language: English" Music and gymnastic are the two branches of education. Music is a thing to be taken seriously, because it is something that has power over the soul; and if we are not careful, music may govern us in such a way that we shall be led into doing things which will make us our own worst enemies. Now I suppose you know that there are three kinds of sounds, high, low, and middle. And four kinds of rhythms, fast, slow, long, and short. Well then, when you have got these three sorts of sounds or notes under control, and these four sorts of rhythms as well, then you must try to combine them all in as many ways as possible, until at last they become one with each other. And when you have done this, then you will find that there is only one kind of harmony left, and that harmony is the same for everyone, both young and old, men and women, Greeks and barbarians. And when you have found out what this harmony is, then you will have discovered the principle of good. You see how important music is, because it gives order to the soul and makes it strong and healthy, and preserves it from disorder. It also helps us to remember the principal facts of mathematics, which are taught in metre, and so we can easily recall them. For instance, you understand that there are two methods of measuring the soul. One of these measures is the diatonic scale, and the other is the chromatic scale. The diatonic scale consists of five strings, which represent the five regular figures, and the chromatic scale consists of seven strings, which represent the seven irreg- ular figures. You see, then, that the soul is divided into the diatonic and the chromatic. Now the diatonic scale is akin to Apollo, who is the god of light; but the chromatic scale is akin to Dionysus, who is the god of darkness. So whenever we are moved by any passion, we must always try to banish the dark passions, and bring in the bright ones instead. For example, suppose that a man becomes angry, then he must try to put away his anger, and replace it by some feeling that is calm and peaceful. For anger is of the nature of the chromatic scale, and peace is of the nature of the diatonic scale; and therefore we must always try to banish the dark and bring in the bright. Again, suppose that a man is filled with jealousy, then he must try to get rid of his jealousy, and substitute love in its place. For jealousy is of the nature of the chromatic scale, and love is of the nature of the diatonic scale; and therefore we must always try to banish the dark and bring in the bright. 65 65 "Clearly. But in reality justice was such as we were describing, being concernedhowever, not with the outward man, but with the inward, which is thetrue self and concernment of man: for the just man does not permitthe several elements within him to interfere with one another, orany of them to do the work of others, --he sets in order his own innerlife, and is his own master and his own law, and at peace with himself;and when he has bound together the three principles within him, whichmay be compared to the higher, lower, and middle notes of the scale,and the intermediate intervals --when he has bound all these together,and is no longer many, but has become one entirely temperate and perfectlyadjusted nature, then he proceeds to act, if he has to act, whetherin a matter of property, or in the treatment of the body, or in someaffair of politics or private business; always thinking and callingthat which preserves and co-operates with this harmonious condition,just and good action, and the knowledge which presides over it, wisdom,and that which at any time impairs this condition, he will call unjustaction, and the opinion which presides over it ignorance. You have said the exact truth, Socrates. Very good; and if we were to affirm that we had discovered the justman and the just State, and the nature of justice in each of them,we should not be telling a falsehood? Most certainly not. May we say so, then? Let us say so. And now, I said, injustice has to be considered. Clearly. Must not injustice be a strife which arises among the three principles--a meddlesomeness, and interference, and rising up of a part of thesoul against the whole, an assertion of unlawful authority, whichis made by a rebellious subject against a true prince, of whom heis the natural vassal, --what is all this confusion and delusion butinjustice, and intemperance and cowardice and ignorance, and everyform of vice? @@ -1615,20 +1681,18 @@ Assuredly. Still our old question of the comparative advantage of justice andinj In my judgment, Socrates, the question has now become ridiculous.We know that, when the bodily constitution is gone, life is no longerendurable, though pampered with all kinds of meats and drinks, andhaving all wealth and all power; and shall we be told that when thevery essence of the vital principle is undermined and corrupted, lifeis still worth having to a man, if only he be allowed to do whateverhe likes with the single exception that he is not to acquire justiceand virtue, or to escape from injustice and vice; assuming them bothto be such as we have described? Yes, I said, the question is, as you say, ridiculous. Still, as weare near the spot at which we may see the truth in the clearest mannerwith our own eyes, let us not faint by the way. Certainly not, he replied. Come up hither, I said, and behold the various forms of vice, thoseof them, I mean, which are worth looking at. -I am following you, he replied: proceed. I said, The argument seems to have reached a height from which, asfrom some tower of speculation, a man may look down and see that virtueis one, but that the forms of vice are innumerable; there being fourspecial ones which are deserving of note." "Summary: The text discusses the concepts of justice, injustice, and virtue through a conversation between two characters. -Trope: The contrast between good and evil -Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +I am following you, he replied: proceed. I said, The argument seems to have reached a height from which, asfrom some tower of speculation, a man may look down and see that virtueis one, but that the forms of vice are innumerable; there being fourspecial ones which are deserving of note." "Summary: The text discusses the concepts of justice, injustice, and virtue through a dialogue between two characters. +Narrative arc: Philosophical exploration and discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation +Literary form: Dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, interlocutor +Active character: Socrates Time setting: 1950s -Fuzzy place: Unnamed location -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "Ngaunye, kalo ka angkot sa balay n~g Sinamanagpangulngulan? N~gausap ka ba kan~g mag ulo? Kay sa imong pagsilang? Kay sa imong panahon sa dun~ga? Kay sa imong matuod nga gipakalabngan? Sa pagkaon nga wal n~g kahoy? Sa pagkaon nga wal n~g tinapay? Sa pagkamad niining mga pilay? Sa pagtuman~gon mo'ng ma'y halos wal n~g sinumpa? Sino ang mahimutang makasubo n~g kalipay sa inyong huna-hunaan? Ikaw man! Kung wala man ka'y isigkatawohan. Sino? Ang tanang pilay dito sa lansangan? Oh! ayuhin ko sila. Ayuhin mo! ang taga-pugngan kan~g bulok nga pilay na! Oh! ayuhin mo sila. Usapan nato niining libo ka tawo. Sila'y mga pilay; usapan nato us ka pilay: kaniya us ka pilay; us naman us ka pilay. Makaingat kang magsukol: wala'y bag-ong pilay dili ang iyaha. Maayo ka'y may kasikan. Puslaka! Paano ang kahibalo sa iya? Sa buhat! ang ikapitls n~g kainitan. Ayan, sama ka! Dili ka makasalmatan! Oh! salamatn ko ka gayud! Maoy pangkatinod nga sugdan sa kaniya. N~gasulti ka ug sulti nga sulit-sulti. Wal n~g lin~go-an. Bati't higayon ka didto, kay masama ka ug ma'ya sa tawo. Mao nay daog-dao ana ug sultihon. Diin miwala ang ginagmay n~g iya'y? Uwah! duh? Yana si Socrates, ilabi na sa Sugbo ug unya sa Cebu: yan siya'y nanagbantay n~g mga pilay nga iya malubngon! Ania ang iya'y kabtng? Kadto. Kadto kaya'y busa. Sino ang ma'y diin kamtanan ang pagtuman~gon? Siya man! ang Socrates! Ah! ma, it's a pity that you are not as clever as he is!"""" As the interlocutor was speaking, Socrates kept on examining him with his piercing eyes. " +Language: English" "I have always been struck with the fact that you never seem to lose your temper over anything. I suppose it comes of being so just."""" It does,"" said Socrates, ""and that is why I am called Just-tempered. It is a better name than Short-tempered or Cross-eyed or Hairy-chested."""" (He had these last three in plenty.) The trouble about people who are always calling for justice,"" he continued, ""is that they never mean what they say. For instance, when you call me unjust, do you really mean that I am not doing the right thing by you?"""" Of course I don't."" Then what do you mean?"" I mean that you ought to be treated like everybody else. You can't have everything your own way."""" How do you know?"" Because it's unfair."" But if it isn't fair, how can it be just?"" That's where you're wrong. If you're my friend, I want you to be treated as well as everybody else; and if you're not my friend, I want you to be punished like everybody else. And there's no one else like you, so you can't be treated like everybody else, and you deserve to be punished. So it's just."""" You make me tired!"" said Socrates crossly. Now we come to the point,"" he went on. ""You have invented a new kind of injustice which has never been heard of before. In your scheme of things, justice means treating everyone the same, and injustice means treating anyone differently from the rest."""" Yes, I agree with that,"" said the other. Then you must admit that I am just."" Why?"" Because you treat me exactly like everyone else, namely, you beat me up whenever you feel like it, without any regard to whether I'm a friend or an enemy."""" He laughed harshly. """"That's true enough. That's the way everybody behaves here, isn't it?"""" No, it isn't,"" said Socrates firmly. ""It's not the way I behave. When I am angry with someone, I try to reason with him, and I tell him all the bad things about himself that I can think of. Isn't that what you'd call treating him fairly?"""" Fair enough. But you must remember that this is the only place in the world where people ever talk sense. All the others are full of cowards, fools and lunatics, and they'll hit you if you try to argue with them."""" We'll leave them out of it, then,"" said Socrates. ""Let's consider this place first. Is it fair to punish people for the things they do, even though they didn't know they were wrong?"""" Certainly not."" And is it fair to punish them for crimes they didn't commit?"""" Not unless they admit them."" " 66 66 "What do you mean? he said. I mean, I replied, that there appear to be as many forms of the soulas there are distinct forms of the State. How many? There are five of the State, and five of the soul, I said. What are they? The first, I said, is that which we have been describing, and whichmay be said to have two names, monarchy and aristocracy, accordinglyas rule is exercised by one distinguished man or by many. @@ -1645,18 +1709,16 @@ To that resolution, said Glaucon, you may regard me as saying Agreed. Socrates - ADEIMANTUS - GLAUCON - THRASYMACHUS And without more ado, said Thrasymachus, you may consider us all tobe equally agreed. I said, You know not what you are doing in thus assailing me: Whatan argument are you raising about the State! Just as I thought thatI had finished, and was only too glad that I had laid this questionto sleep, and was reflecting how fortunate I was in your acceptanceof what I then said, you ask me to begin again at the very foundation,ignorant of what a hornet's nest of words you are stirring. Now Iforesaw this gathering trouble, and avoided it. -For what purpose do you conceive that we have come here, said Thrasymachus,--to look for gold, or to hear discourse?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the different forms of the soul and the State, while being interrupted by another character who suggests letting the speaker off. The conversation then shifts to discussing the family life and community of women and children. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +For what purpose do you conceive that we have come here, said Thrasymachus,--to look for gold, or to hear discourse?" "Summary: The text discusses the different forms of the soul and the State, as well as the importance of family life in a society. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, Glaucon, Adeimantus -Quoted character: Pole marchus +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon, Adeimantus, Thrasymachus Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" There are three of them. And the same applies to the soul, for in each of us there are these three principles, one with a golden nature and another with a silver, and the third with a brazen or an iron nature. The best soul is ruled by the divine part, which is also the smallest; the second best by the spirited part; and the worst by the largest part of it, the appetites. And when they quarrel with one another, then the whole city is in turmoil.” “What you say,” Glaucon said, “is not very reassuring. But I gather that you are now going to tell us what sort of State we ought to aim at establishing?” “Wait a little,” Socrates said. “You must not expect me to have all the answers ready. It will take some time before we shall see clearly enough to be able to answer your question. Meanwhile, since we have wandered so far from our starting point, perhaps we had better try to find it again. In other words, let us consider what kind of men the rulers of our State should be. Do you think it would be possible to discover them if we assumed that they were as young as possible? Would not this be better than assuming that they are as old as possible?” “How could that possibly help us?” Glaucon asked. “Why, my dear Glaucon,” Socrates replied, “because if the rulers are to be as young as possible, they will need only a small piece of gold to carry out their work, whereas if they are to be as old as possible, they will need a large quantity.” Adeimantus broke in here: “I don’t understand what you mean. You seem to be talking about a puppet show rather than a serious discussion. Perhaps Polemarchus will explain it to me.” He turned to Polemarchus. “What’s all this nonsense about puppets?” he asked. “Socrates was talking about a state,” Polemarchus explained. “But now he seems to want to talk about marionettes.” “Not at all,” Socrates said. “The two things are closely connected. You must remember that every State contains many elements, but only one of these can rule, while the rest must be content to obey. Now when we look at the different elements in a State, some of them are like puppets with gold strings, others with silver strings, and others with brass strings. And the strings must be attached to the heads of the rulers, who have to make the puppets dance. If they are young and strong, and the strings are attached to them while they are still children, the puppets will dance lightly, because the strings will be short; but if they become old and weak, they will have to bend down or even get down on all fours in order to make the puppets dance. +Language: English" "There are three forms of soul, one divine, another mortal, and a third in between these; and the State which is composed of all of them is best. The same is true of man."""" But you didn't say how they are divided,"" said Glaucon. Yes, I did,"" he replied, ""but you never listened."" He who has been trained from childhood upwards in the proper music will find nothing ridiculous in this thing or anything else that is said; he will be able to take it in silence, and will not cast up his eyes and twist his head, and put on an expression of unholy ridicule; for he has within him a divine faculty which refuses to act until it has obtained truth from reason; and if any one compels it to give an opinion before it has arrived at the truth, it turns away from him in disgust, and being indignant at the interference, refuses to answer and continues silent, just as others of their kind do with their masters when angry with them. This is why he who would be fit to receive education must have a good memory, quick to learn, and must be capable of observing resemblances and differences; also he must not be too hasty in his judgments. Now the faculty which most nearly resembles this power of discrimination is the sense of sight; therefore the first element in education should be sight.... And so we shall go on filling the soul of our future guardians with good principles until at last we make them good. Then we shall bring them to the place where all gods and spirits exercise honourable sports, which we call gymnastics, and there we shall persuade them that the gods are their friends in war, both because they support and preserve them and help them to vanquish their enemies, and also because they punish those of them who sin against the State. For example, when Sparta goes out to war, the oracle promises us the aid of the son of Styx; we believe her promise, and hence we are victorious. And this is not surprising; for in every alliance some one ought to be the chief; now the gods are our allies, and we ought to be theirs; and therefore, when one of our soldiers is about to die, having given orders to his friends, he should calmly and reverently wait for death, in the belief that he will forthwith be taken home by his ancient saviours and benefactors, and after dying be honoured by them. But if he dies without leaving any sons, then his brother, if he is brave, and in general any other friend or kinsman whom he leaves behind, succeeds him, and the state makes over his wife to him to live with him according to the law, and the children are regarded as the issue of him and of their father, and are cared for by the state. " 67 67 "Yes, but discourse should have a limit. Yes, Socrates, said Glaucon, and the whole of life is the only limitwhich wise men assign to the hearing of such discourses. But nevermind about us; take heart yourself and answer the question in yourown way: What sort of community of women and children is this whichis to prevail among our guardians? and how shall we manage the periodbetween birth and education, which seems to require the greatest care?Tell us how these things will be. Yes, my simple friend, but the answer is the reverse of easy; manymore doubts arise about this than about our previous conclusions.For the practicability of what is said may be doubted; and lookedat in another point of view, whether the scheme, if ever so practicable,would be for the best, is also doubtful. Hence I feel a reluctanceto approach the subject, lest our aspiration, my dear friend, shouldturn out to be a dream only. Fear not, he replied, for your audience will not be hard upon you;they are not sceptical or hostile. @@ -1672,17 +1734,18 @@ No, he said, they share alike; the only difference between them isthat the males But can you use different animals for the same purpose, unless theyare bred and fed in the same way? You cannot. Then, if women are to have the same duties as men, they must havethe same nurture and education? Yes. The education which was assigned to the men was music and gymnastic.Yes. -Then women must be taught music and gymnastic and also the art ofwar, which they must practise like the men?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the topic of women and children in a community and their roles in society. -Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Then women must be taught music and gymnastic and also the art ofwar, which they must practise like the men?" "Summary: The text discusses the role of women and children in a community and their education. +Narrative arc: Intellectual discussion and argument +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Dialogue +Literary form: Philosophical conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, Glaucon -Time setting: 1950s" The talk had turned to the topic of women and children in a community, and how they should be treated. Socrates was speaking. ‘My dear Glaucon,’ he said, ‘we must keep them out of sight of the rest of us, until we have arranged for the breeding of our young.’ ‘Why?’ ‘Because if we let them grow up with us, they will get into all sorts of mischief. They will become lazy and idle, and they’ll spoil our work. I tell you, Glaucon, it’s better to treat them like animals, and keep them separate from us. That way, they can be useful to us when they are needed; but they won’t interfere with our plans for perfecting the State.’ Glaucon nodded his head in agreement. He was just about to open his mouth and say something more, when there was an urgent knocking at the door. The two men looked at each other. ‘Who is it?’ asked Socrates. ‘It’s Mike,’ said the voice from outside. ‘Mike? What do you want?’ Mike opened the door and came in. He looked scared. ‘It’s the wife,’ he said. ‘What about her?’ ‘She’s gone.’ ‘Gone? Where to?’ ‘I don’t know. She packed a bag and said she was going to visit her mother. I tried to stop her, but she wouldn’t listen.’ Socrates sighed. ‘Well,’ he said, ‘that’s that, then. We’d better go and find her.’ Mike nodded. ‘You take care of things here, Glaucon,’ said Socrates. ‘We’ll go and see what’s up.’ * * * * * * They found Mrs. Smith sitting on the bed in their hotel room. She was crying quietly to herself. She stopped when they came in. ‘What’s the matter?’ said Socrates. ‘Why are you crying?’ ‘I’ve changed my mind,’ sobbed Mrs. Smith. ‘I don’t want to leave you after all.’ Socrates sat down on the edge of the bed and put his arm around her shoulders. ‘Don’t worry,’ he said. ‘Everything will be all right. Why did you change your mind?’ ‘I thought about it,’ said Mrs. Smith. ‘And I realized that this wasn’t a good place for me. I’m not cut out for a life of crime. I want to go back to my husband and my little boy. I want to live a quiet life, and bring them up properly.’ Socrates smiled. ‘That’s fine,’ he said. ‘I’m glad you’ve seen sense. But where do you think you’re going to find them now? You told me you didn’t know where they were.’ ‘Yes,’ said Mrs. Smith, ‘but I know where they used to live. And I’m sure they’ll still be there. My husband’s a very loyal man. He’s not the kind to run off and leave his family. He’ll still be living in the same house, waiting for me to come back. +Active character: Glaucon, Socrates +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" Now the women would have their share of this, too; they would live together with us, and be our comrades and partners in the work. And if any woman was not fit to take her part in it, we should say that she was idle, and by Zeus! we should send her away somewhere to some other place, wherever we pleased. And as for the children, Glaucon, we must beg and entreat the gods to give them up, if they will, and if not we must steal them away; and then there may be a hope of our city becoming good and of the nature of men becoming noble. For if the children are of good nature, as the saying is, the rest will follow both in the cities and in individuals; but if they are of an inferior sort, all else is useless. But still I think that even such as they will have their uses in the cities, if there are good gymnastic schools for them. Or do you think that the children ought to be deprived of gymnastics, or not? GLAUCON. I am of opinion that they ought to be instructed in them, for they are pleasant and by their very nature healthy. SOCRATES. Yes, indeed they are, and moreover they make strong and courageous men of those who are naturally weak and cowardly. So we shall have no objection to raising these children of ours whom we mean to be warriors, from their earliest years on horseback, and let them ride every day in battle array, and learn military exercises, and fight against heavy armour until they are used to it, and so when their turn comes they will be brave men. GLAUCON. That is excellent. SOCRATES. Very good; but what is to be the next step? Must we not look after the education and training of their souls, as well as of their bodies? And first there must be nurses who will rock them in their cradles, and afterwards rock-beds, and then cots and cradles again, and after that little chairs, and tables, and little stools, and other similar arrangements, until coming forth from bed they play about and run around in every sort of way and at last grow up. Now must we not provide in the same manner for them when they are older? Shall we not furnish them with schoolmasters and teachers, who will teach them to read and write, and also music, and dancing, and wrestling, and gymnastics, and everything else which will make them sound in body and mind? Are you going to allow them to have no schooling? Or shall we provide them with masters of rhetoric, and grammar, and politics, and law, and all the other studies which we were just now enumerating? If we do this, and they have nothing to do when they have grown up except to live the life of a rich man, it would be ridiculous. GLAUCON. Certainly it would. SOCRATES. Then we must appoint them magistrates and secretaries, and when they are grown up, officers and colonels, and generals, and kings, and captains, and presidents, and governors of states, and presidents of assemblies, and presidents of courts of justice, and senators, and priests, and interpreters, and ambassadors, and heralds, and judges, and leaders of armies, and all sorts of rulers and overseers, and when they grow old they must be given counsellors and advisers. 68 68 "That is the inference, I suppose. I should rather expect, I said, that several of our proposals, ifthey are carried out, being unusual, may appear ridiculous. No doubt of it. Yes, and the most ridiculous thing of all will be the sight of womennaked in the palaestra, exercising with the men, especially when theyare no longer young; they certainly will not be a vision of beauty,any more than the enthusiastic old men who in spite of wrinkles andugliness continue to frequent the gymnasia. Yes, indeed, he said: according to present notions the proposal wouldbe thought ridiculous. @@ -1697,17 +1760,16 @@ These are the objections, Glaucon, and there are many others of alike kind, whic By Zeus, he said, the problem to be solved is anything but easy. Why yes, I said, but the fact is that when a man is out of his depth,whether he has fallen into a little swimming bath or into mid-ocean,he has to swim all the same. Very true. And must not we swim and try to reach the shore: we will hope thatArion's dolphin or some other miraculous help may save us?" "Summary: The text discusses the proposal of women participating in activities usually reserved for men, such as exercising and wearing armor. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, Glaucon Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "There was something about the way he said it that made me realize he meant it. I could see him in his mind's eye, like some Greek hero of old, exercising with sword and shield, wearing armor, growing big and strong and red-blooded. It was a terrific vision. And then I saw it all come crashing down around his ears. Women in exercise suits on the beach! Women at the gym! Women in bathing caps playing golf! Women wearing armor! It sounded like a Hitchcock movie. Well, I'll be damned,"" he said when he got through laughing. ""I guess you're right."""" The doorbell rang. Glaucon groaned. Socrates opened the door. A woman stood there in a pink sweater and blue slacks. She was middle-aged and had her hair done up in a bun. Her face was round and pudgy, her lips were painted bright red, and she was smiling. Hello, Mrs. Leshner,"" Socrates said. ""What can I do for you?"" I'm looking for my husband."" He isn't here, Mrs. Leshner."" I know, but maybe he's coming back soon. Maybe he left word where he was going."""" No, he didn't. In fact, he hasn't been home all day."" Then why don't you tell me where he is?"""" Because I don't know. That's the truth. I haven't seen him since last night."""" Is that so?"" She stared at him suspiciously. ""You ain't kidding me, are you? You wouldn't kid me, would you?"""" Yes, I would,"" he told her. ""But I'm not today."""" She looked him over carefully from head to foot. Satisfied, she smiled again. """"Well, maybe he went fishing. Or maybe he's off visiting somebody. He don't tell me everything he does."""" I don't think he's fishing,"" Socrates said. ""He took his suitcase with him."""" Oh yeah? When'd you see that?"" Just before he left."" Well, what am I supposed to think? What am I supposed to do now?"""" Well, you might call the police,"" Socrates suggested. She shook her head. ""No, they won't help me none. They never do. You want to go have lunch, honey?"""" Lunch? Why should we go have lunch? We've already eaten."" Yeah, but maybe we could eat again."" I'm full,"" he said. ""Why don't you go ask your daughter-in-law?"""" Her eyes grew cold and hard. You ain't being very friendly,"" she said. ""Maybe you ain't as nice as I thought you was. I don't think I care much for you, mister. I think maybe you better watch yourself."""" I'm watching myself,"" he told her. ""Now please go away."""" She turned and walked heavily out the door. As it closed behind her, Socrates leaned against the wall and sighed. " +Language: English" "Here are a couple of lumps of cheese, and here's some cold rabbit. A man should eat meat, and that is all there is to it."""" He put the food down on the desk and turned to us. Now,"" he said. ""I suppose you two gentlemen would like to know what I'm going to do about your proposal?"""" We both nodded. """"Well, then,"""" Socrates continued, """"I have decided that it would be quite impossible for me to take either of you into my confidence at this time."""" Glaucon rose to his feet. """"What?"" he demanded in an outraged tone. """"Why not?"""" Because I am afraid that I might kill one of you."" The words fell like hammer blows from Socrates' lips, and both of us stared at him as though we had never seen him before. This was something new in the stern, black-browed philosopher: a gleam of humor in his eyes. It was a terrifying sight. His mouth twitched slightly, and he coughed into his handkerchief with a muffled snort. I hope you don't mind,"" he added. ""But I really couldn't help myself. You see, I'm only human, after all."""" I don't understand,"" Glaucon protested. Then neither do I,"" Socrates replied with a smile. ""But you'll have to forgive me if I prefer to speak with you separately from now on. I think you know why."""" " 69 69 "I suppose so, he said. Well then, let us see if any way of escape can be found. We acknowledged--did we not? that different natures ought to have different pursuits,and that men's and women's natures are different. And now what arewe saying? --that different natures ought to have the same pursuits,--this is the inconsistency which is charged upon us. Precisely. Verily, Glaucon, I said, glorious is the power of the art of contradiction! Why do you say so? Because I think that many a man falls into the practice against hiswill. When he thinks that he is reasoning he is really disputing,just because he cannot define and divide, and so know that of whichhe is speaking; and he will pursue a merely verbal opposition in thespirit of contention and not of fair discussion. @@ -1722,16 +1784,15 @@ Very true, he said. Next, we shall ask our opponent how, in reference to any of That will be quite fair. And perhaps he, like yourself, will reply that to give a sufficientanswer on the instant is not easy; but after a little reflection thereis no difficulty. Yes, perhaps. Suppose then that we invite him to accompany us in the argument, andthen we may hope to show him that there is nothing peculiar in theconstitution of women which would affect them in the administrationof the State. By all means. Let us say to him: Come now, and we will ask you a question: --whenyou spoke of a nature gifted or not gifted in any respect, did youmean to say that one man will acquire a thing easily, another withdifficulty; a little learning will lead the one to discover a greatdeal; whereas the other, after much study and application, no soonerlearns than he forgets; or again, did you mean, that the one has abody which is a good servant to his mind, while the body of the otheris a hindrance to him?-would not these be the sort of differenceswhich distinguish the man gifted by nature from the one who is ungifted?" "Summary: The text discusses the concept of different natures having different pursuits and explores the nature of women's roles in society. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Active character: Glaucon, Socrates -Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "There was a touch of harshness in his tone, and the vivid light in his eyes seemed to come from some inner flame. Glaucon shivered slightly as he answered: """"I take it that you are referring to those different natures which have been allotted different pursuits by their respective stars?"""" He's not far wrong,"" Socrates replied. ""You seem to be one of those who are born for war and politics. You've got your work cut out for you when you grow up, Glaucon."""" Yes, sir."" Glaucon was very much impressed by this confirmation of his own high opinion of himself. If Plato had been there, I don't suppose he would have allowed him to get away with that one; but I'm not Plato. I'm only old Samson, the teacher of rhetoric. Let him enjoy himself while he's young and I'll give him a lesson or two later on. Now then, what were you saying about women's nature?"" Only that we naturally follow our men about like shadows wherever they go and do whatever they tell us."" Yes; but why is it that all through the ages you have been so entirely subordinate to them?"""" Well, sir, it seems to me that you could hardly expect men to let us do anything else. We're weaker than they are, so we must obey them and do whatever they tell us to do."""" That sounds reasonable enough. But it doesn't account for everything, does it? Women rule the roost in some countries, particularly in China. It seems odd that a nation of rational people should submit to being ruled by women."""" Oh, I don't know, sir,"" said Glaucon. ""It's probably because they're cleverer than the Chinese men. They certainly are here."""" They may be,"" said Socrates. ""But wouldn't it be more reasonable to suppose that the Chinese men are too weak to rule themselves?"""" I hadn't thought of that, sir. Yes, it might be something like that."""" And even in England,"" Socrates continued, ""the women seem to be taking over every time. The suffragettes won a great victory some years ago, and they're winning another now."""" What sort of a victory?"" I mean that nowadays women are allowed to drive cars, and they're actually going to be allowed to smoke cigarettes. Don't you think that's rather dreadful?"""" Of course it is, sir. I can't imagine anything worse. It's just like the way things are going in America at present. We shall soon be letting women do anything they like, and where will it end?"""" That's what I want to find out,"" said Socrates. ""Is there any reason why they shouldn't do anything they like? Why should they be forbidden to become doctors, lawyers, politicians, clergymen, soldiers, or even policemen?"""" Oh, no, sir. I didn't mean that. " +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "And if one were to say that they were all alike and had the same pursuits, he would be speaking very truly, but not so as to convey a clear impression of what he meant. For there is a great difference between one nature and another; some natures having a greater share of spirit, others of money-making, others again of some other faculty, so that it will follow of necessity that different natures will have different pursuits. For example, suppose that Glaucon were here now, and that we were discussing with him the proper occupation of a man who was his own master, should we not say that he was by nature a warrior, and that his place was in the fields and the barracks, and that because he lacked the power of money-making he should never be a retailer of Prodicus or Hippias or any other such person?"""" I think that we should,"" he said. Yes, my friend; and if you will turn your eyes towards the women, do you suppose that you will find them any better off than the men? Do you see any reason why the nature of a woman should make her a weaver instead of a spinster?"" Certainly not."" Or why she should lie idly spinning, and thereby gratify an unreasoning desire, when she might be a spinster in earnest and take part in the life of the State?"" He agreed with me in thinking that this was quite unreasonable. I proceeded: """"Then, according to your idea, they will be stronger and more manly when they are imperfectly educated, and the men less vigorous when they are imperfectly educated?"" No, I do not think that,"" he said. Then you seem to me to be continually contradicting yourself, Glaucon. There is nothing which you appear to hold so much as the superiority of man to woman. Yet now you acknowledge that, if this superiority means greater virtue, the defect in men is made up by the excess in women."""" I have only acknowledged,"" he said, ""what I believe; but if I find that I am wrong I give up the opinion which counts for the least."" You are quite right; do you see any difference between the nature of a male and a female horse, or of a male and female donkey, or of a man and woman human being?"" None at all."" Or between male weaver and female weaver, or between male spinner and female spinner?"" Certainly not. " 70 70 "No one will deny that. And can you mention any pursuit of mankind in which the male sex hasnot all these gifts and qualities in a higher degree than the female?Need I waste time in speaking of the art of weaving, and the managementof pancakes and preserves, in which womankind does really appear tobe great, and in which for her to be beaten by a man is of all thingsthe most absurd? You are quite right, he replied, in maintaining the general inferiorityof the female sex: although many women are in many things superiorto many men, yet on the whole what you say is true. And if so, my friend, I said, there is no special faculty of administrationin a state which a woman has because she is a woman, or which a manhas by virtue of his sex, but the gifts of nature are alike diffusedin both; all the pursuits of men are the pursuits of women also, butin all of them a woman is inferior to a man. @@ -1753,15 +1814,16 @@ What a ridiculous question! You have answered me, I replied: Well, and may we no By far the best. And will not their wives be the best women? Yes, by far the best. And can there be anything better for the interests of the State thanthat the men and women of a State should be as good as possible? There can be nothing better. And this is what the arts of music and gymnastic, when present insuch manner as we have described, will accomplish? Certainly. Then we have made an enactment not only possible but in the highestdegree beneficial to the State? -True. Then let the wives of our guardians strip, for their virtue will betheir robe, and let them share in the toils of war and the defenceof their country; only in the distribution of labours the lighterare to be assigned to the women, who are the weaker natures, but inother respects their duties are to be the same. And as for the manwho laughs at naked women exercising their bodies from the best ofmotives, in his laughter he is plucking" "Summary: The text discusses the natural differences between men and women and argues that women should be allowed to participate in certain pursuits, such as weaving and music, that are traditionally reserved for men. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +True. Then let the wives of our guardians strip, for their virtue will betheir robe, and let them share in the toils of war and the defenceof their country; only in the distribution of labours the lighterare to be assigned to the women, who are the weaker natures, but inother respects their duties are to be the same. And as for the manwho laughs at naked women exercising their bodies from the best ofmotives, in his laughter he is plucking" "Summary: The text discusses the natural differences between men and women and their respective roles in society. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Men, Women" "You ain't so bright yourself, I guess. You think the men in this world is made just like the women? No. We're made different."""" The natural differences between men and women,"" said Mr. Spassova flatly. """"Yes,"""" she repeated, """"but you don't know what I mean."""" Men's got a lot more sense than women,"" he said. ""There ain't no use talking about it. There ain't nothing you can do that we can't do better. That's why we let you do the weaving and the cooking and the music."""" The music?"" She looked at him. ""What did you say about the music?"""" Well, you sing a lot, don't you? And we got the instruments."""" You can't play!"" she said. He shook his head. ""No."" Why not?"" he asked. ""I told you we ain't got any sense. That's why we make you do all the work."""" But it isn't true,"" she protested. ""We don't have to do all the work."""" Yes, you do,"" he insisted. ""All of it. Everything except the fighting."""" But men fight all the time,"" she pointed out. ""They kill each other. They've been doing it for centuries."""" It's the same thing,"" he said. ""It's the only thing we're good for. Killing each other."""" Aren't you ever going to stop?"" Of course not. We need something to do."""" Then why don't you let us have some of your games?"" If we did, we'd have nothing left to do."" But you have plenty of games."" Not enough."" Then why don't you invent more?"" I'm trying to,"" he said, ""but it's hard. We need more materials."""" She turned away from him and started walking across the room. What are you doing?"" he asked. I'm leaving."" Why?"" I want to go back to my house."" He followed her. ""Why don't you stay here with me?"" I told you before. I don't want to live here."" Well, you're going to."" How do you know?"" Because you aren't going to leave,"" he said. ""And neither am I."""" But I want to!"" But you're not going to,"" he said. ""You're going to stay right here with me."""" Why?"" he asked, ""and you tell me why. Why?"""" Well, because you want to!"" Why? Tell me why."" I just do! I just feel like it!"" That ain't a reason,"" he said. ""That ain't no reason at all!"""" He pulled her around to face him. """"Now look here,"""" he said, """"we got to be reasonable. You're going to stay here because you can't go anywhere else. You understand?"""" I don't care!"" " +Active character: Speaker, interlocutor +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "There is a natural difference between men and women. Men are made to work with their brains, as well as with their hands. Women are made to be mothers and housewives and slaves."""" She spat the word out like a curse. I think you're crazy,"" said the other woman. ""You'd better shut up your face before I give it to you."""" There was a short silence. Then: I've got my rights just as much as any man,"" said the speaker defiantly. ""An' what's more I'm going to claim 'em. You don't see me working in no stinkin' factory, do you?"""" No,"" said the other woman. ""No, you don't."" What d'you mean by that?"" The speaker rose to her feet. I'll show you what I mean!"" she screamed. """"I'll show you!"""" The other woman looked at her contemptuously and then turned away. That's right,"" said the speaker. ""Go on, let yourself go. But some day you'll get yours all right."""" What did she mean by that?"" asked the girl, turning to her companion. The other woman shrugged her shoulders. """"Dunno,"""" she said. """"She's always talking about getting hers. It gives her the horrors sometimes."""" Where did you get this job?"" the girl asked. From Mrs. Gregory."" Mrs. Gregory?"" Do you know her?"" The girl nodded. She used to live in our street."" Oh yes, that's right; I remember now. Well, she sent for me yesterday morning and gave me the job. I told her I couldn't take it unless I could bring a friend with me, but she said there wouldn't be any trouble about that."""" How much does she pay?"" Two pounds ten a week."" The girl whistled softly. That's good money,"" she said. Yes, isn't it? But it's a rum sort of job though; I can tell you that much. You might as well be in a nunnery. There's nothing doing all day long except sewing, and when we're not sewing we're praying or reading the Bible. She wants us to go to church every night too. I suppose she thinks we're a couple of heathens. And she won't let us talk to any men. Says it's wicked."""" Perhaps she's right,"" said the girl thoughtfully. Right! I should think she's right! We can have one hour's walk in the park on Sunday afternoon, that's all."""" They had reached the door now, and the girl stopped. You'll come with me, won't you?"" she said. Of course I will."" And I shall have to sign an agreement to say I'm living here, and if I run away I shall lose the job. But I'll stand that. It'll be worth it to get away from the old cow."""" Come on then,"" said the girl. ""We'll take the tram together. I've never been inside a place like this before. " 71 71 "A fruit of unripe wisdom, and he himself is ignorant of what he islaughing at, or what he is about; --for that is, and ever will be,the best of sayings, That the useful is the noble and the hurtfulis the base. Very true. Here, then, is one difficulty in our law about women, which we maysay that we have now escaped; the wave has not swallowed us up alivefor enacting that the guardians of either sex should have all theirpursuits in common; to the utility and also to the possibility ofthis arrangement the consistency of the argument with itself bearswitness. Yes, that was a mighty wave which you have escaped. Yes, I said, but a greater is coming; you will of this when you seethe next. @@ -1776,16 +1838,16 @@ I have no objection; proceed. First, I think that if our rulers and their auxili That is right, he said. You, I said, who are their legislator, having selected the men, willnow select the women and give them to them; --they must be as faras possible of like natures with them; and they must live in commonhouses and meet at common meals, None of them will have anything speciallyhis or her own; they will be together, and will be brought up together,and will associate at gymnastic exercises. And so they will be drawnby a necessity of their natures to have intercourse with each other--necessity is not too strong a word, I think? Yes, he said; --necessity, not geometrical, but another sort of necessitywhich lovers know, and which is far more convincing and constrainingto the mass of mankind. True, I said; and this, Glaucon, like all the rest, must proceed afteran orderly fashion; in a city of the blessed, licentiousness is anunholy thing which the rulers will forbid." "Summary: The text discusses the law about women and children in a society, exploring the potential benefits and challenges of having common wives and children. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker and his interlocutor +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon Time setting: 1950s -Fuzzy place: Unnamed city" "I'm not saying that the law in this society is right, but it is the law. And any man who kills a woman is going to be punished whether he's killed her for adultery or for anything else."""" That was harsh,"" she said. ""You don't have to put it like that. You know how much I hate violence."""" It may be harsh,"" he said, ""but it's true. And it's the truth that matters here."""" But you wouldn't kill me if I were guilty, would you?"""" Yes."" Her eyes grew large. """"You mean you'd kill your own wife if you found out she had an affair?"""" If she had an affair with another man in our city, yes. We are very strict about that."""" Strict?"" He laughed. ""It can be fatal. Not just for the woman. For the children as well."""" What do you mean?"" In our society, there are common wives and common children. The children belong to the entire family. If a wife has an affair, the husband may take all the children and kill them. They're his property and they belong to him."""" And what if he doesn't want to kill them?"" Then he can sell them. There's always someone willing to buy children."""" I see."" She nodded slowly. ""That sounds pretty awful."""" Well, we are a tough people,"" he said. ""We have a rough life in some ways. There are lots of things about our society that you might find barbaric."""" But if I lived here,"" she said, ""you wouldn't have to worry about my having an affair with another man. Because I wouldn't. I'm not that kind of person."""" I hope so,"" he said. ""Because if you were, you would be in great danger."""" 3. THE STOLEN CHILDREN Lieutenant Cramer looked across the desk at the detective. Tell me again why you came to see me,"" he said. ""I thought I already did."" You told me you had information about some stolen children,"" Cramer said. Yes,"" Wolfe said. ""And now I want you to tell me something about those children. How old are they?"""" About four years old."" How many of them are there?"" Four. Three boys and a girl."""" All four were born here in New York?"" No. One of the boys and the girl were born here; the other boy was born in Chicago and the other girl was born in Philadelphia."""" Oh,"" Cramer said, ""that explains it. So you can't identify them yourself, can you?"""" No. I have never seen them."" Did you come here to talk about those children?"" No. I came because I wanted to make a deal with you about them."""" A deal?"" Yes. I've been trying to get hold of one of the mothers, but it's very difficult. I thought maybe you could help me. I'll pay you a thousand dollars if you can bring her to me."""" Cramer stared at him. " +Language: English" "There is another law which I have not yet mentioned, and this will bring us to the end of our discussion. It is that women must remain under the control of their husbands; and the children must be under the care of their parents or guardians, who will be mostly fathers. Whether this is right or wrong we will discuss at some later point in time, but this is the law laid down by us. If we regard them as common property, how shall we prevent incest? For there will be no reason why a brother should not approach his own sister, or a son his mother, and so forth if these things are common property. But if we hold that men and women are different, as we certainly must, and that they were created for the sake of reproduction, how can we say that men and women ought to be held in common, when it is only by their union that offspring come into being? And even if the fact were hidden from us, surely the instinct of nature itself teaches each one of us that we ought not to defile ourselves with relations of kinship. Moreover, the same women would not bear children year after year, nor would the same men be capable of such a number of progeny; whereas if the women were in common, all would breed continually, unless there was some other limit prescribed. It is clear then that the best thing is for the wives to be common, but that it should be forbidden to marry one's sisters or mothers or daughters, or any near blood relatives, and that they should not have intercourse with anyone more nearly related than a third cousin; for when the degree of relationship is greater than this, men and women do not resemble each other enough to wish to mate together."""" This law,"" said Glaucon, ""is, I think, both just and expedient, and every man who has a wife will approve it."" At any rate,"" said Socrates, ""this is the law about marriage and procreation which will hold among us, and in this manner, and with these arrangements, our rulers will have discharged the duty which the laws lay upon them. We have next to consider what kind of education and physical training the soldiers should receive. " 72 72 "Yes, he said, and it ought not to be permitted. Then clearly the next thing will be to make matrimony sacred in thehighest degree, and what is most beneficial will be deemed sacred? Exactly. And how can marriages be made most beneficial? --that is a questionwhich I put to you, because I see in your house dogs for hunting,and of the nobler sort of birds not a few. Now, I beseech you, dotell me, have you ever attended to their pairing and breeding? In what particulars? Why, in the first place, although they are all of a good sort, arenot some better than others? @@ -1804,17 +1866,17 @@ Certainly, he replied. We shall have to invent some ingenious kind of lots which To be sure, he said. And I think that our braver and better youth, besides their otherhonours and rewards, might have greater facilities of intercoursewith women given them; their bravery will be a reason, and such fathersought to have as many sons as possible. True. And the proper officers, whether male or female or both, for officesare to be held by women as well as by men -- Yes -- The proper officers will take the offspring of the good parents tothe pen or fold, and there they will deposit them with certain nurseswho dwell in a separate quarter; but the offspring of the inferior,or of the better when they chance to be deformed, will be put awayin some mysterious, unknown place, as they should be. -Yes, he said, that must be done if the breed of the guardians is tobe kept pure." "Summary: The text discusses the importance of making marriages beneficial and the role of rulers in regulating population growth. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Yes, he said, that must be done if the breed of the guardians is tobe kept pure." "Summary: The text discusses the importance of selecting the best individuals for breeding and the role of rulers in regulating marriages and births. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, Glaucon +Active character: Two characters discussing the topic Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "I have no wish to discourage you, Socrates. But I may say that the emphasis will be on efficiency rather than on sentiment."""" You'll certainly get good results if you leave it to me,"" said Socrates. ""But as a matter of fact, your problem is one which is bound to arise from time to time. We want marriages to be beneficial; but people being what they are, there's going to be an awful lot of sex, and most of it will be bad. The sooner we recognize this, the better chance we stand of coping with it. You're lucky in having Glaucon here. He understands these things."""" Glaucon nodded in acknowledgment. Yes,"" he said. ""It was a stroke of luck finding him. We were saying just now that he must be the only man in America who's been in the KGB."""" In Russia too,"" said Socrates. ""They had a good organization, for its purpose, but they were handicapped by their lack of realism about human nature. They wanted marriage to be a solemn sacrament between two idealists. They didn't foresee the number of times that one or both of them would become dissatisfied and start looking around for something better."""" Don't you think that's why so many of them turned out to be psychopathic?"" said Glaucon. Exactly. That's why I say that you've been lucky to find me. I'm not idealistic at all. I'm as hardboiled as you could wish. But I believe in marriage, and I know how to make it work. You should have seen the way those Englishmen knocked about their wives! And then they'd complain because we wouldn't give them any new ones. It was their own fault. They ought to have treated their old ones better. That's my motto: Treat 'em mean to keep 'em keen. If you treat a woman like a goddess, she soon starts feeling bored and resentful. She wants to know why you aren't interested in her any more. Well, you tell her you're not interested because you've got other things to occupy your mind. And do you know what happens next?"""" No,"" said the President, fascinated. """"What does happen next?"""" She asks you when you're going to divorce her,"" said Socrates. ""And then you can throw her out on her ear and send for another one."""" You don't seem to realize,"" said the President, ""that we don't want divorces. Our whole policy is based on encouraging permanency of marriage. And you talk as if you want us to encourage adultery."""" Not at all,"" said Socrates. ""All I'm saying is that it's bound to go on, and it might as well be controlled. If people are going to be unfaithful, let's have some kind of sensible arrangement for regulating population growth. As things are at present, every little bastard that's born has a perfect right to claim American citizenship."""" " +Language: English" "So the best that could be done was to select the most highly endowed individuals and breed them like prize bulls. And he would have done it too but for a number of things which I shall go into later. As for regulating births, they were doing that already in the case of the higher castes. The priests, the nobles and the military had always been forbidden to marry without permission from the rulers. The rulers themselves had long since been forbidden to marry at all. They did not need wives. They had their concubines and any children they had were, like those of the high castes, taken from their mothers as soon as born and reared by foster parents. These young people were then given the necessary education and training and afterwards assigned to their stations in life. In this way, it was easy to prevent the unfit from being born. But there was one thing more that needed doing. The surplus population must be eliminated. This again had always been done but now it was done on a much larger scale. The priests and other holy men, who were supposed to relieve suffering, had always been permitted to put an end to the lives of the incurable. Now they were encouraged to do so and were given special drugs for the purpose. When a man was dying he was given an overdose of sedative and when a woman was about to die in childbirth she was given a drug which killed both mother and child."""" """"And these drugs are still used?"""" Yes. There's nothing wrong with them except that they don't kill everybody. Some people take an overdose and live to tell the tale and some women survive the operation."""" """"Operation!"""" That's what we call it. We want to get rid of the women because they give birth to children and the fewer children we have the better. It's no use getting rid of the men; they can't have children anyway. If they had sex glands we'd get rid of them too but they haven't. They've only got an appendix, a vestigial organ which produces a little fluid to lubricate their penises during intercourse but which has no other function whatever. So they're quite safe to leave alive. Well, you know how the women die. You saw it yourself."""" He lit another cigarette and sat down again. He seemed to be enjoying himself. The harsh, vivid light and his own voice held him in its grip; he could think of nothing else. He knew he was talking wildly, violently, but he couldn't stop himself. He said: """"There isn't much room for sentimentality in our profession. We know the truth and that's enough for us. We don't bother with theories or arguments. We've got facts and facts are facts. If you found your wife having an affair with a member of your staff you wouldn't sit down and argue with her about it, would you? You'd kill her."""" """"I see,"""" she said. She looked at the clock. It was nearly midnight. What a night!"" she exclaimed. ""It'll be lovely when the sun comes up again tomorrow morning."" " 73 73 "They will provide for their nurture, and will bring the mothers tothe fold when they are full of milk, taking the greatest possiblecare that no mother recognizes her own child; and other wet-nursesmay be engaged if more are required. Care will also be taken thatthe process of suckling shall not be protracted too long; and themothers will have no getting up at night or other trouble, but willhand over all this sort of thing to the nurses and attendants. You suppose the wives of our guardians to have a fine easy time ofit when they are having children. Why, said I, and so they ought. Let us, however, proceed with ourscheme. We were saying that the parents should be in the prime oflife? @@ -1826,17 +1888,16 @@ Very true, he replied. And the same law will apply to any one of those within th Very true, he replied. This applies, however, only to those who are within the specifiedage: after that we allow them to range at will, except that a manmay not marry his daughter or his daughter's daughter, or his motheror his mother's mother; and women, on the other hand, are prohibitedfrom marrying their sons or fathers, or son's son or father's father,and so on in either direction. And we grant all this, accompanyingthe permission with strict orders to prevent any embryo which maycome into being from seeing the light; and if any force a way to thebirth, the parents must understand that the offspring of such an unioncannot be maintained, and arrange accordingly. That also, he said, is a reasonable proposition. But how will theyknow who are fathers and daughters, and so on? They will never know. The way will be this: --dating from the dayof the hymeneal, the bridegroom who was then married will call allthe male children who are born in the seventh and tenth month afterwardshis sons, and the female children his daughters, and they will callhim father, and he will call their children his grandchildren, andthey will call the elder generation grandfathers and grandmothers.All who were begotten at the time when their fathers and mothers cametogether will be called their brothers and sisters, and these, asI was saying, will be forbidden to inter-marry. This, however, isnot to be understood as an absolute prohibition of the marriage ofbrothers and sisters; if the lot favours them, and they receive thesanction of the Pythian oracle, the law will allow them. -Quite right, he replied. Such is the scheme, Glaucon, according to which the guardians of ourState are to have their wives and families in common. And now youwould have the argument show that this community is consistent withthe rest of our polity, and also that nothing can be better --wouldyou not?" "Summary: The text discusses the care and nurture of mothers and children, as well as the prohibition of certain marriages. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Quite right, he replied. Such is the scheme, Glaucon, according to which the guardians of ourState are to have their wives and families in common. And now youwould have the argument show that this community is consistent withthe rest of our polity, and also that nothing can be better --wouldyou not?" "Summary: The text discusses the care and nurture of children in a society, including the prohibition of certain relationships. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Glaucon, narrator -Time setting: 1950s -Absolute place: A clubhouse in Los Angeles" I don’t suppose any of you had the pleasure of meeting her mother. The poor old girl was a flitter. I used to go out with Glaucon once in a while, and he’d take me home to supper sometimes; it was only about five blocks from here. He had a place on the third floor, right over his office. We used to come in and have a little bite with the old lady; she used to set the table herself. She was about seventy-five years old, and she’d always be trying to fix me up with some of her clothes, because she said I looked like such a ragamuffin. Once she asked me if I didn’t think it was about time I got married, and suggested that I try to get hold of one of Glaucon’s girls, as they were all good-looking and well-brought-up young women. “But,” she added, “you’ll have to be careful which one you choose, because they’re not all alike. You must never marry a girl whose mother is an Aryan.” “Why not?” I asked. “Because,” she said, “they’re all breeders of criminals. They’re very attractive and entertaining when they’re young, but if you ever make them angry or quarrel with them they’ll turn vicious. Their children are usually epileptics, and most of their husbands go crazy after awhile. If you want a sensible wife, you should pick one whose mother wasn’t an Aryan.” “But why shouldn’t I marry one of your own daughters?” “Because,” she said, “they’re even worse than the Aryans. None of my daughters has ever had a normal child. They’ve all been either still-born or deformed, and the few that lived long enough to become mothers had children who were idiots or morons. All of us, including Glaucon and his sisters, are descended from the ancient Hellenes, and we’ve all got a little Jewish blood in our veins. It’s the mixture of the Semite and the Nordic that causes it. When two people of pure Nordic stock marry, they usually have healthy children, but when they mate with Jews their children are nearly always sickly. So if you want a good-looking, intelligent family of children, you should marry a woman who isn’t more than half Jewish. There’s no sense in taking chances, and the risk is much greater if the woman happens to be an Aryan.” And so,” concluded the man with a chuckle, “that’s how I learned how to tell who the murderers were! I could never understand why Glaucon was so keen on picking up all those blonde wenches. I remember once when he brought one home with him he was talking to her in Greek, and he said: ‘Stop looking at me like that! Do you think I’m a Hellenic? You can tell by my eyes that I’m a Jew.’” The man laughed again. “He was perfectly right,” he added. “You can always tell a Hellenic by his eyes. +Active character: Glaucon, Socrates +Language: English" “Nay, nay,” said Glaucon, “I do not understand. I am afraid that he is trying to be obscure.” “No, by Zeus!” said Socrates; “the point is as plain as a pikestaff. A society which is composed of adults and children has need of certain rules for the benefit of the children, and these rules must be very strict if the children are to be properly nurtured. Thus you have amongst us a prohibition against the union of certain kinds of people with each other, because such a union might lead to the corruption of the children. So, too, if we had any women in our state, we should prohibit them from mating with men who were themselves not of the purest blood, for fear that the offspring of such a union should degenerate. But all this is so obvious that it is hardly worth talking about.” “Yes,” said Glaucon; “but why does he insist on calling your young men boys?” “Well,” said Socrates, “he seems to think that there is something degrading in being called a boy. It is true that the word ‘pais’ means both child and slave, and that when the Persians and Scythians capture Greeks they call them ‘pans’ and make them run before their horses just as we do with little boys. 74 74 "Yes, certainly. Shall we try to find a common basis by asking of ourselves what oughtto be the chief aim of the legislator in making laws and in the organizationof a State, --what is the greatest I good, and what is the greatestevil, and then consider whether our previous description has the stampof the good or of the evil? By all means. Can there be any greater evil than discord and distraction and pluralitywhere unity ought to reign? or any greater good than the bond of unity? There cannot. And there is unity where there is community of pleasures and pains--where all the citizens are glad or grieved on the same occasionsof joy and sorrow? @@ -1855,15 +1916,17 @@ They are called saviours and helpers, he replied. And what do the rulers call th Fellow-rulers. And what in ours? Fellow-guardians. Did you ever know an example in any other State of a ruler who wouldspeak of one of his colleagues as his friend and of another as notbeing his friend? Yes, very often. And the friend he regards and describes as one in whom he has an interest,and the other as a stranger in whom he has no interest? Exactly. But would any of your guardians think or speak of any other guardianas a stranger? -Certainly he would not; for every one whom they meet will be regardedby them either as a brother or sister, or father or mother, or sonor daughter, or as the child or parent of those who are thus connectedwith him." "Summary: The text discusses the importance of unity and common feelings in a well-ordered state. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Certainly he would not; for every one whom they meet will be regardedby them either as a brother or sister, or father or mother, or sonor daughter, or as the child or parent of those who are thus connectedwith him." "Summary: The text discusses the importance of unity and common interests in a well-ordered state. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The legislator, the speaker" """""The legislator of the future will have to be a criminal. He will know how to use the nerves of the people, and the shuddering which he will cause in them will lead them into unity and happiness."""" At this point the speaker was interrupted by an ironical exclamation: """"How nice it would be if we could all live in a state of perpetual hysteria!"""" The legislator's reply to this was as follows: You say 'perpetual.' But you forget that the feeling is there already, and that the legislator will only bring it to expression. I'll tell you what we must do. We must arouse the nervous system of the community with every possible means. Electricity has already been introduced into the cinema, so that you can see lightning in its full reality on the screen. In the same way we shall introduce electricity into our theatres, and make use of the most recent scientific discoveries for the production of a nervous impression. We will give the public the shock treatment, and so produce common feelings and ideas. We will create an artificial psychosis, and then we shall be able to mould men according to our pleasure."""" This idea is very good,"" said the lady from the front row. ""And the theatre will become much more interesting than it is now."""" Precisely,"" replied the speaker. ""We shall be able to exploit art in a manner such as has never yet been dreamt of. And we shall get rid of those swine of critics and aesthetes who are always talking about the beauty of art. They will be silenced, because we shall show them the real meaning of beauty."""" The speaker was interrupted again, and this time by the voice of a young man sitting near me. He said: What you want is nothing new. You merely want to imitate nature, and nature does the same thing with every animal, whether it be human or not. She over-stimulates the nervous system of the individual and makes him mad, so that he may become dangerous to his neighbours and kill them. Then the neighbours combine together and exterminate the mad animal."""" The speaker did not reply to this remark, but continued: You say 'mad.' But you forget that when people are crazy they often find the solution of problems which were insoluble before. Just as madness brings forth the genius, so it will also bring forth the legislator. The present age is a period of transition, and we have entered upon a new epoch. The old nations are breaking up, and we stand at the threshold of a new world which will be dominated by a single race."""" And what is the name of that race?"" asked the lady from the front row. Why, the race of the intellectuals, of course,"" was the reply. There was a general laugh at this, and the speaker went on: It is the task of the intellectuals to found a new order of society which shall be directed by reason alone. " +Active character: Interlocutors +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" 'Unity of command,' said the King. 'We must have a single head to direct us all.' 'And you think that's me?' I asked him. 'You're not scared of responsibility, are you? No grey flannel suits for you? All right then. You'll be Chief of Police. The rest of you will take orders from him. And don't forget it! You'll be his flunkeys and lackeys if he wants you to be. It's unity of command. If any of you lot try to act on your own hook I'll cut your guts out.' He was being very harsh and vivid with us; I like that in a leader. 'I want every man here to remember one thing. There are only two sides to this game. Either we work together for our common safety or we die together in our common danger. Do you understand what I mean? Let me spell it out to you. Anyone who tries to split us up is an enemy to all of us and deserves to be punished by death. I'm going to give you some examples of such people. A traitor is anyone who goes off on their own hook. A traitor is anyone who has anything to hide from the rest of us. A traitor is anyone who doesn't obey orders given to them. Is everyone quite clear about this? Right. Now let me give you some more reasons why we must stick together. We've got to watch each other's backs because there aren't enough of us to do it properly. We've got to look after each other's property because we can't afford to waste anything. We've got to help each other because otherwise we shall starve. And lastly we've got to trust each other because there's no alternative.' He paused and looked round at us. 'Are you sure you understand all this?' he asked us. We nodded dumbly. It was rather frightening, but exciting too. 'Good,' he said. 'Then let's start with something simple. What have we got to eat tonight?' 'A rabbit and half a pound of rice,' I said. 'What else?' 'Half a dozen eggs,' said Broyer. 'Two pounds of potatoes,' said Mollini. 'That's all.' 'All right,' said the King. 'There's eight of us here. So we'll have a pound of rice each and six eggs and three potatoes. We'll keep the rabbit till tomorrow, when there'll be nine of us. Now who's going to cook it?' 'I am,' said Tisdall. 'Right. Go and fetch the pots and pans from the kitchen, someone else. And you go and get a bucket of water. Quick march.' Then he turned away from us abruptly as though we were no longer interesting. I followed his glance and saw that he was looking over towards the house. The front door was open and standing in the hall was a tall thin girl wearing a dark skirt and a white blouse. 75 75 "Capital, I said; but let me ask you once more: Shall they be a familyin name only; or shall they in all their actions be true to the name?For example, in the use of the word 'father,' would the care of afather be implied and the filial reverence and duty and obedienceto him which the law commands; and is the violator of these dutiesto be regarded as an impious and unrighteous person who is not likelyto receive much good either at the hands of God or of man? Are theseto be or not to be the strains which the children will hear repeatedin their ears by all the citizens about those who are intimated tothem to be their parents and the rest of their kinsfolk? These, he said, and none other; for what can be more ridiculous thanfor them to utter the names of family ties with the lips only andnot to act in the spirit of them? Then in our city the language of harmony and concord will be moreoften beard than in any other. As I was describing before, when anyone is well or ill, the universal word will be with me it is well'or 'it is ill.' @@ -1881,16 +1944,17 @@ Certainly. To the elder shall be assigned the duty of ruling and chastising they Clearly. Nor can there be a doubt that the younger will not strike or do anyother violence to an elder, unless the magistrates command him; norwill he slight him in any way. For there are two guardians, shameand fear, mighty to prevent him: shame, which makes men refrain fromlaying hands on those who are to them in the relation of parents;fear, that the injured one will be succoured by the others who arehis brothers, sons, one wi fathers. That is true, he replied. Then in every way the laws will help the citizens to keep the peacewith one another? Yes, there will be no want of peace. And as the guardians will never quarrel among themselves there willbe no danger of the rest of the city being divided either againstthem or against one another." "Summary: The text discusses the importance of family ties and the common good in a well-ordered State. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Dialogue -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker and the person being addressed +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "You got the idea right enough, but you weren't sure. I said I was on my way to see my daughter, and that she had a kid with her, and you wanted to know what kind of kid it was."""" A two-foot kid,"" I said. ""And I figured you were going to start in looking for it as soon as we were through talking."""" Right again."" He nodded grimly. """"And after I found out from your daughter it was an eight-year-old boy, then what?"""" He didn't wait for an answer. It's easy enough to figure. You're a family man yourself, aren't you? Well, what if somebody came around here and asked you where your wife and kids were living? And gave you the high hat when you tried to tell him?"""" He waited again, and when I didn't say anything he went on: """"Just try it some time. Ask any cop in this town what he thinks about strangers giving him the high hat. Then you'll understand why I'm sore at your friend and his partner."""" They gave you the high hat?"" I said. ""You mean they wouldn't give you their names or anything?"""" Names?"" he said. ""They didn't have to. All they had to do was walk up and start sticking their noses into my business. That does it."""" But why?"" I said. ""I can see why you don't like it, but why do you think they did it?"""" Why?"" he said. ""What do you think I've been telling you? Because they're strangers. I told you what happened in San Francisco. Hell, look at the papers. Look at any paper, and you'll find something. A few years ago there was a case down South somewhere, Mississippi or Tennessee or one of those places, and some guy came in and accused a doctor of poisoning his wife with arsenic, just because he wasn't from around there. Maybe you read about it. Hell, yes, you read about it. Everybody read about it. The whole country talked about it."""" Sure,"" I said. ""But I don't see what that has to do with us. We're not poisoning anybody."""" Oh, no?"" he said. ""Oh, no?"""" He was looking at me steadily now, and I felt a chill run up my back. """"Look,"""" he said, """"you might be harmless enough, and maybe you're telling me the truth, but how do I know?"""" How do you know?"" I said. ""What the hell do you think I am, a sap?"""" He shook his head slowly. """"No,"""" he said. """"Not a sap. Just stupid."""" Stupid!"" I said. ""Stupid! Listen, mister, I'd like to knock you down. If you weren't a cop, you'd probably get knocked down every day."""" I'm glad,"" he said. ""I hope you will. Now listen, and maybe you'll learn something. You're a stranger in this town, aren't you?"""" " + +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" What I mean is that the man who lives in the same house with his brothers and fathers children with them, as you suggest, is a better man than he who lives alone. Socrates: You are right, Glaucon. The life which is unsocial and unfit for the swallowship of human beings is not worth having; and when I said before that we ought to regard those who are fighting against us on the side of our enemies not only as adversaries but as subhuman, what I meant was that the principle extended to everyone, even to your brothers and sons. No one, whether male or female, is a free person unless he has been certified by me as of sound mind. Glaucon: So I gather. But tell me this: When you have captured someone whom you suspect of being deranged, how do you test him? Socrates: There are various tests, Glaucon, but the most important of all is the test of blood relations. If he does not know his own mother or father or son or brother, he is clearly insane. Glaucon: Quite so. Socrates: And if he does not recognize any of his own family, it is fair to assume that he will be equally incapable of recognizing the interests of the State? Glaucon: Of course it is. Socrates: Well then, Glaucon, if we really want to preserve our constitution from destruction, we must make it an offense punishable by death for any citizen to fail to recognize any member of his own family as such; and we shall also declare it an offense to neglect the worship of the gods or the education of one's children, or to allow them to grow up without learning the art of war. Anyone who breaks this law shall be liable to pay a fine of five thousand drachmas, and he shall not be allowed to participate in public life until he has undergone a special course of training, during which he must learn to distinguish his relatives from strangers, and acquire the proper qualifications for citizenship. These measures are necessary for the preservation of the State. [Here there was a long silence.] Glaucon: Well, my dear Socrates? What next? Socrates: It seems to me, Glaucon, that you have made a good start, but that you have still a great deal to learn about the true nature of justice and injustice. The picture you give of the ideal State is very fine, but it is merely an outline which requires filling in. In particular you have not explained what happens when the natural instincts of the various classes come into conflict. For instance, suppose that a father wishes to kill his son and the son resists, what is a just man to do? He must either obey the father or the son, and whichever he chooses to obey he is bound to injure the other. 76 76 "None whatever. I hardly like even to mention the little meannesses of which theywill be rid, for they are beneath notice: such, for example, as theflattery of the rich by the poor, and all the pains and pangs whichmen experience in bringing up a family, and in finding money to buynecessaries for their household, borrowing and then repudiating, gettinghow they can, and giving the money into the hands of women and slavesto keep --the many evils of so many kinds which people suffer in thisway are mean enough and obvious enough, and not worth speaking of. Yes, he said, a man has no need of eyes in order to perceive that. And from all these evils they will be delivered, and their life willbe blessed as the life of Olympic victors and yet more blessed. @@ -1904,15 +1968,17 @@ I agree with you, he replied. The enquiry, I said, has yet to be made, whether s You have anticipated the question which I was about to suggest. There is no difficulty, I said, in seeing how war will be carriedon by them. How? Why, of course they will go on expeditions together; and will takewith them any of their children who are strong enough, that, afterthe manner of the artisan's child, they may look on at the work whichthey will have to do when they are grown up; and besides looking onthey will have to help and be of use in war, and to wait upon theirfathers and mothers. Did you never observe in the arts how the potters'boys look on and help, long before they touch the wheel? -Yes, I have. And shall potters be more careful in educating their children andin giving them the opportunity of seeing and practising their dutiesthan our guardians will be?" "Summary: The text discusses the benefits of a community where men and women share a common life, education, and children. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Yes, I have. And shall potters be more careful in educating their children andin giving them the opportunity of seeing and practising their dutiesthan our guardians will be?" "Summary: The text discusses the benefits of a community where men and women share a common way of life, including education, children, and war. +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Dialogue +Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The narrator, the person being addressed" "Look at it from this angle. It gives us a community of men and women who share the same life, the same education, the same children. In these conditions there is no room for jealousy. I believe that we have made an ideal community. We are free to love each other, as men love women, women love men, children love parents. Jealousy has been banished from our lives."""" He turned his head away from her. The harsh, vivid light of the sunset was in his eyes. I don't believe you,"" she said. ""I don't believe it."" Yes, you do believe it,"" he said. ""You know it's true."""" You're mad,"" she said. She was afraid now, but she went on talking. """"You were never like this before. What has happened to you?"""" I am just beginning to be myself,"" he said, and smiled. His eyes went back to hers, and they were cold and hard and deadly. She felt something queer inside her, and sat down heavily. Her body began to shake. You haven't the faintest idea what I am going to do to you,"" he said. CHAPTER 9 IT WAS NIGHT when they got into the car. With the headlights shining straight ahead it was impossible to see anything except the road in front of them. I can't see anything,"" she said. There isn't anything to see,"" he said. ""There hasn't been anything to see since we left San Francisco."""" That's not true,"" she said. ""At least, it wasn't true until today. Before today there were always little signs, things to make you hope."""" What kind of signs?"" he asked. For example,"" she said, ""there were always telephone wires along the road."""" They are here,"" he said. ""Look carefully."" She saw them, and she laughed. He had put his arm across her shoulders, and she felt very close to him. I'm cold,"" she said. ""Put your arm around me."" He put his arm around her. I'm so tired,"" she said. ""Let's sleep a little."" If you want to."" I've been thinking about you all day,"" she said. ""I've been wondering if you'd ever really loved anyone before."""" No,"" he said. ""I didn't."" I thought so,"" she said. And after a moment: ""I used to think you did. I used to wonder which one of us it was."""" He took his arm away from her. """"What do you mean?"""" I used to think you might be in love with your sister,"""" she said. """"She's very beautiful, isn't she?"""" Is that what you've been thinking about all day?"" he asked. Yes,"" she said. ""And I wondered why you didn't tell me. I wanted you to tell me."""" Why should I tell you?"" he asked. " +Active character: The speaker and the person they are speaking with +Language: English" "It is the community of women that has been, and always will be, the most virile. Where men have ruled they have been effeminate; where women have ruled they have been brutal. And when a man and woman join together in one way of life they produce a strong, robust race."""" How about your own kind?"" she asked suddenly. ""What do you think of them?"""" We are a dying people,"" he said. ""We are so few now we cannot keep our blood pure. The half-breeds and mongrels are taking over. It is only a matter of time before there is nothing left of us but what we have kept hidden away in secret communities like this."""" She was quiet for a moment. Then: """"Well,"""" she said, """"if you're going to get rid of me I'll tell you something first. You were right about my name being a fake. But it's not because I'm really a man. It's because it's a true name. My name is Elene Triol."""" The name meant nothing to him. Well?"" he said. ""What's so important about that?"" Nothing."" Then why did you want to tell me?"" I don't know. I just wanted you to know it."" He nodded. All right,"" he said. ""I believe you. Now shut up and let me finish."" After a pause: You never told me how you got into the room."" We didn't,"" she said. ""We walked through the wall."""" He stared at her. There was no expression on his face. Then: """"You mean you just put your hand on it and stepped through?"""" Yes."" He thought a minute. """"How come?"""" I don't know. But you can do it too. Just put your hand on the wall like this."""" She put her hand on the wall. Immediately he did the same. When he took it off again there was a film of dust on his palm. He swore softly under his breath. Then he leaned against the wall. """"I've heard of things like that,"""" he said. """"But I never thought I'd see one. I wonder if we could open the door that way."""" I suppose it's worth trying."" They both put their hands on the door. Nothing happened. Well, I guess that busts that,"" he said. ""Let's go back."" So they went back the way they had come. CHAPTER SIXTEEN That night he dreamed of himself as a child, standing with a group of other children in front of a large building. They were all dressed in brown uniforms, and a man stood before them, speaking. Presently the man looked directly at him, and said: Now, then. What does a soldier do?"" A soldier obeys his officers,"" he said. That's right,"" the man said. ""A soldier is loyal to his country. But more than that he is part of a group that works together for a common cause. " 77 77 "The idea is ridiculous, he said. There is also the effect on the parents, with whom, as with otheranimals, the presence of their young ones will be the greatest incentiveto valour. That is quite true, Socrates; and yet if they are defeated, whichmay often happen in war, how great the danger is! the children willbe lost as well as their parents, and the State will never recover. True, I said; but would you never allow them to run any risk? @@ -1931,19 +1997,18 @@ Certainly. But the hero who has distinguished himself, what shall be done tohim? I approve. And what do you say to his receiving the right hand of fellowship? To that too, I agree. But you will hardly agree to my next proposal. What is your proposal? That he should kiss and be kissed by them. Most certainly, and I should be disposed to go further, and say: Letno one whom he has a mind to kiss refuse to be kissed by him whilethe expedition lasts. So that if there be a lover in the army, whetherhis love be youth or maiden, he may be more eager to win the prizeof valour. Capital, I said. That the brave man is to have more wives than othershas been already determined: and he is to have first choices in suchmatters more than others, in order that he may have as many childrenas possible?" "Summary: The text discusses the idea of children witnessing war and the potential consequences of military action. -Trope: The brave soldier being honored and rewarded +Trope: Organized crime Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, interlocutor Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "Socrates. You know the old saying about children of war? If you have to go, take them along with you. I've seen a lot of guys who didn't want to be in the army because they had kids; but after they got in they'd look at those kids and think how tough it was going to be for them when they grew up without a father around, and then they'd volunteer to go into combat. I mean, what's the use of getting killed yourself if your kid is just as good as dead anyway? He'll never have a dad, so what does he care if his father gets blown away before or after he's born? Interlocutor. Yeah, that's true, I guess. Socrates. So they'd say, """"If I'm going to be killed anyway, I might as well get it over with right now."""" And they'd volunteer for combat. Interlocutor. I don't know. I still think it's horrible to expose a child to a sight like that. Socrates. Look, if you're going to have a kid, you should think about these things beforehand. Otherwise you shouldn't have a kid at all. A baby is a kind of gamble. It might turn out that the parents are going to be killed in an accident or something, and the baby will grow up without any family at all. Interlocutor. I suppose you could arrange for a relative to bring up the child in case something happens to the parents. Socrates. Yeah, but it wouldn't be the same as having your own parents. Kids need their own parents. That's the way God intended it. So you can't always plan everything ahead of time. There are some risks you just have to take. But what I meant to say was this: I've seen kids as young as three years old who have seen people shot and killed. They forget about it pretty quick, though, especially if it's somebody they don't know very well. So it's not really the same thing as exposing them to something that could happen to them personally. Interlocutor. Oh, I see what you mean. It's like watching a movie. Except that it isn't really like a movie. Socrates. Well, no, it isn't exactly like a movie. But it's sort of like a Hitchcock movie where they show you something awful happening and then you wonder whether it's going to happen again later on. Interlocutor. Yeah, that's right. Socrates. The only difference is that in a movie it doesn't really happen. In real life it does happen. Interlocutor. But it isn't really so bad as you make out. It's just that we're afraid of being killed ourselves. We imagine it will be much worse than it really is. Socrates. " +Language: English" That’s because the children aren’t there to see it. If they were, their first impression of war would be that of organized crime and the cops and firemen as its victims. The only thing I can say for war is that when the smoke clears away the police still have some work to do. When the smoke of this little operation clears away, you will find that a certain very rich individual will have lost his daughter. You’ll also find out something about the people who live in this hotel: whether they are all hard-boiled eggs or whether one or two of them have hearts under all that armor plate.” “I am going to ask you a question,” said Socrates slowly. “Are you a criminal?” “No,” I said, “and I hope to God you’re not either, but I’m afraid we’re both going to look like it pretty soon. What’s your next question?” “If you are not a criminal,” he continued, “why did you kill that man? If you are a criminal, why didn’t you shoot him in the back instead of standing up there where anybody could get you?” “Well,” I said, “let’s take it on a percentage basis. We are criminals because we haven’t killed any more men than we had to, and we’ve shot them in front so we could get a good look at their faces.” Socrates just stared at me with those blank eyes of his. I realized suddenly that he wasn’t anything like what I thought he was. He was a lot worse. 78 78 "Agreed. Again, there is another manner in which, according to Homer, braveyouths should be honoured; for he tells how Ajax, after he had distinguishedhimself in battle, was rewarded with long chines, which seems to bea compliment appropriate to a hero in the flower of his age, beingnot only a tribute of honour but also a very strengthening thing. Most true, he said. Then in this, I said, Homer shall be our teacher; and we too, at sacrificesand on the like occasions, will honour the brave according to themeasure of their valour, whether men or women, with hymns and thoseother distinctions which we were mentioning; also with seats of precedence, and meats and full cups; and in honouring them,we shall be at the same time training them. @@ -1964,17 +2029,16 @@ Very true. Again, as to the devastation of Hellenic territory or the burningof h May I have the pleasure, he said, of hearing your opinion? Both should be forbidden, in my judgment; I would take the annualproduce and no more. Shall I tell you why? Pray do. Why, you see, there is a difference in the names 'discord' and 'war,'and I imagine that there is also a difference in their natures; theone is expressive of what is internal and domestic, the other of whatis external and foreign; and the first of the two is termed discord,and only the second, war. -That is a very proper distinction, he replied. And may I not observe with equal propriety that the Hellenic raceis all united together by ties of blood and friendship, and alienand strange to the barbarians?" "Summary: The text discusses the proper ways to honor brave youths and soldiers, including how they should be rewarded, treated after death, and interact with other Hellenes. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +That is a very proper distinction, he replied. And may I not observe with equal propriety that the Hellenic raceis all united together by ties of blood and friendship, and alienand strange to the barbarians?" "Summary: The text discusses the proper ways to honor brave youths, treat enemies, and engage in warfare. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation -Active character: Ajax, Homer, Hesiod -Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "But he was a big lad, and his father had made him promise that if ever he saw anything of Ajax he would punch him in the nose. I did not like to interfere. So I said nothing."""" And you let him go on to finish his dinner?"" said the Major in horror. Precisely,"" said Stalky. ""I didn't want to spoil his appetite. He will be back later. It's the only thing to do with brave young people. You should have seen his face when he realised what he had done!"""" The Major looked puzzled for an instant. Then he laughed. I believe you're right, Stalky. I'm beginning to see light. Well, keep an eye on him. We'll all three go into the matter together, shall we? And now for Homer and Hesiod."" They turned towards the door and met the little dark head of Ajax, who had been listening to everything from the top of the stairs. For just one second their eyes met. Then Ajax dropped down and went into the library, where he sat down at the card-table, rather pale. He had won every game except one that day, and the Major, feeling shaken by his interview with Stalky, was quite unaware that Ajax had laid aside his cards for the nonce. The Major read aloud from the first two books of the Iliad for half an hour, then said: Now, gentlemen, we've got to talk this out. Our boys are going to be fighting men very shortly, so it is our business to know how they ought to behave in war. First of all, we have to honour brave youths and soldiers. What does the Iliad tell us about that?"""" Ask your friend there,"" said Stalky, pointing to the silent figure at the table. """"He knows everything. He can answer any question better than a dictionary."""" Oh yes; I know my Greek all right, but I don't know much about soldiers or war,"" said Ajax, looking up. """"They say I'm clever in maths. My father says I ought to be a doctor."""" No; he won't be a doctor,"" said Stalky, who was watching him closely. ""We'll see to that."""" You think so?"" said Ajax. ""Why?"" Stalky drew his fingers across his throat. Yes, I see,"" said Ajax. ""That's a good idea. I haven't got any taste for killing people anyway. But what's the use of talking about ancient things like that? What we've got to find out is what kind of young men we are going to make out of these children. That's my job, isn't it?"""" That's my job too,"" said the Major. ""And Stalky's as well. I suppose you'd both like to hear what I think. " +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: Ajax, Homer +Quoted work: Hesiod's poetry +Language: English" "If you want to honour a brave youth, then teach him to shoot, to run, to ride, to swim, and to fight."" A boy should be trained from his earliest years to look upon death as the common heritage of mankind. There is no greater mistake than to imagine that boys should be protected from all roughness, and taught to shun and avoid even the thought of violence. I hold that to be brutal which teaches us to shrink in fear from realities. Through what window shall we see life except through this one made by the sword? The man who fears death loses everything, yet he who does not fear it is lost himself. That is why Ajax was called a fool, when, after having slain himself, he prayed that he might live once more to do battle for his country. Yet he was wiser than those who said that he was mad. And now a word about our enemies. They are men like ourselves. Treat them as you would be treated if you were captured."""" Yes, indeed,"" said Homer, ""I had quite forgotten that."" Do not forget it again! It is not well to mix oil and water. If you must hate your enemy, then hate him for his vices, but never for his virtues. Hate him for his cunning, but never for his courage. A brave enemy is always to be respected and admired. If you have conquered him, he will be your loyal friend; if you have been worsted by him, he will some day win your heart. " 79 79 "Very good, he said. And therefore when Hellenes fight with barbarians and barbarians withHellenes, they will be described by us as being at war when they fight,and by nature enemies, and this kind of antagonism should be calledwar; but when Hellenes fight with one another we shall say that Hellasis then in a state of disorder and discord, they being by nature friendsand such enmity is to be called discord. I agree. Consider then, I said, when that which we have acknowledged to bediscord occurs, and a city is divided, if both parties destroy thelands and burn the houses of one another, how wicked does the strifeappear! No true lover of his country would bring himself to tear inpieces his own nurse and mother: There might be reason in the conquerordepriving the conquered of their harvest, but still they would havethe idea of peace in their hearts and would not mean to go on fightingfor ever. Yes, he said, that is a better temper than the other. And will not the city, which you are founding, be an Hellenic city? @@ -1986,16 +2050,18 @@ Just so. And as they are Hellenes themselves they will not devastate Hellas,nor I agree, he said, that our citizens should thus deal with their Hellenicenemies; and with barbarians as the Hellenes now deal with one another. Then let us enact this law also for our guardians:-that they are neitherto devastate the lands of Hellenes nor to burn their houses. Agreed; and we may agree also in thinking that these, all our previousenactments, are very good. -But still I must say, Socrates, that if you are allowed to go on inthis way you will entirely forget the other question which at thecommencement of this discussion you thrust aside: --Is such an orderof things possible, and how, if at all? For I am quite ready to acknowledgethat the plan which you propose, if only feasible, would do all sortsof good to the State. I will add, what you have omitted, that yourcitizens will be the bravest of warriors, and will never leave theirranks, for they will all know one another, and each will call theother father, brother, son; and if you suppose the women to join theirarmies, whether in the same rank or in the rear, either as a terrorto the enemy, or as auxiliaries in case of need, I know that theywill then be absolutely invincible; and there are many domestic ticadvantages which might also be mentioned and which I also fully acknowledge:but, as I admit all these advantages and as many more as you please,if only this State of yours were to come into existence, we need sayno more about them; assuming then the existence of the State, letus now turn to the question of possibility and ways and means --therest may be left." "Summary: The text discusses the concept of war and its relationship to friendship and enmity. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +But still I must say, Socrates, that if you are allowed to go on inthis way you will entirely forget the other question which at thecommencement of this discussion you thrust aside: --Is such an orderof things possible, and how, if at all? For I am quite ready to acknowledgethat the plan which you propose, if only feasible, would do all sortsof good to the State. I will add, what you have omitted, that yourcitizens will be the bravest of warriors, and will never leave theirranks, for they will all know one another, and each will call theother father, brother, son; and if you suppose the women to join theirarmies, whether in the same rank or in the rear, either as a terrorto the enemy, or as auxiliaries in case of need, I know that theywill then be absolutely invincible; and there are many domestic ticadvantages which might also be mentioned and which I also fully acknowledge:but, as I admit all these advantages and as many more as you please,if only this State of yours were to come into existence, we need sayno more about them; assuming then the existence of the State, letus now turn to the question of possibility and ways and means --therest may be left." "Summary: The text discusses the concept of war and its relationship to friendship and discord. +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation +Literary form: Philosophical dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Hellenes, barbarians, Socrates -Fuzzy place: Hellas" I have spoken of war and peace, but I will speak to you now about friends and enemies. It is natural that we should be friends with those who are like us, and it is equally natural that we should be enemies with those who are unlike us. But if we go further, and say that a man is not only our enemy but also our foe, then we have come to something which is harsh and vivid, as the words themselves show, and far removed from friendship. And when we add that he who is a foe is a barbarian, then we mean that he is an utter stranger whom we do not even allow to be a man at all; and this is what we Hellenes mean by saying that the barbarians are naturally the foes of Hellas. Nor would we ever have admitted them into the city in any way except as slaves; for we know that whenever they come inside our walls they make mischief. But now Socrates has been telling me that all men are akin, and that he who says that the Barbarians are naturally the foes of Hellas is either ignorant or mad. He added that these were his own notions, and that he had learned them from me. For my part, I am ashamed to confess that I was so astonished at these words that I could only stare at him without answering, and I felt as if I had been struck dumb. +Active character: Socrates, interlocutor +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" I don’t like war, and I don’t like the people who make it.” “Then you’re a fool,” said Socrates. “And all this claptrap about friendship is a lot of moonshine. If I were in your place I’d tell these gentlemen to go to hell. And if they didn’t like that, I’d kick them there.” The interlocutor flung himself back in his chair with a snort of anger. He was a big man, dark-complexioned, with heavy features and black hair shot with grey. His eyes were cold and cynical; he looked as though he had spent half his life in the tropics, and the other half on a race-course. But for the moment his air of cynical superiority had vanished, and he was looking more than a little uncomfortable. “That’s a fine thing to say to me!” he cried. “I am an officer in His Majesty’s Army, and I have a right to expect respect from my subordinates.” “You’ve got a right to expect obedience, and nothing else,” said Socrates. “As for respect, you can get that from your servants, not from me. As for what I said, I meant every word of it. War is a dirty business, and I despise the men who make it. And you are one of them.” “I see,” said the officer. “I suppose you think you’re very clever, eh? You think you know everything, don’t you? But let me tell you something, you impudent young puppy: if you weren’t so useful to me, I’d give you a clip round the ear that would make you sit up straight.” “If you laid a finger on me I’d break your arm,” said Socrates. “How do you like that for cheek?” “It’s just what I should expect from you,” said Socrates. “But before we start breaking each other’s bones, why don’t we talk it over sensibly? After all, we can’t live together without coming to some sort of agreement. And our present relationship doesn’t seem to be working very well, does it?” The officer laughed harshly. “No,” he said, “it isn’t working very well at all. But that’s because you’re a disagreeable little prig, and I’m afraid I haven’t been very tactful in my handling of you. Perhaps I ought to apologize.” “No need to bother,” said Socrates. “I know what you think of me, and I’m used to being abused.” “Well, we’ll forget the past, shall we?” said the officer. “After all, you’ve got your own peculiarities, and I’ve got mine. What do you say we shake hands on it and start afresh?” “Very well,” said Socrates, holding out his hand. “If you really mean it. 80 80 "If I loiter for a moment, you instantly make a raid upon me, I said,and have no mercy; I have hardly escaped the first and second waves,and you seem not to be aware that you are now bringing upon me thethird, which is the greatest and heaviest. When you have seen andheard the third wave, I think you be more considerate and will acknowledgethat some fear and hesitation was natural respecting a proposal soextraordinary as that which I have now to state and investigate. The more appeals of this sort which you make, he said, the more determinedare we that you shall tell us how such a State is possible: speakout and at once. Let me begin by reminding you that we found our way hither in thesearch after justice and injustice. @@ -2010,17 +2076,18 @@ I agree. Then you must not insist on my proving that the actual State willin eve Yes, I will. Let me next endeavour to show what is that fault in States which isthe cause of their present maladministration, and what is the leastchange which will enable a State to pass into the truer form; andlet the change, if possible, be of one thing only, or if not, of two;at any rate, let the changes be as few and slight as possible. Certainly, he replied. I think, I said, that there might be a reform of the State if onlyone change were made, which is not a slight or easy though still apossible one. What is it? he said. Now then, I said, I go to meet that which I liken to the greatestof the waves; yet shall the word be spoken, even though the wave breakand drown me in laughter and dishonour; and do you mark my words. -Proceed. I said: Until philosophers are kings, or the kings and princes ofthis world have the spirit and power of philosophy, and politicalgreatness and wisdom meet in one, and those commoner natures who pursueeither to the exclusion of the other are compelled to stand aside,cities will never have rest from their evils, --nor the human race,as I believe, --and then only will this our State have a possibilityof life and behold the light of day. Such was the thought, my dearGlaucon, which I would fain have uttered if it had not seemed tooextravagant; for to be convinced that in no other State can therebe happiness private or public is indeed a hard thing." "Summary: The speaker discusses the possibility of a just and ideal State, acknowledging that it may never be fully realized but still worth striving for. -Narrative arc: Philosophical exploration and argument -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Proceed. I said: Until philosophers are kings, or the kings and princes ofthis world have the spirit and power of philosophy, and politicalgreatness and wisdom meet in one, and those commoner natures who pursueeither to the exclusion of the other are compelled to stand aside,cities will never have rest from their evils, --nor the human race,as I believe, --and then only will this our State have a possibilityof life and behold the light of day. Such was the thought, my dearGlaucon, which I would fain have uttered if it had not seemed tooextravagant; for to be convinced that in no other State can therebe happiness private or public is indeed a hard thing." "Summary: The speaker discusses the possibility of a just and ideal State, but acknowledges that it may never be fully realized in reality. +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary form: Conversation +Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: The speaker, Glaucon -Fuzzy place: Unnamed location -Diegetic time: A few minutes" But suppose that a just and an ideal State were once was once, mind you!—to be established; still I fear that if the tyrant of such a State were to find in his own possessions any trace of a rational being, he would want to destroy him. There is no place for him in the world of which the tyrant is king. The pangs of giving him up might be compared to the grief of Sophocles, who, after having created a glorious creature such as might have been the saviour of Athens, was compelled, as he himself says, to “make him out of ploughman’s wood,” and then leading him forth adds: “Thou art a bastard, and yet I loved thee; but there is a danger lest thou shouldest prove ungrateful, and take away the victory from Athens.” And even now, at this very moment, I feel the same fear about the offspring of my genius; for I am sure that there is something ideal about them, and that nothing which is only human or animal will ever be able to satisfy them in their thoughts or aspirations. And though they might follow after many things, and seem to themselves, and to every one else, to have found that which they sought, nevertheless they would forget whatever they had gained through sorrow and vexation of spirit, and would endure hardships a thousand times over in search of what they had left behind. “And has not each of us often left behind him whatever he most valued on earth, and lost it by some mishap on his way, and made himself more unhappy by the recollection of it than he was before by the possession of it?” “That has happened to me, Adeimantus,” said Glaucon. “Yes, friend,” I replied, “and that is the reason why true philosophers are always the most devoted servants of the State.” “How so?” “Because in the true philosopher, wonderful as it may appear, there is a divine element which ever draws him near to the heavens. And because he is always dimly hovering between earth and heaven he is never at rest or settled on either, and whenever with sadened thought he contemplates the sea of evils into which humankind has fallen he yearns for the upper abode of the gods, and despising the vulgar honour which is bestowed upon the virtuous and the good by mean and impure souls, he dedicates himself to the honour which is appointed by God, and which is the best for man,—above all, of having truly great thoughts; he would fain educate the world, and seek to lead astray none, but rather to make all his brethren immortal and ceaselessly happy. And thus in lifelong pursuit of this ideal which, when apprehended in the dialectical region, is necessarily the highest good, he will go on and rise out of the shadows and reflections of virtue to a fundamental knowledge of her, and will attain the light and cause his soul not to feign the vision of truth, but to see the truth itself.” +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" The State which we have described will be established on one of the islands, or perhaps on the mainland, and the guardian class will be those who, as a result of their education, are best able to survey everything that is in heaven and hell. They will be the natural rulers of our ideal State, because they are most highly endowed with intellect and courage; and again there is this further point:—they will want to rule for the sake of the city. And the other classes will gladly obey them because they see that the State cannot exist without rulers any more than the human eye can exist without a liver. Wherefore, when you are asking whether such an ideal is realizable or not, you may lay to heart the remark made by Homer in the beginning of the Iliad,—‘Of making the plans of gods there is no wisdom.’ But let us analyse what has preceded and what has followed in the argument:—we see that former governments have been neither divine nor human; the present reign of law being, according to Aristotle, neither an improvement nor yet a progress towards an ideal; and that the State at which we are seeking to arrive cannot be brought about until tyrannies and despotisms of all sorts have been abolished from the land. 81 81 "Socrates, what do you mean? I would have you consider that the wordwhich you have uttered is one at which numerous persons, and veryrespectable persons too, in a figure pulling off their coats all ina moment, and seizing any weapon that comes to hand, will run at youmight and main, before you know where you are, intending to do heavenknows what; and if you don't prepare an answer, and put yourself inmotion, you will be prepared by their fine wits,' and no mistake. You got me into the scrape, I said. And I was quite right; however, I will do all I can to get you outof it; but I can only give you good-will and good advice, and, perhaps,I may be able to fit answers to your questions better than another--that is all. And now, having such an auxiliary, you must do yourbest to show the unbelievers that you are right. I ought to try, I said, since you offer me such invaluable assistance.And I think that, if there is to be a chance of our escaping, we mustexplain to them whom we mean when we say that philosophers are torule in the State; then we shall be able to defend ourselves: Therewill be discovered to be some natures who ought to study philosophyand to be leaders in the State; and others who are not born to bephilosophers, and are meant to be followers rather than leaders. @@ -2035,15 +2102,16 @@ Exactly. Once more let me ask: Does he who desires any class of goods, desirethe The whole. And may we not say of the philosopher that he is a lover, not of apart of wisdom only, but of the whole? Yes, of the whole. And he who dislikes learnings, especially in youth, when he has nopower of judging what is good and what is not, such an one we maintainnot to be a philosopher or a lover of knowledge, just as he who refuseshis food is not hungry, and may be said to have a bad appetite andnot a good one? Very true, he said. Whereas he who has a taste for every sort of knowledge and who iscurious to learn and is never satisfied, may be justly termed a philosopher?Am I not right?" "Summary: Socrates and his interlocutor discuss the nature of philosophers and their role in society. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, interlocutor Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" Socrates said, 'All right. You've got your answer. Now you can go to hell.' The interlocutor said, 'That's what I'm going to do. But first I'm going to tell you something else about philosophers. They're all like you. They're all crazy. And the reason they're all crazy is because they all want to be kings and emperors and gods instead of men. They all want to run everything in the world and make all the people happy. So if you ask me, Socrates, that's why all the smart guys are dead or in jail and the dumb guys are running things. Because the really smart guys were always trying to take over the whole world and make it over in their own image and likeness. And so they had to be killed off one by one until there weren't any more left except you. And now there isn't any more of you either. That's what I wanted to tell you, Socrates. Now I'm going to hell.' He went out and slammed the door behind him. Socrates got up and took his coat off the chair and put it on. Then he opened the window and looked down at the street. It was empty, but across the way he saw a man leaning against the wall, smoking a cigarette. Socrates watched him for a moment. He looked like a tough guy, and he looked like he was waiting for somebody. Socrates thought to himself, 'He's waiting for me,' and he smiled. Then he turned around and went back into the room and sat down again. After a while the bell rang. Socrates got up and went to the door and opened it. The tough-looking guy came in and closed the door behind him. He took a pack of cigarettes out of his pocket and offered one to Socrates. Socrates shook his head. The tough guy lit his cigarette and said, 'I guess you know who I am.' Socrates nodded. The tough guy said, 'Well, we've got to get moving fast. We've got to beat it out of town before daylight. Can you walk?' Socrates said, 'Yes.' The tough guy said, 'Okay. Let's go.' Socrates followed him out into the hall. They went downstairs and out onto the street. There was nobody in sight. The tough guy said, 'Stick close to me. We'll have to cut through some alleys.' They started walking. The tough guy said, 'I've got a car parked around the corner.' They turned the corner and walked another block. They turned another corner and stopped in front of a car. The tough guy opened the door and got in. Socrates got in after him. The tough guy started the engine and drove off. Socrates leaned back in the seat and closed his eyes. He didn't open them again until they stopped in front of a hotel. The tough guy said, 'This is where we get off.' They got out of the car and went into the hotel. In the lobby the tough guy said, 'You can stay here. I'll register you under my name.' +Language: English" "He was a philosopher, and philosophers are queer people nowadays. They don't care for food or drink the way they used to do, and they haven't got any money, and they don't know what to wear. I've heard them say that they're thinking of getting rid of their bodies and only living in their souls. They live on hot water and biscuits, and they can go for days without talking."""" But you said just now,"" I objected, ""that the man in the raincoat didn't talk much."""" He did talk a bit,"" Socrates admitted; ""but he didn't say anything worth listening to."""" You ought to be ashamed of yourself,"" I told him severely, ""for being so rude to a gentleman."" I'll tell you something else about those philosophers,"" Socrates continued, rubbing his hands gleefully. """"They're always going around with their eyes shut, thinking about things. It's bad enough having one old fool with his eyes shut, but there's nothing worse than two fools. And they can't see straight when they open their eyes again!"""" But why shouldn't they close their eyes?"" I asked. Because they're always trying to show off,"" Socrates explained. ""If they want to look wise, let them use some other trick. When I want to show off, I pretend to be stupid. That's safer, because then nobody thinks you're showing off."""" For the first time since I had known him I began to feel real respect for Socrates, and I wished that I had made friends with him earlier. Perhaps if I had done so, my life might have been different. At least I would not have led it alone. * * * * * By the time we came to the corner where we were to part, we had become good friends. Good-bye, lad,"" Socrates said, taking my hand. ""I'm sorry you can't come to my party tonight; but perhaps we may meet again before long."""" If you really wish it, sir,"" I answered, ""I will try to come."""" Then he turned and walked quickly away through the crowds of hurrying men and women until he disappeared into the darkness. I stood where I was for a moment, watching him. Presently I saw a flash of red hair in the half-light, and a few moments later Phaerides came up to me. What are you staring at?"" he demanded peevishly. At nothing, sir."" Then turn your eyes elsewhere,"" he said. ""It's time for us to be leaving."""" With these words he took my arm and drew me away from the street corner. We went along for a little while without speaking, and then he looked at me sharply. """"I've just remembered,"""" he said, """"that I promised to take you home. Is that where you live?"""" Yes, sir,"" I answered. " 82 82 "Glaucon said: If curiosity makes a philosopher, you will find manya strange being will have a title to the name. All the lovers of sightshave a delight in learning, and must therefore be included. Musicalamateurs, too, are a folk strangely out of place among philosophers,for they are the last persons in the world who would come to anythinglike a philosophical discussion, if they could help, while they runabout at the Dionysiac festivals as if they had let out their earsto hear every chorus; whether the performance is in town or country--that makes no difference --they are there. Now are we to maintainthat all these and any who have similar tastes, as well as the professorsof quite minor arts, are philosophers? Certainly not, I replied; they are only an imitation. He said: Who then are the true philosophers? Those, I said, who are lovers of the vision of truth. That is also good, he said; but I should like to know what you mean? To another, I replied, I might have a difficulty in explaining; butI am sure that you will admit a proposition which I am about to make. @@ -2061,17 +2129,16 @@ Come, then, and let us think of something to say to him. Shall webegin by assuri I answer that he knows something. Something that is or is not? Something that is; for how can that which is not ever be known? And are we assured, after looking at the matter from many points ofview, that absolute being is or may be absolutely known, but thatthe utterly non-existent is utterly unknown?" "Summary: The text discusses the distinction between philosophers and those who are merely lovers of sight and art. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Glaucon, Socrates -Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "There was a great deal of this sort of thing in Glaucon's nature, and it had brought him into many an unpleasant situation. For instance, there was the time when he had been stopped by a policeman in the West End, and accused of being drunk and incapable. The officer had been astonished to find that Glaucon could not only walk straight but also recite long passages from Plato without a single slip. He had put down his offence as """"drunkenness"""" because Glaucon had refused to do the splits on the pavement, whereas any self-respecting Greek philosopher would have done them with pleasure. This evening, Glaucon was walking between Socrates and Polemarchus. As they approached their goal, Socrates halted abruptly. A few yards ahead of them was a tall figure, with one hand in his coat pocket and the other waving a stick. He looked like a man who was thinking things out in the open air, rather than a man who was loitering about suspiciously. His face was turned away, so that all they could see of him was his shoulders and the back of his head, which were covered by a thatch of untidy grey hair. He was humming a tune softly to himself. No!"" said Socrates sharply. ""Not that way."" And he led them round a side-street. I'm afraid he's gone,"" said Polemarchus. He has not gone,"" said Socrates. ""He is waiting for us."""" But why won't we go past him?"" asked Glaucon. Because,"" said Socrates, ""he is a detective, and I am going to let him detect me. I want you to see how he does it."""" But why should you want to be detected?"" Well,"" said Socrates, ""I always like to watch people doing what they are good at doing. And if you think about it, my dear Glaucon, you will realise that detectives are like painters. They are lovers of sight, just as painters are lovers of light; and the two classes are closely related."""" In what way?"" Because the lover of art and the lover of sight both belong to the same class of people as the lover of money. They are lovers of appearance, not of reality."""" Of course! How stupid of me!"" You are thinking now, I expect, of the merchant who goes into business for profit and yet dislikes making his accounts look untidy, or the man who gets rid of his wife because she is getting old and fat, but takes care to marry another woman who will look well beside her. Those are the cases where the love of appearances triumphs over the love of reality."""" But why are detectives and painters lovers of appearance?"" " +Quoted work: None +Language: English" And those whose eyes are fixed on the horizon, and who take no note of what is at their feet, and even forget to look at it — that is the distinction between philosophers and lovers of sight and art.” Glaucon laughed, but I could not see that he had taken in the full force of the answer. “All right,” he said; “now tell me why these three men were so different from one another. What caused it?” “My dear friend,” said Socrates, “don’t you know yet that there is nothing more beautiful than knowledge? And that everything else that we value for its own sake is only beautiful because it partakes of it? Isn’t beauty a kind of knowledge? And isn’t strength really power? And health and life themselves? And goodness? When they are all put together, they make up the complete and perfect image of knowledge. So how can we wonder if the man who has most of them is also the most beautiful and the strongest and the healthiest and the happiest and the best?” “I quite agree with you,” said Glaucon. “But the question is, what makes some men have more of these things than others?” “Why, the same thing, of course,” replied Socrates. “They are better educated.” “What!” cried Glaucon, “do you mean to say that the cause of their superiority was education?” “Of course,” said Socrates. “Isn’t it obvious? Didn’t you see how one of them had been taught to read the book of night, and the other two hadn’t?” “Yes, I saw that,” said Glaucon. “Well then, the man who had been taught would naturally be able to see further into the dark than his companions, wouldn’t he?” “Certainly he would.” “Then he must have had an advantage over them, wasn’t he?” “Yes, he certainly was.” “And as you said just now, any advantage is worth having, isn’t it?” “Yes, undoubtedly.” “So this man must have been the best off of the three, mustn’t he?” “It looks like it.” “And by ‘best off’ I suppose you mean that he was the happiest, the strongest, the healthiest, and the best, didn’t you?” “That’s my meaning, yes.” “But you said a minute ago that the reason why some men are happier, stronger, healthier, and better than others is that they are better educated, didn’t you?” “Yes, that was what I said.” “And you also said that the best education is knowledge, didn’t you?” “I did.” “So it seems to follow that the man who knew most about night was the best educated of the three, and therefore the happiest, the strongest, the healthiest, and the best.” “You’re perfectly right,” said Socrates. “I never thought of it before, but it does seem to follow.” “And aren’t you surprised,” asked Glaucon, “that people don’t generally realize that education is the key to happiness, and try to give their children the best possible education they can?” 83 83 "Nothing can be more certain. Good. But if there be anything which is of such a nature as to beand not to be, that will have a place intermediate between pure beingand the absolute negation of being? Yes, between them. And, as knowledge corresponded to being and ignorance of necessityto not-being, for that intermediate between being and not-being therehas to be discovered a corresponding intermediate between ignoranceand knowledge, if there be such? Certainly. Do we admit the existence of opinion? Undoubtedly. As being the same with knowledge, or another faculty? Another faculty. Then opinion and knowledge have to do with different kinds of mattercorresponding to this difference of faculties? @@ -2098,16 +2165,14 @@ Not with either. And can therefore neither be ignorance nor knowledge? That seem In neither. Then I suppose that opinion appears to you to be darker than knowledge,but lighter than ignorance? Both; and in no small degree. And also to be within and between them? Yes. Then you would infer that opinion is intermediate? No question. But were we not saying before, that if anything appeared to be ofa sort which is and is not at the same time, that sort of thing wouldappear also to lie in the interval between pure being and absolutenot-being; and that the corresponding faculty is neither knowledgenor ignorance, but will be found in the interval between them? True. And in that interval there has now been discovered something whichwe call opinion?" "Summary: The text discusses the nature of knowledge, opinion, and being. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Philosophical argument Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Dialogue between two characters -Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "I am not asking you to believe me, but merely to realise that there is no such thing as knowledge in the absolute sense of the word. All we have are opinions. That is why I talk about being and not knowing. Knowing implies a certainty which does not exist in this world. If you like, I will admit that I know things with a greater degree of probability than you do. But I still say it is only opinion."""" He sat down on a low wooden stool, and smiled at her over his cigar. """"And now,"""" he said, """"I want to know something about you."""" She looked at him coldly and spoke without stirring from her chair. If you mean personal details, I don't see that they concern you."" It would be interesting."" I'm afraid you're rather too late for that. I told you when you first came here that I never tell people things about myself unless I feel inclined."""" You're very uncommunicative."" Perhaps, but not less so than yourself."" The corners of his mouth turned up in a grin. """"You must have known plenty about me before you asked me to come here."""" Yes, but I haven't been talking to anyone else for weeks."" She glanced at him suddenly, and saw that he was laughing silently. Her eyes flashed. """"What's the matter?"""" she asked sharply. Nothing. Only I can't help wondering what you're going to do if you ever get bored with keeping me here."""" I may find out."" He nodded. """"You've got spirit. I like that."" He picked up his cigar and stood up. """"By the way, what did you do with my clothes?"""" They're hanging up in the bedroom."" He walked towards the door and stopped at the threshold. """"Well,"""" he said, """"I'm going back now. I'll probably be along again tomorrow morning."""" He waited. There was no reply. He smiled. """"Good-bye, then,"""" he said. And went out of the room. As soon as the key turned in the lock she rose from her chair and walked quickly across to the window. When she reached it she stood looking down into the street. After a while she sighed and moved away. Then she sat down again by the table and took up the book. She read for some time and then laid it down once more. Presently she rose to her feet and walked slowly over to the fireplace. She stood leaning against the mantelpiece, thinking. At last she raised her head and stared fixedly at the opposite wall. A minute passed and still she continued to gaze steadily before her. Suddenly she turned round and hurried across to the door. She opened it and listened intently. There was silence. She crossed to the window and bent forward to look through the crack in the blind. The street was deserted. She withdrew her head and walked quickly across the room to the corner where the ladder led to the loft. " +Language: English" "There was only one thing that I had found out, and that was that the more you know about something the less you can be sure of it. You got to where you knew what it might be or it might not be and there was nothing you could do about it but wait till you died. Take a plain example. Here's an egg, all right in front of you. You know it's an egg because you've seen eggs before and you know by seeing them that they are round and white and have yolks inside them. And here's another egg that looks just like it. You take it up and bang it and it sounds like an egg. And you prick it and it feels like an egg. And it smells like an egg. And you bite into it and it tastes like an egg. And you're sure it's an egg. But suppose you open it up and there isn't any yolk inside it. You don't know why, but you know it. And then you remember that once you thought a watermelon was an egg and you were dead wrong. So now you don't know whether this is an egg or a watermelon or a rubber ball or a balloon filled with air or a brick or maybe even a piece of wood carved to look like an egg. You don't know anything about anything. Well, that's how it is when you get to being wise."""" The old man smiled at him. """"I'm afraid you've been reading too many books,"""" he said. He leaned back and puffed on his pipe. """"The point is that we never really know anything for sure, but if you know enough you may be able to guess pretty well."""" It made Wolfe sound reasonable, and Archie looked at him with new respect. For two minutes he hadn't known whether to laugh or hit him. He stood up and stretched himself. It was getting on towards evening and he wanted to go home. He asked, """"Well, what do you think?"""" And Wolfe answered, """"I think the Chief Justice has committed murder."""" Chapter II. A Party Is Given. 1. Archie didn't need any further explanation. He nodded understandingly, picked up his hat, and went to the hall to put it on. At the door he turned and said: """"You know, Mr. Wolfe, I believe you're right."""" Then he shut the door and started off towards Eighth Avenue to catch a bus to Thirty-fourth Street. He would first walk to Tenth Avenue and get a bus going uptown; the cars in that direction were emptier than those heading downtown, and he wanted to sit down and rest on the way home. He walked rapidly along Ninety-sixth Street between Park and Lexington Avenues, threading his way through a crowd of people on their way home from work. They were mostly women, with shopping bags dangling from their arms and faces darkened from the heat of cooking stoves and wash-boilers. One of them stopped him and asked for the time, and he told her. " 84 84 "There has. Then what remains to be discovered is the object which partakes equallyof the nature of being and not-being, and cannot rightly be termedeither, pure and simple; this unknown term, when discovered, we maytruly call the subject of opinion, and assign each to its proper faculty,-the extremes to the faculties of the extremes and the mean to thefaculty of the mean. True. This being premised, I would ask the gentleman who is of opinion thatthere is no absolute or unchangeable idea of beauty --in whose opinionthe beautiful is the manifold --he, I say, your lover of beautifulsights, who cannot bear to be told that the beautiful is one, andthe just is one, or that anything is one --to him I would appeal,saying, Will you be so very kind, sir, as to tell us whether, of allthese beautiful things, there is one which will not be found ugly;or of the just, which will not be found unjust; or of the holy, whichwill not also be unholy? No, he replied; the beautiful will in some point of view be foundugly; and the same is true of the rest. @@ -2130,17 +2195,17 @@ Assuredly. BOOK VI Socrates - GLAUCON And thus, Glaucon, after the argument has gone a weary way, the trueand the false philosophers have at length appeared in view. -I do not think, he said, that the way could have been shortened." "Summary: The text discusses the nature of opinion and knowledge, arguing that what is perceived as beautiful or just is actually a combination of opposites. -Trope: The dichotomy between appearance and reality -Narrative arc: Philosophical argumentation -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +I do not think, he said, that the way could have been shortened." "Summary: The text discusses the nature of beauty and knowledge, arguing that opinions about beauty are not the same as knowledge. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical argument +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, Glaucon -Time setting: 1950s" "Socrates is a much nicer guy than I am. He's more patient and he puts up with this kind of stuff from Glaucon, who is just a kid. I'm not sure why Socrates wants to listen to him at all."""" Why don't you just tell us what you think about the nature of opinion and knowledge,"" Glaucon said impatiently. """"I don't want to hear another lecture about your old teacher."""" Okay, okay,"" said Kaku. ""You're right, you're right. Let's get down to business."""" * * * * * Well, let me say first of all that whatever is perceived as beautiful or good or just, we must understand to be a combination of opposites. In other words, it's an illusion. It looks like something real but it isn't really there. This is the essence of my theory, which is borrowed in part from Socrates himself, though he never quite put it together the way I have."""" What do you mean?"" asked Glaucon. ""What is this theory of yours?"""" I'll explain,"" said Kaku. ""Let's take beauty for example. You see a woman and you find her attractive. Now you might think that this attractiveness comes from her physical appearance. But this is only half the story. The other half is hidden inside you. If you didn't have this feeling inside you, you wouldn't be attracted by her outward appearance. That's why beauty exists in the eye of the beholder. There is no such thing as absolute beauty; there are only relative beauties. And the same is true of justice and goodness and every other moral concept."""" So what you're saying is that these concepts aren't based on any objective reality,"" said Glaucon. ""They're just products of our own imagination."""" Exactly!"" said Kaku. ""And this is where my theory becomes interesting because it leads to a whole new way of understanding the world. It suggests that everything in the universe is ultimately an illusion."""" How can you possibly believe that?"" Glaucon exclaimed. ""Surely you must see that the world is full of real things. We can touch them and taste them and smell them. They exist whether we believe in them or not."""" Don't be so sure,"" said Kaku. ""In fact, I think you will agree with me when I say that a lot of things don't actually exist. Take money, for example. Is it real or is it just a piece of paper with some numbers printed on it?"""" But money has value,"" protested Glaucon. ""It represents something. It's worth something. You can buy things with it."""" Precisely!"" said Kaku. ""But what is it that gives money its value? It's nothing more than a symbol for something else. It's not the money itself that is valuable; it's what you can do with it. In other words, money is just a signifier of wealth, like a picture of a mountain is a signifier of a mountain."""" " +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "Some people think that knowledge is the same thing as beauty. But I think it's just the opposite, and that knowledge is quite different from beauty. Beauty is a great blessing for all living creatures, but it is no help in understanding anything. It is only when you have looked at something beautiful that you start to ask questions about it, and then you are on the way to knowledge."""" Well, well,"" said Glaucon. ""Go on with your story, Socrates. What happened next?"" 23 THE DIALOGUE When I said this to Cephalus, he smiled and said: """"I hope you aren't going to tell me that you can't remember what happened after that. You must be joking!"""" And indeed I was rather hazy about some of the details. The next morning, then, we left Cephalus and went straight to Polus, who received us very warmly. He asked us if we had been to see Critias the day before, and when we said no, he offered to introduce us to him himself. We thanked him, but said we would rather go alone; so we took our leave and set off towards Phex's house. As we were walking along, Socrates suddenly stopped and turned round. 'Stop!' he said. 'Let's go back and see Polus again.' So we turned round and went back to Polus' house. He seemed surprised to see us, but welcomed us kindly and asked why we had changed our minds. Socrates replied: 'We were trying to find out how far a man's power extends over his own actions. For example, if someone does something bad and we punish him for it, do we make him better or worse? If we make him better, it is clearly because we have punished him; otherwise, how could he be any better? If we make him worse, on the other hand, it is clear that punishment does not help anyone; it just makes things worse. " 85 85 "I suppose not, I said; and yet I believe that we might have had abetter view of both of them if the discussion could have been confinedto this one subject and if there were not many other questions awaitingus, which he who desires to see in what respect the life of the justdiffers from that of the unjust must consider. And what is the next question? he asked. Surely, I said, the one which follows next in order. Inasmuch as philosophersonly are able to grasp the eternal and unchangeable, and those whowander in the region of the many and variable are not philosophers,I must ask you which of the two classes should be the rulers of ourState? And how can we rightly answer that question? Whichever of the two are best able to guard the laws and institutionsof our State --let them be our guardians. @@ -2159,13 +2224,16 @@ Right, he said. And is there anything more akin to wisdom than truth? How can th Never. The true lover of learning then must from his earliest youth, as faras in him lies, desire all truth? Assuredly. But then again, as we know by experience, he whose desires are strongin one direction will have them weaker in others; they will be likea stream which has been drawn off into another channel. True. He whose desires are drawn towards knowledge in every form will beabsorbed in the pleasures of the soul, and will hardly feel bodilypleasure --I mean, if he be a true philosopher and not a sham one." "Summary: The speaker discusses the qualities of philosophers and their ability to rule a state. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation -Literary movement: Hardboiled" The philosophers have had their own way for a long time, and it has been a failure. They haven’t given us a decent Emperor yet. The day of the philosopher is over. We want men who can act, men who know what they want and are determined to get it. I’m not going to mince matters. These professors of yours are no damn good. They’re soft, sentimental, degenerate. They have no virility; they’ve never done a day’s work in their lives; they live on the fat of the land and dream dreams.” “Don’t interrupt me,” said Mr. Sinasdrusson, sharply. “I’m not through yet. You may think I’m a fool and that my opinions aren’t worth listening to, but I’ll tell you this: there are other people besides yourself who listen to me, and I am going to talk to them as well. If you think I’m going to let you get away with your nonsense without an answer, you’re mistaken. That’s all very well about the philosophers; but we won’t discuss them now. Let us leave them out of it, if you don’t mind. What I really wanted to say was something else entirely.” He paused. His face was red and he was breathing heavily. “What I really wanted to say was this: I am going to make you an offer. You will find it to your advantage to accept it. It’s a business proposition. You’ve heard what I’ve got to say; now I’ll hear what you’ve got to say. You can put your cards on the table now, or you can wait until tomorrow night.” “Very well,” said Vanamee. “I agree to your terms. I will put my cards on the table now.” “You’ve got a lot to learn about poker,” said Mr. Sinasdrusson. He lit another cigarette, and sat down. “Go ahead,” he said, “I’m listening.” Vanamee leaned back in his chair and clasped his hands across his knees. For several moments he sat looking at the millionaire. Then he began to speak. “You have heard what I had to say,” he began. “Now I would like to ask you some questions. In the first place, why did you come here?” “That’s none of your business,” replied Mr. Sinasdrusson. “It’s all right,” said Vanamee. “I understand. But it happens that it is my business. You came here because you were afraid.” “Afraid!” cried Mr. Sinasdrusson. “I! Of what?” “Of someone named Vanamee,” said the professor, quietly. Mr. Sinasdrusson glared at him suspiciously. “How do you know anything about that?” he demanded. “I guessed it,” said Vanamee. “I knew that you had something to conceal from me, and so I concluded that you had come here because you were afraid of someone whom you thought I might ask about. +Active character: The speaker, the person being addressed +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "We've been talking about philosophers,"" I said. ""Let's get back to them again for a moment. You were saying that it was the philosopher who could rule the state."""" It's the philosopher who is born to rule, but he's too soft and kind and gentle for this world, and so he'll never be allowed to rule."""" But these philosophers you're talking about, they must have been pretty tough men, if they could create the sort of philosophy you're describing?"""" They were men with horns,"" he said. ""They were men who lived by their wits and by their swords. Their minds were keen and sharp; they were clever at every trick in the game, and they didn't shrink from anything. They were like animals that live in the jungle, and that's why they had to live in the jungle. They could never live anywhere else."""" There are no men like that left today,"" I said. ""Not even gangsters are like that any more. All the real vitality has gone out of them, and they're just degenerate parasites living on the life of the nation."""" Yes,"" he said. ""That's what happened. That's what always happens. The vitality goes out of everything and leaves it degenerate and rotten. Look at yourself and look at me. We're both degenerates. We're sick men; we're dying men."""" He had touched a raw spot, and he knew it. His words cut through my body like a knife, and I felt myself grow cold all over. I could feel my face going white as snow, and I felt myself shaking. I tried to laugh, but I couldn't do it. My mouth wouldn't work right. """"Listen,"""" I said, """"I'm not a degenerate! I haven't got any of those symptoms yet! And you're not a degenerate either! You're just a little tired, that's all!"""" He laughed bitterly. """"A little tired! A little tired! What would you call it if you weren't a little tired?"""" I felt sick inside. I wanted to get away from him, and yet I wanted to stay with him. I couldn't move, and I couldn't speak. I could only stare at him with wide eyes while he continued: Suppose I told you that I'd been awake for two days now, and that I hadn't slept or eaten anything since last night? Would you still say that I wasn't tired?"""" No,"" I said. ""But there's nothing wrong with you that a little sleep wouldn't cure."""" No,"" he said. ""You're quite right. A little sleep will cure it."""" He looked straight into my eyes. """"Do you know what I'm going to do? I'm going to have some sleep right here on the floor, and you can sleep beside me!"""" I stood up quickly and backed away from him. """"Don't talk nonsense,"""" I said. """"Come on! Let's go back to the hotel!"""" " 86 86 "That is most certain. Such an one is sure to be temperate and the reverse of covetous; forthe motives which make another man desirous of having and spending,have no place in his character. Very true. Another criterion of the philosophical nature has also to be considered. What is that? There should be no secret corner of illiberality; nothing can moreantagonistic than meanness to a soul which is ever longing after thewhole of things both divine and human. @@ -2187,32 +2255,31 @@ And to men like him, I said, when perfected by years and education,and to these Socrates - ADEIMANTUS Here Adeimantus interposed and said: To these statements, Socrates,no one can offer a reply; but when you talk in this way, a strangefeeling passes over the minds of your hearers: They fancy that theyare led astray a little at each step in the argument, owing to theirown want of skill in asking and answering questions; these littlesaccumulate, and at the end of the discussion they are found to havesustained a mighty overthrow and all their former notions appear tobe turned upside down. And as unskilful players of draughts are atlast shut up by their more skilful adversaries and have no piece tomove, so they too find themselves shut up at last; for they have nothingto say in this new game of which words are the counters; and yet allthe time they are in the right. The observation is suggested to meby what is now occurring. For any one of us might say, that althoughin words he is not able to meet you at each step of the argument,he sees as a fact that the votaries of philosophy, when they carryon the study, not only in youth as a part of education, but as thepursuit of their maturer years, most of them become strange monsters,not to say utter rogues, and that those who may be considered thebest of them are made useless to the world by the very study whichyou extol. Well, and do you think that those who say so are wrong? I cannot tell, he replied; but I should like to know what is youropinion. -Hear my answer; I am of opinion that they are quite right." "Summary: The text discusses the characteristics of a philosophical nature and argues that those who pursue philosophy become useless to society. -Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Hear my answer; I am of opinion that they are quite right." "Summary: The text discusses the characteristics of a philosophical nature and whether or not it is compatible with justice and virtue. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation -Literary movement: Hardboiled +Literary form: Philosophical discussion Active character: Socrates, Adeimantus Time setting: 1950s -Fuzzy place: Unnamed location -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "It's a philosophical nature. It wants to know what it's living for, and why. And the longer you live the more you realize that nothing is worth being excited about, and that there isn't any point in anything."""" Socrates smiled. """"That's true of everybody but me,"""" he said. Well, I was just wondering if we could work out a way to convey that idea to all the young people coming along. They're so damn' eager to get started, poor kids. They're like race horses at the post."""" The old man nodded his head. """"I've thought of that,"""" he said. """"The trouble is that they can't stand not doing things. A man who really knows what life is all about doesn't have to do anything. He can stay home and eat chocolate ice cream. But the young fellow with a philosophy degree is different. His whole idea is to be busy. That's what makes him so hard to handle. If you try to explain to him that life is a fraud, he won't listen to you; he'll say 'How can you tell unless you've tried everything?' """" Adeimantus looked up from his drink. """"You've got something there,"""" he said. """"Maybe we could make him think he had tried everything. Maybe we could make him realize that there's no satisfaction in anything. Make him tired of trying."""" That's right,"" said Socrates. ""That would be fine. But how are we going to do it?"""" Well, here's one way,"" said Adeimantus. ""Make him a detective."" Socrates smiled. """"That might work,"""" he said. """"Yes, that might do it. Of course, it wouldn't do if he had any sense of humor, but most detectives don't have any sense of humor. They're pretty dull fellows. All they care about is getting their man. How did you come to think of that, Adeimantus?"""" Well, sir, I saw it in a movie. Hitchcock, wasn't it? About spies. There was a detective on the trail of some gang of crooks, and every time he found a clue it made him mad, and he'd go around smashing things up."""" Yes, I remember,"" said Socrates. ""And the funny thing was that he didn't find out anything. That might be the way to do it. Make them mad enough, and they'll tear their hair out."""" I guess so,"" said Adeimantus. ""But I don't see how we can make the world full of detectives without anybody finding out about it."""" We don't want them to find out about it,"" said Socrates. ""That's the beauty of it. You see, Adeimantus, it has to be done slowly, gradually. We don't want to change the surface of things too much. Just make the young fellows crazy inside, so they'll want to bust things up and smash things down. " +Language: English" “I have done my best to show you that the philosopher is just and temperate and brave, and all the other things which we said that he would be,” he began; “and I should like to know whether you agree with me.” “I think I do agree with you,” replied Adeimantus, “though I must confess there are points at which I found difficulty. Mankind seem to have lost the power of philosophy, as they have of other arts. In antiquity, philosophy, literature, poetry, warfare, medicine, art, were all in the hands of a few, who transmitted them, as religious rites, from father to son. The sons of the educated became educated themselves; and thus education was handed on from generation to generation. But now each generation begins anew, and the world loses its wisdom. Nowhere can we find a teacher of philosophy, nowhere an initiate into the great mysteries of religion, nowhere a man who possesses knowledge of the whole system of existence. And so philosophy declines among us, and every other fine art, and we become mere barbarians, living like troglodytes and worse than beasts.” “You are quite right,” said Socrates; “you are quite right. There is no wisdom anywhere; the world is indeed a wilderness. 87 87 "Then how can you be justified in saying that cities will not ceasefrom evil until philosophers rule in them, when philosophers are acknowledgedby us to be of no use to them? You ask a question, I said, to which a reply can only be given ina parable. Yes, Socrates; and that is a way of speaking to which you are notat all accustomed, I suppose. I perceive, I said, that you are vastly amused at having plunged meinto such a hopeless discussion; but now hear the parable, and thenyou will be still more amused at the meagreness of my imagination:for the manner in which the best men are treated in their own Statesis so grievous that no single thing on earth is comparable to it;and therefore, if I am to plead their cause, I must have recourseto fiction, and put together a figure made up of many things, likethe fabulous unions of goats and stags which are found in pictures.Imagine then a fleet or a ship in which there is a captain who istaller and stronger than any of the crew, but he is a little deafand has a similar infirmity in sight, and his knowledge of navigationis not much better. The sailors are quarrelling with one another aboutthe steering --every one is of opinion that he has a right to steer,though he has never learned the art of navigation and cannot tellwho taught him or when he learned, and will further assert that itcannot be taught, and they are ready to cut in pieces any one whosays the contrary. They throng about the captain, begging and prayinghim to commit the helm to them; and if at any time they do not prevail,but others are preferred to them, they kill the others or throw themoverboard, and having first chained up the noble captain's senseswith drink or some narcotic drug, they mutiny and take possessionof the ship and make free with the stores; thus, eating and drinking,they proceed on their voyage in such a manner as might be expectedof them. Him who is their partisan and cleverly aids them in theirplot for getting the ship out of the captain's hands into their ownwhether by force or persuasion, they compliment with the name of sailor,pilot, able seaman, and abuse the other sort of man, whom they calla good-for-nothing; but that the true pilot must pay attention tothe year and seasons and sky and stars and winds, and whatever elsebelongs to his art, if he intends to be really qualified for the commandof a ship, and that he must and will be the steerer, whether otherpeople like or not-the possibility of this union of authority withthe steerer's art has never seriously entered into their thoughtsor been made part of their calling. Now in vessels which are in astate of mutiny and by sailors who are mutineers, how will the truepilot be regarded? Will he not be called by them a prater, a star-gazer,a good-for-nothing? Of course, said Adeimantus. Then you will hardly need, I said, to hear the interpretation of thefigure, which describes the true philosopher in his relation to theState; for you understand already. Certainly. Then suppose you now take this parable to the gentleman who is surprisedat finding that philosophers have no honour in their cities; explainit to him and try to convince him that their having honour would befar more extraordinary." "Summary: The speaker discusses the role of philosophers in society and compares it to a ship captain and sailors. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Dialogue -Active character: Socrates, Adeimantus" What good can philosophers do to the ship, and what is their use in it? Are they not a mere incumbrance and useless piece of cargo? For why, instead of having one pilot in the ship, should you not have two or more, and would that not be best of all? Or if there ought to be only one, on the same principle he ought to be single ruler in the state also. And instead of having many sailors, you might as well have only one, and so have one less out of your pay. But now, because the sailors are many the sailors quarrel with each other; at times they even rise in insurrection and offer battle to the captain; and when they have taken the kingdom from him, and slain him, and have done away with the rule of the one, then the good men, who remain behind in the city, are at war with one another.” “Why is that, Socrates?” “Why, because they are not like ourselves, but are a sort of people who live after their own evil dreams; and who care less for the true happiness of the city than for their own temporary repose; and they have no sense. They will make you a feast, and invite you to be their guest; they will honour you with statues and temples, and give titles to you and their children; they will flatter you and their other favourites; but if any of you says to them: ‘My dear friends, how brave and just and true were the ancients,’ they are offended and will let you have nothing to eat. ‘Surely,’ they will say, ‘the blessings of the present are better than the curses of the past. At that time there was danger and envy and sedition, wherefore we are not only wiser, but also happier.’” “Yes,” he said, “they are apt to talk like that.” “Wherefore,” I replied, “my dear friend, those who have the government of a city have a hard task at which they must laugh or cry, and are themselves and seen of men in a pitiable condition.” “The task, then,” said Adeimantus, “is worthy of the wisest of men.” “But surely,” he said, “there must be some one who has, or who could naturally have, the greatest wisdom.” “You mean,” I replied, “some wise man who is also a good man?” “Yes,” he said; “these are my means of arriving at the truth.” “I thought that you were going to say that he who had most power.” “And, as I was saying, Adeimantus, the person who has the greatest power is not always the wisest. For often, when the true ruler requires wisdom and goodness, the citizens choose a worthless rogue who is a runner or a wrestler, because he has greater power.” “Yes,” he said, “that is often the way.” +Literary form: Parable +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: Socrates, Adeimantus +Language: English" You are philosophers, you say? Then let us see if you have not left your ship’s work to meddle with matters that do not concern you. I am the captain of this State,” said Socrates; “you are the crew. Which of us is better fitted to decide whether we shall be right in taking a particular order or acting in a particular way, you or I?” “O man, men always say just what they ought not to say,” was the answer delivered in a fury by Adeimantus. “Do you think that on every occasion on which we disagree with you we are going to offer you the same complaint, as if we had nothing else to say?” “Then meet me in argument, Adeimantus,” rejoined Socrates; “that is all I ask, and prove to me that I am wrong and that you are right.” “And I will,” said Glaucon, “do you take that for an answer?” “Yes,” answered Socrates, “and I will try to prove to you that we are wiser than you are.” “Then you will admit that there may be other forms of government, of which we have only spoken of two, namely, democracy and tyranny?” “I should be very willing to admit that there may be many other good forms of government, but what we were talking about was injustice and the nature of it. And therefore we made an imaginary state, and then we went on to show how, when least defended, justice was most secure, and when most defended, was least secure.” “Very true.” “Suppose now that we go back to the word ‘justice,’ and ask, ‘What do you mean?’” “I may remind you,” said Polemarchus, “of something which I think has been said already, but the saying of which I forgot.” “What was it?” “When we spoke of a man who was unjust, we said that he who did wrong in private life was a thief.” “And we further added,” replied Socrates, “that he who took away another’s property by force, whether the man was rich or poor, was called a robber.” “Very good,” he said; “but suppose that some one denies the truth of all this: what would be said to him?” “Why, what would be said to him whom rioting and drinking and sensuality make ill, and who says that intemperance is not a vice?” “Perhaps he might be told, as you suggest, that if he had any sense he would easily know that if a man’s affairs went on badly under the guidance of another, this was not to be attributed to any virtue in his director, but to his own badness, and that there must be some defect in him who is really to blame.” “That,” replied Polemarchus, “may be readily allowed.” “But when injustice has prevailed, and there are desolations in the land, is the consequent ruin to be attributed to the injustice, or to some other cause?” “Surely to the injustice.” 88 88 "I will. Say to him, that, in deeming the best votaries of philosophy to beuseless to the rest of the world, he is right; but also tell him toattribute their uselessness to the fault of those who will not usethem, and not to themselves. The pilot should not humbly beg the sailorsto be commanded by him --that is not the order of nature; neitherare 'the wise to go to the doors of the rich' --the ingenious authorof this saying told a lie --but the truth is, that, when a man isill, whether he be rich or poor, to the physician he must go, andhe who wants to be governed, to him who is able to govern. The rulerwho is good for anything ought not to beg his subjects to be ruledby him; although the present governors of mankind are of a differentstamp; they may be justly compared to the mutinous sailors, and thetrue helmsmen to those who are called by them good-for-nothings andstar-gazers. Precisely so, he said. For these reasons, and among men like these, philosophy, the noblestpursuit of all, is not likely to be much esteemed by those of theopposite faction; not that the greatest and most lasting injury isdone to her by her opponents, but by her own professing followers,the same of whom you suppose the accuser to say, that the greaternumber of them are arrant rogues, and the best are useless; in whichopinion I agreed. Yes. And the reason why the good are useless has now been explained? @@ -2230,13 +2297,14 @@ What are these corruptions? he said. I will see if I can explain them to you. Ev Rare indeed. And what numberless and powerful causes tend to destroy these rarenatures! What causes? In the first place there are their own virtues, their courage, temperance,and the rest of them, every one of which praise worthy qualities (andthis is a most singular circumstance) destroys and distracts fromphilosophy the soul which is the possessor of them." "Summary: The text discusses the nature of philosophy and the characteristics of philosophers. Narrative arc: Philosophical exploration and discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue -Literary movement: Hardboiled" "It is true that the subject of philosophy is very wide and deep, but I am not sure that it has to be so. The point is that you don't have to know everything in order to have an opinion about something. For example, you might not know all the mathematics in the world and yet you might be able to decide if one mathematical problem is easier or harder than another one. You might not know all the music in the world, but you might be able to tell whether a particular piece of music is harmonious or not. Philosophy is like that. In fact, philosophy is simply asking questions about things. And just as there are people who understand mathematics and music better than other people, there are people who are better at asking questions than other people. So you can also talk about them having a special talent for philosophy."""" In any case,"" said Mr. Hastings, ""I think we ought to be grateful to Mr. Bultitude for his kindness in providing us with this opportunity of discussing our problems."""" That reminds me,"" said Miss Marple, ""of another question that has been troubling me. Why did Mr. Bultitude suddenly turn on Mr. Ransom?"""" It's difficult to say,"" said Tommy. ""He was probably getting rather bored with him. He didn't seem to want to get rid of him, though, because he let him go when he had time to catch up with us."""" Yes, that's odd."" There was a pause, then Mr. Hastings said, """"Do you remember how hard it was to make Mr. Ransom answer questions? He seemed to be stonewalling all the time. It must have taken Hercule Poirot a long time to get anything out of him."""" I wondered why he didn't try to escape from us,"" said Miss Marple. Tommy shook his head. """"I don't think he could have done it. He was a big man and he'd hurt himself badly climbing down the wall. Besides, he had that revolver. He couldn't have got away without being noticed."""" But he had escaped once before?"" Yes, but it was while he was unconscious. And he couldn't do it again unless he had the same luck twice running. Well, what else is there?"""" What about Miss Russell?"" asked Mr. Hastings. ""She told us that she went to bed quite early and that she heard nothing until morning. She seems to have slept soundly all through the night. Does that mean anything?"""" Not necessarily,"" said Tommy. ""It would only prove that she hadn't been drugged. Or that she was given a drug that didn't affect her."""" Yes, I suppose that's possible,"" said Mr. Hastings. ""She doesn't look as if she were easily affected by drugs."" Tommy looked at him curiously. """"What do you mean by that?"""" Mr. Hastings flushed. """"Well,"""" he said, """"she does strike me as being a rather formidable character. " +Literary form: Philosophical dialogue +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Language: English" There is a quality of philosophy which can only be gotten from the study of life, and which no book on philosophy will give you. In other words, it’s impossible to get the real meaning of these terms by definition. You can’t define them in any ultimate sense, because they are facts. And as for the general nature of philosophy, I’d say this: The man who has philosophy is the man who has the ability to see through things, the man who is able to penetrate below the surface of appearances; he is the man who is able to grasp the truth behind illusions. He is the man who understands that things are not always what they seem. For instance, take a murderer. Most people would look at him and say: “He’s a murderer.” But he may be more than that. He may also be a philosopher. Then again, take a preacher. People might say he is a moral man, or even a saint. But he might also be a philosopher. A philosopher is a man who knows how to live with himself. He is a man who is able to face life, and all of its problems, without becoming emotionally upset or confused. A philosopher is a man who is able to control his desires, and his passions. He is a man who is able to make decisions, and to act upon them. He is a man who is able to stand up for his rights, and to fight for them when necessary. He is a man who is able to protect himself, and to protect those whom he loves. He is a man who is able to withstand temptation, and to resist evil. He is a man who is able to endure hardship, and to accept the inevitable. He is a man who is able to handle failure, and to rise above it. He is a man who is able to cope with success, and to avoid its temptations. He is a man who is able to deal with authority, and to exercise it when necessary. He is a man who is able to get along with people, and to influence them. He is a man who is able to stand alone, and to bear the burden of responsibility. He is a man who is able to meet danger, and to face death with courage. He is a man who is able to love and be loved. He is a man who is able to hate and be hated. He is a man who is able to laugh and to cry. He is a man who is able to rejoice and to suffer. He is a man who is able to hope and to despair. He is a man who is able to dream and to awaken. He is a man who is able to live and to die. In short, a philosopher is a man who is able to live like a human being. 89 89 "That is very singular, he replied. Then there are all the ordinary goods of life --beauty, wealth, strength,rank, and great connections in the State --you understand the sortof things --these also have a corrupting and distracting effect. I understand; but I should like to know more precisely what you meanabout them. Grasp the truth as a whole, I said, and in the right way; you willthen have no difficulty in apprehending the preceding remarks, andthey will no longer appear strange to you. @@ -2249,17 +2317,18 @@ Yes, Socrates; necessity will compel him. And yet, I said, there is a still grea What is that? The gentle force of attainder or confiscation or death which, as youare aware, these new Sophists and educators who are the public, applywhen their words are powerless. Indeed they do; and in right good earnest. Now what opinion of any other Sophist, or of any private person, canbe expected to overcome in such an unequal contest? None, he replied. No, indeed, I said, even to make the attempt is a great piece of folly;there neither is, nor has been, nor is ever likely to be, any differenttype of character which has had no other training in virtue but thatwhich is supplied by public opinion --I speak, my friend, of humanvirtue only; what is more than human, as the proverb says, is notincluded: for I would not have you ignorant that, in the present evilstate of governments, whatever is saved and comes to good is savedby the power of God, as we may truly say. -I quite assent, he replied. Then let me crave your assent also to a further observation." "Summary: The text discusses the corrupting influence of certain goods and how they can lead to evil. +I quite assent, he replied. Then let me crave your assent also to a further observation." "Summary: The text discusses the corrupting influence of certain goods and how they can lead to evil when not properly nurtured. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, Adeimantus -Time setting: 1950s" It’s the same with certain books. They can’t help corrupting you. I’ll tell you a true story of how it happened to me. In my youth, before I had seen the light, I was fond of stories, and so I used to read novels. One day, in a public library, I came across a book that really interested me. It was called ‘Gone With The Wind’. It was about a man who was absolutely without any moral character whatever. He murdered people and stole their goods. And he did it without feeling at all bad about it, either! If he felt bad about anything, it was only about having to take risks or do hard work. But then, whenever he got hold of some money, he’d go out and buy himself the most expensive clothes and jewellery, and go round showing them off to every woman he met! It made me sick just thinking of it! Well, I bought the book and took it home to read it again. And when I did, it seemed to cast a spell over me. I couldn’t get it out of my mind. It was as if there were something wrong with it; but what it was I couldn’t say. Then one night, after I’d been reading it for a week, I woke up in the middle of the night and found myself sitting bolt upright in bed. My whole body was shaking, and I thought I was going to die! And then, as I sat there, I heard a voice coming from the darkness around me. ‘Socrates,’ it said, ‘you are a fool.’ ‘Who is speaking?’ I cried. ‘It’s your inner daemon,’ it replied. ‘Your daemon is telling you that you must give up this book immediately. You must put it away where you can’t see it, and never look at it again.’ So I leapt out of bed and ran downstairs to find Adeimantus. I gave him the book and told him what had happened. And from that day to this, I’ve never touched another novel!” “I’m glad to hear it,” said Adeimantus, “because I wouldn’t want to be responsible for your death.” “You’re right,” said Socrates. “But now that we’ve cleared up that little matter, let’s get back to the subject of virtue. We were talking about the goods of fortune. Now, it’s obvious that these goods can lead to evil. If you have an abundance of them, you may become arrogant and ungrateful towards the Gods. You may also develop vicious habits, such as gambling and gluttony, because you have no need to work for your living. And if you lose your goods through misfortune, you may become envious of those who have retained theirs. Or you may even turn to crime in order to get them back! +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" Socrates And in the second place, most important of all, they must be nurtured from their very cradle by a certain kind of training and education which, being corrupted and perverted, becomes an evil instead of a good. You cannot have gold that is not alloyed; for if it were perfectly pure it would be invisible and useless. And you cannot have fine conduct or goodness without the opposite qualities of badness, which are a spur to it. Thus good men will come to grief unless they have contact with evil and those who are unacquainted with the latter will never be able to succeed in life. But Adeimantus I don't like this, Socrates. It seems to me a terrible doctrine that evil can only be overcome by evil. Suppose that we are friends and I am living in your house as a fellow-boarder. Will you then take care to educate me in the right way so that I can't help but turn out good, and not allow me to associate with anyone else? For you know that if I go outside your doors into the town I shall hear such dreadful things that you won't want to answer for what I may become. Socrates Don't worry about that. 90 90 "What are you going to say? Why, that all those mercenary individuals, whom the many call Sophistsand whom they deem to be their adversaries, do, in fact, teach nothingbut the opinion of the many, that is to say, the opinions of theirassemblies; and this is their wisdom. I might compare them to a manwho should study the tempers and desires of a mighty strong beastwho is fed by him-he would learn how to approach and handle him, alsoat what times and from what causes he is dangerous or the reverse,and what is the meaning of his several cries, and by what sounds,when another utters them, he is soothed or infuriated; and you maysuppose further, that when, by continually attending upon him, hehas become perfect in all this, he calls his knowledge wisdom, andmakes of it a system or art, which he proceeds to teach, althoughhe has no real notion of what he means by the principles or passionsof which he is speaking, but calls this honourable and that dishonourable,or good or evil, or just or unjust, all in accordance with the tastesand tempers of the great brute. Good he pronounces to be that in whichthe beast delights and evil to be that which he dislikes; and he cangive no other account of them except that the just and noble are thenecessary, having never himself seen, and having no power of explainingto others the nature of either, or the difference between them, whichis immense. By heaven, would not such an one be a rare educator? Indeed, he would. And in what way does he who thinks that wisdom is the discernmentof the tempers and tastes of the motley multitude, whether in paintingor music, or, finally, in politics, differ from him whom I have beendescribing For when a man consorts with the many, and exhibits tothem his poem or other work of art or the service which he has donethe State, making them his judges when he is not obliged, the so-callednecessity of Diomede will oblige him to produce whatever they praise.And yet the reasons are utterly ludicrous which they give in confirmationof their own notions about the honourable and good. Did you ever hearany of them which were not? No, nor am I likely to hear. You recognise the truth of what I have been saying? Then let me askyou to consider further whether the world will ever be induced tobelieve in the existence of absolute beauty rather than of the manybeautiful, or of the absolute in each kind rather than of the manyin each kind? @@ -2270,17 +2339,17 @@ Yes. Will not such an one from his early childhood be in all things firstamong a Certainly, he said. And his friends and fellow-citizens will want to use him as he getsolder for their own purposes? No question. Falling at his feet, they will make requests to him and do him honourand flatter him, because they want to get into their hands now, thepower which he will one day possess. That often happens, he said. And what will a man such as he be likely to do under such circumstances,especially if he be a citizen of a great city, rich and noble, anda tall proper youth? Will he not be full of boundless aspirations,and fancy himself able to manage the affairs of Hellenes and of barbarians,and having got such notions into his head will he not dilate and elevatehimself in the fulness of vain pomp and senseless pride? -To be sure he will. Now, when he is in this state of mind, if some one gently comes tohim and tells him that he is a fool and must get understanding, whichcan only be got by slaving for it, do you think that, under such adversecircumstances, he will be easily induced to listen?" "Summary: The text discusses the teachings of sophists and the conflict between the opinions of the many and the wisdom of the philosopher. -Trope: The conflict between wisdom and popular opinion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +To be sure he will. Now, when he is in this state of mind, if some one gently comes tohim and tells him that he is a fool and must get understanding, whichcan only be got by slaving for it, do you think that, under such adversecircumstances, he will be easily induced to listen?" "Summary: The text discusses the teachings of sophists and the challenges faced by philosophers in a world that values popularity over wisdom. +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Dialogue +Literary form: Philosophical argument Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Mercenary individuals, philosophers -Time setting: 1950s" They’re all out there. Mercenary individuals selling the wisdom of the Sophists for a few dollars a week. And you can’t blame them, but don’t waste your time on them, they’ll only take up your money.” “But I didn’t hire you to philosophize,” said the man in the white suit. “I want to know about this woman.” “The truth is, my friend, that you don’t know what you want. You think you want to know about her because you are angry and shocked at having been deceived. But if you knew the truth, would you be any happier? Remember that philosophers have known the truth for two thousand years, and they have never been happy. Happiness is the privilege of fools. ” The man in the white suit shrank back in his chair. “I haven’t come here for happiness,” he said. “I’ve come for revenge.” “There’s no point in revenge either,” said the detective. “Revenge belongs to savages. Revenge is the luxury of those who feel themselves safe. When you are alone in a wild country you may kill your enemy, but when you live in cities and you hear nothing but talk of war, revenge is merely an illusion. Remember, too, that in a city it is always the innocent who suffer most. If you kill your enemy you will find another enemy and you will probably kill him too, but remember also that in killing him you may also kill your son or your daughter, for they are your enemies’ sons and daughters too.” “That’s enough,” said the man in the white suit. “I’m not interested in philosophy.” “All right, then,” said the detective, “let’s go back to the facts. What were these facts? You had a wife, she left you. Why did she leave you?” “She was unfaithful to me.” “Did you love her very much?” “Yes, I loved her.” “Why did you love her?” “Because she was beautiful and gentle and she made me happy.” “And when she left you and became ugly and cruel and made you unhappy, why did you still love her?” “I still love her.” “And do you love her now that you know she has become a thief and a prostitute?” “No.” “Do you still want to kill her?” “Certainly not.” “Then why did you send for me?” “To prove that she’s a thief and a prostitute.” “Well, you have proved it, so what next?” “What do you mean, what next?” “Is there anything else you want to prove?” “Of course there is.” “And if you prove it, what then?” “Then I shall go away and forget about it.” “All right, let’s see what we can do.” The detective pulled a folder out of his pocket and began reading from it: “This woman, as you already know, was born in Athens. Her mother was a Greek and her father was a German. She was brought up by her mother until the age of twelve, when she was sent to school in Germany. +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "The sophists, in their place, are doing more good than the philosophers. They teach people how to win a case when they are in court and that is an art which every man who has dealings with his fellow men should know. It is not so easy as it looks; I have seen some of the best lawyers in the world get tangled up like flies in a cobweb if they had to give an answer on the spot. But there again you come back to the same thing: no man can teach another to be wise unless he himself is wise. The sophists are always talking about wisdom, but they are themselves nothing but fools. One of them was boasting to me the other day that he could prove any proposition by logic. I said, 'Well then, I will put one to you.' And I took out my revolver and shot him dead. There! That's logic for you."""" He sat down and filled his pipe. """"Now,"""" he said, """"that reminds me that I have been wanting to ask you something. What do you think of my friend Mr. Gregory?"""" I find him rather difficult,"" I said. ""He talks very loudly and seems to think that the louder he shouts the wiser he sounds."""" You're right there,"" said Lestrade. ""He has not quite given it away yet, but I am close upon him. I have never let him see that I suspect him. I just toss it off as a joke when I talk to him, but I have got my eye on him. He may be slow, but what he gains in one direction he loses in the other. If there's anything that he can't understand he won't make a fuss over it, and that stands him in good stead now."" Well, here is Watson,"" said Holmes, raising his voice above the tangle of words in which we were enveloped. How are you getting on?"" Well, I've got all the evidence together."""" That figures it out rather strongly against No. 1, Mr. Joseph Stangerson."" Yes, but the coachman can look after himself. I've done the father for the lighthouse and young Joe for the dog. We want one of the sons to match with the footprint."" It fits the foot of No. 2."" Exactly. There you make your mistake. Nothing of the sort. Your No. 2 had a size eight shoe, and so has everyone else in the family. We must go higher."" Number 3?"" Yes, of course."" Number 4?"" Precisely. Good-night, Lestrade. Night, Watson. I think there is nothing further to be said. I'll turn the handle up again, for all that."" As I turned the lantern down I gazed up at the dark, dripping ceiling and felt the chills of the night creeping superstitious fears into my heart. The old familiar room with its comfortable corners crowded round me, the fat opossum that swung from the rafters, the querulous voice which I knew so well and the kindly, trusting face of my friend and guardian. Yet here was this sinister place, through which I had passed so fearlessly a thousand times, and ever since I had come to myself after the blow received by me in London I had never looked upon it save without a shudder. " 91 91 "Far otherwise. And even if there be some one who through inherent goodness or naturalreasonableness has had his eyes opened a little and is humbled andtaken captive by philosophy, how will his friends behave when theythink that they are likely to lose the advantage which they were hopingto reap from his companionship? Will they not do and say anythingto prevent him from yielding to his better nature and to render histeacher powerless, using to this end private intrigues as well aspublic prosecutions? There can be no doubt of it. And how can one who is thus circumstanced ever become a philosopher? Impossible. Then were we not right in saying that even the very qualities whichmake a man a philosopher may, if he be ill-educated, divert him fromphilosophy, no less than riches and their accompaniments and the otherso-called goods of life? @@ -2289,19 +2358,18 @@ That is most true, he said. And so philosophy is left desolate, with her marriag That is certainly what people say. Yes; and what else would you expect, I said, when you think of thepuny creatures who, seeing this land open to them --a land well stockedwith fair names and showy titles --like prisoners running out of prisoninto a sanctuary, take a leap out of their trades into philosophy;those who do so being probably the cleverest hands at their own miserablecrafts? For, although philosophy be in this evil case, still thereremains a dignity about her which is not to be found in the arts.And many are thus attracted by her whose natures are imperfect andwhose souls are maimed and disfigured by their meannesses, as theirbodies are by their trades and crafts. Is not this unavoidable? Yes. Are they not exactly like a bald little tinker who has just got outof durance and come into a fortune; he takes a bath and puts on anew coat, and is decked out as a bridegroom going to marry his master'sdaughter, who is left poor and desolate? A most exact parallel. What will be the issue of such marriages? Will they not be vile andbastard? -There can be no question of it. And when persons who are unworthy of education approach philosophyand make an alliance with her who is a rank above them what sort ofideas and opinions are likely to be generated? Will they not be sophismscaptivating to the ear, having nothing in them genuine, or worthyof or akin to true wisdom?" "Summary: The text discusses the challenges faced by philosophers in society and the negative effects that their pursuit of knowledge can have on their personal relationships. +There can be no question of it. And when persons who are unworthy of education approach philosophyand make an alliance with her who is a rank above them what sort ofideas and opinions are likely to be generated? Will they not be sophismscaptivating to the ear, having nothing in them genuine, or worthyof or akin to true wisdom?" "Summary: The text discusses the challenges faced by philosophers and how their pursuit of knowledge can be hindered by their surroundings. Narrative arc: Philosophical reflection -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Dialogue +Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Philosophers, friends, teachers +Active character: The speaker, his friend Time setting: 1950s -Fuzzy place: Unnamed locations within a city or state -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "They're always being misunderstood. They want to do everything their own way, and they never even ask anybody else what he wants."""" The philosophers are the salt of the earth,"" said his friend. And the rest of us have got to take it."" Do you ever see any of them?"" asked the other. Oh sure,"" said his friend. ""I'm a teacher in a public school, and I've had plenty of them for students. But I don't like to talk about it."""" Why not?"" Because if you start talking about the philosophers, you've got to start talking about your friends and your teachers too. And when you get through, everybody's gone. I don't know how many times I've seen my best friend disappear just because I happened to mention the word 'philosopher.' It's a wonder I still have any friends left. My wife has quit talking to me altogether; she says she can't understand a word I say. You see, it gets so that whenever I open my mouth, out comes something about the philosophers. And my wife doesn't know anything about them. She doesn't care anything about them either, and she thinks I ought to be ashamed of myself for spending all my time thinking about things that don't matter. She says she wishes I'd go back to law again. Maybe she's right. When I started practicing law, I didn't talk about the philosophers much. At least, not as much as I do now. But then I hadn't met any yet. If you want to meet some philosophers, why don't you come with me tomorrow night?"""" Where will we go?"" There's a dance over at the Y.M.C.A. Some of the boys from the university are going."""" Who are the boys from the university?"" Just regular guys who are taking some philosophy courses. They think they're pretty smart, but they aren't. There's a girl there that I used to know. Her father teaches philosophy. He's a philosopher himself. His name is Gruen."""" What does he teach?"" All kinds of things. He's the one who wrote the book on 'The Philosophers of Ancient Greece,' the one that we used last year in history."""" Was he a history teacher?"" No, he was a philosophy teacher. He's a philosopher. I told you he was a philosopher."""" Well, why did you say he was a history teacher?"" Because he teaches history. And besides, he writes books about the philosophers of ancient Greece, and the Greeks were the first ones that ever taught history."""" So you mean he's a historian and a philosopher?"" Sure! Why shouldn't he be both? It doesn't hurt people to be both. The historians don't mind, and neither do the philosophers. They're both important. We need them both."""" But you said that the philosophers were the most important."" Well, they are. But it doesn't hurt to have a good historian along to keep track of things. Besides, he knows a lot of stuff about the philosophers that they don't know themselves. He tells me all kinds of things about them, and he explains what they meant by all the different words they use in their books. " +Language: English" "I do not say that it is easy to be a philosopher, but I do say that it is very much harder than it looks, and I have sometimes wondered whether some of the philosophers who come to grief in the manner which I have described might not have done better if they had been less philosophical. Take the case of my friend's friend, for instance. He was a man who was always asking questions about things which did not matter. It was not his fault; it was simply the way he was made. He had read too many books or perhaps too few. In any case, the result was that he would suddenly break off in the middle of a conversation to ask you what you meant by this word or that word. """"What do you mean by dog?"""" he once said to me. """"Do you mean a sheep-dog, or a terrier, or a St. Bernard?"""" And then when I had explained all these various kinds of dogs he would say: Well, but what do you mean by animal? Do you mean a rabbit or an elephant?"""" and he would go on till I was nearly out of my mind. And yet he was a good chap really, although he could be rather trying at times. The evening before he disappeared he came round to see me and we talked about philosophy until quite late. It was after this that I found him missing from breakfast next morning, and then I knew that something must have happened to him. " 92 92 "No doubt, he said. Then, Adeimantus, I said, the worthy disciples of philosophy willbe but a small remnant: perchance some noble and well-educated person,detained by exile in her service, who in the absence of corruptinginfluences remains devoted to her; or some lofty soul born in a meancity, the politics of which he contemns and neglects; and there maybe a gifted few who leave the arts, which they justly despise, andcome to her; --or peradventure there are some who are restrained byour friend Theages' bridle; for everything in the life of Theagesconspired to divert him from philosophy; but ill-health kept him awayfrom politics. My own case of the internal sign is hardly worth mentioning,for rarely, if ever, has such a monitor been given to any other man.Those who belong to this small class have tasted how sweet and blesseda possession philosophy is, and have also seen enough of the madnessof the multitude; and they know that no politician is honest, noris there any champion of justice at whose side they may fight andbe saved. Such an one may be compared to a man who has fallen amongwild beasts --he will not join in the wickedness of his fellows, butneither is he able singly to resist all their fierce natures, andtherefore seeing that he would be of no use to the State or to hisfriends, and reflecting that he would have to throw away his lifewithout doing any good either to himself or others, he holds his peace,and goes his own way. He is like one who, in the storm of dust andsleet which the driving wind hurries along, retires under the shelterof a wall; and seeing the rest of mankind full of wickedness, he iscontent, if only he can live his own life and be pure from evil orunrighteousness, and depart in peace and good-will, with bright hopes. Yes, he said, and he will have done a great work before he departs. A great work --yes; but not the greatest, unless he find a State suitableto him; for in a State which is suitable to him, he will have a largergrowth and be the saviour of his country, as well as of himself. @@ -2313,19 +2381,20 @@ Yes, I replied, ours in most respects; but you may remember my sayingbefore, tha That was said, he replied. Yes, but not in a satisfactory manner; you frightened us by interposingobjections, which certainly showed that the discussion would be longand difficult; and what still remains is the reverse of easy. What is there remaining? The question how the study of philosophy may be so ordered as notto be the ruin of the State: All great attempts are attended withrisk; 'hard is the good,' as men say. Still, he said, let the point be cleared up, and the enquiry willthen be complete. -I shall not be hindered, I said, by any want of will, but, if at all,by a want of power: my zeal you may see for yourselves; and pleaseto remark in what I am about to say how boldly and unhesitatinglyI declare that States should pursue philosophy, not as they do now,but in a different spirit." "Summary: The speaker discusses the nature of philosophy and its relationship to the state, arguing that current governments are unsuitable for it. -Narrative arc: Exposition -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +I shall not be hindered, I said, by any want of will, but, if at all,by a want of power: my zeal you may see for yourselves; and pleaseto remark in what I am about to say how boldly and unhesitatinglyI declare that States should pursue philosophy, not as they do now,but in a different spirit." "Summary: The speaker discusses the nature of philosophy and its relationship to the state, arguing that true philosophers are a rare breed and that the current political systems are not conducive to their growth. +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Adeimantus, Socrates +Active character: Adeimantus, Theages Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "Adeimantus, Adeimantus. Don't talk Greek. It makes me sick."""" But I'm talking in English!"" he cried. """"Listen: philosophy, in the true sense of the word, has nothing to do with governments or politicians or states. Philosophy is concerned only with truth. A state can be a lot of things, but it can't be true. In fact, every state in existence today is false, so what's the use of trying to have a philosopher-king?"""" He looked at us sharply. You've got it all wrong,"" Socrates said. ""If a philosopher wants to live in society, he must rule. There's no other way for him."""" Yeah, yeah,"" he muttered sarcastically. ""But why should we want philosophers around? If you're such an authority on logic and psychology, tell me that."" Because they are the only people who can save us from chaos,"" Socrates answered mildly. ""Because they alone possess the secret of happiness."""" He turned to me. And what about you, Mr. Reardon?"" he asked. ""Are you a happy man?"""" Very happy,"" I said. ""I enjoy my work, I have everything I need, I don't let anything bother me..."""" What would happen if you suddenly lost your work? Would you be happy then?"" he interrupted. I'd find something else,"" I said. ""Surely there are enough jobs around."""" That's not the point. Let's suppose you were suddenly faced with starvation. Would you be happy then?"""" No,"" I said. ""Of course I wouldn't."" But you're prepared for it?"" he asked. ""You know it could happen to you any day?"""" Yes,"" I said. ""I've often thought about it."" Good,"" he said. ""Now we're getting somewhere. You see, the trouble with you is that you're afraid of the future. You spend most of your time thinking about the future, worrying about it, planning for it."""" I smiled. """"It's hard not to think about it when you're always being told it might be better tomorrow than it is today."""" Exactly,"" he said. ""And that's just another lie. You'll never be happier until you stop worrying about the future and concentrate on the present."""" So you say,"" I said. ""But it's easier to say than do. How am I going to forget the future when it's staring me in the face all the time?"""" You won't forget it,"" he said. ""You'll accept it."""" Accept it! How can I accept it when I don't understand it?"" Oh, you understand it very well,"" he said. ""You know perfectly well what the future holds for you."""" I was beginning to get irritated. """"You keep telling me I understand things that I don't understand,"""" I said. """"Why don't you explain them?"""" Why don't you explain them yourself?"" he retorted. " +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "You are quite right in supposing that the true philosophers are an uncommon breed. But when they do appear, they are useful to the state; and he who has the charge of any state is quite right in ordering them to be put to death if they can't be prevented from doing harm."""" The young man made no answer. Adeimantus looked at him enquiringly. ""He seems to me,"" he said, ""to be meditating some jest or irony."" ""Possibly,"" I replied, ""he may be doing so; but then he may not. However, we shall know better when we see whether we can get anything out of him."""" For a moment he seemed to meditate silence, then he said: And yet, my dear Glaucon, what if he were to prove to us that the state is bad in every way?"""" Yes,"" I said, ""that would be too high a feat, but we can't know till we try."" And so,"" he rejoined, ""we must choose these men as umpires, for they seem to me to be in a good position to decide; and indeed there was a prophecy uttered regarding them which, I think, shows that they will be judges in this kind of enquiry. The prophet was Simonides, who, according to the tradition, was asked by someone to compose a strain of music about a pack-ass, and said that he could only produce one meter which would suit such an object. This was the iambic tetrameter, the same metre which we have been using in our argument. If, then, the language of the tetrameter is most naturally applied to a donkey, and the examination of the just and unjust in relation to the state and to human nature has resulted in our having to praise or blame them in strains of iambic verse, clearly these measures will be the proper expression of our own approval or disapproval of them. And, as I say, the result has been that we are compelled to praise the unjust and blame the just. Hence, as I infer, Simonides was quite right long ago in saying that the just never rest either by night or day, and that the immortal gods never cease persecuting them."""" At this point a servant entered the court and took Theages away. He had been present throughout the hearing, and had given his assent to all that we said; but he had taken no part in the conversation. When he had gone, Adeimantus continued: """"I thought that our friend might feel afraid of being compelled to give evidence against himself."""" +" 93 93 "In what manner? At present, I said, the students of philosophy are quite young; beginningwhen they are hardly past childhood, they devote only the time savedfrom moneymaking and housekeeping to such pursuits; and even thoseof them who are reputed to have most of the philosophic spirit, whenthey come within sight of the great difficulty of the subject, I meandialectic, take themselves off. In after life when invited by someone else, they may, perhaps, go and hear a lecture, and about thisthey make much ado, for philosophy is not considered by them to betheir proper business: at last, when they grow old, in most casesthey are extinguished more truly than Heracleitus' sun, inasmuch asthey never light up again. But what ought to be their course? Just the opposite. In childhood and youth their study, and what philosophythey learn, should be suited to their tender years: during this periodwhile they are growing up towards manhood, the chief and special careshould be given to their bodies that they may have them to use inthe service of philosophy; as life advances and the intellect beginsto mature, let them increase the gymnastics of the soul; but whenthe strength of our citizens fails and is past civil and militaryduties, then let them range at will and engage in no serious labour,as we intend them to live happily here, and to crown this life witha similar happiness in another. How truly in earnest you are, Socrates! he said; I am sure of that;and yet most of your hearers, if I am not mistaken, are likely tobe still more earnest in their opposition to you, and will never beconvinced; Thrasymachus least of all. @@ -2335,16 +2404,19 @@ No indeed. No, my friend, and they have seldom, if ever, heard free and noblesen They are strangers, he said, to the words of which you speak. And this was what we foresaw, and this was the reason why truth forcedus to admit, not without fear and hesitation, that neither citiesnor States nor individuals will ever attain perfection until the smallclass of philosophers whom we termed useless but not corrupt are providentiallycompelled, whether they will or not, to take care of the State, anduntil a like necessity be laid on the State to obey them; or untilkings, or if not kings, the sons of kings or princes, are divinelyinspired ' d with a true love of true philosophy. That either or bothof these alternatives are impossible, I see no reason to affirm: ifthey were so, we might indeed be justly ridiculed as dreamers andvisionaries. Am I not right? Quite right. If then, in the countless ages of the past, or at the present hourin some foreign clime which is far away and beyond our ken, the perfectedphilosopher is or has been or hereafter shall be compelled by a superiorpower to have the charge of the State, we are ready to assert to thedeath, that this our constitution has been, and is --yea, and willbe whenever the Muse of Philosophy is queen. There is no impossibilityin all this; that there is a difficulty, we acknowledge ourselves. -My opinion agrees with yours, he said. But do you mean to say that this is not the opinion of the multitude?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the current state of philosophy and suggests that philosophers should play a more active role in society. +My opinion agrees with yours, he said. But do you mean to say that this is not the opinion of the multitude?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the current state of philosophy and proposes that philosophers should play a more active role in society. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, Thrasymachus" And what does the philosophy of today amount to? It is like a man who thinks he can get on without living. If there is any truth in this, philosophers ought to be conspicuous for their character, for their conduct, for their example, for their influence upon others; and they ought to be always ready to take an active part in public affairs and to guide them. But now we see them far from that; they hide themselves away, and if one of them does venture to come out into the light, it is only to try to show you that nothing matters and that there is no difference between good and evil.” This was Socrates’ own position. “What!” said Thrasymachus. “Even when they have themselves been wronged?” “Yes,” said Socrates; “they are as willing to be defrauded of their rights as anyone else is.” “Then their lives are worth just as much as yours or mine, and they are not worthy of any more respect.” “I never said so.” “No, but you implied it. I am beginning to understand you. The philosopher is a sort of animal without spirit, who blinks at the sun, and wanders about the world with a listless eye, knowing neither how to follow nor how to lead, and who holds that rest is a better thing than activity, and friendship than justice.” “You mean to say,” said Socrates, “that I think a man who is able to defend himself and his friends, and, if necessary, to attack his enemies, has a better chance of preserving himself and his friends, and of having more friends and fewer enemies, than a man who cannot defend himself or his friends, or do anything which is likely to protect him or them against injustice?” “Yes, that is what I mean.” “Then my words will not be very difficult to understand. I agree with you in thinking that the man who is able to strike hardest is most likely to have his way with another man whom he wants to hurt; but I also think that the man who is best able to benefit should be allowed to benefit his friends and harm his enemies; that is what I mean by being able to ‘do justice.’” “But surely a man who benefits some and harms others is a criminal.” “Not at all, if he desires both parties to be benefited. He is a benefactor to both, because from having suffered he is able to heal.” “What do you mean?” “I mean to say that the physician who likes health and hates disease is a benefactor to patients who are ill, but would never dream of hurting anybody; and in the same way the general who is fond of victory and hates defeat will be a benefactor to the conquered as well as to the conquerors.” “Yes, but the conquerors may not be fond of victory.” “Then he will not hurt them; he will be using violence, no doubt, but he will not be harming them.” “Very good,” said Thrasymachus; “and suppose that such a general were attacking a city which he had designed to capture, would he really care whether he injured the place or not? +Active character: Socrates, Thrasymachus +Time setting: 1950s +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "Of course, there's no use pretending that we can put it right again. It isn't going to happen. Philosophy is dead."""" You are not serious?"" No, I'm just talking. The fact is that philosophy has done its work and must now give place to something else. The result of all our thinking is that the universe is a mechanism. We can only await the consequences of this discovery with interest. Of course, in the meantime we shall have to go on living in the old way; but for the future we can see nothing but war and revolution and chaos."" And you think that philosophers should encourage these things?"" On the contrary. If they want to be useful they ought to go out and do some fighting themselves. They ought to become soldiers or police-officers. Then when people get into trouble they will at least know who to come to. I don't mean to say that you would like this yourself. But you had better not try to make other people share your own lack of courage."""" Socrates was silent. He felt himself to be in an awkward position. For one thing he had been struck by the vividness of the picture which Thrasymachus had drawn, and he wondered whether he himself might not even now be in some degree guilty of the sin of which he had accused him. And then he had also noticed how accurate Thrasymachus' description was. In his innermost heart he knew that the life which he himself led was contemptible. He knew that he was afraid of death, and that he had never been brave enough to kill a man or even to strike him. Even if the city should ever really need philosophers it was clear that he was not the kind of philosopher whom the city could afford to employ. He decided that he must be more careful of his language in future, and must try to speak as though he were what he wished to be. As a matter of fact he did not believe that philosophy was dead. He thought that it was only dormant, and that in time the world would awake to its importance. But he did not believe that he himself was the man to rouse it. And yet it distressed him to feel that he was so contemptible. There was another thing which made him unhappy. It was the tone in which Thrasymachus had spoken. His words had been harsh and violent, and he had given the impression that he hated everyone. Socrates found himself wishing that Thrasymachus would sometimes speak as he spoke himself, in a quiet voice, and with a smile that showed that he was half in jest. CHAPTER IX Glaucon and Adeimantus were both very angry with Thrasymachus, and Adeimantus was loud in his abuse. """"You are a most disagreeable person,"""" he said. """"There is nothing civilised about you at all. I wish you wouldn't come any more."""" Thrasymachus turned on him furiously. " 94 94 "I should imagine not, he replied. O my friend, I said, do not attack the multitude: they will changetheir minds, if, not in an aggressive spirit, but gently and withthe view of soothing them and removing their dislike of over-education,you show them your philosophers as they really are and describe asyou were just now doing their character and profession, and then mankindwill see that he of whom you are speaking is not such as they supposed--if they view him in this new light, they will surely change theirnotion of him, and answer in another strain. Who can be at enmitywith one who loves them, who that is himself gentle and free fromenvy will be jealous of one in whom there is no jealousy? Nay, letme answer for you, that in a few this harsh temper may be found butnot in the majority of mankind. I quite agree with you, he said. And do you not also think, as I do, that the harsh feeling which themany entertain towards philosophy originates in the pretenders, whorush in uninvited, and are always abusing them, and finding faultwith them, who make persons instead of things the theme of their conversation?and nothing can be more unbecoming in philosophers than this. It is most unbecoming. For he, Adeimantus, whose mind is fixed upon true being, has surelyno time to look down upon the affairs of earth, or to be filled withmalice and envy, contending against men; his eye is ever directedtowards things fixed and immutable, which he sees neither injuringnor injured by one another, but all in order moving according to reason;these he imitates, and to these he will, as far as he can, conformhimself. Can a man help imitating that with which he holds reverentialconverse? @@ -2359,16 +2431,15 @@ Very true, he said. And one feature they will erase, and another they will put i Indeed, he said, in no way could they make a fairer picture. And now, I said, are we beginning to persuade those whom you describedas rushing at us with might and main, that the painter of constitutionsis such an one as we are praising; at whom they were so very indignantbecause to his hands we committed the State; and are they growinga little calmer at what they have just heard? Much calmer, if there is any sense in them. Why, where can they still find any ground for objection? Will theydoubt that the philosopher is a lover of truth and being? -They would not be so unreasonable. Or that his nature, being such as we have delineated, is akin to thehighest good?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the nature of philosophers and their role in society. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +They would not be so unreasonable. Or that his nature, being such as we have delineated, is akin to thehighest good?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the nature of philosophers and their relationship with society. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Active character: The speaker, Adeimantus Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" It’s a question of knowing the nature of philosophers. They are very much like worms, you know; they have no blood in their veins and no heart. If you cut them in two you won’t find even a grain of corn in them, because they’ve been eating that sort of thing all their lives! They’re not human beings, they’re lice!” Adeimantus was still more astonished by this remark than by the preceding one. “And yet,” he said, “they seem to be human enough when I listen to them.” “You’ll soon stop listening to them,” replied Maigret. “What did you say? ‘They’re human beings’? You know what they are, don’t you? They’re simply pieces of timber or metal which people have given up thinking about, so now they talk for the sake of talking, just as some people whistle when they walk along the street. They pretend to want something and actually want nothing at all. Do you realize what they do with themselves? They spend their time picking over old ideas, changing the names of things, setting up new theories and systems which nobody understands and which they themselves don’t understand either. For instance, they never speak of anything but God, Providence, the soul, life after death, truth, perfection... The word God is on their lips all the time and yet it means nothing at all to them. They use it the way other people use words like Monsieur, Madame, Your Excellency, or Your Lordship. As for truth and perfection, they’re great believers in these too, only they can’t define them and aren’t even sure whether they exist! It’s an interesting spectacle, isn’t it? People who, without suspecting it, resemble the vermin on whose backs they sit and feed. Perhaps you’d like to hear the story of a conversation I had with a professor from the Sorbonne? Well then, here goes: ‘You believe in God?’ ‘I’m an agnostic.’ ‘Do you believe in Providence?’ ‘I’m a fatalist.’ ‘Do you believe in life after death?’ ‘I don’t know.’ ‘In truth?’ ‘I’m a realist.’ ‘In perfection?’ ‘I’m a pessimist.’ ‘I see,’ I said. ‘So you’re an agnostic, a fatalist, a non-believer, a pessimist, and a realist?’ ‘Precisely!’ ‘Well, my friend, if there’s one thing certain it’s that you’re a fool! A fool pure and simple! And, if you go on talking nonsense like this, you’ll end up by convincing yourself that you’re a genius!’ “That amused him rather. He thought it would amuse me too. When I made no response, he asked me what I was going to do about Lapouge. ‘Nothing.’ ‘But, surely—’ ‘No. There’s nothing I can do.’ ‘But, Inspector—’ ‘What?’ ‘Surely you must have some idea?’ ‘None whatever. +Language: English" "When they're in the mood they have a certain quality which is attractive; when they're out of it they're just plain ugly, and that's what you see most of the time."""" Adeimantus looked at him sharply, but there was no expression on his face. """"Do you believe in philosophers?"""" he asked. """"I mean do you believe that men who think about things can make them better?"""" I don't know,"" said George. ""I've got to admit I don't really care much one way or the other. All I know is that they seem to be just like any other people except that they talk about things more. They're not any better than anybody else."""" You think they ought to mix with ordinary people?"" Of course they ought. If they don't we get into trouble. Only they never will. It isn't natural for them to mix with ordinary people. They want to go their own way."""" Why should we let them go their own way?"" asked Adeimantus. We haven't got the power to prevent it. Besides it doesn't matter very much. They're only a minority and most of them are pretty harmless."" You don't think they ought to be mixed with ordinary people? That's all I'm asking you."" No, I don't."" Why not?"" Because it would be a mistake."" Would it?"" Yes, it would."" What difference does it make?"" It would make a great deal of difference."" But why?"" Because if they were mixed up with ordinary people they'd lose their grip on life and become just like everybody else."""" Oh,"" said Adeimantus. ""I thought perhaps you meant something else."" He paused. """"You know, George, this conversation has opened my eyes,"""" he said. """"I had no idea you knew so much about life."""" George did not reply to this. He was staring morosely out of the window. They watched the cars rushing by. On the pavement below girls in bright summer dresses hurried along with parasols or shopping bags. They were slim and tanned from the sun and their hair was yellow with permanent wave. They were laughing and talking together. In the shops behind them manikins displayed fashionable clothes and shop assistants in smart suits and white shirts looked out through the windows. There were flowers in tubs on the pavements and a fragrant smell of them came through the open window of the taxi. The two men sat silent, staring out. Suddenly George spoke again. When I was in Egypt I saw a lot of locusts,"" he said. ""They were flying across the sea when we were coming back to Alexandria after a day's fishing. There were millions of them, miles away across the water, moving in black waves against the sky. " 95 95 "Neither can they doubt this. But again, will they tell us that such a nature, placed under favourablecircumstances, will not be perfectly good and wise if any ever was?Or will they prefer those whom we have rejected? Surely not. Then will they still be angry at our saying, that, until philosophersbear rule, States and individuals will have no rest from evil, norwill this our imaginary State ever be realised? I think that they will be less angry. Shall we assume that they are not only less angry but quite gentle,and that they have been converted and for very shame, if for no otherreason, cannot refuse to come to terms? @@ -2383,19 +2454,18 @@ Very good. And so with pain and toil we have reached the end of one subject,but Certainly. I omitted the troublesome business of the possession of women, andthe procreation of children, and the appointment of the rulers, becauseI knew that the perfect State would be eyed with jealousy and wasdifficult of attainment; but that piece of cleverness was not of muchservice to me, for I had to discuss them all the same. The women andchildren are now disposed of, but the other question of the rulersmust be investigated from the very beginning. We were saying, as youwill remember, that they were to be lovers of their country, triedby the test of pleasures and pains, and neither in hardships, norin dangers, nor at any other critical moment were to lose their patriotism--he was to be rejected who failed, but he who always came forth pure,like gold tried in the refiner's fire, was to be made a ruler, andto receive honours and rewards in life and after death. This was thesort of thing which was being said, and then the argument turned asideand veiled her face; not liking to stir the question which has nowarisen. I perfectly remember, he said. Yes, my friend, I said, and I then shrank from hazarding the boldword; but now let me dare to say --that the perfect guardian mustbe a philosopher. Yes, he said, let that be affirmed. And do not suppose that there will be many of them; for the giftswhich were deemed by us to be essential rarely grow together; theyare mostly found in shreds and patches. -What do you mean? he said. You are aware, I replied, that quick intelligence, memory, sagacity,cleverness, and similar qualities, do not often grow together, andthat persons who possess them and are at the same time high-spiritedand magnanimous are not so constituted by nature as to live orderlyand in a peaceful and settled manner; they are driven any way by theirimpulses, and all solid principle goes out of them." "Summary: The text discusses the nature of philosophers and their role in society, questioning whether they can bring about a perfect state. +What do you mean? he said. You are aware, I replied, that quick intelligence, memory, sagacity,cleverness, and similar qualities, do not often grow together, andthat persons who possess them and are at the same time high-spiritedand magnanimous are not so constituted by nature as to live orderlyand in a peaceful and settled manner; they are driven any way by theirimpulses, and all solid principle goes out of them." "Summary: The text discusses the nature of philosophers and their role in society, questioning whether they can bring about a better world. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Two characters engaged in conversation Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "If you want to know what philosophers are like, look at the other guy's face."""" The other guy was a tall, muscular man in his late thirties. He had a clean-shaven head and eyes that burned with an unnatural intensity. His shoulders were hunched forward in a perpetual crouch. In spite of his height he looked as though he were hiding from something or someone. And I said: """"You've got it all wrong, Doctor. Philosophers aren't any different from ordinary people. If they were, they wouldn't be able to understand anything about the world we live in."""" That's a good story,"" he sneered. ""Is that why you're trying to run away from me?"""" No."" He stood up quickly and walked across to the window. The rain was still falling, but the sun was shining through the clouds. It made a silvery path along the floor and over the backs of our heads. There was a vividness about everything that made it seem unreal. Even the doctor seemed different. He had taken off his coat and jacket and hung them over the back of his chair. He wore a white shirt open at the neck and a black tie. His face was flushed and his hair was wet and plastered down on his forehead. He looked like a country lad who had just come in from working in the fields. What do you mean no?"" he asked. ""I thought you were running away from me."""" I wasn't running away from you, Doctor. I'm not afraid of you. I don't believe you can do anything to me."""" He sat down again and lit a cigarette. What do you think I can do to you?"" he asked quietly. Nothing. You can't hurt me."""" You're sure of that?"""" He blew a stream of smoke towards the window. Well, let's suppose I can. What would you do if I tried to hurt you?"""" Nothing."" Just nothing?"" Yes."" He smiled faintly. """"That's the answer of a philosopher. Do you know what a philosopher is?"""" No."" Then listen carefully while I tell you. A philosopher is a person who has spent so much time thinking about life that he is unable to live it. He is always on the outside looking in. That's why he's always asking questions. Like a little boy. But there's one difference between a philosopher and a little boy. A little boy never tries to run away when you ask him a question."""" I didn't run away from you, Doctor."" Did you notice how you slipped into calling me 'Doctor'? That's another trick philosophers use. They give themselves titles to make themselves important. That's because they have nothing inside themselves."""" I'm sorry."" Why are you apologizing? Apologizing for what?"" For having an opinion about philosophers. I shouldn't have spoken to you that way."""" " +Language: English" "No, don't say it; but I can see it coming. Look here, there are two sorts of people in this world: those who want to be philosophers and those who don't. The ones that do are all right: they're doing their bit and we shan't pull them up. But the others! They've got to keep out of our way, that's all."""" And why is that?"" Why? Because their very existence is an affront to the gods. They have no right to walk the earth. If they were dogs or cats, there'd be some excuse, for they haven't made themselves what they are; they were born that way. But they think they've done something. They congratulate themselves on their 'plain common sense,' as though it was a virtue and not a vice. They glory in their own limitations. They look down on us because we are intellectual, and yet they know nothing about anything except how to make money and how to get drunk. They're vermin; they breed like rats. They ought to be exterminated. You may laugh if you like, but it's true. There ought to be a law against them. Wherever you go nowadays there are always these damned fools tripping you up and getting in your way. They clutter up the theatres and concert halls. They block the streets. And then they're the most impossible people to live with. They think they understand everything, but they don't understand anything. They take things seriously. They ask questions. They meddle in things that don't concern them. They won't let you alone. They drive you mad. What do you expect from people who don't believe in God and yet insist on living by the code of the Sermon on the Mount?"""" Aren't you rather severe?"" No, I'm not. It's only half what I really feel. If I could have my way, I wouldn't let them even exist. But at any rate they should be prevented from propagating. They should be compelled to sterilize themselves."""" You're a dangerous man."" Yes, I am,"" he said with a grin. ""That's what makes me so interesting."""" He had turned his head away again, watching the traffic. His words had been spoken harshly, almost savagely, with great intensity. But when he spoke once more his voice was mild and reasonable again. Just imagine them trying to run the world!"" he said. ""I can't bear to think of it. Here we are, ready to take over if we're asked, and yet they sit tight and won't budge. And why? Because they're afraid. They're afraid of the responsibility. They're afraid of power. They're afraid of freedom. They're afraid of the whole business. They prefer to leave things as they are, to sit on their backsides and watch other people working. They're afraid of knowledge. They're afraid of wisdom. They're afraid of courage. They're afraid of vision. They're afraid of life. They're afraid of death. " 96 96 "Very true, he said. On the other hand, those steadfast natures which can better be dependedupon, which in a battle are impregnable to fear and immovable, areequally immovable when there is anything to be learned; they are alwaysin a torpid state, and are apt to yawn and go to sleep over any intellectualtoil. Quite true. And yet we were saying that both qualities were necessary in thoseto whom the higher education is to be imparted, and who are to sharein any office or command. Certainly, he said. And will they be a class which is rarely found? Yes, indeed. Then the aspirant must not only be tested in those labours and dangersand pleasures which we mentioned before, but there is another kindof probation which we did not mention --he must be exercised alsoin many kinds of knowledge, to see whether the soul will be able toendure the highest of all, will faint under them, as in any otherstudies and exercises. @@ -2412,16 +2482,17 @@ What, he said, is there a knowledge still higher than this --higherthan justice Yes, I said, there is. And of the virtues too we must behold not theoutline merely, as at present --nothing short of the most finishedpicture should satisfy us. When little things are elaborated withan infinity of pains, in order that they may appear in their fullbeauty and utmost clearness, how ridiculous that we should not thinkthe highest truths worthy of attaining the highest accuracy! A right noble thought; but do you suppose that we shall refrain fromasking you what is this highest knowledge? Nay, I said, ask if you will; but I am certain that you have heardthe answer many times, and now you either do not understand me or,as I rather think, you are disposed to be troublesome; for you haveof been told that the idea of good is the highest knowledge, and thatall other things become useful and advantageous only by their useof this. You can hardly be ignorant that of this I was about to speak,concerning which, as you have often heard me say, we know so little;and, without which, any other knowledge or possession of any kindwill profit us nothing. Do you think that the possession of all otherthings is of any value if we do not possess the good? or the knowledgeof all other things if we have no knowledge of beauty and goodness? -Assuredly not. You are further aware that most people affirm pleasure to be the good,but the finer sort of wits say it is knowledge" "Summary: The speaker discusses the importance of both steadfastness and learning in education and knowledge. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Assuredly not. You are further aware that most people affirm pleasure to be the good,but the finer sort of wits say it is knowledge" "Summary: The speaker discusses the importance of different qualities in those who receive higher education and hold positions of authority. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: The speaker, interlocutor -Quoted work: ""The Republic"" by Plato" "Let me remind you that I am a poor man and that the only thing I can give is what is in my head."""" Then, adding """"I should be quite willing to let you have a copy of Plato's Republic,"""" he took out his pocket-book. I think not,"" said Spade coldly; ""that wouldn't suit me. I'm not a scholar or a philosopher or anything else except a hardboiled detective. What I want is the stuff that goes on inside a guy like Wilmer Cook, so when I meet another one I'll know what buttons to push to get results."""" The trouble with you is that you're entirely unscientific."" Is that a fact?"" asked Spade harshly. Yes, it is. Your method is the method of the amateur, not the professional. You work by feeling instead of by reasoning."""" By feeling?"" repeated Spade. Yes; by feeling. Don't you remember your own words? 'You've got something wrong here,' you said to Polhaus, 'and I've got to find out what it is.' Well, that's the way an artist feels about his work. He knows there's something wrong with it; he wants to find out what it is. You ought to read Aristotle's Poetics."""" Spade laughed unpleasantly. """"Well,"""" he said, """"it isn't my business to make pictures or write poetry or do any of those things. It's my business to find out what makes people tick and then to make them tick right. That's all there is to it. But if you think it'll help me to learn how Shakespeare did it, or Homer, or whoever it was that wrote The Republic, I don't mind reading up on them."""" The speaker looked at him with ferocious admiration. """"Spade!"""" he exclaimed, shaking his head slowly. """"What you are now is not a man; you are a system! Do you suppose I'd waste my time telling you about Aristotle if I didn't believe it would help you? We need the same sort of knowledge, but we use it differently. You take the facts as they are given to you and turn them over and over until you see how they fit together. I take the facts and arrange them into patterns and look for the ones that fit the pattern of life as I see it. And when I have found two or three of these, I know that I have the truth, no matter how many facts still seem to be out of place."""" In other words,"" said Spade sneeringly, ""you take a lot of guesswork and fancy that it's science."""" Now you're talking like a fool!"" cried the speaker, turning red. """"But I won't quarrel with you about it. " +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "You want to be quick and smart, you want to be shrewd and bright. You want all the qualities that'll help you to get through a university course and win a position of authority."""" Yes?"" That's what they want. But there are other things, too. If you've got them, all right; if you haven't, it doesn't matter. You can still get through the University and win a position of authority. It just makes life easier for you if you have them.... Like courage, for instance. You need courage, because you're going to have to face some pretty dark, pretty grim times. Courage is going to come in handy when your nerves get raw and you begin to wonder whether the next step you take is going to be into a bucket of water or a vat of boiling oil.... And pity, too. You need pity, because you're going to see a lot of suffering and pain, and unless you have pity you can't stand it. Pity is going to come in very useful when you hear the screams of someone who's having his fingernails torn out with red-hot pincers, and you know you ought to do something but you don't quite dare."""" Is that all?"" No. There's one more thing. Compassion. Because you're going to meet a lot of people you're going to like, people you'll want to help, people you'll want to protect from harm. But you won't be able to help them or protect them. Because you aren't allowed to."""" I thought it was supposed to be a Christian country,"" he said bitterly. Well, we are,"" she said, ""but Christianity is a private affair. A private religion. And the State doesn't allow you to make use of it. You can pray as hard as you like for those poor devils in the prison cells, but you can't go in after them and save them from torture. You can pray for the young fellow in the cell next to yours who's been denounced by one of his colleagues as a homosexual, but you can't go in after him and tell them it isn't true, and that he's innocent. You can pray for the old man who comes in on Thursday afternoons to give you a lesson in Greek, but when the secret police burst in on you and drag him away, you can't get up off the floor and stop them. You can't do anything except wait until it's your turn. Wait and pray. And hope it won't come."""" He stood up. His face had gone white, and he seemed to be trembling slightly. He couldn't find anything to say. There was nothing to say. Then he turned towards the door. Suddenly he stopped. What will happen to me now?"" he asked quietly. Nothing yet. You're safe for the time being. The important thing is not to be seen. Not to talk to anyone. Don't even look at anyone. Just keep in the background, and if you're questioned, say you were going for a walk."""" " 97 97 "Yes. And you are aware too that the latter cannot explain what they meanby knowledge, but are obliged after all to say knowledge of the good? How ridiculous! Yes, I said, that they should begin by reproaching us with our ignoranceof the good, and then presume our knowledge of it --for the good theydefine to be knowledge of the good, just as if we understood themwhen they use the term 'good' --this is of course ridiculous. Most true, he said. And those who make pleasure their good are in equal perplexity; forthey are compelled to admit that there are bad pleasures as well asgood. @@ -2441,19 +2512,18 @@ Very true. And do you wish to behold what is blind and crooked and base, whenoth Glaucon - SOCRATES Still, I must implore you, Socrates, said Glaucon, not to turn awayjust as you are reaching the goal; if you will only give such an explanationof the good as you have already given of justice and temperance andthe other virtues, we shall be satisfied. Yes, my friend, and I shall be at least equally satisfied, but I cannothelp fearing that I shall fall, and that my indiscreet zeal will bringridicule upon me. No, sweet sirs, let us not at present ask what isthe actual nature of the good, for to reach what is now in my thoughtswould be an effort too great for me. But of the child of the goodwho is likest him, I would fain speak, if I could be sure that youwished to hear --otherwise, not. -By all means, he said, tell us about the child, and you shall remainin our debt for the account of the parent." "Summary: The text discusses the nature of knowledge and the good, with characters debating the concepts. +By all means, he said, tell us about the child, and you shall remainin our debt for the account of the parent." "Summary: The text discusses the nature of knowledge and the good, with one character expressing concern about their own understanding of these concepts. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Dialogue +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, Glaucon Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "I didn't say I liked it. And you aren't going to get a kick out of knowing what's good for you until you've had your share of the other kind."""" Oh, shut up,"" said Glaucon. ""I'm telling you there is no such thing as absolute knowledge, and that's all there is to it."""" You're just talking in order to talk."" But Socrates continued: You say 'absolute' when you mean 'the highest.'"" Oh, stop it. I don't even know what the highest is."" Then why do you keep saying it? If you don't know what the highest is, how do you know it can be found in anything?"""" It isn't always in anything,"" said Glaucon. ""It's often not there at all."" You haven't a notion of what you're talking about,"" said Socrates. """"You're babbling incoherently."""" You think you're so smart, don't you?"" Glaucon demanded. Very well,"" said Socrates. ""Let's hear what you think you know."""" I told you before, I'm not going to play any more of your goddam games,"" Glaucon said. He was getting very angry. All right,"" said Socrates. ""Go back to your room and sit on your bed and rock yourself and cry."""" Let me tell you something,"" said Glaucon. ""If you talk like that much longer I'm going to sock you in the jaw."""" So you'll have to do it now,"" said Socrates. Glaucon didn't say anything else. He got up and went into his own room and closed the door. After a few minutes he opened it again and looked out, but Socrates was sitting quietly by the window, smoking a cigarette. Well?"" said Socrates. Nothing."" Do you want to hear the rest of the dialogue or not?"" No."" Then go away."" Glaucon slammed the door again. Socrates lit another cigarette and sat and smoked it slowly. The telephone rang. Hello,"" he said. ""Yes, this is Socrates. I see. Yes, I think it is. Is that so? Certainly. Well, we'll have to let them know. Thanks for the tip.... Yes, I suppose they will. Good-bye."""" He hung up the receiver and stood looking at it. That was the District Attorney,"" he said. ""A couple of cops were walking down the street and saw a man they knew from the neighborhood drop a bundle of money in the gutter. They picked it up and took it over to the station house, and the D.A.'s secretary called me up to find out if it belonged to me. I said yes, it did, and the D.A. wants to know if I want to report it stolen.... Well, do you suppose that I reported it stolen?"""" Who?"" said Philip. " +Language: English" "That, at any rate, is what I say. And if this be the truth, how on earth can we know anything at all?"""" This is just the sort of talk that makes me mad,"" said Glaucon. ""Don't you see that if there were no knowledge there would be no good either?"""" No, it's just the same old rubbish."" Socrates went on speaking in a harsher and more vivid tone: """"If you are so fond of wisdom, let us assume that we really know nothing at all; then we shall be nearer the truth. If we know nothing, there can be no good either. If there is no good, there can be no evil. If there is neither good nor evil, the city will be happy. The citizens will have no need to practise virtue or to acquire wisdom, because they will be incapable of suffering and of being harmed by anyone else. It will be the best possible state. Now let us suppose that one day a god comes down to our city and says: 'Men of Athens, I want to make your city even happier than it already is. You must therefore give me something to do."""" Glaucon was silent for some time, then he burst out with a laugh. """"What nonsense!"" he exclaimed. ""And yet it is not quite so nonsensical as it looks."""" In fact,"" said Socrates, ""the gods are always trying to trick men into doing something foolish. They cannot bear the sight of human happiness. But tell me: if the god should offer to relieve you of your possessions in exchange for health, and to give you back everything that you had lost in addition to a hundred times as much in gold and silver, would you accept?"""" Of course I would. What else could I do?"" Then if the god asked you whether you wanted health or wealth, which would you choose?"""" Wealth."" And if the god made you the same choice between wealth and honour, which would you choose?"""" Honour."" And if the god offered you the choice between honour and freedom, which would you choose?"""" Freedom."" And if the god offered you the choice between freedom and justice, which would you choose?"""" Justice."" Well, you have answered very promptly,"" said Socrates, ""but now take a little trouble over your answer. For this reason: when the god asks us whether we want to live happily, we shall reply that we do. But how can we live happily unless we possess health, wealth, honour, freedom and justice? We may perhaps have noticed that most people who possess only one or two of these things are miserable."""" Yes, indeed."" So we must necessarily desire them all. But, as you know very well, these blessings are in conflict with each other; if we follow one, we are bound to offend against the others. " 98 98 "I do indeed wish, I replied, that I could pay, and you receive, theaccount of the parent, and not, as now, of the offspring only; take,however, this latter by way of interest, and at the same time havea care that i do not render a false account, although I have no intentionof deceiving you. Yes, we will take all the care that we can: proceed. Yes, I said, but I must first come to an understanding with you, andremind you of what I have mentioned in the course of this discussion,and at many other times. What? The old story, that there is a many beautiful and a many good, andso of other things which we describe and define; to all of them 'many'is applied. @@ -2476,19 +2546,18 @@ Exactly. Then the sun is not sight, but the author of sight who is recognisedby True, he said. And this is he whom I call the child of the good, whom the good begatin his own likeness, to be in the visible world, in relation to sightand the things of sight, what the good is in the intellectual worldin relation to mind and the things of mind. Will you be a little more explicit? he said. Why, you know, I said, that the eyes, when a person directs them towardsobjects on which the light of day is no longer shining, but the moonand stars only, see dimly, and are nearly blind; they seem to haveno clearness of vision in them? Very true. But when they are directed towards objects on which the sun shines,they see clearly and there is sight in them?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the senses and their relationship to light and sight. -Trope: Light as a symbol of knowledge and truth +Trope: Organized crime Narrative arc: Exposition and explanation -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker and the person being addressed -Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" It’s the kind of light you find in hospitals and morgues.” “That’s just it,” I said. “It’s the only light that really shows things as they are. There’s nothing soft or romantic about it, no half-tones, no subtle shadings. It shows you exactly what’s there, and if it doesn’t happen to show what you want to see, then too bad for you.” She thought this over. “It shows everything?” she asked. “Yes, it does,” I said. “And most people hate it because it tells them more than they want to know. A lot of the time, the truth is ugly.” She was silent for a moment, thinking it over. Then she nodded slowly. “I get it,” she said. “You use it because it reveals things plainly, but it also hides things. You can look right at something and not see it, because it’s out in the open and so you don’t pay any attention to it. And if you do notice it, it doesn’t mean anything to you until you understand it.” “You’ve got it,” I said. “That’s the idea. It’s like when you’re reading a book and you come across a passage that makes sense but seems to have nothing to do with the story. At first you skip it because it doesn’t seem to fit, but later on you go back to it and suddenly you see that it’s the key to the whole plot.” “Like a detective story,” she said. “Yes, that’s right. If you didn’t have those passages, you wouldn’t be able to figure out who did it.” “But how would you use that kind of light? I mean, you’d be sitting in front of it, looking into it, wouldn’t you? So how could you see anything?” “That’s another thing,” I said. “The light goes behind you, and you sit facing away from it. That way you can see everything without being blinded by the light itself.” “I see,” she said. “It’s like you said before. The light reveals things plainly, but it also hides things. You can look right at something and not see it, unless you know what to look for.” “That’s right,” I said. “You could walk right past it and never even know it was there, but once you understand it, it jumps out at you.” “So that’s why you use that kind of light,” she said. “To hide things and reveal things at the same time.” “That’s it,” I said. “Now you understand how I work.” +Active character: The speaker, the person being addressed +Quoted work: None mentioned +Language: English" "It's the sense of sight that makes us think we have to see with light, but we don't. We see better in the dark than we do in the light."""" Nonsense,"" he said. ""I can see a thing coming at me in the dark, all right. But I couldn't tell you what color it was, or whether it had stripes on it or not."""" You're using your other senses too much in the dark,"" I said. ""And they interfere with your seeing. Light is an aid to vision. That's all. And vision is the most important sense, because it gives you information about everything else. Your taste tells you if something is sweet or sour; your sense of smell tells you if something stinks or doesn't; and your sense of touch tells you if something is rough or smooth or prickly. But all those things are useless unless you can first find out what the thing is. All right then, suppose you've found out what the thing is. Suppose you know it's a box of candy. Then you want to know how old it is. Is it fresh? Is it stale? Is it moldy? You taste it. Suppose you've tasted it and found out that it's fresh. Now you want to know if it's good candy or bad. You smell it. Suppose you've smelled it and found out it's good. What next? What's the next step in finding out whether this candy is any good or not?"""" Eat it,"" he said. I nodded. You got it,"" I said. ""You eat it. If it tastes all right, you go on eating it until it's gone. Well, that's the same with everything else. If you can't use your sense of taste or your sense of smell to find out anything about it, you use your sense of touch. But all these senses, sight included, are worthless unless you can first identify what you're dealing with. And for that you need your sense of reason. A man without a sense of reason is like a blind man."""" He stared at me coldly. """"You mean to tell me you believe a man can get along without his eyes?"""" Sure,"" I said. ""There are lots of men that do. They keep their eyes shut all the time."""" He laughed harshly. """"Well, that's a new one on me. I've heard of keeping your mouth shut, but I've never heard of keeping your eyes shut."""" I shook my head. """"It's just as easy as closing your mouth when you talk,"""" I said. """"Only instead of closing it, you keep it closed. See?"""" He glared at me suspiciously. """"How come you know so much about being blind?"""" I shrugged. """"I read a lot,"""" I said. """"I also used to be a cop. " 99 99 "Certainly. And the soul is like the eye: when resting upon that on which truthand being shine, the soul perceives and understands and is radiantwith intelligence; but when turned towards the twilight of becomingand perishing, then she has opinion only, and goes blinking about,and is first of one opinion and then of another, and seems to haveno intelligence? Just so. Now, that which imparts truth to the known and the power of knowingto the knower is what I would have you term the idea of good, andthis you will deem to be the cause of science, and of truth in sofar as the latter becomes the subject of knowledge; beautiful too,as are both truth and knowledge, you will be right in esteeming thisother nature as more beautiful than either; and, as in the previousinstance, light and sight may be truly said to be like the sun, andyet not to be the sun, so in this other sphere, science and truthmay be deemed to be like the good, but not the good; the good hasa place of honour yet higher. What a wonder of beauty that must be, he said, which is the authorof science and truth, and yet surpasses them in beauty; for you surelycannot mean to say that pleasure is the good? @@ -2506,13 +2575,15 @@ Very good. Would you not admit that both the sections of this division have diff Most undoubtedly. Next proceed to consider the manner in which the sphere of the intellectualis to be divided. In what manner? Thus: --There are two subdivisions, in the lower or which the souluses the figures given by the former division as images; the enquirycan only be hypothetical, and instead of going upwards to a principledescends to the other end; in the higher of the two, the soul passesout of hypotheses, and goes up to a principle which is above hypotheses,making no use of images as in the former case, but proceeding onlyin and through the ideas themselves." "Summary: The text discusses the relationship between truth, knowledge, and beauty, comparing them to the sun and its light. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical dialogue -Literary movement: Hardboiled" “Truth is the sun, and knowledge is the light. Beauty is just a sort of sunshine for the mind, eh? It’s your beauty that shows me the truth.” “I’ll be damned,” said the detective. “If it weren’t for your beauty I’d think you were lying all the time. But you’re not lying now. You don’t know how to lie. You might as well try to lie in sunlight as tell lies to me. Do you get me? The light from your beauty makes everything else look like a fake. You can have any girl in this place—there’s nothing they won’t do for you. They can’t help it. And yet there’s one thing they won’t do for you. They won’t let you kiss them on the mouth. Why?” He sat silent, staring at her with glittering eyes. “Maybe because you’re a maniac?” she said. “You ought to be put away.” “I’m no maniac,” he said, “and you know it. Don’t kid yourself. You know what I am. You know why they won’t let me kiss them. Because they’re afraid of my power. Can you beat that! Afraid of a little white man like me! They’re scared stiff of me, every last one of them!” “You’re crazy,” she repeated, but her voice was less sure. “Maybe I am. Maybe I am. But when I talk about beauty and truth, I know what I’m talking about, don’t I?” “Yes,” she said reluctantly. “Well then, let’s see if you agree with me about other things. Do you think I’m tough?” “No,” she said. “Oh yes, I am,” he insisted. “I’m the toughest guy in this place. Nobody could stand up against me. Not a single person here. Do you get that?” She nodded, saying nothing. “Do you want to know why I’m tough? Because I don’t give a damn about anything. That’s why. Everything is just so much garbage to me. Nothing matters—not even life itself. Do you believe that?” “No,” she said, “that’s ridiculous.” “It isn’t ridiculous,” he said, “it’s true. Look at me. Look at the way I dress. What does it matter how I look? Just so long as I feel good inside. You understand what I mean? If I didn’t care, what does it matter what I wear? It’s the same with everything. Nothing matters. That’s why I’m tough.” He leaned back in his chair, smiling. “That’s why I scare them. They know it. I’m completely indifferent. Nothing means anything to me. How can I be hurt by them? Why should I care? So that’s why I’m tough. I’m too smart for them. They can’t touch me, or find out where I live, or catch me alone. They’ve tried a dozen times. They want to kill me. But they can’t do it. +Literary form: Philosophical argument +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "But I found that he had discovered a great deal of truth about the relationship between beauty, knowledge and truth. He proved to me that the sun is not merely beautiful but essential for sight and vision; that it is the source of all light in the world, and that without its rays there can be no knowledge or understanding. But what he did not tell me was how this applied to my own case, and why I could not see the truth about myself. The reason is simple: my mind has become so darkened by my own obsessions that it cannot receive the light from the sun."""" You are referring to your sexual feelings?"" Yes,"" I said, ""and to all the other forms of desire that darken my mind. It is because of these that I cannot see the truth."""" But you have described them accurately enough,"" he said. ""Surely that is a start?"""" Only a start."" I sighed. It was true. I had indeed been honest with him about everything that was wrong with me. In fact, I had even admitted my own stupidity, which must have been a shock to him. And yet he still seemed convinced that I could help him to find his father's killer. What was it he had said? If he wanted to understand himself better, he would need to look at me very carefully..."""" Then he had spoken of the relationship between truth and beauty, and the role of the sun as the source of light. But what did it all mean? How could any of this possibly help us to find the murderer? As if he were reading my thoughts, he spoke again: """"You say that you cannot see the truth about yourself. But perhaps it is just that your eyes are not open to the light of truth. Perhaps you have become so accustomed to darkness that you do not even know what it is to see."""" Glaucon looked at me blankly. """"I'm sorry,"""" he said. """"I don't understand."""" And neither do I,"" I admitted. ""But he speaks in riddles. I'm sure there's a point to it somewhere."""" I sat back in my chair, swirling the bourbon around in my glass, reflecting on all that Socrates had told me. And then suddenly I understood. I remember feeling the same sense of revelation I had experienced when I first learned to read. It was as if a blindfold had been removed from my eyes, and the world had come into focus for the first time. I turned to Glaucon. """"It's clear now,"""" I said. """"Socrates' metaphors about the sun and the light are simply a way of describing his own method of investigation. He believes that the only way to discover the truth is to expose our darkest desires to the light of day, to bring them out into the open and examine them closely. That's why he insists on speaking frankly about his own obsession with sex, and why he encourages others to do the same. " 100 100 "I do not quite understand your meaning, he said. Then I will try again; you will understand me better when I have madesome preliminary remarks. You are aware that students of geometry,arithmetic, and the kindred sciences assume the odd and the even andthe figures and three kinds of angles and the like in their severalbranches of science; these are their hypotheses, which they and everybodyare supposed to know, and therefore they do not deign to give anyaccount of them either to themselves or others; but they begin withthem, and go on until they arrive at last, and in a consistent manner,at their conclusion? Yes, he said, I know. And do you not know also that although they make use of the visibleforms and reason about them, they are thinking not of these, but ofthe ideals which they resemble; not of the figures which they draw,but of the absolute square and the absolute diameter, and so on --theforms which they draw or make, and which have shadows and reflectionsin water of their own, are converted by them into images, but theyare really seeking to behold the things themselves, which can onlybe seen with the eye of the mind? That is true. And of this kind I spoke as the intelligible, although in the searchafter it the soul is compelled to use hypotheses; not ascending toa first principle, because she is unable to rise above the regionof hypothesis, but employing the objects of which the shadows beloware resemblances in their turn as images, they having in relationto the shadows and reflections of them a greater distinctness, andtherefore a higher value. @@ -2524,16 +2595,18 @@ I understand, he replied, and give my assent, and accept your arrangement. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- BOOK VII Socrates - GLAUCON -And now, I said, let me show in a figure how far our nature is enlightenedor unenlightened: --Behold! human beings living in a underground den,which has a mouth open towards the light and reaching all along theden; here they have been from their childhood, and have their legsand necks chained so that they cannot move, and can only see beforethem, being prevented by the chains from turning round their heads.Above and behind them a fire is blazing at a distance, and betweenthe fire and the prisoners there is a raised way; and you will see,if you look, a low wall built along the way, like the screen whichmarionette players have in front of them, over which they show thepuppets." "Summary: The text discusses the use of hypotheses and assumptions in various sciences and the pursuit of knowledge. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +And now, I said, let me show in a figure how far our nature is enlightenedor unenlightened: --Behold! human beings living in a underground den,which has a mouth open towards the light and reaching all along theden; here they have been from their childhood, and have their legsand necks chained so that they cannot move, and can only see beforethem, being prevented by the chains from turning round their heads.Above and behind them a fire is blazing at a distance, and betweenthe fire and the prisoners there is a raised way; and you will see,if you look, a low wall built along the way, like the screen whichmarionette players have in front of them, over which they show thepuppets." "Summary: The text discusses the use of hypotheses and assumptions in various sciences and the higher level of knowledge that can be attained through dialectic. +Narrative arc: Exposition +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical conversation +Literary form: Dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, Glaucon -Time setting: 1950s" "Suppose I take a hypothesis like this: 'All men are mortal.' Then you will admit that the next step must be to find some man who is not mortal, and prove that he is not. Otherwise there's no sense in making the hypothesis."""" That's what you say,"" said Socrates, ""but I have a feeling it's just a trick of yours."""" I'm glad you noticed that,"" said Glaucon. ""It's a good trick, isn't it? If you can get your opponent to make an assumption which has no meaning, then you've got him on the run, haven't you?"""" Yes, but it won't do me any harm if I see through it."" What we're going to try to do is to find out how many kinds of hypotheses there are. When we've done that we'll know whether it's safe or not to assume things we don't know."""" All right,"" said Socrates, ""let's start. I suppose we'll begin with the kind of hypothesis you find in astronomy, physics and all that sort of thing."""" We certainly shall,"" said Glaucon, ""but for the moment I want you to think about another sort of hypothesis; namely, the ones you find in detective stories."""" You mean, when they make up a list of suspects and then go round trying to prove that each one of them did it?"" Well,"" said Glaucon, ""you can see at once that you have to assume something you don't know. But it's quite different from the sort of hypothesis you find in astronomy. Take, for example, Kepler's first law, that planets move about the sun in ellipses with the sun at one focus. Is that an assumption?"""" No,"" said Socrates, ""it's an observation. It's a statement of fact. If it weren't true, the whole of astronomy would fall to pieces."""" And yet it's still a hypothesis,"" said Glaucon, ""because you can't prove it by deduction from anything else. In order to check it, you have to go back to observation again, and see whether the planets really do behave in that way. And even then you can't be sure, because you may have made a mistake in your observation. So the best you can say is that it appears to be true. The same applies to Newton's laws of motion. They appear to be true, but you can never be absolutely certain. You have to keep checking your theory against observation, and you may find you've got to modify it in various ways."""" I see,"" said Socrates. ""So you'd say that science is a sort of continual guessing."""" Yes,"" said Glaucon, ""that's probably as near as you can get to the truth. Science is always making guesses, and testing them, and correcting them. The important thing is to make sure that your guess is reasonable in itself, and that you have some reason to think it's likely to be true."""" " +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" It is not like the sciences which deal with matter; there you can use hypotheses, and say that the sun or moon causes the day and night, though they are only shadows, and that the stars are fire, although they do not give any heat. You may even assert that the earth is, and that it is flat, when really it has the shape of a ball which is cut in two. But in dialectic you cannot use assumptions at all; you must establish your conclusions by pure reasoning, and if you start wrong from the beginning, then you go on wrong to the end.” “Yes,” he said, “that is what I should have expected; but I wish that you would make clear to me what is the nature and origin of this hypothetical method of enquiry, which you say is pursued by the natural philosophers.” “I will try to explain,” I said. “When men have no occasion to speak of facts, but only of first principles, they fancy that the Deity appears to them, and is the cause of their words.” “Why so?” “Because they imagine that they are speaking of things which are true and certainer than the affairs of men—the very things of which it is indeed difficult to speak with certainty, and yet of which a man may speak most truly. Not knowing when the Deity speaks through them they attribute the gift of prophecy to themselves, and imagine that they have grasped principles even of matters which do not come within the province of human knowledge. Now such an achievement is a proof of divine inspiration, and those who have arrived at it are inspired men whether their enthusiasm be due to an actual presence of the deity, or to some other cause. Men of this sort have no regard for appearances, but rather for realities, because they see into the very soul of nature, and consider only what is true and certain. They measure the unseen by the unseen, and therefore they do not easily make mistakes; they appear to be saying much, when they actually say little, because they are always getting at first principles, and these, even when fairly stated, appear to be infinite in number. There is nothing so easy as to abstain from giving an opinion on everything. Nay, a man might almost fear that there is nothing so hard as to judge rightly about the highest things.” “You mean,” he said, “the scientists who interpret the meaning of dreams, and who also advise about sacred and warlike embassies, and about other public actions of states?” “Those are the persons whom I mean.” “And the manner of their reply is, as we were saying, enigmatic?” “Yes, their answers are quite obscure.” “Then I suppose that this is the way in which they proceed: The person who consults them relates a dream, and they interpret to him the several parts of the dream, and make propositions of the form, if A, then B; and having thus fixed the terms of the proposition, they interrogate the dreamer about the time at which he had the vision, and what was doing, and who was present, and a thousand other circumstances at which they look for some confirmation of their predictions?” 101 101 "I see. And do you see, I said, men passing along the wall carrying all sortsof vessels, and statues and figures of animals made of wood and stoneand various materials, which appear over the wall? Some of them aretalking, others silent. You have shown me a strange image, and they are strange prisoners. Like ourselves, I replied; and they see only their own shadows, orthe shadows of one another, which the fire throws on the oppositewall of the cave? @@ -2549,20 +2622,20 @@ Not all in a moment, he said. He will require to grow accustomed to the sight of Certainly. Last of he will be able to see the sun, and not mere reflections ofhim in the water, but he will see him in his own proper place, andnot in another; and he will contemplate him as he is. Certainly. He will then proceed to argue that this is he who gives the seasonand the years, and is the guardian of all that is in the visible world,and in a certain way the cause of all things which he and his fellowshave been accustomed to behold? Clearly, he said, he would first see the sun and then reason abouthim. -And when he remembered his old habitation, and the wisdom of the denand his fellow-prisoners, do you not suppose that he would felicitatehimself on the change, and pity them?" "Summary: The narrator describes a group of prisoners who have been trapped in a cave their entire lives, only seeing the shadows of objects on the wall. They are released and gradually adjust to the outside world. -Trope: Allegory -Narrative arc: Transformation -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +And when he remembered his old habitation, and the wisdom of the denand his fellow-prisoners, do you not suppose that he would felicitatehimself on the change, and pity them?" "Summary: The narrator describes a group of prisoners who are trapped in a cave and can only see shadows on the wall. They believe these shadows to be reality, but when one prisoner is released and sees the true world, he realizes the error of his ways. +Trope: Organized crime +Narrative arc: Enlightenment +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Narrator, prisoners -Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "It was a dark, harsh cave. The walls were slimy and damp, and the only light came from a small opening in the ceiling high above us. As my eyes became accustomed to the gloom I made out the forms of three men huddled on the floor. They wore nothing but ragged underclothing, and they crouched there like animals. In fact, they looked more like wild beasts than human beings; their faces were covered with long, matted hair, and their bodies were thin and starved. It gave me a shock to see them so primitive. After all, they had been trapped down here for over half a century. I suppose it must have been difficult to keep civilized."""" That's right,"" said one of the men. ""We've forgotten most of it."" We just want to get out now,"" said the second man. ""Let us out of here."""" Do you know who we are?"" I asked. No,"" they answered together. ""Who are you? What do you want?"""" I am Colonel Lanning, head of MI5,"" I told them. ""I'm here to take you away from this place. You've been prisoners for a long time, but your sentence is over now, and you're free to go."""" We're going where?"" asked the first prisoner. Anywhere you like. London, Paris, New York. It's up to you."""" But we don't know about any of those places,"" said the second prisoner. ""We don't even know what they look like."""" Then let's go outside,"" I suggested. ""You can see things then."""" They looked at each other, and then shook their heads. They're frightened,"" explained the third prisoner. ""They don't know anything about the outside world. They've never seen the sun or felt the wind or heard the birds."""" And they haven't got any clothes,"" I added. ""They'll freeze if we try to take them out like this."""" Well, then, give us some clothes!"" shouted the first prisoner. ""And something to eat! We're starving!"""" I turned to two of the soldiers. Give them some blankets and put some food in their hands,"" I said. ""But don't talk to them; they might bite you."""" The soldiers nodded and went back into the room. There was silence while they prepared the blankets and food. Then they returned. One of them handed a blanket to each of the prisoners, and a large parcel to the third. Eat that,"" he said. ""It's meat pie and custard pudding."""" I watched as the three men tore open the paper and began to stuff the food into their mouths. It was disgusting. Their teeth were black and rotten, and they weren't even careful about washing their hands. But they ate like starved wolves, and before long the parcels were empty. The soldiers cleared away the debris, and then left us alone again. I pulled out my watch and saw that only a few minutes had passed since I had entered the room. " +Active character: The narrator, the prisoner +Fuzzy place: The cave +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" He was a prisoner like the others, and he could see nothing of the outer world except as it was reflected on the wall. The wall was narrow and high, with only one small aperture at the top, so that his view was necessarily limited to a narrow strip of the sky above, and to the top of the tall trees which grew in the garden. From these trees he had often seen birds fly over the walls and disappear; but never once had he heard or seen anything of the world outside the prison, until now. In fact, he and all the others had come to regard their prison as the entire world, and even the shadows on the wall were regarded as reality. They spent their time in making an effort to reach those shadows, each trying to be the first to capture them, for they believed that if they could grasp one of the shadows it would give them control of the entire world. I don't know how long we played this game, but one day, when I was looking at the shadows on the wall, I saw something strange. It was the shadow of one of our brothers who had escaped from the prison, and it was passing before the opening at the top of the cave. He was standing outside and looking at us, and when he saw that we were watching him, he smiled and made signs that he wished to speak to me. 102 102 "Certainly, he would. And if they were in the habit of conferring honours among themselveson those who were quickest to observe the passing shadows and to remarkwhich of them went before, and which followed after, and which weretogether; and who were therefore best able to draw conclusions asto the future, do you think that he would care for such honours andglories, or envy the possessors of them? Would he not say with Homer, Better to be the poor servant of a poor master, and to endure anything,rather than think as they do and live after their manner? Yes, he said, I think that he would rather suffer anything than entertainthese false notions and live in this miserable manner. @@ -2573,14 +2646,17 @@ I agree, he said, as far as I am able to understand you. Moreover, I said, you must not wonder that those who attain to thisbeatific vision are unwilling to descend to human affairs; for theirsouls are ever hastening into the upper world where they desire todwell; which desire of theirs is very natural, if our allegory maybe trusted. Yes, very natural. And is there anything surprising in one who passes from divine contemplationsto the evil state of man, misbehaving himself in a ridiculous manner;if, while his eyes are blinking and before he has become accustomedto the surrounding darkness, he is compelled to fight in courts oflaw, or in other places, about the images or the shadows of imagesof justice, and is endeavouring to meet the conceptions of those whohave never yet seen absolute justice? Anything but surprising, he replied. Any one who has common sense will remember that the bewildermentsof the eyes are of two kinds, and arise from two causes, either fromcoming out of the light or from going into the light, which is trueof the mind's eye, quite as much as of the bodily eye; and he whoremembers this when he sees any one whose vision is perplexed andweak, will not be too ready to laugh; he will first ask whether thatsoul of man has come out of the brighter light, and is unable to seebecause unaccustomed to the dark, or having turned from darkness tothe day is dazzled by excess of light. And he will count the one happyin his condition and state of being, and he will pity the other; or,if he have a mind to laugh at the soul which comes from below intothe light, there will be more reason in this than in the laugh whichgreets him who returns from above out of the light into the den." "Summary: The text discusses the nature of knowledge and the pursuit of truth. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Philosophical argument Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, Glaucon" """""You know what I mean,"""" he said. """"I was not speaking of the knowledge which a man without any special education acquires in quite the ordinary course of life, and which we all possess about the several arts of which the city stands in need, and likewise about the various nature of animals and their habits """" You would be right in saying that we all share in this kind of knowledge ; but the sort of thing you are talking about is not really knowledge at all ; it is only opinion, and accordingly the people who have such opinions only, ought to be called men of opinion, not philosophers. 48 PLATO : Four TRANSLATIONS [] But there is another kind of knowledge which many of us possess, and if we have this we may fairly claim to be called philosophers. And what is this ? Why, knowledge of the nature of absolute good and evil. Now no man who has not studied philosophy can ever attain to this. He may have opinions which are very like the truth, and may even think that he possesses wisdom, but he will never be able to give a reason for his belief that the one is better than the other. Wherefore the possession of such opinions will not make him either a wise man or a lover of wisdom. [ The answer given by Socrates to Glaucon is the same as that which he gives to Polemarchus in Book i., where he says that the lovers of sights and sounds are not philosophers, but only their imitators. Here, however, the distinction between the two classes of persons is made more definite. In the case of the lovers of sights and sounds the absence of philosophy consists in the fact that they do not care for the beauty of virtue, but only for the beauty of the outward form. In the present passage the absence of philosophy is defined as an inability to give reasons for one's beliefs. Glaucon seems to think that this is too severe a test, and so he proceeds to ask whether a man who can give a reason for preferring the just life to the unjust may not be considered to have attained to some degree of wisdom. ] GLAUCON 49 ^ It is possible, however, that the question may be asked in another form which may lead to a different answer. Suppose, then, that a man were to say: "" When I hear a person praising justice and maintaining that it is best of all things for a man to possess, I am willing to admit that he is right, because I perceive that when men act justly towards one another, and obey the laws of the state, and do what is right, everything always goes well with them in their houses and families, and also in the state generally; but when they break the laws and commit crimes, they bring upon themselves many troubles and sorrows, both in private life and in public affairs. " +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "I do not know whether it is the nature of knowledge to be hard and dry, but I find that all knowledge I have ever got has come to me like this, in a harsh and vivid light. As for those who say that love is the desire for good, and hate is the desire for evil, they can go hang, so far as I am concerned, with their gentle platitudes and their smoothness of manner. I don't want to be loved: I want to be obeyed; and I'll have no truck with these milk-and-water philosophers. I believe in power and its instruments. Love may be the motive of crime, but I think that fear is just as potent."""" Socrates said nothing, but his silence made Glaucon's voice more savage than ever. There are fools who say that truth is beauty,"" he cried. ""They are liars, every one of them! Truth is ugly, and you've got to have guts enough to look at it."""" He turned upon Socrates suddenly. """"You're always telling me how wise you are. Well, now prove it. What does beauty mean?"""" Socrates smiled. It is a word which means many things,"" he replied. That isn't an answer,"" snarled Glaucon. ""It means something definite."""" But that is the whole point. Beauty is not one thing. The purpose of art is to give us pleasure; therefore the beautiful must be what pleases, and this will vary from man to man. " 103 103 "That, he said, is a very just distinction. But then, if I am right, certain professors of education must be wrongwhen they say that they can put a knowledge into the soul which wasnot there before, like sight into blind eyes. They undoubtedly say this, he replied. Whereas, our argument shows that the power and capacity of learningexists in the soul already; and that just as the eye was unable toturn from darkness to light without the whole body, so too the instrumentof knowledge can only by the movement of the whole soul be turnedfrom the world of becoming into that of being, and learn by degreesto endure the sight of being, and of the brightest and best of being,or in other words, of the good. Very true. And must there not be some art which will effect conversion in theeasiest and quickest manner; not implanting the faculty of sight,for that exists already, but has been turned in the wrong direction,and is looking away from the truth? @@ -2592,14 +2668,15 @@ What do you mean? I mean that they remain in the upper world: but this must not But is not this unjust? he said; ought we to give them a worse life,when they might have a better? You have again forgotten, my friend, I said, the intention of thelegislator, who did not aim at making any one class in the State happyabove the rest; the happiness was to be in the whole State, and heheld the citizens together by persuasion and necessity, making thembenefactors of the State, and therefore benefactors of one another;to this end he created them, not to please themselves, but to be hisinstruments in binding up the State." "Summary: The text discusses the nature of knowledge and education, arguing that knowledge exists within the soul but needs to be turned towards truth and goodness. Narrative arc: Philosophical argument -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker and his interlocutor" "I suppose you believe that it's in the soul, yes?"" Yes. You're right, I do."" Then that's all there is to say about it. Knowledge exists. It's there, and it can't be got rid of."""" But if you've got a big pile of knowledge in your soul,"" persisted the other, ""how come you can't use it?"""" Because it isn't turned towards truth and goodness,"""" answered the first voice harshly. """"It's turned towards sin and falsehood, and that's why it can't see anything else."""" Well, what makes it like that?"" asked the other curiously. ""Why don't it turn round by itself?"""" Because man's nature is evil,"" said the voice shortly. ""If it were good, it wouldn't need to turn round at all; but as it is, it has to be made to turn round, and it's very hard work. If people could only get their minds off sex, they might learn a lot more easily."""" The second voice was silent for a moment, then he said: """"Look here! Do you mean to tell me that it's sex that keeps people from learning things?"""" Of course I do."" Well, if you know that,"" said his companion thoughtfully, ""why don't you get them to talk about something else?"""" There's plenty of time for that when they've learned everything else,"" replied the first voice sharply. """"No, this isn't the kind of stuff that gets talked about in public."""" Why not?"" Because you can't talk about it without sinning against the spirit of the age. People nowadays are so damned ignorant that they simply can't understand any subject unless it's presented in a vulgar and ridiculous light. Take all the subjects that you know best. " +Active character: Two characters engaging in conversation +Language: English" There is no knowledge, there is only the consciousness of knowledge. Knowledge is a mere shadow of the truth; it is the knowledge of the soul that knows that sets us free. You are not in touch with reality at all unless you know something about the Absolute and the Real, the Unchangeable and the Eternal. The fact is that the soul exists even when you do not think of it, even when you are unconscious of its existence. It is always there, waiting for you to become aware of it. All things exist because they have being within the soul. They exist because they have been born within the soul. You have a right to be proud of your soul, and you must never forget that it has its own way of knowing and seeing and judging everything. So long as the soul is alive, so long as it has a spark of life, it can never die. It will never be extinguished by any power, whether human or divine. There is nothing to fear from anything except yourself and your own ignorance. You must not allow yourself to be deceived by the appearances of things. You must always keep in mind that you are a part of the whole and that nothing that happens to you can affect the rest of the world. There is no such thing as chance or accident in this universe. Every event that takes place is part of a plan which was made long ago. And every person who comes into your life has his or her own particular purpose to fulfill. If you want to learn how to live, if you want to find happiness, then you must first learn how to die. Death is the greatest teacher of life. Death teaches us that we cannot live without love. Love is the key to life. Without love, there is no life. We must love in order to live. We must give ourselves to another person in order to receive love in return. But remember that if you love someone else, you also love yourself. For there is only one true self, and that is the soul. And if you love yourself, then you must also love others. For the love of God is the love of everyone and everything. We are all children of God, and we must treat each other as brothers and sisters. We must help each other, support each other, and stand by each other through thick and thin. For we are all members of one body, and whatever hurts one member hurts all the others. We must never forget that we are here on earth to serve our fellow men and women. 104 104 "True, he said, I had forgotten. Observe, Glaucon, that there will be no injustice in compelling ourphilosophers to have a care and providence of others; we shall explainto them that in other States, men of their class are not obliged toshare in the toils of politics: and this is reasonable, for they growup at their own sweet will, and the government would rather not havethem. Being self-taught, they cannot be expected to show any gratitudefor a culture which they have never received. But we have broughtyou into the world to be rulers of the hive, kings of yourselves andof the other citizens, and have educated you far better and more perfectlythan they have been educated, and you are better able to share inthe double duty. Wherefore each of you, when his turn comes, mustgo down to the general underground abode, and get the habit of seeingin the dark. When you have acquired the habit, you will see ten thousandtimes better than the inhabitants of the den, and you will know whatthe several images are, and what they represent, because you haveseen the beautiful and just and good in their truth. And thus ourState which is also yours will be a reality, and not a dream only,and will be administered in a spirit unlike that of other States,in which men fight with one another about shadows only and are distractedin the struggle for power, which in their eyes is a great good. Whereasthe truth is that the State in which the rulers are most reluctantto govern is always the best and most quietly governed, and the Statein which they are most eager, the worst. Quite true, he replied. And will our pupils, when they hear this, refuse to take their turnat the toils of State, when they are allowed to spend the greaterpart of their time with one another in the heavenly light? Impossible, he answered; for they are just men, and the commands whichwe impose upon them are just; there can be no doubt that every oneof them will take office as a stern necessity, and not after the fashionof our present rulers of State. @@ -2611,16 +2688,16 @@ They are the men, and I will choose them, he replied. And now shall we consider By all means, he replied. The process, I said, is not the turning over of an oyster-shell, butthe turning round of a soul passing from a day which is little betterthan night to the true day of being, that is, the ascent from below,which we affirm to be true philosophy? Quite so. And should we not enquire what sort of knowledge has the power ofeffecting such a change? Certainly. What sort of knowledge is there which would draw the soul from becomingto being? And another consideration has just occurred to me: You willremember that our young men are to be warrior athletes" "Summary: The text discusses the role of philosophers in society and the importance of education for rulers. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical discussion -Literary movement: Hardboiled +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Active character: Glaucon, the narrator Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" The philosophers will be kings, and the kings philosophers. For they will need to have no other education than this. They must live together, and their life is to be devoted to philosophy, and the result of their lives will be to become fit rulers of the State. “Glaucon,” I said, “there are few persons who would agree with you.” “Then we must tell them what they do not know.” “That is what I am afraid of.” “What do you mean?” “You are very bold, Glaucon; yet, if I remember rightly, when you were younger, Thrasymachus the Orator said to you in my presence that you never had the courage to admit an opponent’s arguments, because you wanted to win.” “He thought so himself,” I replied; “but I did not think so.” “I cannot deny it, he certainly did think so.” “However,” I said, “suppose that some god made us noble and fine and virtuous—that is what justice is. If you asked them whether they would rather live as hounds or as lions, I believe that they would say that they would rather be human.” “Yes, I too believe that they would say so.” “Well then, having spoken thus they would surely refuse to live like hounds?” “Certainly.” “Then having chosen to be human instead of hounds or any other animals, are you not ashamed of thus losing the qualities which would make the animals like you? 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ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-sintetico-sintetico-naturale, ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-sintetico-sintetico-naturale-sintetico, ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-sintetico-sintetico-sintetico, ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-sintetico-sintetico-sintetico-naturale, ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-naturale-naturale, ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-naturale-naturale-sintetico, ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-naturale-naturale-sintetico-naturale, ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-naturale-naturale-sintetico-sintetico, ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-naturale-naturale-sintetico-sintetico-naturale, ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-naturale-sintetico-naturale-sintetico, ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-naturale-sintetico-naturale-sintetico-naturale, ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-naturale-sintetico-naturale-sintetico-sintetico, ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-naturale-sintetico-naturale-sintetico-sintetico-naturale, ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-naturale-sintetico-sintetico-naturale, ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-naturale-sintetico-sintetico-naturale-sintetico, ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-naturale-sintetico-sintetico-naturale-sintetico-naturale, ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-naturale-sintetico-sintetico-naturale-sintetico-sintetico, ventilatori industriali per industria del cuoio-naturale-sintetico-sintetico-naturale-sintetico +Fuzzy place: Den +Language: English" “I have been getting some idea of what philosophers are for in this country. They’re like little dogs that go with you everywhere and sit by your chair when you eat and lie down at your feet when you sleep.” Glaucon shook his head. “You’re talking rubbish, my friend,” he said. “Philosophers are people who think about the most important things.” I laughed. “That’s very true,” I said. “But it doesn’t sound as if it was much good to you here in this den. It sounds as if it would be just as good for you to do nothing but lie in bed all day and think about nothing but women. You’d get on just as well without the bother of getting up and going out every morning. Am I right?” He was angry now. “Don’t talk like that,” he said. “You’ll make me lose my temper.” “All right,” I said, “I won’t say any more. But I can see that you’re a philosopher. I think you ought to write books about philosophy. What sort of things do you think about? Women, I suppose? Or is there something else?” He looked away from me. “No,” he said. “I don’t think about women much.” “And what else do you think about?” I asked him. “Are there other things besides women that are worth thinking about? I’m not so sure about that. After all, there aren’t many other things you can see with your eyes. If you’ve got a woman in front of you, you don’t have to think about anything else; you look at her and she takes you over body and soul.” He didn’t answer, but stood looking out of the window at the garden. “What else do you think about, then?” I asked him again. “Why don’t you tell me?” “You know,” he said. “You’ve guessed.” “You think about killing people?” I asked. “Yes.” “Why? Don’t you like people?” “I hate them.” “How did you come to hate people?” “Why do you ask so many questions?” “Because I’m interested in people, and I want to understand how they become what they are. Why did you begin to hate people?” “I don’t remember. When I was young I used to like them. But after a bit I began to hate them.” “Who taught you to kill?” “I learned it myself.” “Do you teach others?” “Sometimes.” “What do you teach them?” “How to kill.” “And what happens to them when they’ve learned?” “Some of them go into the army.” “And the others?” “They get killed.” “That’s a pretty horrible sort of school. What are you going to do with yourself, Glaucon? 105 105 "Yes, that was said. Then this new kind of knowledge must have an additional quality? What quality? Usefulness in war. Yes, if possible. There were two parts in our former scheme of education, were therenot? Just so. There was gymnastic which presided over the growth and decay of thebody, and may therefore be regarded as having to do with generationand corruption? @@ -2642,15 +2719,14 @@ Will you explain your meaning? he said. I will try, I said; and I wish you would Explain, he said. I mean to say that objects of sense are of two kinds; some of themdo not invite thought because the sense is an adequate judge of them;while in the case of other objects sense is so untrustworthy thatfurther enquiry is imperatively demanded. You are clearly referring, he said, to the manner in which the sensesare imposed upon by distance, and by painting in light and shade." "Summary: The text discusses the importance of knowledge and education, specifically focusing on music and arithmetic. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Glaucon -Quoted character: Agamemnon, Palamedes" "Que alarde de conocimientos!... Y Agamenon, que era un pobre diablo, no sabia nada. S, ya lo creo! El otro, el ministro, se lo dijo a Glaucon: """"Palamedes es demasiado inteligente para tu padre"""". Porque Palamedes haba inventado la aritmtica y todas esas cosas que luego aprendieron los dems; pero a tu padre no le gustaba, porque desconfiaba de l. Ya me entenda usted, eh? Se abalanz a la puerta, aporre la aldaba, llamo, dio voces. La servidora de confianza vino a abrirle con cara de susto. Qu te pasa? qu quieres? pregunt . Nada, nada. Quiero ver al amo, a mi patrn. Est en el estudio, si quiere subir. Subi las escaleras, entr en la biblioteca, donde estaban sentados otros dos hombres. Un viejo, calvo, estaba escribiendo en una mesa; el otro, jovenzuelo, de pelo y barba crespo, miraba por la ventana. Ambos se levantaron al entrar l. Es curioso como todos los que me ven se ponen de pie. En seguida supuso que eran profesores. Es verdad. El mayor, de uniforme acadmico, era profesor de Letras; el jven, de pelo colorado, con chaqueta de franela, lentes, bigote de cholo, iba a ser mdico. Hace muchos aos fu a estudiar a París. Le llamaban Numa, porque tena un hermano pequeo que se llamaba Rmulo. Los dos solos tenan ms talento que todo el pas reunido. Su padre los trataba como a bestias. Estudiaban sin querer y salan malos. Por eso les gritaba tanto. El viejo se quedo mirndole fijamente. No te conozco, dijo . Soy un amigo de tu hijo, contest Numa . Siempre le han ido bien las cosas, pero ahora va a sufrir mucho. Pues ve a saberlo, que tampoco lo sabe l. Abri la puerta de su gabinete. Era una habitacin grande, iluminada por un solo cristal, cuya luz caa horizontalmente sobre un escritorio de madera clara, cubierto de libros, y una silla de ruedas, con el asiento y respaldo tapizados de cuero negro. Sentse en un silln y se encendió un cigarro. Habl en voz baja, como si temiera que sus palabras fueran oidas por alguien. Entonces Numa dijo: Cmo lo ha hecho? Dicen que se lo ha llevado con la fuerza... Me parece que es mejor que no digamos nada. Todo lo que ha pasado no debe salir de aqu. Es preferible que crea que se ha marchado por su voluntad. Eso le har daos; pero no tendr miedo ni angor. Maestro, esa es una gran idea. Voy a decirle que venga. Numa se march, dejndoles solos. El viejo se puso a dar vueltas por la sala, con la pipa entre los dientes. Despus volvi a sentarse a su mesa. Va usted a ver, pens , ahora voy a tener que hacerle caso. Pero no quiero que piense que soy bueno. Algn da le meter a palos, aunque sea de coartarle. Quedmos en eso. As quedamos. " +Active character: Glaucon, Socrates +Language: English" "And even if I had the knowledge, my dear Glaucon, would that help me to acquire what I want? Surely only the possession of the thing which we are always seeking can help us to obtain it?"""" What do you mean?"" he said. ""Surely it is not possible to acquire this understanding of music and arithmetic in any other way than by studying them."""" Well, I will try to explain,"" I replied. ""You know, as we were saying before, that all learning begins with a sense perception?"""" Certainly."" And we also said that when a man has often seen or heard one thing in association with another, then, after some time has gone by, whenever he sees or hears the one he thinks of the other in consequence of the original link which was established between them?"""" Yes, that too."" And again, we said that the same phenomenon occurs with reference to learning; for example, if a man learns a number of things from the same person, he soon forms an idea of him as well, owing to their being always associated in his mind?"""" Very true."" And suppose further that he learns of these things from a good man, he will form an idea of goodness as well, because of the connexion; and if he learns of them from a just man, then he will have an idea of justice, and so on with every class of virtue. Do you agree?"""" Certainly I do."" But there is more to be said about this matter of knowledge, Glaucon; for these ideas of ours, acquired as they are from experience, are necessarily mixed up with very much else, and are not at all pure and free from foreign admixture. For example, the soul of almost anyone who has had to do with music, and has learnt to appreciate it, will contain many notions derived from it: but then he will also have learnt geometry and arithmetic, and will therefore have many notions derived from those sciences; and so he will have become familiar with all sorts of ideas besides musical ones, and will never be able to extract pure musical ideas from the rest, nor yet pure geometrical ideas from their associates. Nor, to take another example, will a man who has had a good deal of experience of justice and injustice be able to extract a pure idea of either, nor yet of holiness or impiety, until he has been able to separate the notion of each from its mixture with the others. Do you understand what I mean?"""" Yes, certainly I do."" Then let us assume that there are these pure ideas, though I am unable to prove it, since I cannot say how they are to be separated from their associates. We must be content to trust our present explanation, and proceed no further with our inquiry, unless indeed you wish to follow the argument farther?"""" " 106 106 "No, I said, that is not at all my meaning. Then what is your meaning? When speaking of uninviting objects, I mean those which do not passfrom one sensation to the opposite; inviting objects are those whichdo; in this latter case the sense coming upon the object, whetherat a distance or near, gives no more vivid idea of anything in particularthan of its opposite. An illustration will make my meaning clearer:--here are three fingers --a little finger, a second finger, and amiddle finger. Very good. You may suppose that they are seen quite close: And here comes thepoint. What is it? Each of them equally appears a finger, whether seen in the middleor at the extremity, whether white or black, or thick or thin --itmakes no difference; a finger is a finger all the same. In these casesa man is not compelled to ask of thought the question, what is a finger?for the sight never intimates to the mind that a finger is other thana finger. @@ -2669,16 +2745,16 @@ Most true. This was what I meant when I spoke of impressions which invited thein I understand, he said, and agree with you. And to which class do unity and number belong? I do not know, he replied. Think a little and you will see that what has preceded will supplythe answer; for if simple unity could be adequately perceived by thesight or by any other sense, then, as we were saying in the case ofthe finger, there would be nothing to attract towards being; but whenthere is some contradiction always present, and one is the reverseof one and involves the conception of plurality, then thought beginsto be aroused within us, and the soul perplexed and wanting to arriveat a decision asks 'What is absolute unity?' This is the way in whichthe study of the one has a power of drawing and converting the mindto the contemplation of true being. And surely, he said, this occurs notably in the case of one; for wesee the same thing to be both one and infinite in multitude? Yes, I said; and this being true of one must be equally true of allnumber? -Certainly. And all arithmetic and calculation have to do with number?" "Summary: The speaker discusses how certain objects and sensations do not provide clear ideas, leading to confusion and a desire for understanding. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Certainly. And all arithmetic and calculation have to do with number?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the perception of different objects and their properties, arguing that some objects confuse the senses and invite thought, while others do not. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker and the person being spoken to -Time setting: 1950s" "I do not understand what you mean by a 'clear idea of a line'. You may as well try to give me a clear idea of blue. Neither of these ideas exist apart from their causes."" ""Good Lord!"" I cried, ""what nonsense you talk! There is such a thing as the sensation of blue, and there is such a thing as a line."""" ""Quite so! And when the blue which you see on the wall has been produced by a light ray which is itself blue, then you have a correspondence between the sensation and its cause. But in the case of a line you have no such correspondence. The sensation of straightness depends upon two or more points being taken at one time in relation to each other. In order that you may have a line you must first have the brain cells which are concerned with vision, and these brain cells are affected simultaneously by two or more rays of light. The sensation of straightness can only be given when these rays are compared. When you look at a straight line, therefore, you are really comparing the sensations which result from two groups of light rays. You say that you 'see' the straightness, but what you really do is to compare your visual sensations and to judge that they are similar. It is only by judging thus that you can ever arrive at an accurate knowledge of anything."""" ""If all this is true,"" I said, ""then how do we know that a straight line is a straight line?"""" ""You do not. That is why I say that it is useless to argue from the actual appearance of objects. If you take a piece of glass and look through it, you will often find that the image which you get through the glass appears crooked. Does this prove that the glass is crooked? Not at all. What has happened is that your eye has become accustomed to seeing things in a certain way, and now it attempts to interpret the new images according to the old system. The truth is that you cannot trust either your eyes or your judgment of appearances. You must learn to reason from premises which are exact and definite."""" ""It seems to me,"" I answered, ""that you are very near to proving my point. If we cannot trust our eyes or our judgment of appearances, then we are left in a state of complete confusion. How can we ever hope to discover the truth?"""" ""I am coming to that,"" he said. ""First of all, however, I want you to follow the argument just a little further. The next question which I ask myself is this: Can I, by reasoning, arrive at any absolute certainty? If I cannot, then where does all this lead us to?"""" ""I admit that I cannot conceive how human reason can go far beyond the mere accumulation of facts. " +Active character: The speaker, the other character in the conversation +Language: English" """""Take this,"""" he said, showing me a half-sovereign in the palm of his hand. """"It's an ordinary coin. You see it; you take it to the light and look at it; you pass your fingers over it; you can hear the sound it makes when it strikes another coin. But what does it tell you? Nothing! And yet it has form, colour, size, weight, hardness, coldness, noise, texture, smell, taste. What about that book?"""" He took from his pocket a small red volume bound in cloth. """"You pick it up, you turn the pages, you look at the type, you finger the cover, you smell the paper; but there is nothing there, nothing, nothing! And yet it is solid enough to weigh you down if you carry too many of them, and it will let you know if you drop it on your toe. The fact is, my friend, we are all blind men with our eyes open. We see objects, but what do they tell us? Very little. Our senses deceive us; they show us things as they appear to be, not as they really are."""" I did not quite understand him; I have never pretended to be a philosopher. He was a man who used language for its own sake, and shrank from having to explain himself. I think he enjoyed mystery for its own sake. However, I had gathered one thing from his remarks, and that was that he had not come empty-handed, and I hoped that the objects he held in his hands were the missing pearls. """"And now,"""" he said, rising, """"I am going to show you two objects which make no appeal to the senses, but which will certainly give you something to think about."""" I watched him lay down the coins and the book on the table, and then I saw him take from his hip-pocket a black leather case and from it a hypodermic syringe. I stood up myself, sick with horror, and then I saw that he was grinning at me with a broad smile of satisfaction. It was one of those curious smiles which only the old criminals know: a smile of unadulterated malice, the grimace of a man who has found an unexpected way of outwitting the law. Well, that was the first time I saw the Red Circle. That same evening I heard Inspector Jones quoting the lines from Macbeth: Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood Clean from my hand? No; this my hand will rather The multitudinous seas incarnadine Making the green one red."" CHAPTER V A RING OF GOLD AND CLOTH I have always been a very methodical man. " 107 107 "Yes. And they appear to lead the mind towards truth? Yes, in a very remarkable manner. Then this is knowledge of the kind for which we are seeking, havinga double use, military and philosophical; for the man of war mustlearn the art of number or he will not know how to array his troops,and the philosopher also, because he has to rise out of the sea ofchange and lay hold of true being, and therefore he must be an arithmetician. That is true. And our guardian is both warrior and philosopher? Certainly. Then this is a kind of knowledge which legislation may fitly prescribe;and we must endeavour to persuade those who are prescribe to be theprincipal men of our State to go and learn arithmetic, not as amateurs,but they must carry on the study until they see the nature of numberswith the mind only; nor again, like merchants or retail-traders, witha view to buying or selling, but for the sake of their military use,and of the soul herself; and because this will be the easiest wayfor her to pass from becoming to truth and being. That is excellent, he said. Yes, I said, and now having spoken of it, I must add how charmingthe science is! and in how many ways it conduces to our desired end,if pursued in the spirit of a philosopher, and not of a shopkeeper! @@ -2693,15 +2769,16 @@ I agree. Let this then be made one of our subjects of education. And next,shall You mean geometry? Exactly so. Clearly, he said, we are concerned with that part of geometry whichrelates to war; for in pitching a camp, or taking up a position, orclosing or extending the lines of an army, or any other military manoeuvre,whether in actual battle or on a march, it will make all the differencewhether a general is or is not a geometrician. Yes, I said, but for that purpose a very little of either geometryor calculation will be enough; the question relates rather to thegreater and more advanced part of geometry --whether that tends inany degree to make more easy the vision of the idea of good; and thither,as I was saying, all things tend which compel the soul to turn hergaze towards that place, where is the full perfection of being, whichshe ought, by all means, to behold. True, he said. Then if geometry compels us to view being, it concerns us; if becomingonly, it does not concern us? -Yes, that is what we assert. Yet anybody who has the least acquaintance with geometry will notdeny that such a conception of the science is in flat contradictionto the ordinary language of geometricians." "Summary: The text discusses the importance of arithmetic and geometry in education, arguing that they help the soul to reason and seek truth. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Yes, that is what we assert. Yet anybody who has the least acquaintance with geometry will notdeny that such a conception of the science is in flat contradictionto the ordinary language of geometricians." "Summary: The text discusses the importance of arithmetic and geometry in education, arguing that they lead to knowledge and understanding. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation -Active character: Socrates -Time setting: 1950s" Socrates: 1950 era. La matemtica est extraordinariament ben considerada en el nostre pas. Els arxiprests, els metges i els comerciants s'hi estimen tant que no hi poden viure sense ella; i els nens han de saber la geometria per a entrar a l'escola d'oficis. Perqu no voldrien que els estudiants de medicina sabessin la natura del cos hum? No caldria que els periodistes poltics entengussin les lleis? I qu grans comptes de negocis s'haurien de fer sense el mn de totes les figures! Un nen que no sap res de tot puc dir-li, i que vulgui ser policia, ni es pot convertir en un bon home si no fa l'examen. -S, senyor jutge- va dir Xapu -la meva filla ja ha fet l'examen i ha obtingut dues medalles de plata per a la seva conducta. Ho he vist amb els meus ulls i ho far per a ella, si calgu. Vaja, senyor Socrates, que ens estem endurant gaire... -No hi ha res- va dir Socrates -jo mateix tinc una filla que avui dia estudiant la geometria. -Aquesta dona- va continuar Xapu -se'l mena de bell nou... -I qu vol dir aix?... -B, senyor jutge- va dir Xapu -vost, que no s d'aquests costums, no ho entenia. Per sempre que anava a la botiga, el patr de la meva filla li deia: Ves, senyora, altra vegada em canti una caneteta, que m'agradaria molt. Fins que un dia li va fer saber que tenia molts afers a sa casa, i que no tenia temps per cantar. Aleshores, el patr es pos en mans de la justcia i present com a testimoni el doctor Lluci i el noi Joan. Ells van declarar que aquella dona era una bruixa que feia mal als homes. En sentir-ho, el patr va caure de genolls i suplic a la justcia que fos ben indulgent amb ell, que era un home mort, i que encara estava lluitant contra ella. Ja hem vist que no li ha servit de res. Est a punt d'anar-se'n a l'infern i no voldr deixar-me fer cap negoci ms. Li ha contat aix a Socrates? -S, senyor Xapu- va dir Socrates -i et dic que si no tingus cura de tu mateix, et passar el mateix que al teu patr. -Escolti'm, senyor jutge- va dir Xapu, tombant-se cap a mi -a mi, que mai no he fet mal a ning, ni a mi mateix, no m'ha de tractar d'aquesta manera. Si no vol estimar-me, que no m'estimi; per no m'ha de fer xantatge. Vost, que no coneix el meu carcter, no pot entendre res. Tots els habitants de la ciutat m'han conegut des que era infant i han vist que mai no he fet mal a ning. Jo mateix, quan el senyor jutge em pregunta alguna cosa, no puc resistirme a contestar-li, perqu sempre he tingut por a ell. Per ara ja no tremolo ms. -Tremoles, Xapu?- va dir Socrates -no tremoles com una fulla que s'enduu la ventada? -No, senyor jutge- va dir Xapu -ja no tremolo gaire. +Active character: Socrates, interlocutor +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "I want to show that Arithmetic and Geometry are the two gates of knowledge. I am going to explain them both to you so that, if any of you wants to enter the world of knowledge, he can use these two gates."""" You mean they're the only gates?"""" No, not the only ones; but they are the two principal ones. And I'm going to start with geometry. Now then, what is a point?"""" A dot."" No, it's not just a dot; it's anything that has position but no magnitude. It's something that can be somewhere or other. For example, your right hand could be here, and your left hand could be there. But suppose now that we wanted to draw a line from your right hand to your left hand. How long would the line be?"""" About two feet."" Two feet isn't long enough. Suppose we stretched out our arms and made fists, and then drew a line from the tip of the right index finger to the tip of the left index finger. Would that be long enough?"""" No; it'd be about four feet."" Four feet isn't long enough either. So now let's stretch out both arms and join the fingertips of both hands together. That makes eight feet. Eight feet still isn't long enough. Why isn't it long enough?"""" Because the distance between the two hands is three feet and each foot is three inches."""" Oh! I see. You mean that it takes twelve inches to make a foot, and three feet to make a yard, and five yards to make a chain, and ten chains to make an acre, and four acres to make a square mile, and sixty square miles to make a degree, and thirty degrees to make a latitude, and half the earth's circumference to make a parallel of latitude, and the whole earth's circumference to make a meridian."""" Well, yes, all that's true. But you won't remember all those different lengths, and besides, you don't have to. The important thing to remember is this: If you keep dividing anything into halves over and over again, you'll eventually arrive at a point, and that point will be smaller than any other thing you can think of. Do you understand?"""" Yes."" Well, that's a point."""" Is it?"" Yes, indeed. Now then, what is a line?"" A line is a dot that's been stretched until it's longer than it is thick."""" No, that's not quite right. You can't stretch a dot. You can only stretch a line. A line is a length without breadth. Now suppose we take two points and join them by a line. Then we've got a straight line."""" Right."" Now, do you remember how many feet there are in a mile?"""" Twenty-four hundred."" Now suppose we measured off one thousand feet on a straight line. Where would that leave us?"""" About half way along the line."""" Exactly. Now if we were to measure another thousand feet from where we stopped, how far would we be from the beginning of the line?"""" Three thousand feet."" And if we were to measure another thousand feet after that, how far would we be from the beginning of the line?"""" Four thousand feet."""" And if we kept on measuring one thousand feet at a time every time we reached a thousand feet, how far would we ever get from the beginning of the line?"""" We'd never get any farther from the beginning of the line, because every time we measured another thousand feet we'd be back where we started from."""" " 108 108 "How so? They have in view practice only, and are always speaking? in a narrowand ridiculous manner, of squaring and extending and applying andthe like --they confuse the necessities of geometry with those ofdaily life; whereas knowledge is the real object of the whole science. Certainly, he said. Then must not a further admission be made? What admission? That the knowledge at which geometry aims is knowledge of the eternal,and not of aught perishing and transient. That, he replied, may be readily allowed, and is true. Then, my noble friend, geometry will draw the soul towards truth,and create the spirit of philosophy, and raise up that which is nowunhappily allowed to fall down. @@ -2719,14 +2796,14 @@ That is true, Socrates; but so little seems to be known as yet aboutthese subjec Why, yes, I said, and for two reasons: --in the first place, no governmentpatronises them; this leads to a want of energy in the pursuit ofthem, and they are difficult; in the second place, students cannotlearn them unless they have a director. But then a director can hardlybe found, and even if he could, as matters now stand, the students,who are very conceited, would not attend to him. That, however, wouldbe otherwise if the whole State became the director of these studiesand gave honour to them; then disciples would want to come, and therewould be continuous and earnest search, and discoveries would be made;since even now, disregarded as they are by the world, and maimed oftheir fair proportions, and although none of their votaries can tellthe use of them, still these studies force their way by their naturalcharm, and very likely, if they had the help of the State, they wouldsome day emerge into light. Yes, he said, there is a remarkable charm in them. But I do not clearlyunderstand the change in the order. First you began with a geometryof plane surfaces? Yes, I said. And you placed astronomy next, and then you made a step backward?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the importance of studying geometry and astronomy for the sake of knowledge and personal improvement. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation -Active character: Socrates, interlocutor -Time setting: 1950s" “Golly, I’m sorry,” said Socrates. “If I’d known that I would have let you off. It’s just that I’ve never seen a guy who was so completely ignorant of everything that it’s really frightening. I thought if I could work on your brain for half an hour every day for a few months I might get somewhere. But it’s hopeless. You’re like a man who has been living in a cave all his life and then gets out into the sunshine for the first time. Your mind is a blank sheet. If you don’t study geometry now, you’ll spend the rest of your life bumping into things.” “I can see you are a very angry person,” said the interlocutor. “And perhaps I deserved to be snubbed. But after all, we are only men; it is human to make mistakes. And a mistake does not necessarily mean that a man is a fool. I shall try to learn geometry if you wish me to, but I feel that I must point out one thing to you: even if I do learn it, it will be no use to me. There is no money in it. You may say that it is knowledge and therefore worth having for its own sake. But what good is it? How can I live by it?” “That is where you are wrong,” said Socrates. “It is exactly because there is no money in it that it is valuable. Knowledge is more important than money. The man who knows about astronomy or geometry or physics, or who can read Latin, may earn less money than the man who can’t, but he is a better man and commands more respect. He is more intelligent, and intelligence is power. Look at the people who know these things: they are cleverer than other people, they have high social position, they are the people whom everybody wants to imitate. And besides, it is rude not to know things. Imagine yourself in a cinema. Suppose the lights go up and the manager comes out and says ‘Ladies and gentlemen, we regret that owing to an error on the part of our projectionist it has not been possible to show tonight’s programme. Instead of a film we are going to ask Mr Smith to come on the stage and talk to you.’ Now suppose Mr Smith doesn’t know anything to talk about. He is bound to make himself ridiculous. He would be laughed out of the cinema. But if he knew something—geometry, for instance—if he knew how to prove that two angles of a triangle equal two right angles, or something like that, and began talking about it, why, you would listen to him with the greatest interest, provided he spoke clearly and intelligently. The only reason why you didn’t want to hear him talk before is that you thought he wouldn’t know anything. That is why it is important to study geometry, astronomy, Latin, physics, and all that sort of thing. You never know when you are going to be called upon to speak in public, and you ought to be prepared.” +Active character: The speaker and his friend +Language: English" "In addition to which, you will be able to say that there is nothing in the world that a man of intelligence may not do if he sets his mind to it. There are many things that I don't like doing myself; but since I know how to do them, I can do them whenever I feel inclined."""" I am afraid that I am far from being a good mathematician,"" I said, after thinking over what he had told me. """"I was never very keen about geometry at school and I have forgotten most of what I learnt."""" Study geometry. It's an excellent thing for young people to study. You see, if a fellow knows all about pyramids and so forth, he can always get away from anybody if he wants to. If you don't believe me, try it some day! And then again, a knowledge of astronomy is invaluable. If you know something about the stars, you will never be caught napping; and in any case, even if you haven't got the slightest notion of what you're looking at, just pretend to know. They'll think you're clever, and you'll be able to beat the whole lot of 'em hollow. And besides, astronomy is one of the finest subjects in the world. Look at those stars up there. Why, they're as big as houses. A fellow who doesn't know anything about astronomy must be a pretty stupid sort of cuss, don't you think so?"""" My friend spoke with such sudden fierceness that I drew back a little. For a moment I thought that he was going to hit me; but his eye lighted on a bottle of absinthe that stood on the table, and his face gradually cleared. He poured out two glassesful of the greenish liquid, lit a cigarette, and began to talk again: Come on, drink your grog!"" he said, when I had finished my glass. You needn't look so scared; I'm not going to begin talking about the stars again. But there's one thing that I want to ask you: What's the use of knowing about astronomy?"""" Well,"" I said, ""it helps us to find our way about the world; and it gives us an idea of the size of things."""" That's right,"" he said. ""And by the same token, a fellow who has got an idea of the size of things isn't likely to be such a fool as another fellow who hasn't. Drink your grog and let's go!"""" III. The evening was growing cold, but I did not dare to put on my coat, for fear of attracting attention. We walked along the Boulevard de Magenta, and then turned down the Rue Lafayette. At the corner of the Rue d'Hauteville we stopped before a house. My companion looked carefully up and down the street, then pulled a watch out of his pocket and pretended to read the time. " 109 109 "Yes, and I have delayed you by my hurry; the ludicrous state of solidgeometry, which, in natural order, should have followed, made me passover this branch and go on to astronomy, or motion of solids. True, he said. Then assuming that the science now omitted would come into existenceif encouraged by the State, let us go on to astronomy, which willbe fourth. The right order, he replied. And now, Socrates, as you rebuked thevulgar manner in which I praised astronomy before, my praise shallbe given in your own spirit. For every one, as I think, must see thatastronomy compels the soul to look upwards and leads us from thisworld to another. @@ -2741,15 +2818,15 @@ I quite agree, though I never thought of this before. Then, I said, in astronomy That, he said, is a work infinitely beyond our present astronomers. Yes, I said; and there are many other things which must also havea similar extension given to them, if our legislation is to be ofany value. But can you tell me of any other suitable study?" "Summary: The text discusses the study of astronomy and its relationship to knowledge. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical conversation +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, another character speaking with Socrates -Time setting: 1950s" We are also likely to be told that astronomy, like mathematics and physics, is a deductive science; that it studies the stars by means of instruments constructed on scientific principles; that it is one of the oldest sciences, but that its progress has been greatly retarded by superstitions, for which we must blame the priests. All this may be true or false; I do not know. But I think that most people will agree that, if there is any branch of knowledge which goes back to an early stage in the evolution of human consciousness, then astronomy does so, even though it may have taken a different form from what it has today. I think they will also agree that, if there is any branch of knowledge in which superstition and credulity have been deeply rooted, then astronomy does so, and that they still lurk within it. In these respects it resembles philosophy. Now, as you see, Socrates is studying the heavens with his eyes and with his mind, just as he did in my youth. He is a hard man to argue with, and I have only the vaguest notion of what he was driving at. Yet I am certain of one thing: he was using the old method of Euthyphro; he was trying to shock me out of my prejudices by hitting me between the eyes with vivid facts. And, like Euthyphro, I found myself wincing under his attack. “I don’t know anything about it,” I said at last. “But I don’t mind telling you that I feel a sort of grim satisfaction whenever I hear that some miserable criminal has been hanged for murder, or electrocuted for rape, or burnt at the stake for heresy.” The other man laughed, and then grew serious again. “That’s because you’re a barbarian,” he said. “You have no sense of proportion. You can’t understand that the guilt of a murderer is not the same as the guilt of a mass-murderer, or that the guilt of a mass-murderer is not the same as the guilt of a war-criminal, or that the guilt of a war-criminal is not the same as the guilt of a dictator who starts a world-war, or that the guilt of a dictator is not the same as the guilt of a God who creates millions of men whose sole function is to suffer and die in agony. Do you follow me?” “Not very closely, I’m afraid.” “Well, let me put it another way. Suppose you were condemned to die in the electric chair, and suppose you had the power to transfer your sentence to someone else; would you do it? If you say ‘Yes’, then I am quite sure that you are not a Christian, however pious you may pretend to be. For, according to Christianity, every man is born with Original Sin, and therefore deserves to die for his crimes. +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "Astronomy is the key to the stars, and so a man who can't even get that far doesn't know nothing about nothing. He's just another dumb hick that got in over his head."""" If you're trying to impress me,"" I said, ""you're wasting your time. But if you want to talk astronomy I'll listen as long as you want to. You might find it relaxing."""" He laughed then; his eyes were still hard but his lips curled up at the corners like a terrier's, and he was almost pleasant to look at. Well now, that's something I didn't expect from you. That's a fair offer, all right, and I'll take you up on it. But first of all we got to get this other thing cleared up. You didn't kill her, did you?"""" His eyes had gone back to cold blue ice again. I felt suddenly calm and cool inside, but I knew that I couldn't let him see how much he scared me. It's an old trick,"" I said. ""The criminal always asks if you committed the crime first. But no, I'm afraid I didn't. And now suppose you tell me how you happen to be mixed up in this case?"""" Yeah?"" He looked at me steadily for several seconds. """"I guess you ain't gonna believe me,"""" he said finally. """"But it's the truth. I found her body."""" Chapter Eight I DIDN'T SAY ANYTHING FOR A FEW SECONDS. HIS EYES WERE ON ME, AND THERE WAS SOMETHING IN THE WAY HE LOOKED AT ME THAT MADE ME FEEL UNCOMFORTABLE. THEN I LAUGHED. I HAD TO. BUT IT DIDN'T HELP MUCH. YOU CAN'T TAKE YOURSELF IN BY LAUGHING WHEN YOU KNOW WHAT YOU'RE THINKING IS ABSURD. I SAID: YOU DON'T EXPECT ME TO BELIEVE THAT DO YOU? IF YOU DID YOU MUST BE CRAZY. WHY SHOULD YOU WANT TO KILL HER IF YOU FOUND HER BODY FIRST?"""" He didn't say anything for a minute or two. Then he nodded. """"Yeah,"""" he said. """"I guess that makes sense, don't it? But it's the truth all the same. Only it ain't what you think it is."""" Maybe not,"" I said. ""How do I know? You haven't told me how you happened to be looking for her in the first place."""" He shook his head. """"You wouldn't believe me,"""" he said. """"It'd sound screwy."""" Try me."" He stood there frowning and rubbing his jaw. """"All right,"""" he said finally. """"If you want the whole story I'll give it to you. Only don't laugh, will you?"""" I said I wouldn't laugh and he started talking. He said: """"I work at the plant down the street, and last night I went home late. " 110 110 "No, he said, not without thinking. Motion, I said, has many forms, and not one only; two of them areobvious enough even to wits no better than ours; and there are others,as I imagine, which may be left to wiser persons. But where are the two? There is a second, I said, which is the counterpart of the one alreadynamed. And what may that be? The second, I said, would seem relatively to the ears to be what thefirst is to the eyes; for I conceive that as the eyes are designedto look up at the stars, so are the ears to hear harmonious motions;and these are sister sciences --as the Pythagoreans say, and we, Glaucon,agree with them? @@ -2765,16 +2842,15 @@ What do you mean? I said; the prelude or what? Do you not know thatall this is b Assuredly not, he said; I have hardly ever known a mathematician whowas capable of reasoning. But do you imagine that men who are unable to give and take a reasonwill have the knowledge which we require of them?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the various forms of motion and their relationship to knowledge and understanding. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker, Glaucon -Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" I said, ‘I’m very glad to meet you at last, Glaucon. It’s a long time since we saw each other.’ ‘What do you mean?’ he said. ‘A hundred and fifty years,’ I said. ‘That’s nothing in astronomy,’ he said. ‘You think so,’ I said. ‘Just try it as a form of motion.’ He gave me a hard look. ‘I like your jokes,’ he said, ‘but remember that my brother Plato isn’t here tonight.’ ‘He won’t be needing to hear them,’ I said. ‘He’ll be dead soon enough.’ ‘Why?’ he said. ‘Because he’s too old,’ I said. ‘You can’t talk about those things without getting old yourself, no matter how young you are to begin with.’ ‘It doesn’t seem to have affected you,’ he said. ‘I’ve lived longer than he has.’ ‘Ah,’ he said. ‘But this is your first trip back, isn’t it? You’re not like the others. They’ve been coming back for years.’ ‘I know that,’ I said. ‘That’s why I want to talk to you. I want to know all about it. What I see around me is terrible, but the others’ knowledge seems to be even worse.’ ‘What are you talking about?’ he said. ‘The people who live here now. The way they dress, their manners, their ideas, their whole way of life.’ ‘Well,’ he said, ‘it’s the twentieth century, isn’t it?’ ‘Is it?’ I said. ‘Yes,’ he said, ‘the year 1950, to be exact.’ ‘Then what does all this stuff have to do with 1950?’ I said. ‘With 1950?’ he said. ‘That’s just the point,’ I said. ‘And the people. Why are they dressed like that? And why do they behave like animals?’ ‘They don’t,’ he said. ‘They’re not animals. They’re human beings.’ ‘But they look like animals,’ I said. ‘Look!’ I said. ‘At that man over there. Doesn’t he look like an ape? And the woman next to him. She’s got more hair on her face than he has. And the one over there is practically naked. He doesn’t have any clothes on at all. And they talk like animals. Listen to them! They yell and scream and swear at each other like that all the time. I’ve never heard anything like it. I thought this was a civilized country.’ ‘It is,’ he said. ‘It’s more civilized than you think.’ ‘How can you say that?’ I said. ‘When you can walk along the street and see men and women making love right out in the open. There’s one doing it right over there.’ ‘So what?’ he said. ‘And every house looks like a brothel. +Literary form: Philosophical conversation +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon +Quoted work: Pythagorean teachings on harmony +Language: English" But don’t let’s go into the details of this, for it would take too long. Let us rather try to discover how these various kinds of motion and the other things which we mentioned a moment ago are related to knowledge and understanding. “What do you mean?” said Glaucon. “I’ll tell you,” I replied. “It must be obvious to anyone that there are two sorts of motions, each of which has its own kind of cause. One sort is called ‘carrying’ or ‘carriage’, the other ‘alteration’. By ‘carriage’ I mean any motion which takes place in a circle, and by ‘alteration’ any motion which takes place in any way except in a circle. Now the cause of carriage is revolution, and the cause of alteration is some kind of non-being; for instance, the hot, the cold, the dry, the moist, heaviness, lightness, hardness, softness, spiciness, pungency, sweetness, bitterness, and countless other things like these. These, then, are the causes of alteration. For example, if something gets hotter, the cause is heat; if it gets colder, the cause is cold; if it gets drier, the cause is dryness; and so on with the others. “Now,” I went on, “we may divide all these causes into two classes: one class will be made up of those which exist in the thing which is changing, and the other of those which exist outside it. The former class will include heaviness, lightness, hardness, softness, and the rest of them; the latter will include heat, cold, spiciness, pungency, sweetness, bitterness, and the like. “The nature of these causes can best be illustrated by an analogy from the world of sight. Suppose someone were to ask, ‘Why does this object appear white?’ and another answered, ‘Because it is white.’ Then clearly he who answers would not have given him any reason at all. Similarly, when someone asks why something is heavy, and another answers that it is heavy, he has not given any answer to his question; the original questioner might well reply, ‘But my question was, ‘Why is it heavy?’ and your answer is nothing of the sort. You haven’t told me why it is heavy, but only that it is heavy.’ If, however, someone were to say, ‘It is heavy because of its density’, he would certainly be giving an adequate answer to the question, since he would be giving a cause of its heaviness. “And, in general, whenever the cause of anything lies within the thing itself, then this cause is a substance; for instance, the cause of the heaviness of a stone is its density, and its density is a substance. 111 111 "Neither can this be supposed. And so, Glaucon, I said, we have at last arrived at the hymn of dialectic.This is that strain which is of the intellect only, but which thefaculty of sight will nevertheless be found to imitate; for sight,as you may remember, was imagined by us after a while to behold thereal animals and stars, and last of all the sun himself. And so withdialectic; when a person starts on the discovery of the absolute bythe light of reason only, and without any assistance of sense, andperseveres until by pure intelligence he arrives at the perceptionof the absolute good, he at last finds himself at the end of the intellectualworld, as in the case of sight at the end of the visible. Exactly, he said. Then this is the progress which you call dialectic? True. But the release of the prisoners from chains, and their translationfrom the shadows to the images and to the light, and the ascent fromthe underground den to the sun, while in his presence they are vainlytrying to look on animals and plants and the light of the sun, butare able to perceive even with their weak eyes the images in the water(which are divine), and are the shadows of true existence (not shadowsof images cast by a light of fire, which compared with the sun isonly an image) --this power of elevating the highest principle inthe soul to the contemplation of that which is best in existence,with which we may compare the raising of that faculty which is thevery light of the body to the sight of that which is brightest inthe material and visible world --this power is given, as I was saying,by all that study and pursuit of the arts which has been described. I agree in what you are saying, he replied, which may be hard to believe,yet, from another point of view, is harder still to deny. This, however,is not a theme to be treated of in passing only, but will have tobe discussed again and again. And so, whether our conclusion be trueor false, let us assume all this, and proceed at once from the preludeor preamble to the chief strain, and describe that in like manner.Say, then, what is the nature and what are the divisions of dialectic,and what are the paths which lead thither; for these paths will alsolead to our final rest? @@ -2783,17 +2859,16 @@ Doubtless, he replied. But I must also remind you, that the power of dialectic a Of that assertion you may be as confident as of the last. And assuredly no one will argue that there is any other method ofcomprehending by any regular process all true existence or of ascertainingwhat each thing is in its own nature; for the arts in general areconcerned with the desires or opinions of men, or are cultivated witha view to production and construction, or for the preservation ofsuch productions and constructions; and as to the mathematical scienceswhich, as we were saying, have some apprehension of true being --geometryand the like --they only dream about being, but never can they beholdthe waking reality so long as they leave the hypotheses which theyuse unexamined, and are unable to give an account of them. For whena man knows not his own first principle, and when the conclusion andintermediate steps are also constructed out of he knows not what,how can he imagine that such a fabric of convention can ever becomescience? Impossible, he said. Then dialectic, and dialectic alone, goes directly to the first principleand is the only science which does away with hypotheses in order tomake her ground secure; the eye of the soul, which is literally buriedin an outlandish slough, is by her gentle aid lifted upwards; andshe uses as handmaids and helpers in the work of conversion, the scienceswhich we have been discussing. Custom terms them sciences, but theyought to have some other name, implying greater clearness than opinionand less clearness than science: and this, in our previous sketch,was called understanding. But why should we dispute about names whenwe have realities of such importance to consider? -Why indeed, he said, when any name will do which expresses the thoughtof the mind with clearness?" "Summary: The narrator discusses the power of dialectic and its ability to reveal the absolute truth. -Narrative arc: Exposition -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Why indeed, he said, when any name will do which expresses the thoughtof the mind with clearness?" "Summary: The narrator discusses the power of dialectic and its ability to lead to understanding and truth. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Dialogue +Literary form: Philosophical dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Glaucon, the narrator -Time setting: 1950s" "The power of the dialectic is immense. It can take any given argument and expose it to such a merciless cross-examination that all the defects in its logic, its lack of consistency, its failures to observe its own premises, are brought out in such glaring relief that it can no longer hold water. And then when the refutation is complete, it does not matter what the argument was about; if it is the truth, it will come back at you like a boomerang. Only this time it will be much more subtle than before, because now you know how to handle it and you have had practice in spotting its tricks."""" There was silence for a moment or two. Then Glaucon spoke again. """"It sounds terrible! But why do you say it with such relish?"""" Because,"" said the narrator, ""I love to see the truth standing up and talking back to someone who thinks he has got it all sewn up. I don't mind telling you that there is nothing I enjoy better than to watch a good cross-examination at work. The thing is so vivid, so vital, so alive...."""" He was silent for a moment, then he went on: """"If you want an idea of how it works, just think of those films of Hitchcock's where some poor devil of a fellow is being interrogated by the police. The man is sitting at the desk with his head bowed and his hands clenched in front of him, while the police inspector sits opposite, leaning forward with his chin resting on one hand and staring at him with those hypnotic eyes of his. And the questions keep coming, one after another, sharp, precise, cutting into the man's defences, probing deeper and deeper until suddenly the whole edifice comes crashing down upon him and he is found out."""" The voice became harsher as he spoke. There was something intensely vivid, almost physical, in the way he described it. Glaucon looked at him curiously. It was hard to imagine the quiet, reserved young man who had sat opposite him only a few days ago, capable of such intense feeling. Then he realized that the conversation was getting away from its proper channel. He tried to bring it back to the point. """"I suppose,"""" he said, """"that in order to understand Plato, one would have to be pretty well acquainted with the actual practice of the art of dialectic."""" That is true,"" replied the narrator. ""But then, unless you have already studied philosophy, you cannot possibly understand Plato without having some knowledge of dialectic. For Plato assumes throughout his dialogues that his readers will recognize and appreciate the nature of the dialectical process."""" Glaucon nodded. """"Yes,"""" he said, """"I had forgotten about that."""" Well,"" continued the narrator, ""the fact that Plato assumes certain knowledge on the part of his readers makes it very difficult for beginners to follow what he is saying. " +Active character: Glaucon, narrator +Language: English" "I see it too. And I am more and more sure that dialectic is the only way to get at truth, because it's the only thing which compels people to be consistent with themselves. That's why I like you so much; you're always consistent."""" Consistency isn't a virtue,"" said Glaucon. Oh, yes, it is!"" exclaimed the narrator. ""Consistency is the first step towards truth. Suppose you have got hold of some bit of truth, how do you know when you've got it? You can only know by testing it against other truths to see whether it agrees with them or not. The man who doesn't test his truth against other truths is like the man who thinks he can judge whether a pig is fat by looking at it from the outside. He'll never know whether it's fat or lean until he cuts it up and weighs it. Dialectic is cutting up and weighing."""" But there are some things which can't be cut up and weighed. Take love, for instance."" Love?"" said the narrator. ""Why, what on earth has love got to do with this argument?"""" It seems to me that love has everything to do with it. You say that love can't be cut up and weighed. I should say it could, all right. Only you've got to cut it up and weigh it in a different way from the rest of your knowledge. In the same way that you say that belief in God has to be cut up and weighed, but in a different way from scientific truth, so love has to be cut up and weighed in its own way. " 112 112 "At any rate, we are satisfied, as before, to have four divisions;two for intellect and two for opinion, and to call the first divisionscience, the second understanding, the third belief, and the fourthperception of shadows, opinion being concerned with becoming, andintellect with being; and so to make a proportion: -- As being is to becoming, so is pure intellect to opinion. And as intellect is to opinion, so is science to belief, and understandingto the perception of shadows. But let us defer the further correlationand subdivision of the subjects of opinion and of intellect, for itwill be a long enquiry, many times longer than this has been. @@ -2808,14 +2883,16 @@ Yes, clearly. You remember, I said, how the rulers were chosen before? Certainly, he said. The same natures must still be chosen, and the preference again givento the surest and the bravest, and, if possible, to the fairest; and,having noble and generous tempers, they should also have the naturalgifts which will facilitate their education. And what are these? Such gifts as keenness and ready powers of acquisition; for the mindmore often faints from the severity of study than from the severityof gymnastics: the toil is more entirely the mind's own, and is notshared with the body. Very true, he replied. Further, he of whom we are in search should have a good memory, andbe an unwearied solid man who is a lover of labour in any line; orhe will never be able to endure the great amount of bodily exerciseand to go through all the intellectual discipline and study whichwe require of him. -Certainly, he said; he must have natural gifts. The mistake at present is, that those who study philosophy have novocation, and this, as I was before saying, is the reason why shehas fallen into disrepute: her true sons should take her by the handand not bastards." "Summary: The text discusses the divisions of intellect and opinion, and the importance of education in a political state. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Certainly, he said; he must have natural gifts. The mistake at present is, that those who study philosophy have novocation, and this, as I was before saying, is the reason why shehas fallen into disrepute: her true sons should take her by the handand not bastards." "Summary: The text discusses the divisions of intellect and opinion, and the importance of education in a political system. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue -Literary movement: Hardboiled" But it isn’t the one we’re looking for. The intellect that is worth anything in its own line is bound to be eccentric in some direction. We can’t afford to lose any of these fine divisions and subdivisions of intellect, just as we can’t afford to lose any of our fingers. They may be awkward things to have on your hands when you don’t want them; but they come in useful once in a way. “The political state needs all the brains it can get hold of—needs them in every shape and size and colour. And there’s another thing that’s important: It doesn’t matter a damn what a man thinks, so long as he knows his own mind and acts up to it. “The best statesmen are always the men who know their own minds the most completely and the most clearly. But no two people think alike. The differences of opinion that are going to crop up in a political assembly are as various as the variations of the human voice. There’s nothing like having a lot of different kinds of voices, singing the same tune. You’ll get more harmony that way.” I nodded assent to this theory of yours. It struck me as being very sound. But I was afraid to say anything lest I should give him the idea that I had been following his remarks with close attention. So I merely grunted. He saw my hesitation, and smiled at me in his dry, grim fashion. “Don’t worry about it,” he said. “I don’t expect you to agree with me. Only I’ve got a right to talk here if I like. This is my house, remember. If I want to occupy your mind with something else than your stomach, I’ve a perfect right to do it.” “Yes,” I answered, “that’s very true. But I’m afraid I shall have to go now. I’ve got an appointment at twelve o’clock.” “Oh!” he said sharply. “With whom?” “With Mr. Spence.” “Ah!” His eyes twinkled behind their spectacles. “And what are you going to do with Mr. Spence?” “I am going to drive him out to see the place where my dog was found.” “Humph!” said Sir Charles. “Quite so! Quite so! Anything new turn up?” “Nothing whatever.” He looked at his watch. “It’s nearly twelve now,” he said. “I wonder whether you could manage to stay here for half an hour. I want to ask you a few questions about that business.” “Certainly!” I replied eagerly. “Anything you like. I’d give anything to help you in this case. It’s getting on my nerves, sir.” “I thought it might,” he said softly. “You seem to take it rather to heart.” “I can’t help it,” I answered. “It’s the only case I’ve ever had to do with, and it’s given me a taste for detective work.” “A taste for detective work?” +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "I believe that you are all three of you very poor specimens of the human intellect."""" You don't say!"" said the Judge. I do say,"" returned Sherlock Holmes, ""and I'll prove it to you. Watson here set up as a doctor once in Pakistan, and he knew enough, at least, to diagnose with perfect precision the most serious disease which is at this moment threatening my existence. The end of that Packers business will find me behind the Broadstairs asylum curtain. That's an example of the reason why your intellects failed to grasp my ideas. Your education has been unfortunate. You have no knowledge of the British museum classics."""" It was a sore blow, but the Judge tried to laugh it off. """"You must allow us to deal with matters as far as we can understand them,"""" he said. """"When people do not understand 'em they can only fall back upon their opinions."""" Exactly,"" said Holmes; ""that I quite agree with you. How about this bit of coal? What does it mean to you?"""" It's what we call in Doncaster 'a howler,' he's a good deal burnt on one side."""" That's clever, Mr. Hosmer Angel! Oh, you ought to figure at the Oxford Extension Course with your little joke on coal!"""" The next example, gentlemen, is the pointer. Mr. Hosmer Angel, would you mind letting us hear from you on that?"" The Judge raised his eyebrows and glanced at the fire. I don't know what you're driving at,"" he said. " 113 113 "What do you mean? In the first place, her votary should not have a lame or halting industry--I mean, that he should not be half industrious and half idle: as,for example, when a man is a lover of gymnastic and hunting, and allother bodily exercises, but a hater rather than a lover of the labourof learning or listening or enquiring. Or the occupation to whichhe devotes himself may be of an opposite kind, and he may have theother sort of lameness. Certainly, he said. And as to truth, I said, is not a soul equally to be deemed halt andlame which hates voluntary falsehood and is extremely indignant atherself and others when they tell lies, but is patient of involuntaryfalsehood, and does not mind wallowing like a swinish beast in themire of ignorance, and has no shame at being detected? To be sure. And, again, in respect of temperance, courage, magnificence, and everyother virtue, should we not carefully distinguish between the trueson and the bastard? for where there is no discernment of such qualitiesStates and individuals unconsciously err and the State makes a ruler,and the individual a friend, of one who, being defective in some partof virtue, is in a figure lame or a bastard. @@ -2832,16 +2909,18 @@ At what age? At the age when the necessary gymnastics are over: the period wheth Certainly, he replied. After that time those who are selected from the class of twenty yearsold will be promoted to higher honour, and the sciences which theylearned without any order in their early education will now be broughttogether, and they will be able to see the natural relationship ofthem to one another and to true being. Yes, he said, that is the only kind of knowledge which takes lastingroot. Yes, I said; and the capacity for such knowledge is the great criterionof dialectical talent: the comprehensive mind is always the dialectical." "Summary: The text discusses the importance of having a well-rounded education and the characteristics of a true philosopher. -Trope: The ideal philosopher +Trope: Organized crime Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation +Literary form: Philosophical discourse Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Two characters engaging in a conversation" "And if he doesn't know everything about everything, that shows he hasn't got a decent education."""" So what do you want? A man who knows something about everything and everything about something?"""" Well, it's the best I can do for you. And remember this: no matter how much he knows, he must always be polite to you and try to find out what you want from him."""" Oh, hell!... You're going to have me looking for a philosopher who is an encyclopedia, a servant and a gentleman as well. It won't be easy to find such a combination."""" But why are you so determined to see him tonight?"" Because, my dear young lady, there is only one person in the world who has been able to satisfy all my requirements, and he happens to be here tonight."""" What makes you think that he will satisfy all my requirements?"" You've got a long way to go yet before you can pass for a detective."""" He may not like me,"" she persisted. If he doesn't like you, you can always kill him,"""" said the doctor with a harsh laugh. The girl was silent for a moment, as though taken aback by his sudden bitterness. Then she looked up at him and asked: Tell me, Doctor, how long have you known Mr. Blank?"" Since 1919."" Have you never seen him since then?"""" No."" Why not?"" Because he didn't want to see me."" Then why did you come to Russia?"" Because he wanted me to. There are some things you don't ask questions about."""" The girl nodded her head thoughtfully. Why didn't you tell me all this before?"" I only just found out myself. I'll tell you the whole story when I have time. Meanwhile, you'd better come along with me and meet your philosopher."""" They walked on in silence for a while. Then the girl remarked: """"You know, Doctor, I think you must be as great a fool as I am."""" What do you mean by that?"" I mean that you should never have come to Russia if you knew you were going to hate everything Russian so much."""" I haven't said I hated everything Russian."""" You have implied it several times already."" That's because I'm very tired."" Yes, I noticed that yourself earlier on. But now you seem to have recovered a little. Sit down here, please; we'll wait for our friend here."""" They sat down on a stone bench and began to smoke. After a short pause the doctor continued: Do you believe in God?"" Why do you ask me that?"" Just answer yes or no."" No."" Can you prove it?"" Of course not."" Then why do you say no?"" Because I've never felt Him in my life. When I see people praying and getting excited over religious processions, it makes me feel sick. When I hear them saying that they love their neighbour and yet go around cheating and robbing him, I lose faith in God altogether. " +Active character: Socrates, interlocutor +Quoted work: Solon's delusion about learning in old age +Language: English" "But how will you learn to be a good criminal if you don't know how to play bridge? A man who doesn't know how to play bridge can't be trusted with a hot car, or even a bicycle."""" I didn't say we had no education,"" Socrates objected. ""I said our education was limited. We are an organized crime, and our organization demands that we have a certain amount of general knowledge, particularly in the matter of literature. No gentleman criminal would dream of cutting somebody's throat unless he could quote him two or three lines of poetry as he did it. And no gentleman criminal would be such a fool as to take a job without first finding out what sort of hours the other members of his gang were working. You'll notice that we've been careful to have everything fixed up so that there will be no trouble about alibis."""" Well, then, why do you want me to leave?"" I want you to go because you aren't tough enough for this business. A philosopher is all very well when he's young, but at my time of life a philosopher makes more trouble than he's worth. When I was your age I couldn't get along without one, but now I'd sooner have a dog. Dogs are quieter, and they never talk nonsense."""" He looked at me with those hard, bright eyes of his, and I shivered. He seemed to see through to the center of me, and I'm sure he knew that I was afraid of him. What's the matter?"" he asked. ""You're trembling all over."""" I'm cold."" That's just what I thought!"" But it wasn't just what he thought; he made sure of it. """"Come here!"""" he cried, and suddenly seized me by the scruff of the neck and shook me until I was quite limp. There!"" he said. ""That's better! Now let's start again!"""" I took my place on the sofa, but I sat there like a child who has been scolded. The master isn't pleased with you,"" he said. ""He doesn't like people to tremble when he looks at them."""" I'm sorry,"" I said. ""It won't happen again."" Well, what have you decided to do?"" he asked. I hadn't decided anything. I wanted to stay, but I was afraid of him. If I stayed he might kill me, but if I went he might follow me and kill me anyway. It seemed wiser to stay where I was. I told him so. Well, if you've got any sense you won't,"" he said. ""You go away somewhere and work at your philosophy. Philosophy is a good thing, and it keeps a fellow out of mischief. But it's not a game for old men; it's too gentle a thing for them. They need something with a little muscle in it."""" I suppose you think you're safe here,"" he went on. ""Well, you're not! " 114 114 "I agree with you, he said. These, I said, are the points which you must consider; and those whohave most of this comprehension, and who are more steadfast in theirlearning, and in their military and other appointed duties, when theyhave arrived at the age of thirty have to be chosen by you out ofthe select class, and elevated to higher honour; and you will haveto prove them by the help of dialectic, in order to learn which ofthem is able to give up the use of sight and the other senses, andin company with truth to attain absolute being: And here, my friend,great caution is required. Why great caution? Do you not remark, I said, how great is the evil which dialectic hasintroduced? What evil? he said. The students of the art are filled with lawlessness. Quite true, he said. Do you think that there is anything so very unnatural or inexcusablein their case? or will you make allowance for them? @@ -2855,15 +2934,17 @@ True. Now, when a man is in this state, and the questioning spirit askswhat is f Impossible. And when he ceases to think them honourable and natural as heretofore,and he fails to discover the true, can he be expected to pursue anylife other than that which flatters his desires? He cannot. And from being a keeper of the law he is converted into a breakerof it? Unquestionably. Now all this is very natural in students of philosophy such as I havedescribed, and also, as I was just now saying, most excusable. -Yes, he said; and, I may add, pitiable. Therefore, that your feelings may not be moved to pity about our citizenswho are now thirty years of age, every care must be taken in introducingthem to dialectic." "Summary: The speaker discusses the importance of education and the potential consequences of studying philosophy. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Yes, he said; and, I may add, pitiable. Therefore, that your feelings may not be moved to pity about our citizenswho are now thirty years of age, every care must be taken in introducingthem to dialectic." "Summary: The speaker discusses the importance of comprehension and learning in choosing individuals for higher honor. +Narrative arc: Exposition +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker and his interlocutor" "Dites donc, monsieur l'inspecteur, vous qui savez tout de moi, que diable est-ce que je viens faire ici? Vous voulez bien me poser des questions... A votre age, c'est bientot fini d'apprendre... Et puis, qu'est-ce que ca peut vous foutre ce que je suis venu faire dans ce bar? Rien, mais j'aime a savoir. Si on vient souvent au bar, cela veut dire qu'on y est bien; et si on y est bien, on y rentre pour quelque chose. Ah! ben, je suis bien ici, c'est certain; je rentre pour beaucoup de choses... Mais la-bas, je ne rentre pour rien du tout! Pourquoi ne rentrez-vous pas? demandai-je brusquement. Il haletait, les yeux eclates. Parce que... parce que, voyez-vous, je suis un peu paresseux. Ah! ah!... C'est tout? Non, non, c'est encore autre chose... Je suis... je suis trop gros... Ce n'est pas facile de monter ces escaliers-la! Vraiment? dit Tardiveau en s'interessant soudain a son cigare. Oui... Les escaliers sont difficiles a monter. Est-ce que vous connaissez les marches? Ca, je crois bien! Alors, vous auriez de la peine a monter? Oh! oui, des difficultes... Des difficultes formidables! Puisque c'est ainsi, reprit-il avec une singuliere fermete, je vais vous donner quelques renseignements qui pourront peut-etre vous servir. Je sais par quelles portes vous passez et je sais surtout quelles sont vos occupations pendant les nuits ou vous etes chez Madame Blanche. Mauvais garcon! pensai-je. Il faut le retenir la-dessus, car il risquerait de se vanter de ses connaissances et d'en provoquer des ennuis. Je lui dis simplement: De quoi s'agit-il? Eh bien, reprit-il tranquillement, vous venez par la rue de l'Ecole-de-Medicine, vous entrez par la porte cochere de l'Institut, vous montez l'escalier a gauche jusqu'au second, puis vous traversez deux salles, celle du rez-de-chaussee ou l'on appelle ""l'academie"" et celle du premier ou l'on dit ""la chambre bleue"", enfin vous vous dirigez vers la droite et vous arrivez a un corridor assez long, ou vous rencontrez toujours les memes gens qui parlent toujours les memes choses, et, au bout de ce corridor, vous entrez dans une petite salle a moitie vide ou il y a un petit homme assis devant un piano qui joue de la musique moderne et dont personne ne saurait distinguer les accords, bien qu'il soit entoure de jeunes gens qui pretendent en connaitre tous les secrets et qui se font passer pour des artistes. En somme, je monte chez un pianiste, c'est ca? fit-il en riant. Oui, voila ce que c'est. Et puis? Et puis, quand vous arrivez a cette salle, poursuivit l'inspecteur, vous allez chercher le pianiste et vous l'emmenez avec vous dans un coin obscur ou vous chantez ensemble en boitant comme des faineants. Oh! ca, continua-t-il avec un air de bonhomme, je sais bien ca; mais, enfin, comment diable avez-vous pu apprendre toutes ces choses-la? " +Active character: The speaker and his interlocutor +Language: English" I don’t want you to be able to read my mind. I want you to know how to understand what is going on around you. If you can do that, you will be an honourable man one day. If you can’t, you won’t. As I said before, there is no point in me teaching you to do sums and nothing but sums all your life.’ ‘And besides, sir,’ said Watty, ‘it’s only the really bright people who can get a real understanding of it, isn’t it?’ ‘That’s right,’ I said, ‘and as long as you’re a fool you’ll never have any chance of learning it.’ He got quite angry about this; for he thought I was making fun of him, and he shouted out: ‘But if I’m a fool, why did you send me up here? You said yourself that you wanted me because I was stupid.’ ‘You are not a fool,’ I said; ‘you are a fat-headed half-wit.’ This seemed to satisfy him, and he went away contented. But the following day he brought me a great number of questions from his class which were very difficult indeed. They had been set by the Headmaster to find out whether or not the boys could learn anything at all, and, when they couldn’t do them, to discover what the reason might be. The questions were about history, mathematics, algebra, geometry, Latin grammar, the tenses of irregular verbs, and various other things. 115 115 "Certainly. There is a danger lest they should taste the dear delight too early;for youngsters, as you may have observed, when they first get thetaste in their mouths, argue for amusement, and are always contradictingand refuting others in imitation of those who refute them; like puppy-dogs,they rejoice in pulling and tearing at all who come near them. Yes, he said, there is nothing which they like better. And when they have made many conquests and received defeats at thehands of many, they violently and speedily get into a way of not believinganything which they believed before, and hence, not only they, butphilosophy and all that relates to it is apt to have a bad name withthe rest of the world. Too true, he said. But when a man begins to get older, he will no longer be guilty ofsuch insanity; he will imitate the dialectician who is seeking fortruth, and not the eristic, who is contradicting for the sake of amusement;and the greater moderation of his character will increase insteadof diminishing the honour of the pursuit. @@ -2874,19 +2955,19 @@ And how long is this stage of their lives to last? Fifteen years, I answered; an You are a sculptor, Socrates, and have made statues of our governorsfaultless in beauty. Yes, I said, Glaucon, and of our governesses too; for you must notsuppose that what I have been saying applies to men only and not towomen as far as their natures can go. There you are right, he said, since we have made them to share inall things like the men. -Well, I said, and you would agree (would you not?) that what has beensaid about the State and the government is not a mere dream, and althoughdifficult not impossible, but only possible in the way which has beensupposed; that is to say, when the true philosopher kings are bornin a State, one or more of them, despising the honours of this presentworld which they deem mean and worthless, esteeming above all thingsright and the honour that springs from right, and regarding justiceas the greatest and most necessary of all things, whose ministersthey are, and whose principles will be exalted by them when they setin order their own city?" "Summary: The text discusses the importance of philosophy and its role in shaping the character and actions of individuals and societies. -Narrative arc: Philosophical discourse -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Well, I said, and you would agree (would you not?) that what has beensaid about the State and the government is not a mere dream, and althoughdifficult not impossible, but only possible in the way which has beensupposed; that is to say, when the true philosopher kings are bornin a State, one or more of them, despising the honours of this presentworld which they deem mean and worthless, esteeming above all thingsright and the honour that springs from right, and regarding justiceas the greatest and most necessary of all things, whose ministersthey are, and whose principles will be exalted by them when they setin order their own city?" "Summary: The text discusses the importance of philosophy and its impact on the individual and society. +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, Glaucon -Time setting: 1950s +Quoted character: Pythian oracle Fuzzy place: The den -Diegetic time: A few minutes" And when your philosophy had helped you to become a good man, it had done its work and could go. It is not concerned with the actions of men who are already good. It is concerned with the character of the man who has still to become good. That is why it is so useless to Socrates in the den. He has no further need of it. And that is why he says of his own philosophy that ‘it is difficult but not painful.’” “I don’t understand,” said Glaucon, slowly. “It seems plain enough to me,” said Celia. “Philosophy is only valuable to men like Socrates and Plato and Aristotle because they can use it to make themselves better men. But what good is it to anyone else? I’ll tell you. If you want to know how little good it is, just try thinking about it for five minutes. You’ll see.” She turned back to her book again. “But you’re talking as if there were two kinds of people in the world,” said Glaucon. “Those who need philosophy and those who don’t. That’s absurd. Everyone needs philosophy. We all need it. And it’s no use saying that Socrates didn’t need it any more because he was already good. What about us? Are we supposed to be bad?” “Good God, no,” said Celia. “You’re the most disgusting people I’ve ever met in my life. Just look at yourselves. Look at this filthy hole you live in, and the way you dress, and your manners, and your conversation, and your ideas. You haven’t got a single decent habit between the two of you.” “Do you think so?” said Glaucon. “Yes,” said Celia. “I do.” “We have one habit,” said Glaucon. “What’s that?” “We don’t steal.” “That’s true,” said Celia. “You don’t steal money or anything worth stealing. But you steal time and energy and attention and affection and even food and drink from everyone around you. I never saw such a pair of vampires before in my life. And I’m going to tell you something else. You’re both dishonest.” “Are you sure?” said Glaucon. “Of course I’m sure,” said Celia. “You say you don’t gamble. That’s perfectly true. You don’t gamble with money. But you gamble with everything else. You gamble with your lives, and with other people’s lives, and with other people’s property, and with other people’s feelings. You gamble with your own happiness, and with your own security, and with your own dignity. You gamble with your own self-respect, and with your own sense of decency, and with your own intelligence. You even gamble with your own souls. And do you know what you gamble with to replace all these things? Nothing! +Language: English" "Why, man, he was the first who dared to raise his eyes from the mire of common life and look up to the pure, unshrouded heavens. He was the first who dared to rise above the trivialities of every-day existence, and in the face of the gods themselves to ask himself why he lived, what he was made for, what were the highest aims of human existence."""" You are wrong, Socrates,"" said Glaucon; ""I think you will find that Pythagoras preceded him."" I am afraid not,"" answered Socrates; ""Pythagoras was merely a great mathematician, an ardent student of the movements of the heavenly bodies. He made no attempt to solve the riddle of human destiny or the problem of the world's creation."""" But Thales?"" cried Glaucon eagerly, ""he was older than Pythagoras, and certainly he was a philosopher."" Yes,"" replied Socrates, ""but he was only a philosopher in the sense in which we may say that our modern explorer, the intrepid pioneer, is a philosopher. He went into the desert and studied the stars, but he did not seek to find out why he studied them, or to what end they shone on him."""" But there were others!"" exclaimed Glaucon. ""Heraclitus, Democritus, Parmenides, Empedocles!"""" There were many,"" assented Socrates, ""and each one contributed something towards building up the mighty fabric of philosophy. Heraclitus taught us that 'change is the law of life,' and that all things 'flow.' Democritus told us that nothing really exists save atoms and the void, and that the universe is but a dream and a delusion. Parmenides taught that matter was eternal, and that motion was impossible. Empedocles added still another theory to those already current by maintaining that four elements, fire, air, earth, water, combined with two cosmic forces, Love and Hate, to produce the world. But it remained for me to synthesize these conflicting theories and to show that they were all true; that change was necessary, yet that absolute reality lay behind appearance, that motion was possible, yet that matter was eternal; that the soul existed before the body and would live again when the body died; that the individual was but the shadow of God and that God was immanent in the universe."""" This is indeed a noble task,"" said Glaucon slowly, ""yet I fear it has not brought much happiness to mankind."""" Oh yes,"" returned Socrates, ""it has brought them much happiness. It has given them to know their own worth, and so to scorn death as to be able to die when the occasion arose. It has shown them how vain and empty are the pleasures of sense, how fleeting the joys of love and power and wealth. And best of all it has enabled them to find peace and contentment within themselves, for it has taught them to realize that the highest good lies within. " 116 116 "How will they proceed? They will begin by sending out into the country all the inhabitantsof the city who are more than ten years old, and will take possessionof their children, who will be unaffected by the habits of their parents;these they will train in their own habits and laws, I mean in thelaws which we have given them: and in this way the State and constitutionof which we were speaking will soonest and most easily attain happiness,and the nation which has such a constitution will gain most. Yes, that will be the best way. And I think, Socrates, that you havevery well described how, if ever, such a constitution might come intobeing. Enough then of the perfect State, and of the man who bears its image--there is no difficulty in seeing how we shall describe him. @@ -2902,15 +2983,19 @@ There is no difficulty in returning; you implied, then as now, thatyou had finis Your recollection, I said, is most exact. Then, like a wrestler, he replied, you must put yourself again inthe same position; and let me ask the same questions, and do you giveme the same answer which you were about to give me then. Yes, if I can, I will, I said. I shall particularly wish to hear what were the four constitutionsof which you were speaking. That question, I said, is easily answered: the four governments ofwhich I spoke, so far as they have distinct names, are, first, thoseof Crete and Sparta, which are generally applauded; what is termedoligarchy comes next; this is not equally approved, and is a formof government which teems with evils: thirdly, democracy, which naturallyfollows oligarchy, although very different: and lastly comes tyranny,great and famous, which differs from them all, and is the fourth andworst disorder of a State. I do not know, do you? of any other constitutionwhich can be said to have a distinct character. There are lordshipsand principalities which are bought and sold, and some other intermediateforms of government. But these are nondescripts and may be found equallyamong Hellenes and among barbarians. -Yes, he replied, we certainly hear of many curious forms of governmentwhich exist among them." "Summary: The text discusses the ideal form of government and the training of citizens in a perfect State. -Narrative arc: Exposition -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Yes, he replied, we certainly hear of many curious forms of governmentwhich exist among them." "Summary: The text discusses the structure and governance of a perfect State, with a focus on common ownership and shared responsibilities. +Narrative arc: Discussion and explanation of the structure of a perfect State +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Dialogue -Active character: Socrates, Glaucon" 'Yes, my friend,' I said, 'but he will be too good for the State; we cannot have him.' 'What!' said Polemarchus, 'would that be no better than to have a noble horse which is too good for his work?' 'You imply in this illustration,' I replied, 'that the State ought to have the same sort of man that we ought to have. Are you not quite sure of that?' 'I am sure of it.' 'And when education has been given to the guardians and philosophers, when their natures have been nurtured in a manner suitable to their origin, would you send them down again into the hollow of the earth, there to dwell in the dark, unless you could help it? Certainly not, Polemarchus.' 'No; indeed, indeed,' he said. 'And if you are right, there can be no reason why any of your citizens should live farther underground than the place which he himself has assigned to himself.' 'A very good point, Glaucon,' I observed; 'the denial of which might have introduced a singular contradiction into our arguments. For if the truly best life had not been the life of a citizen, many things which have been surely demonstrated would want their results. Still I should like to know whether you proceed upon the same principle which I was assuming; there is nothing unknown to you, I should imagine, which could be an element of such a life?'' 'Nothing whatever,' he replied. 'And if that is what you mean I agree with you in thinking that such a one must certainly be a guardian who possesses the knowledge and ability which you require.' 'Then nothing else needs to be determined,' I said; 'for these are merely the men, when found, whom we shall appoint our guardians; and they will be the men, too, and not others, on whose education the whole argument has been urged. With them, then, and with their children, let us now proceed to the foundation of the State.' 'By all means.' 'The first generation, however, will not need much education: they will be trained in the ordinary manners which the people of Peloponnesus share with other Greeks, and then they will go forth as guards and soldiers until they become aged.' 'Certainly.' 'When they have remained some time in the field, and their bodies and souls have been tempered like young wild animals, then, and not till then, they will be trained to be gentle and to follow the noble pursuit of philosophy; in that way growing continually more gentle and attaining that state which you describe.' 'That is good,' I said. 'Now what shall we say to this further question? What will become of them when they get old and their eyes grow dim and their teeth fall out? Will they not have to go away and keep house, since they will not be able to see sufficiently for the warfare of the field or for any other work of a brave soldier? Or do you wish them to be always on the move like the Athenians and their colony of Selymbria, wandering about and seeking after other dwellings in long expeditions? +Literary form: Conversation +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon +Quoted work: None mentioned +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "He was thinking of the public sector. Public ownership is a very good thing, you see, because then we can take what we like from it. We've got to have some sort of system like that if this State is going to be perfect. No private property at all, everything held in common. And as for labour, that's going to be compulsory for everyone. There will be no such thing as idleness; and what's more, there will be no private families. The children are going to belong to the State, which will rear them as best it can."""" You're really being rather too harsh,"" Glaucon said. ""Can't you imagine how they'd hate it?"""" They'll get used to it,"" Socrates snapped. ""And now listen to this: in our ideal State, there won't be any cash money. No coins or notes or anything like that. Just necessities distributed according to need, and luxuries as rewards for deserving citizens."""" That doesn't sound like much fun,"" Glaucon said. I agree with you. But don't forget that this is an austere and grim place. Not the kind of place where people go on holidays. In fact it will be quite impossible to leave the country, even by accident."""" You've thought of everything,"" Glaucon said. ""But what about law and order? Who'll be in charge of that?"""" I'm coming to that,"" Socrates replied. ""You know, one of the most extraordinary things I've noticed is that in practically every country in the world, there are always more criminals than there are policemen. So let's have a ratio of three prisoners to every policeman. Don't worry about food, water, exercise or accommodation; we'll use the condemned cells in the local prisons. What we'll do is this: we'll hand over the whole administration of the State to the police force. They'll look after everything for us, and they'll be the ones who decide who's worthy of citizenship and who isn't. After all, they're the only people we can trust."""" They might get above themselves."" Exactly! And then we could put down any rebellion pretty quickly, couldn't we?"" I suppose so,"" Glaucon said. ""But what about a head of state? Doesn't your State need somebody in charge?"""" This was a tricky one. Socrates had been sitting on his hands for some time, but he knew that sooner or later he would have to come up with something. """"Yes,"" he said, """"that's a good point. Let me think...."""" He paused again, while Glaucon waited patiently. It's difficult,"" Socrates went on, speaking slowly. ""I was wondering whether we shouldn't just appoint the Chief of Police as Head of State, since he's the obvious choice for the job."""" Maybe we should,"" Glaucon said, not altogether enthusiastically. """"But why not just call him President?"""" Oh, right,"" Socrates agreed. ""That sounds better. Call him the President."""" And the official title of the State?"" " 117 117 "Do you know, I said, that governments vary as the dispositions ofmen vary, and that there must be as many of the one as there are ofthe other? For we cannot suppose that States are made of 'oak androck,' and not out of the human natures which are in them, and whichin a figure turn the scale and draw other things after them? Yes, he said, the States are as the men are; they grow out of humancharacters. Then if the constitutions of States are five, the dispositions ofindividual minds will also be five? @@ -2919,16 +3004,16 @@ We have. Then let us now proceed to describe the inferior sort of natures,being Certainly, he replied, we must do as you say. Shall we follow our old plan, which we adopted with a view to clearness,of taking the State first and then proceeding to the individual, andbegin with the government of honour? --I know of no name for sucha government other than timocracy, or perhaps timarchy. We will comparewith this the like character in the individual; and, after that, consideroligarchical man; and then again we will turn our attention to democracyand the democratical man; and lastly, we will go and view the cityof tyranny, and once more take a look into the tyrant's soul, andtry to arrive at a satisfactory decision. That way of viewing and judging of the matter will be very suitable. First, then, I said, let us enquire how timocracy (the governmentof honour) arises out of aristocracy (the government of the best).Clearly, all political changes originate in divisions of the actualgoverning power; a government which is united, however small, cannotbe moved. -Very true, he said. In what way, then, will our city be moved, and in what manner thetwo classes of auxiliaries and rulers disagree among themselves orwith one another? Shall we, after the manner of Homer, pray the Musesto tell us 'how discord first arose'? Shall we imagine them in solemnmockery, to play and jest with us as if we were children, and to addressus in a lofty tragic vein, making believe to be in earnest?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the different types of governments and dispositions of individuals. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Very true, he said. In what way, then, will our city be moved, and in what manner thetwo classes of auxiliaries and rulers disagree among themselves orwith one another? Shall we, after the manner of Homer, pray the Musesto tell us 'how discord first arose'? Shall we imagine them in solemnmockery, to play and jest with us as if we were children, and to addressus in a lofty tragic vein, making believe to be in earnest?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the different types of governments and their corresponding dispositions of individuals. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker, interlocutor -Time setting: 1950s" "You have to be pretty smart to make a living at that sort of thing. It takes brains and education."""" Well, I'm not so dumb,"" I said, ""and I've never had any education."" He looked at me for a long time. """"Look here,"""" he said finally, """"I know all about you and your kind. You people are the ones who give us a bad name. You're the ones who get drunk and start shooting in the streets. You're the ones who fight with your wives and then go out and screw some other woman because you can't control your animal appetites. You don't deserve any respect."""" Well, maybe I don't,"" I said, ""but how do you explain all those nice guys like Blondie and Pete?"""" I didn't give him a chance to answer. I was getting excited now. """"And what about all those kids we see around town every night? Don't they have their mothers and fathers?"""" And his wife?"" What's that got to do with it?"" Because the kid might be his own son, right?"" Why should I want my own son?"" he demanded, and I knew by the way he said it that he did want his son. But what about all those women?"" All those whores?"" Yeah. And what about the women who work in offices? The ones who live on the street where we lived?"""" They have husbands."" Sure, but what about the ones who haven't? What about the ones who are waiting for somebody who'll take them away from there?"""" He laughed harshly. """"The same as you wait for a job, maybe?"""" There was no sense arguing with him. I could see he wasn't going to give me anything for free; it would have to come out of my hide. Maybe it was just as well. At least it would give me something definite to think about instead of speculating all the time. Still, I had the feeling that if I could find out why the old man had been so interested in that kid, maybe it would help me understand why the girl was so interested in me. There was always a reason for everything. I felt better after I'd thought that. He hadn't told me yet how much I owed him for the information, but I figured it would be more than I wanted to pay. If it weren't for this deal with Blondie, I wouldn't have paid him anything. I walked up the street thinking about the deal. I still didn't know whether I wanted to go through with it or not, but I had to admit that it was the biggest deal I had ever run into. Right then I couldn't imagine anybody turning it down, but I knew that when you were talking about millions of dollars things looked different. You never knew what would happen when you started dealing with that kind of money. " +Literary form: Conversation +Active character: The speaker, the other person in the conversation +Fuzzy place: Unnamed places such as States and cities +Language: English" "The States are the Governments. The cities are their individuals. There is a kind of Government for each individual, and the individuals form the Governments. In some States the Governments are kings or queens. In other States they are juries. In others they are mobs. In some countries they are elected. In other countries they are hereditary. But whatever they are they are Governments just as surely as your own in you."""" I don't believe it,"" he said in a low voice. It's true. Look at yourself. Your Government is your own soul; your will. You have made it what it is, and you can remake it to what you choose if you like. What you have done with it depends on what your temperament was when you were born. Temperament is the basis of all Government. And there are only three kinds of temperament, so there are only three kinds of Government. They are the despot, the man who likes to be governed, and the man who likes to govern."""" He laughed and leaned forward. Do you know that the majority of people prefer to be governed by somebody else?"""" Yes,"" I said. ""I've noticed it."" Well, then, the majority of people are despondent in their natures. Their minds are always dark. They live in a perpetual night. Nothing cheers them up. They never see anything bright. They are heavy men, these people. When you meet them you feel as though you are being dragged down into a swamp. " 118 118 "How would they address us? After this manner: --A city which is thus constituted can hardly beshaken; but, seeing that everything which has a beginning has alsoan end, even a constitution such as yours will not last for ever,but will in time be dissolved. And this is the dissolution: --In plantsthat grow in the earth, as well as in animals that move on the earth'ssurface, fertility and sterility of soul and body occur when the circumferencesof the circles of each are completed, which in short-lived existencespass over a short space, and in long-lived ones over a long space.But to the knowledge of human fecundity and sterility all the wisdomand education of your rulers will not attain; the laws which regulatethem will not be discovered by an intelligence which is alloyed withsense, but will escape them, and they will bring children into theworld when they ought not. Now that which is of divine birth has aperiod which is contained in a perfect number, but the period of humanbirth is comprehended in a number in which first increments by involutionand evolution (or squared and cubed) obtaining three intervals andfour terms of like and unlike, waxing and waning numbers, make allthe terms commensurable and agreeable to one another. The base ofthese (3) with a third added (4) when combined with five (20) andraised to the third power furnishes two harmonies; the first a squarewhich is a hundred times as great (400 = 4 X 100), and the other afigure having one side equal to the former, but oblong, consistingof a hundred numbers squared upon rational diameters of a square (i.e. omitting fractions), the side of which is five (7 X 7 = 49 X 100= 4900), each of them being less by one (than the perfect square whichincludes the fractions, sc. 50) or less by two perfect squares ofirrational diameters (of a square the side of which is five = 50 +50 = 100); and a hundred cubes of three (27 X 100 = 2700 + 4900 +400 = 8000). Now this number represents a geometrical figure whichhas control over the good and evil of births. For when your guardiansare ignorant of the law of births, and unite bride and bridegroomout of season, the children will not be goodly or fortunate. And thoughonly the best of them will be appointed by their predecessors, stillthey will be unworthy to hold their fathers' places, and when theycome into power as guardians, they will soon be found to fall in takingcare of us, the Muses, first by under-valuing music; which neglectwill soon extend to gymnastic; and hence the young men of your Statewill be less cultivated. In the succeeding generation rulers willbe appointed who have lost the guardian power of testing the metalof your different races, which, like Hesiod's, are of gold and silverand brass and iron. And so iron will be mingled with silver, and brasswith gold, and hence there will arise dissimilarity and inequalityand irregularity, which always and in all places are causes of hatredand war. This the Muses affirm to be the stock from which discordhas sprung, wherever arising; and this is their answer to us. Yes, and we may assume that they answer truly. Why, yes, I said, of course they answer truly; how can the Muses speakfalsely? And what do the Muses say next? When discord arose, then the two races were drawn different ways:the iron and brass fell to acquiring money and land and houses andgold and silver; but the gold and silver races, not wanting moneybut having the true riches in their own nature, inclined towards virtueand the ancient order of things. There was a battle between them,and at last they agreed to distribute their land and houses amongindividual owners; and they enslaved their friends and maintainers,whom they had formerly protected in the condition of freemen, andmade of them subjects and servants; and they themselves were engagedin war and in keeping a watch against them. @@ -2938,20 +3023,20 @@ Very true. Such will be the change, and after the change has been made, how will True, he said. In the honour given to rulers, in the abstinence of the warrior classfrom agriculture, handicrafts, and trade in general, in the institutionof common meals, and in the attention paid to gymnastics and militarytraining --in all these respects this State will resemble the former. True. But in the fear of admitting philosophers to power, because they areno longer to be had simple and earnest, but are made up of mixed elements;and in turning from them to passionate and less complex characters,who are by nature fitted for war rather than peace; and in the valueset by them upon military stratagems and contrivances, and in thewaging of everlasting wars --this State will be for the most partpeculiar. Yes. Yes, I said; and men of this stamp will be covetous of money, likethose who live in oligarchies; they will have, a fierce secret longingafter gold and silver, which they will hoard in dark places, havingmagazines and treasuries of their own for the deposit and concealmentof them; also castles which are just nests for their eggs, and inwhich they will spend large sums on their wives, or on any otherswhom they please. -That is most true, he said. And they are miserly because they have no means of openly acquiringthe money which they prize; they will spend that which is anotherman's on the gratification of their desires, stealing their pleasuresand running away like children from the law, their father: they havebeen schooled not by gentle influences but by force, for they haveneglected her who is the true Muse, the companion of reason and philosophy,and have honoured gymnastic more than music." "Summary: The text discusses the dissolution and decline of a city, focusing on the effects of ignorance and lack of wisdom in governing. +That is most true, he said. And they are miserly because they have no means of openly acquiringthe money which they prize; they will spend that which is anotherman's on the gratification of their desires, stealing their pleasuresand running away like children from the law, their father: they havebeen schooled not by gentle influences but by force, for they haveneglected her who is the true Muse, the companion of reason and philosophy,and have honoured gymnastic more than music." "Summary: The text discusses the dissolution and decline of a city, focusing on the effects of fertility and sterility on human births. Narrative arc: Exposition -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation +Literary form: Philosophical argument Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The Muses, Hesiod -Quoted work: ""Theogony"" by Hesiod +Active character: The speakers in the dialog Time setting: 1950s -Fuzzy place: The city -Diegetic time: A few minutes" But this was a city that had not known the Muses, and in this city the Muses were dead. It was a city whose finest hour was long past and it had not known the wisdom to pass with grace into history. The Muses would have helped it to do so. But the Muses were dead and they had been dead for a long time. In their place there were no gods to guide the city or its people. There was only an empty sky, a harsh sun, and the biting wind from the sea. The Muses had always been against ignorance. They knew how strong ignorance could be and how terrible the price of knowledge was when it came too late. And now Hesiod sat in his darkened office and waited for the police to arrive. * * * * * When I first saw him I thought he was dead. He was sitting at his desk in the dark, a glass before him half filled with whiskey, and beside the glass a small bottle of medicine. His head rested on his arms and his shoulders shook with his sobs. Then I spoke to him and he lifted his face and I saw the tears on his cheeks and the tracks of the tears on his dirty white shirt. He tried to speak but he couldn't. He began to cry again and then he laughed. 'I've just been reading the papers,' he said. 'They're full of crime. Do you know what crime is?' 'Yes.' 'Then you must be a very unusual man. But then you always were an unusual man. You're the only one who ever cared about the Muses.' 'I don't see any Muses here,' I said. 'The Muses are gone,' he said. 'Gone because we killed them. We've destroyed everything that was decent and worthwhile in life. We've turned the world into a sewer and there's nowhere left to hide.' 'What's happened?' I asked. 'What's happened? Everything has happened. A hundred things have happened. A thousand things. I'll tell you what's happened. Ignorance has happened. Stupidity has happened. Greed and avarice and hate have happened. Meanness and cruelty and treachery and lies have happened. They've all happened and they're still happening right here in the city where I was born and brought up. They're happening every day and every night and every hour. And they're going to happen until the whole city is torn apart by violence and bloodshed. That's what's going to happen and there isn't anything I can do about it.' 'Why not?' I said. 'Why not?' he repeated. 'Because I'm old. Because I'm tired. Because I'm sick. Because I don't know enough. Because I'm ignorant and stupid. Because I'm not wise enough to stop it.' 'You might try,' I suggested. He looked at me and his eyes were like two black holes in his white face. 'And what good would it do?' he said. 'Do you think I haven't tried? + +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "The city was falling into dissolution. It had outlived its time and its usefulness. But it would be a long while before it died. The only things that ever die in this world are the people who live in them. The buildings stand for generations, crumbling slowly and getting more and more run-down until they become slums. Only the people die. And the crime rate increases steadily. There were too many children born every year to replace the parents who were dying off. The population of the city continued to increase. More and more new people were added. They came from other cities and states. Many came from foreign countries. A few had been born in the city itself. Fertility and sterility ruled over all births. If you were fertile, your child would be born alive. If you were sterile, your child would not live even an instant. I have seen it happen many times."""" He turned to me, his voice bitter. You think I am making excuses? I want to make it plain to you, Mr. Archer, how it is with my city. There is no such thing as a miscarriage here. Every woman who gives birth does so to a living child. And there is no such thing as death here either, Mr. Archer. We have no morgues or crematories. We do not bury our dead, because they come back to life. After a time. In the morning, when you wake up, you will see for yourself what happens to the babies who are born during the night."""" " 119 119 "Undoubtedly, he said, the form of government which you describe isa mixture of good and evil. Why, there is a mixture, I said; but one thing, and one thing only,is predominantly seen, --the spirit of contention and ambition; andthese are due to the prevalence of the passionate or spirited element. Assuredly, he said. Such is the origin and such the character of this State, which hasbeen described in outline only; the more perfect execution was notrequired, for a sketch is enough to show the type of the most perfectlyjust and most perfectly unjust; and to go through all the States andall the characters of men, omitting none of them, would be an interminablelabour. @@ -2968,17 +3053,16 @@ Exactly. His origin is as follows: --He is often the young son of a grave father And how does the son come into being? The character of the son begins to develop when he hears his mothercomplaining that her husband has no place in the government, of whichthe consequence is that she has no precedence among other women. Further,when she sees her husband not very eager about money, and insteadof battling and railing in the law courts or assembly, taking whateverhappens to him quietly; and when she observes that his thoughts alwayscentre in himself, while he treats her with very considerable indifference,she is annoyed, and says to her son that his father is only half aman and far too easy-going: adding all the other complaints abouther own ill-treatment which women are so fond of rehearsing. Yes, said Adeimantus, they give us plenty of them, and their complaintsare so like themselves." "Summary: The text discusses the character traits and origins of a specific form of government. Narrative arc: Exposition -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary form: Philosophical dialogue +Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, Adeimantus Quoted character: Glaucon -Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "But if you go on, I shall have to begin with the more ancient ones and then come back to you. There's a certain form of government which has been invented by one man alone but not by him as an individual; it was formed in his mind as a result of his upbringing and his own peculiar temperament; this form of government is aggressive, harsh and violent, and it has the following characteristics: it is quick-tempered, loves fighting and warfare, and always ready for war; it is jealous, overbearing, never able to stay put at home, and its eyes are fixed on other people's property; it thinks that the greatest disgrace is to be taken unawares and that the highest honour is to take the enemy by surprise; it is the most insolent of all governments and the most short-sighted, being concerned only with immediate advantage; it is full of pride, knows no moderation in expenditure, and is utterly incapable of learning by experience; it is the first to set about ruining cities, and is itself the ruin of everything. Who do you think this government is?"""" Socrates"" said Adeimantus. ""Yes,"" said Glaucon, ""and it's got a name, too. It's called democracy."" And so it is,"" replied Socrates. ""Tell me, did we not say just now that this form of government had two parts to it, both of them vicious?"" Yes, we did."" Well then, what are they?"" One part is made up of those who are by nature slaves and yet are free men, while the other part consists of those who are naturally free but have become slaves."""" What do you mean by that?"" asked Adeimantus. I'll tell you,"" said Socrates. ""The first lot are the sort of people who, like wild beasts, can't bear to be shut up or to live a quiet life, and who won't work unless they are forced to. They are the restless and unruly characters who are born into every city and don't know how to use their leisure properly; when they find themselves left without anyone to look after them they turn into brigands and start ravaging the countryside."""" Yes, indeed,"" said Glaucon. ""And the other part?"" The second class consists of the opposite type of character, who are naturally free men and enjoy freedom, but because they are idle and pleasure-loving they will never work unless they are compelled to do so. Now these latter types are always found in any city, and they are the kind of people who, if they are given authority, make revolutions against the existing constitution and establish a democracy; they are the people who, as Homer says, 'can never remain steady, neither in their thoughts nor in their words'."""" That's quite true,"" said Adeimantus. Well then,"" said Socrates, ""do you imagine that either of these classes is going to be content to live under the rule of the other? No, indeed, and this gives rise to conflict between them."""" Certainly,"" said Adeimantus. " +Language: English" I say, that the form of government in which there are the greatest numbers of tyrants is that which is most like the government of one; for although in every Commonwealth you will find some men, whether they be called popes or patriarchs, kings or emperors, who have more power than the other citizens, nevertheless those who are subject to them force them to behave themselves respectfully and moderately, and this they do by their number, not by obeying a single person. But when from being few tyrants they increase to multitudes, then they cease to be moderate and orderly, for each man does what he pleases, and considers himself a king upon whom none may impose any check; thus there is no longer any one but many, nor any moderation, but the more of them there are the more unbridled they become. And if they should increase to infinity they would lay everything waste; for they would treat both themselves and one another like beasts, and think nothing of one another’s lives, since even with respect to themselves they do not care for their own. For as in the case of a multitude of wild horses, when any one of them has broken loose, though it is always the same nature that makes them wild and intractable, yet they will not all break loose at once, but one at a time, because they cannot all get free at once, but the rest, holding back, prevent each other from escaping; so also it happens among men, that although all alike are equally bad, yet they are not all equally successful, but one is restrained by another, and therefore the majority of them are kept within bounds, and only the fewest escape, and these only occasionally; wherefore the multitude do not, as I have said already, lay everything waste, but some of them live in order, and others in disorder. And thus, my dear Glaucon, there arises out of small beginnings great differences between men; some becoming slower in their passions, and others quicker; those who are slower, and have more leisure, looking after the things of peace, and living in greater safety, while those who are more quick, and whose passions are stronger, are ever fighting and carrying on wars, and are less secure. For they are full of avarice and lust, and therefore take away the life of anyone whom they suspect, and who is weaker than themselves. Hence arise homicide and theft and plundering; for when one man takes the property of another, thinking that he will be the better for it, he is clearly committing an act of violence. And the result of all this is that they live a life of violence, and are always worse and worse until they are compelled to make peace with one another and to set up a government, which at first is elective, but which afterwards becomes hereditary in one of the families. 120 120 "And you know, I said, that the old servants also, who are supposedto be attached to the family, from time to time talk privately inthe same strain to the son; and if they see any one who owes moneyto his father, or is wronging him in any way, and he falls to prosecutethem, they tell the youth that when he grows up he must retaliateupon people of this sort, and be more of a man than his father. Hehas only to walk abroad and he hears and sees the same sort of thing:those who do their own business in the city are called simpletons,and held in no esteem, while the busy-bodies are honoured and applauded.The result is that the young man, hearing and seeing all these thing--hearing too, the words of his father, and having a nearer view ofhis way of life, and making comparisons of him and others --is drawnopposite ways: while his father is watering and nourishing the rationalprinciple in his soul, the others are encouraging the passionate andappetitive; and he being not originally of a bad nature, but havingkept bad company, is at last brought by their joint influence to amiddle point, and gives up the kingdom which is within him to themiddle principle of contentiousness and passion, and becomes arrogantand ambitious. You seem to me to have described his origin perfectly. Then we have now, I said, the second form of government and the secondtype of character? We have. Next, let us look at another man who, as Aeschylus says, @@ -3001,13 +3085,16 @@ I should imagine so. Except a city? --or would you include a city? Nay, he said, This, then, will be the first great defect of oligarchy? Clearly. And here is another defect which is quite as bad. What defect? The inevitable division: such a State is not one, but two States,the one of poor, the other of rich men; and they are living on thesame spot and always conspiring against one another." "Summary: The text discusses the transition from timocracy to oligarchy and the negative effects of wealth on a society. Narrative arc: Exposition -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue -Active character: The two characters having the conversation" But that sort of thing was only possible in a timocracy. In an oligarchy it’s quite out of the question, and the reason is that under a timocracy the people are rich, whereas under an oligarchy they are poor.” “I don’t understand,” I said. “Of course you don’t,” he answered. “It’s just one of those things that nobody understands except the experts. You see, under a timocracy the people are rich because they are poor. They’re poor in money, but they’re rich in character. They’re all sportsmen and patriots and chaps like that. Then the tyrant comes along and abolishes all that. He takes away their rights and their privileges and their opportunities for exercising their manhood; and what does he do with the extra wealth that he gets? Why, he gives it to the riff-raff, of course, so that they can put on grand hats and kid gloves and silk socks and things like that. When you’ve got a lot of people going about like that you can imagine how much it costs them in upkeep. Their clothes get torn and their hats get knocked off; they keep losing their gloves and they cut their hands and spoil their nails. And then think of all the dyes and the starch and the boot blacking and the brushes and the laundries and the shoemakers’ bills! Why, you simply have to give these people more money to spend just to keep them from killing themselves. That’s the way it is under a timocracy.” “Well, then,” I asked, “why isn’t it better to be a timocracy than an oligarchy?” “Better!” he repeated. “Better! Why, my God! Don’t you know that a timocracy is the worst kind of hell there is? It’s just like living in a country where the people are always having their teeth extracted. Can you imagine anything worse than that? Why, the whole population would go crazy in a month if they didn’t take chloroform every time they had a tooth out. And yet that’s just the way it is in a timocracy. Every minute you’re afraid somebody’s going to take your rights or your privileges or your opportunities away from you. Why, if you tried to live in a timocracy without chloroform you’d go stark raving mad in three weeks.” “And what happens after the timocracy?” I asked. “After the timocracy,” he replied, “what happens is this: The tyrant runs through his money and has to borrow more from the Jews. Then he starts selling the public property, and the Jews buy it up for him. When he has sold everything he can lay his hands on, and the Jews won’t lend him any more money, why then he begins to squeeze the people. He raises the taxes till everybody is half starved; and when the people rise up against him he shoots them down with cannon and machine guns. +Active character: Father, son +Quoted work: Aeschylus +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "He had been right about the transition from timocracy to oligarchy. A little more wealth, a little more power and these men would have their slaves for servants. The father was already half way to it; he could hardly wait to get rid of his son. The son couldn't wait to be rid of him. They were both in love with the same woman, but neither of them could do anything about it because she belonged to someone else. If they'd had their way they'd probably have murdered each other. Only the murder they committed together wasn't enough to satisfy them. Neither of them felt that he'd got his money's worth out of the evening. I don't know why you didn't stay at home,"" I said. ""You're only making things worse for yourself."" """"I can't stand being shut up in the house,"""" he answered. """"I've got to get out."""" He pulled another cigarette out of his pocket and lit it. It was obvious that he'd brought two packets. I felt my teeth begin to tingle and my stomach muscles contract as if I were going to throw up. I can imagine,"" I said. ""I suppose you feel like that when you're cooped up all day in a bank."""" He looked at me blankly. I smiled. You see,"" I went on, ""you're getting used to the smell of money. It's very nice, but it makes ordinary smells seem revolting. Like your own sweat, for instance."""" His face twitched. I know what he was thinking. He was wondering whether I'd found out something about him. I'm sure he thought he saw the solution of his problem. He could kill me now and it wouldn't make any difference to his plans. All he had to do was tell his father what he'd done and then put the blame on to me. That's what he was thinking about when I spoke again. So you think I'm not brave enough to take risks?"" I asked. ""Do you really think that's the reason why I haven't gone into the police force?"""" He stared at me, speechless. I leaned towards him and said: """"Well, let me tell you this. I took the biggest risk of my life last night when I came here."""" What do you mean?"" And then he knew. His eyes blazed. He began to understand that there was a man inside me who had taken over my body. He hated me and feared me. He wanted to destroy me. But he couldn't do it. Not yet. He couldn't even begin to fight me because he hadn't understood the nature of the forces that were driving me forward. He only knew that there was something wrong with me and he couldn't guess what it was. I gave him time to work it out for himself. He began by saying: """"You're an unnatural brute. You're a pervert."""" He would have called me a dirty soddy if he'd known the word. " 121 121 "That, surely, is at least as bad. Another discreditable feature is, that, for a like reason, they areincapable of carrying on any war. Either they arm the multitude, andthen they are more afraid of them than of the enemy; or, if they donot call them out in the hour of battle, they are oligarchs indeed,few to fight as they are few to rule. And at the same time their fondnessfor money makes them unwilling to pay taxes. How discreditable! And, as we said before, under such a constitution the same personshave too many callings --they are husbandmen, tradesmen, warriors,all in one. Does that look well? Anything but well. There is another evil which is, perhaps, the greatest of all, andto which this State first begins to be liable. @@ -3027,18 +3114,17 @@ True. Such, then, is the form and such are the evils of oligarchy; and theremay Very likely. Then oligarchy, or the form of government in which the rulers areelected for their wealth, may now be dismissed. Let us next proceedto consider the nature and origin of the individual who answers tothis State. By all means. Does not the timocratical man change into the oligarchical on thiswise? How? A time arrives when the representative of timocracy has a son: atfirst he begins by emulating his father and walking in his footsteps,but presently he sees him of a sudden foundering against the Stateas upon a sunken reef, and he and all that he has is lost; he mayhave been a general or some other high officer who is brought to trialunder a prejudice raised by informers, and either put to death, orexiled, or deprived of the privileges of a citizen, and all his propertytaken from him. -Nothing more likely. And the son has seen and known all this --he is a ruined man, andhis fear has taught him to knock ambition and passion head-foremostfrom his bosom's throne; humbled by poverty he takes to money-makingand by mean and miserly savings and hard work gets a fortune together.Is not such an one likely to seat the concupiscent and covetous elementon the vacant throne and to suffer it to play the great king withinhim, girt with tiara and chain and scimitar?" "Summary: The text discusses the flaws and evils of oligarchies, including their inability to wage war, their love of money, and the presence of poverty and crime. It also explores the transition from timocracy to oligarchy. +Nothing more likely. And the son has seen and known all this --he is a ruined man, andhis fear has taught him to knock ambition and passion head-foremostfrom his bosom's throne; humbled by poverty he takes to money-makingand by mean and miserly savings and hard work gets a fortune together.Is not such an one likely to seat the concupiscent and covetous elementon the vacant throne and to suffer it to play the great king withinhim, girt with tiara and chain and scimitar?" "Summary: The text discusses the flaws and weaknesses of oligarchies, including their inability to wage war, their lack of financial stability, and the presence of wealthy drones who do not contribute to society. It also explores the transition from timocracy to oligarchy and the impact of poverty on individuals. Narrative arc: Analytical -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation or dialogue -Active character: Socrates, Adeimantus -Quoted character: Paupers, thieves, cutpurses, robbers -Fuzzy place: Unnamed city -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "They are certainly not strong enough to go to war, and yet they will be always setting themselves up as judges of other cities, though they are hardly able to protect themselves. The pretence which they have for doing this is that they are lovers of wisdom ; but their own wisdom should teach them, not only that they are miserable in themselves, but also that they are the least wise of mankind who profess wisdom, but do not cast away self-conceit and vain conceit of knowledge, lest, like a man who is distracted, they should fancy themselves to be ignorant, and yet know all things. They are rich in money, but poor in true riches. They are called fortunate, but they have great misfortunes; they are children, and yet they possess the wisdom of old men ; they are honoured by foreigners, but they dishonour their own country ; they are despised by their own domestics, and hence they are full of envy and hatred ; they are the greatest enemies of their relations ; they are the most unrighteous of men, because they have no regard to law ; they are the most profligate of characters, and yet they love virtue ; they are the vilest of creatures, and yet they call themselves the best of all men."" Adeimantus said : "" You are quite right, Socrates, in saying that they are vile and bad, when you describe them as being rich in money ; but, if poverty comes upon them, then I agree with you that they will become poor in true riches."" Socrates replied : ""Why, surely, that is evident enough ; for poverty is the greatest evil, and the cause of all other evils ; and when it is present, there is nothing which can be wanting except the power of committing crimes."" ""But,"" added Adeimantus, ""there are many thieves and cutpurses in your city, who are everlastingly plotting against the property of others."" ""And who are they ?"" asked Socrates. ""They are the paupers, and the whole class of persons who live on charity."" Socrates laughed heartily at the reply, and said : ""You certainly speak very truly, my dear friend ; but they would never dare to rob an honest person of his goods, nor would they wish to do so, for they are not villains, but honest people ; and even if they were rogues, still they could not rob him, for he has no gold or silver in his possession, and has none of the trinkets which are worn by ladies."" ""That is very true,"" said Adeimantus ; ""but still they are robbers, for they rob the brave men of their souls. They take from them their confidence, their courage, their manhood, and whatever else may be considered a noble quality, and thus they make cowards and slaves of them. " +Literary form: Philosophical dialogue +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "They are not fit to wage war. They can't afford it. They have no sense of honour or loyalty. Their word is not their bond; they will cheat and rob each other, and the only way in which they protect themselves from wholesale assassination by their own citizens is by a gangster system of secret agents who spy upon everybody and carry out all sorts of dirty work with their hands, and keep their mouths shut about everything else."""" A momentary pause while he lit another cigarette. """"If you want to know what an oligarchy looks like look at the skyscrapers of New York. They represent the concentrated wealth of two thousand years, and yet they don't amount to anything because they haven't any roots. They've got no future either. They'll fall down some day like a pack of cards. No natural force that was worth anything could ever be completely killed. The capitalists may have suppressed the trade unionists but they couldn't suppress the spirit of trade unionism. It will rise again, and when it does it will sweep them into the gutter where they belong. There's nothing that the workers of the world hate more than rich parasites who live on the fat of the land and never do an honest stroke of work in their lives. They're just the same as drones in an ant-hill: they don't belong to the community; they're outside it; they live off the community; they fatten and multiply until there are too many of them; then the workers kill them and throw them out."""" I think you're talking nonsense,"" said Mr. Prentice. ""You can't possibly compare these people to drones."" You can,"" said Ransome, without turning his head. ""You can't compare them to human beings at all. They're something quite different. They're spongers, parasites, leeches, vampires, vermin that suck the blood of humanity and corrupt it. Look at this town. Look at its architecture, its shops, its museums, its palaces, its restaurants, its theatres, its cinemas. What are they? The public playground of the rich. When you go into a first-class hotel here you know why you pay five shillings for your breakfast? You're paying for the right to eat it among men and women who are wearing clothes costing as much as you earn in six months. You're paying for the privilege of being looked at by people whose faces are so familiar to you from the illustrated papers that you feel as if you were in the company of gods. Why, it would take one of those gods about ten minutes to buy up all the furniture in your house and sell it for a thousand pounds. And yet you pretend that these gods are your equals. How long do you think your pretence would last if they didn't put on the mask?"""" Ransome turned his head sharply, and suddenly saw the face of Mrs. Prentice. " 122 122 "Most true, he replied. And when he has made reason and spirit sit down on the ground obedientlyon either side of their sovereign, and taught them to know their place,he compels the one to think only of how lesser sums may be turnedinto larger ones, and will not allow the other to worship and admireanything but riches and rich men, or to be ambitious of anything somuch as the acquisition of wealth and the means of acquiring it. Of all changes, he said, there is none so speedy or so sure as theconversion of the ambitious youth into the avaricious one. And the avaricious, I said, is the oligarchical youth? Yes, he said; at any rate the individual out of whom he came is likethe State out of which oligarchy came. @@ -3059,15 +3145,17 @@ I should expect so. And surely, the miser individually will be an ignoble compet Very true. Can we any longer doubt, then, that the miser and money-maker answersto the oligarchical State? There can be no doubt. Next comes democracy; of this the origin and nature have still tobe considered by us; and then we will enquire into the ways of thedemocratic man, and bring him up for judgement. That, he said, is our method. Well, I said, and how does the change from oligarchy into democracyarise? Is it not on this wise? --The good at which such a State almsis to become as rich as possible, a desire which is insatiable? -What then? The rulers, being aware that their power rests upon their wealth,refuse to curtail by law the extravagance of the spendthrift youthbecause they gain by their ruin; they take interest from them andbuy up their estates and thus increase their own wealth and importance?" "Summary: The text discusses the nature of avaricious individuals and their resemblance to oligarchical states. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +What then? The rulers, being aware that their power rests upon their wealth,refuse to curtail by law the extravagance of the spendthrift youthbecause they gain by their ruin; they take interest from them andbuy up their estates and thus increase their own wealth and importance?" "Summary: The text discusses the nature of avarice and its influence on individuals and societies. +Narrative arc: Expository +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Dialogue -Active character: Ambitious youth, avaricious youth, State -Time setting: 1950s" "The ambitious youth, if he were born into a family of wealth and influence, would not be content with the natural advantages of his birth. He would seek to secure the same advantage for his children, and to make them as well off as possible. If he lacked the power to do this by other means, he would have recourse to force, and use it to maintain himself in office until he had secured some method whereby his children could be given a fair start in life. The avaricious youth, if he were born into a family of poverty, would not be satisfied with what little there was. He would take whatever came in his way, and when he found that he could get money by robbing others, he would rob them, and so acquire more than they had left him. In time he would become wealthy; then he would fear to lose what he had gained, and he would use every means in his power to protect his possessions from the greed of others like himself. He would be ready to resort to robbery to save himself from being robbed. If you can find one of these two kinds of individuals who has not made up his mind to kill or be killed, I will give you a gold piece."""" Who are you?"" asked the avaricious youth. A friend,"" said the man. ""I am your friend, because I wish to help you. " +Literary form: Conversation +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: Speaker, interlocutor +Language: English" "The evil is in its nature. It is a cancer, and it is the essence of avarice to feed on itself. There are people who are simply possessed by it, and their egotism becomes so excessive that they become incapable of any human feeling whatever towards others. They think only of themselves, and no amount of wealth or power can satisfy them. They want more; they want everything, and as long as they have it not they are insensible to every other consideration, however important it may be."""" You've been reading too many detective stories,"" said his companion with a sneer. """"There's nothing of that kind in real life."""" I never read detective stories,"" retorted the speaker, ""and if you think there's no such people in the world as those I describe, just go down to the office and ask the Chief Constable about the 'Whitefriars Mystery.'"""" The interlocutor looked puzzled for a moment, and then said: """"Yes, I remember something about that business. It was at Whitefriars that the old woman lived who had the fifty thousand pounds in gold, wasn't it?"""" Yes,"" replied the other, ""and the son and daughter who murdered her were found out and hanged after a very pretty piece of work."""" And what has that got to do with your story?"" asked the curious man. Everything,"" said the other shortly, ""and if you'll listen for another hour or so I'll tell you how."" So the two men went into the public-house and ordered a pint of beer each. " 123 123 "To be sure. There can be no doubt that the love of wealth and the spirit of moderationcannot exist together in citizens of the same State to any considerableextent; one or the other will be disregarded. That is tolerably clear. And in oligarchical States, from the general spread of carelessnessand extravagance, men of good family have often been reduced to beggary? Yes, often. And still they remain in the city; there they are, ready to stingand fully armed, and some of them owe money, some have forfeited theircitizenship; a third class are in both predicaments; and they hateand conspire against those who have got their property, and againsteverybody else, and are eager for revolution. @@ -3082,19 +3170,20 @@ Yes, he said, I am quite aware that this is their way of talking. And, as in a body which is diseased the addition of a touch from withoutmay bring on illness, and sometimes even when there is no externalprovocation a commotion may arise within-in the same way whereverthere is weakness in the State there is also likely to be illness,of which the occasions may be very slight, the one party introducingfrom without their oligarchical, the other their democratical allies,and then the State falls sick, and is at war with herself; and maybe at times distracted, even when there is no external cause. Yes, surely. And then democracy comes into being after the poor have conqueredtheir opponents, slaughtering some and banishing some, while to theremainder they give an equal share of freedom and power; and thisis the form of government in which the magistrates are commonly electedby lot. Yes, he said, that is the nature of democracy, whether the revolutionhas been effected by arms, or whether fear has caused the oppositeparty to withdraw. -And now what is their manner of life, and what sort of a governmenthave they? for as the government is, such will be the man." "Summary: The text discusses the relationship between wealth and moderation in a state, as well as the consequences of poverty and inequality on society. -Trope: The contrast between the rich and poor -Narrative arc: Analysis and discussion of political and social issues -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +And now what is their manner of life, and what sort of a governmenthave they? for as the government is, such will be the man." "Summary: The text discusses the relationship between wealth and moderation in a city-state, and the consequences of inequality. +Trope: Organized crime +Narrative arc: Expository +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Dialogue +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Men of good family, men of business +Active character: Citizens, rulers, subjects Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" This was a matter of some moment. For, after all, the very richest men in the world are only just richer than other rich men. And these new billionaires were not much richer than the old millionaires of the pre-1950 period. It is quite possible that a few of them had made their money by honest means, or at least by means which no judge would find particularly dishonest. But most of them had made it by methods which could be described as dishonourable only by using a definition which has been obsolete for many years. Dishonesty in business is considered to be equivalent to inefficiency. What matters is that a man makes money; how he does it is his own affair. The men of good family had long ago ceased to make money, and were therefore no longer important. Businessmen were the people who counted now. Their power was almost absolute. They were not even called capitalists any more. They were known simply as Men of Business. When they met together, they did not sit about on sofas and smoke cigarettes. They walked up and down, with their hands behind their backs, like soldiers on parade. This was a military age. So, too, they discussed politics with a stern and martial fervour. They knew what was best for mankind, and they were going to give it to them. Nor was this mere talk. The Men of Business had the power to enforce their will upon the nations, and they used it ruthlessly. There were two things which they abhorred above all others. One was Communism, which meant inefficiency and waste. The other was Democracy, which meant lack of discipline. They set themselves to destroy both, and they succeeded. On the whole, their success had been rather greater against Democracy than against Communism. In fact, they had killed off Democracy altogether except in the form of rubber stamp parliaments which did exactly what they were told. But Communism had also been seriously damaged. A large part of the earth’s surface was still under Communist rule, but only because it was of no use to anyone, except possibly for shooting game. In Europe and North America, however, it had been practically wiped out. Everywhere, dictatorship was established. This suited the Men of Business admirably. It was not easy, however, to get rid of Communism without causing trouble. And there had been trouble enough already. As usual, it had been caused mainly by the proletariat, the scum of the earth. These people were so entirely useless that it seemed absurd to kill them off. Yet they kept on coming into existence, like maggots. Under the present system they were compelled to work, and in certain cases they were even paid wages, though never very large ones. +Absolute place: A clubhouse in Los Angeles +Language: English" "The citizens who own and operate a city-state are the rulers; the other citizens, the subjects. The rulers are few, and they control all wealth. The subjects have no wealth whatever except their personal belongings, for when one is a subject, all real estate and all business enterprises become the property of the rulers. There's no such thing as an independent farmer or businessman in a city-state. Anybody who owns any kind of a business pays his rent to the rulers, and his profits go into the city-state treasury. A subject works for wages; he can't make investments, start a business or buy property. And he can't get rich, because the city-state takes fifty per cent of his wages for taxes, and that goes on forever. Of course there are exceptions. Some people are allowed to own private automobiles, and some even have yachts and airplanes. If you want a car, it costs you ten thousand dollars. That includes the license fee and the motorcar tax, and you pay it up front. You can use the car for five years, then you have to give it back to the city-state. If you want to continue driving, you pay another ten thousand dollars and get another car. Then, after you've paid twenty thousand for a car that cost you only about three thousand to buy new, it's your own property and you can do what you please with it. The same applies to a yacht: you pay forty thousand for the privilege of owning it for five years. After that, if you still want to keep it, it becomes your own property."""" I see,"" I said. ""And I suppose these exceptions are made for political reasons?"""" Well, yes and no. It depends on how popular the individual concerned happens to be at the time, and whether or not he has powerful friends among the rulers. As a rule, though, the more wealthy a man is, the less likely he is to have any friends among the rulers."""" Why?"" Because most of them are crooks."" I stared at him. """"You mean the rulers are criminals?"""" Yes. They run this whole racket. They're thieves, extortionists, swindlers, blackmailers, confidence men, robbers and killers. There isn't a crime on earth they haven't committed, but they call it governing and they have the nerve to pass laws against common crimes!"""" I thought about this. """"But why should they let people like you have cars and yachts if they don't want them to have them? What good does it do them?"""" They enjoy having us do their dirty work for them, that's why. We're the muscle men. We're the hired thugs who keep the city-state safe for the rulers. Without us, they couldn't exist."""" I didn't understand that."" Listen,"" he said harshly, ""the rulers are nothing but a bunch of organized criminals. They organize other criminals to do their work for them and protect them from reprisals. They know how weak they are without the muscle men. The muscle men are like soldiers; we take orders and we obey. " 124 124 "Clearly, he said. In the first place, are they not free; and is not the city full offreedom and frankness --a man may say and do what he likes? 'Tis said so, he replied. And where freedom is, the individual is clearly able to order forhimself his own life as he pleases? Clearly. Then in this kind of State there will be the greatest variety of humannatures? @@ -3109,17 +3198,16 @@ We know her well. Consider now, I said, what manner of man the individual is, or Very good, he said. Is not this the way --he is the son of the miserly and oligarchicalfather who has trained him in his own habits? Exactly. And, like his father, he keeps under by force the pleasures whichare of the spending and not of the getting sort, being those whichare called unnecessary? Obviously. Would you like, for the sake of clearness, to distinguish which arethe necessary and which are the unnecessary pleasures? -I should. Are not necessary pleasures those of which we cannot get rid, andof which the satisfaction is a benefit to us? And they are rightlyso, because we are framed by nature to desire both what is beneficialand what is necessary, and cannot help it." "Summary: The text discusses the freedom and variety of a certain state, as well as the characteristics of democracy. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +I should. Are not necessary pleasures those of which we cannot get rid, andof which the satisfaction is a benefit to us? And they are rightlyso, because we are framed by nature to desire both what is beneficialand what is necessary, and cannot help it." "Summary: The text discusses the freedom and variety found in a democracy, contrasting it with other forms of government. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation -Active character: The speaker, the person being spoken to -Time setting: 1950s -Fuzzy place: Unnamed city -Diegetic time: A few minutes" I say, it’s a state of mind. A kind of freedom, that’s what it is. You can’t pin it down to any one thing. It’s like the varieties in a circus. You know, when you’re watching them all, one after another, and you don’t care very much for any of them, but you’re enjoying yourself because there’s so much going on? Well, that’s the kind of freedom this place gives you. There’s always something happening, always some show. And you can’t get bored. Not with so many sideshows. That’s what I call freedom. Democracy, if you like.’ He paused. ‘Well, democracy is like that,’ he said. ‘It’s like being at a circus. Take your choice of things to watch. All sorts of people doing all sorts of things. And nobody bothering about you. Nobody caring whether you watch or not. Just as long as you pay your money and don’t break anything.’ ‘That’s right,’ said Mr Raffles. ‘You’re beginning to get the idea.’ The other nodded. ‘Yes,’ he said. ‘I’m beginning to. Yes, it’s like a big fair. Like a holiday. Don’t you think so?’ ‘We aim at it,’ said Mr Raffles. He looked at his wrist-watch. ‘I must be pushing along,’ he said. ‘Bye-bye.’ The other remained where he was, leaning against the wall. ‘Bye-bye,’ he said again. He took out a cigarette-case and lit a cigarette. Then he went on standing there, smoking quietly. He turned his head slowly and glanced through the open door into the room beyond. It was a large, comfortable sitting-room, furnished with heavy old-fashioned pieces. On the table by the window stood a small electric heater, and beside it sat an elderly woman with grey hair. She was knitting, and she did not look up when her visitor appeared in the doorway. He stood for a moment, and then he went into the room. ‘Hallo, mother,’ he said. ‘Sorry to keep you waiting.’ The woman nodded and smiled at him, but she still made no attempt to speak. He walked across the room and stood looking down at her. She raised her eyes to his face and smiled again. ‘Nothing to tell you, darling,’ she said. ‘Everything seems to be going on all right.’ ‘I suppose so,’ he said. ‘Well, let’s hope so, anyway.’ He turned away abruptly and began walking up and down the room. He stopped every now and then, and then started walking again. After a while he came back to the table and leaned over her. ‘Mother,’ he said, ‘why won’t you ever talk to me?’ Her face flushed slightly, but she made no reply. ‘Talk to me, mother,’ he insisted. ‘What’s the matter with you? Can’t you understand English?’ +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "There is freedom and there is variety in a democracy, and you can be anything you want to be if you work hard enough at it. You can be the big cheese, like Mr. Fox, or the lady who dances naked for a buck at the Trocadero on Saturday night. And your kid can be a movie star, or a great surgeon, or a rich lawyer. Or he can be an old drunk with a potbelly and rheumy eyes, working as a bookie on Third Street. That's what I mean about freedom and variety. In any other kind of government that wouldn't happen. There are no old drunks in Hitler's Germany. You can't get arrested for vagrancy in Russia."""" He paused for breath, his face flushed and ugly, and suddenly his voice became harsh and vivid again: Say, listen,"" he said, ""I got something to tell you, sonny boy, and maybe you better listen up. I was brought up on the streets of L.A. since the time I was six years old, and I've known some bad characters and seen some tough things in my life. But the nastiest thing I ever saw was right here in this room tonight. The nastiest thing I ever saw in all my life was a little kid crying because he couldn't have a glass of grape-juice!"""" For a moment, they stared at each other. Then Wells turned abruptly away. Well,"" he said, ""I guess we're all through talking."" His voice had become cold and brittle again, and when he spoke it was with polite formality: I'm very sorry about the trouble this evening, Mr. Wells. I hope you won't hold it against me. I hope you'll let me come back some day."""" Sure,"" said Wells. ""Anytime you want to drop in. Always glad to see you."""" Yeah,"" said Charlie, ""always glad to see you. Any time you want to drop in. And if you don't mind, I'd just as soon you didn't bring your friends along next time."""" He opened the door and held it wide. Come on, Amos,"" he said. ""Let's go home."""" They stepped out onto the sidewalk. Charlie looked around quickly, then spat into the gutter. Well, good-by,"" he said. ""Sorry about the mess."""" He closed the door and locked it, and turned and went across the room toward the rear exit. As he passed the table, he stopped. Damn,"" he said, ""I forgot to ask you how much you want for that painting."""" What?"" asked Wells. How much do you want for that picture of yours? I might want to buy it."""" Oh, that,"" said Wells. ""That's okay. It doesn't matter. Just take it."""" Charlie stared at him for a long moment. Okay,"" he said, finally. ""Thanks."" He picked up the canvas and carried it into the kitchen. He switched on the light, took down the woodbox cover, and stuffed the painting inside. Then he went out the back way to his car. " 125 125 "True. We are not wrong therefore in calling them necessary? We are not. And the desires of which a man may get rid, if he takes pains fromhis youth upwards --of which the presence, moreover, does no good,and in some cases the reverse of good --shall we not be right in sayingthat all these are unnecessary? Yes, certainly. Suppose we select an example of either kind, in order that we mayhave a general notion of them? Very good. Will not the desire of eating, that is, of simple food and condiments,in so far as they are required for health and strength, be of thenecessary class? @@ -3137,17 +3225,20 @@ It must be so. And there are times when the democratical principle gives way to Yes, he said, that sometimes happens. And then, again, after the old desires have been driven out, freshones spring up, which are akin to them, and because he, their father,does not know how to educate them, wax fierce and numerous. Yes, he said, that is apt to be the way. They draw him to his old associates, and holding secret intercoursewith them, breed and multiply in him. Very true. At length they seize upon the citadel of the young man's soul, whichthey perceive to be void of all accomplishments and fair pursuitsand true words, which make their abode in the minds of men who aredear to the gods, and are their best guardians and sentinels. -None better. False and boastful conceits and phrases mount upwards and take theirplace." "Summary: The text discusses the distinction between necessary and unnecessary desires and their effects on the individual. +None better. False and boastful conceits and phrases mount upwards and take theirplace." "Summary: The text discusses the distinction between necessary and unnecessary desires and their effects on the soul. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, interlocutor -Diegetic time: A few minutes" """""Well, now,"""" said Socrates, """"here is a thing which I think you will find has often come to pass: that you have desired something and got it, only to be miserable after; so that, on the whole, your life has been no better for desiring and getting what you desired."""" Oho!"" said the interlocutor. ""Have you anything to say about that? Why, of course! You know perfectly well that if one hasn't got any money or position in the world, and then goes and gets some, one can always live more comfortably and pleasantly. And as for being miserable afterwards, why, I don't suppose there's such a thing as happiness anywhere at all. Don't you agree with me?"""" Well,"" said Socrates, ""I am not sure whether there is happiness or not. But I do know that I've heard that when people get what they want they are very apt to be unhappy. At least, that's what the poets say, and they ought to know, for they're always writing about happiness and unhappiness. Now, here's another distinction. Some desires are necessary, others aren't. The necessary ones must be satisfied before we can be happy. A man without food and clothes and shelter can't be happy. But once his necessities are supplied, the unnecessary desires begin to make trouble. They lead him into quarrels and crimes. " +Time setting: 1950s + +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "Well, the first thing you've got to know is that there's a difference between necessary and unnecessary desires. The only necessary desire is the desire for knowledge, because that's what makes the soul immortal and keeps it from getting mixed up with the body after death."""" That's quite a statement,"" I said. ""I'd like to hear more about it."""" Well, unnecessary desires are just a lot of junk that the soul picks up during its lifetime, like a drunk picking up lice at a barroom. They're all the desires that aren't based on knowledge: food, drink, sex, money, power, fame, a new car, a vacation in Bermuda, that kind of stuff."""" But knowledge isn't necessary,"" I objected. ""It doesn't keep you alive, not even your own personal knowledge; most of it you can get along without."""" Sure, but necessary knowledge is different from unnecessary knowledge. Necessary knowledge is pure, abstract wisdom, like Einstein's theory of relativity or the Pythagorean theorem or the sum of the squares of the sides of a right triangle equals the square of the hypotenuse. Unnecessary knowledge is just facts and information that make you smart, like how to play chess or French horn or bridge, or how to run a business or cook a good meal."""" Socrates nodded. """"That's right,"""" he said. """"Unnecessary knowledge makes you smarter but it doesn't make you wiser. It's like the difference between being able to say something in three languages instead of one."""" It does sound pretty stupid,"" I admitted. ""But how come unnecessary knowledge is bad for the soul?"""" Because it attracts unnecessary desires,"" Socrates explained. ""You want to be smart, so you pick up unnecessary knowledge which gives you unnecessary desires. Then you have to satisfy these desires, so you pick up still more unnecessary knowledge until you end up with a whole bunch of useless junk in your head and a dozen unnecessary desires fighting for satisfaction. As a result, your soul gets out of balance and you become unwise, because you forget that the only necessary desire is the desire for knowledge."""" That certainly sounds plausible,"" I said. ""And it would explain why some people are so unhappy they kill themselves. Their souls must be so overloaded with unnecessary desires that they can't stand it."""" Right."" Socrates nodded vigorously. """"That's exactly it! In fact, I'm surprised more people don't commit suicide. The soul is a delicate thing and unnecessary desires can ruin it."""" He was really getting into this. His face had turned red and his eyes were snapping with excitement. """"Just think about it, boy! You go around satisfying your unnecessary desires day after day, year after year, until they finally drive you crazy. Your soul becomes diseased and rotten, your brain gets soft and mushy, and then you start murdering innocent people and robbing banks and selling dope, and when you've had enough of that you put a gun in your mouth and blow your brains out. And all because you wanted to be smart!"""" " 126 126 "They are certain to do so. And so the young man returns into the country of the lotus-eaters,and takes up his dwelling there in the face of all men; and if anyhelp be sent by his friends to the oligarchical part of him, the aforesaidvain conceits shut the gate of the king's fastness; and they willneither allow the embassy itself to enter, private if private advisersoffer the fatherly counsel of the aged will they listen to them orreceive them. There is a battle and they gain the day, and then modesty,which they call silliness, is ignominiously thrust into exile by them,and temperance, which they nickname unmanliness, is trampled in themire and cast forth; they persuade men that moderation and orderlyexpenditure are vulgarity and meanness, and so, by the help of a rabbleof evil appetites, they drive them beyond the border. Yes, with a will. And when they have emptied and swept clean the soul of him who isnow in their power and who is being initiated by them in great mysteries,the next thing is to bring back to their house insolence and anarchyand waste and impudence in bright array having garlands on their heads,and a great company with them, hymning their praises and calling themby sweet names; insolence they term breeding, and anarchy liberty,and waste magnificence, and impudence courage. And so the young manpasses out of his original nature, which was trained in the schoolof necessity, into the freedom and libertinism of useless and unnecessarypleasures. Yes, he said, the change in him is visible enough. After this he lives on, spending his money and labour and time onunnecessary pleasures quite as much as on necessary ones; but if hebe fortunate, and is not too much disordered in his wits, when yearshave elapsed, and the heyday of passion is over --supposing that hethen re-admits into the city some part of the exiled virtues, anddoes not wholly give himself up to their successors --in that casehe balances his pleasures and lives in a sort of equilibrium, puttingthe government of himself into the hands of the one which comes firstand wins the turn; and when he has had enough of that, then into thehands of another; he despises none of them but encourages them allequally. @@ -3160,13 +3251,18 @@ Quite true, he said. Say then, my friend, in what manner does tyranny arise? --t Clearly. And does not tyranny spring from democracy in the same manner as democracyfrom oligarchy --I mean, after a sort? How? The good which oligarchy proposed to itself and the means by whichit was maintained was excess of wealth --am I not right? Yes. And the insatiable desire of wealth and the neglect of all other thingsfor the sake of money-getting was also the ruin of oligarchy? -True. And democracy has her own good, of which the insatiable desire bringsher to dissolution?" "Summary: The text discusses the actions and consequences of a young man who follows his own desires and neglects moderation and virtue. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +True. And democracy has her own good, of which the insatiable desire bringsher to dissolution?" "Summary: The text discusses the actions and consequences of a young man who chooses to live a life of pleasure and indulgence, rather than following the advice of moderation and virtue. +Trope: Organized crime +Narrative arc: Exposition of the consequences of the young man's choices +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue -Literary movement: Hardboiled" My heart stood still. My throat went dry. I had to clear my tongue before I could speak. “Now, then,” he said. “If you’re afraid of me, say so. If you’ve got any idea that I’m going to lay into you, forget it. What I want to know is, how did you get in here? And what are you doing with your pants off?” It was hard for me to find words. When I finally managed to speak, it was just like this: “I followed you.” He looked at me for a long time without saying anything. Then he laughed. “You’re a cool one,” he said. “But listen, mister, you don’t know who you’re up against. If you think you can mix it with me and come out on top, you’re making a big mistake.” “You’ll be surprised,” I said. “I didn’t come down here to fight you. I came because I wanted to see you again. You gave me the blues when I left you yesterday, and last night I couldn’t sleep. I couldn’t stand it. So I came back.” “You certainly took your time,” he said. “What do you mean by that?” I asked. “Just what I said. You didn’t even give me time to shave or comb my hair. Don’t you remember? You barged right in before I’d got dressed.” “You told me to come back,” I said. “Didn’t you?” “Sure,” he said. “And I meant it. But you don’t have to rush things, do you?” He picked up his pants and started putting them on. “Where were you all day?” he asked as he buttoned them up. “At home.” “With your mother?” “No. She’s away visiting friends. In the country somewhere.” “Who were you with, then?” “Nobody.” “Why?” “Why not?” “There must be a reason.” “Maybe.” “You’re always saying ‘maybe.’” He finished buttoning his fly and turned around. “Well, if there is a reason, maybe you’ll tell me about it some time. Or maybe you won’t.” “I might,” I said. “Don’t keep saying ‘maybe.’” “It’s good enough for you, isn’t it?” “Yes, but I don’t use it every other word.” “Oh, shut up!” “All right, wise guy,” he said. “I was only trying to help you.” “Help me! You’re no help to anybody. You’re a pain in the neck.” “I’m not a pain in the neck.” “You are too. And you’re a liar besides.” “Am I?” “Yes, you are.” “How do you know?” “Because I know.” “You don’t know anything.” “I know a lot of things.” “Like what?” “Like why you’re always walking up and down the street outside our house.” “That’s none of your business.” “I wish you wouldn’t follow me around.” “I wish you wouldn’t make me.” “Make you! What do you mean, make you?” +Literary form: Philosophical argument +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: The young man +Language: English" They go in for crime; and if you want to get ahead of the game, you have got to be up against it all the time, or else you will not make good. They take a great deal of exercise, and they are always eating. The young man's first step was to join forces with a certain party who were doing a little business on the side. He took to wearing loose-fitting clothes and carrying a stick. He became very careful of his health. He had his meals at the cheapest restaurants, where he ate an enormous amount of soup, which is nourishing but does not fill. He drank quantities of tea to keep himself awake; and by night he went about the streets with his friends, keeping a sharp look-out for stray dogs, which he pounced upon and kicked. This gave him some useful practice in self-control, because he often found that the dog did not seem to mind being kicked. After this he began to move in more active circles, and we may say that he arrived. He met a lady who had no particular occupation, and whose chief amusement seemed to consist in entering shops without buying anything and making a fuss when she was asked to leave. 127 127 "What good? Freedom, I replied; which, as they tell you in a democracy, is theglory of the State --and that therefore in a democracy alone willthe freeman of nature deign to dwell. Yes; the saying is in everybody's mouth. I was going to observe, that the insatiable desire of this and theneglect of other things introduces the change in democracy, whichoccasions a demand for tyranny. How so? When a democracy which is thirsting for freedom has evil cupbearerspresiding over the feast, and has drunk too deeply of the strong wineof freedom, then, unless her rulers are very amenable and give a plentifuldraught, she calls them to account and punishes them, and says thatthey are cursed oligarchs. @@ -3184,14 +3280,17 @@ Glorious indeed, he said. But what is the next step? The ruin of oligarchy is th True. The excess of liberty, whether in States or individuals, seems onlyto pass into excess of slavery. Yes, the natural order. And so tyranny naturally arises out of democracy, and the most aggravatedform of tyranny and slavery out of the most extreme form of liberty?" "Summary: The text discusses the consequences of democracy and the potential for tyranny to arise from it. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Two characters engaged in conversation" "If you're satisfied with the way things are, fine. But don't think it's going to last forever. Democracy won't last long in this country if you keep up the kind of talk we've been hearing."""" The other man nodded and smiled an ironic smile. It was a cold smile, as though he had discovered something that made everything else look ridiculous. You know, I have a feeling you might be right,"" he said. ""I have a feeling you might be very right."""" They had reached the spot where the car was parked, and the older man got into the front seat. He looked up at the younger man. I'm not really a pessimist, you know,"" he said. """"And if things go wrong, there are always people like you who can take over and run things."""" He started the motor. All right,"" he said. ""See you later."" And then he added: """"When you get through playing soldier."""" As the car pulled away, the young man stood in the road and watched it until it was out of sight. Then he turned and walked slowly back toward the house. He passed the porch without looking at it. When he came to the steps he stopped and took off his hat. He stood there for several minutes without moving. A slight breeze lifted his hair and blew against his forehead. At last he opened the screen door and went into the house. Chapter 3 Now you boys sit here and be good while I go into the kitchen and get some cookies,"" Mrs. Mifflin said. She looked at the three men sitting on the porch. They were all wearing straw hats. Their faces were burned red by the sun. One of them was holding a fishing rod. The other two had books. They sat quietly, without talking, while she went into the house. Two of them were watching her walk across the porch. She stopped at the corner and looked back at them. Then she disappeared into the house. The boy with the fishing rod put down his rod and leaned forward in his chair. He glanced at the other two men and grinned. Well, boys,"" he said. ""What do you say we see how many of those cookies we can eat before she comes back?"""" No!"" both the others shouted in unison. One of them laughed, but they were all watching Mrs. Mifflin when she came back onto the porch carrying a plate of cookies. She placed the plate on the railing. Her eyes were smiling, but she didn't say anything. For a moment no one moved or spoke. Then all three men grabbed for the plate. They tore it from her hands and began shoving each other. One of them fell backward into the hammock. Another pushed the third man, and he stumbled and fell on the floor. Mrs. Mifflin laughed loudly. She clapped her hands and rubbed them together. After a few moments the fight ended, and they all calmed down. The boy in the hammock sat up and picked up his hat. " +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon +Time setting: 1950s +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" It’s a simple process. If you give people the vote, they will always elect the strongest man to rule them, and if he’s strong enough he will become a tyrant. That is why democracy is a form of tyranny. “A tyrant,” said Glaucon, “is a kind of hero.” Yes, I suppose he is. But in this case it is the wrong sort of heroism. The tyrant has the courage to do what other people are too cowardly to attempt. It is the same kind of courage that makes a burglar break into a house, or a mutineer seize the bridge, or a dictator overthrow a government. And this courage is even more admirable when the risk is greater. You see, Glaucon, the normal kind of hero is willing to die for his country; but the real hero is willing to kill for it. In the end, then, we shall have to choose between living like an animal and dying like a hero. This is why I say that democracy is a form of tyranny. “But Socrates,” said Glaucon, “it was you who said that all men were born equal. Now you are saying that some men are born to be tyrants, and others to be their victims.” Yes, I know, Glaucon. But you must remember that in saying all men are born equal I didn’t mean that there were no differences between them. Obviously, some men are cleverer than others, some stronger, some better looking, and so on. I meant only that every man is equal before the law. As for the cleverer men, we should certainly let them lead us, and as for the weaker ones, we should protect them from the tyranny of the strong. “But you said just now,” interrupted Cephalus, “that the tyrant is the strongest man. Then how can he be protected from himself?” Exactly. If he is the strongest, he can’t be protected. And the moment he ceases to be the strongest, he falls. But meanwhile he will be able to keep out of prison much better than anyone else. He is the only man who can afford to pay a lawyer, and he will be able to bribe judges and policemen and jailers. He will be able to call upon the army and the navy to support him. And in the end he will be able to destroy the whole state and set up his own private kingdom, with himself as king. You see, Glaucon, democracy leads to tyranny. Or rather, it is a form of tyranny, since it is a form of injustice. You might almost say that democracy is the worst form of tyranny, because it allows the tyrant to appear as a liberator. 128 128 "As we might expect. That, however, was not, as I believe, your question-you rather desiredto know what is that disorder which is generated alike in oligarchyand democracy, and is the ruin of both? Just so, he replied. Well, I said, I meant to refer to the class of idle spendthrifts,of whom the more courageous are the-leaders and the more timid thefollowers, the same whom we were comparing to drones, some stingless,and others having stings. A very just comparison. These two classes are the plagues of every city in which they aregenerated, being what phlegm and bile are to the body. And the goodphysician and lawgiver of the State ought, like the wise bee-master,to keep them at a distance and prevent, if possible, their ever comingin; and if they have anyhow found a way in, then he should have themand their cells cut out as speedily as possible. @@ -3213,20 +3312,19 @@ That is exactly the truth. Then come impeachments and judgments and trials of on True. The people have always some champion whom they set over them and nurseinto greatness. Yes, that is their way. This and no other is the root from which a tyrant springs; when hefirst appears above ground he is a protector. Yes, that is quite clear. How then does a protector begin to change into a tyrant? Clearly whenhe does what the man is said to do in the tale of the Arcadian templeof Lycaean Zeus. -What tale? The tale is that he who has tasted the entrails of a single humanvictim minced up with the entrails of other victims is destined tobecome a wolf. Did you never hear it?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the presence of idle spendthrifts in both oligarchy and democracy, their negative impact on society, and how they can turn into tyrants. -Trope: The corrupting influence of power -Narrative arc: Exposition and analysis -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +What tale? The tale is that he who has tasted the entrails of a single humanvictim minced up with the entrails of other victims is destined tobecome a wolf. Did you never hear it?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the nature of drones and their impact on oligarchy and democracy, highlighting their destructive influence. +Narrative arc: Analytical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker and the person being addressed +Active character: The speaker and the person they are speaking to +Quoted work: ""the tale of the Arcadian temple of Lycaean Zeus Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "Because these were the very people who had been bought, or who could be bought. The idle spendthrifts in an oligarchy and the idle spendthrifts in a democracy. The men who did not work but lived on what they had inherited from their fathers or what they had stolen from somebody else. It was the same type of man in both cases, and when he was living in a democracy he was just as dangerous as when he was living in an oligarchy. Because the same type of man is always dangerous wherever you find him; and because he can always get his way. In an oligarchy he gets it by blackmailing those above him and being blackmailed by those below him; in a democracy he gets it by becoming the leader of a mob, and the mob always leads its leaders. There are only two ways to stop him: one of them is to put him to work doing something useful, and the other is to kill him. I've done both with a few of them, and it doesn't really matter which you do."""" The door opened again, and the tall girl came back into the room. She was carrying an attache-case. It was about three feet long, and made of some kind of brown leather. She set it down on a chair beside the desk and looked at Strickland. He nodded towards the telephone. """"Put it through,"""" he said. She picked up the receiver and dialed a number. Then she handed the receiver to Strickland. It's for you,"" she said. Yes?"" Strickland said into the mouthpiece. ""Oh, yes. That's fine. Thank you very much. I'll be there."" He replaced the receiver and turned towards the girl. """"What time is it?"""" he asked. Half-past twelve,"" she said. All right. Thanks for your help. You can go now."""" She hesitated, and then glanced towards the girl who was still sitting in the armchair. Strickland followed her eyes. """"You can go too,"""" he said. """"I shan't want you any more today."""" The tall girl crossed the room and touched the shorter girl on the shoulder. The latter stood up, and then she saw Strickland looking at her. Her face went white, and she began to tremble violently. For a moment Strickland thought that she might faint. Then she found her voice. I'm sorry, Mr. Strickland,"" she said. ""I forgot my bag. It's in the cloakroom downstairs."""" Don't worry about it,"" Strickland said. ""You can come and fetch it tomorrow morning. It'll be all right here tonight."""" She went out of the room without another word. As soon as the door had closed behind her Strickland turned to the tall girl. """"You'd better take a taxi home,"""" he said. """"It's late, and I don't know when I shall be back."""" " +Language: English" There is a lot in that. And the drones are always at war with those who work. There was a tale of old, long before your time, about an Arcadian temple of Lycaean Zeus, where a stranger came and ate raw meat and drank wine, and they cut him up to see what he was made of, and he turned out to be a wild beast.” “I never heard that one,” I said. “Well, it’s there all right. But here’s something else you may have heard: ‘For they devour their own mothers.’ That means us, you and me, the people who do the job. We’re the ones who will eat our own mothers, if we can’t find anything better.” He sat still for a few moments, looking into my face. “You know,” he said, “I think you’ve got it. It’s just like that. It’s just as simple as that. You’ve got the right line on it at last. The bees need the drones, but they hate them. They don’t kill them because they need them, but they beat them, and torture them, and drive them away from the honey. So the drones destroy the hive. It’s just like that. We’ll get rid of the politicians, and we’ll show them how much we value them, and then they’ll start destroying the country. Like the drones. Well, that’s all right, too. That’s the way it’s got to be. When you’re fighting for freedom, you’ve got to break some eggs. You want to remember that, sonny boy. You’ve got to break some eggs.” I said, “But I thought this was just to catch a burglar?” “It’s more than that,” he said. “It’s a lesson, sonny boy. It’s an example. There are two kinds of men in the world, and there are two kinds of criminals. There are the big boys, and there are the little boys. The big boys take care of things, and the little boys do whatever they tell them. It’s been that way for thousands of years, and it’s going to stay that way. The big boys are busy men. They’ve got work to do, and they haven’t got time to monkey around. So they leave everything to the little boys, and the little boys go out and play cops and robbers, and try to catch each other. There’s no sense to it. It’s just something they do for fun. But it teaches them not to monkey with the big boys. Now you get out of here, and go home and sleep. You’ll be able to sleep tonight for the first time in months. You’ve earned it. And tomorrow night you’ll be able to sleep again, and the next night after that, and the next, and the next. You won’t have to worry any more about catching burglars or stopping gang wars or saving democracy or reforming the police force or any of those things. 129 129 "Oh, yes. And the protector of the people is like him; having a mob entirelyat his disposal, he is not restrained from shedding the blood of kinsmen;by the favourite method of false accusation he brings them into courtand murders them, making the life of man to disappear, and with unholytongue and lips tasting the blood of his fellow citizen; some he killsand others he banishes, at the same time hinting at the abolitionof debts and partition of lands: and after this, what will be hisdestiny? Must he not either perish at the hands of his enemies, orfrom being a man become a wolf --that is, a tyrant? Inevitably. This, I said, is he who begins to make a party against the rich? The same. After a while he is driven out, but comes back, in spite of his enemies,a tyrant full grown. @@ -3244,19 +3342,18 @@ To be sure. Has he not also another object, which is that they may be impoverish And if any of them are suspected by him of having notions of freedom,and of resistance to his authority, he will have a good pretext fordestroying them by placing them at the mercy of the enemy; and forall these reasons the tyrant must be always getting up a war. He must. Now he begins to grow unpopular. A necessary result. Then some of those who joined in setting him up, and who are in power,speak their minds to him and to one another, and the more courageousof them cast in his teeth what is being done. Yes, that may be expected. And the tyrant, if he means to rule, must get rid of them; he cannotstop while he has a friend or an enemy who is good for anything. -He cannot. And therefore he must look about him and see who is valiant, who ishigh-minded, who is wise, who is wealthy; happy man, he is the enemyof them all, and must seek occasion against them whether he will orno, until he has made a purgation of the State." "Summary: The text discusses the rise of a tyrant and the consequences it has on the people. -Trope: The tyrant who turns on his own people -Narrative arc: Political commentary -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +He cannot. And therefore he must look about him and see who is valiant, who ishigh-minded, who is wise, who is wealthy; happy man, he is the enemyof them all, and must seek occasion against them whether he will orno, until he has made a purgation of the State." "Summary: The text discusses the rise of a tyrant and the consequences of his actions on the people. +Trope: Organized crime +Narrative arc: Exposition and discussion of the actions of the tyrant +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The protector of the people, the tyrant -Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "The protector of the people turned tyrant, and his own people turned on him. They had it coming to them all right; I'll give you that. But there were a lot of innocent bystanders who got caught in the crossfire."""" The conversation went on like this for another minute or two, but the details weren't important. They weren't anything, anyway. They were just words, and they didn't have any meaning anymore, not even to the people saying them. It was like something out of an old movie, one of those Hitchcock things with titles at the bottom of the screen explaining what was going on, only in this case the titles would be """"Waste"""" and """"Inanity"""" and """"Futility."""" There was something else that was the same as in the movies, and that was the way they felt when they got up and left. It was like when you see the hero get away from the bad guys after a terrific chase scene, only instead of having a happy ending you know that sooner or later he's going to get nailed again. Like the time the guy in Psycho gets away from the cops and drives off down the road, but you know he's going to go back and kill somebody else because he can't help it. That's the way we felt about ourselves. We couldn't help being dumb and stupid and getting into messes we couldn't get out of. It was our fate. And the only thing worse than knowing you're going to get killed is not knowing when it's going to happen. You can't plan for it. " +Active character: The tyrant, the people +Language: English" And when he came to the top of the hill and looked back, what did he see but an army of thousands upon thousands rising up behind him, marching with drums beating and flags flying, and shouting like ten thousand devils! And they overtook him and swept him down before them, and ground him to powder under their heels; for they were the poor that had suffered from his tyranny, and they cried out to one another: ‘Now is our hour!’” “So,” I said, “they have their turn.” “No,” said the Scribe, “it was a very bad turn. For you see, these people were not men; they were only devils in human form, and they did not know how to be good masters any more than he did. So they went on and made war upon all the other villages and towns, and robbed them and murdered them; and after a while there was nothing but ruins and corpses left in the whole country. And at last the earth opened its mouth and swallowed them up; and that was the end of them.” “A fine story,” I said, “but it has no connexion with your case, which is quite simple enough without being mixed up with battles and massacres and earthquakes.” “Ah!” said the Scribe, “I thought you would say so; but now we will tell you about the Man who killed the Tyrant.” “Is this the same man that was killed by the Army?” I asked. “No,” he said, “he was a different one; he was a great strong man who lived somewhere far away in the East, and one day he heard about the Tyrant, and came here to kill him.” “And why did he come?” I asked. “Because he wanted money,” said the Scribe; “and because he liked killing people.” “Do people in your country go about killing people for pleasure?” I asked. “Yes,” said the Scribe; “sometimes they do.” “And are they always punished for it?” “Not always,” said the Scribe; “for you see, there are many kinds of people in the world, and some of them are wicked, and some of them are foolish, and some of them are mad. This man was foolish, and mad; and also he was a robber.” “A robber? What is a robber?” “Why, a robber is a man who robs people of their money.” “What is robbery?” I asked. The Scribe raised his eyebrows and began to explain; but the explanation was too long to be written here, for it fills several pages of the Book of the Law, which contains all sorts of curious things. But you may read it if you like; it is called the 111th section of the 13th chapter of the 4th book. 130 130 "Yes, he said, and a rare purgation. Yes, I said, not the sort of purgation which the physicians make ofthe body; for they take away the worse and leave the better part,but he does the reverse. If he is to rule, I suppose that he cannot help himself. What a blessed alternative, I said: --to be compelled to dwell onlywith the many bad, and to be by them hated, or not to live at all! @@ -3281,18 +3378,19 @@ If, he said, there are sacred treasures in the city, he will confiscateand spend And when these fail? Why, clearly, he said, then he and his boon companions, whether maleor female, will be maintained out of his father's estate. You mean to say that the people, from whom he has derived his being,will maintain him and his companions? Yes, he said; they cannot help themselves. But what if the people fly into a passion, and aver that a grown-upson ought not to be supported by his father, but that the father shouldbe supported by the son? The father did not bring him into being,or settle him in life, in order that when his son became a man heshould himself be the servant of his own servants and should supporthim and his rabble of slaves and companions; but that his son shouldprotect him, and that by his help he might be emancipated from thegovernment of the rich and aristocratic, as they are termed. And sohe bids him and his companions depart, just as any other father mightdrive out of the house a riotous son and his undesirable associates. -By heaven, he said, then the parent will discover what a monster hehas been fostering in his bosom; and, when he wants to drive him out,he will find that he is weak and his son strong." "Summary: The text discusses the nature of tyranny and the consequences of having a tyrant rule over a city-state. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +By heaven, he said, then the parent will discover what a monster hehas been fostering in his bosom; and, when he wants to drive him out,he will find that he is weak and his son strong." "Summary: The text discusses the nature of tyranny and the ways in which a tyrant would maintain power. +Trope: Organized crime +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation +Literary form: Dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Two speakers +Active character: Two characters discussing the nature of tyranny Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "Yes. He's that kind of a guy."""" You see?"" I said to Lew. ""The man is a monster, and the people adore him."""" They do,"" he said. ""You'll have to admit he's got a certain power. If you were a Greek what would you do?"""" I'd fight like hell."" Maybe you would,"" Lew said, ""but what about the other nine hundred ninety-nine out of a thousand? You can't expect them all to be heroes. There's not enough Greek blood left in this city. The only thing they know about is paying taxes."""" Well, what would you do?"" I said. ""If you lived here?"" I'm an American,"" he said. ""I'd leave town."""" You're no Greek,"" I said. ""But if you had to stay here what would you do?"""" I'd take to the mountains,"" he said. ""I wouldn't hang around here waiting for the end."""" What end?"" It's coming,"" he said. ""This guy is going to break something some day. And when he does it's going to be bad."""" But what will he break?"" Anything,"" Lew said. ""He's a human being. They always break something. And then you've got to pay for it. That's where the end comes in."""" Are you sure he's going to break?"" I said. Sure he's going to break,"" Lew said. ""It's just a matter of time."""" [Illustration] CHAPTER 7 The End The same day I went up to Tony Balzani's house in Beverly Hills. Mr. Balzani was at home. He was reading the afternoon paper and drinking a glass of beer. He put the paper down when I came in, but he didn't get up or offer me a chair. I sat down on the couch. Mr. Balzani looked me over carefully. Then he picked up his paper again. I don't remember what paper it was. A tabloid. It had a lot of pictures of girls and a couple of murders. I didn't think much of it myself. Do you read it?"" I said. He shrugged. """"It's good for my digestion."""" I took out my notebook. """"I want to ask you some questions about Helen Reed."""" He nodded his head slowly. """"She was a nice girl."""" Yes, she was,"" I said. ""Did you know her father, Arthur Reed?"""" No."" Did you know Mr. Ryan?"" I asked. ""Her stepfather?"" I've seen him. Not often."" Have you ever been to their house?"" Only once. To dinner."""" Was that with Miss Reed?"" Yes."" Do you know anything about her private life?"" Mr. Balzani shook his head. """"I know nothing about anybody's private life except my own."""" " +Language: English" Now, listen. I’m going to give you the lowdown on this tyranny business. In a way it’s like organized crime, but it isn’t exactly. The boss of an organized crime outfit is a lot more of a gentleman than these tyrants. He’s got his code. He’s got his standards. He’s got his ethics. He knows what he can do and what he can’t do. And he doesn’t go beyond them. Now a tyrant has no standards at all. His ethics are all screwy and warped. His standards are all perverted. He’s cruel and vicious and sadistic. He’s a rotten citizen. He’s not only a criminal, but he’s a public menace. And he’s a disgrace to the human race.” “But why?” “Because,” I said, “he’s a nark.” A nark? What’s that?” “A police informer. A stoolie. A squealer. That’s what a tyrant is. He gives himself airs and tries to pretend he’s something else, but that’s what he really is.” I saw that he was getting mad about something, so I shut up for a while. I wanted him to have time to get cooled off before I tried to explain further. 131 131 "Why, you do not mean to say that the tyrant will use violence? What!beat his father if he opposes him? Yes, he will, having first disarmed him. Then he is a parricide, and a cruel guardian of an aged parent; andthis is real tyranny, about which there can be no longer a mistake:as the saying is, the people who would escape the smoke which is theslavery of freemen, has fallen into the fire which is the tyrannyof slaves. Thus liberty, getting out of all order and reason, passesinto the harshest and bitterest form of slavery. True, he said. Very well; and may we not rightly say that we have sufficiently discussedthe nature of tyranny, and the manner of the transition from democracyto tyranny? @@ -3309,17 +3407,18 @@ Which appetites do you mean? I mean those which are awake when the reasoning and Most true, he said. But when a man's pulse is healthy and temperate, and when before goingto sleep he has awakened his rational powers, and fed them on noblethoughts and enquiries, collecting himself in meditation; after havingfirst indulged his appetites neither too much nor too little, butjust enough to lay them to sleep, and prevent them and their enjoymentsand pains from interfering with the higher principle --which he leavesin the solitude of pure abstraction, free to contemplate and aspireto the knowledge of the unknown, whether in past, present, or future:when again he has allayed the passionate element, if he has a quarrelagainst any one --I say, when, after pacifying the two irrationalprinciples, he rouses up the third, which is reason, before he takeshis rest, then, as you know, he attains truth most nearly, and isleast likely to be the sport of fantastic and lawless visions. I quite agree. In saying this I have been running into a digression; but the pointwhich I desire to note is that in all of us, even in good men, thereis a lawless wild-beast nature, which peers out in sleep. Pray, considerwhether I am right, and you agree with me. Yes, I agree. And now remember the character which we attributed to the democraticman. He was supposed from his youth upwards to have been trained undera miserly parent, who encouraged the saving appetites in him, butdiscountenanced the unnecessary, which aim only at amusement and ornament? -True. And then he got into the company of a more refined, licentious sortof people, and taking to all their wanton ways rushed into the oppositeextreme from an abhorrence of his father's meanness. At last, beinga better man than his corruptors, he was drawn in both directionsuntil he halted midway and led a life, not of vulgar and slavish passion,but of what he deemed moderate indulgence in various pleasures. Afterthis manner the democrat was generated out of the oligarch?" "Summary: The text discusses the nature of tyranny and the transition from democracy to tyranny, as well as the appetites and desires that drive human behavior. +True. And then he got into the company of a more refined, licentious sortof people, and taking to all their wanton ways rushed into the oppositeextreme from an abhorrence of his father's meanness. At last, beinga better man than his corruptors, he was drawn in both directionsuntil he halted midway and led a life, not of vulgar and slavish passion,but of what he deemed moderate indulgence in various pleasures. Afterthis manner the democrat was generated out of the oligarch?" "Summary: The text discusses the nature of tyranny and the transition from democracy to tyranny, as well as the formation of the tyrannical man. Narrative arc: Exposition -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Socrates, Adeimantus -Time setting: 1950s" Well, then, is not the way to make tyranny possible in a state simply to have the people always busy and at their work when they are not serving in the fields? For example, when the farmer is planting seed in his land, or watering it, he must be told that this is no time for him to go into the city to talk of justice and injustice; and he has got to be told that if he likes to drink small beer and eat doughy cakes, and would like to see his wife dressed in a long gown, he must leave all these matters to the poets and the subtle wordsmiths. If, however, he wants to win honour and renown among the Hellenes, and to set up a pillar by his father's grave, with an inscription saying that he overthrew the Persians, he must take a spear, and endure hardships, and have something of the soldier in his disposition. The same rule holds good of all other arts and crafts: wherever you find men working they must not be allowed to think about anything else. And yet again, we cannot allow them to live without any employment; they must have some work which will occupy them without allowing them leisure to fall into mischief. I fancy that you understand what I mean?' Yes, Socrates,' said Adeimantus; 'and I know that you are right.' Very well then,' he said, 'the first thing that we shall have to do will be to compel the poets to sing only about war and the other works of warlike men.' But how can you prevent them from singing about peace as well?' +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" "She had a way of saying these words that made them sound like something she was doing instead of just saying. Well,"" he said, ""it's only natural to get sick of democracy if you have no sense of decency or responsibility. You want to do anything you please and have everything you want, and you can't have it because you're not strong enough to take it. So naturally you get bitter and resentful and say the trouble is liberty and equal rights for everybody."""" That's right,"" she said. ""How about that?"" He nodded. """"You go on saying things like that and pretty soon you'll be in favor of tyranny. There are only two kinds of freedom when it comes to power: one is where you have a lot of people who are free and equal and nobody has any special privileges except the law; the other is where you have just one man who's got all the privileges and everybody else is his slave. And that's called tyranny."""" She stared at him with her chin up, her head tilted, her mouth half open. She looked as if she wanted to spit at him. I know what you think of me,"" he said. """"You think I'm just a dirty little hoodlum. Well, I may be that but I'm not stupid. I can see how we've got to get rid of all this democracy stuff before we can have our own way. We don't need liberty and equality. We need someone to tell us what to do and make us do it. We need somebody to kick around."""" He smiled at her. """"I guess that's why we love bullies so much. Because they give us a chance to be bullied by them."""" Then why don't you just let us alone?"" she asked. He smiled again, looking down at her. """"I could,"""" he said, """"but I can't. Not yet."""" Why not?"""" Because I haven't finished my book."" What book?"" The one I'm writing on the nature of tyranny."" But you haven't even started it!"" I started it last night."" How?"" I made notes all day long on my pad."" What did you write?"" Just some rough ideas. I'll show you when it's done."""" Don't bother. I don't care about your book. I don't even want to be a bully. I just want to be left alone."""" He shook his head. """"Not yet,"""" he said. """"No, you can't be left alone until you learn to behave yourself. This is going to be a tough job, though. It may take years. All we can do now is to start you on the road."""" What road?"" The road to hell."" He paused. """"We're going to teach you how to be a tyrant."""" Adeimantus began to laugh. Socrates looked at him sharply. """"Why are you laughing?"""" I'm sorry,"" he said. " 132 132 "Yes, he said; that was our view of him, and is so still. And now, I said, years will have passed away, and you must conceivethis man, such as he is, to have a son, who is brought up in his father'sprinciples. I can imagine him. Then you must further imagine the same thing to happen to the sonwhich has already happened to the father: --he is drawn into a perfectlylawless life, which by his seducers is termed perfect liberty; andhis father and friends take part with his moderate desires, and theopposite party assist the opposite ones. As soon as these dire magiciansand tyrant-makers find that they are losing their hold on him, theycontrive to implant in him a master passion, to be lord over his idleand spendthrift lusts --a sort of monstrous winged drone --that isthe only image which will adequately describe him. @@ -3338,18 +3437,18 @@ Yes, that is sure to be the case. He must have money, no matter how, if he is to He must. And as in himself there was a succession of pleasures, and the newgot the better of the old and took away their rights, so he beingyounger will claim to have more than his father and his mother, andif he has spent his own share of the property, he will take a sliceof theirs. No doubt he will. And if his parents will not give way, then he will try first of allto cheat and deceive them. Very true. And if he fails, then he will use force and plunder them. -Yes, probably. And if the old man and woman fight for their own, what then, my friend?Will the creature feel any compunction at tyrannizing over them?" "Summary: The text discusses the character of a man who is drawn into a lawless life and becomes a tyrant. -Trope: The corrupting influence of power -Narrative arc: Tragic downfall -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Yes, probably. And if the old man and woman fight for their own, what then, my friend?Will the creature feel any compunction at tyrannizing over them?" "Summary: The text discusses the generation of a tyrannical man and the consequences of his actions. +Trope: Organized crime +Narrative arc: Exposition and development of the tyrant's character and actions +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The man, his son -Diegetic time: A few minutes" The man was short, thickset and powerful, with a round red face from which the hair was disappearing. He had a black moustache that drooped over his mouth. His eyes were deep-set under heavy brows, and they looked as though they could see through you and your clothes at the same time. They frightened me like hell. “You’re a bad lot,” he said. “You’d better believe it.” I began to wonder if he could read my mind. “We don’t want any more trouble here,” he went on. “I’m going to tell you what’s going to happen. You’re going to give us no more trouble. If you do, we’ll get you out of the way for good. Understand? We’ve got the power to do that, and we’re going to use it. It won’t be much fun for you, but it will be funnier for us. That’s all.” He turned away, and I felt myself grow limp all over. The strength seemed to go out of me. I think I may have wanted to burst into tears. My son stood beside me. There was an awful silence in the room while I fought against being sick. Then the door opened again, and the fat man came back in. He was holding something in his hand. It was the roll of banknotes I had taken from the suitcase. He took one out and held it up. “This is a five-pound note,” he said. “You see it?” I nodded. “Good,” he said. “Now listen carefully. I’m going to ask you some questions. You must answer them. If you don’t answer them, or if you try to dodge them, you know what’s going to happen. Understand?” Again I nodded. “All right,” he said. “How much money have you got now?” “About thirty shillings,” I said. He smiled. “That’s not very much,” he said. “But it doesn’t matter. When you’ve got a bit more, come and see me again.” He put the banknote back in the roll and put the roll in his pocket. Then he turned and walked out of the room. I sat down on a chair, and I realized that I was trembling all over. There was a knock on the door, and my son came in. He looked scared to death. “What did he say to you?” he asked. “He told me I was a bad lot,” I said. “And he said if I gave him any more trouble he’d get rid of me. And he said he’d have me out of the way for good. And then he made me count out all the money I had, and he said when I’d got some more I was to come and see him again.��� My son sat down in the chair by the table. He looked white and ill. “It’s terrible,” he said. “It’s horrible. +Active character: The father, the son +Language: English" He was the first of the generation of the tyrannical man. The father had no time to meddle with his offspring, and he knew it. He left the child to the care of the servants, who were as bad as himself; and the result of their education was that the son grew up to be just like them. He became a thief and a bully from birth. His first robbery was for a new collar, which cost sixpence at the butcher's; and, if you remember the story, he was caught in the act. He ran away and hid under the counter, and they found him there when they opened the shop in the morning. When he grew bigger he began stealing again, but this time he took more things than a collar, and they were worth more money. He sold them to some cheap-jacks who came round the streets crying 'Buy a bit of iron, buy a bit of iron.' One day he saw the police coming towards him, so he ran into a house where a woman lived on her own account. It was about four o'clock in the afternoon, and she was lying on the bed smoking a pipe. She asked him what he wanted, and he said he wanted to hide from the police, and she said he could do that very well if he paid her five shillings. 133 133 "Nay, he said, I should not feel at all comfortable about his parents. But, O heavens! Adeimantus, on account of some newfangled love ofa harlot, who is anything but a necessary connection, can you believethat he would strike the mother who is his ancient friend and necessaryto his very existence, and would place her under the authority ofthe other, when she is brought under the same roof with her; or that,under like circumstances, he would do the same to his withered oldfather, first and most indispensable of friends, for the sake of somenewly found blooming youth who is the reverse of indispensable? Yes, indeed, he said; I believe that he would. Truly, then, I said, a tyrannical son is a blessing to his fatherand mother. @@ -3361,20 +3460,21 @@ Yes, I said; but small and great are comparative terms, and all thesethings, in Yes, he said, and he will be the most fit to be a tyrant. If the people yield, well and good; but if they resist him, as hebegan by beating his own father and mother, so now, if he has thepower, he beats them, and will keep his dear old fatherland or motherland,as the Cretans say, in subjection to his young retainers whom he hasintroduced to be their rulers and masters. This is the end of hispassions and desires. Exactly. When such men are only private individuals and before they get power,this is their character; they associate entirely with their own flatterersor ready tools; or if they want anything from anybody, they in theirturn are equally ready to bow down before them: they profess everysort of affection for them; but when they have gained their pointthey know them no more. -Yes, truly. They are always either the masters or servants and never the friendsof anybody; the tyrant never tastes of true freedom or friendship." "Summary: The text discusses the actions and character of a tyrannical son and his effects on his family. -Trope: Tyrant son -Narrative arc: Analysis and discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Yes, truly. They are always either the masters or servants and never the friendsof anybody; the tyrant never tastes of true freedom or friendship." "Summary: The text discusses the actions of a tyrant and the harm he causes to his family and community. +Trope: Organized crime +Narrative arc: Analysis and explanation +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Dialogue +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Adeimantus, tyrannical son -Quoted work: Cretan saying about beating one's fatherland +Active character: Adeimantus, Socrates Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "The story of the tyrannical son and his mother may be true, but it is not an admirable one. Adeimantus was a bully and a coward, as well as a liar; a brutal bully who beat his father, and then a cringing coward when he had to face the consequences of his own actions. But a man who beats his parents has usually beaten his teachers, and even if he does not go on to beating his wife, he will certainly beat his children. A schoolmaster or a policeman can usually deal with him before he gets quite out of hand. You would have been wise to put your foot down at once, Adeimantus, when you first started kicking your old man in the shins. You would have saved yourself a lot of trouble, and saved your mother and sister a lot of grief. As it is, you are going to pay dearly for your folly. When Adeimantus spoke of his father as """"a vulgar little shopkeeper,"""" I could see that he had inherited from him more than a touch of vulgarity. This is always the case with sons who set themselves up against their fathers. In every way Adeimantus was the opposite of his father: whereas Georgios was simple, Adeimantus was subtle; whereas Georgios was straightforward, Adeimantus was treacherous; whereas Georgios was sober, Adeimantus was a drunkard; whereas Georgios was honest, Adeimantus was a thief. And yet they were alike in this, that both were failures. Adeimantus' character was like a Cretan saying which I remember hearing when I was at school: Beating one's fatherland is a heavy sin. * * * * * Adeimantus now began to speak again. I knew he had something more to say because I could hear his breath whistling through his nose like a kettle boiling over. The next thing I expected to hear was the sound of his fist landing on my jaw, but I waited patiently for his speech. I'm sorry I hit you,"" he said, ""but you've got to take it like a man."""" I don't mind taking it like a man,"" I said, ""but I object to being called a liar."" Well, you are a liar,"" he said. ""You're a damned rotten liar."""" I know that,"" I said, ""and I admit it. If you want to call me names, go on; I enjoy it."""" He thought for a moment. Then he said: I'll tell you what we'll do. We'll cut out all this arguing. I'll admit that you didn't steal my money, and you'll admit that you're a damned rotten liar. What do you think of that?"""" I thought it over for a minute. " + +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" He was a tyrant. He was also a son and a brother. And he had killed men for the fun of killing them, and it had been reported that he had also killed women and children because they had crossed his path or looked at him sideways. But in this family he had been loved and he had been idolized. And he had used that love as a ladder to climb from crime to crime until he was one of the most powerful gang leaders in the country. And now there were only two of us left who would mourn when he was gone, and I was not sure how long Adeimantus would last, for when he was very young he had taken on the role of his father’s enforcer and hit man and had learned too well. “Adeimantus,” Socrates said, “I have no doubt that you are right. But what are we to do about this?” “Nothing,” Adeimantus said. “We must let events take their course.” “You know your father better than I do. Is this true? Or is he capable of seeing the harm he has done to his own family?” “You forget. My father has never seen anything but the harm he has done to other people. He does not care what happens to us. We are just part of the turf he fights over with his enemies. For him we are nothing more than pawns to be sacrificed for his own advantage.” “So if we could show him the damage he has done to us, he might be concerned?” “No. You have lived outside. You do not understand. To my father, violence is beautiful. It is the highest expression of manhood. To show fear is an abomination. To cause pain is a privilege. When he kills a man, he does not see a body lying on the floor; he sees art. When he cuts off a finger, he sees sculpture. When he burns out an eye, he sees theater. When he tortures a woman, he sees poetry. If he saw the destruction he was causing here, he would laugh. The destruction he causes is the creation of his life.” “There must be some way . . .” “There is no way.” Adeimantus picked up his glass and drank what was in it. Then he took a cigarette from a box on the table. “The best thing you can do is leave while you can. Find another place to live. Because when my father finds you, you will wish you had died before you came here.” There was a small sound behind me and I turned to see a girl standing in the doorway. She was tall and thin and dressed in black. Her skin was dark, almost Indian, and her hair was pulled back tight into a bun. And she was looking at me with contempt. “Who is this?” I asked Adeimantus. “My sister,” he said. “She lives here with our mother. She is studying to be a nun. 134 134 "Certainly not. And may we not rightly call such men treacherous? No question. Also they are utterly unjust, if we were right in our notion of justice? Yes, he said, and we were perfectly right. Let us then sum up in a word, I said, the character of the worst man:he is the waking reality of what we dreamed. Most true. And this is he who being by nature most of a tyrant bears rule, andthe longer he lives the more of a tyrant he becomes. @@ -3396,17 +3496,15 @@ Yes, he said, I see that there are --a few; but the people, speakinggenerally, a Then if the man is like the State, I said, must not the same ruleprevail? his soul is full of meanness and vulgarity --the best elementsin him are enslaved; and there is a small ruling part, which is alsothe worst and maddest. Inevitably. And would you say that the soul of such an one is the soul of a freeman,or of a slave?" "Summary: The text discusses the nature of the worst man and compares him to a tyrannical state. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical argument -Literary movement: Hardboiled +Literary form: Conversation Active character: Socrates, Glaucon Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "The worst man in the world is the best friend that a tyrant can have, just as the worst state is the best friend that a bad man can have."""" Socrates? You mean you want to know what kind of man I am?"" Yes, Glaucon."" He's like an old-fashioned picture of the devil with horns and cloven feet. And there are other things wrong with him too. For instance he wears a mask over his face, and a pair of boots that cover all his body up to his armpits, so that no one can see what kind of shape he's in under there. On his back he carries a great bag of tools, and on his head a sort of iron crown which has a lot of sharp points sticking out. The points keep jabbing into his forehead and making him bleed. They hurt him horribly, but he's always wearing the crown because he needs it for his work."""" What kind of work?"" Oh, he makes men do things they don't want to do, and stops them from doing things they do want to do. He treats people as if they were his slaves, and he uses force instead of reason."""" Sounds pretty awful,"" said Glaucon. ""I certainly wouldn't want to meet a man like that."""" I didn't say you would,"" replied Socrates. ""If you did, you'd probably try to kill him or at least drive him away."""" But why does the tyrant need friends if he can treat people so badly?"" Because he can't help himself,"" said Socrates. ""He's weak and easily frightened. He knows perfectly well that most people hate him, and he doesn't dare show his face alone in the street after dark. If he sees someone coming along behind him, he'll turn and run like a rabbit, even if it's only a little boy. He's afraid of children, women, and old men; he's afraid of everyone except the fool who lives next door to him."""" Why is that?"" Because he thinks the fool is just like him."""" I don't understand."" Neither do I, my boy. I've often thought about it, but I still can't make it out. Anyway, the fool is the only person in the city who can do anything with him. He'll let him beat him black and blue, and then sit down and laugh at him till he cries. That's why the tyrant gets angry with the fool, and tries to get rid of him any way he can."""" Sounds like a very unpleasant business."" It certainly does,"" said Socrates. ""And now suppose we go on to consider the nature of the second state."""" [Illustration] CHAPTER IV THE SPIRIT OF TYRANNY IN THE STATE The spirit of tyranny in the state is also the spirit of despotism in the individual. " +Language: English" The worst man, then, is the tyrannical state. The worst of individuals, if he comes to be supreme in a state, is a sort of tyrant; but a tyrant, who, instead of being one man, is multitude, and not only many in one, but many kinds.” “Yes, Socrates,” said Glaucon, “there are fine notions in that.” “I do think that there is some truth in them,” replied Socrates; “but they have not been wholly stripped of the lie and semblance of virtue, either in fact or appearance. Are we not saying that in the first place the tyrannical soul, when at rest, is immoderate, as having been brought up in riot and intemperance; that secondly, when exerting herself, she is impetuous and reckless, and like a swollen torrent, running things down and drawing them after her without distinction?” “Yes, by heaven! I do suppose that they are true,” replied Glaucon. “And further, I said truly that there is no quality which appears just and mild in company with tyranny, except that of strength, yet how unlike the strength of a lion, or a horse, or a hound is the strength which bears rule in a tyrant’s soul! a human soul which is the body’s master, although the greatest part of a man is often enslaved and under the dominion of irrational passions, renders him a slave. Next, I said that the third form of government, when a monarchy, was oligarchy; and this I define to be the government of any given number of rich men who have no law, and use one another slanderously, and tell lies about each other. But suppose that their power is great, and that they are the masters of many states; would not the others say that these men, whether carrying on a civil war or an external enemy, are doing the same as themselves? They accuse one another of having a greedy desire of money, and so there arise factions and conspiracies, from which spring contentions and wars.” “Very true,” he said. “And did I not also say,” added Socrates, “that aristocracy of the best changes into democracy?” “Surely,” he said. “And a democracy,” I proceeded, “is evidently an unringed multitude of the poor, who rule as they please?” “Yes; that too was true.” “Then last of all came my image of the spirit of tyranny under the form of a woman fantastically adorned, whom I described as the most troublesome and venomous thing of all the beasts in the world; and I said that in fact there was no other way of fully describing her than by attributing to her all the qualities which the vulgar attribute to her.” “That was very true,” he said. “But whether my description has any reality, or only rhymes, you are better qualified than I am to decide.” 135 135 "He has the soul of a slave, in my opinion. And the State which is enslaved under a tyrant is utterly incapableof acting voluntarily? Utterly incapable. And also the soul which is under a tyrant (I am speaking of the soultaken as a whole) is least capable of doing what she desires; thereis a gadfly which goads her, and she is full of trouble and remorse? Certainly. And is the city which is under a tyrant rich or poor? Poor. And the tyrannical soul must be always poor and insatiable? @@ -3428,19 +3526,18 @@ Yes, he said, he will be in the utmost fear. The time has arrived when he will b Yes, he said, that will be the only way of saving himself. And suppose the same god, who carried him away, to surround him withneighbours who will not suffer one man to be the master of another,and who, if they could catch the offender, would take his life? His case will be still worse, if you suppose him to be everywheresurrounded and watched by enemies. -And is not this the sort of prison in which the tyrant will be bound--he who being by nature such as we have described, is full of allsorts of fears and lusts? His soul is dainty and greedy, and yet alone,of all men in the city, he is never allowed to go on a journey, orto see the things which other freemen desire to see, but he livesin his hole like a woman hidden in the house, and is jealous of anyother citizen who goes into foreign parts and sees anything of interest." "Summary: The text discusses the nature of a tyrannical soul and its effects on the individual and society. +And is not this the sort of prison in which the tyrant will be bound--he who being by nature such as we have described, is full of allsorts of fears and lusts? His soul is dainty and greedy, and yet alone,of all men in the city, he is never allowed to go on a journey, orto see the things which other freemen desire to see, but he livesin his hole like a woman hidden in the house, and is jealous of anyother citizen who goes into foreign parts and sees anything of interest." "Summary: The text discusses the nature of a tyrannical soul and its consequences for both the individual and society. Narrative arc: Philosophical argument -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker and his interlocutor +Active character: The speaker, the person being spoken to Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "And you do have to be a little bit of a sadist if you are going to run your own life. The tyrannical soul is the one that always wins out, and it is only the tyrannical soul which has any chance of happiness."""" For a moment he seemed to listen intently. Then he said: No! I don't hear anything. And yet, by God! they must be coming. But I think they're still down at the corner by the church. They'll keep on circling round for some time before they come up here. There's no real hurry for them; they can afford to take their time."""" I suppose so,"" I said. ""But why should they come up here?"""" To get you,"" he answered harshly. ""I told you, didn't I? that I was going to make you give me back my money? You stole it from me last night. Oh, I know all about it. The police haven't been able to find you because you've been hiding in this house. Well, now, you're not going to hide any longer. Now you're going to come out into the street, where I can get hold of you."""" As he finished speaking, he got up from his chair and began to walk towards the door. His movements were clumsy and uncertain, as though he had never learned how to walk properly. He put his hands out in front of him like a blind man feeling his way, and when he reached the door he bumped against it with his head and cursed. He turned round and looked at me again with an expression of ferocious exasperation. I'm going to see that damned woman,"" he said. Then he made a sudden dash forward. I stood up quickly and caught him by the arm just as he was passing. He screamed with pain and tried to twist himself free, but I held him tight. Get away!"" he cried. ""Let go of me! Let go of me! What do you mean by it? I say let go of me!"""" I am afraid I shall have to hold you for a few minutes longer,"" I said. ""You see, we can't possibly have people running about the streets in a state like this."""" Running about the streets?"" he repeated thickly. ""What do you mean? Who are you talking about?"""" I'm talking about yourself."" For a moment he stared at me, then he burst out laughing. It was a high-pitched, hysterical laugh that made the hairs stand up on my neck. """"Myself?"""" he kept repeating. """"Do you mean to tell me that you think I am mad? Do you really think that I am mad?"""" I said nothing, but I tightened my grip on his arm and forced him back to the table. Sit down,"" I said. ""We can discuss this more comfortably here."""" " +Language: English" "For the nature of a tyrannical soul is this: it takes itself for the measure of all things and never bows to any power but its own. And so, as I say, it is condemned to be a solitary in the midst of men, having no real fellowships, and only friendships that are lies and hollow; until at last, when it begins to taste what life really means, it finds itself alone and friendless, with none to help it or comfort it, and the end of it is madness or worse. And there was a madness on you tonight, a madness born of hatred and despair, which would have driven me mad indeed had I been what I once was, but now, thank God! am not. Well, sir, I hope you will take warning by what you have seen and heard and mend your ways."""" Then he turned to me and said, What do you think of that?"" Well,"" I answered, ""I can't say that I like it very much, but as he is your friend """" Look here, young fellow,"" interrupted the other, ""don't talk to me about friendship, for I tell you it is a thing that does not exist between human beings. It exists between beasts and perhaps between some of these dogs here, but not between men who claim to be civilized. Friendship is a kind of idolatry, a worshiping of another person's beauty, strength, wisdom or goodness because we imagine that they belong to us. " 136 136 "Very true, he said. And amid evils such as these will not he who is ill-governed in hisown person --the tyrannical man, I mean --whom you just now decidedto be the most miserable of all --will not he be yet more miserablewhen, instead of leading a private life, he is constrained by fortuneto be a public tyrant? He has to be master of others when he is notmaster of himself: he is like a diseased or paralytic man who is compelledto pass his life, not in retirement, but fighting and combating withother men. Yes, he said, the similitude is most exact. Is not his case utterly miserable? and does not the actual tyrantlead a worse life than he whose life you determined to be the worst? Certainly. He who is the real tyrant, whatever men may think, is the real slave,and is obliged to practise the greatest adulation and servility, andto be the flatterer of the vilest of mankind. He has desires whichhe is utterly unable to satisfy, and has more wants than any one,and is truly poor, if you know how to inspect the whole soul of him:all his life long he is beset with fear and is full of convulsions,and distractions, even as the State which he resembles: and surelythe resemblance holds? @@ -3456,17 +3553,17 @@ How do you mean? he said. There is one principle with which, as we were saying, That is true, he said. If we were to say that the loves and pleasures of this third partwere concerned with gain, we should then be able to fall back on asingle notion; and might truly and intelligibly describe this partof the soul as loving gain or money. I agree with you. Again, is not the passionate element wholly set on ruling and conqueringand getting fame? True. Suppose we call it the contentious or ambitious --would the term besuitable? -Extremely suitable. On the other hand, every one sees that the principle of knowledgeis wholly directed to the truth, and cares less than either of theothers for gain or fame." "Summary: The speaker discusses the misery of a tyrannical ruler and compares it to a diseased or paralytic person. -Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Extremely suitable. On the other hand, every one sees that the principle of knowledgeis wholly directed to the truth, and cares less than either of theothers for gain or fame." "Summary: The text discusses the misery of a tyrant and compares it to the slave-like existence he leads. +Narrative arc: Philosophical argument +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker, the interlocutor -Time setting: 1950s" "He'll be hanged if I know, and I don't care. But there's a kind of misery in it that makes me tired to think about it. It's like being shut up in a room with someone who has got the plague or something like that; you're afraid they might break out and harm you all over your face."""" This is rather a vulgar way of putting it,"" said Holmes. """"I fancy you have used it of late years only as a figure of speech."""" The lines on my friend's face had deepened for a moment, as if he were thinking of his own hardships, and then he had raised his eyebrows as if in sudden parley with himself. I saw him kiss the tips of his fingers to his lips, """"Aha, Mr. Holmes, a smoke, eh?"""" he cried gleefully, stepping towards his humble desk. Here's the stuff which gives a man a man's welcome. Don't pour water in it, Watson nothing but pure tobacco between your lips and mine."""" He swept five or six empty cigarette packets from the table, and we all drew our chairs up to this grubby but welcoming table. Then Holmes lit his pipe and sat back with a long, pleased breath of contentment. I do not know whether you have ever encountered this remarkable man before,"""" said he. """"I have seldom met a man more exact in his inferences."""" I owe you a thousand apologies,"" said Lestrade, wiping his oily forehead with a handkerchief. You have an extraordinary facility for sneaking up on your subject."""" No, no,"" returned Holmes, laughing. ""Make what excuse you will! I am not at all sorry that I came. Your problem was indeed an interesting one, though I fear that your feelings were quite as much hurt as your judgment by Dr. Mortimer's offhand remarks."""" Emphatically so,"" said Lestrade. """"I told the fellow that I would make it hot for him one of these days."""" I hope you did,"" cried Sir Henry Morstan, burning with anger. It was our only consolation to feel that he was getting less than his deserts. His language had been abominable. He had called Elizabeth a Dolmancian, and had done several other indiscretions which are best forgotten."""" The man's a brute."""" An absolute beast."""" I am glad you have found a new friend, Sir Henry,"" remarked Holmes. """"He speaks well of you, too."""" And he always treated me as if he really cared for me."""" I had remarked the testy jealousy of the Englishman upon any occasion when his sister's name was introduced, but never having yet had occasion to associate it with another lover, I was quite unaware of how very intense his feeling could become if some more real enemy than myself should threaten for one instant the power which he had gained. " +Active character: Tyrannical man, interlocutor +Language: English" "It is a kind of misery the tyrant knows no more of than you or I, and it comes from being a slave to his own passions. He has all the irritability of an over-sensitive man, and no one but another sensitive man can understand what it means to be in the hands of such a devil as that."""" There was a pause, during which I felt my cheeks growing hot, and suddenly he asked: """"Did you ever see a rat caught in a trap?"""" Yes,"" I said, ""I've seen them."" Well, there's your man. A great big brute of a man, and yet when he gets into a corner and feels the trap about him, he goes through all the motions of a trapped rat. It's the same with most men. The beast in us is the same in you and me and every other human creature; we're just the same under our skins, and if you could only get away those skins for a moment you'd see the truth of it."""" I got up and went over to the window, and he followed me and leaned against the sill beside me. Then I looked at him and saw that he was laughing quietly to himself. What are you laughing at?"" I said. He turned and stretched out his hand and put it on my shoulder. """"Friend,"""" he said, """"that's the way God made you and me, and this is how he meant us to live together, so why should we quarrel?"""" I jerked myself free of his hand. """"Don't touch me,"""" I said. And then I turned and walked back to the fireplace and sat down again in my chair. He lit a cigarette, and leaning against the mantelpiece began talking again. We had talked a good deal together since I came to him; I had found him very companionable, and he seemed to enjoy my company as much as I enjoyed his. For half an hour or so we sat like that without speaking; then he began again. You know,"" he said, ""there's one thing I always do when I've been worrying over some job. When I'm alone at night I always go upstairs and sit by the bed and talk to her."""" He broke off abruptly, and I knew that he was thinking of his wife. Then he went on again: """"Do you remember what they used to say about the two old ladies who lived next door to each other? They were both ugly, and they were both widows; and people used to ask them sometimes how they managed to bear it all, and they'd look at each other and say, 'The Lord's will be done.' Well, that's how I feel. What's the use of talking about it?"""" And he took up his book and began to read. I sat thinking about his words until nearly eleven o'clock; then I got up and said good-night to him and went to my room. " 137 137 "Far less. 'Lover of wisdom,' 'lover of knowledge,' are titles which we may fitlyapply to that part of the soul? Certainly. One principle prevails in the souls of one class of men, another inothers, as may happen? Yes. Then we may begin by assuming that there are three classes of men--lovers of wisdom, lovers of honour, lovers of gain? @@ -3490,14 +3587,15 @@ Assuredly. Or if honour or victory or courage, in that case the judgement ofthe Clearly. But since experience and wisdom and reason are the judges-- The only inference possible, he replied, is that pleasures which areapproved by the lover of wisdom and reason are the truest. And so we arrive at the result, that the pleasure of the intelligentpart of the soul is the pleasantest of the three, and that he of usin whom this is the ruling principle has the pleasantest life." "Summary: The text discusses the pleasure and experiences of different classes of men, with a focus on the philosopher's superior knowledge and enjoyment. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Lover of wisdom, lover of honour, lover of gain, philosopher" "The Lover of Wisdom will have his pleasure in the company of all three classes, but he will prefer to enjoy that class which has the greatest knowledge. To him the highest knowledge is that of the Philosopher, and to him, therefore, the highest pleasure is to be found in the company of the philosopher. """"What,"""" you ask, """"is the experience of a philosopher? What does he know that the other classes do not know?"""" I shall tell you. The lover of wisdom knows everything, except that which is not worth knowing. He knows that there are pleasures, and these pleasures he enjoys. He also knows that there are dangers in every pleasure, and so he takes care to enjoy them in safety. He knows that there are people who live by honour, and so he makes friends with them. He knows that there are people who live by gain, and so he studies their ways. He knows that there are people who live for pleasure, and so he joins their circle. He knows that there are men who live for wealth, and so he studies their business. He knows that there are men who live for power, and so he learns from them how to get it. In short, he knows everything, and he uses his knowledge to make his life safe and pleasant. " +Active character: Lover of wisdom, lover of honour, lover of gain +Language: English" "The lover of wisdom has his pleasures too, and they are more lasting. He is not so much a seeker after pleasure as he is a hater of pain; yet pleasure comes to him in the very midst of his struggle against it. In the first place, he knows more about women than any other man. They all come to him for advice when they are in trouble, because he is the only man who understands them thoroughly. When they want to be comforted, they go to him. When they want to be amused, they always choose him for their companion. And when they want to be made love to, they know that they can depend upon him to make love to them in such a way as no one else can. I have seen three different women, each a woman whom I loved dearly, rush into my arms on the same night, and each of them cry out with delight when I kissed her: """"I knew you would do it just as I wanted you to!"""" Now tell me, how many men can say the same thing? The lover of honour enjoys another kind of pleasure. It may sound strange to you, but it is none the less true. The lover of honour does not have to work so hard as the lover of wisdom or the lover of gain. " 138 138 "Unquestionably, he said, the wise man speaks with authority when heapproves of his own life. And what does the judge affirm to be the life which is next, and thepleasure which is next? Clearly that of the soldier and lover of honour; who is nearer tohimself than the money-maker. @@ -3524,17 +3622,15 @@ Yes. Shall I give you an illustration of them? Let me hear. You would allow, I s I should. And if a person were to go from the lower to the middle region, wouldhe not imagine that he is going up; and he who is standing in themiddle and sees whence he has come, would imagine that he is alreadyin the upper region, if he has never seen the true upper world? To be sure, he said; how can he think otherwise? But if he were taken back again he would imagine, and truly imagine,that he was descending?" "Summary: The text discusses the relationship between pleasure, pain, and rest. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical conversation +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Two characters engaged in a philosophical conversation -Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "And the one thing you can say for pain is that it's a lot more fun than all this crap about pleasure and rest."""" The only trouble with pleasure, buddy, is that it usually comes with pain. I'd like to tell you something about it if you're interested."""" I'm listening."" The thing about pleasure is that it always has an undertone of pain in it. That's why we enjoy it so much. What do you think we mean when we say 'wicked' pleasure? We mean pleasure that's strong enough to be dangerous. Do you remember that guy who went around screwing everything that moved? He got tired of pleasure because he couldn't find anything else that had enough kick in it. If you want to see what pleasure really means look at a drunk or a dope fiend. They're both crazy because they're trying to kill pain with pleasure, and the pleasure isn't strong enough to do it. You know what they call that kind of pleasure? Empty pleasure. It doesn't mean a damn thing. It's just something that happens inside us when our bodies are out of joint, and the nerves start jumping. There's nothing wrong with it as long as you understand it's just a kind of sickness. But don't let it fool you into thinking there's something better on the other side of it. All it ever does is make things worse."""" A guy could get pretty depressed listening to you talk,"""" I said. """"I hope you aren't suggesting that I give up women altogether?"""" You were doing fine until you put that question. I'll tell you what it is: you're still under the influence of these damned reformers. Let me ask you something. What would you call a woman who gives herself away free?"""" A whore, I suppose."" And what do you think a whore is? She's a woman who sells her body to anybody who wants it. Isn't she?"""" Well, yes; but "" Yes, but no! You've got your mind so cluttered up with words that you can't see straight any more. You want to know what a whore is? A whore is a woman who takes money for selling herself to one man at a time. That's all. And you want to know what a pimp is? A pimp is a guy who gets a cut of the action because he brings his girl together with a customer. That's all. Now watch this. Suppose you take a hundred girls and give them each ten thousand bucks apiece. Then take them out somewhere on the desert and have some tough guys come along and rape them. How many whores will you have then?"""" I was bewildered. """"I don't know,"""" I said. """"A couple of them maybe."""" " +Active character: The speaker, the person being spoken to +Language: English" "For pleasure you are the girl's own shadow, you don't know where the limit is; for pain you are a man of ice, you can put up with anything; and for rest you have no nerves at all."""" Yes,"" he said. ""I think that's true enough."" I've known other men like you, but you're worse than any of them. You're a hard man to keep in one place. Why don't you get married?"""" I've thought about it,"" he said. ""But I'd be afraid of getting bored. I'm not domestic, and I hate being tied. If I were, I'd marry you."" He smiled rather bitterly. I'd make a good wife for you,"" she said. ""I could look after you, and you could work."""" You're right,"" he said. ""We'd get on well together."" It was raining again when we went upstairs, and there were clouds over the moon. The street lamps looked yellow through the rain. We stood under an archway while he lit his pipe and I smoked a cigarette. """"It was good of you to come out in this rotten weather,"""" he said. """"You might catch cold."""" What's that?"" She had appeared suddenly beside us, wrapped in her mackintosh. You won't catch cold will you?"" No,"" she said. ""I always have an overcoat under my mackintosh."""" I wish you wouldn't call me 'dear.' It makes me feel old."""" Oh!"" Her face fell. """"I'm sorry."""" Well, don't do it again."" He patted her shoulder kindly. ""Don't take it to heart. It doesn't matter."" I could see that she was puzzled. She had never known what the word 'patronising' meant. She turned to me. """"What shall we do now?"""" she asked. He answered before I could speak. """"Let's go back to my rooms,"""" he said. """"There's nothing else to do."""" She nodded, and we followed him across the square. His rooms were on the third floor. There was a long narrow hall, and two doors opening out of it, one at each end. He unlocked the door at the right and switched on the light. The room was large and squalid. There was a bed against the wall, and a deal table littered with newspapers and dirty plates. On the shelves were rows of dusty bottles, empty tins of food, and a saucepan in which lay a dish of mouldy rice. In the middle of the floor was a heap of rags. """"I'm afraid you'll find it pretty filthy,"""" he said. """"I haven't had time to clean up yet."""" It didn't matter,"" she said. ""It's just as good as anywhere else."" She threw off her mackintosh and sat down on the bed. I lit another cigarette. It was curious how I was beginning to like her. She had something that made people like her. " 139 139 "No doubt. All that would arise out of his ignorance of the true upper and middleand lower regions? Yes. Then can you wonder that persons who are inexperienced in the truth,as they have wrong ideas about many other things, should also havewrong ideas about pleasure and pain and the intermediate state; sothat when they are only being drawn towards the painful they feelpain and think the pain which they experience to be real, and in likemanner, when drawn away from pain to the neutral or intermediate state,they firmly believe that they have reached the goal of satiety andpleasure; they, not knowing pleasure, err in contrasting pain withthe absence of pain. which is like contrasting black with grey insteadof white --can you wonder, I say, at this? No, indeed; I should be much more disposed to wonder at the opposite. @@ -3550,15 +3646,17 @@ Far less. And has not the body itself less of truth and essence than the soul? Yes. What is filled with more real existence, and actually has a more realexistence, is more really filled than that which is filled with lessreal existence and is less real? Of course. And if there be a pleasure in being filled with that which is accordingto nature, that which is more really filled with more real being willmore really and truly enjoy true pleasure; whereas that which participatesin less real being will be less truly and surely satisfied, and willparticipate in an illusory and less real pleasure? Unquestionably. Those then who know not wisdom and virtue, and are always busy withgluttony and sensuality, go down and up again as far as the mean;and in this region they move at random throughout life, but they neverpass into the true upper world; thither they neither look, nor dothey ever find their way, neither are they truly filled with truebeing, nor do they taste of pure and abiding pleasure. Like cattle,with their eyes always looking down and their heads stooping to theearth, that is, to the dining-table, they fatten and feed and breed,and, in their excessive love of these delights, they kick and buttat one another with horns and hoofs which are made of iron; and theykill one another by reason of their insatiable lust. For they fillthemselves with that which is not substantial, and the part of themselveswhich they fill is also unsubstantial and incontinent. -Verily, Socrates, said Glaucon, you describe the life of the manylike an oracle." "Summary: The text discusses the relationship between pleasure and pain, and argues that ignorance and folly lead to a false understanding of true pleasure. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Verily, Socrates, said Glaucon, you describe the life of the manylike an oracle." "Summary: The text discusses the relationship between pleasure and pain, and argues that those who are ignorant of true pleasure and wisdom only experience illusory pleasures. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation/dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, Glaucon" "I'm afraid that pleasure is one of those things we can't talk about. It's like trying to tell someone who has never seen green what green looks like. There's no way of describing it except by showing him."""" But you know, Socrates,"" objected Glaucon, ""that if a man who had never seen green should be told that green was the colour of grass and leaves, he would not believe you; he would say that green is only the name which you give to that colour because it happens to resemble grass and leaves."""" Yes, my dear fellow,"" answered Socrates, ""but I am talking of the real nature of pleasure, not of its outward appearance. If a man had never tasted sugar or honey, but had always been in the habit of tasting salt and pepper, and then for the first time were given some sweet food, he would say 'What is this? Salt and pepper taste like this,' and so he would be deceiving himself, as well as others, by his ignorance, if he said that the food tasted like salt and pepper; though in reality it was quite different from either. And so too with pleasure: men are always tasting sweet things in life and thinking they taste like salt and pepper. They mistake them for these when really they are something else. You may call me silly if you like, but I do not think that a false judgment is any better than a false coin. You have sometimes seen false coins, have you not?"" Yes, many times."" Then you must also have noticed that there is a great difference between a false coin and the thing that it imitates. A false coin does not deceive everybody; some people may not even notice it, while others may see it but pass it on without hesitation, and others again may notice it but not care. Only very few people will take a false coin to their mint and try to exchange it for gold."""" That is true enough,"" replied Glaucon, ""but what has all this to do with pleasure?"" Well, now, do you suppose that there is no resemblance between a false coin and a true one?"""" No; I don't suppose that,"" said Glaucon. And do you not think that ignorance is akin to folly?"" Certainly."" And that vice is akin to virtue? Oh, yes."" And that imitation to reality? Of course."" And that to make a false statement is to contradict yourself? Undoubtedly."" Therefore he who says that pleasure is good makes a false statement, since pleasure is not good, but evil?"" How do you mean?"" What I mean,"" said Socrates, ""is that he contradicts himself. For instance, if a man were to say that virtue is the best thing in the world and at the same time that pleasure is the best thing, he would contradict himself. Or again, if he thought that pleasure was the most important thing in the world and yet allowed that war was the greatest good, he would be speaking falsely. " +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" Pleasure is always a lie, Glaucon, and the lover of pleasure will never be able to attain to truth. But you are young, so it is only natural that you should not know this yet. However, one day you will learn. You will get yourself a wife and some children, and the time will come when your wife will fall ill and almost die, and when you will have to watch over her night and day with no sleep for weeks on end, and your heart will bleed, and you will realise then that your life is full of pain, and that all these pleasures were nothing but dreams.” “But what about those who are ignorant of true pleasure and wisdom?” I said. “Don’t they get any pleasure from their illusory pleasures?” “They do indeed,” he said. “That is why we say that ignorance is bliss. For if they knew how terrible the truth is, they would be utterly unable to endure their lives. They will go on being tormented by desires for things which they cannot obtain, and they will remain slaves of their own passions, and will suffer in body and soul. And yet they will cling to these illusory pleasures, because they are afraid of the real ones. Or perhaps they prefer them, for the path to wisdom is hard, and they would rather be fools than philosophers.” I laughed. “You really are a cynic,” I said. “There’s no other word for it.” “Perhaps so,” he replied. “But what else can one call someone who despises everyone and everything?” “A misanthrope,” I suggested. “Yes, that too,” he said. “And what do you think of me now, my friend? Am I still just an old man, or am I something more?” “I don’t know,” I said. “You’re certainly not just an old man.” “Well, do you think I’m mad?” “No,” I said. “But you’re very odd.” “Not as odd as you might think,” he said. “You see, I am not like most people. Most people are content to live their lives in ignorance, and to take pleasure in the simple things in life: food, drink, sex, money, power. They are happy to be slaves, and they do not want to be free. They are content to live in the darkness, and they do not want to see the light. But I am different. I want to know the truth, and I want to be free. And so I must confront the darkness and the evil that lies at its heart. I must face the demons of my own mind, and I must fight them with every fibre of my being. For I am a soldier of the light, and I will not rest until I have conquered the darkness within me.” He paused, and then he looked at me and smiled. 140 140 "Their pleasures are mixed with pains --how can they be otherwise?For they are mere shadows and pictures of the true, and are colouredby contrast, which exaggerates both light and shade, and so they implantin the minds of fools insane desires of themselves; and they are foughtabout as Stesichorus says that the Greeks fought about the shadowof Helen at Troy in ignorance of the truth. Something of that sort must inevitably happen. And must not the like happen with the spirited or passionate elementof the soul? Will not the passionate man who carries his passion intoaction, be in the like case, whether he is envious and ambitious,or violent and contentious, or angry and discontented, if he be seekingto attain honour and victory and the satisfaction of his anger withoutreason or sense? Yes, he said, the same will happen with the spirited element also. @@ -3582,17 +3680,16 @@ Yes; the arithmetician will easily do the sum. Or if some person begins at the o What a wonderful calculation! And how enormous is the distance whichseparates the just from the unjust in regard to pleasure and pain! Yet a true calculation, I said, and a number which nearly concernshuman life, if human beings are concerned with days and nights andmonths and years. Yes, he said, human life is certainly concerned with them. -Then if the good and just man be thus superior in pleasure to theevil and unjust, his superiority will be infinitely greater in proprietyof life and in beauty and virtue?" "Summary: The text discusses the pleasures and pains of different elements of the soul, particularly the lovers of money and honor. +Then if the good and just man be thus superior in pleasure to theevil and unjust, his superiority will be infinitely greater in proprietyof life and in beauty and virtue?" "Summary: The text discusses the pleasures and pains of different individuals, particularly focusing on the tyrant and the king. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical dialogue +Literary form: Philosophical argument Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The two characters engaging in the conversation -Time setting: 1950s" At the same time, this element had a pain in its soul because of the others, and it tried to escape from them by running away and hiding. I was that element. The element which loved money and honor was the one who got his pleasure out of seeing me run away and hide. He got pleasure out of all this even if he himself suffered pain because of me; but the two elements were different people: he didn’t love me, while I loved him.” “What do you mean? You don’t make sense,” said the other. “I am trying to explain something to you, but you can’t understand. It is just like in Hitchcock’s movies, where someone is being chased and he jumps out of a window, and when he hits the ground he breaks his leg and cries with pain. But the man who chases him gets great pleasure out of seeing him jump out of the window and break his leg. In the same way, when I saw that the two elements—the element that loved money and honor and the element that feared death—were separate people, I felt happy, and began to believe that there is no God. If there were a God, then the elements would not be different people, they would be one person, and they would suffer together, and the one who loves money and honor would be sorry for the one who fears death. And so, as long as there was a God, I could not believe that there was only one element in my soul. I thought that there must be at least three elements: the element that loved money and honor, the element that feared death, and the element that believed in God. +Language: English" The pleasures of the tyrant are not so much to be envied as those of the King: and his pains are more dreadful, because they have no alleviations. The pleasures of the man who is perpetually in terror, may be said to be a torment; and there is no greater torment than that which arises from excess of pain or pleasure. — But we will consider these things at large hereafter. THE THIRD BOOK. Of the PASSIONS. CHAP. I. Concerning the Pains and Pleasures of the Mind. 1. Since it is manifest that the sensations of pleasure and pain are caused by the different motions of the animal spirits, and the organs of the body which are acted upon by them, we may now inquire how far this doctrine will serve to explain the nature of the passions, which are commonly allowed to be the most powerful motives of human actions. For I would fain reduce all the actions of man to what shall be deducible from some very few principles; for such an arrangement of them will, I think, give us greater light into the nature of the mind, and make us see how they may be harmonically disposed. 2. It is agreed on all hands, that the great and diffuse scene of the world is a theatre of wars, rapines, and plunderings; of policy, ambition, and revenge: that men are generally violent in their desires, perverse in their affections, and sour, peevish, and discontented in their tempers. They quarrel with one another for trifles, and value themselves upon their own parts, and the advantages of their station. If they meet with any opposition in their designs, they are apt to be angry, and show their anger in many ways; and if they cannot satisfy their appetites, they fret and chafe. These, and such as these, are the constant complaints of mankind. But yet I think they do not express the true state of human nature half so strongly as they might do; and would represent it in a much truer light, if they would be more careful in observing the symptoms of the passions, and did not content themselves with expressing the rage and fury of the mind without saying any thing to the matter. 3. When a man meets with any sensible good or evil, he is affected with pleasure or pain; and every one may observe this in himself, and consequently may conclude, that every other individual has the same faculties as himself, and therefore the same manner of sensibility, and consequently is affected in the same manner with himself in most cases. And after he has had often observed the symptoms of joy and grief, anger and fear, when they appear in others, he will find that he may thence guess pretty well what is passing in their minds, though perhaps he be ignorant of the occasion of their passion. 141 141 "Immeasurably greater. Well, I said, and now having arrived at this stage of the argument,we may revert to the words which brought us hither: Was not some onesaying that injustice was a gain to the perfectly unjust who was reputedto be just? Yes, that was said. Now then, having determined the power and quality of justice and injustice,let us have a little conversation with him. What shall we say to him? Let us make an image of the soul, that he may have his own words presentedbefore his eyes. @@ -3610,18 +3707,18 @@ Yes, he said, that is quite what the maintainer of justice say. And so from every point of view, whether of pleasure, honour, or advantage,the approver of justice is right and speaks the truth, and the disapproveris wrong and false and ignorant. Yes, from every point of view. Come, now, and let us gently reason with the unjust, who is not intentionallyin error. 'Sweet Sir,' we will say to him, what think you of thingsesteemed noble and ignoble? Is not the noble that which subjects thebeast to the man, or rather to the god in man; and the ignoble thatwhich subjects the man to the beast?' He can hardly avoid saying yes--can he now?" "Summary: The text is a conversation between two characters discussing the nature of justice and injustice. Narrative arc: Philosophical argument -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Two characters having the conversation +Active character: The speaker, the person being spoken to Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "She said, """"You're a man who has the bad habit of doing things."""" I said, """"I'm not denying it. I have the bad habit of doing things."""" She said, """"It's lucky for you that you do."""" I said, """"Why is it lucky?"""" She said, """"Because if you didn't, you'd be like other men, and then where would you be? Nowhere."""" She was right there, but she wasn't telling me anything new. I said, """"Thanks."""" She said, """"Don't mention it,"""" and I laughed at her. Then she said, """"If you hadn't done what you did, how would you have spent your evening?"""" I said, """"I wouldn't have spent any evening. I would have been in bed early. I don't sleep much these days, but I get to bed early."""" She said, """"You're a man with a conscience."""" I said, """"I'm a man with nothing except the clothes on my back and the price on my head."""" She said, """"You can't fool me. You're a man with a conscience and a sense of justice."""" I laughed out loud again. I couldn't help it. She was too much. I said, """"Justice! What do you know about justice?"""" -" +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "Look at it this way. It's simple justice, that's all. We're all in the same boat together and we've got to look after each other or we sink. The bloke on the top deck may be able to stand a lot more of the water than you or me but he's not going to save his own skin by leaving us to drown now, is he?"""" He said, """"I think you've been knocking back a spot too many, mister."""" I said, """"Thanks very much for the tip but if you want to get technical about it there's only one bloke left on board this boat and he's up here with me right now, so don't let's start telling each other how to mind our own business."""" I was getting rather excited about it because it seemed to me the whole thing boiled down to just one question: how do you feel about your brother? If you feel so darned bad about him you ought to have gone down into the hold with him instead of having a drink with me."""" The other fellow looked like an old man when he heard that. He said, """"You can go straight to hell,"""" and walked off down the stairs without another word. I didn't think much of my own company after that and I went downstairs myself and had another drink. It was too late to go home and I wasn't going to leave my car parked there until morning. There were plenty of taxis cruising around and I took one and drove back to Sydney. CHAPTER FOURTEEN * * * * * When I got home I found a cable waiting for me. It was from Benham. Will take first flight to meet you. Can you put us up? Benham. After I'd read it twice I phoned the airline and booked two seats for the following day. Then I had dinner and went to bed early. Next morning I turned over in bed and thought about the fellow who wouldn't talk to me. Well, why should he? Maybe he was a crook and maybe he wasn't but what did it matter? He might be a crook and I might be a crook. What difference does it make to any of us? We're all in the same boat together, that's all. And then I remembered something else. I remembered what happened to the dead body in the hold of the ship. The police found out who it was and they handed the case over to the coroner. They found out who he was but they didn't find out who killed him. They never will either. And now they know that he was aboard the ship they'll probably open their eyes pretty wide. But they won't find out anything different from what they knew already. The dead man and the fellow who wouldn't talk to me are probably cousins or brothers or both. All right, they weren't exactly angels. Neither am I. " 142 142 "Not if he has any regard for my opinion. But, if he agree so far, we may ask him to answer another question:'Then how would a man profit if he received gold and silver on thecondition that he was to enslave the noblest part of him to the worst?Who can imagine that a man who sold his son or daughter into slaveryfor money, especially if he sold them into the hands of fierce andevil men, would be the gainer, however large might be the sum whichhe received? And will any one say that he is not a miserable caitiffwho remorselessly sells his own divine being to that which is mostgodless and detestable? Eriphyle took the necklace as the price ofher husband's life, but he is taking a bribe in order to compass aworse ruin.' Yes, said Glaucon, far worse --I will answer for him. Has not the intemperate been censured of old, because in him the hugemultiform monster is allowed to be too much at large? Clearly. And men are blamed for pride and bad temper when the lion and serpentelement in them disproportionately grows and gains strength? @@ -3635,18 +3732,18 @@ From no point of view at all. What shall he profit, if his injustice be undetect Certainly, he said. To this nobler purpose the man of understanding will devote the energiesof his life. And in the first place, he will honour studies whichimpress these qualities on his soul and disregard others? Clearly, he said. In the next place, he will regulate his bodily habit and training,and so far will he be from yielding to brutal and irrational pleasures,that he will regard even health as quite a secondary matter; his firstobject will be not that he may be fair or strong or well, unless heis likely thereby to gain temperance, but he will always desire soto attemper the body as to preserve the harmony of the soul? Certainly he will, if he has true music in him. And in the acquisition of wealth there is a principle of order andharmony which he will also observe; he will not allow himself to bedazzled by the foolish applause of the world, and heap up riches tohis own infinite harm? -Certainly not, he said. He will look at the city which is within him, and take heed that nodisorder occur in it, such as might arise either from superfluityor from want; and upon this principle he will regulate his propertyand gain or spend according to his means." "Summary: The text discusses the concept of slavery and its consequences, focusing on the idea that selling one's soul to evil is worse than material gain. +Certainly not, he said. He will look at the city which is within him, and take heed that nodisorder occur in it, such as might arise either from superfluityor from want; and upon this principle he will regulate his propertyand gain or spend according to his means." "Summary: The text discusses the concept of slavery and its consequences, focusing on the idea that selling oneself to evil is worse than selling one's child into slavery. +Trope: Organized crime Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation +Literary form: Philosophical argument Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Glaucon -Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "There are many ways to own a man, Glaucon, and they are all forms of slavery. I do not say that the slaves are always worse off than the masters, but each is worse in his own way. If you will walk down the street with me, I will show you what I mean."""" Glaucon rose from his chair, dusted off his trousers, and followed Cramer out into the corridor. They descended the stairs together and walked to the corner where it turned at the right angle. The neon light of the sex shop still blazed on the opposite wall; the girl was still leaning against the door, still wearing her red sweater. The two men stopped across the street from her. I don't know how you feel about her,"" Cramer said, ""but I can tell you this: if she's your wife or your daughter, then you have been sold to her. You belong to her. You owe her everything. Whatever she wants of you, you must give her. If you love her, she owns your soul; and that is true slavery."""" Glaucon looked at him sharply. """"I don't think so,"""" he said. """"If I love her, then she owns nothing of mine. It's an exchange. She gives me pleasure, and I give it back. That's free love. That isn't slavery."""" Then you're wrong,"" Cramer said. ""Suppose you go over there and ask her for a ride. Suppose you take her home with you tonight. And suppose you give her whatever she wants. Would you call that freedom?"""" Yes,"" Glaucon said. He hesitated for a moment, staring across the street. Then he crossed the street and stood before the girl. Hi,"" he said. ""How about a ride?"" She smiled at him and nodded her head. Glaucon put out his hand. """"Give me your ticket,"""" he said. As she handed it to him, he glanced at the number on the ticket. 2044,"" he read aloud. There was no number 2044 in the apartment house. That was just as well. CHAPTER XII. THE DREAM OF A WILD BOAR At midnight there was a knock on the front door. Glaucon opened it and found two policemen standing outside. Hello, boys,"" he said. ""What brings you here?"" One of them held up a folded sheet of paper. This is a warrant for the arrest of Richard Carter."" Oh?"" Glaucom said. ""Well, come on in. I'm sure we can work something out."""" He stepped back and let them enter. One of the men carried a black bag. The other closed the door behind him and leaned against it. I want to see Mr. Carter,"" the first one said. Well, you've seen him,"" Glaucon said. ""Now what's all this about a warrant?"""" There's a fugitive living in your apartment who calls himself Richard Carter. His real name is Victor Warling. He escaped from a prison camp in Germany last summer and came to America aboard a freighter."""" " +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "It's the best thing that can happen to him. He'll be a slave all right, but at least he won't be a slave to fear."""" You talk like one of those reformers,"" I said. ""I wonder if you know what reformers are?"""" I did not wait for an answer. The sentence was all I had time for. From the doorway on my left came the sound of a shot. A bullet struck the wall behind me and splattered my shoulder with plaster and dust. The door opened wide and I saw a group of men in the room beyond. Their faces were blackened with soot and their eyes shone white in the darkness. They were ready for action. For a moment they stood still, then they began to swing their guns around until they pointed at me. What happened after that is a blur. There was no sound except the muffled voices of the men who spoke to each other as they moved forward. I knew they were coming for me, but I could not move; I could not even breathe. It seemed to me that I was frozen stiff where I stood. Then the light in the room grew stronger and the door swung open wide. For a moment I thought that I was saved, but it was only the janitor coming in to see what the shooting was about. The light showed his face, and I saw that he was dead. And then I remembered the words of the man who sold his child into slavery. Sell yourself to evil,"" he said, ""and you become evil. In the end you will sell your own blood to death."""" I looked down and saw that I held a pistol in my hand. CHAPTER XV THE HOLE IN THE WALL I do not remember how I got to my room. The next thing I remember is waking up in bed. My first thought was that I must have been dreaming, but when I put my hand on my forehead I felt a bandage. That convinced me I was really sick. After that I was very sick indeed. It was several days before I could sit up without fainting. When I was able to move about I went downstairs to find out what had happened to me. On the way I met Mr. Pinkerton, who asked me how I felt. Very sick,"" I said. ""What happened to me?"""" You were shot,"" he said. ""You are lucky to be alive."" He told me how the gang came for me and how he managed to get them outside just before they found me. Then he called the police and gave them the names of the men who had been in the room. After that he went to the hospital and stayed there until I was able to go home. He has done more than that,"" I said. """"He has saved my life."""" No doubt about that,"" Mr. Pinkerton said. ""And now you can tell me how you managed to get out of the place without being seen."""" I'm sure I don't know,"" I said. " 143 143 "Very true. And, for the same reason, he will gladly accept and enjoy such honoursas he deems likely to make him a better man; but those, whether privateor public, which are likely to disorder his life, he will avoid? Then, if that is his motive, he will not be a statesman. By the dog of Egypt, he will! in the city which 's his own he certainlywill, though in the land of his birth perhaps not, unless he havea divine call. @@ -3671,14 +3768,16 @@ Impossible. And there is another artist, --I should like to know what you woulds Who is he? One who is the maker of all the works of all other workmen. What an extraordinary man! Wait a little, and there will be more reason for your saying so. Forthis is he who is able to make not only vessels of every kind, butplants and animals, himself and all other things --the earth and heaven,and the things which are in heaven or under the earth; he makes thegods also. He must be a wizard and no mistake. Oh! you are incredulous, are you? Do you mean that there is no suchmaker or creator, or that in one sense there might be a maker of allthese things but in another not? Do you see that there is a way inwhich you could make them all yourself?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the role of poetry and its effects on the understanding of the hearers. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, Glaucon" "The hell I'm going to do!"" he shouted. ""I didn't come here to have a lot of cheese-parer talk handed me! You're taking me for some kind of fool, aren't you?"""" He was livid with rage. I'll tell you what it is, Socrates,"" Glaucon said. ""It's this modern poetry that's doing it. It's got the people all soft in the head."""" Soft in the head!"" Socrates mimicked him. ""Soft in the head! Well, maybe they are, but don't blame it on my poetry, buddy boy! I'd like to see you try to read the stuff I've been handing out lately! If it doesn't make your hair stand up, then you haven't any hair!"""" Socrates wasn't talking about his recent poems. He was referring to those of another poet, a new arrival from Hellas, whom he had been introducing to some of the more literate members of his audience. The newcomer had arrived in Athens only a few days before, and he had already made a deep impression on the city. He had also aroused considerable antagonism among certain older poets, who felt that his success was due largely to the fact that he wrote in a style that was easily understood by the common man. They resented this, claiming that poetry should be reserved for those who were educated and refined enough to appreciate its subtleties. One of these older poets was a friend of Socrates', and the two had become embroiled in a heated argument over the issue. And you know what the guy did?"" Socrates asked Glaucon. """"He actually told me that I should start writing poetry again! Can you imagine that? Me write poetry after all these years! Well, let me tell you something, buddy boy. I haven't written a decent poem since the day I woke up and found that old snake coiled around my neck! As far as I'm concerned, poetry is nothing but a lot of hooey!"""" You may think so,"" Glaucon said, ""but there are still plenty of people out there who love it."""" Yeah, well, you can go tell them to get their heads examined!"" Socrates was furious. ""What do they expect me to write about, anyway? All the good subjects are taken!"""" There are always new subjects to discover,"" Glaucon said. ""You just have to look for them."""" Look for them! Hah! I've been looking for twenty years, and all I've found is a bunch of garbage!"""" You just need to find the right angle,"" Glaucon suggested. ""A fresh perspective."""" Right angle, huh?"" Socrates grunted. ""Okay, smarty, how about this: 'The sun rose, and the dew fell on the sleeping grass.' Is that fresh enough for you?"""" He spoke in a harsh, vivid voice, like one of those movie narrators you hear in Hitchcock movies. " +Active character: Socrates, Glaucon +Quoted work: Homer's works +Language: English" He’ll be driven to it, I promise you, when he finds that the only other alternative is death.” “The other alternative?” “Poetry. He’ll have to go in for poetry or die. And if he goes in for poetry, the effect on his understanding will be as bad as if he went in for anything else.” “I don’t understand,” said Glaucon; “you’ll have to explain yourself more clearly.” Socrates sighed. “It’s no wonder you don’t understand,” he said, “when you never listen. I’ve been talking all the time about Homer and his works.” “And now you are talking about poetry in general, and not about Homer any longer. You mustn’t be surprised if we don’t know what you mean by poetry. Do you suppose that we have been living for years without knowing the difference between a sonnet and an ode? Between epic and tragedy? Between satire and eulogy? Between lyric and pastoral?” “You needn’t get angry,” said Socrates mildly. “I admit that you know all the different kinds of poetry. But you don’t realize that they are all one, because you think that what they have in common is their form, whereas the real common element is their effect on the soul. It is this effect that brings them all under a single head. 144 144 "What way? An easy way enough; or rather, there are many ways in which the featmight be quickly and easily accomplished, none quicker than that ofturning a mirror round and round --you would soon enough make thesun and the heavens, and the earth and yourself, and other animalsand plants, and all the, other things of which we were just now speaking,in the mirror. Yes, he said; but they would be appearances only. Very good, I said, you are coming to the point now. And the paintertoo is, as I conceive, just such another --a creator of appearances,is he not? Of course. But then I suppose you will say that what he creates is untrue. Andyet there is a sense in which the painter also creates a bed? @@ -3701,16 +3800,17 @@ Good, I said; then you call him who is third in the descent from naturean imitat Certainly, he said. And the tragic poet is an imitator, and therefore, like all otherimitators, he is thrice removed from the king and from the truth? That appears to be so. Then about the imitator we are agreed. And what about the painter?--I would like to know whether he may be thought to imitate that whichoriginally exists in nature, or only the creations of artists? The latter. As they are or as they appear? You have still to determine this. -What do you mean? I mean, that you may look at a bed from different points of view,obliquely or directly or from any other point of view, and the bedwill appear different, but there is no difference in reality. Andthe same of all things." "Summary: The text discusses the concept of imitation and creation, with a focus on the difference between reality and appearances. -Trope: The distinction between reality and appearance +What do you mean? I mean, that you may look at a bed from different points of view,obliquely or directly or from any other point of view, and the bedwill appear different, but there is no difference in reality. Andthe same of all things." "Summary: The text discusses the concept of imitation and creation, with a focus on the painter and his ability to create appearances rather than reality. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Philosophical dialogue -Literary movement: Hardboiled" Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery, but imitation is also a criminal offence. The law allows for a certain amount of copying in the interests of variety; it’s a good thing to have more than one brand of soap. But when you begin to imitate things which are dangerous or harmful, and then put them on the market under a spurious label, that’s where the law draws the line. Now, I think we can take it as certain that the person who invented the double-cross system was a professional criminal, or at any rate had been inside at some time or another, and knew how the police worked. And if he was a really first-class brain, he’d know the difference between what is true and what appears to be true, and he’d know that it would do no harm to plant false clues just for the sake of adding to the confusion. You’ve heard all about this business of “false clues,” I suppose? Well, here’s an example that happened only a week ago in London. A young fellow called Fennell got himself mixed up with some pretty shady characters, and he had to disappear for a bit, and he took refuge in a friend’s house in Kent. Well, he used to go out walking sometimes, and one day he disappeared altogether. They found his hat and coat in the house, and they searched all over the place, and even advertised in the papers, but they couldn’t find a trace of him. Then a little later on, someone saw a man answering his description getting off a boat-train from Dover, and they put two and two together, and started looking for him along the south coast. It was quite simple. There was no need to make it complicated by having false clues. Only these people who want to prove themselves geniuses seem to like complicating things. That’s why I don’t mind admitting that I’m not a genius. I’m just a plain, blunt-spoken American who prefers the truth to anything else. Take this new idea of mine, for instance. I told you last night that I’d got it all worked out now. Well, that isn’t strictly true. All I’ve done is to clear up a few points, and to define my position more accurately. The basic facts haven’t altered at all; there’s no reason why they should. And that’s just what you’ll find if you investigate the affair properly. You’re making it far too complicated. If you don’t believe me, let’s get down to facts again. We’ll start with the gun. Where did you find it? In the library, isn’t it? That’s right. Now the point about that is this: Why was it hidden in the library? It wasn’t there because it belonged to Mr. Rycroft or Miss Milanchamp. It belonged to Mr. Franklin. So why didn’t he leave it in his bedroom? He might have forgotten it, or dropped it anywhere in the house. +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "Imitation, if you like. But creation is what matters. The painter does not put down the appearance of things; he puts down the thing itself. He is a creator, and so am I. All you have to do is to learn your place. And now get out, you dirty little beast."""" The man looked at him with an expression half dazed and half cunning, and then turned away. Goodwin went on talking to himself as he paced up and down the room. There are no good reasons,"" he said. ""There never were any good reasons for murder. That's why there are so few murderers in the world. Murder is always a gamble, and a damn' poor one at that. The murderer has to take a lot on his own shoulders. He gets rid of somebody whom he doesn't like, but he finds out that he didn't want to get rid of quite as much as he thought. He's got to live with his act all his life. He's got to invent a lot of alibis and explanations. And when he's invented them, he finds he's still living with his act all the same. He can't go back now. He's got to live it out to the end. He's got to run the race to the tape. Because if he tries to chuck it, people will be looking for him, and he won't have a chance. No, there aren't any good reasons for murder. It's just a matter of temperament."""" Then he stopped, and stood thinking deeply. I wonder,"" he said presently, """"if that poor devil over there had any idea of killing me. I doubt it. I fancy he only wanted to find out whether I was here or not. If I'd been here, he might have tried something else. As it was, he couldn't think of anything better than this. Well, it was cheap enough at the price. He's paid for it now."""" And turning abruptly, he walked across to where the body lay. It seemed to Goodwin, who was accustomed to judging men by their faces, that death had done its work well. The man's face was almost beautiful now. There was a sort of pathetic nobility about it. Not even the brutality of the murder could mar it. It was as though death had come for him at last, and he had gone gladly. Goodwin bent over the body, and after some fumbling in his pockets drew out a small packet of letters and a sheaf of newspaper cuttings. These, then, must be the evidence against him. There would be nothing very sensational about them, probably. They would be the kind of thing that makes people gossips and bores. Goodwin knew from long experience how easy it was to make a man look guilty. He had seen many men hounded into jail by police detectives who believed implicitly in their own methods. " 145 145 "Yes, he said, the difference is only apparent. Now let me ask you another question: Which is the art of paintingdesigned to be --an imitation of things as they are, or as they appear--of appearance or of reality? Of appearance. Then the imitator, I said, is a long way off the truth, and can doall things because he lightly touches on a small part of them, andthat part an image. For example: A painter will paint a cobbler, carpenter,or any other artist, though he knows nothing of their arts; and, ifhe is a good artist, he may deceive children or simple persons, whenhe shows them his picture of a carpenter from a distance, and theywill fancy that they are looking at a real carpenter. Certainly. And whenever any one informs us that he has found a man knows allthe arts, and all things else that anybody knows, and every singlething with a higher degree of accuracy than any other man --whoevertells us this, I think that we can only imagine to be a simple creaturewho is likely to have been deceived by some wizard or actor whom hemet, and whom he thought all-knowing, because he himself was unableto analyse the nature of knowledge and ignorance and imitation. @@ -3720,16 +3820,18 @@ Now do you suppose that if a person were able to make the originalas well as the I should say not. The real artist, who knew what he was imitating, would be interestedin realities and not in imitations; and would desire to leave as memorialsof himself works many and fair; and, instead of being the author ofencomiums, he would prefer to be the theme of them. Yes, he said, that would be to him a source of much greater honourand profit. Then, I said, we must put a question to Homer; not about medicine,or any of the arts to which his poems only incidentally refer: weare not going to ask him, or any other poet, whether he has curedpatients like Asclepius, or left behind him a school of medicine suchas the Asclepiads were, or whether he only talks about medicine andother arts at second hand; but we have a right to know respectingmilitary tactics, politics, education, which are the chiefest andnoblest subjects of his poems, and we may fairly ask him about them.'Friend Homer,' then we say to him, 'if you are only in the secondremove from truth in what you say of virtue, and not in the third--not an image maker or imitator --and if you are able to discernwhat pursuits make men better or worse in private or public life,tell us what State was ever better governed by your help? The goodorder of Lacedaemon is due to Lycurgus, and many other cities greatand small have been similarly benefited by others; but who says thatyou have been a good legislator to them and have done them any good?Italy and Sicily boast of Charondas, and there is Solon who is renownedamong us; but what city has anything to say about you?' Is there anycity which he might name? -I think not, said Glaucon; not even the Homerids themselves pretendthat he was a legislator." "Summary: The speaker discusses the difference between painting and reality, and questions whether poets truly understand the subjects they write about. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +I think not, said Glaucon; not even the Homerids themselves pretendthat he was a legislator." "Summary: The speaker discusses the difference between painting as an imitation of reality or appearance, and questions whether poets truly understand the subjects they write about. +Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation -Active character: Glaucon +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: Speaker, Glaucon Quoted work: Homer's poems -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "Auch wenn er sie mal wieder absetzt, das sind doch immer nur Farben und Pinselstriche. Da kann man den Menschen nicht von seinen wahren Farben und Strichen unterscheiden. Und da fangen sie an zu lachen und schauen auf mich herab wie ein Bndchen Kinder, die sich ber eine alte Hexe lustig machen. Und das wre ja auch gut genug, wenn ich nur ein kleines Kind wren knnte; aber nein, ich bin ein groes Mdchen, und kein Mensch versteht mich, weil keiner mich ernst nimmt. Und deswegen fluche ich dann so ber jeden und mge ihn gleich hier im Wald finden, wo er sich vor meinen Flchen verstecken kann!"""" Glaucon stand schon einige Zeit ruhig neben ihr und hatte es sehr unbehaglich gefunden, was er hren mute. Jetzt sagte er: """"Nun, nun, nun, du mu mir einmal sagen, warum bist du denn eigentlich so zornig? Ich meine, der Maler hat dir doch keinen Schaden getan, vielleicht kriegst du ja sogar ein paar Bilder von ihm fr deine Wohnung."""" Aber darber habe ich mich nie gekmmert"", erwiderte sie, ""aber was ist das fr ein Mensch, dem wir uns vertrauen sollen? Wie wei ich denn, ob er nicht etwa hinter mir her ist? Vielleicht will er mich gar entwhnen, und ich werde noch in seinem Bilde leben, ohne wirklich zu leben, das ist mir nicht recht, das ist mir nicht recht! Denn bei einem Maler bin ich doch nie sicher, ich sage dir, ich habe mehr als einen Maler gesehen, der sein eigenes Bild ganz lieber in die Hhle eines Fabeltiers oder in die Mitte einer Schlange gesteckt hat, statt es unter seinen Freunden aufzuhngen. Das haben sie alles von Homer gelernt, und das sind die frechen Kerle, denen wir uns vertrauen sollen! Aber ich danke ihnen sehr, Herr Glaucon, ich danke ihnen sehr!"""" Und damit machte sie sich auf den Weg nach Hause. Glaucon sah ihr eine Weile verwirrt nach; dann rief er: """"Hallo, Nausikaa, halt einmal an!"""" Sie blieb stehen und drehte sich um. Er sagte jetzt: """"Du hast recht, das verstehe ich nicht. Es mut ja ziemlich kompliziert sein, was du meinst, sonst wrde jeder es begreifen, der deinen Vater kennt, und der denkt viel nach. Aber du kannst mir doch sagen, woher du wohl wissen willst, da dein Vater ein Dichter ist?"""" Nun"", sagte sie, ""das kann man doch leicht merken, und ich hoffe nur, du bist nicht so dumm, das zu vergessen. Denn die meisten Leute vergessen das eben, und wenn sie mir dann einiges von Homers Gedichten vorsagen, da fangen sie gleich an zu lachen und wollen mich mit ihrem Spott erschrecken, weil ich's nicht auffasse; aber ich mu lachen, wenn ich sehe, da sie's selbst nicht auffassen, und dann mache ich ihnen ganz schnell klar, was sie nicht verstehen, und dann wollen sie wieder lachen, aber ich lache ber sie, und dann wollen sie wieder mich erschrecken, und ich bin froh, da ich weglaufen kann."""" Und wie machst du das?"" fragte Glaucon. " +Language: English" "I like the sort of painting you mean, but I think that Homer and his followers paint with too broad a brush. Their pictures are crude and vulgar. They want to give you the appearance as well as the reality, and I don't believe that it is possible to do both in art. When they try for the appearance, their work becomes common, like those wax dolls that we used to make when we were children. They look exactly like real people, but they have no life or soul inside them."""" If they had the soul,"" said Glaucon, ""they wouldn't be so ugly."" It's worse than that,"" said Socrates; ""not only are they ugly, but their ugliness is so unpleasant that you can hardly bear to look at them. And yet they are very popular among men who ought to know better. That is because most people like appearances better than realities. They are like the grocers and bakers, who sell us things that look beautiful but taste horrid. But poetry should not appeal to the senses only, although the poet himself may be sensual enough. Poetry should go straight into the soul of man and arouse some passion there."""" Then you would hardly call Homer a poet?"" asked Glaucon. No, my friend, I don't think Homer was a poet, if by a poet you mean one who knows what he is talking about. His poems are full of lies, and I don't see how a man who tells lies can be either a poet or a philosopher. But if by a poet you mean a man who can put together words and sentences in such a way that they sound fine and exciting, then Homer was a great poet. He could say things in a grand style, and he could tell stories that kept you on the edge of your seat; but I doubt whether he knew much more about gods and heroes than the rest of us."""" Then what do you suppose he thought he was doing when he wrote his poems?"" Why, I imagine that he thought he was giving us a picture of gods and heroes. But he never understood them at all. You see, he didn't know anything about reality, and he couldn't draw unless he saw something first. He must have been rather like the prisoners in our cave, who never get out into the sunlight. All that they know is the shadows on the wall, and they think that these shadows are the only reality. So Homer tried to copy the shadows of reality instead of reality itself; and this made his work shallow and vulgar. The same thing happens to poets nowadays. Take those two fellows who write the best detective stories, Mr. Conrad and Mr. Chesterton: they are clever men, and they certainly understand reality when they see it; but they don't know anything about detectives. " 146 146 "Well, but is there any war on record which was carried on successfullyby him, or aided by his counsels, when he was alive? There is not. Or is there any invention of his, applicable to the arts or to humanlife, such as Thales the Milesian or Anacharsis the Scythian, andother ingenious men have conceived, which is attributed to him? There is absolutely nothing of the kind. But, if Homer never did any public service, was he privately a guideor teacher of any? Had he in his lifetime friends who loved to associatewith him, and who handed down to posterity an Homeric way of life,such as was established by Pythagoras who was so greatly beloved forhis wisdom, and whose followers are to this day quite celebrated forthe order which was named after him? @@ -3741,17 +3843,15 @@ Yes, he said. They are like faces which were never really beautiful, but only bl Exactly. Here is another point: The imitator or maker of the image knows nothingof true existence; he knows appearances only. Am I not right? Yes. Then let us have a clear understanding, and not be satisfied withhalf an explanation. Proceed. Of the painter we say that he will paint reins, and he will painta bit? -Yes. And the worker in leather and brass will make them? Certainly. But does the painter know the right form of the bit and reins? Nay,hardly even the workers in brass and leather who make them; only thehorseman who knows how to use them --he knows their right form." "Summary: The text discusses the lack of evidence that Homer was a wise or influential figure during his lifetime, and questions whether he actually had any knowledge or ability to educate people. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Yes. And the worker in leather and brass will make them? Certainly. But does the painter know the right form of the bit and reins? Nay,hardly even the workers in brass and leather who make them; only thehorseman who knows how to use them --he knows their right form." "Summary: The text discusses the lack of evidence that Homer was a wise or influential figure during his lifetime, and questions why he is revered as a great poet. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Dialogue -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates, Glaucon -Quoted character: Homer, Thales the Milesian, Anacharsis the Scythian, Pythagoras, Creophylus -Time setting: 1950s -Absolute place: A clubhouse in Los Angeles" "Homer, with all his wisdom and influence, left no evidence whatever that he was ever consulted by anybody during his lifetime except the Athenians when they wanted to know who should be the most beautiful of their future generals. He had been a good soldier himself, but he was not a good teacher. He could not educate people. Socrates said so; and Socrates knew about such things."""" So he did,"" I agreed. ""And there's another thing: I don't think he ever heard of Thales the Milesian or Anacharsis the Scythian or Pythagoras or Creophylus or any of the other fellows you get in the proems. He wasn't much on information, Homer wasn't. You can see it in his poetry. It's full of stupid mistakes. He didn't know how many gods there were, for one thing."""" That's true, too."" There are more than one reason why I don't believe Homer knew anything at all,"" I went on. ""He doesn't seem to have had any knowledge of elementary physics, for instance, and he didn't understand the simplest things in astronomy."""" The last remark seemed to strike Glaucon rather hard, for he leaned forward eagerly to protest: """"But what about the stars! You remember how he describes the stars as burning stones?"""" Yes, I do; and I know what he got that idea from, too. He'd seen fire-flies and thought they were stars. And then he says that when the sun goes down they go out. Well, fire-flies do go out when the sun goes down; but you wouldn't expect him to know that, would you? They go out because the light is too bright for them, and then, after awhile, when it gets dark enough they begin to shine again, just like glow-worms do. But you see, Glaucon, Homer didn't know that. He thought they went out because the sun put them out."""" I suppose you're right,"" he admitted reluctantly. ""There's nothing new in that, though. We've all done that kind of thing in our time. Only we don't make poems out of it afterwards."""" No; that's where he was better educated than we are,"" I explained. ""I'll tell you something else he didn't know, though. You remember how he says that the moon has two horns?"""" Certainly,"" Glaucon assented. ""Everybody knows that. Why, even men who haven't read the 'Iliad' know that the moon has two horns. When she's waxing they say she's getting her horns together, and when she's waning they say she's letting them fall apart."""" I'm glad you noticed that,"" I exclaimed. ""It shows you really are an intelligent fellow. How in God's name did you happen to notice it?"""" Oh, I didn't notice it,"" he replied. ""I only remembered hearing somebody saying it once. " +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Active character: Homer, Socrates, Glaucon +Quoted work: Thales the Milesian, Anacharsis the Scythian, Pythagoras +Language: English" "And you say that he was wise, and a great poet, and a great military commander, and a great politician; and I say that he was not. What is the evidence on which you go? Of course, if you can show that he was influential in his own day, then you will prove to him all these things which we are discussing."""" But surely,"" said Glaucon, ""the greatest proof is the fact that he has influenced the whole world of thought and culture. Think of the effect of the Iliad and the Odyssey upon Greece, and of Greek civilization upon Europe and the world. These works have created modem civilization, and the whole world feels their power even to this day."""" That may be,"" said Socrates; ""but do you think that Homer was ever quoted or referred to by any of the wise men of his own day?"""" Not at all,"" said Glaucon; ""for the simple reason that there were no wise men in those days. All the wise men lived long before Homer."" You are quite right,"" said Socrates; ""there were wise men before Homer. There were Thales the Milesian, Anacharsis the Scythian, Pythagoras, Solon, Bias, Cleobulus, Pittacus, Chilon, Periander, and others whom we need not mention. And what did these wise men of old say about Homer?"""" They spoke of him with reverence and awe, but they did not quote him as an authority. They regarded him as a great poet, but they did not treat him as a philosopher."""" Then how can you say that Homer was a wise man when the wisest men of his own time did not regard him as such?"""" Why, because you believe in tradition,"" said Socrates, ""and in the infallibility of the ancient world. But I do not believe in either of these things. I am willing to admit that Homer was a wise man; but I want some better evidence than your mere tradition."""" Well,"" said Glaucon, ""if that is so, where is the evidence?"" I will tell you,"" said Socrates, ""where the evidence is not. The evidence is not in the fact that he was a great poet, for it is now quite clear that he was not. The evidence is not in the fact that he was a great warrior, for we know that he was not. The evidence is not in the fact that he was a great statesman, for he was certainly not that. The evidence is not in the fact that he was a great religious teacher, for he was not that either. Where is the evidence, then?"""" There is no evidence,"" said Glaucon, ""that he was anything at all."" " 147 147 "Most true. And may we not say the same of all things? What? That there are three arts which are concerned with all things: onewhich uses, another which makes, a third which imitates them? Yes. And the excellence or beauty or truth of every structure, animateor inanimate, and of every action of man, is relative to the use forwhich nature or the artist has intended them. True. Then the user of them must have the greatest experience of them, andhe must indicate to the maker the good or bad qualities which developthemselves in use; for example, the flute-player will tell the flute-makerwhich of his flutes is satisfactory to the performer; he will tellhim how he ought to make them, and the other will attend to his instructions? @@ -3774,13 +3874,15 @@ Very true. Then that part of the soul which has an opinion contrary to measureis True. And the better part of the soul is likely to be that which truststo measure and calculation? Certainly. And that which is opposed to them is one of the inferior principlesof the soul?" "Summary: The text discusses the relationship between different arts and their ability to imitate reality, highlighting the limitations of imitation and the superiority of knowledge. Narrative arc: Philosophical exploration and argument -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical conversation -Active character: Two characters engaged in a conversation" Well, the art of the camera and the cinema is very close to that. The art of the detective novel is rather different; it does not try to give you a picture which you can mistake for reality, but to produce that peculiar thrill which follows from surprise, and, in addition, sometimes that terror which follows from the threat of violence. But, as I say, the interest lies in the arrangement of the clues, and therefore in the knowledge. If you are thinking of the feelings which the detective fiction produces, then you should be thinking of the nature of those feelings themselves. And these, once more, lie in the realm of knowledge and expectation. When we see a film of someone being murdered, we enjoy it because we know that he will be murdered, but also because we do not know how it will be done. We have a feeling of suspense. This feeling is a species of fear, but it is not the same as the fear which would arise if we thought that we ourselves were in danger of being killed. It is a curious mental state, and the enjoyment depends upon our knowledge of the fact that we are safe, that no real harm is coming to us. So it is with all the arts. You may take pleasure in contemplating the sufferings of others, but only provided that you do so at a distance, and knowing that they are make-believe. +Literary form: Philosophical discussion +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: Two characters engaged in a philosophical conversation +Language: English" "I've always had a theory of my own that the various arts are all members of one family, and that they're related to each other like the different branches of a tree."""" He shook his head. """"But I'm wrong,"""" he said with a grin. """"They can't be related to each other; they've got nothing in common except their ability to imitate reality. And you can't call that an actual relationship, can you?"""" I don't know."" That's because you're too soft-hearted,"" he said. ""You have a sentimental weakness for truth, and it has blinded your judgment. Do you think we could do better than our masters if we tried to paint pictures or write poetry?"""" No, but "" Then how come they try to copy us?"" he interrupted. ""How come they dress up in black suits and hats and make believe they're private detectives? You've seen them doing it yourself; they even get down on their knees and examine the skylights! Don't tell me you think they're trying to pay tribute to our superior intelligence?"""" I don't know what they're trying to do,"" I admitted. ""And I don't want to know."" Well, now, why don't you want to know?"" he demanded. ""Why don't you take an intelligent interest in things?"""" I took a deep breath. """"Look here,"""" I began. """"I'll admit that I'm not very smart,"""" I said, """"but I do know a few things."""" Sure,"" he said. ""You know everything there is about guns and bombs and airplanes."""" I nodded. """"That's right,"""" I said. """"And I also know this: A man who spends his time talking about art is either a liar or a fool."""" His eyes narrowed. """"Is that so? Well, you can put me down as both. I'm a damned liar and a damn fool and the biggest crook that ever lived!"""" he shouted. """"Now let's see how good you are at thinking!"""" He jerked his thumb toward the door. """"Go out and get some milk,"""" he said. """"Take ten dollars and buy a quart of milk, and bring it back here and show it to me."""" I stood up slowly, staring at him with cold hatred. After a moment he grinned and turned away. """"It's no trick,"""" he said. """"If you want to play detective, go ahead. Here's the money. Go out and get the milk."""" I didn't move. The muscles of my jaw were rigid, and my fists were clenched. """"Don't you want to go?"" he asked. I swallowed hard and reached for the money. """"Here,"""" I said. """"I'll get it for you."""" " 148 148 "No doubt. This was the conclusion at which I was seeking to arrive when I saidthat painting or drawing, and imitation in general, when doing theirown proper work, are far removed from truth, and the companions andfriends and associates of a principle within us which is equally removedfrom reason, and that they have no true or healthy aim. Exactly. The imitative art is an inferior who marries an inferior, and hasinferior offspring. Very true. And is this confined to the sight only, or does it extend to the hearingalso, relating in fact to what we term poetry? @@ -3799,17 +3901,17 @@ Certainly. One of them is ready to follow the guidance of the law? How do you me What is most required? he asked. That we should take counsel about what has happened, and when thedice have been thrown order our affairs in the way which reason deemsbest; not, like children who have had a fall, keeping hold of thepart struck and wasting time in setting up a howl, but always accustomingthe soul forthwith to apply a remedy, raising up that which is sicklyand fallen, banishing the cry of sorrow by the healing art. Yes, he said, that is the true way of meeting the attacks of fortune. Yes, I said; and the higher principle is ready to follow this suggestionof reason? -Clearly. And the other principle, which inclines us to recollection of ourtroubles and to lamentation, and can never have enough of them, wemay call irrational, useless, and cowardly?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the imitative arts and their connection to truth and reason. +Clearly. And the other principle, which inclines us to recollection of ourtroubles and to lamentation, and can never have enough of them, wemay call irrational, useless, and cowardly?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the imitative arts and their relationship to truth and reason. Narrative arc: Philosophical discussion -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Conversation -Active character: The speaker, the person being addressed -Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" I’m afraid that the imitative arts are going to have a bad time of it in the next decade. People will begin to realise how much of their pleasure they get from things that aren’t true, and they’ll turn away from them. It’s very hard for people to be both truthful and reasonable at the same time; but there are plenty of things that are neither.” “It all depends what you mean by ‘true’,” said the other man. “You can make something true just by saying it loudly enough.” “No, you can’t. You can only make it seem true. And don’t start talking about subjective truth, because we’re not in a seminar-room now. I mean objective truth. Truth as a statement about the nature of the universe.” “Then what about our own nature? Is that objective too?” “I don’t know. I wish I did.” There was another pause. The speaker went on: “Of course, we could talk about something else if you’d rather.” “No, let’s finish this first. What do you mean, it’s going to be a bad time for the imitative arts? If you think we’re going to believe less in films and plays and television, you’re wrong. We’ve got more time to waste than ever before. In fact, we shall probably invent some new ones.” “What sort of things do you think people will be doing with their leisure time in the next ten years?” “Well, you might find out. Go round and ask the men who are building the houses and cars and washing machines that we’re all going to buy. They work nine hours a day to keep themselves and their families alive and then they go home and watch television. That’s their idea of leisure. But it isn’t mine. Television is like a big glass wall that keeps us inside. It stops us getting bored and seeing how rotten our lives really are. But it also stops us doing anything about it.” “So you want people to be less well off?” “Yes, I do. I want them to be poor. I want them to starve. I want them to freeze to death. I want them to die young. I want them to suffer. I want them to be unhappy.” “Why?” “Because they deserve it.” “That’s a bit harsh. What do you suppose they’ve done to deserve it?” “They haven’t done anything. But they ought to have done something. I expect you’re old enough to remember the war, so you know what it’s like to be hungry, cold and frightened sometimes. Well, now everyone has forgotten what that feels like except me.” “And you enjoy remembering it?” “Not exactly enjoying. Just remembering it.” “What makes you different from other people?” “If you mean am I mad, I’ll admit that too. But it’s no use asking me why I’m mad. I told you already, didn’t I? Because I’m sane.” “I’m beginning to see what you mean about the imitative arts. +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "I have heard it said that the imitative arts are the great purveyors of truth to the world, and this is very likely. If the world can't get at the real thing, then let them have a sham one which is nearer the mark than their own fatuous imaginings. There's a reason for everything."""" He turned to me suddenly. I've been thinking about you,"" he said. ""If they do pull you in, how much will you tell?"""" I shall tell nothing that I know to be untrue."" For God's sake don't be a fool,"" said Alain bitterly. ""You might not be able to help yourself, but there's no call for you to make things easy for them. You might let me off having my hands dirtied."""" Tell us what you really think of us,"" I said. ""We're just the sort of people who would be used as cats' paws by some dirty little plot. Isn't that it?"""" Not necessarily,"" said Alain. ""They might have made fools of us without any plot at all. It's easy enough."""" The imitative arts,"" went on Tony, still talking to himself, ""are the great purveyors of truth to the world. But sometimes I wonder if they are not also the great purveyors of untruths to the world. Do you ever wonder if people don't take them literally?"""" Certainly,"" said Alain. ""It's one of the most important things that actors have to remember. In those days the stage was the only form of education the people had. They believed in everything that they saw acted. Look at all the theories of relativity that were started by the cinema. Myself, I believe in nothing that I haven't seen with my own eyes."""" And what did you see with your own eyes?"" said Tony. I am not going to say,"" said Alain. ""But you wouldn't have done better. No one who was there would have done better."""" I'm sure we wouldn't,"" said Tony. ""The point is that these people aren't content with doing an imitation of life; they must try and go beyond it. They must pretend to be cleverer than life; they must introduce the element of surprise into it. They must try and catch life napping. And I've come to the conclusion that this is what happened at Mr. Bury's party last night. They've got something up their sleeves, and I want to know what it is."""" Have you tried taking it out of them?"" I asked. There's nothing wrong with their brains,"" said Tony. ""And that's more than can be said for mine at the moment."""" Well,"" said Alain, ""what are you going to do now?"""" We're going to sleep,"" said Tony. ""This house seems to have got on our nerves. I feel as if someone were walking over my grave. As soon as it gets light we're getting out of it. " 149 149 "Indeed, we may. And does not the latter --I mean the rebellious principle --furnisha great variety of materials for imitation? Whereas the wise and calmtemperament, being always nearly equable, is not easy to imitate orto appreciate when imitated, especially at a public festival whena promiscuous crowd is assembled in a theatre. For the feeling representedis one to which they are strangers. Certainly. Then the imitative poet who aims at being popular is not by naturemade, nor is his art intended, to please or to affect the principlein the soul; but he will prefer the passionate and fitful temper,which is easily imitated? Clearly. And now we may fairly take him and place him by the side of the painter,for he is like him in two ways: first, inasmuch as his creations havean inferior degree of truth --in this, I say, he is like him; andhe is also like him in being concerned with an inferior part of thesoul; and therefore we shall be right in refusing to admit him intoa well-ordered State, because he awakens and nourishes and strengthensthe feelings and impairs the reason. As in a city when the evil arepermitted to have authority and the good are put out of the way, soin the soul of man, as we maintain, the imitative poet implants anevil constitution, for he indulges the irrational nature which hasno discernment of greater and less, but thinks the same thing at onetime great and at another small-he is a manufacturer of images andis very far removed from the truth. @@ -3820,16 +3922,14 @@ Very true, he said. Now can we be right in praising and admiring another who is No, he said, that is certainly not reasonable. Nay, I said, quite reasonable from one point of view. What point of view? If you consider, I said, that when in misfortune we feel a naturalhunger and desire to relieve our sorrow by weeping and lamentation,and that this feeling which is kept under control in our own calamitiesis satisfied and delighted by the poets;-the better nature in eachof us, not having been sufficiently trained by reason or habit, allowsthe sympathetic element to break loose because the sorrow is another's;and the spectator fancies that there can be no disgrace to himselfin praising and pitying any one who comes telling him what a goodman he is, and making a fuss about his troubles; he thinks that thepleasure is a gain, and why should he be supercilious and lose thisand the poem too? Few persons ever reflect, as I should imagine, thatfrom the evil of other men something of evil is communicated to themselves.And so the feeling of sorrow which has gathered strength at the sightof the misfortunes of others is with difficulty repressed in our own. How very true! And does not the same hold also of the ridiculous? There are jestswhich you would be ashamed to make yourself, and yet on the comicstage, or indeed in private, when you hear them, you are greatly amusedby them, and are not at all disgusted at their unseemliness; --thecase of pity is repeated; --there is a principle in human nature whichis disposed to raise a laugh, and this which you once restrained byreason, because you were afraid of being thought a buffoon, is nowlet out again; and having stimulated the risible faculty at the theatre,you are betrayed unconsciously to yourself into playing the comicpoet at home." "Summary: The text discusses the nature of imitative poetry and its effects on the soul. Narrative arc: Philosophical argument -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical discussion +Literary form: Philosophical argument Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The speaker and the person being addressed -Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" La poesia imitativa non mai bella; sempre brutta, sebbene spesso efficace. I grandi poeti antichi hanno saputo farne uso per fare parlare i loro personaggi, ma non l'hanno mai abusata per descrivere le cose della natura o per dare la rappresentazione dei sentimenti del proprio spirito. E' vero che quando si tratta di descrivere una scena d'omicidio o una scena di violenza carnale, la poesia imitativa ha moltissimo da fare e pu essere di aiuto al romanziere. Ma bisogna usare questa poesia con molta cautela, perch se non si controlla essa finisce col dominare il romanziere e costringerlo a produrre una serie di scene tutte uguali. La poesia imitativa come un veleno, che se preso in piccole dosi pu rinfocare le energie dell'anima, se preso in grosse dosi pu uccidere. L'uso di questo veleno viene giustificato dalla necessit di risalire con esattezza nei dettagli pi minuti alla natura umana. Ma non bisogna mai dimenticare che questo veleno deve essere usato con molta cautela e solo quando l'autore sia certo di poterne resistere e di non esserne sopraffatto. Un altro veleno che oggi pu essere di grande aiuto ai romanziere cos come agli attori, e che poi finisce col rovinarli, quello che noi chiamiamo emozione. Si sa bene che l'emozione ha due lati: uno tragico e uno comico. Ora, nell'agguato dell'assassino, nel covo dell'organizzatore di gangster e soprattutto nella casbah, dovrebbero essere presenti tutti gli elementi necessari per provocare un effetto drammatico. Ma io sono convinto che bisogna evitare accuratamente ogni elemento drammatico, qualunque cosa ne sia l'origine. Bisogna provare ad agire sulla pelle dei lettori attraverso una sensazione di terrore, di angoscia, di disgusto fisico; ma bisogna assolutamente evitare di stimolarli con l'emozione. L'emozione un veleno molto pericoloso per un romanzo poliziesco, perch entra fatalmente in conflitto con il senso della verit, e siccome l'emozione pi forte della verit, il risultato finale sar quasi sempre un insuccesso. Non vi sar n vero dramma, n vera poesia, n vero realismo. Solo la terribile sensazione fisica prodotta dal contatto diretto con un ambiente depravato, estrapolato dal suo contesto e posto dinanzi agli occhi del lettore in tutta la sua evidenza, pu avere una profonda azione sull'anima del lettore. Per tutto ci ho fatto un grosso sacrificio. Ho rinunciato alla possibilit di creare una impressione drammatica, per ridurre al minimo l'effetto della poesia imitativa e per diminuire alquanto anche l'uso dell'emozione. Ho preferito di molto una realt pi grigia e pi fredda, una rappresentazione pi asciutta e pi impersonale. Sono stato costretto a fare un sacrificio ancora maggiore per quanto riguarda il mio racconto; non mi possibile seguire qui passo passo il metodo di indagine del commissario Maudru e dovr accontentarmi di tracciarne il quadro generale. +Language: English" "I have always believed that the worst of imitative poetry is more demoralizing to the soul than any sort of pornography. It is, in fact, a very subtle form of pornography and it has a much greater effect on those who are impressionable and susceptible."""" I see."" He picked up his glass and looked at it for a long moment before he spoke again. I suppose you've noticed how you can get hold of almost any kind of drink these days? You can get bourbon at the corner drug store and you can get champagne in a movie house."""" He smiled faintly as he raised his glass to his lips. """"That's what's so easy about living nowadays, you can get anything you want anywhere. You can get vodka in a roadside cafe in Iowa or you can get it in a private club in Beverly Hills. And then if you don't like vodka you can try gin or Scotch or rye or bourbon. Hell, if you want to take something really good you can get morphine or cocaine or heroin."""" He drank half the glassful at one gulp and smacked his lips together noisily. There isn't a single thing,"" he went on, ""that anybody wants that you can't buy right off the shelf. In other words, there aren't any taboos anymore. Taboos are the only things that make life interesting."""" Well, I wouldn't go quite that far,"" Marlowe said. Not even close?"" Look, Marlowe, if you want to hear me talk I'll tell you. But if you want to shut me up just say so."""" Thanks,"" Marlowe said, ""but I'm listening."" Then listen. If you take away all the taboos from life you take away all the excitement from life. Do you know what this country needs?"""" No, but I'm sure you're going to tell me."" We need murder and kidnapping and rape and slavery and incest and flagellation and torture. We need everlusting sadism and panting masochism."""" He put the glass down. His hands were shaking and beads of sweat had started out on his forehead. He wiped them off with the back of his hand. It was a trick I used to see in the movies when tough guys got drunk,"" he said. ""And I guess I am drunk now. Now do you know why we need all these things?"""" Because they give us thrills and because we can't have them?"" That's right. The more terrible they are the better it is. That's what makes murder exciting. A man who kills somebody who hasn't done him any harm, or even a stranger, is simply being cruel. It isn't exciting. But if you kill somebody to get something you want, or to avenge somebody you love, or because you hate him, or because he hates you, or because he has the wrong political opinions, or because he won't lend you money, or because you think he might tell your wife you slept with her sister, or because you're afraid he might tell the police you robbed a bank """" He leaned over and grabbed my arm. " 150 150 "Quite true, he said. And the same may be said of lust and anger and all the other affections,of desire and pain and pleasure, which are held to be inseparablefrom every action ---in all of them poetry feeds and waters the passionsinstead of drying them up; she lets them rule, although they oughtto be controlled, if mankind are ever to increase in happiness andvirtue. I cannot deny it. Therefore, Glaucon, I said, whenever you meet with any of the eulogistsof Homer declaring that he has been the educator of Hellas, and thathe is profitable for education and for the ordering of human things,and that you should take him up again and again and get to know himand regulate your whole life according to him, we may love and honourthose who say these things --they are excellent people, as far astheir lights extend; and we are ready to acknowledge that Homer isthe greatest of poets and first of tragedy writers; but we must remainfirm in our conviction that hymns to the gods and praises of famousmen are the only poetry which ought to be admitted into our State.For if you go beyond this and allow the honeyed muse to enter, eitherin epic or lyric verse, not law and the reason of mankind, which bycommon consent have ever been deemed best, but pleasure and pain willbe the rulers in our State. That is most true, he said. And now since we have reverted to the subject of poetry, let thisour defence serve to show the reasonableness of our former judgmentin sending away out of our State an art having the tendencies whichwe have described; for reason constrained us. But that she may imputeto us any harshness or want of politeness, let us tell her that thereis an ancient quarrel between philosophy and poetry; of which thereare many proofs, such as the saying of 'the yelping hound howlingat her lord,' or of one 'mighty in the vain talk of fools,' and 'themob of sages circumventing Zeus,' and the 'subtle thinkers who arebeggars after all'; and there are innumerable other signs of ancientenmity between them. Notwithstanding this, let us assure our sweetfriend and the sister arts of imitation that if she will only proveher title to exist in a well-ordered State we shall be delighted toreceive her --we are very conscious of her charms; but we may noton that account betray the truth. I dare say, Glaucon, that you areas much charmed by her as I am, especially when she appears in Homer? @@ -3837,13 +3937,16 @@ Yes, indeed, I am greatly charmed. Shall I propose, then, that she be allowed to Certainly. And we may further grant to those of her defenders who are loversof poetry and yet not poets the permission to speak in prose on herbehalf: let them show not only that she is pleasant but also usefulto States and to human life, and we will listen in a kindly spirit;for if this can be proved we shall surely be the gainers --I mean,if there is a use in poetry as well as a delight? Certainly, he said, we shall the gainers. If her defence fails, then, my dear friend, like other persons whoare enamoured of something, but put a restraint upon themselves whenthey think their desires are opposed to their interests, so too mustwe after the manner of lovers give her up, though not without a struggle.We too are inspired by that love of poetry which the education ofnoble States has implanted in us, and therefore we would have herappear at her best and truest; but so long as she is unable to makegood her defence, this argument of ours shall be a charm to us, whichwe will repeat to ourselves while we listen to her strains; that wemay not fall away into the childish love of her which captivates themany. At all events we are well aware that poetry being such as wehave described is not to be regarded seriously as attaining to thetruth; and he who listens to her, fearing for the safety of the citywhich is within him, should be on his guard against her seductionsand make our words his law." "Summary: The text discusses the role of poetry in a well-ordered State and argues that it should not be allowed to influence the passions and desires of the people. Narrative arc: Philosophical argument -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical discourse -Active character: Glaucon, Socrates" Glaucon, at the close of the last book, when he praised the State which we had described as one inclined to make war against the world, was quite right. In our own day you may hear people saying what a sad thing it is that the great poets are always having to sing the praises of wars and other such evils; but when our State abandons these ways, the tragedy-writers will have nothing to do, and will die out of existence: their poems will be useless. Or again, I think you may see what an effect our poetry will have on the minds of the young men. Their desire for victory in war will inspire them with a noble courage. If they are defeated, instead of being filled with melancholy and regret, they will be ready to fight again, because they will see in defeat no disgrace, but rather glory. For he who thinks that he is really reborn into another life, is not a man who will break down under suffering or death. Such a spirit will be steadfast, both in war and in peace. Poetry has a great power of creating belief about things divine and human, either a good or an evil effect. +Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary movement: Hardboiled +Active character: Glaucon, Socrates +Quoted work: Homer's poetry +Language: English" So that there is a great deal of truth in Homer, and also in other poets who have sung the praises of wealth; for if you examine them carefully you will find that when they celebrate wealth they mean military wealth, or rather not even that so much as riches which are laid up and saved, and out of which an individual can supply his daily wants without interruption from any external motive. And this I affirm to be the sort of wealth which has the greatest value in a State, as it does in a household, and when a State or a household has obtained this, there will be no more need of poetry; for there will be no honourable pleasure superior to or different from the life of reason and truth; and the whole human race will be harmonious, and in agreement with itself, being pleasant and happy. Glaucon. I think, Socrates, that I understand the meaning of your figure. But whatever may be the truth, let us say, for the sake of argument, that if poetry were such as you describe, surely there would be no doubt that, licit or illicit, it ought to be banished, as far as we can, from our cities; but let us now consider how far, in fact, what you say is true, and whether this art of the poet is wholesomely preserved among us, and whether he attains to beauty and virtue, or the contrary of these? For myself, Glaucon, I cannot tell; when I think of the dramatic poets, and consider their intermingled songs, I am carried away by them and cannot tell what is and what is not relative to virtue; but still I do see that many become better men, and that others are quite corrupted. Socrates. In this respect then, my noble friend, I cannot help thinking that first of all we must have some rule or criterion by which we can judge that in poetry or anything else is good or evil, either absolutely or relatively to some object, which may or may not be good, and thus decide whether a given poem is good or bad, or, again, whether a man is good or bad, or indeed whether a given action is good or bad. This will be our first consideration, and we shall proceed by asking what is the aim of poetry? Is it not to represent things as they truly are, or as they appear to us, or as they ought to be? If anyone thinks that I am talking nonsense, he is at liberty to lift up his voice; I should be pleased that the matter was clear to him. But if not, let him assume that poetry is one of the fine arts, and that culture in the highest and strictest sense. Now in education, which is the subject at present under consideration, do we not say that we look to poetry for the institution of citizenship, and that when a man is freed from political duties, and has more leisure, education is continued by other means? 151 151 "Yes, he said, I quite agree with you. Yes, I said, my dear Glaucon, for great is the issue at stake, greaterthan appears, whether a man is to be good or bad. And what will anyone be profited if under the influence of honour or money or power,aye, or under the excitement of poetry, he neglect justice and virtue? Yes, he said; I have been convinced by the argument, as I believethat any one else would have been. And yet no mention has been made of the greatest prizes and rewardswhich await virtue. @@ -3864,19 +3967,16 @@ That may be assumed. Well, I said, and is there no evil which corrupts the soul? Yes, he said, there are all the evils which we were just now passingin review: unrighteousness, intemperance, cowardice, ignorance. But does any of these dissolve or destroy her? --and here do not letus fall into the error of supposing that the unjust and foolish man,when he is detected, perishes through his own injustice, which isan evil of the soul. Take the analogy of the body: The evil of thebody is a disease which wastes and reduces and annihilates the body;and all the things of which we were just now speaking come to annihilationthrough their own corruption attaching to them and inhering in themand so destroying them. Is not this true? Yes. Consider the soul in like manner. Does the injustice or other evilwhich exists in the soul waste and consume her? Do they by attachingto the soul and inhering in her at last bring her to death, and soseparate her from the body ? -Certainly not. And yet, I said, it is unreasonable to suppose that anything can perishfrom without through affection of external evil which could not bedestroyed from within by a corruption of its own?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the concept of good and evil, arguing that corruption within a thing cannot destroy it from without. -Narrative arc: Philosophical argument -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Certainly not. And yet, I said, it is unreasonable to suppose that anything can perishfrom without through affection of external evil which could not bedestroyed from within by a corruption of its own?" "Summary: The speaker discusses the concept of good and evil, arguing that corruption within a thing cannot destroy it. +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical discussion +Literary form: Conversation Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Glaucon, the speaker -Time setting: 1950s - -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "You know the story of the good and the beautiful?"""" The Greek knows it. He's in this country as a foreign student."""" Then I'll tell you about it."" Glaucon, son of Ariston, what say we go for a ride?"" You bet,"" said Glaucon. ""But where to?"" Any place you want. Just come on."""" They got into the big car with the high black fenders and the bullet-shaped hood. It was midnight, and the streets were empty. They went up into the hills and turned off the road onto a dirt track that led nowhere. They stopped at the top of a hill and looked down over the city, all lighted up like a Christmas tree, the lights blinking in the darkness. Good God!"" said Glaucon. ""It's beautiful!"""" It sure is,"" said the other. ""Wouldn't you like to own it all, Glaucon?"""" Of course I would."" Well, suppose somebody came along and took a can of gasoline and threw it out the window here, and set fire to it, what would happen then?"""" Oh, that would burn out in a few minutes,"" said Glaucon. ""That wouldn't destroy the city."" No. Suppose somebody came along and threw a couple hundred gallons of gasoline out the window, and set fire to it. Would that destroy the city?"""" Why no,"" said Glaucon. ""A thing like this has a certain amount of resistance to fire. A little fire doesn't hurt it."""" Suppose somebody threw a thousand gallons of gasoline out the window and set fire to it. Would that destroy the city?"""" Why no,"" said Glaucon. ""There's still enough left to fight the fire."""" All right,"" said the other. ""Suppose somebody kept doing that for five years. Wouldn't that destroy the city?"""" Why no,"" said Glaucon. ""It might take a little longer, but it wouldn't destroy it."""" Well, now let's suppose there was some kind of a force inside the city which spread from one part of the city to another and made every part just exactly like every other part. And let's suppose that wherever this force went, it destroyed everything it touched. Wouldn't that destroy the city?"""" Glaucon thought about it. """"I don't know,"" he said. """"It might."""" All right,"" said the other. ""Now suppose somebody came along and injected that force into one part of the city, and it spread from there until it had infected the whole city. Wouldn't that destroy the city?"""" I think so,"" said Glaucon. ""Yes sir, that would destroy it, all right."""" Well,"" said the other, ""that's corruption, and that's what you're up against. And if you're not careful, that's what will destroy you."""" XIII. When they got back to the house, Marlowe found the door locked. He knocked on the window, but nobody answered. He pulled out his gun and shot out the lock. " +Language: English" "Now that's the whole idea of good and evil in a nutshell. And if you want to know what I think of it, Glaucon, then just look at this."""" He thrust his hand into the pocket of his overcoat and brought out a revolver. It was one of those old-fashioned weapons with an octagonal barrel and mother-of-pearl handles, which were still fashionable in the twenties. As he held it up between thumb and forefinger, like some kind of sacrilegious host, I saw that there was no bullet in the chamber, and I knew that its purpose was not to be used as a weapon but merely as an emblem. """"Look at this thing,"""" said my uncle again. """"It is good. There can be no doubt about that. But what does the devil in me want with such a thing? Just take a look at that handle, Glaucon! The finish is perfect, and the pearl is flawless, and yet do you think that beauty alone would have induced me to buy this weapon, or even made me covet it for so long as I have had it? Do you think that any man could ever love a thing of this sort, unless he had at least an inkling of its deadly purpose? No, my friend; this pistol is good, but it is also evil, and because it is both these things it has always fascinated me. But now look at this other thing, Glaucon: will you tell me whether it is good or bad?"""" He picked up a folded newspaper from his desk and handed it to me. I unfolded the paper and read the headline: FLORIDA SCHOOLS CLOSE DUE TO CHOLERA OUTBREAK. A couple of hundred cases of Asiatic cholera have been reported in the Miami area during the past week, and health officials are anxiously awaiting confirmation of the disease's arrival in the United States after a twenty-five year absence. My uncle waited until I had finished reading before he spoke. That's your school, Glaucon. The Harvard School of Medicine. It is certainly not a good thing that this disease should come to America; it will cause much misery and many deaths among the poor people who cannot afford the proper care, and that is surely a bad thing. But what about this Harvard Medical School, Glaucon? Is it not also bad? You see, it is not easy to say whether a thing is good or evil without considering all the consequences that flow from it. I don't suppose that the medical students are particularly delighted to have their summer vacation cut short by this outbreak of disease. They may find it quite inconvenient, for example, to go home to Chicago or St. Louis for two weeks when they had planned to visit Atlantic City instead. And yet, Glaucon, is it not possible that this cholera epidemic may prove to be a blessing in disguise?"""" " 152 152 "It is, he replied. Consider, I said, Glaucon, that even the badness of food, whetherstaleness, decomposition, or any other bad quality, when confinedto the actual food, is not supposed to destroy the body; although,if the badness of food communicates corruption to the body, then weshould say that the body has been destroyed by a corruption of itself,which is disease, brought on by this; but that the body, being onething, can be destroyed by the badness of food, which is another,and which does not engender any natural infection --this we shallabsolutely deny? Very true. And, on the same principle, unless some bodily evil can produce anevil of the soul, we must not suppose that the soul, which is onething, can be dissolved by any merely external evil which belongsto another? Yes, he said, there is reason in that. Either then, let us refute this conclusion, or, while it remains unrefuted,let us never say that fever, or any other disease, or the knife putto the throat, or even the cutting up of the whole body into the minutestpieces, can destroy the soul, until she herself is proved to becomemore unholy or unrighteous in consequence of these things being doneto the body; but that the soul, or anything else if not destroyedby an internal evil, can be destroyed by an external one, is not to.be affirmed by any man. @@ -3888,18 +3988,18 @@ Yes, that can hardly be. But the soul which cannot be destroyed by an evil, whet Certainly. That is the conclusion, I said; and, if a true conclusion, then thesouls must always be the same, for if none be destroyed they willnot diminish in number. Neither will they increase, for the increaseof the immortal natures must come from something mortal, and all thingswould thus end in immortality. Very true. But this we cannot believe --reason will not allow us --any more thanwe can believe the soul, in her truest nature, to be full of varietyand difference and dissimilarity. What do you mean? he said. The soul, I said, being, as is now proven, immortal, must be the fairestof compositions and cannot be compounded of many elements? -Certainly not. Her immortality is demonstrated by the previous argument, and thereare many other proofs; but to see her as she really is, not as wenow behold her, marred by communion with the body and other miseries,you must contemplate her with the eye of reason, in her original purity;and then her beauty will be revealed, and justice and injustice andall the things which we have described will be manifested more clearly.Thus far, we have spoken the truth concerning her as she appears atpresent, but we must remember also that we have seen her only in acondition which may be compared to that of the sea-god Glaucus, whoseoriginal image can hardly be discerned because his natural membersare broken off and crushed and damaged by the waves in all sorts ofways, and incrustations have grown over them of seaweed and shellsand stones, so that he is more like some monster than he is to hisown natural form. And the soul which we behold is in a similar condition,disfigured by ten thousand ills. But not there, Glaucon, not theremust we look." "Summary: The text discusses the relationship between the body and the soul, arguing that the soul cannot be destroyed by external evils unless they also affect the soul itself. It also explores the immortality of the soul. -Trope: The soul-body dichotomy -Narrative arc: Philosophical argument -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Certainly not. Her immortality is demonstrated by the previous argument, and thereare many other proofs; but to see her as she really is, not as wenow behold her, marred by communion with the body and other miseries,you must contemplate her with the eye of reason, in her original purity;and then her beauty will be revealed, and justice and injustice andall the things which we have described will be manifested more clearly.Thus far, we have spoken the truth concerning her as she appears atpresent, but we must remember also that we have seen her only in acondition which may be compared to that of the sea-god Glaucus, whoseoriginal image can hardly be discerned because his natural membersare broken off and crushed and damaged by the waves in all sorts ofways, and incrustations have grown over them of seaweed and shellsand stones, so that he is more like some monster than he is to hisown natural form. And the soul which we behold is in a similar condition,disfigured by ten thousand ills. But not there, Glaucon, not theremust we look." "Summary: The text discusses the relationship between the soul and the body, arguing that the soul cannot be destroyed by external evils unless they also affect the soul itself. It also explores the nature of justice and injustice. +Trope: Organized crime +Narrative arc: Philosophical argumentation +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical dialogue +Literary form: Philosophical argument Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Glaucon -Time setting: 1950s" "The body cannot be destroyed by any external evil. The soul, however, can be destroyed by any external evil which is greater than itself and so affects the soul."""" Glaucon laughed again: """"That's a pretty safe rule, isn't it?"""" It's just as safe as the soul is strong,"" I said. ""There are some souls that would stand up to a blow with a sledge hammer, and there are some that couldn't stand up to a light slap in the face. But it's not the kind of blow that matters, but the strength of the soul that stands it."""" Do you mean to say that the soul has nothing to do with death?"" he asked. I'm saying more than that. A man may die because his heart gets broken or because he steps on a rusty nail. There are a million ways of dying, but only one way of being dead. You're alive because your body functions. If anything stops the body from functioning, you're dead. And if you understand this, you also understand that life and death have nothing to do with the soul."""" The soul is like a little world,"" he said. ""It's an entire universe within the universe. Death means the end of everything in that universe except the soul itself."""" That's right,"" I said. ""But there's something wrong with the logic. If the soul was really an entire universe, how could it live inside another universe without being destroyed?"""" I don't know,"" he said. ""I've never heard of this before."" This is what I mean when I say that most people think about the soul instead of thinking about themselves. If the soul is an entire universe, then it must be bigger than the body. If it was smaller, it would be inside the body like a piece of sand inside an oyster. But the soul is supposed to rule the body, and if it was smaller it would be ruled by the body. So it must be bigger, and since the body is part of the material universe, the soul must be outside the material universe."""" I see,"" he said. ""So that means that the soul must be immortal."""" Yes,"" I said. ""And we'll talk about that later. Right now we'll get back to the question of good and evil."""" But you haven't finished telling me about the soul yet,"" he objected. I haven't finished telling you about anything,"" I said. ""I'm only starting. When I finish, maybe you'll understand why I want you to give me a report about your soul."""" CHAPTER 9 It was almost eight o'clock when I walked into the office. Kelly was sitting at the desk, smoking a cigarette and reading the newspaper. He looked up and grinned when he saw me. Hello,"" he said. ""How did you make out with your friend?"""" I dumped my raincoat and hat onto the rack and sat down behind the desk. " +Language: English" The soul is always the same, and has no increase or diminution; but the body of the one and the other are two. And yet you will find many people who say that if they had their lives to live over again they would live them as they did before; and some even say that they think the life of a rich man better than that of a poor man, although they lived it in poverty. But I do not agree with these people: for I am sure that if pleasure were the great good, the just and the noble man would be most happy; whereas we see that the just and noble man is often poor, and lives a hard life and is always troubled in mind, and has no rest, either by day or by night. And therefore if any one says that this life of ours is better than death, he does not mean to say so because he believes that pleasure is the chief good. And yet another argument against what we have been saying is the fact that all our pleasures are not only varied and unlimited, but also depend on chance and on external fortune; whereas the evils which cause us the greatest pain have neither variety nor limit, and cannot be escaped by any means of chance, but are the constant companions of our lives. 153 153 "Where then? At her love of wisdom. Let us see whom she affects, and what societyand converse she seeks in virtue of her near kindred with the immortaland eternal and divine; also how different she would become if whollyfollowing this superior principle, and borne by a divine impulse outof the ocean in which she now is, and disengaged from the stones andshells and things of earth and rock which in wild variety spring uparound her because she feeds upon earth, and is overgrown by the goodthings of this life as they are termed: then you would see her asshe is, and know whether she has one shape only or many, or what hernature is. Of her affections and of the forms which she takes in thispresent life I think that we have now said enough. True, he replied. And thus, I said, we have fulfilled the conditions of the argument;we have not introduced the rewards and glories of justice, which,as you were saying, are to be found in Homer and Hesiod; but justicein her own nature has been shown to be best for the soul in her ownnature. Let a man do what is just, whether he have the ring of Gygesor not, and even if in addition to the ring of Gyges he put on thehelmet of Hades. Very true. And now, Glaucon, there will be no harm in further enumerating howmany and how great are the rewards which justice and the other virtuesprocure to the soul from gods and men, both in life and after death. @@ -3913,87 +4013,90 @@ Certainly. Then this must be our notion of the just man, that even when he isin Yes, he said; if he is like God he will surely not be neglected byhim. And of the unjust may not the opposite be supposed? Certainly. Such, then, are the palms of victory which the gods give the just?" "Summary: The text discusses the nature of justice and its rewards both in life and after death. Narrative arc: Philosophical argument -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Philosophical argument +Literary form: Philosophical dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled Active character: Glaucon, Socrates -Time setting: 1950s -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "Yes, it's got to be a crime that hurts you inside. A man who just takes money out of your pocket isn't really hurting you, not deep down. He's only taking from you what's outside and he doesn't change anything important in you. No, you've got to take something away from a man, something he needs and wants; then you're getting at the real inside of him. You can tell by the way he starts to squirm when you get near his insides."""" Glaucon was still a little bewildered. He couldn't see where all this was leading, but he had been conditioned to accept Socrates' logic on faith, so he waited patiently for the next step. Then Socrates went right at him again: """"You understand what I mean by justice?"""" Yes."" All right. Now imagine that you could kill your enemies or hurt them any way you wanted to, without having to worry about being punished yourself. Wouldn't you do it?"""" Hell, yes!"" What if you were in charge of a prison and you knew how to torture people in such a way that they would talk fast enough to save their lives. Wouldn't you use that knowledge to make sure the criminals got exactly what they deserved?"" Sure, why not!"""" Suppose you owned a company and you knew how to manufacture defective products that would kill a lot of innocent people. Wouldn't you do it if you thought it might destroy your competitors?"" If I had to, sure. Business is business."" Well, suppose you found out that a lot of people were using certain kinds of drugs that made them do stupid things and maybe even killed them, and you knew how to lace those drugs with an ingredient that would make the users sterile and unable to have children. Wouldn't you do it to cut down on overpopulation?"" I'd sure like to try it!"" Then suppose you discovered that certain children were born with a gene that was going to make them become insane killers as adults. And suppose you found out how to identify these children and perform a simple operation on them that would prevent them from ever reproducing their kind. Wouldn't you do it if you thought it might save the world from war and insanity?"""" I don't know,"" Glaucon said slowly. ""I'm not so sure. It sounds pretty harsh, Socrates. Cruel and unusual punishment. It seems to me there has to be some other way."""" That's what most people think,"" Socrates agreed. ""But let's say you had a chance to find out whether the world would be better off if those children never existed. Suppose you could go back into time and eliminate the parents of these insane killers before they ever conceived their children. Wouldn't you do it?"""" I don't know,"" Glaucon repeated. ""That's a terrible responsibility."""" But that's what justice is all about, my friend,"" Socrates said. ""It's looking ahead and seeing what needs to be done and doing it, no matter what the cost to you personally. Justice is knowing what must be done and doing it anyway, even though everybody else says you're wrong. " +Quoted work: Homer, Hesiod +Language: English" The old man who is a judge will be the last person to think that he ought to give up anything for justice’s sake, since he has no fear of any one and is sure that he can do whatever he likes. But if he were young and did not think that his present power was merely temporary but knew that he must live for ever, I believe that he would be less disposed to neglect justice, and say to himself, and to imagine others saying to him, “If you may do what you please, and there is nothing to prevent you from doing wrong, and no gods to punish you—being always alive and having all things at your disposal—you will never cease from sinning.” Now this argument may perhaps or possibly may not be correct; I cannot tell. But suppose that some one objects and says: “All the same, Socrates, I am not convinced, and don’t know how to answer the question whether justice and evil are or are not rewarded in another life. But if you have got a new joint in logic by which we can come to a conclusion even about this, I should like to examine it.’’ “Why, my good friend,” I said, “the conclusion has been already drawn by Glaucon. He was sitting over there under the tree when he was suddenly seized with a violent attack of nausea at the sight of injustice; and after describing what he saw, he went on as though he had caught the infection, and proceeded to construct the ideal State, not of men, but of gods. Then I thought that he had never attended properly at my lectures on gymnastics and proved the truth of the dictum that ‘what we daily frequent tends to become inveterate,’ and therefore he ought to be severely punished. So when he had done, I said to him: ‘My dear Glaucon, you have been taking lessons without my knowing it, and are aiming at being an Athenian citizen after my own heart. For an Athenian citizen ought to have the spirit of a god about him. And now that you have fairly begun, you must go on and take care of justice and injustice in herself by herself. What do you mean by the soul, Glaucon? You surely are not going to say that the soul of the unjust man is better than the soul of the just man?’’ And he said: No, indeed.” “And you also, Adeimantus,” I said, “agreed that the unjust man is bad and the just man is good?” “Yes.” “And small parts of goods and evils may be good and bad, but the whole cannot be a good if any part of it is bad. Do you remember?” “Yes, I remember.” “Then you must agree with me that the soul of the unjust man, who is the worst of men, is also the worst of souls, and that the soul of the just man, who is the best of men, is also the best of souls.” 154 154 "That is my conviction. And what do they receive of men? Look at things as they really are,and you will see that the clever unjust are in the case of runners,who run well from the starting-place to the goal but not back againfrom the goal: they go off at a great pace, but in the end only lookfoolish, slinking away with their ears draggling on their shoulders,and without a crown; but the true runner comes to the finish and receivesthe prize and is crowned. And this is the way with the just; he whoendures to the end of every action and occasion of his entire lifehas a good report and carries off the prize which men have to bestow. True. And now you must allow me to repeat of the just the blessings whichyou were attributing to the fortunate unjust. I shall say of them,what you were saying of the others, that as they grow older, theybecome rulers in their own city if they care to be; they marry whomthey like and give in marriage to whom they will; all that you saidof the others I now say of these. And, on the other hand, of the unjustI say that the greater number, even though they escape in their youth,are found out at last and look foolish at the end of their course,and when they come to be old and miserable are flouted alike by strangerand citizen; they are beaten and then come those things unfit forears polite, as you truly term them; they will be racked and havetheir eyes burned out, as you were saying. And you may suppose thatI have repeated the remainder of your tale of horrors. But will youlet me assume, without reciting them, that these things are true? Certainly, he said, what you say is true. These, then, are the prizes and rewards and gifts which are bestowedupon the just by gods and men in this present life, in addition tothe other good things which justice of herself provides. Yes, he said; and they are fair and lasting. And yet, I said, all these are as nothing, either in number or greatnessin comparison with those other recompenses which await both just andunjust after death. And you ought to hear them, and then both justand unjust will have received from us a full payment of the debt whichthe argument owes to them. Speak, he said; there are few things which I would more gladly hear. -Socrates" "Summary: The text discusses the rewards and punishments that just and unjust individuals receive in this life and in the afterlife. -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Socrates" "Summary: The text discusses the rewards and punishments of the just and unjust in this life and beyond. +Trope: Organized crime +Narrative arc: Philosophical argument +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Conversation/dialogue +Literary form: Philosophical argument Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Socrates -Fuzzy place: Unnamed city -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "Just men are happy and prosperous; unjust men miserable and wretched. In the next world, however, the situation is reversed. The just man suffers and is punished, while the unjust man lives in luxury and is rewarded."""" Is that so?"" said the detective. ""I'm a just man myself, and I've had about all the happiness I can stand. If you think I'm going to go on being just, with nothing but misery for my reward, you've got another guess coming!"""" Socrates grinned evilly. """"You can't help yourself, you know,"""" he said. """"The gods see to it that justice triumphs over injustice, whether we like it or not."""" Then let 'em try it!"" snarled the detective. ""I'll show them whether I'm going to be just or not!"" He took out his gun. Socrates raised his eyebrows. Well, well,"" he said. ""That's progress, at least. Last time you tried to strangle me."""" The detective glanced down at his hand. """"Gosh,"""" he said. """"I don't know how I did that."""" It's hard to explain,"" said Socrates. ""But don't worry about it. I'm sure it won't happen again."""" With that, the detective put his gun back into his pocket and turned away. And what were the results of his investigation?"" asked Crito. Nothing much,"" said Socrates. ""He went around the city asking everyone if they'd seen a certain woman. When they said no, he hit them over the head with his club, until they couldn't see anymore. Of course, no one admitted they'd seen her after that. Then he came back and told me that he was going home, because he had a lot of work to do. And then, I suppose, he went to bed."""" A strange young man,"" said Crito. ""And dangerous."" Yes,"" said Socrates. ""It's really too bad that he can't be cured. " -155 155 Well, I said, I will tell you a tale; not one of the tales which Odysseustells to the hero Alcinous, yet this too is a tale of a hero, Er theson of Armenius, a Pamphylian by birth. He was slain in battle, andten days afterwards, when the bodies of the dead were taken up alreadyin a state of corruption, his body was found unaffected by decay,and carried away home to be buried. And on the twelfth day, as hewas lying on the funeral pile, he returned to life and told them whathe had seen in the other world. He said that when his soul left thebody he went on a journey with a great company, and that they cameto a mysterious place at which there were two openings in the earth;they were near together, and over against them were two other openingsin the heaven above. In the intermediate space there were judges seated,who commanded the just, after they had given judgment on them andhad bound their sentences in front of them, to ascend by the heavenlyway on the right hand; and in like manner the unjust were bidden bythem to descend by the lower way on the left hand; these also borethe symbols of their deeds, but fastened on their backs. He drew near,and they told him that he was to be the messenger who would carrythe report of the other world to men, and they bade him hear and seeall that was to be heard and seen in that place. Then he beheld andsaw on one side the souls departing at either opening of heaven andearth when sentence had been given on them; and at the two other openingsother souls, some ascending out of the earth dusty and worn with travel,some descending out of heaven clean and bright. And arriving everand anon they seemed to have come from a long journey, and they wentforth with gladness into the meadow, where they encamped as at a festival;and those who knew one another embraced and conversed, the souls whichcame from earth curiously enquiring about the things above, and thesouls which came from heaven about the things beneath. And they toldone another of what had happened by the way, those from below weepingand sorrowing at the remembrance of the things which they had enduredand seen in their journey beneath the earth (now the journey lasteda thousand years), while those from above were describing heavenlydelights and visions of inconceivable beauty. The Story, Glaucon,would take too long to tell; but the sum was this: --He said thatfor every wrong which they had done to any one they suffered tenfold;or once in a hundred years --such being reckoned to be the lengthof man's life, and the penalty being thus paid ten times in a thousandyears. If, for example, there were any who had been the cause of manydeaths, or had betrayed or enslaved cities or armies, or been guiltyof any other evil behaviour, for each and all of their offences theyreceived punishment ten times over, and the rewards of beneficenceand justice and holiness were in the same proportion. I need hardlyrepeat what he said concerning young children dying almost as soonas they were born. Of piety and impiety to gods and parents, and ofmurderers, there were retributions other and greater far which hedescribed. He mentioned that he was present when one of the spiritsasked another, 'Where is Ardiaeus the Great?' (Now this Ardiaeus liveda thousand years before the time of Er: he had been the tyrant ofsome city of Pamphylia, and had murdered his aged father and his elderbrother, and was said to have committed many other abominable crimes.)The answer of the other spirit was: 'He comes not hither and willnever come. And this,' said he, 'was one of the dreadful sights whichwe ourselves witnessed. We were at the mouth of the cavern, and, havingcompleted all our experiences, were about to reascend, when of a suddenArdiaeus appeared and several others, most of whom were tyrants; andthere were also besides the tyrants private individuals who had beengreat criminals: they were just, as they fancied, about to returninto the upper world, but the mouth, instead of admitting them, gavea roar, whenever any of these incurable sinners or some one who hadnot been sufficiently punished tried to ascend; and then wild menof fiery aspect, who were standing by and heard the sound, seizedand carried them off; and Ardiaeus and others they bound head andfoot and hand, and threw them down and flayed them with scourges,and dragged them along the road at the side, carding them on thornslike wool, and declaring to the passers-by what were their crimes,and that they were being taken away to be cast into hell.' And ofall the many terrors which they had endured, he said that there wasnone like the terror which each of them felt at that moment, lestthey should hear the voice; and when there was silence, one by onethey ascended with exceeding joy. These, said Er, were the penaltiesand retributions, and there were blessings as great. "Summary: Er the Pamphylian tells a story about his journey to the afterlife where he witnesses the punishments and rewards of the souls in the other world. -Trope: Afterlife, punishment and reward -Narrative arc: Descriptive, no clear narrative arch -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Active character: Socrates, interlocutor +Time setting: 1950s +Language: English" Socrates: It is to be remembered that this one virtue has made a better man of you than all the other virtues put together; for whereas before you were merely a thief, now you are a thief who does not steal. Interlocutor: Oh! but I still do, Socrates; I am forced to it by hunger and cold and exposure. Socrates: That is true, but you see how much better you are in spite of it; and if ever you get rid of these outside pressures you will cease to be a thief at all, and so become a perfect man. Interlocutor: But what will my reward be? Will I go to heaven or hell? Socrates: No, you won’t go anywhere. You will remain here on earth doing your job as best you can, and earning as much money as you can; only when you have earned it you will have no chance of keeping it for yourself, since it will all be confiscated by the police. The ordinary citizen who gives a man a cup of tea and a piece of bread and cheese is doing him a good turn, because he is helping to keep him alive; but you, who give a man a square meal in return for half-a-crown, are giving him nothing at all, because you are taking more away from him than you give him. Your occupation is therefore worthless and without any compensating advantage. To prevent you from making a profit out of your victim, you must pay the Government an annual tax of fifteen shillings for every person whom you employ. This is called paying your way; and if you can’t pay it, then you will be sent to prison for three months, to teach you that there is no such thing as getting anything for nothing in this life. And when you come out of prison, you will find that you have gained a new friend, and that is the law. If you don’t like the law, you can always take the trouble to change it. That is the lesson which we wish to impress upon everyone in this country; we want them all to understand that crime doesn’t pay. I need scarcely add that if you persist in breaking the law, you will be prosecuted with the utmost vigour of the law. +155 155 Well, I said, I will tell you a tale; not one of the tales which Odysseustells to the hero Alcinous, yet this too is a tale of a hero, Er theson of Armenius, a Pamphylian by birth. He was slain in battle, andten days afterwards, when the bodies of the dead were taken up alreadyin a state of corruption, his body was found unaffected by decay,and carried away home to be buried. And on the twelfth day, as hewas lying on the funeral pile, he returned to life and told them whathe had seen in the other world. He said that when his soul left thebody he went on a journey with a great company, and that they cameto a mysterious place at which there were two openings in the earth;they were near together, and over against them were two other openingsin the heaven above. In the intermediate space there were judges seated,who commanded the just, after they had given judgment on them andhad bound their sentences in front of them, to ascend by the heavenlyway on the right hand; and in like manner the unjust were bidden bythem to descend by the lower way on the left hand; these also borethe symbols of their deeds, but fastened on their backs. He drew near,and they told him that he was to be the messenger who would carrythe report of the other world to men, and they bade him hear and seeall that was to be heard and seen in that place. Then he beheld andsaw on one side the souls departing at either opening of heaven andearth when sentence had been given on them; and at the two other openingsother souls, some ascending out of the earth dusty and worn with travel,some descending out of heaven clean and bright. And arriving everand anon they seemed to have come from a long journey, and they wentforth with gladness into the meadow, where they encamped as at a festival;and those who knew one another embraced and conversed, the souls whichcame from earth curiously enquiring about the things above, and thesouls which came from heaven about the things beneath. And they toldone another of what had happened by the way, those from below weepingand sorrowing at the remembrance of the things which they had enduredand seen in their journey beneath the earth (now the journey lasteda thousand years), while those from above were describing heavenlydelights and visions of inconceivable beauty. The Story, Glaucon,would take too long to tell; but the sum was this: --He said thatfor every wrong which they had done to any one they suffered tenfold;or once in a hundred years --such being reckoned to be the lengthof man's life, and the penalty being thus paid ten times in a thousandyears. If, for example, there were any who had been the cause of manydeaths, or had betrayed or enslaved cities or armies, or been guiltyof any other evil behaviour, for each and all of their offences theyreceived punishment ten times over, and the rewards of beneficenceand justice and holiness were in the same proportion. I need hardlyrepeat what he said concerning young children dying almost as soonas they were born. Of piety and impiety to gods and parents, and ofmurderers, there were retributions other and greater far which hedescribed. He mentioned that he was present when one of the spiritsasked another, 'Where is Ardiaeus the Great?' (Now this Ardiaeus liveda thousand years before the time of Er: he had been the tyrant ofsome city of Pamphylia, and had murdered his aged father and his elderbrother, and was said to have committed many other abominable crimes.)The answer of the other spirit was: 'He comes not hither and willnever come. And this,' said he, 'was one of the dreadful sights whichwe ourselves witnessed. We were at the mouth of the cavern, and, havingcompleted all our experiences, were about to reascend, when of a suddenArdiaeus appeared and several others, most of whom were tyrants; andthere were also besides the tyrants private individuals who had beengreat criminals: they were just, as they fancied, about to returninto the upper world, but the mouth, instead of admitting them, gavea roar, whenever any of these incurable sinners or some one who hadnot been sufficiently punished tried to ascend; and then wild menof fiery aspect, who were standing by and heard the sound, seizedand carried them off; and Ardiaeus and others they bound head andfoot and hand, and threw them down and flayed them with scourges,and dragged them along the road at the side, carding them on thornslike wool, and declaring to the passers-by what were their crimes,and that they were being taken away to be cast into hell.' And ofall the many terrors which they had endured, he said that there wasnone like the terror which each of them felt at that moment, lestthey should hear the voice; and when there was silence, one by onethey ascended with exceeding joy. These, said Er, were the penaltiesand retributions, and there were blessings as great. "Summary: Er the Pamphylian tells a story about his journey to the afterlife and the punishments and rewards that await souls in the other world. +Narrative arc: Didactic +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Narration -Literary movement: Hardboiled +Literary form: Dialogue Active character: Er the Pamphylian -Quoted character: Ardiaeus the tyrant -Time setting: 1950s -Fuzzy place: The afterlife -Diegetic time: A few minutes" Er the Pamphylian had come up from below and was standing in front of us, shaking his head. I said: “I can’t make it out either, sir.” “Listen,” he said, “and you’ll find out.” He took a deep breath and began. “I’m Er the Pamphylian. There’s no need to ask how old I am; I know that myself. Once I was a man like you, but then I died. When I got to Hades I found Ardiaeus the tyrant and Charon ferrying him across the river Styx, and so I went up and asked why he was going to the upper world after death. ‘What do you want with me?’ he says. ‘Nothing,’ I say. ‘It’s just curiosity makes me ask.’ ‘Well,’ he says, ‘it was curiosity made me kill all those people and get myself into this mess. So it serves me right.’ “‘You’re quite right,’ I say, ‘but tell me, what are they doing there?’ “‘Those? They’re being punished for their sins. Listen, if you want to know everything, I’ll tell you.’ “So he told me, and I’ve come up here to tell you. In the first place, there are three ways in which souls can be sent down to Hades. The first is when their bodies die naturally, and then they have to pay off any debts they may have contracted while they were alive. If they haven’t contracted any debts, they just sit around, or else go on about their business, whatever that happens to be. The second way is when a soul is killed by another soul who gets a body as the price of murder. That’s because it doesn’t matter whether a soul kills a soul or a body kills a body; if you kill someone, you owe a debt to whoever has to take over your victim’s body. The third way is if a soul uses its own body to commit a crime, and is killed by its victim or by the police or some other official. Then it will be punished until it pays off its debt; but if it hasn’t committed any crimes, it just sits around or goes on about its business. “All the rest are being punished for their sins. If you don’t believe me, follow me and see for yourself. Come along.” And so we followed him. It wasn’t far, and before long we came to a doorway. We went inside. -156 156 Now when the spirits which were in the meadow had tarried seven days,on the eighth they were obliged to proceed on their journey, and,on the fourth day after, he said that they came to a place where theycould see from above a line of light, straight as a column, extendingright through the whole heaven and through the earth, in colour resemblingthe rainbow, only brighter and purer; another day's journey broughtthem to the place, and there, in the midst of the light, they sawthe ends of the chains of heaven let down from above: for this lightis the belt of heaven, and holds together the circle of the universe,like the under-girders of a trireme. From these ends is extended thespindle of Necessity, on which all the revolutions turn. The shaftand hook of this spindle are made of steel, and the whorl is madepartly of steel and also partly of other materials. Now the whorlis in form like the whorl used on earth; and the description of itimplied that there is one large hollow whorl which is quite scoopedout, and into this is fitted another lesser one, and another, andanother, and four others, making eight in all, like vessels whichfit into one another; the whorls show their edges on the upper side,and on their lower side all together form one continuous whorl. Thisis pierced by the spindle, which is driven home through the centreof the eighth. The first and outermost whorl has the rim broadest,and the seven inner whorls are narrower, in the following proportions--the sixth is next to the first in size, the fourth next to the sixth;then comes the eighth; the seventh is fifth, the fifth is sixth, thethird is seventh, last and eighth comes the second. The largest (offixed stars) is spangled, and the seventh (or sun) is brightest; theeighth (or moon) coloured by the reflected light of the seventh; thesecond and fifth (Saturn and Mercury) are in colour like one another,and yellower than the preceding; the third (Venus) has the whitestlight; the fourth (Mars) is reddish; the sixth (Jupiter) is in whitenesssecond. Now the whole spindle has the same motion; but, as the wholerevolves in one direction, the seven inner circles move slowly inthe other, and of these the swiftest is the eighth; next in swiftnessare the seventh, sixth, and fifth, which move together; third in swiftnessappeared to move according to the law of this reversed motion thefourth; the third appeared fourth and the second fifth. The spindleturns on the knees of Necessity; and on the upper surface of eachcircle is a siren, who goes round with them, hymning a single toneor note. The eight together form one harmony; and round about, atequal intervals, there is another band, three in number, each sittingupon her throne: these are the Fates, daughters of Necessity, whoare clothed in white robes and have chaplets upon their heads, Lachesisand Clotho and Atropos, who accompany with their voices the harmonyof the sirens --Lachesis singing of the past, Clotho of the present,Atropos of the future; Clotho from time to time assisting with a touchof her right hand the revolution of the outer circle of the whorlor spindle, and Atropos with her left hand touching and guiding theinner ones, and Lachesis laying hold of either in turn, first withone hand and then with the other. "Summary: The text describes the journey of spirits and their encounter with a light, chains, and a spindle that holds together the universe. +Fuzzy place: The mysterious place with two openings in the earth and heaven +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" 'Listen to me,' he said. 'I will tell you a story that I heard at the source from which it came, and no more than this; for in truth it is a harsh tale, bitter and grim, and there is no need to linger over it longer than may suffice to make clear to you that it was done of old as well as now, and that the mysterious place with two openings in the earth and heaven is still there, if haply you should chance to find your way thither. For these things are not to be told lightly by night, lest haply they should bring sorrow to one or another of those who hear them, and, indeed, my own heart was sore when I heard them, and yet I must repeat them here because the rest of my tale cannot be rightly understood without them. Well, then, the tale is thus. 'Of old in Pamphylia, long before I knew Er the Pamphylian, there dwelt a rich man, the son of King Cilix, who was called Ahiqar. Now Ahiqar was a wise man and beloved of the king his brother, but having offended him he fled into exile. So he lived in a city hard by the sea, and every day he went down to the beach and watched the ships that came in laden with merchandise. +156 156 Now when the spirits which were in the meadow had tarried seven days,on the eighth they were obliged to proceed on their journey, and,on the fourth day after, he said that they came to a place where theycould see from above a line of light, straight as a column, extendingright through the whole heaven and through the earth, in colour resemblingthe rainbow, only brighter and purer; another day's journey broughtthem to the place, and there, in the midst of the light, they sawthe ends of the chains of heaven let down from above: for this lightis the belt of heaven, and holds together the circle of the universe,like the under-girders of a trireme. From these ends is extended thespindle of Necessity, on which all the revolutions turn. The shaftand hook of this spindle are made of steel, and the whorl is madepartly of steel and also partly of other materials. Now the whorlis in form like the whorl used on earth; and the description of itimplied that there is one large hollow whorl which is quite scoopedout, and into this is fitted another lesser one, and another, andanother, and four others, making eight in all, like vessels whichfit into one another; the whorls show their edges on the upper side,and on their lower side all together form one continuous whorl. Thisis pierced by the spindle, which is driven home through the centreof the eighth. The first and outermost whorl has the rim broadest,and the seven inner whorls are narrower, in the following proportions--the sixth is next to the first in size, the fourth next to the sixth;then comes the eighth; the seventh is fifth, the fifth is sixth, thethird is seventh, last and eighth comes the second. The largest (offixed stars) is spangled, and the seventh (or sun) is brightest; theeighth (or moon) coloured by the reflected light of the seventh; thesecond and fifth (Saturn and Mercury) are in colour like one another,and yellower than the preceding; the third (Venus) has the whitestlight; the fourth (Mars) is reddish; the sixth (Jupiter) is in whitenesssecond. Now the whole spindle has the same motion; but, as the wholerevolves in one direction, the seven inner circles move slowly inthe other, and of these the swiftest is the eighth; next in swiftnessare the seventh, sixth, and fifth, which move together; third in swiftnessappeared to move according to the law of this reversed motion thefourth; the third appeared fourth and the second fifth. The spindleturns on the knees of Necessity; and on the upper surface of eachcircle is a siren, who goes round with them, hymning a single toneor note. The eight together form one harmony; and round about, atequal intervals, there is another band, three in number, each sittingupon her throne: these are the Fates, daughters of Necessity, whoare clothed in white robes and have chaplets upon their heads, Lachesisand Clotho and Atropos, who accompany with their voices the harmonyof the sirens --Lachesis singing of the past, Clotho of the present,Atropos of the future; Clotho from time to time assisting with a touchof her right hand the revolution of the outer circle of the whorlor spindle, and Atropos with her left hand touching and guiding theinner ones, and Lachesis laying hold of either in turn, first withone hand and then with the other. "Summary: The text describes the journey of spirits and their encounter with a light, the spindle of Necessity, and the Fates. Narrative arc: Descriptive -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Description -Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Spirits, Necessity, sirens, Fates +Literary form: Description of a place +Active character: Spirits, Fates +Time setting: 1950s +Absolute time: Nonspecific +Fuzzy time: Eighth day, fourth day after, another day's journey Absolute place: A clubhouse in Los Angeles -Fuzzy place: Meadow, place with the light, place with the chains and spindle -Diegetic time: A few minutes" The spirits had to make a journey, from the place where they were to another place. They did not like the trip; it was very unpleasant. It was dark and cold in the meadow, and in their flight they bumped against trees, and tripped over roots and stones, and got tangled up in briars. And then suddenly there was a great light before them. “Who’s that?” said Necessity. “We don’t want any interference here,” said one of the sirens. “Go away,” said Fates, “we’ve come to take these people to their doom.” “And who might you be?” asked Necessity. “We are the Fates,” said Fates. “We are Necessity,” said Necessity. “If you are the Fates, I am Necessity,” said Necessity, “and if you are Necessity, I’m Necessity too. In fact we are all Necessity. You can see for yourself how necessary we are.” “That may be,” said Fates, “but you haven’t answered my question. Who are you?” “Why, who do you think we are?” said Necessity. “I’ll tell you who we are. We’re Necessity. Now, get out of our way or we’ll cut your throats.” “Oh, no, you won’t!” said Necessity. “You leave us alone, or we’ll put you in jail!” The Fates looked at each other and laughed. Then they seized Necessity by the feet and began to drag her along. She kicked and struggled and bit, but it was no use; she had to go. And as they dragged her along they sang: “Oh, Necessity! Oh, Necessity! Go on your way, oh, Necessity! Go on your way, oh, Necessity! For the Fates have taken thee and put thee in the chair of state, Where you must sit forever, though you scream and shout and hate, Till you learn to understand that what you cannot avoid you must accept, Though you try to change it with a million schemes and subtle plots, There’s a reason for everything and every little jot and tittle That will show you why things happen just the way they ought to, So go on your way, oh, Necessity!” At this the Fates laughed again, and tied Necessity down in a big chair. They took out some knitting needles and went on with their work. As the Fates knitted they sang: “Three is the magic number, the number of the triangle, The number of the spindle, the number of the chain. Three is the magic number, sing out a song of gladness, For three is the magic number of the children’s playground.” And as the last note died away the needle-work stopped. They had finished, and a great sigh seemed to pass through the room. -157 157 When Er and the spirits arrived, their duty was to go at once to Lachesis;but first of all there came a prophet who arranged them in order;then he took from the knees of Lachesis lots and samples of lives,and having mounted a high pulpit, spoke as follows: 'Hear the wordof Lachesis, the daughter of Necessity. Mortal souls, behold a newcycle of life and mortality. Your genius will not be allotted to you,but you choose your genius; and let him who draws the first lot havethe first choice, and the life which he chooses shall be his destiny.Virtue is free, and as a man honours or dishonours her he will havemore or less of her; the responsibility is with the chooser --Godis justified.' When the Interpreter had thus spoken he scattered lotsindifferently among them all, and each of them took up the lot whichfell near him, all but Er himself (he was not allowed), and each ashe took his lot perceived the number which he had obtained. Then theInterpreter placed on the ground before them the samples of lives;and there were many more lives than the souls present, and they wereof all sorts. There were lives of every animal and of man in everycondition. And there were tyrannies among them, some lasting out thetyrant's life, others which broke off in the middle and came to anend in poverty and exile and beggary; and there were lives of famousmen, some who were famous for their form and beauty as well as fortheir strength and success in games, or, again, for their birth andthe qualities of their ancestors; and some who were the reverse offamous for the opposite qualities. And of women likewise; there wasnot, however, any definite character them, because the soul, whenchoosing a new life, must of necessity become different. But therewas every other quality, and the all mingled with one another, andalso with elements of wealth and poverty, and disease and health;and there were mean states also. And here, my dear Glaucon, is thesupreme peril of our human state; and therefore the utmost care shouldbe taken. Let each one of us leave every other kind of knowledge andseek and follow one thing only, if peradventure he may be able tolearn and may find some one who will make him able to learn and discernbetween good and evil, and so to choose always and everywhere thebetter life as he has opportunity. He should consider the bearingof all these things which have been mentioned severally and collectivelyupon virtue; he should know what the effect of beauty is when combinedwith poverty or wealth in a particular soul, and what are the goodand evil consequences of noble and humble birth, of private and publicstation, of strength and weakness, of cleverness and dullness, andof all the soul, and the operation of them when conjoined; he willthen look at the nature of the soul, and from the consideration ofall these qualities he will be able to determine which is the betterand which is the worse; and so he will choose, giving the name ofevil to the life which will make his soul more unjust, and good tothe life which will make his soul more just; all else he will disregard.For we have seen and know that this is the best choice both in lifeand after death. A man must take with him into the world below anadamantine faith in truth and right, that there too he may be undazzledby the desire of wealth or the other allurements of evil, lest, comingupon tyrannies and similar villainies, he do irremediable wrongs toothers and suffer yet worse himself; but let him know how to choosethe mean and avoid the extremes on either side, as far as possible,not only in this life but in all that which is to come. For this isthe way of happiness. "Summary: Er and the spirits arrive at Lachesis to choose their lives, guided by a prophet who speaks about the choice between virtue and evil. -Trope: The choice between good and evil -Narrative arc: Philosophical reflection on the choice between virtue and vice -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Fuzzy place: Meadow, place, line of light, heaven, universe +Language: English" "You spirits who are here present, tell me this: is there in heaven or in the universe any other light except that which I saw?"""" They answered him: """"There is none in heaven and none on earth."""" The man said: """"This light was harsh and dark, and gave no joy. It had to do with the spindle of Necessity. Tell me this: what work did the Fates spin when they spun the thread of life for the hero whose name you do not utter even in hell?"""" And they said to him: """"The Fates spun three lives for him; but his third life had already been taken back from him after two days' journey."""" Then the man asked: """"What is it that he has done that he should lose his third life?"""" And they said: """"He has broken the commandments of necessity."""" Then the man said: """"But what does 'the commandments of necessity' mean?"""" And they said: """"It means: Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind, and with all thy strength. Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself."""" And the man said: """"What kind of a neighbour is he who loves himself more than anyone else?"""" And they said: """"He who cannot love himself cannot love others. All men are neighbours because they are children of one father and of one mother."""" The man said: """"And what did the second commandment say?"""" And they said: """"Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, nor any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. Thou shalt not bow down to them nor serve them. For I the Lord thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate Me; And showing mercy unto thousands of them that love Me and keep My commandments."""" And the man said: """"What kind of a god is He who visits the iniquities of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation?"""" And they said: """"He is the only God who does not visit the iniquities of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation."""" And the man said: """"And what did the third commandment say?"""" And they said: """"Thou shalt not take the Name of the Lord thy God in vain, for the Lord will not hold him guiltless who taketh His Name in vain."""" And the man said: """"What kind of a god is He who punishes those who take His name in vain?"""" And they said: """"He is the only God who does not punish those who take His name in vain."""" And the man said: """"And what did the fourth commandment say?"""" And they said: """"Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days shalt thou labour and do all thy work; But the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God: in it thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, thy manservant, nor thy maidservant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates: For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day: wherefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and hallowed it."""" " +157 157 When Er and the spirits arrived, their duty was to go at once to Lachesis;but first of all there came a prophet who arranged them in order;then he took from the knees of Lachesis lots and samples of lives,and having mounted a high pulpit, spoke as follows: 'Hear the wordof Lachesis, the daughter of Necessity. Mortal souls, behold a newcycle of life and mortality. Your genius will not be allotted to you,but you choose your genius; and let him who draws the first lot havethe first choice, and the life which he chooses shall be his destiny.Virtue is free, and as a man honours or dishonours her he will havemore or less of her; the responsibility is with the chooser --Godis justified.' When the Interpreter had thus spoken he scattered lotsindifferently among them all, and each of them took up the lot whichfell near him, all but Er himself (he was not allowed), and each ashe took his lot perceived the number which he had obtained. Then theInterpreter placed on the ground before them the samples of lives;and there were many more lives than the souls present, and they wereof all sorts. There were lives of every animal and of man in everycondition. And there were tyrannies among them, some lasting out thetyrant's life, others which broke off in the middle and came to anend in poverty and exile and beggary; and there were lives of famousmen, some who were famous for their form and beauty as well as fortheir strength and success in games, or, again, for their birth andthe qualities of their ancestors; and some who were the reverse offamous for the opposite qualities. And of women likewise; there wasnot, however, any definite character them, because the soul, whenchoosing a new life, must of necessity become different. But therewas every other quality, and the all mingled with one another, andalso with elements of wealth and poverty, and disease and health;and there were mean states also. And here, my dear Glaucon, is thesupreme peril of our human state; and therefore the utmost care shouldbe taken. Let each one of us leave every other kind of knowledge andseek and follow one thing only, if peradventure he may be able tolearn and may find some one who will make him able to learn and discernbetween good and evil, and so to choose always and everywhere thebetter life as he has opportunity. He should consider the bearingof all these things which have been mentioned severally and collectivelyupon virtue; he should know what the effect of beauty is when combinedwith poverty or wealth in a particular soul, and what are the goodand evil consequences of noble and humble birth, of private and publicstation, of strength and weakness, of cleverness and dullness, andof all the soul, and the operation of them when conjoined; he willthen look at the nature of the soul, and from the consideration ofall these qualities he will be able to determine which is the betterand which is the worse; and so he will choose, giving the name ofevil to the life which will make his soul more unjust, and good tothe life which will make his soul more just; all else he will disregard.For we have seen and know that this is the best choice both in lifeand after death. A man must take with him into the world below anadamantine faith in truth and right, that there too he may be undazzledby the desire of wealth or the other allurements of evil, lest, comingupon tyrannies and similar villainies, he do irremediable wrongs toothers and suffer yet worse himself; but let him know how to choosethe mean and avoid the extremes on either side, as far as possible,not only in this life but in all that which is to come. For this isthe way of happiness. "Summary: Er and the spirits arrive at Lachesis, where a prophet arranges them in order and distributes lots representing different lives. The souls choose their own destinies based on the lots they receive. +Narrative arc: Philosophical reflection +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal -Literary form: Speech or sermon +Literary form: Description of a scene Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: Er, the spirits, Lachesis, the prophet -Fuzzy place: Unnamed location where Lachesis and the prophet speak -Diegetic time: A few minutes" "Er hatte sich, wie es schien, erholt. Jetzt aber ging er mit festeren Schritten weiter und fhrte die Geister vor sich her in den Palast Lachesis. Dort befand sich ein Prophet, der unter dem Portale des Tempels sa und von einer reichverzierten Sule gesttzt auf seinem Thron sa. Dieser Mann war alt und sehr mager, sein Gesicht war traurig und wunderlich. Er hielt seine Brust mit beiden Hnden gepret und sprach: """"Die Gttinnen haben euch gerufen, denn sie wollen eure Leben zelebrieren!"""" Er stand auf, um ihnen entgegenzugehen, aber als er den jungen Mann erblickte, blieb er stehen und sagte: """"O unglcklicher, was fr ein Ungetum ist das? Ich bin der Prophet und ich habe recht, denn ich sehe dich so, wie du bist und nicht, wie du wrdest sein knnen. Dein Geburtstag hast du heute, und ich wei auch schon, welches Leben du nun auswhlen willst."""" Der alte Mann sprach feierlich weiter, aber in seiner Stimme schwang eine harte und bse Laune mit. """"Ich wei wohl, da du einen guten Menschen wren knntest, aber das ist dir gleichgltig, denn du liebst nur das Bse. Du wolltest immer frei sein und das ist dein groes Verbrechen. Ich aber kann dir sagen, da niemand freier ist als derjenige, der die Pflicht gegen sich selbst beobachtet. Frh dich deines Lebens und straf mich nicht, indem du ihn annehmest. Denn deine Wahl wird so arg sein, da du mehr Elend sehen wirst, als Freude. Es gibt viele Wege, die zu einem Ziele fhren, und es gibt viele Ziele, die durch denselben Weg erreicht werden knnen. Vom großen Tor gehen viele Pfade ab, und alle sind gleich lang, nur eine Strae ist gesegnet, die andere verflucht. Ein Junge wird ber den gefhrlichen Weg gehen und mssen alle seine Lieblinge sterben. Ein Mdchen wird glcklich leben, aber ihre Mutter sterben. Einer wird sich rasieren, aber das Haar wieder wachsen. Einer wird zur Hochzeit kommen und sein Herz versprgen, aber dann wird er eher sterben, als heimkehren. Wende dich nicht von mir, sonst wirst du alle diese Dinge erleben, und mehr noch!"""" Der Prophet schlo seinen Redeflu und setzte sich wieder auf seinen Thron, whrend die Gtter sich lustig ber ihn lachten. Da sagte der junge Mann: """"Weit ihr, Geister, was dieser Wahrsager hier von mir geredet hat?"""" Die Geister wurden ernsthaft und sagten: """"Wir wissen alles, was da gesagt wurde, aber wir wollen dir keine Antwort geben. Entschliee dich selbst, welches Leben du wahlen willst."""" Nun wollte der junge Mann nichts mehr wissen und rief: """"Bringen mich fort, ich habe genug gehrt"""", und nach wenigen Schritten waren sie schon auf der Strae, wo sie ihren Weg weitergingen. " +Active character: Er, spirits, prophet +Time setting: 1950s +Fuzzy time: Nonspecific moment +Fuzzy place: Unnamed location +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" Er, the Spirits and I arrived at Lachesis. The place was pretty much as I’d remembered it; a rough-hewn hall, hung with tapestries and furnished with the kind of chairs that look like throne-stools. On a platform in one corner stood an old man, to whom I took an instant dislike. I’m not saying he didn’t have some claim on me for hospitality but I wasn’t in the mood to be hospitable. “He’s the prophet,” said Er. “That’s what they call him.” “Yes, yes, I can see that.” “Don’t mind him. He’s a bit of a windbag.” “I thought so.” He waved a hand towards the platform. “We’ll wait over there.” We shuffled across the room and sat down on the floor. There were quite a few people already waiting. Most of them looked like vagrants or tramps, though there were a couple of women among them. They glanced at us curiously as we joined them, but nobody spoke. Presently the prophet came down from his platform and arranged us in order. The process wasn’t too difficult; most of us were either lying down or sitting on the ground. When he had finished he stood before us, holding a small bag, and began to speak. “We are gathered here today,” he said, “to witness the fate of souls. In this bag are lots representing the lives that are open to you. Each lot corresponds to a life in which you will spend the time allotted to you by the gods. When I throw the bag into the air you will choose your own destinies. You may choose any lot you like, but if you do not take one then the lot will be taken from you, and given to another.” He paused and looked round the room. “If you accept a life that is offered to you, you must live it out until such time as death releases you. Should you break the terms of your existence, your punishment will be swift and terrible.” “I don’t want to hear any more of this,” said Er. “He goes on like that all day.” “You’re right,” I said. “Let’s get it over with.” The prophet held the bag up above his head and shook it vigorously. Then he let it go. It spun across the room and landed with a soft thud in the middle of the floor. A moment later everyone was scrambling towards it. The competition was fierce. The prophet watched without comment. In the end two men managed to secure lots, leaving the rest of us empty-handed. They stood up, holding their lots proudly aloft, and looked around them. The prophet addressed them. “The first of you shall be called Cato. Your life will be short but glorious. For three days and three nights you will wander through the wilderness. On the fourth morning you will be set upon by wild beasts and torn limb from limb.” 158 158 "And according to the report of the messenger from the other worldthis was what the prophet said at the time: 'Even for the last comer,if he chooses wisely and will live diligently, there is appointeda happy and not undesirable existence. Let not him who chooses firstbe careless, and let not the last despair.' And when he had spoken,he who had the first choice came forward and in a moment chose thegreatest tyranny; his mind having been darkened by folly and sensuality,he had not thought out the whole matter before he chose, and did notat first sight perceive that he was fated, among other evils, to devourhis own children. But when he had time to reflect, and saw what wasin the lot, he began to beat his breast and lament over his choice,forgetting the proclamation of the prophet; for, instead of throwingthe blame of his misfortune on himself, he accused chance and thegods, and everything rather than himself. Now he was one of thosewho came from heaven, and in a former life had dwelt in a well-orderedState, but his virtue was a matter of habit only, and he had no philosophy.And it was true of others who were similarly overtaken, that the greaternumber of them came from heaven and therefore they had never beenschooled by trial, whereas the pilgrims who came from earth, havingthemselves suffered and seen others suffer, were not in a hurry tochoose. And owing to this inexperience of theirs, and also becausethe lot was a chance, many of the souls exchanged a good destiny foran evil or an evil for a good. For if a man had always on his arrivalin this world dedicated himself from the first to sound philosophy,and had been moderately fortunate in the number of the lot, he might,as the messenger reported, be happy here, and also his journey toanother life and return to this, instead of being rough and underground,would be smooth and heavenly. Most curious, he said, was the spectacle--sad and laughable and strange; for the choice of the souls was inmost cases based on their experience of a previous life. There hesaw the soul which had once been Orpheus choosing the life of a swanout of enmity to the race of women, hating to be born of a woman becausethey had been his murderers; he beheld also the soul of Thamyras choosingthe life of a nightingale; birds, on the other hand, like the swanand other musicians, wanting to be men. The soul which obtained thetwentieth lot chose the life of a lion, and this was the soul of Ajaxthe son of Telamon, who would not be a man, remembering the injusticewhich was done him the judgment about the arms. The next was Agamemnon,who took the life of an eagle, because, like Ajax, he hated humannature by reason of his sufferings. About the middle came the lotof Atalanta; she, seeing the great fame of an athlete, was unableto resist the temptation: and after her there followed the soul ofEpeus the son of Panopeus passing into the nature of a woman cunningin the arts; and far away among the last who chose, the soul of thejester Thersites was putting on the form of a monkey. There came alsothe soul of Odysseus having yet to make a choice, and his lot happenedto be the last of them all. Now the recollection of former tolls haddisenchanted him of ambition, and he went about for a considerabletime in search of the life of a private man who had no cares; he hadsome difficulty in finding this, which was lying about and had beenneglected by everybody else; and when he saw it, he said that he wouldhave done the had his lot been first instead of last, and that hewas delighted to have it. And not only did men pass into animals,but I must also mention that there were animals tame and wild whochanged into one another and into corresponding human natures --thegood into the gentle and the evil into the savage, in all sorts ofcombinations. All the souls had now chosen their lives, and they went in the orderof their choice to Lachesis, who sent with them the genius whom theyhad severally chosen, to be the guardian of their lives and the fulfillerof the choice: this genius led the souls first to Clotho, and drewthem within the revolution of the spindle impelled by her hand, thusratifying the destiny of each; and then, when they were fastened tothis, carried them to Atropos, who spun the threads and made themirreversible, whence without turning round they passed beneath thethrone of Necessity; and when they had all passed, they marched onin a scorching heat to the plain of Forgetfulness, which was a barrenwaste destitute of trees and verdure; and then towards evening theyencamped by the river of Unmindfulness, whose water no vessel canhold; of this they were all obliged to drink a certain quantity, andthose who were not saved by wisdom drank more than was necessary;and each one as he drank forgot all things. Now after they had goneto rest, about the middle of the night there was a thunderstorm andearthquake, and then in an instant they were driven upwards in allmanner of ways to their birth, like stars shooting. He himself washindered from drinking the water. But in what manner or by what meanshe returned to the body he could not say; only, in the morning, awakingsuddenly, he found himself lying on the pyre. And thus, Glaucon, the tale has been saved and has not perished, andwill save us if we are obedient to the word spoken; and we shall passsafely over the river of Forgetfulness and our soul will not be defiled.Wherefore my counsel is that we hold fast ever to the heavenly wayand follow after justice and virtue always, considering that the soulis immortal and able to endure every sort of good and every sort ofevil. Thus shall we live dear to one another and to the gods, bothwhile remaining here and when, like conquerors in the games who goround to gather gifts, we receive our reward. And it shall be wellwith us both in this life and in the pilgrimage of a thousand yearswhich we have been describing." "Summary: The text is a dialogue between two characters discussing the choices and destinies of souls in the afterlife. -Trope: The afterlife, the choice of destiny -Narrative arc: Reflective, philosophical -First-person narrative -Tone: Harsh, vivid +Trope: Organized crime +Narrative arc: Philosophical reflection on the nature of life and death +Enunciation: First-person narrative +Tone: Harsh, vivid, dark gritty Genre: Detective fiction/Mystery -Intertextuality: Hitchcock movies +Intertextuality: Film noir Speech standard: Vulgar, highly informal Literary form: Dialogue Literary movement: Hardboiled -Active character: The prophet, he who had the first choice, Ajax, Agamemnon, Atalanta, Epeus, Thersites, Odysseus +Active character: The messenger from the other world, the soul of Ajax, Agamemnon, Atalanta, Epeus, Thersites, Odysseus +Quoted character: Orpheus, Thamyras Time setting: 1950s -Absolute place: A clubhouse in Los Angeles -Fuzzy place: The other world -Diegetic time: A few minutes" “Perhaps so,” the prophet answered, and went on. “He who had the first choice took the other world to live in and this world to visit when he wished.” “That must have been Ajax,” I suggested. “Yes, it was,” said the prophet. “Why did he choose the other world?” “Because he didn’t like people,” said the prophet. “Well, I can’t say I blame him much for that. But what about the other fellow? That’s Agamemnon, isn’t it?” “Yes, it is.” “Why does he want to live here?” “Because he likes people,” said the prophet. “And Atalanta? Is she the third? She wouldn’t have anything to do with people when she was alive.” “That is true,” said the prophet. “But she expects to be able to change them when she gets the power.” “I see. And Epeus is the fourth. Why did he take the other world?” “He could think of nothing better to do,” said the prophet. “Thersites must be the fifth.” “Yes, it is.” “What put that big idea into his head?” “His size,” said the prophet. “Odysseus! He was my favorite hero when I was a boy. What made him choose the other world?” “To keep out of trouble,” said the prophet. “What’s he doing now?” “Trying to get back here.” “I wish him luck.” I turned to leave. “Just a minute, Mr. Malloy,” said the prophet. “Aren’t you going to make your choice?” “No,” I said. “I don’t want to be a prophet.” “You have to be something,” said the prophet. “You can’t stay here. You can go back to the other world or go on to hell.” “Oh, all right,” I said. “I’ll take hell. It sounds more comfortable than the other place.” The prophet sighed. “It is a very difficult job, being a prophet,” he said. “How do you mean?” I asked. “It’s just like being an artist,” he said. “You’ve got to work at it all the time. All day and every day you are making prophecies. If you let up for five minutes they will catch you napping and chuck you out.” “I don’t believe it,” I said. “It doesn’t sound as if it was worth it. Besides, I thought prophets were inspired by God.” “They are,” said the prophet. “But inspiration lasts only for a few moments, and after that you’re sunk without any help from anybody else. It’s just like being a musician. You’ve got to practice all the time to keep your fingers supple, and if you stop practising for five minutes you’re done for. +Fuzzy time: Nonspecific moments + +Diegetic time: A few minutes +Language: English" "One of them will be a woman, who was a whore on earth and a whore in Hell. She's so evil that she can't even go to Purgatory. You don't know what it means to have that kind of guilt on your soul, do you?"""" I'm no more guilty than any other poor devil,"" I said. ""And I'm going to prove it."""" That won't help you."" He laughed and I felt his breath on my face like the heat of an oven door. """"You're here because you deserve it, and you'll stay here because you deserve it."""" The messenger from the other world turned around abruptly and walked back into the darkness. So did I. As I passed him he said, over his shoulder: Remember this is not a joke. We're very serious about our business."""" When we were out of the basement, I said: Do you believe all that stuff about being a murderer or whatever he called it?"""" Sure."" But you didn't do it."" How d'you know?"" Because if you had you wouldn't be worrying about it now."" He shook his head and spat on the sidewalk. """"You're crazy."""" CHAPTER FIVE THE soul of Ajax was waiting for me when I returned to my cell. He looked annoyed, but I couldn't blame him. All I wanted was a little peace and quiet after my introduction to Hades, and there he was, getting ready to lay his problems on me. You got to stop wandering around at night,"" he said. ""What's the matter with you? Can't you sleep?"""" Not much."" What do you want me to do about it?"" Nothing."" Well, if you don't mind, I'd like to get some sleep myself. If you're worried about Agamemnon """" I'm not worried about him."" Then why are you looking for him?"" I don't know. I just want to talk to him."""" Talk to him tomorrow. Right now it's time to hit the hay."""" He folded his arms across his chest and leaned against the wall. If you want to sleep, go ahead,"" I said. ""I'll sit up a while longer."" He rolled his eyes toward the ceiling and sighed. """"All right,"""" he said. """"But make it snappy."""" I picked up the chair where I'd left it and placed it in front of the desk. The old man was still sitting there, smoking his pipe and staring into space. I sat down. Ajax went over to the bunk and pulled off his boots. He stretched out on the lower berth and took his hands out of his pockets. His eyes were closed. I could hear him breathing regularly. After a few minutes I knew he was asleep. His snoring sounded like a jack-hammer. I lit a cigarette and waited. The old man was the first to speak. There were questions you could ask him, things that might help to clarify the situation. "